Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization (International Perspectives on Geographical Education) 3031048903, 9783031048906

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International Perspectives on Geographical Education

Eyüp Artvinli Inga Gryl Jongwon Lee Jerry T. Mitchell   Editors

Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization

International Perspectives on Geographical Education Series Editors Clare Brooks, UCL Institute of Education, London, UK Di Wilmot, Education Department, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa

This book series is dedicated to international research in geography education, focusing on curriculum, pedagogy and assessment related to geography education across the age range (from KG-higher education). Led by the priorities and criteria set out in the Commission’s Declaration on Geography Education Research, the series plays an important role in making geography education research accessible to the global community. Publications are drawn from across the geography education research community, and also includes publications stemming from specific events supported by the Commission. Individual book author and editors are encouraged to consider how their proposals correspond to the Commission’s ongoing programme of work. Research published represents immediate developments within the international geography education community. The series seeks to support the development of early career researchers in publishing high quality, high impact research accounts. This series is under the editorial supervision of the International Geography Union’s Commission on Geographical Education.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15101

Eyüp Artvinli · Inga Gryl · Jongwon Lee · Jerry T. Mitchell Editors

Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization

Editors Eyüp Artvinli Faculty of Education Eski¸sehir Osmangazi University Eski¸sehir, Turkey

Inga Gryl Institute for Geography University of Duisburg-Essen Essen, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany

Jongwon Lee Department of Social Studies Education Ewha Womans University Seoul, Korea (Republic of)

Jerry T. Mitchell Department of Geography University of South Carolina Columbia, SC, USA

ISSN 2367-2773 ISSN 2367-2781 (electronic) International Perspectives on Geographical Education ISBN 978-3-031-04890-6 ISBN 978-3-031-04891-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and the Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Contents

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Introduction: Why Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eyüp Artvinli, Inga Gryl, Jongwon Lee, and Jerry Mitchell

Part I 2

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Pathways of Professionalization for the Geography Teacher—An Overview of Different National Cases

Intervention Studies to Improve Initial Teacher Education in Geography: A Scoping Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nina Scholten, Susan Caldis, and Sandra Sprenger Intervention Research Design in the Context of Professionalizing Future Geography Teachers: Specific Potentials of Qualitative and Quantitative Designs Using the Example of Two Empirical Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sebastian Streitberger, Melanie Haltenberger, and Ulrike Ohl Tough, But Worth the Effort: Collaboration for Professional Development Strengthens Geography Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rebecca Theobald

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Fostering Professionalism for Geography in Primary Schooling . . . . Simon Catling

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The Potential and Reality of Postgraduate Education in Geography for Improving Primary Geography Teachers’ Professionalism: A Focus on South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dong-min Lee

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Chinese Secondary School Geography Teachers’ Perceptions of Professionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Daihu Yang

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The Professional Development of Geography Teachers in England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Rebecca Kitchen and Alan Kinder

Part II

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Institutionalization, Networking, and Informal Learning—Different Solutions to Foster Geography Teacher Education

The Effects of the Bologna Declaration on the Initial Training of Geography Teachers: The Case of Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Fernando Alexandre

10 English Experiences of Developing Identities of Pre-service Geography Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Susan Bermingham-Ward and Joanna Baynham 11 Research Publications’ Impact on Geography Teachers’ Conceptions and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Kathrin Schulman Part III Special Fields and Discourses of Geography Teacher Education 12 Misconceptions and Conceptual Change in Geography Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Lenka Havelková and Martin Hanus 13 The Atlas and the Purple Crayon: “Purple Mapping” and Place-Based Education in Geography Teacher-Training Studies and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Arnon Ben Israel 14 Towards an Augmented Geography Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Jesús Granados-Sánchez Part IV Methods and Practices Under the Lens 15 Digitalization in Geography Education: Theoretical and Practical Considerations for Developing a Collaborative Seminar About Digitalization and Using Digital Media in Geographical Educational Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Nicole Raschke 16 Implications of the Anthropocene for Professional Ethics in American Geography Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Thomas Barclay Larsen and John Harrington Jr.

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17 Beginning Teachers’ Evaluation and Perceived Challenges in Using Geographical Fieldwork Inquiry in Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Geok Chin Ivy Tan 18 Mentoring School Student Research as an Approach to Geography Teacher Professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Elizabeth Rushton and Helen Walkington 19 Pedagogical Reasoning and Action (PR&A): A Framework for Research on Professional Knowledge of Geography Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 Injeong Jo and Sojung Huh 20 South African Geography Teachers’ Involvement in Self-Directed Professional Development Activities in Geography Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Aubrey Golightly 21 Learning from Common Concerns and the Path Ahead for Geography Teacher Education and Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Eyüp Artvinli, Inga Gryl, Jongwon Lee, and Jerry Mitchell

Chapter 1

Introduction: Why Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization Matter Eyüp Artvinli, Inga Gryl, Jongwon Lee, and Jerry Mitchell

1.1 Pathways of Professionalization for the Geography Teacher To be a professional means to have the preparation and specialized knowledge to be successful in one’s chosen field—here, teaching. That preparation—typically academic—focuses on acquiring content knowledge, mastering different forms of pedagogy, exploring the unique technologies and concepts of specific disciplines, and honing dispositions that will lead to effective and durable learning by students. This preparation takes on several forms during one’s career, usually beginning with a teacher preparation program, continuing with ongoing professional development, the addition of a higher degree, and/or participation in action research that informs and improves practice. This generalized progression is common worldwide, no matter how the steps are individualized (e.g., the variable ways countries enact teacher preparation programs). To become a teaching professional means embarking on processes that elevates teaching (status) and improves student outcomes (for themselves and for society). E. Artvinli (B) Department of Social Sciences Education, Eski¸sehir Osmangazi University, Eski¸sehir, Türkiye e-mail: [email protected] I. Gryl Geography/Didactics of General Studies, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany e-mail: [email protected] J. Lee Department of Social Studies Education, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea e-mail: [email protected] J. Mitchell Department of Geography, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_1

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What we contend in this book is that professionalizing geography teachers means engaging with a set of unique concerns.

1.2 The Changing Nature of Geography Teacher Education Today’s practicing educators are keenly aware that their learning and teaching socialization was very different from the experiences and requirements faced by contemporary students. Time and concepts have changed rapidly, influencing the desires, needs, motivations and resources of the next generation who need to be prepared for an even more different future classroom. This sometimes leads to huge differences between educators and learners, both in terms of worldview and the methods they use in approaching the world. Besides general innovations in education, geography as a subject has undergone rapid changes over the years, too. Methods and content have evolved and changed significantly, and technological as well as societal changes have led to pedagogical changes. Instead of single printed maps, we have highly enriched content with the help of GIS. Challenges such as climate change, international migration, and shortages of resources require a stronger focus on an education for sustainability. Digitalization allows for collaboration and life-world orientation beyond the walls of the classroom, creating bonds to young people from other parts of the world, and at the same time forms new topics of geographical relevance such as smart cities. Geography education has gained a global dimension like never before. As a matter of fact, the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated broadly how change on a global scale affects geographical resources and opportunities for countries. Geography is a subject that addresses major phenomena and challenges of the present and future such as the Anthropocene, globalization, sustainability, risk management, smart environments/digitalization, urbanization, and spatial participation, and thus can help to enable future citizens, and stakeholders to address these complex issues more adequately than before. We have to ask for appropriate and didactical approaches to address these issues. As these challenges appear globally, it is clear that there is a need for efforts to put more emphasis on the international dimension of geography education, while at the same time it is highly relevant to work out and exchange corresponding and promising strategies of teacher education.

1.3 Why an International Perspective on Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization? Geography teachers play a central role in educating, inspiring, and guiding students to become geographically informed responsible citizens. Initiatives to improve teachers professionalism and thus quality of teaching and finally students’ learning outcomes

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are observed in many countries (Darling-Hammond, 2017). Then, what does teacher professionalism mean? As we note earlier, teacher professionalism is defined as the knowledge, skills, and practice that teachers must be equipped with in order to be effective educators. In fact, standards from various stakeholders including the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards in the United States have clearly articulated knowledge and skill standards for teachers. Moreover, teacher professionalism now encompasses not only knowledge of research-based practices and the skills to implement them, but also reflective thinking, adaptability to change, and the production of new knowledge (Coleman et al., 2012). However, the teacher’s professionalism should not be understood as having one fixed set of standards and values. In fact, the notion of teacher’s professionalism varies between different contexts and cultures, sometimes in very fundamental ways. The aim of this book is to shed light on the range of interpretations contained within the global attempt to professionalize teachers through teacher education as it applies to geography.

1.4 Structure of the Book Entitled “Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization”, this book focuses on different approaches from multiple parts of the world. By uncovering novel and innovative ideas, this work identifies common challenges, insights, and lessons worth sharing with the rest of the international geographical education community. This book will help those engaged in geography teacher preparation to reimagine and improve teacher education practice worldwide by learning about each other’s successes. Eschewing a traditional framework that focuses solely on education career “signposts” (e.g., pre-service, in-service, etc.), this collection of essays focuses on key aspects of professionalization that may span multiple career points. The book is structured along discourses of geography education and geography teacher professionalization that are relevant globally but answered with nationally different strategies. Each contribution marks both significant changes and challenges that geography education encounters within the subject and its teacher professionalization. Although this approach can be considered on a very broad scale for teacher education in geography, this book also aims to give an idea of these difficulties and opportunities from an international perspective on geographical education. Consequently, the book is divided into four main sections (19 chapters, plus this introduction and a conclusion) that address the theoretical and practical aspects of teacher education in geography. The first section of the book titled “Pathways of professionalization for the geography teacher—an overview of different national cases” addresses pre-service and in-service teacher training. Chapters 2 and 3 by Scholten, Caldis, and Sprenger and Streitberger, Haltenberger, and Ohl, respectively, begin by describing education intervention research on the professionalization of geography teachers. A key argument made here is the need for understanding this type of work as to better link theory and practice in geography teacher education. These entries are followed by an overview of professional development in Colorado, USA

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by Theobald (Chap. 4) and for primary school teachers more specifically by Catling (Chap. 5). Theobald explores how partnerships with other groups—museums, software providers, economics and history organizations—were successful in assisting geography professional development. Catling showcases the expectations for primary professional development in England. As geography is one of several subjects taught by primary teachers, specific and regular geography professional development is key. In Chap. 6, Lee investigates how South Korea uses postgraduate education for primary teacher professionalization. Within this, he writes how additional education has the potential to improve geography teachers’ quality, competencies, and professionalism, however, there are structural aspects of South Korean education policies and culture that can discourage this path. How teacher professionalization is viewed by Chinese teacher practitioners is Yang’s focus in Chap. 7. Through a survey of teachers, we learn of favored pathways of professional development such as mentoring and collaboration and the impediments in the Chinese education system that can limit seeking out these useful opportunities. Chapter 8 concludes the section with an overview of professional development for geography teachers in the English system. Kitchen and Kinder argue for clear professional development pathways for teachers of geography and a PD framework that specifies the subject knowledge, skills, and behaviors for teaching geography effectively. The second section of the book addresses “institutionalization, networking, and informal learning – different solutions to foster geography teacher education” with chapters on politics and geography teacher education, institutionalization and networks, and informal teacher training in geography. In Chap. 9, Fernando Alexandre highlights the consequences of the European Bologna Declaration on the initial training of geography teachers in Portugal. This case study illustrates the strong linkages of international and national policy and teacher education. Bermingham and Baynham present their research on the experiences of prospective British geography teachers in their practical year in Chap. 10, and thus draw attention to internships as an important pillar of many teacher training curricula. Besides general aspects of the “praxis shock”, specific issues related to geography education such as the different approaches of school and university to subject knowledge and the consequences for the young teachers’ identity construction as geography teachers are discussed. In Chap. 11, Schulman of Switzerland discusses whether and to which degree research publications from geography and geography education have an impact on geography teachers’ professionalization. With this, an important communication tool, highly implemented in the scientific institutional system, is questioned concerning its relevance and power for practical geography education at schools. The third section focuses on “Special fields and discourses of geography teacher education” by re-thinking central classical and emerging components of geography education such as cartographic and GI competences, excursions, digitalization, and sustainability. In Chap. 12, Havelková and Hanus describe an empirical analysis of Czech geography teachers’ misconceptions in central aspects of cartography with a focus not only on the future teachers’ geographical knowledge but also their sensitivity concerning the power of conceptual change. Ben Israel introduces a form of field work that regards mapping as a methodically open, creative, complex,

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experience- and emotion-fostered process that functions as a basis for profound understanding of lifeworlds. His project, called ‘purple mapping’ and explained in Chap. 13, is conducted with prospective teachers in Israel and thus innovates excursions that are a classical part of geography teacher training. In Chap. 14, Jesús Granados-Sánchez describes a new idea of geography education—“augmented geography education”—that combines several current concepts and draws a special focus on the usage of digital tools and metacognition. This model has been introduced at the author’s university in Spain. The fourth and last section of the book deals with “Methods and practices under the lens”, highlighting important geographic learning subtopics like fieldwork, mentoring and exchanges, and reflexivity. Raschke emphasizes digitalization in the content and form of teacher education to improve the competency of future teachers in Chap. 15. She reports on the design and results of geography teacher training at TU Dresden (Germany) focusing on the use of digital media. She concluded that low-threshold access to digital media, collaborative planning of lessons and reflection processes supported professionalization of prospective geography teachers. In Chap. 16, Larsen and Harrington draw teacher educators’ attention to the Anthropocene, a period of time in which human activities are now a major driver of change in Earth systems. They examine the relationship between ethics and the Anthropocene in the context of sustainability, professionalism in teaching, and teaching human-environmental geography. In Chap. 17, Tan examines the challenges in using geographical fieldwork inquiry for beginning teachers in Singapore. The geographical inquiry approach was reported by the beginning teachers to be difficult to adopt. As such, Tan argues that providing more opportunities for the pre-service teachers to improve their fieldwork skills is essential to better develop conceptual linkages between fieldwork theory and fieldwork data. Rushton and Walkington, authors of Chap. 18, note the possibility of mentoring school student research as an approach to geography teacher professional development, which has been rarely studied academically. They reported that mentoring student research provides teachers with the opportunity to develop their practice as ‘teacher-mentors’ as well as a ‘teacher – researcher’. In Chap. 19, Jo and Huh focused on pedagogical reasoning and action (PR&A), an underdeveloped area in research on teaching and teacher education in geography, compared to content knowledge or PCK (pedagogical content knowledge) of teachers. They argued that PR&A can serve as a conceptual or analytical tool for geography teacher educators and teacher education researchers. Finally, in Chap. 20, Golightly analyses the field of self-directed professional development using the example of South African teachers. He finds that informal learning methods are highly important for professionalization in the field of geography education and are fostered by current changes in media and digital technology.

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1.5 Conclusion This book presents contemporary approaches to geography education from different countries, making the international dimension of geography teacher education accessible to various geography educators in different parts of the world, be they geography teachers, educational administrators, teacher trainers, or academic geographers. Unfortunately, geography as a subject area is unevenly prioritized across the globe—marginalized is a fair descriptor—and therefore faces additional challenges in teacher preparation programs from the start. This inauspicious beginning has ripple effects that work their way into other aspects of professionalization such as professional development and higher degree acquisition when the value is perceived to be low (i.e., improving one’s professional status). How to bridge those challenges is a thread woven throughout this volume. Geography teacher education has an importance that shapes the future of geography both at the local level and at the global level. For this reason, professionalization in geography teacher education should be seen as one of the prerequisites for a higher quality geography education in the future.

References Coleman, M. R., Gallagher, J. J., & Job, J. (2012). Developing and sustaining professionalism within gifted education. Gifted Child Today, 35(1), 27–36. Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Teacher education around the world: What can we learn from international practice. European Journal of Teacher Education, 40(3), 291–309.

Part I

Pathways of Professionalization for the Geography Teacher—An Overview of Different National Cases

Chapter 2

Intervention Studies to Improve Initial Teacher Education in Geography: A Scoping Review Nina Scholten, Susan Caldis, and Sandra Sprenger

2.1 Introduction Teachers are an important element of the educational system. Their education plays a key role in optimizing educational processes: it is highly likely that teacher education has an impact on instructional quality and eventually on student learning outcomes (Lipowsky, 2006). For some time now, a call for evidence-based education has arisen in the field of geography education (Downs, 1994) and in teacher education in particular (Diery et al., 2020; European Commission, 2007). Evidence-based education is considered pivotal to developing teacher professionalism: it can serve “as a resource, corrective, guide, and orientation for professional decision-making in teacher education” (Diery et al., 2020, p. 2). Evidence-based teacher education increases the likelihood of pre-service teachers’ (PSTs) competence growth and increases accountability by generating data to back up choices during initial teacher education programs (ITEP). In the Road map for twenty-first century geography education, Bednarz et al. (2013) call for research into the “optimal ways to infuse geographic concepts, content, and skills into geography (…) pre-service programs” (p. 59). Evidence-based education necessitates intervention studies that examine specific interventional effects. For geography teacher educators to base their ITEP N. Scholten (B) Institute for Didactics of Geography, Westfälische Wilhems-Universität, Münster, Germany e-mail: [email protected] S. Caldis Macquarie School of Education, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia e-mail: [email protected] S. Sprenger Department of Social Sciences, Mathematics and Natural Sciences Education, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_2

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choices on evidence, they need overviews of available studies. Hence, the research aim of this contribution is to describe the research field of intervention studies occurring in geography within an initial teacher education (ITE) context to understand its breadth, purpose, extent, and effectiveness. Developing such an understanding will make it possible to describe the status quo, identify research gaps and inform possible directions for the future of ITE in geography. This chapter is organized into the following sections: after a brief introduction to theory, the research questions are addressed. The method section follows the procedure of a scoping review (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005; Munn et al., 2018; ZawackiRichter et al., 2020). The results are then outlined. Finally, key points of interest are discussed.

2.2 Theory 2.2.1 Initial Teacher Education Globally, initial teacher education aims to qualify teachers and support the development of pre-service teachers for the complex task of teaching (European Commission, 2013). The professionalism of teachers can be viewed through the lens of different paradigms (competence approach, expertise paradigm, biography approach) as can their education (Cramer, 2020; Terhart et al., 2014). However, the COACTIV model of teachers’ professional competence (Baumert & Kunter, 2013) has been widely embraced by the research community, particularly in Germany. It offers a comprehensive overview of the professional competences teachers need to have in order to adequately respond to the demands of their profession. Accordingly, professional practice is seen as resulting from an interplay of various factors. On the one hand, there is professional knowledge, which is divided into different domains as described by Shulman (1986, 1987): content knowledge (CK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), and general pedagogical knowledge (PK). On the other hand, there are teachers’ values, beliefs and goals, motivational orientations and professional self-regulation skills all of which are seen as important factors to master teaching (Baumert & Kunter, 2013). This model of teachers’ professional competence serves as both a guideline and a target for pre-service teacher education. Most educational systems, such as those in Australia and Germany, involve an initial teacher education program in which pre-service teachers gain knowledge and skills in these different fields relevant to the profession.

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2.2.2 Intervention Studies in Initial Teacher Education Intervention studies are a type of study that generate evidence on the effects of an intervention. In the field of initial teacher education, this can mean that a certain group of pre-service teachers (the treatment group) receives an intervention/treatment, for example, on content knowledge (CK) and conclusions on the effectiveness of the intervention are then drawn through some kind of measurement. Intervention studies may be based on various designs. Experimental designs can be categorized by the following characteristics (Creswell & Guetterman, 2019): random assignment, control over extraneous variables, manipulation of treatment conditions, outcome measures, group comparisons and threats to validity. A controlled experiment (true experiment) is considered to be the gold standard (Boslaugh, 2013), as it allows the most meaningful conclusions to be drawn (for example, about the effectiveness of an intervention). This design is characterized by a random assignment (Boslaugh, 2013) and should therefore be attempted whenever possible. However, in some contexts it is not possible to establish the framework for a controlled experiment. This is often the case in education, because learning groups such as classes or courses are in association, which possess an established social structure and random sampling is not possible. The next strongest design is the quasi-experimental design, in which the experimental interferences are only partially controlled (Döring & Bortz, 2016) and at least one control group is used (Boslaugh, 2013). The importance of the control group is very high in intervention studies, since, without a control group, it is difficult to say whether the changes are due to the intervention. Changes may, for example, be due to external conditions (Boslaugh, 2013). The quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design, but it differs in that the groups are not randomly assigned (Boslaugh, 2013). Within the quasi-experimental design, different designs are conceivable. A popular approach comprises an experimental group and a control group; the former receives the intervention and both groups complete a pre-test and a post-test (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). A pre-test and post-test measurement can be supplemented by a later follow-up measurement. In this way, the long-term effects of the intervention can be measured. Apart from controlled experiments and quasi-experiments, there are also preexperimental designs. These designs do not have a control group and comprise for example “one shot case studies” in which a group is exposed to a treatment followed by a measure, or a “one group pre-test post-test design” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Döring & Bortz, 2016).

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2.3 Research Questions Pre-service teachers’ professional competence should be developed in initial teacher education (ITE). Intervention studies conducted within an ITE context can improve the quality of both teaching and learning in the geography field. Therefore, this chapter seeks to answer the question: How can research on intervention studies in initial teacher education programs for geography be characterized? This question is subdivided into four sub-questions, which are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Which relevant studies can be identified and what is the publication context of each study? What methodology within quasi-experimental studies is used for each study? Which elements of pre-service teacher competence (PCK, CK, or beliefs) are addressed by the study? What are the features of the intervention?

2.4 Method To answer these research questions, we use a scoping review, also known as a “scoping study” or “systematic maps” (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2020, p. 15). A scoping review is undertaken to gain an understanding of the extent, range, and nature of research activity; to summarize and disseminate research findings; and to identify research gaps in the existing literature (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005). A scoping review, in contrast to a systematic review, describes the nature of the research field, rather than synthesizing the findings of the different articles. Such an approach can serve as a preliminary work to inform a fuller systematic review (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005; Munn et al., 2018; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2020).

2.4.1 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Studies considered in this scoping review fulfill specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. The studies include a population of interest: pre-service teachers (PSTs) who are educated to teach geography; it does not matter whether they are prepared to teach geography for a primary or a secondary school. The studies exclude interventions aimed at in-service geography teachers or at students who study geography without an intention to teach it. In addition, certain demands are imposed on the research design. Studies with a quasi-experimental design are included because they are academically rigorous and conducting them is possible in educational research. Eligible interventions must include a learning component defined broadly in relation to the knowledge and skills of geography teaching and can include any intervention concerned with teachers’

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professional competence. In addition, at least one measure must be taken to provide information on the effectiveness of the intervention. The search includes papers published between 2000 to the present time. Such a timeframe limits results to an up-to-date discourse because major changes to educational systems and to ITE began in the year 2000 with the Programme on International Student Assessement (PISA) studies. For accessibility of all authors, and reliability of the peer review process, an English language publication criterion also applies.

2.4.2 Developing a Search Strategy The following databases were searched: ProQuest, Web of Science, and Scopus. The following search phrase guided the search: quasi-experimental OR quasi-experiment OR intervention OR treatment OR control group AND initial teacher OR preservice OR pre-service OR student teachers OR trainee OR teacher training OR teacher preparation AND geography.

2.4.3 Screening The screening process was conducted as follows. First the three databases were searched, which resulted in 151 publications. After removing the duplicates, 121 studies were left. Each abstract was screened independently by two authors and comments were written in a shared document. A third author provided comments on an abstract if there was uncertainty about inclusion or exclusion criteria. Such comments were followed up by a digital meeting for the authoring team to discuss the abstracts and reach a consensus about inclusion or exclusion of each in the scoping review. This resulted in 31 articles of which the full texts were assessed. Two authors read each full text independently. Subsequently, 21 articles needed to be excluded. Frequent reasons for exclusion included lack of control group and an unclear description of the participant group. Finally, ten articles were deemed eligible for inclusion in the scoping review.

2.4.4 Coding the Studies In order to characterize the studies, the coding categories were deductively derived from the literature on quasi-experimental designs and teacher competence (see section 2.2). The eligible studies were coded by all authors. To determine the context of the study, the year and the country of origin were coded. To gain insight into the methodology of the study, authors coded information about the sample used in the study, the design of the study, and how the effectiveness of the intervention was

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measured. The authors also gathered information about the features of each intervention, including its focus, its design principles, and its duration, and analyzed its replicability.

2.5 Results The ten articles selected based on the criteria described in section 2.4 were analyzed. The results were structured in response to the research questions: the publication context of the studies is presented first, methodological aspects are then addressed, and finally the interventions are examined in more detail. The results are shown in Tables 2.1 and 2.2. Concerning the publication context, our analysis shows the earliest study in the review appeared in 2006 (Reinfried, 2006) and the number of relevant studies increased particularly in the last five years. Most studies were conducted in Europe. Only a few studies from other regions were identified, for example, the study by Table 2.1 Publication contexts and methodological aspects of the studies Authors

Country

Sample size Sample

Design

1. Blankman et al. (2016)

Netherlands

n = 449

Primary

Pre-test Written tests Post-test Follow-up

Secondary

Pre-test Post-test

Written tests

2. de Sousa et al. South Africa n = 315 (2017)

Measurement

3. Dulama and Ilovan (2016)

Romania

n = 120

Primary Kindergarten

Post-test

Direct observation

4. Efendioglu (2012)

Turkey

n = 89

Primary

Pre-test Post-test

Written tests

5. Fanta et al. (2020)

Germany

n = 108

Not specified Pre-test Written tests Post-test Follow-up

6. Fatima and Naaz (2015)

India

n = 70

Not specified Pre-test Post-test

Written tests

7. Reinfried (2006)

Germany

n = 30

Primary Secondary

Written tests Performance

8. Rosenkränzer Germany et al. (2017)

n = 108

Not specified Pre-test Written tests Post-test Follow-up

9. Sözen and Güven (2019)

Turkey

n = 70

Primary

10. Unterbruner et al. (2016)

Austria

n = 115

Not specified Pre-test Written tests Post-test Follow-up

Pre-test Post-test

Pre-test Post-test

Self-report

Focus

To raise pre-service teachers’ (PSTs) awareness of core concepts of geography (teaching) (i.e., substantial knowledge, syntactic knowledge, and beliefs about the subject) through Consciously Teaching Geography (CTG)

To find out which multimedia combinations are best for PSTs’ teaching and learning of geography themes (natural resources and sustainable development)

To analyze the impact of feedforward on PSTs’ skill in drawing a sketch map

Authors

1. Blankman et al. (2016)

2. de Sousa et al. (2017)

3. Dulama and Ilovan (2016)

Mixed

Educator offered feedforward interventions (model sketch, certain instructions, bibliographical information, description of work stages, and assessment criteria) while PSTs drew a sketch map

Mixed

(continued)

Mixed results

Mixed results

Effect of intervention

Within 1 session Effective

Not specified

2–6 sessions

Replicability Duration

Intervention 1: DVD 1 with text No and audio recordings intervention 2: DVD 2 with various multimedia: maps, audio recordings, text, and video clips based on cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Consciously Teaching Geography (CTG) design principles are derived from the literature on geographical PCK and effective methods in ITE; the design principles are principles of good geography teaching, explicit modelling, reflection, everyday geographical knowledge linked to academic geographical knowledge

Overview of intervention(s)

Table 2.2 Foci of the studies and characteristics of the interventions

2 Intervention Studies to Improve Initial Teacher … 15

Focus

To design a courseware development model (CDM) and investigate its effect on PSTs’ academic achievements in geography (Geography and Geopolitics of Turkey) and attitudes toward computer-based education

Authors

4. Efendioglu (2012)

Table 2.2 (continued) 7–13 sessions

Replicability Duration

Intervention 1: PSTs are in the Mixed classroom with educator who teaches with the principles of meaningful learning (e.g., advanced organizers, bidirectional relationship between previously learned knowledge and newly learned knowledge, transfer) without multimedia Intervention 2: PSTs studied individually in the computer lab with the geographic teaching courseware (GTC) based on a more general courseware development model, with the following three design principles: (1) Meaningful learning (see above), (2) Content (principles of how content should be represented), and (3) multimedia

Overview of intervention(s) Effective

(continued)

Effect of intervention

16 N. Scholten et al.

Focus

To foster PSTs’ systems-thinking with interventions which vary in the proportion of technical fundamentals of system science and didactical content for teaching systems thinking

To determine the impact of participatory learning technique on depth of PSTs’ content learning

To determine the effectiveness of mental model building approach on PSTs’ concepts of groundwater

Authors

5. Fanta et al. (2020)

6. Fatima and Naaz (2015)

7. Reinfried (2006)

Table 2.2 (continued)

No

Yes

(continued)

Not clearly stated

Effective

Effect of intervention

Within 1 session Effective

Not specified

Full semester

Replicability Duration

Mental model building approach Yes is adapted to adult learners and the topic of groundwater, the approach consists of the following phases: (1) preparation, (2) focus on mental models, (3) mental model-building, and (4) evaluation

PSTs actively participate in the task, geographical content and concepts are discussed and presentations are held

Intervention 1: “technical course” focused on technical fundamentals of system science (e.g., analyzing system models) Intervention 2: “mixed course”, technical fundamentals of systems science and didactical fundamentals for teaching Intervention 3: “didactic course”, systems thinking focused on didactical fundamentals for teaching systems thinking (e.g., reasons for teaching systems thinking)

Overview of intervention(s)

2 Intervention Studies to Improve Initial Teacher … 17

To determine the effect of multimedia learning program on PSTs’ knowledge of groundwater

10. Unterbruner et al. (2016)

No

Yes

Effective

Effective

Effect of intervention

Within 1 session Effective

7–13 sessions

Full semester

Replicability Duration

Interactive multimedia learning Yes program “Between the raincloud and the tap” based on insights from the fields of conceptual change research, principles of multimedia learning and the model of educational reconstruction (comprising science content on groundwater as well as students’ conceptions of groundwater), course is divided into different units (e.g. What makes up the ground beneath our feet? What causes the layers in the ground?)

Educator used (unspecified) online assessment tools

To determine the impact of online assessment tools on PSTs’ attitudes/motivation toward geography courses

9. Sözen and Güven (2019)

Overview of intervention(s) (see Fanta et al., 2020 above) Intervention 1: technical course Intervention 2: didactic course Intervention 3: mixed course

Focus

8. Rosenkränzer et al. (2017) To support PSTs’ PCK about how to support systems-thinking in students

Authors

Table 2.2 (continued)

18 N. Scholten et al.

2 Intervention Studies to Improve Initial Teacher …

19

de Sousa et al. (2017) from South Africa. There is significant variation in sample size across the studies. The smallest sample size is n = 30 (Reinfried, 2006) and the largest n = 449 (Blankman et al., 2016), with a focus on the three-digit range. All studies had an experimental and a control group, and in most cases the group sizes were similar or identical. Further analysis considered the target group for which the intervention was implemented. All subjects were enrolled in an initial teacher education program. Study programs for kindergarten, primary, and secondary pre-service teachers were covered. The data show that pre-service primary teachers were the most common target group. In most cases, the studies included at least one pre-test and one post-test. Four studies also conducted a follow-up (Blankman et al., 2016; Fanta et al., 2020; Rosenkränzer et al., 2017; Unterbruner et al., 2016). Table 2.2 provides detailed analyses of the interventions. The second column in Table 2.2 addresses the third research question, concerning which elements of PST competence each study targeted. It briefly summarizes each intervention and the targeted elements of professional competence. Some studies focus more on the intervention (for example, de Sousa et al., 2017; Dulama & Ilovan, 2016; Efendioglu, 2012), while others stress the development of the targeted professional competence element (Fanta et al., 2020; Rosenkränzer et al., 2017). The “Focus” column shows the reviewed studies targeted a variety of different elements of pre-service teachers’ professional competence. Most of the studies predominantly focused on CK (de Sousa et al., 2017; Dulama & Ilovan, 2016; Efendioglu, 2012; Fanta et al., 2020; Reinfried, 2006; Unterbruner et al., 2016), whereas fewer studies predominantly targeted PCK (Blankman et al., 2016; Rosenkränzer et al., 2017). Sözen and Güven (2019) focused predominantly on pre-service teachers’ beliefs. The term “predominantly” is used because, in some studies, more than one element of teachers’ professional competence was targeted (for example, Blankman et al., 2016; Reinfried, 2006). Characteristics of the interventions can be seen in the third column of Table 2.2. Notably, four studies conducted two or more interventions. Apart from the control group, up to three experimental groups were created (de Sousa et al., 2017; Efendioglu, 2012; Fanta et al., 2020; Rosenkränzer et al., 2017). The design principles of the interventions are heterogeneous because they are closely linked to the individual foci of the interventions. They are described in the studies with varying breadth and depth. Some studies thoroughly explain the rationale behind the design principles of the intervention and link them explicitly to the implementation of the intervention (Blankman et al., 2016; Efendioglu, 2012; Reinfried, 2006; Unterbruner et al., 2016). Others keep it short. In addition, some of the interventions are completely based on information and communications technology (ICT). For example, de Sousa et al. (2017) worked with DVDs, while Efendioglu (2012) and Unterbruner et al. (2016) created interactive multimedia learning programs. Sözen and Güven (2019) implemented (unspecified) online assessment tools. Some studies described the intervention in enough detail that it might be understood and replicated (Fanta et al., 2020; Reinfried, 2006; Rosenkränzer et al., 2017; Unterbruner et al., 2016). For example, Fanta et al. (2020) provides an overview of the

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individual session titles with brief descriptions, and Reinfried (2006) lists the steps taken by educators and provides pre-service teachers’ tasks. Some studies which are categorized as mixed offer insights into the intervention by giving examples but do not describe the entire intervention, which is understandable given the length of most of the articles. A few studies, such as Fatima and Naaz (2015), say almost nothing about how to conduct the intervention. Concerning the timeframe of the intervention (fifth column in Table 2.2), interventions ranged from 15 minutes to a full semester. The last column of Table 2.2 addresses the effectiveness of the interventions. The studies by Fatima and Naaz (2015) and Reinfried (2006) provide an illustrative example of the variance in the data on intervention effectiveness. Although Fatima and Naaz (2015) use statistics to report on the effectiveness of a Participatory Learning Technique in helping trainee teachers enrich their content knowledge, the difference between the control and experimental groups is simply described as “significant”, while the difference between male and female participants in the experimental group is described as “not significant”. Therefore, detail is lacking, and it is difficult to clearly ascertain the effectiveness of the intervention. Although it was studied in a small sample group, the mental-model teaching intervention studied and compared to a traditional lecture approach by Reinfried is reported to be a “feasible” and “more successful” way to challenge preconceptions and develop conceptual understanding about groundwater (Reinfried, 2006, p. 56). Notable features of the paper by Reinfried (2006) include sufficient detail for future researchers to replicate the intervention, sustained attention to the implementation and monitoring of the intervention during its one-session duration, and clear reporting about the effectiveness of the intervention.

2.6 Discussion The aim of the present study is to describe and characterize previous research on intervention studies in initial geography teacher education to support evidence-based teacher education. Four points of interest from the scoping review of intervention studies deserve to be discussed. First, the scoping review identified and analyzed ten papers about the purposes and outcomes of intervention studies in geography within an initial teacher education context. The studies identified by the scoping review were European-centric (Austria, Germany, The Netherlands, and Romania), however, there is a known heterogeneity of ITEPs across the countries where the intervention studies were conducted (European Commission, n.d.). Direct comparison of results and the transferability of findings are only possible to a limited extent. The second research question sought to identify the underlying quantitative methodology of the intervention studies. The data reveal the use of a wide range of methodological quality standards. This applies to all aspects of intervention studies addressed in method books (Boslaugh, 2013; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In some cases, the concrete differences between experimental and control groups are relatively

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unclear or are difficult to understand. In other studies, these are very clearly described and compared with each other (Fanta et al., 2020). Some studies also present issues with their underlying design and methods of measurement. By contrast, the independent variable (training condition) and dependent variable (measuring systemsthinking) are described very clearly in the Fanta et al. (2020) study. Follow-up data is useful for determining long-term effects, and it is available in four studies (Blankman et al., 2016; Fanta et al., 2020; Rosenkränzer et al., 2017; Unterbruner et al., 2016). The sample and its size are also important. Sample sizes for quantitative studies are usually in the three-digit range, which is achieved in most of the studies considered here. The sample size of the Reinfried (2006) study is outside of this range, but this is also critically mentioned in the discussion of the paper. In general, there is an opportunity to calculate the appropriate sample size in advance of the study (Boslaugh, 2013). Ideally, if a result is statistically significant, the effect size should also be determined and interpreted (Boslaugh, 2013). This is the case in very few studies; examples are Dulama and Ilovan (2016) and Fanta et al. (2020). The third research question asked which elements of pre-service teacher competence were addressed by the ten studies. Interventions in the eligible studies often fostered the development of pre-service teachers’ CK, such as the study conducted by Fanta et al. (2020) and Fatima and Naaz (2015). It is beyond question that CK is a very important part of teachers’ professional competence, however, pre-service teachers’ PCK and (domain-specific) beliefs should also be adequately considered. Regarding the features of the intervention(s), it is notable that some studies tested multiple interventions at the same time. A variety of design principles were applied, and interventions lasted for various lengths of time. It is promising to see that many interventions (even those of only a one-session duration) were deemed effective for building professional competence of pre-service teachers. Second, those interventions that proved to be effective should be considered for use in ITE. Those that are described in sufficient detail to be replicated should be replicated for research. Broader use of the interventions would be facilitated by inclusion of the material used in the interventions in appendices. Some studies’ interventions are completely based on ICT. These could easily be implemented in different ITEPs, aside from changes necessary to address language barriers or other cultural differences. On the topic of replicability, Bednarz et al. (2013) note, “Geography education research … is rarely replicated. … Replicable research projects can provide another potentially productive research strategy … to contribute to the accumulation of knowledge” (p. 60). This review provides an opportunity for future scholars in geography education to respond to the call for research designs that can be replicated, because currently there are few examples to draw on. Replicating studies would allow information to be gathered about how applicable and effective their interventions are in different cultural contexts. Some of the identified studies are academically very rigorous (Fanta et al., 2020; Reinfried, 2006; Rosenkränzer et al., 2017; Unterbruner et al., 2016). Such studies can serve as examples for future research activities concerning intervention studies.

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Third, the small number of intervention studies is a point of interest in itself and suggests a need for future action. The small number (ten) suggests that intervention studies with a quasi-experimental research design and a control group are not prevalent when investigating geography courses in ITEPs. Considering that experimental studies are the gold standard (Boslaugh, 2013), this number (ten) seems very low. If reliable statements are to be made about the effectiveness of teaching concepts in ITE for geography, it is necessary to increase the number of quasi-experimental studies in the field. It is also necessary for research in geography education to attain a level of greater scientific rigor overall, to build a pool of data from which a reliable, valid consensus about effective methods can be drawn, therefore enhancing the status of geography education research. During the screening process for our scoping review, many studies were conducted without a control group, therefore they were not eligible for inclusion in this scoping review. The reasons why many studies neglect to have a control group can only be guessed. Authors of these publications did not provide reasons why a control group was not included. Experimental studies with a control group are usually empirically more complex than pre-experimental studies. Quasi-experimental studies demand a higher psychometric expertise and follow a more intricate design. It is possible the overall number of pre-service geography teachers in initial teacher education programs is so small it becomes difficult to find an equivalent group of test persons. The preference for pre-experimental studies could also be due to the training background of the researchers who conducted the studies (geographers, educationists or researchers in geography education), which might explain methods of analysis. However, the studies excluded in our study came from researchers with diverse backgrounds. Therefore, based on the research design gap identified in the present scoping review, together with future research recommendations from Huynh et al. (2015), Viehrig et al. (2019), and Bednarz et al. (2013), it is suitable to propose future evidence-based research in an initial teacher education context for geography should use quasi-experimental designs, ideally with control groups. Finally, a future systematic review should consider including pre-experimental designs. These designs seem to be used often in interventions for geography education. Such an approach would probably lead to consideration of a much larger sample of studies. However, the methodological rigor of the studies, especially as no control group is designated, needs to be closely analyzed. Limitations of this scoping review include only studies published in the English language were included and that we restricted our search to the most prominent search engines. In addition, the purview of the scoping review is limited to quasiexperimental designs with a control group, one of the most rigorous forms of study. Furthermore, it is important to keep in mind there are differing opinions about evidence-based teacher education (Diery et al., 2020). Among other arguments, critics point out that while intervention studies offer information about the past, how applicable the information is to the future remains to be seen. Intervention studies

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measure an effect on a specific outcome and cannot take a holistic perspective of pre-service teachers’ education (Biesta, 2012). Nevertheless, even critics admit that such evidence can inform teacher education.

References Arksey, H., & O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 19–32. Baumert, J., & Kunter, M. (2013). The COACTIV model of teachers’ professional competence. In M. Kunter, J. Baumert, W. Blum, U. Klusmann, & M. Neubrand (Eds.), Cognitive activation in the mathematics classroom and professional competence of teachers (pp. 25–48). Springer. Bednarz, S. W., Heffron, S., & Huynh, N. T. (2013). Road map for 21st century geography education project, geography education research: Recommendations and guidelines for research in geography education. Association of American Geographers. Biesta, G. (2012). The future of teacher education: Evidence, competence or wisdom? Research on Steiner Education, 3(1), 8–21. Blankman, M., Schoonenboom, J., van der Schee, J., Boogaard, M., & Volman, M. (2016). Learning to teach geography for primary education: Results of an experimental programme. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 40(3), 1–17. Boslaugh, S. (2013). Statistics in a nutshell: A desktop quick reference. O’Reilly Media. Cramer, C. (2020). Kohärenz und Relationierung in der Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung. In C. Cramer, J. König, M. Rothland, & S. Blömeke (Eds.), Handbuch Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung (pp. 269–279). UTB. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, D. J. (2018). Research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Sage. Creswell, J. W., & Guetterman, T. C. (2019). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Pearson. de Sousa, L., Richter, B., & Nel, C. (2017). The effect of multimedia use on the teaching and learning of social sciences at tertiary level: A case study. Yesterday & Today, 17, 1–22. Diery, A., Vogel, F., Knogler, M., & Seidel, T. (2020). Evidence-based practice in higher education: Teacher educators’ attitudes, challenges, and uses. Frontiers in Education, 5(62), 1–13. Döring, N., & Bortz, J. (2016). Forschungsmethoden und Evaluation in den Sozial- und Humanwissenschaften. Springer. Downs, R. M. (1994). The need for research in geography education: It would be nice to have some data. Journal of Geography, 93(1), 57–60. Dulama, M. E., & Ilovan, O.-R. (2016). How powerful is feedforward in university education? A case study in Romanian geography education on increasing learning efficiency. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 16(3), 827–848. Efendioglu, A. (2012). Courseware development model (CDM): The effects of CDM on primary school pre-service teachers’ achievements and attitudes. Computers & Education, 59(2), 687– 700. European Commission (Ed.). (2007). Improving the quality of teacher education. Brussels. European Commission (Ed.). (2013). Supporting teacher competence development for better learning outcomes. Brussels. European Commission (Ed.). (n.d.). National education systems. Brussels. https://eacea.ec.europa. eu/national-policies/eurydice/national-description_en. Accessed 10 July 2021. Fanta, D., Braeutigam, J., & Riess, W. (2020). Fostering systems thinking in student teachers of biology and geography—An intervention study. Journal of Biological Education, 54(3), 226–244.

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Fatima, K., & Naaz, S. T. (2015). Impact of participatory learning technique on the content enrichment of B.ED. trainees. Mier-Journal of Educational Studies Trends and Practices, 5(2), 180–187. Huynh, N. T., Solem, M., & Bednarz, S. W. (2015). A road map for learning progressions research in geography. Journal of Geography, 114(2), 69–79. Lipowsky, F. (2006). Auf den Lehrer kommt es an: Empirische Evidenzen für Zusammenhänge zwischen Lehrerkompetenzen, Lehrerhandeln und dem Lernen der Schüler [Empirical evidence for the link between teacher competences, teacher performance and student learning]. In C. AllemannGhionda & E. Terhart (Eds.), Kompetenzen und Kompetenzentwicklung von Lehrerinnen und Lehrern: Ausbildung und Beruf (pp. 47–70). Beltz. Munn, Z., Peters, M., Stern, C., Tufanaru, C., Mc Arthur, A., & Aromataris, E. (2018). Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 18(143), 1–7. Reinfried, S. (2006). Conceptual change in physical geography and environmental sciences through mental model building: The example of groundwater. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 15(1), 41–61. Rosenkränzer, F., Hörsch, C., Schuler, S., & Riess, W. (2017). Student teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge for teaching systems thinking: Effects of different interventions. International Journal of Science Education, 39(14), 1932–1951. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(4), 4–14. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–23. Sözen, E., & Güven, U. (2019). The effect of online assessments on students’ attitudes towards undergraduate-level geography courses. International Education Studies, 12(10), 1–8. Terhart, E., Bennewitz, H., & Rothland, M. (Eds.). (2014). Handbuch zur Forschung zum Lehrerberuf . Waxmann. Unterbruner, U., Hilberg, S., & Schiffl, I. (2016). Understanding groundwater—Students’ preconceptions and conceptual change by means of a theory-guided multimedia learning program. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 20(6), 2251–2266. Viehrig, K., Siegenthaler, D., Burri, S., Reinfried, S., Bednarz, S., Blankman, M., Bourke, T., Brooks, C., Hertig, P., Kerski, J., Kisser, T., Solem, M., Stoltman, J., Behnke, Y., Lane, R., Lupatini, M., Scholten, N., Siegmund, A., & Sprenger, S. (2019). Issues in improving geography and earth science teacher education: Results of the #IPGESTE 2016 conference. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 43(3), 299–322. Zawacki-Richter, O., Kerres, M., Bedenlier, S., Bond, M., & Buntins, K. (Eds.). (2020). Systematic reviews in educational research: Methodology, perspectives and application. Springer.

Chapter 3

Intervention Research Design in the Context of Professionalizing Future Geography Teachers: Specific Potentials of Qualitative and Quantitative Designs Using the Example of Two Empirical Studies Sebastian Streitberger, Melanie Haltenberger, and Ulrike Ohl

3.1 The Theory–Practice Problem in the Professionalization of Teachers in German-Language Geography Education German-language teacher training is often segmented into three distinct phases: First, future teachers begin their training as students at university where they study predominantly academic disciplines (usually 4–5 years). Here, they complete some initial practical school training. Second, they undergo practical teacher training as student teachers at a school (two years after university degree) before they finally begin their professional careers as teachers. In this last phase, teachers periodically take advanced training courses.1 There is general agreement that theoretical and practical approaches often do not complement each other ideally in the educational field (Hetfleisch et al., 2017; Rothland, 2020; Wilhelm & Hopf, 2014): Whereas university training (phase 1) seldom 1 Teacher training varies considerably between Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Even within Germany for example, there are different manifestations since education is the responsibility of the federal states.

S. Streitberger (B) · M. Haltenberger · U. Ohl Institute of Geography, University of Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany e-mail: [email protected] M. Haltenberger e-mail: [email protected] U. Ohl e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_3

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offers the chance to apply acquired theoretical knowledge and test skills relevant to practice, the more practical phases 2 and 3 rarely resort to scientific knowledge. Hence, synergies hardly ever take effect. Intervention research, however, is a means to bridge this gap within university teacher professionalization efforts as interventions often focus on competences relevant to practice. Corresponding research may identify an intervention’s potentials and weaknesses as well as specifically optimize training programs. Accordingly, new and tested training programs emerge from such research and can then be implemented into geography education courses at university to increase their practical relevance. Aside from that, intervention research also produces empirical evidence and contributes to theory building. Yet, how is it possible to specifically increase practical relevance on the one hand? And what research decisions are relevant to a sound empirical and theoretical foundation on the other? This chapter addresses these questions based on a review of current studies from the last five years of Geography education research by examining the potentials of qualitative and quantitative approaches as well as additional researchmethodical decision criteria for practice-oriented intervention research. After that, two current example projects from Geography education research will contextualize how research-methodical decisions can be reached.

3.2 Educational Intervention Research on Professionalizing (Future) Geography Teachers 3.2.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Intervention Research Educational interventional study designs are a key research approach for bridging the gap between theoretical and practical necessities (Hascher, 2010; Landmann et al., 2010). Such studies always include a so-called intervention. Following the definitions of Hager and Hasselhorn (2000) and Leutner (2010), educational interventions are purposeful interferences into prevalent behavioral patterns with the aim to systematically change certain traits, competences, or attributes of individuals within these patterns or they try to modify on a larger scale, e.g., entire systems. In doing that, interventions incorporate at least one method of instruction and one task for the instructed participants. Intervention research focuses on the development of such interventions, their implementation and/or their effects and can have highly heterogeneous designs (Mittag & Bieg, 2010). In educational research, one pivotal aim of an intervention is often to develop specific classroom competences to tackle certain challenges in the context of learning and teaching (Hascher, 2010; Landmann et al., 2010). Hence, such study designs already set an objective which is particularly relevant for school practice. To be able to make statements about any developments of teachers or pupils respectively, intervention research must apply competence-specific diagnostic methods (Leutner, 2010). When studies also use a sound theoretical and methodological foundation, they can

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help to gain scientific knowledge (Landmann et al., 2010). Moreover, interventional designs which are longitudinal and use several instances to gather their data tend to facilitate a deeper understanding of ongoing processes than cross-sectional studies (Dreier et al., 2018; Petermann & Reinelt, 2018). (Quasi-)Experimental designs with control groups can further assist in examining questions of an intervention’s efficacy or effectiveness (Döring & Bortz, 2016). Empirical educational intervention designs in general and within geography education can be classified according to a great diversity of dimensions (Hascher & Schmitz, 2010), e.g., the essential methodological dichotomy of qualitative vs. quantitative. To be precise, qualitative and quantitative research are often assumed to be two extremes within a methodology spectrum; yet they are not necessarily mutually exclusive (Grecu & Völcker, 2018). They can be combined in so-called mixed methods designs (Tashakkori & Cresswell, 2007). Both qualitative and quantitative approaches impose specific requirements for educational intervention research, though (Hascher & Schmitz, 2010). Qualitative studies are particularly suitable for facilitating exploratory research (Maxwell, 2009) as well as open and unbiased data interpretations (Flick, 1995) through diverse methodical or methodological approaches (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). With their specific form of data, they can adequately represent the high complexity of authentic school and learning interactions (Firestone, 1993; Hitchcook & Hughes, 1995; Landmann et al., 2010). Qualitative intervention designs have the potential to also capture both a longitudinal process of change and a cross-sectional, in-depth picture at any point during this process (Dreier et al., 2018; Jarsinki, 2014; Thiersch, 2020; Witzel, 2020). Hence, they are widespread in the educational sciences in Germany (Dreier et al., 2018). Quantitative research designs are typically chosen when research questions or hypotheses are to be examined on many cases with regard to only a few, often already evident aspects (Döring & Bortz, 2016). Consequently, quantitative researchers usually test theories and do that with standardized methods of data collection (Döring & Bortz, 2016). In doing so, quantitative intervention studies can either focus on the perceptions of intervention processes (Abildgaard et al., 2016; Havermans et al., 2016) or on the efficacy and effectiveness of an interventional programme (Döring & Bortz, 2016; Theyßen, 2014). To make assertions about the ratio of qualitative and quantitative teacher professional development (TPD) intervention studies in German-language geography education, we reviewed publications of Geographiedidaktische Forschungen, the Journal of Geography Education (ZGD), Review of International Geographical Education Online2 and GW-Unterricht from 2015 until 2020. This timespan was chosen because geography teachers—and teacher education respectively—have come into increased focus in recent years (Hemmer, 2020): In 2015 for example, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research launched the Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung, which aims to strengthen and expand teacher education through a variety of (joint) projects in Germany. In the following, only intervention studies are 2

Here, we focused on research projects based in German-speaking countries.

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included that specifically refer to teachers or future teachers; accordingly, intervention studies on pupils are excluded. The analysis of the sampled intervention studies (Table 3.1; N = 15) shows that the majority focuses on a qualitative orientation (9 of 15), followed by the use of quantitative (3 of 15) and mixed-methods design (3 of 15). Studies predominantly investigate future teachers from the second semester onwards (14 of 15). Practicing teachers are researched very rarely (e.g., Fögele, 2016 and in part von Roux, 2020). Most intervention studies only examine the effects of the intervention on the (future) teachers directly but not potential knock-on effects on the learning processes of the pupils taught by these (future) teachers. Table 3.1 Reviewed teacher professional development intervention studies in German-language geography education from 2015 until 2020

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3.2.2 Additional Research-Methodical Decision Criteria Besides the already mentioned methodology spectrum of qualitative vs quantitative, there are several research-methodical decision criteria that must be considered (Kromrey et al., 2016). Some are rather fundamental, derived from the research question and therefore, usually made at the very beginning of the research process. These include considerations regarding target group (e.g., pupils, teachers), target trait (e.g., pedagogical content knowledge or map reading skills) and the overall subject-specific and interdisciplinary relevance of a research project. In the context of intervention research, practical relevance takes on importance as well since TPD interventional studies are aimed to bridge the gap between theory and practice. Hence, improving the quality of these studies often also means to strengthen a practice-oriented perspective. Hascher (2010) makes several suggestions for this: objectives could attend to specific practical problems and work towards solutions. Additionally, studies should not only draw on a theoretical foundation but actively seek practical experiences. This could be realized via open communication and cooperation between researchers and practitioners. Ultimately, such exchange could help trickle down scientific results into practice. Most of the reviewed studies show some form of practical relevance; for example, they either work with students in practice-oriented university seminars (e.g., Renner, 2020), (student) teachers in practical teacher training courses (e.g., Fögele, 2016, 2018) or pupils in schools (e.g., Rosendahl et al., 2020). Likewise, other categories (e.g., timeframe, evaluation focus, scale) determine certain research design decisions but “[do not] necessarily follow by logical deduction from the research question” (Maxwell, 2013, p. 100). While our Empirical Intervention Study Compass for Subject-Specific Education Research (Fig. 3.1; Streitberger et al., 2021) summarizes these decisions and simplifies a quick overview on the rationale behind them, the decision criteria will be explained hereinafter. All criteria are based on a critical review of research literature, the sampled studies from the field of geography education (Table 3.1) and own experiences from using intervention study designs. One crucial decision criterion in the overall planning stages of any intervention study is its timeframe (timeframe of intervention). Both short-time and long-time interventions are entirely legitimate. The duration must be carefully tailored to the investigated trait (Hagenauer, 2010; Yoon et al., 2007) and can stretch from few minutes of instruction (short time) to entire school years (long-time) and beyond (Hagenauer, 2010; Hsieh et al., 2005; Landmann et al., 2010; Yoon et al., 2007). While some target traits might be modified by prompts or scaffoldings in short-time interventions (Lin & Lehmann, 1999; Müller & Seufert, 2018), more stable traits might require an enduring modification in prolonged designs (Hagenauer, 2010; Hewson, 2007). Yet, long-time interventions draw on more substantial resources and might mask short-time intervention effects, cause participant fatigue or lead to a higher number of study dropouts (Hagenauer, 2010). Longer time periods might also increase the participants’ exposure to confounding factors. Looking at the results

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research question

EMPIRICAL INTERVENTION STUDY COMPASS FOR SUBJECTSPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH

target group target trait

relevance

interdisciplinary

practical

intervention

rationale methodology

qualitative

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timeframe of intervention

short-time

medium

long-time

continuous assessment

timing of data collection

pre-test

evaluation

formative

scale

quantitative

micro

post-test

follow-up

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Fig. 3.1 Empirical intervention study compass for subject-specific education research (Streitberger et al., 2021)

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from the review, the timeframe of the intervention varies in scope from seven days (e.g., Lindau & Renner, 2019; Luber et al., 2020) to one semester (equivalent to about 4 months, e.g., Meurel & Hemmer, 2020a; Streitberger & Ohl, 2020). Besides the length of the intervention, time-based decisions are also relevant to data collection (timing of data collection). Data collection in intervention studies usually entails at least a pre- and post-intervention assessment (Mittag & Bieg, 2010). Researchers must factor in possible delayed intervention effects (Landmann et al., 2010), necessities to verify the persistence of effects via follow-up tests (Hagenauer, 2010) or topic-specific considerations about the anticipated number of assessments. Often a binary pre-post design without a follow-up assessment is used (e.g., Meurel & Hemmer, 2020a, 2020b; see Schuler et al., 2016 for a counterexample). Rarely, students are asked retrospectively about their intervention experiences without a pre-survey having taken place (e.g., Krüger & Hemmer, 2020). Continuous assessments, which usually consist of several points of data collection during the intervention (Hernández, 2012), are not common (see Renner, 2020 or design-based-research studies Budke & Kuckuck, 2020; Rosendahl et al., 2020; von Roux, 2020 for counterexamples). Moreover, intervention research must decide on its evaluation focus. As the definition above clearly states, change is a central goal of intervention studies. However, it is possible to test for change by either concentrating on a pre-post comparison and conducting a form of summative evaluation or—less frequently—investigate the process of change via formative evaluation (Perels & Otto, 2010). While the former tends to be more resource-efficient and focused on the result, formative evaluations enable a more in-depth analysis of the processes due to a usually larger amount of data and ordinarily integrate feedback loops (Perels & Otto, 2010; Taras, 2005). Formative assessment is thus more common for developing new interventions (Mittag & Bieg, 2010). According to Perels and Otto (2010), it is increasingly common to combine both forms of evaluation in a single intervention study. Design-based research (e.g., Budke & Kuckuck, 2020; Rosendahl et al., 2020; von Roux, 2020), for instance, must incorporate both types of evaluation to some degree to get answers for its typical research questions (Feulner et al., 2015). The review shows a summative emphasis on efficacy and effectiveness of interventions (e.g., Brockmüller et al., 2016), less often on formative aspects of change (e.g., Rosendahl et al., 2020). Furthermore, interventions differ in their scale. They can look at individuals, e.g., teachers, on a micro level at one extreme, to groups of learners (meso level), e.g., in specific professional development courses, to entire systems on a macro level, e.g., with state-wide compulsory trainings during practical teacher trainings (Leutner, 2010). Sustainable TPD requires strong cooperation between different educational agents (e.g., teachers, researchers, and government) and ultimately interventions on all levels (Landmann et al., 2010; Vogt & Scholz, 2020). TPD studies in geography center almost exclusively on students of secondary education (15 of 15). Sample sizes vary depending on the choice of the methodological design from 1 (e.g., Pettig & Reinhardt, 2018) to 151 (e.g., Fögele et al., 2019, 2020; Luber et al., 2020), with 151 being a full survey of the student cohort.

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In addition to well-considered design decisions along these criteria, it is also essential to explicitly take steps in securing the quality of a TPD intervention design (quality assurance) (Leutner, 2010; Pressley & Harris, 1994). Depending on methodological parameters, quality criteria can encompass explicating design and intervention decisions (Hager & Hasselhorn, 1995; Pressley & Harris, 1994), paying attention to internal and external validity (Crane, 1998; Pressley & Harris, 1994) and a complete and transparent reporting of findings (Pressley & Harris, 1994). Another approach to quality management is proposed by Mittag and Bieg (2010), who distinguish evaluation criteria regarding different stages of intervention studies, namely planning, implementation and success measurement phases. The following section highlights similar considerations regarding the mentioned design decisions in the context of two more detailed example studies3 from ongoing research projects on professionalizing future geography teachers at the University of Augsburg to illustrate the rationale behind them.

3.3 Examples from Ongoing Geography Education Intervention Studies and Their Rationale Regarding Research-Methodical Decisions 3.3.1 A Qualitative Perspective: Professionalizing the Vision of Future Geography Teachers with the Use of Video Analysis An example of a qualitative intervention study from the field of teacher-centered geography education focuses on the professional vision of future geography teachers (Streitberger & Ohl, 2020): To what extent have future geography teachers (target group) the ability to perceive geography lessons via video analysis in a professional manner before and after an intervention? Without any topical constraints this research question aims at an open and exploratory insight into an inadequately researched section of professional vision (target trait) (Lazarevic, 2017), namely geographyeducation-specific analysis skills (Meurel & Hemmer, 2020b, p. 108). Professional vision, which consists of the process of noticing specific situations relevant to learning and acting on them via knowledge-based reasoning (Seidel & Stürmer, 2014), is, 3

The presented example studies are integrated in the Augsburg project “LeHet”. This project is part of the already mentioned “Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung”, a joint initiative of the Federal Government and the Länder which aims to improve the quality of teacher training. The program is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The presented example studies are integrated in the Augsburg project “LeHet”. This project is part of the already mentioned “Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung”, a joint initiative of the Federal Government and the Länder which aims to improve the quality of teacher training. The program is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research.

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in turn, considered to be instrumental in adaptive teaching (Hamre et al., 2012; Seidel & Prenzel, 2007). Interventional professionalization efforts regarding professional vision are fruitful (Santagata & Guarino, 2011); geography-specific research, however, is deficient. With a research question that correspondingly puts changeability and development at its heart, design decisions automatically adapt a longitudinal stance. This is true for many geography educational studies in the context of professionalization (Hemmer, 2020), other educational sciences (Dreier et al., 2018; Hsieh et al., 2005) and typical research designs in the field of professional vision (Scholl & Plöger, 2020). Especially in exploratory research, openness seems to be a necessity (Kromrey et al., 2016). Open, in-depth analyses of the participants’ professional vision suggest authentic insights into the complexity of classrooms. Both this realization and the topically unconfined often inductive focus of this study advocate a qualitative approach (methodology) (Miles et al., 2020). Carefully considered quantifications are added for the sole purpose of enhancing the exploratory scientific knowledge production (Petermann & Reinelt, 2018) while retaining a qualitative research logic (Krüger, 2010; Miles et al., 2020). Within this example study both a short-time intervention via a several-minuteslong prompt and a four-month-long intervention are used to broaden the knowledge about the variability of professional vision (timeframe of intervention). The shorttime intervention is based on an already established, although further compressed lesson analysis framework (see Santagata & Angelici, 2010). In the long-time intervention, which was newly developed and is detailed in Streitberger and Ohl (2021), participants learn to plan lessons theory-based, teach these in authentic classroom situations and systematically analyze video recordings of them afterwards. To secure the intervention’s quality, it was evaluated four times by an extended evaluation program and subsequently optimized by analogy with Mittag and Bieg (2010). Both interventions aim to improve the participants’ professional vision. While short-time interventions—if satisfactory—might be more efficient and thus more likely to be implemented into practical learning environments, scientific findings often suggest higher effectiveness with longer interventions (Mayer & Fiorella, 2014; Sweller et al., 1998). Regarding professional vision, results indicate timeframes of at least several hours to be able to see professionalization effects (Santagata & Angelici, 2010). This two-pronged approach illustrates the ambition to do justice to practical and theoretical requirements and becomes also apparent with a research focus that is relevant from a practical and a theoretical point of view—both interdisciplinarily and geography specific (relevance; for more information see Fig. 3.2). Thus, it seems natural to consult classroom and research experts at several points during the research process. As described above, participants take part in authentic classroom situations during the interventions and use videos outside of the classroom to further increase its immanent authentic complexity (Sherin, 2004). Additionally, the gathered data is analyzed according to both experience-based (practical) knowledge and sciencebased (theoretical) knowledge.

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research question target group target trait

To what extent have future geography teachers the ability to perceive geography lessons via video analysis in a professional manner before and after an intervention? future geography teachers (student status)

EMPIRICAL INTERVENTION STUDY COMPASS FOR SUBJECTSPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH

professional vision / lesson analysis competence

using videos of geography lessons during intervention and testing; analysing CK- and PCK-

relevance

intervention

interdisciplinary

professional vision as interdisciplinarily relevant; analysing PK-based reasoning and noticing; e orts to actively integrate interdisciplinary perspectives during intervention and video analysis (e.g. via inclusion of experts from non-geography education disciplines)

practical

practically relevant research objective; inclusion and appreciation of practical knowledge (e.g. during categorisation); involvement of theoretical and practical experts (both during intervention and data analysis); intervention phases in schools and with pupils; authentic lessons as working basis; intention to make results accessible (e.g. via trainings)

use of short- and long-time intervention (t 0 1 2); short-time intervention as prompt (ca. 30 minutes) using an established sca olding within lesson analysis; long-time intervention and theory-based planning, teaching and analysing of videographed lessons

rationale methodology

timeframe of intervention

X

qualitative

medium

quantitative#

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short-time and long-time interventions in comparison to check for di ering e ects: shorttime intervention more likely to be e long-time intervention more likely to be e ective 1 pre-, 2 post-tests (t 0

continuous assessment pre-test

evaluation

formative

quality assurance

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short-time

timing of data collection

scale

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qualitative data allows in-depth analysis, authentic representation of complex classroom situations and open answers via content analysis; fewer qualitative approaches to professional vision

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follow-up #

Xsummative# X

meso

macro#

1 2); extensive test instrument; hence, high time investment per test; possible memory e ects due to identical video content limit test repeatability

summative evaluation due to time-intensive test instrument, analysis and complex intervention design; no summative pre-post data for geography education existent exploratory focus on and in-depth analysis of more than 40 individuals; purposeful sampling; limited statistical generalisability to population due to qualitative approach; yet analytical generalisability possible

transparent presentation of study (incl. but not limited to sampling strategy, intervention design, handling quality strategies during qualitative content analysis, categories used); testing of intercoder reliability; involvement of teaching and research experts at several stages of the research process; evaluation of intervention; sound theoretical

Fig. 3.2 Empirical intervention study compass for geography education research on professionalising the vision of future geography teachers with the use of video analysis (based on Streitberger et al., 2021, research by Sebastian Streitberger)

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Data is gathered through three tests (timing of data collection), in which participants analyze a videographed lesson segment regarding—in their opinion—anything relevant to learning. The obtained texts are subsequently content-analytically examined with MAXQDA. This sparsely structured test instrument captures sufficiently detailed qualitative data. Yet, it is time- and work-intensive and so complicates a formative evaluation. It uses the same video content for every measurement; with more measurements, which are necessary for formative evaluation, the interval between tests would be shortened and hence, memory effects might influence results (Schwarz et al., 2020). Moreover, the research question with its exploratory emphasis is not directed at detailed development steps but rather interested in fundamental changeability. Therefore, summative assessment (evaluation) seems more manageable for a scale of more than 40 test subjects over three separate measurements and expedient regarding the research question. With such a sample size within qualitative research, statistical generalizability is “less desirable” (Yin, 2016: 105); analytical generalizability is to be aimed at (Firestone, 1993; Gentles et al., 2015; Yin, 2016). Particularly exploratory studies are allowed to generate data-based working hypotheses without claim of statistical representativity (Mayring, 2007; Yin, 2016). The here described design decisions have led to a scientifically profound approach to the research question that also incorporates both a practical and resource-conscious perspective. For more information see Fig. 3.2. Preliminary results indicate the intervention’s potential to shift the participants’ analysis focus onto increasingly relevant classroom situations, e.g., deep structures (Streitberger & Ohl, 2020).

3.3.2 A Quantitative Perspective: Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Beliefs of Future Primary School Teachers from a Geographical Perspective on the Subject Sachunterricht4 The quantitative example study is based on the Model of Professional Competence of Teachers (Baumert & Kunter, 2006) and investigates what pedagogical content knowledge and beliefs future primary school teachers have about the geographical perspective of the subject Sachunterricht and to what extent they can be changed through university training. It is the second part of the research question which necessitates a quasi-experimental study with pre-, post- and follow-up testing (Döring & Bortz, 2016) since it examines the effects of an intervention measure on the students’ beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge.

4

The subject of Sachunterricht is one of the main subjects in primary school, along with the subjects of mathematics and German in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. The subject of Sachunterricht is made up of natural, social, historical, technical, and geographical perspectives, which are shown in their interconnectedness. In this way, this subject aims to be compatible with the subjects that follow in secondary school.

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research question

What pedagogical content knowledge and beliefs do future primary school teachers have about the geographical perspective of the subject Sachunterricht and to what extent can they be changed through university training?

target group

future elementary school teachers (students status) from the third semester onwards (both experimental and control group)

target trait

relevance

pedagogical content knowledge and beliefs / geographical perspective of the subject Sachunterricht

interdisciplinary

practical

intervention

EMPIRICAL INTERVENTION STUDY COMPASS FOR SUBJECTSPECIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCH

interdisciplinary references between primary school teaching, teacher professionalism and geography education research; interdisciplinarily relevant theoretical constructs

products and tasks from the classroom into the intervention for analysis); integrating research activities into practical environments during the intervention (e.g. participants conducting small

Model of Educational Reconstruction (MER); focus on geographical topics and key concepts relevant to Sachunterricht as well as geographical pre-concepts of primary school pupils, their learning progression and compatible, criteria-based learning tasks; students collect data in authentic learning situations

rationale already existent qualitative research on

methodology

qualitative

mixed-methods

timeframe of intervention

short-time

medium

pre-test

evaluation

formative

quality assurance

X

long-time #

continuous assessment

timing of data collection

scale

X

quantitative#

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micro

X

X

post-test

follow-up #

X

X meso

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PCK; hence, quantitative validation necessary in which hypotheses need to be tested on a larger sample to achieve statistical generalisability

long-term intervention needed to generate constructs; long-term interventions in university settings are usually one semester three measurement points: at the beginning of the intervention (pre-test), at the end (post-test) and four months after the intervention (followup) to prove long-term e ects; questionnairebased data collection

summative#

formative evaluation during development of intervention and its framework in order to increase its e ectiveness; summative evaluation to check quality and e ectiveness of the intervention

macro#

targeted sample: 500 future teachers (student status) from 5 universities across Germany due to di erent study environments; purposeful sampling; statistically representative results possible

transparent presentation of the study (incl. sampling strategy, intervention design, handling of missing values, evaluation steps etc.); testing of quality criteria (objectivity, reliability and validity); involvement of teaching and research experts (N=9) to evaluate the intervention and the questionnaire; multiple evaluation of the intervention;

Fig. 3.3 Empirical intervention study compass for geography education research on professionalising the PCK and geography-specific beliefs of future primary school teachers (based on Streitberger et al., 2021, research by Melanie Haltenberger)

The pedagogical content knowledge and beliefs of future primary school teachers from the third semester onwards (N = 500) are assessed by means of questionnaires. The experimental group (N = 250) takes part in a seminar intervention (for more information see Fig. 3.3) on the geographical perspective of Sachunterricht while the

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control group (N = 250) attends a standard Sachunterricht seminar. The study aims at differentiating the participants’ beliefs and broaden their pedagogical content knowledge through the thorough examination of geographical content knowledge via key concepts (Fögele, 2016) and target-group-specific pedagogical content knowledge. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) as a sub-area of professional knowledge is acquired primarily in the first phase of teacher training (Hartmann, 2018) whereas beliefs are formed predominantly even before or during the student days (Kuhl et al., 2013). A sensitive phase for developing and changing the two constructs is therefore the university teacher training; longer and practice-related intervention programs are recommended (Kleickmann et al., 2017; Pawelzik, 2017). Especially subjectspecific courses and the targeted teaching of pedagogical content knowledge have positive effects on the changeability of the constructs (Kleickmann et al., 2017). To differentiate beliefs, which are considered difficult to change (Kuhl et al., 2013), and to generate further developments in PCK (Hartmann, 2018; Kleickmann et al., 2017), a long-term intervention design is needed (timeframe of intervention). A quantitative design (methodology) is chosen in order to be able to make standardized statements on beliefs of primary school teachers based on results from already existent qualitative studies (Catling, 2004; Morley, 2012; Öztürk & Alki¸s, 2009; Walford, 1996). A statistically representative larger sample is of particular interest (see Fig. 3.3 for more reasons). Within the three-part quasi-experimental design (timing of data collection), the pre-testing survey serves to determine what PCK and beliefs future primary school teachers have because of previous school experiences or basic seminars at university. The aim of the post-intervention survey is to examine the extent to which aspects of professional action competence have changed because of the intervention. A followup survey four months after the intervention serves to exclude random effects of the sample and establish long-term effects. Hereby, it is important that the time span between the post-survey and the follow-up survey should be approximately the same as that of the intervention. To be able to ascribe effects only to the experimental group, a control group with similar initial conditions and a similar composition is required. The examined scale can be classified as between meso and macro (for reasons see Fig. 3.3). In this study there is a geography-specific theoretically and practically relevant research focus (relevance). The Model of Educational Reconstruction (MER) as well as the inclusion of key concepts proved to be a particularly suitable approach within the framework of the intervention for this purpose (see Fig. 3.3 for more details). Furthermore, the quality of the questionnaire is ensured through different statistical quality criteria and evaluation steps (quality assurance): The objectivity of implementation was ensured by a detailed description of the study procedure and the intervention. The reliability of the questionnaire was checked with item (mean, variance, skewness, kurtosis) and scale analyses (internal consistency, discriminatory power). To validate and operationalize the content of the PCK items, experts (N = 9; professional school experience in total years: 27 years – M = 3.00 years; university experience in years: 54 years – M = 6.75 years) were consulted. Additionally, only those question items were retained that achieved good values in the

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assessment of construction quality (e.g., “this task is well constructed and, in my opinion, measures what should be measured”), curricular validity (e.g., “primary school teachers should be able to do this”) and agreement in the expert rating; those with poor values or no agreement were discarded. Aside from that, evaluation studies and specifically developed small accompanying studies helped to optimize the intervention. Four-time formative evaluations served to advance the intervention and its framework in pilot studies to increase its effectiveness. Summative evaluation was used an additional three times here and in the main study twice (evaluation). Results suggest that change in both PCK and beliefs can be induced deliberately through the intervention and the targeted teaching of key concepts. Research decisions which are highlighted in this chapter certainly helped to structure this study and select appropriate quality criteria.

3.4 Summary and Concluding Remarks The aim of this chapter was to show how researchers can make purposeful research methodical decisions when planning and conducting intervention research projects and in doing so how they can contribute to linking theory and practice in teacher education. Behind this is the overarching goal of honing (future) teachers’ skills which are relevant to practice based on current scientific knowledge. For this purpose, we have clarified important research methodical criteria and how respective decisions can be made and justified. We did that with reference to the research methodical literature and based on an analysis of intervention studies in geography education from German-speaking countries over the last six years (Table 3.1) as well as two current projects in intervention research. Our Empirical Intervention Study Compass for Subject-Specific Education Research reifies this and can serve a dual function. On the one hand, it is intended to be a helpful tool for planning one’s own intervention research projects by directing one’s attention to central criteria for research methodical decisions and establishing practical relevance. On the other hand, it should make it possible to present research projects and the research methodical rationale behind them in a concise and clear manner. This can result in a profitable transparency of central research methodical decisions. Such transparency can in turn increase intersubjective comprehensibility in empirical research. As can be seen in the Compass (Figs. 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3), the specific design of an intervention depends on the research question and the associated fundamental decisions regarding target group and target trait. Further fundamental considerations relate to the clarification of the subject-specific, interdisciplinary, and practical relevance of the research project. During the specification of the design, researchmethodological decisions (in the spectrum of qualitative and quantitative as well as mixed-methods approaches) play an important role, as do research-methodical decisions (regarding timeframe of intervention, timing of data collection, evaluation,

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scale). Quality assurance measures should also be made explicit and included from the outset. Regarding strengthening the link between theory and practice in the context of intervention research, a variety of possibilities prove to be purposeful. For example, students can develop their own curriculum-relevant teaching concepts with reference to theory, test them in practice, and evaluate their experiences in a video-based manner. Students can also ascertain learning requirements of pupils via inquiry-based learning and develop suitable practical concepts thereafter. With such interventions, we believe that scientific and practical approaches can pull together to not only make teacher education more motivating but also to increase the practical relevance of scientific activities. Our hope is that such intervention research can contribute substantially to teachers becoming reflective practitioners (Byrne & McRobbie, 1993; Herzog, 1995) who benefit from their abilities to link theory and practice in their everyday professional lives. Acknowledgements The presented example studies are integrated in the Augsburg project “LeHet”. This project is part of the “Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung”, a joint initiative of the Federal Government and the Länder which aims to improve the quality of teacher training. The program is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research.

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Streitberger, S., & Ohl, U. (2020). Videobasierte Förderung der unterrichtsbezogenen Analysekompetenz. Problemaufriss, Forschungsansatz und erste Ergebnisse einer empirischen Studie mit angehenden Geographielehrkräften [Video-based promotion of classroom-based analytical competence: Problem outline, research approach and initial results of an empirical study with trainee geography teachers]. In M. Hemmer, A.-K. Lindau, C. Peter, M. Rawohl, & G. Schrüfer (Eds.), Lehrerprofessionalität und Lehrerbildung im Fach Geographie im Fokus von Theorie, Empirie und Praxis [“It’s the geography teacher who counts!?”—Teacher professionalism and teacher education in the focus of theory, empiricism and practice] (pp. 137–148). readbox unipress. Streitberger, S., & Ohl, U. (2021). Geographieunterricht planen, durchführen und analysieren [Planning, teaching and analysing geography lessons]. UTB: In print. Streitberger, S., Haltenberger, M., & Ohl, U. (2021). Empirical intervention study compass for subject-specific education research. URN: https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bvb:384-opus4861866. Accessed 29 Apr 2021. Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296. Taras, M. (2005). Assessment. Summative and formative: Some theoretical reflections. British Journal of Educational Studies, 53(4), 466–478. Tashakkori, A., & Creswell, J. W. (2007). Editorial: The new era of mixed methods. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/2345678906293042 Theyßen, H. (2014). Methodik von Vergleichsstudien zur Wirkung von Unterrichtsmedien [Methodology of comparative studies on the impact of educational media]. In D. Krüger, I. Parchmann, & H. Schecker (Eds.), Methoden in der naturwissenschaftsdidaktischen Forschung [Methods in science didactics research] (pp. 67–79). Springer Spektrum. Thiersch, S. (2020). Qualitative Längsschnittforschung. Eine Einleitung [Qualitative longitudinal research: An introduction]. In S. Thiersch (Ed.), Qualitative Längsschnittforschung. Bestimmungen, Forschungspraxis und Reflexionen [Qualitative longitudinal research: Definitions, research practice and reflections] (pp. 9–27). Budrich. Vogt, M., & Scholz, J. (2020). Entwicklung und Struktur der Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung in Deutschland [Development and structure of teacher education in Germany]. In C. Cramer, J. König, M. Rothland, & S. Blömeke (Eds.), Handbuch Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung [Handbook on teacher education] (pp. 217–226). Klinkhardt. von Roux, Y. (2020). GIS-Tools im Geographieunterricht. Entwicklung und Evaluation von GISBildungsangeboten für Studierende und Geographielehrkräfte [GIS tools in geography teaching: Development and evaluation of GIS educational offers for students and geography teachers]. In M. Hemmer, A.-K. Lindau, C. Peter, & G. Schrüfer (Eds.), „Auf den/die Geographielehrer/in kommt es an!?“ – Lehrerprofessionalität und Lehrerbildung im Fokus von Theorie, Empirie und Praxis [“It’s the geography teacher who counts!?”—Teacher professionalism and teacher education in the focus of theory, empiricism and practice] (pp. 207–222). readbox unipress. Walford, R. (1996). ‘What is geography?” An analysis of definitions provided by prospective teachers of the subject. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 5, 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.1996.9964991 Wilhelm, T., & Hopf, M. (2014). Design-Forschung [Design research]. In D. Krüger, I. Parchmann, & H. Schecker (Eds.), Methoden in der naturwissenschaftsdidaktischen Forschung [Methods in science didactics research] (pp. 31–42). Springer Spektrum. Witzel, A. (2020). Qualitative Längsschnittstudien [Qualitative longitudinal studies]. In G. Mey, & K. Mruck (Eds.), Handbuch Qualitative Forschung in der Psychologie [Handbook on qualitative research in psychology] (pp. 59–77). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-26887-9_27 Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative research from start to finish. The Guilford Press. Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W.-Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. L. (2007). Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest.

Chapter 4

Tough, But Worth the Effort: Collaboration for Professional Development Strengthens Geography Education Rebecca Theobald

4.1 Introduction From academic endeavors to business investments, today’s interdisciplinary and interdependent world requires collaboration. Professional development providers in geography education are expected to support content and skills in social studies, science, and technology; to encourage networks of educators and communities of practice (Rhoten, 2003); and to work effectively within institutional, cultural, and reward structures that reflect sometimes contradictory characteristics (Christenson et al., 2001). Geographers are no strangers to collaboration. A symposium in the Journal of Geography in Higher Education explored international collaboration efforts and considered innovations in teaching and learning, with particular attention to whether subject matter and location play a role in collaborative success (Higgitt et al., 2008, p. 122). Most notable collaborations occur when “something in the interaction leads to a unique outcome that was unavailable without interaction” (Sears & Reagin, 2013, p. 1154) or a paper is published that otherwise would not have been (Hackett, 2005). However, fruitful collaborations may not generate breakthroughs or address long-standing problems, but simply enable better teaching, wider use of resources, and increased self-confidence in discussing geographic approaches to the world. Yet opportunities to learn from and with others do not happen without careful planning and significant effort. In some instances, collaboration, sharing, and dissemination is discouraged due to proprietary relationships (Evans, 2010). Collaboration R. Theobald (B) Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, USA e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_4

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is “unabatedly demanding” (Defilia & Di Giulio, 2018, p. 101) and requires time to negotiate “differences in orientations, perspectives, or goals” (Christenson et al., 2001, p. 6). Within effective collaborations “each participant contributes something significant and different, devises something of personal and/or organizational benefit, and acknowledges the mutual dependence on the other required to achieve the mutually desired results” (Freeman, 1993, p. 33). Individual participants must envision both the whole project and specific roles. Increasingly, collaboration in educational professional development is manifest in interdisciplinarity endeavors and multi-organization activities, requiring cooperation from individual teachers, administrators, and professional development providers, such as local or state educational authorities, nonprofit organizations, for-profit enterprises, or some combination. Pre-service and in-service teachers desire to maintain certification and acquire knowledge and experiences. Entities have evolved to serve these educators, with different rationales, resources, and reach, competing for limited time and attention. Collaborative activities might be undertaken to improve or increase options, such as “development of intercultural competence” (Cardetti et al., 2015, p. 5). Yet, the essential question of whether K-12 students demonstrate improved geography education learning outcomes following their teachers’ participation in collaborative professional development designed to strengthen their knowledge and skills often remains unanswered due to limited funding and compressed timeframes (GENIP, 2021). With some exceptions, such as the “Teaching American History” grant program (U.S. Department of Education, 2018), professional development collaborations in the social sciences often lack rigorous research frameworks to allow comparison of students’ achievements through control groups or before and after teacher professional development, as the emphasis is on delivery of material. Under four percent of prestigious grants between 2002 and 2021 from the Institute of Education Sciences (U.S. Department of Education, 2021) contain titles or key words related to geography or geospatial concepts. A Road Map for 21st Century Geography Education suggested substantive recommendations for research, instructional materials, assessment, and professional development: “Research questions should be connected, focused, and should build upon the findings of previous studies within geography education and related areas of study … For research and largescale change to occur, funding is required to support programs seeking to advance this agenda” (Schell et al., 2013, p. 9). Much of geography education research related to pre-service or in-service teacher learning remains at a relatively small scale, examining students in one classroom or school. This chapter elaborates on the process of coordination among professional development providers, while noting that robust pre- and post-assessment, while desirable, may be beyond the scope of most collaborations born from professional development. Vignettes from one Colorado (USA) institution offer a window into approaches to achieving more together. Specifically, the analysis of the motivations and mechanics of selected collaborative activities illustrates that the main impetus for collaborating is “participants’ thinking that they have more to gain than lose by collaboration and an ongoing flow of communication among colleagues” (Bronstein, 2003, p. 300), addressing the rationale for the partnership, who was involved, what occurred, and

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relevant outcomes. The origin story may have little to do with the end product. “Typically, the university participant received a grant and defined the project. Teachers were invited to join and had little initial ownership. … In contrast, other projects began with teachers who were looking for professors … where a particular expertise was needed. Other teachers were looking for student teachers …” (Christenson et al., 2001, p. 7). Along with one-time programs, collaborations to support practitioner communities and networks offer insight into connections formed with other stakeholders. To explore characteristics and outcomes of collaboration, I draw upon reports of activities from ten years of professional development activity through the Colorado Geographic Alliance, along with outside evaluations and teacher survey responses. While collaboration extends beyond practitioners and apprentices to include a variety of individuals, such as citizen scientists (Trojan et al., 2019), this review focuses on work undertaken among organizations. The ultimate objective—did the participant become a better teacher?—cannot be answered from current data, other than to assume that a well-prepared and engaged teacher leads students to improved learning and retention. Although this review includes only one institution, the activities reflect a range of engagement and types of educational projects.

4.2 Perspectives on Collaboration Teaching is inherently interdisciplinary; in addition to being content experts, instructors must engage with pedagogical approaches, administrative issues, and interpersonal concerns. When constructing programs, professional development providers involve multiple experts, strengthened by structures that facilitate and reward collaborative endeavors. Discussing social studies collaboration, Christenson et al. note that the discipline “has always needed to accommodate and use different perspectives as part of its day-to-day practice” (2001, p. 6). Fox and Faver suggest “… separation of tasks and the joining of specializations may enable collaborators to increase their efficiency and enhance the overall quality of their work” (1984, p. 349). Addressing programmatic strengths and weaknesses collaboratively enables stronger support for geography educators. While the “who” of collaboration often centers on institutions, partnerships were constructed and must be maintained through individual relationships. “Characteristics of interdependence include formal and informal time spent together, oral and written communication among professional colleagues, and respect for colleagues’ professional opinions and input” (Bronstein, 2003, p. 299). Consequently, “there needs to be a strong element of self-interest and enthusiasm among the participants” (Higgitt et al., 2008, p. 127) and a “demonstrated dedication to the project” (Butti, 2016, p. 14). Motivations for collaboration might include collegiality and companionship unavailable in one’s home organization or establishing commitments and obligations to others. Examining Finnish pre-service teachers’ inclination to collaborate, Häkkinen et al. observed “Negotiation disposition can be seen as a central

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element of teamwork, in which individuals need to negotiate, take others’ perspectives into account and adjust their actions” (2020, p. 74). Some collaborations are more precise than others in describing tasks and responsibilities (Fox & Faver, 1984, p. 350). Roles and social networks evolve. Who is calling the meetings, creating the content, and organizing the practical aspects of a collaboration? Dania and Griffen (2021) determined that prior interaction and digital social network tools contributed to teachers feeling well-connected and prepared to interact in a virtual space, complementing what others are doing. Investing in long-term relationships at institutional and personal scales results in productive collaborations over the long term, just as having someone introduced as a reliable partner to a new member of the team may stimulate development of subsequent projects. The structure of the collaboration, as much as the viability of the initial concept, has significant impact on whether the collaboration achieves its goals. While Dillenbourg describes collaboration as a “social contract” (1999, p. 5), partners often focus on practical details of how to manage and replicate projects; “… each professional must take responsibility for his or her part in success and failure and support constructive disagreement and deliberation” (Bronstein, 2003, p. 301). Kalir (2020) focuses on situating collaborative learning and constructing knowledge through open education practices. Given increasing challenges of providing cost-effective, accessible professional development beyond online platforms, collaboration evolves out of desire to provide inspiring experiences and necessity to attract audiences. Formats have changed with new technology, and the expectations of both teachers and school districts require revised approaches to professional development. Of no small interest to geographers, context, site, and situation are key to whether the collaboration will be successful (Hackett, 2005; Häkkinen et al., 2020). How activities take place, whether in person or online, the planning, execution, and practice leading up to an activity colors the connection each member of the team has with the project. Where people are gathering and who is hosting or framing the meeting affect the outcome. Single site collaborations supply insights into professional learning communities, school climate, and leadership roles (Liu & Watson, 2020). Yet even with competent ingredients, collaborations do not always meet intended objectives. A participant in St. Clair et al.’s science professional development study found “distance was a mediating role in that [while] she stayed in touch with other colleagues from her home institution more easily than colleagues at other institutions” (2020, p. 14). The prevalence of online communication may affect how people feel connected and whether they reach out. Sometimes mundane issues prevent successful collaborations, such as incompatible academic calendars (Higgitt et al., 2008) or lack of time to complete assigned tasks (Butti, 2016). Previous concerns about funding for copying, mail, and telephone have faded, but there remain costs for technical assistance, travel, and time required for negotiating and exchange (Fox & Faver, 1984). Communities lacking computer technology or broadband make associations more difficult to create and maintain over time, with projects perceived less as collaboration and more as an imposition. Partnerships need to work toward symmetry and empowerment of all participants, recognizing that opportunities for collaboration are often unequal and

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prone to marginalization for those without social capital, institutional connections, multiple disciplinary languages, or recognition of stakeholders’ political agendas (Gorman, 2002; Higgitt et al., 2008). Skilled collaborators address the end result, potential roadblocks, and the means to arrive at the destination. Most collaborations are too focused on tasks at hand to assess the unfolding partnership, succession planning, or sustainable funding sources, although such analysis is extremely insightful. Educators consistently report valuing collaboration (St. Clair et al., 2020) and cite classroom-ready lessons, professional knowledge, accessible tools, and new materials as the most useful outcomes of short-term professional development activities, while longer-term opportunities give participants time to plan, develop lessons, collaborate with colleagues, and test materials in the classroom. Assessing intended outcomes as well as process and content may be captured in part by instituting control groups (Higgitt et al., 2008) or triangulating data from students, instructors, and post-graduate employers (Morgan et al., 2020). An interdisciplinary sustainability investigation benefited from a researcher accompanying the team and analyzing their collaborative experiences for the duration of the project (Freeth & Caniglia, 2019; Freeth & Vilsmaier, 2020). Few entities could afford such extensive analysis, but much can be learned from close examination of how people interact. Educational collaborations may focus on disciplinary assessments and standards, public outreach, or new approaches to learning. Working with others leads to assessment of trust and understanding within a relationship, informing future partnerships.

4.3 Examples from Colorado The discussion thus far frames advantages and costs of academic collaboration in terms of origin, personnel, structure, and outcome. The following section illustrates these characteristics through collaborations organized by the Colorado Geographic Alliance (COGA), a program sponsored by National Geographic1 hosted at the University of Colorado Colorado Springs from 2008 through 2018. Reviews of collaboration in professional development, teacher training, policy advocacy, and public engagement illustrate varied aspects of working with others. Selected quotes are from participant surveys describing individual perspectives.

1

For thirty years, the Colorado Geographic Alliance, part of the Network of Alliances for Geographic Education funded by state entities and the National Geographic Education Foundation, supported professional development for teachers across Colorado, addressed educational policy concerns, and supported public engagement with geographic concepts and skills. For a review of its history, visit this story map: https://coga1.maps.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=4cf 70b45a43845e9bae68a253a83e0e8.

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Table 4.1 Responses from eighty participants in professional development workshops, Integrating the Social Studies across Colorado History, 2014–2016 Were you engaged throughout the workshop? All of the Time

Most of the Time

Some of the Time

Not at All

47.5%

48.8%

3.8%

0.0%

I feel better prepared to teach the grade level expectations for each of the social studies subjects after participating in this workshop. Strongly Agree

Agree

Neutral

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

55.0%

41.3%

1.3%

2.5%

0.0%

In 2008, the COGA staff2 undertook to support geography education in Colorado with a strong brand (National Geographic), expectation of steady funding, and uncertainty in the economic and educational landscape in Colorado. The professional development model combined practitioners and experts—often from higher education institutions—with educators trained to guide classroom teachers in translating information into lessons and activities. We called on experts in political science, water resources, art, climate change, fire ecology, and geospatial technology to share knowledge during teacher trainings, engaging master teachers to complement experts’ presentations. Challenges involved identification and management of experts; advertising and producing the event; and leveraging the activity for future projects. Key to the success of programs is quality; participants must be focused on the topic to learn. Survey results from four social studies workshops for 80 elementary teachers reveal most participants were engaged and agreed that the workshop prepared them to teach the subject matter (Table 4.1). Often workshops were linked to events (presidential election, decennial census), physical features (ecosystems, watersheds), and places of interest (art exhibits, historical sites). Post-activity surveys indicated that teachers appreciate being outdoors, engaging with materials to use immediately with students, and gaining additional knowledge (Table 4.2). While more complicated to produce, the most popular programs included interactive and exploratory components because they were most memorable for participants. One-time events created advocates for future workshops and ongoing connections with individuals in different organizations across the state. Collaborative workshops centered on content organization and follow-up with teachers to share their lessons. Favorable disposition to collaboration and willingness to take responsibility for teamwork (Häkkinen et al., 2020) establishes foundations for fruitful outcomes. COGA’s long-standing and productive partnership with Esri, Inc., a supplier of geographic information systems (GIS) technology software, grew out of the company’s desire to reach elementary and secondary educators. Responding to interest from teachers, COGA organized introductory and intermediate workshops

2

Colorado Geographic Alliance staff primarily consisted of part-time work by two faculty members in the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies at the University of Colorado Colorado Springs, supplemented by graduate and undergraduate students in administrative roles.

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Table 4.2 Selected responses from participants in the “Teaching Geography using Primary Sources” institute regarding one activity during a three-day workshop (Mohan, 2014) Please make comments about the Field Experience here: I enjoyed this very much. I liked looking at something with a new lens Totally connected to the purpose of what we were learning. The experience of it, is what the teachers really need to be a part of, and it will encourage them I really liked the experience. I’ve been trying to figure out a way to create a field experience and this helped me think about my options I really appreciate the opportunity to be a “geographer”. Getting out, exploring, and making observations is hugely valuable LOVED this experience! Valuable tool/activity More clarity in the goal of the experience. Why did we do it? Keep that at the forefront I had actually done this before, and it helped me to realize that field experience is doable without a large field trip budget. We could do a similar activity in our neighborhood. I wish we had more time!

over several years with geospatial technology as an entry point to STEM and geography studies. Esri education staff supplied software, introduced geospatial technology concepts and tools, and shared interactive classroom lessons. Each partner contributed something the other lacked. Esri donated expertise and materials, (and initially proprietary software installation until online GIS became more accessible); local schools guaranteed the audience and location, demonstrating to teachers that GIS could be used on school computers; and COGA offered connections, funding, organization, and educational rationale linking teachers and technology. A study of professional development for science teachers (St. Clair et al., 2020) emphasized that activities should be designed to bring science and education faculty together, with participating teachers comprising a professional learning community. Over several years, COGA identified funders interested in STEM education, encouraged teams of teachers at schools to support each other in the face of technological hurdles, and updated GIS educational resources. Although individual instructors in Colorado had previous opportunities to explore ways to create computer-generated maps integrated with layers of data, they often found themselves isolated and unable to connect with other educators to strengthen their students’ understanding of this technology. COGA workshops introducing geospatial technology provided examples of how to use GIS in the classroom as a supporting tool for existing lessons, drawing on a lead teacher in each school to serve as a point of contact for the technology coordinator and for other teachers. After completing the workshop, participants had a sense of responsibility for developing ways to share the technology with their students and a group of colleagues with whom they could compare experiences. In one district, participants considered using one of five teacher workdays available to create a series of lessons linked to mapping skills and content. Other districts focused on incorporating geospatial technology into Advanced Placement Human Geography courses or identifying ways for students at all grade levels to use geospatial technology in creating a portfolio.

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However, there were still concerns about practical aspects. One participant observed, “I love using the technology with students. I wish I could use it more. Once I am comfortable with it, it makes it easier to use with the kids, of course. We still have some barriers with access to computers/technology.” While COGA endeavored to create multi-faceted approaches to using GIS technology across the state of Colorado, including in conjunction with giant floor maps,3 the combination of educator interest and provider resources took root in only a few instances, often due to demands on teachers’ time and lack of confidence with technology. The majority of participants were already inclined toward using technologies in their classrooms. When asked to describe how they use technology beyond basic word processing and spreadsheet programs, participants acknowledged the needs of their students going forward: “It is important to use more advanced technology in the classroom because students are growing up in a technological world. They need to know more than just the basic computer skills because our society is beginning to use more advanced technology in the workplace and students need to be prepared.” Several respondents were wary of using technology for technology’s sake: “I love using technology when it transforms the learning experience for students. It is great when it adds value, not just novelty.” Another respondent indicated, “Anytime technology can push my kids with more rigor in content and use of technology, I love to incorporate it. I tend to back off of expensive programs that are difficult to implement in a classroom setting.” Teachers are working to assess what is most effective to bring into their classrooms, recognizing that there are no easy fixes for addressing approaches to learning: “The aspect that makes me uncomfortable is the unpredictability of technology mixed with kids and their ability to check out quickly.” Respondents were also willing to express their skepticism about using computer-based instruction: “I teach geography, so it is a natural marriage, but I am not comfortable with it [GIS] on my own and the training I have had have [sic] not been sufficient to convince me it is worth my time to put together. I am happy to have my mind changed…” For students to be prepared, teachers in classrooms need to be familiar and comfortable with these tools so that future geographers may use them productively. This collaboration confirmed what other studies (Collins & Mitchell, 2019; Höhnle et al., 2016) have demonstrated, that even with multi-year follow-up components and accessible GIS platforms, sharing resources and practicing technology will not move GIS into all classrooms until educational requirements or community demands for deeper understanding and skills lead to that change. Many collaborations, even long-standing ones, rely on informal agreements and individual trust among personnel. “Collaborative ventures are frequently stressful because the relationships are informal, the responsibilities unspecified, and the commitments uncertain” (Fox & Faver, 1984, p. 353). Formal agreements delimit the project and define roles and obligations. Responding to imbalances of resources and experiences while addressing National Geographic’s expectations during a 3

Information about the work COGA undertook with the Giant Map of Colorado is detailed in The Geography Teacher (Theobald, 2021). While the staff worked with schools to find a place to host a giant map, visits of the Giant Map to schools were most often not a true collaboration.

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period of budget contraction, geographic alliance coordinators from Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah conceived a 2011 Four Corners summer institute. Staff constructed the program content, chose applicants, executed the program, and conducted follow-up activities in their home states to share lessons. This residential training experience increased participants’ geographical knowledge, field experience, and instructional prowess while examining facets of human-environmental interactions in the Four Corners area. Field trips and field-based pedagogical experiences received high ratings from participants, demonstrating that connecting geography with the classroom can revitalize and inspire teachers. Logistics are always challenging; the planning process was initially completed in person, which helped greatly in moving details forward. Regular communication both through conference calls and email ensured that concerns were addressed prior to the event, such as balancing organized activities and free time. With multiple destinations, clear directions, planning, and communication among vehicles and drivers was essential. All individuals who volunteered to take on specific tasks carried them out and the responsibilities of instruction and implementation were well distributed. A subsequent version of the institute was hosted by one of the four partners. The connections developed among the organizers led to additional projects, including a workshop on teaching geography using primary sources, creation of state lessons related to National Geographic’s giant state maps, introduction of geography educational resources related to redistricting, and informal connections among educators facilitating conversation about technology, materials, and pedagogy. In 2014, National Geographic offered “collaborative grants” requiring three or more alliances to work together. Rhoten found “average age of researcher relations is more significant than the overall age of a center in determining the rate at which researchers engage in knowledge creating versus information sharing activities” (2003, p. 45). The strength and longevity of connections among alliance coordinators reflected this observation, enhancing successful collaboration across states. Responding to the call for proposals, this partnership engaged coordinators in Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, and Oregon; facilitators from the Library of Congress’ Teaching with Primary Sources (TPS) Western Region; teacher participants; and educational institutions. A design approach tested activities and laid groundwork for developing subsequent local workshops and state-based model lessons using primary sources to teach geography at any grade level. Participants traveled to multiple locations for planning and execution. An outside evaluator contributed an independent review, offering direction for improving the state-based workshops and future collaborations (Fig. 4.1). One intended outcome was for teachers to establish independent relationships with the Library of Congress’ TPS office and apply for grants for their schools, but that did not occur at a large scale, indicating that expectations for future action by participants need to be not only clear, but accountable. Several primary source analysis tools continue to be available on the Arizona Geographic Alliance (2021) website. Sometimes collaboration takes shape because the right people are in the same space. Over several years, the Colorado social studies community—primarily large district social studies coordinators and professional development providers—met

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Fig. 4.1 Final Recommendations for Teaching Geography using Primary Sources Design Workshop (Mohan, 2014, p. 47)

several times a year to talk about opportunities, concerns, and disciplinary developments. As state academic standards were revised in 2009, discussion about adding a social studies assessment to the testing rotation evolved. Recognizing that “what gets tested gets taught”, professional development organizations determined that it was important to advocate to the state school board to have social studies assessed one year each in elementary, middle, and high school. Social studies advocates brought different resources and different beliefs about standardized testing to the conversation. One group had connections with a professional lobbyist who could provide information on timing and content of legislation, others had links to the business and legal communities who offered testimonials about the importance of a welleducated population, and another leveraged its organizational mandate to support policy issues to coordinate meetings, craft materials, and disseminate messages. The project required and created substantial trust among the participants. With significant modifications to the initial plan, a social studies assessment was approved and implemented in the State of Colorado. With the new fourth grade Social Studies Standards and Summative Social Studies Assessment on the horizon, four statewide professional development providers (COGA, Colorado Council for Economic Education, History Colorado, and Center

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For Education In Law & Democracy) responded by creating a one-day professional development workshop designed to enhance skills in teaching core concepts and tools from history, geography, economics, and civics, entitled “Integrating the Social Studies Across Colorado History”. Subject-area experts guided teachers in understanding how each discipline views the world and, more specifically, Colorado. Presentations blended content and pedagogy and provided resources to take back to the classroom (Fig. 4.2). Over several years, multiple versions of this workshop were conducted. Each organization was able to contribute both to content as well as to support logistics and to provide resources required to produce the events. Freeth and Caniglia emphasize the need to balance familiarity and comfort with growth and exploration, which they describe as a learning zone “characterized by a manageable degree of discomfort, which can be used to motivate researchers to engage with the challenges they are facing” (2019, p. 251). Connecting with others limited complacency when conducting repeat events in different sites across the state and inspired a similar framework for teaching world geography and history through the lens of the Silk Road. With changes in personnel and organizational focus, as well as less panic on the part of fourth-grade teachers regarding the state social studies standards, this collaboration has evolved, leading to organizations creating elementary primary source resource materials hosted on the Colorado Department of Education website. Previous examples represent COGA’s responses to identified needs in the educational community. In 2013, two educators proposed engaging the public and K-12 teachers in better understanding the scope and depth of geography through a series of gatherings in which professional geographers presented lectures, followed by informal discussion. To attract an audience, the event would be hosted at the new Fort Collins Museum of Discovery. Geographers delivered presentations with connections to Colorado’s geography content standards, relevant and applicable for teachers, but also engaging and pertinent for the general public. The geographers consulted with the master teacher guiding the discussion to highlight relevant materials. COGA publicized the series and provided funding for hospitality and worked with the museum to make the event free, the organizers recruited presenters and master teachers and worked with the venue on logistics, while the museum provided facilities and reduced ticket prices. Attendance varied, depending on the presenter, weather, and previous number of visits to the facility. This collaboration exemplifies use of a particular location as a means to bring people together, as well as the recognition that not every good idea originates with professional development organization staff. The program was replicated in two other cities, but dwindling attendance and a local dearth of organizers curtailed the project, demonstrating the importance of personal connections for collaboration success. While the “Night with a Geographer” was a good idea and met objectives for public engagement with the institutions involved, sometimes the lesson of a collaboration is that it cannot be sustained, and it is appropriate to end the work gracefully to maintain cordial relationships. While many geography professional development collaborations relied on location to entice participants, the BioBlitz was synonymous with the space in which a series of outdoor activities was framed around ecosystems. This collaboration was developed at the behest of National Geographic, which sought to replicate

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the BioBlitz partnership implemented in national parks across the United States. COGA identified a local ecological stewardship organization, Catamount Center, to host the project. COGA and the center’s staff provided a crash course for teachers in ecosystems describing common local birds, mammals, insects, and plants using games, books, and professional scientific tools. In addition to the teacher workshop, the Center hosted public BioBlitz activities. COGA managed the relationship with the Center, structured and marketed professional development activities, recruited teachers and students from a local school, organized multiple presenters and volunteers to welcome the public, publicized the event through local media, and tracked the number of visitors. While aspects of the project required collaboration, such as coordinating the content for the workshop, much of the work could be considered event planning. One objective of the BioBlitz workshop was to encourage teachers to conduct similar events at their schools, which COGA supported by providing teachers across the state with kits to use in schools. Introducing the concept of the BioBlitz with geography educators in Colorado seeded the conversation for similar efforts within the science and environmental education communities. This collaboration was constructed to fit specific requirements from a funder and was not repeated. In 2017, a professional development workshop at a local museum reinforced the importance of planning and setting expectations when seeking collaboration. Several months prior to the event, an on-site discussion between the partners was held to consider goals, resources, and actions required to meet those goals. The Colorado Springs Pioneers Museum hoped to introduce educators to its exhibits and bring students through the doors. The space and the exhibits framed the content of the workshop, with experts offering ways to connect the materials to geography content and skills and the participants—teachers from across the Pikes Peak region— charged with developing lesson plans to support content in “The Story of Us” (2021). These lessons were designed to guide teachers in exploring online components of the exhibit, incorporated mapping exercises, and contained annotated resource sets. According to participants, the collaboration succeeded in providing a coherent and diverse program that supported them with new approaches (Table 4.3); their lesson plans continue to be available online. These types of workshops provided COGA with a window into the classroom and offered entry points for teachers to reach out to geographers for resource recommendations and ideas for professional development. Not every connection made in a workshop leads to a formal collaboration, nevertheless participants rely on such networks to test new lessons and presentation techniques as well as to improve morale and renew enthusiasm for the profession.

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Table 4.3 Responses to Selected Open-Ended Questions asked at the Completion of the Colorado Springs Pioneers Museum Workshop, June 2017 What methodology or approaches that you feel will be helpful in your classroom did you learn at this workshop? I now know where to access maps and resources. I would like to do a P.D. at my school about all the places and people we have to help us teach geography! I was drawn to the methods of layering not only maps, but layering photographs and written text and other artifacts to tell a story. It was inspirational and I will endeavor to keep it in my mind when planning future lessons (Not just in preparation for a field trip.) What were the strengths of this workshop? The level of expertise of the presenters was a great strength of this workshop. I also felt that having a variety of teachers across grade levels (And some curricular levels) was something to celebrate! How could this workshop be improved? A little bit more direction in what was the desired outcomes Maybe provide some “read aheads” that would start collaboration earlier? Establish a shared drive where attendees could begin to share ideas before the workshop? What would you like the Colorado Springs Pioneers Museum to know following this workshop? Teacher outreach is a great way of getting other teachers to use the museum as a classroom resource This was a great workshop - very enjoyable! It’s difficult to find workshops with content specific to Social Studies

4.4 Conclusion Grant guidelines from the National Geographic Education Foundation encouraged the development of interdisciplinary partnerships and networks within a state, sometimes leading to convenient connections while other times establishing significant collaborations. Lacking a “geography museum”, unlimited funds, and the ability to compel teachers to attend its programs, COGA partnered with others, often leveraging National Geographic’s brand and staff time. Gorman (2002) posits a continuum from tightly-managed elite expertise to contributory relationships when participants collaborate closely in common pursuit of a goal, and COGA’s work was firmly in the realm of collaboration. Engagement with teachers, academics, experts, and policymakers produced lessons, laid groundwork for subsequent activities in different locations across the state, propelled educators to new levels of learning, and connected teachers with national leadership and training opportunities. Some projects were only possible when working with others. The connection between collaboration and creativity in geography professional development is exemplified through these projects. No workshop participants ever said that they wished one expert had presented for a whole day. What is clear from the relative success of partnerships and collaborations is that planning and practice do improve the process, and multiple moving parts require flexibility on the part of

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everyone involved. Participants must be self-motivated and willing to complete the tasks to which they have agreed, as there are no sticks, and very few carrots, to turn a failing collaboration into a successful one. Organizations relying on teachers to implement ideas, even those that are well-structured, will have less success because even with funding teachers are overwhelmed with obligations. Professional development groups offering infrastructure and organizational support as well as content and contacts are generally appreciated. This review of people, frameworks, and objectives of academic collaborations from a variety of disciplines underscores both advantages and pitfalls of working with others to support geography professional development. Follow-up, both immediate and long term, is important for connections and for assessment. Specifically, for cooperating organizations with complementary objectives, the benefits and connections resulting from collaboration include opportunities to extend the reach of resources and avoid duplication of efforts, create structures for exploring new ideas, establish accountability for completing tasks, and configure conversations for creativity. The potential benefits of collaboration for professional development, however, must be weighed against possible costs. These include increased time for planning and coordination, willingness to share constituent contact information, availability to connect online or in-person, agreement on sharing credit for accomplishments and accepting blame for errors, and potential interruptions to the project. Results of collaboration can serve as lessons, excellent one-time opportunities, models for future activities, or foundations for future partnerships. Beyond advantages and disadvantages of collaboration to professional development organizations, however, the ultimate effect of partnering with other groups and individuals may be the benefits that accrue to participants who leave inspired and invigorated to teach another day. Acknowledgements The author thanks the National Geographic Education Foundation for funding given to the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies at the University of Colorado Colorado Springs for supporting these opportunities to collaborate.

References Arizona Geographic Alliance. (2021, April 28). Interpreting primary sources with a geographic lens. Arizona State University. https://geoalliance.asu.edu/geolens Bronstein, L. R. (2003). A model for interdisciplinary collaboration. Social Work, 48(3), 297–306. Butti, L. (2016). Professional relationships: Collaboration is key. English Journal, 105(3), 12–15. Cardetti, F., Wagner, M., Bryam, M. (2015). Interdisciplinary collaboration to develop intercultural competencies by integrating math, languages, and social studies. NERA Conference Proceedings 2015. 7. https://oencommons.uconn.edu/nera-2015-7 Christenson, M., Johnston, M., Norris, J. (2001). Teaching together: school/university collaboration to improve social studies education. National Council for the Social Studies Bulletin 98. National Council for the Social Studies. ISBN 0–87986–088-X. Collins, L., & Mitchell, J. T. (2019). Teacher training in GIS: What is needed for long-term success? International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 28(2), 118–135.

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Dania, A., & Griffen, L. L. (2021). Using social network theory to explore a participatory action research collaboration through social media. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 13(1), 41–58. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/2159676X.2020.1836506. Defilia, R., & Di Giulio, A. (2018). What is it good for? Reflecting and systematizing accompanying research to research programs. Gaia, 2(1), 97–104. Dillenbourg, P. (1999). What do you mean by collaborative learning? In P. Dillenbourg (Ed.), Collaborative-learning: Cognitive and computational approaches (pp. 1–19). Elsevier. Evans, J. A. (2010). Industry collaboration, scientific sharing, and the dissemination of knowledge. Social Studies of Science., 40(5), 767–791. Fox, M. F., & Faver, C. A. (1984). Independence and cooperation in research: The motivations and costs of collaboration. Journal of Higher Education, 55(3), 347–359. Freeman, R. E. (1993). Collaboration, global perspectives, and teacher education. Theory into Practice., 32(1), 33–39. Freeth, R., & Caniglia, G. (2019). Learning to collaborate while collaborating: Advancing interdisciplinary sustainability research. Sustainability Science., 15, 247–261. Freeth, R., & Vilsmaier, U. (2020). Researching collaborative interdisciplinary teams: Practices and principles for navigating researcher positionality. Science & Technology Studies, 33(3), 57–72. GENIP. (2021, April 28). Education policy. Geography education national implementation project. Consortium of Geographic Associations. https://www.genip.us/ Gorman, M. E. (2002). Levels of expertise and trading zones: A framework for multidisciplinary collaboration. Social Studies of Science, 35(5–6), 933–938. Hackett, E. J. (2005). Introduction: Special guest-edited issue on scientific collaboration. Social Studies of Science, 35(5), 667–671. Häkkinen, P., Virtanen, T., Virtanen, A., Näykki, P., Pöysä-Tarhonen, J., Niilo-Rämä, M., & Järvelä, S. (2020). Finnish pre-service teachers’ perceptions of their strategic learning skills and collaboration dispositions. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(1), 71–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02607476.2019.1708628 Higgitt, D., Donert, K., Healey, M., Klein, P., Solem, M., & Vajozki, S. (2008). Developing and enhancing international collaborative learning. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32(1), 121–133. Höhnle, S., Fögele, J., Mehren, R., & Schubert, J. C. (2016). GIS Teacher Training: EmpiricallyBased Indicators of Effectiveness. Journal of Geography, 115(1), 12–23. Kalir, J. H. (2020). Social annotation enabling collaboration for open learning. Distance Education, 41(2), 245–260. Liu, Y. & Watson, S. (2020). Whose leadership role is more substantial for teacher professional collaboration, job satisfaction and organizational commitment: A lens of distributed leadership. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 1–29. Mohan, A. (2014). Teaching geography using primary sources: Evaluation report. BSCS: Colorado Springs, CO. Morgan, B. J., Rodriquez, A. D., Jones, I., Telese, J., & Musanti, S. (2020). Collaboration of researchers and stakeholders: Transforming educator preparation. Journal of Curriculum and Teaching, 9(3), 182–189. Rhoten, D. (2003, September 29). A multi-method analysis of the social and technical conditions for interdisciplinary collaboration. The Hybrid Vigor Institute. National Science Foundation, Biocomplexity in the Environment. (BCS-0129573). Schell, E. M., Rother, K. J., & Mohan, A. (2013). A road map for 21st century geography education executive summary: Instructional materials and professional development. National Geographic Society. Sears, D. A., & Reagin, J. M. (2013). Individual versus collaborative problem solving: Divergent outcomes depending on task complexity. Instructional Science, 41, 1153–1172. St. Clair, T. L., Wheeler, L. B., Maeng, J. L., Bell, R. L. (2020). Mixed-methods analysis of science teacher educator professional development: A five year longitudinal study. Professional Development in Education.

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The Story of Us. (2021, April 28). Lesson Plans. Colorado Springs Pioneers Museum. https://www. cspm.org/forteachers/story-of-us-learning-page/. Theobald, R. (2021). A user’s guide to giant floor maps: A Colorado case study. The Geography Teacher, 18(1), 55–72. Trojan, J., Schade, S., Lemmens, R., & Frantal, B. (2019). Citizen science as a new approach in geography and beyond: Review and reflections. Moravian Geographical Reports, 27(4), 254–264. U.S. Department of Education. (2018). Teaching American History (Archived). https://www2.ed. gov/programs/teachinghistory/index.html. 2021, July 25. U.S. Department of Education. (2021, July 25). Institute of education sciences: Funding opportunities. https://ies.ed.gov/funding/grantsearch/index.asp

Chapter 5

Fostering Professionalism for Geography in Primary Schooling Simon Catling

5.1 Introduction Primary school teachers1 are highly professional people. Being a primary teacher means committing to enabling primary children’s development of capability, values, attitudes, and interests in and knowledge about the world and its people. It involves helping children to relate to each other and adults, to enjoy their learning, and to be fascinated to build their understanding and skill foundations across many subjects and areas of learning. Supporting primary children to achieve is demanding. It involves a wide range of knowledge, positive perspectives about children and their education and significant skills interpersonally (Alexander, 2010). Teachers must be positive about themselves and their colleagues. Primary teaching, among much, focuses on three aspects of school education: the child, curriculum content, and approaches to its teaching. Teachers in most primary schools teach the full curriculum to single age classes. They may manage another adult working alongside them who supports children’s learning. They need to be able to develop deep and caring relationships with children, to organise and manage their teaching and children’s learning, to maintain a stimulating and engaging classroom environment in which children focus on their work calmly and thoughtfully, and to know what is important to and for children, what interests them and how well they learn and achieve in all they do. These are some of the professional demands on primary teachers, who need a broad and good curriculum grounding and career-long opportunities for professional development. 1 The term ‘primary’ is used in this chapter to include early childhood, primary and elementary schools, teachers and children, and relates to schooling for 4/5- to 11/12-year-olds depending on the national context.

S. Catling (B) School of Education, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_5

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Geography is one of the subjects taught in the primary curricula of many nations. It may be taught separately or in inter-subject contexts and topics. This requires teachers to appreciate the nature of the geography their children learn and to decide about approaches to its teaching, which resources to use and what to know and record about each child’s learning. Decisions about the time allocated to geography must be made—challenging when national and school priorities emphasise national language teaching, reading and writing skills, and mathematics in primary schools. These are the circumstances in which primary teachers teach geography. This chapter draws chiefly on expectations about professional development in England. There is limited evidence and guidance about professional development for teaching primary geography internationally; geography subject courses tend to focus on secondary geography (Healy, 2020). In many countries, geography lies within a primary school social studies or humanities curriculum, and its status and provision may be weak. England promotes geography for 5–14-year-olds (Willy, 2019). This provides contexts and opportunities for primary teachers’ professional development.

5.2 On Primary Teachers’ Professional Development for Teaching Geography Subject teaching, as with much else in primary education, evolves. The teaching of subjects must develop as new curriculum requirements supplement or replace longstanding content, as different teaching strategies are encouraged, as new resources appear, and as new policies require change. In place studies and physical, human, and environmental geography there may be renewed encouragement to ensure fieldwork opportunities locally and elsewhere and to promote societal concerns and issues, such as climate change and sustainability, introducing primary children to these aspects of geography (Catling & Willy, 2018; Willy, 2019). Such developments require primary teachers to maintain their capability to teach their children well in all aspects of each subject (Cordingley et al., 2018) and to update themselves knowledgeably. This career-long professional development begins with pre-service teacher education.

5.2.1 The State of Pre-service Primary Geography Professional Development To be a primary teacher means becoming a career-long learner (DENI, 2016). There are several routes into primary teaching, including taking a pre-degree or degreelevel programme in primary teaching or graduating with a relevant degree followed by a post-graduate primary teaching qualification. These routes include school-based programmes. Pre-service primary teacher education focuses prospective teachers’

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on the nature of primary education, understanding their own values and professional responsibilities, the curriculum structures, subjects and content for children, knowing children and how they learn, providing a supportive classroom environment, approaches to effective curriculum planning, strategies and approaches to high quality teaching and assessment, resource selection, managing children’s behaviour, and future professional development (McNamara et al., 2017; Perry et al., 2019). It includes practical teaching experience. In line with national requirements for and expectations about primary schooling, pre-service teachers may undertake a unit in geography, humanities, or social studies in preparation for teaching geography (Schell et al., 2013). This is not new (Catling, 2003), but it is not unproblematic. As teachers of all the curriculum subjects, primary teachers are described as generalists. Their role requires that they know, appreciate, and can teach the full range of primary school subjects, possibly ten or more. Their pre-service course introduces them to most, if not all, of the subjects they will teach, though they will focus on the teaching of the national language(s) and mathematics, possibly with science and/or history, depending on national priorities about curriculum intentions in primary schools. It is not guaranteed that future primary teachers will take a unit in geography in their initial teacher education course. It may appear as an option or as a minor or largely insignificant element (Womac, 2014), as an adjunct, for instance, to a subject such as history in a social studies unit or biology in a physical environment unit. A key problem is that there is negligible research into the provision of geography in primary pre-service education programmes (Catling, 2017a), very little into the effectiveness of its teaching (Blankman, 2016; Saribas et al., 2017), and only meagre research into prospective primary teachers’ understanding of geography (Catling, 2014; Morley, 2012; Preston, 2014; Puttick et al., 2018) and the development of their knowledge for geography teaching (Martin, 2008). Time for geography units in primary pre-service programmes is limited, perhaps little more than a few hours even when distinctively provided. Such geography units’ content may be constrained to introducing national geography requirements for primary children, a curriculum rationale for geography, some pedagogical content knowledge, and various ways to teach geography with younger children. Where an elective unit is available, perhaps on aspects of the environment and climate change, evidence suggests that many prospective primary teachers may improve their knowledge and hold positive environmental values and behaviours (Saribas et al., 2017). This supports findings that focused opportunities to plan, teach and reflect on their geography teaching enables future primary teachers to broaden and develop their subject understanding for its teaching (Martin, 2006, 2008). Future primary teachers have varied understandings about and attitudes to geography, with many lacking school-based qualifications in geography. Many pre-service teachers lack opportunities to teach geography during their programme’s teaching placements (Catling, 2017a, 2017b; Waldron et al., 2009), and the moderate quality diet of geography in many primary schools may not provide good models of geography teaching. Pre-service primary teachers notice the marginalisation of many subjects, including geography, beyond the national language(s), mathematics and

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perhaps science in schools in many countries, such as England and Ireland (Caldwell et al., 2021; Waldron et al., 2009). What emerges from the limited studies of primary geography is that there is much to research about geography in primary pre-service programmes to identify accurately the state of future teachers’ pre-career induction and to identify and redress some of its limitations and build on what appears effective. Indeed, it remains unclear what effect on teaching is made by pre-service geography units.

5.2.2 Impacts of In-Service Primary Geography Professional Development There is, furthermore, the need for research into the provision of, approaches in and impact of geography in-service professional development courses provided for primary teachers. There is sparse knowledge about the effect of their pre-service geography units on teachers’ early years of teaching, as well as of the value of the range of support offered and taken up by primary teachers during their early careers, though this is a need across all aspects of primary teachers’ professional development (Rolls & Hargreaves, 2021). There is negligible research into the impacts of primary school subject leaders of geography, humanities, and social studies. There exists some research into primary teachers’ knowledge of and identification with geography pertinent to its teaching (Catling & Morley, 2013; Kennelly et al., 2012; Preston, 2015; Till, 2020). A small group of early career Australian primary teachers was asked about the impact of their pre-service studies of education for sustainability (EfS), a nowsignificant aspect in primary geography and environment studies, early in their career. They responded positively (Kennelly et al., 2012), believing that they gained understanding and confidence in their knowledge of EfS, included it more appropriately in their class curriculum, and chose more relevant teaching strategies and resources. An enquiry with another small group of experienced and enthusiastic primary teachers in England into their identification with teaching geography (Catling & Morley, 2013; Till, 2020) noted that they viewed geography broadly and about substantive world information, underpinned by core concepts which applied well to examining environmental and place problems and solution seeking. These teachers identified strongly with geography and committed explicitly to it in their teaching. They understood geography as linked with the everyday world and as accessible for primary children. These few studies with novice and experienced teachers give limited insight into primary teachers’ engagement with geography. A view from England’s primary school inspections of geography (Freeland, 2021; Ofsted, 2008, 2011) has noted that many primary teachers lack a knowledge of geography to teach it effectively. This insight, alongside school inspectors’ views about the real need to improve geography teaching, reinforces the need for professional development for primary teachers (Ofsted, 2021).

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Research into teachers’ professional development more broadly indicates that effective in-service courses have important characteristics that improve teachers’ practices and enable children’s improvement in subject learning (Cordingley et al., 2018; Schell et al., 2013). Three curriculum characteristics are pertinent: the subject content and concepts taught; ways in which children develop subject concept understanding and use, alongside how teachers anticipate and make use of this; and the learning intentions and goals of subject teaching to provide coherence and progression in children’s learning. Three course design characteristics appear significant: active learning methods which encourage collective participation in discussion, sharing ideas and debating implementation; a course that occurs over time, enabling teachers to implement and report on changes in their practices; and teachers from the same school working together effects more successful professional development. High-quality professional development rarely results from short in-service sessions unless these sit within a coherent and sustained programme of development (DfE, 2016; Schell et al., 2013; Xerri, 2014). Period-based in-service provision is not lowcost, but appropriate funding is largely unaffordable for many primary schools. The implication is that there are very real challenges for primary school leaders who wish to develop their teachers’ capability in teaching subjects like geography. Evidence of the nature and impact of in-service professional development courses in geography is thin. A study of English government funded long courses in primary geography (Conner, 1998), largely taken by subject leaders, identified the positive effects of building participants’ geographical knowledge, helping them feel valued, more enthusiastic and confident, and developing better understanding of effective practices for teaching geography. One finding from a later study echoed that commitment to an in-service geography course helped build primary geography subject leaders’ confidence (Catling, 2013). This course required teachers to create and teach a geography curriculum topic. The benefit came from the support provided by the experienced course leader, sharing ideas, approaches and frustrations with each other, applying their enthusiasm for geography in their classrooms, and engaging the children actively in developing their investigations in their geography topic. These primary teachers’ sense of personal agency, or self-efficacy, was reflected in an investigation of Dutch generalist primary teachers’ beliefs about teaching geography (Bent et al., 2017). These class teachers felt ‘moderately positive’ about their geography teaching and its quality but used their ‘confidence’ to argue that they did ‘not need support for teaching primary geography’. This self-perception clashed with other findings about Dutch primary teachers’ limited competence in geography teaching (Bent et al., 2017, 160). It raised questions about the willingness of some primary teachers to undertake in-service geography courses. The findings from these few studies suggest benefits from and challenges for the take up of professional development geography courses by primary teachers, but this is an area in need of much more research.

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5.3 Supporting Primary Teachers’ Geography Professional Development Professional development for primary teachers requires many attributes and qualities, as noted, for instance, in the Teachers’ Standards for Australia and England (AITSL, 2018; DfE, 2013). Teachers’ professionalism involves commitment to and passion for teaching, moral purpose and motivation, resilience and well-being, emotional intelligence, a positive and stable sense of identity as a primary teacher, pedagogic and subject knowledge and appreciation, personal competencies and technical skills, and the desire and fascination for working with younger children (Durrant, 2020). Primary teachers require autonomy and recognition of their capabilities, responsibilities, and agency as decision-makers for the children they teach. They appreciate the need for their children to receive a broad, well-grounded, and high-quality curriculum and teaching (Alexander, 2010). This means teaching each subject and area to the highest standards to inspire and engage their children and develop their understanding of all they learn. Primary teachers value the diversity of their class of children, their interests, capabilities, strengths, needs and potential. This involves offering children the best opportunities to encounter new ideas and knowledge, a variety of ways in which to learn and reflect on their learning, and the time in which to do this. They hold themselves accountable. The development of these professional expectations, qualities and responsibilities ground a teacher’s career. But what should be the expectations for primary teachers in relation to geography as they begin and continue their professional journey in school? The focus here turns to expectations for teaching primary geography and developing their agency to achieve them (Schell et al., 2013). As already noted, primary geography pre-service geography provision tends to be very limited. The challenges facing in-service primary teachers’ continuing professional development are several. One is whether teaching geography in the school is valued and supported so that teachers are encouraged to develop their understanding and teaching of geography. Another is whether time and funding are available from primary school budgets for this to happen regularly (as with all other subjects). Third—and perhaps most importantly— is whether there is a lead teacher for geography in the school who has the knowledge and authority to promote its curriculum and teaching across all classes. All or some of these challenges will be problematic when school leaders do not prioritize or support their teachers’ professional development in geography because they do not value it or it is low down in the pecking order of subjects nationally or regionally, and other subjects receive support and funding as priorities. It may well be that there is no member of staff who has, for instance, a geography qualification or interest, who wishes to take forward geography teaching with colleagues. Yet, where there is real interest professional development may go well. The problem is the lack of research on primary geography in teachers’ continuing development. But beyond anecdotal commentary next to nothing is known.

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5.3.1 Professional Expectations and Primary Geography Teaching The basis for professional development in primary geography lies in the values, attitudes, and knowledge a prospective teacher assimilates during their initiation. A primary class teacher is unlikely to have a specialist background in geography, such as from their degree, so these values are likely to be those which underpin all their teaching of the school curriculum. Their pre-service geography unit would support this. The International Charter on Geographical Education (IGU CGE, 2016) implicitly incorporates the values that underpin the teaching of geography in primary classrooms. It argues that geography arouses curiosity, fascinates, and inspires, summarises geography as understanding the relationships between people and the natural environment, and identifies geography’s key concepts (such as location, patterns, and processes at work in places and environments, scale, diversity, and sustainability). These understandings enable children to appreciate the world they inhabit and give them agency to contribute as citizens. The Charter addresses the purpose of school geography, engagement with children’s geographical knowledge and learning, providing a curriculum to promote progression, teaching and assessment practices. It emphasises the need for professional development, and of applying relevant research. It states that teachers must be aware of government policies affecting geographical education in primary schooling and of the societal, organisational, and economic pressures that affect schools. It promotes an extended professionalism (Pollard, 2019) for all who teach primary geography. From the Charter, eight professional expectations about geography teaching can be drawn. Primary teachers need to: • model interest in and enthusiasm for geography for their children • have a good knowledge of the geography they teach • recognise and engage with their children’s geographical experiences and knowledge • take their children beyond what they understand and know, to extend their knowledge about the world • build up and use appropriately a wide variety of pedagogic techniques and skills in their geography teaching • hold high expectations of their children as learners of geography • seek and employ new ideas and approaches for teaching of geography • maintain the quality and depth of their own geographical understanding and teaching through professional development. These expectations are reinforced in a review of research which seeks “to identify the nature of high-quality geography education in schools” (Ofsted, 2021, p. 1), provided by school inspectors in England to support geography teaching in primary and secondary schools. While recognising there are limitations to the studies of

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geography curriculum, teaching and much else, this review, which draws on international evidence, identifies the wide range of ‘features’ influencing high quality geography, including geography’s disciplinary knowledge and key concepts, the nature of its education, fieldwork and map skills, spatial and geographical thinking, children’s misconceptions, the role of case studies, subject and thematic approaches in curriculum structure and planning, sequencing and progression, pedagogical approaches, children’s motivation and interests, special educational needs, formative and summative assessment, non-specialists teaching geography, professional development, subject leadership, and time for geography in the curriculum. It provides a timely reminder of the full range of knowledge for teaching geography all teachers of the subject need, not least primary teachers who initiate and foster younger children’s geographical learning.

5.3.2 Professional Expectations for Geography in Pre-service Primary Courses Most nations produce frameworks for pre-service teacher education. In Australia and England these apply in undergraduate, post-graduate, and school-based programmes (AITSL, 2016; DfE, 2019a, 2019b). In England, they are grounded in the Teachers Standards, based in research into high quality teaching. Future teachers are expected to meet Standards which require them to set high expectations of their children, have good subject knowledge and curriculum understanding, plan and structure lessons well, promote children’s progress in learning, adapt their teaching to the needs of the children, make accurate and informative assessments, manage children’s behaviour effectively and fulfil and develop their professional responsibilities (DfE, 2019a; Ofsted, 2021). To support geography provision in pre-service teacher education, the Geographical Association has published criteria to support and encourage high quality primary geography in pre-service programmes (GA, 2017). These promote teaching by experienced primary geographers, effective teaching time for geography, and the assessment and evaluation of the geography components. They recognise that provision will vary between providers. The criteria identify four aspects: developing positive attitudes to geography, enhancing knowledge and appreciation of geography in primary schools, enabling good planning of lessons in geography topics, and undertaking assessments of children’s learning. The criteria state expectations which prospective primary teachers should meet. Based on these criteria, Table 5.1 offers professional expectations to apply internationally. Five areas for pre-service teacher education development in geography are set out, focused on attitudes, knowledge of the subject, its curriculum and teaching, and future personal development. These areas of expectation in geography matter for and to pre-service generalist primary teachers for several reasons. The prime focus is developing younger children’s initial and early understanding of geography and its significance for them,

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Table 5.1 Professional expectations for geography in pre-service primary programmes (based on GA, 2017, pp. 3–4) Prospective primary teachers should have by the end of their pre-service course A positive attitude to geography

• Be committed to geography in children’s education • Communicate personal pleasure of geography • Appreciate the nature of geography in their own lives, directly and indirectly • Recognise children’s capability to learn geography • Encourage children’s engagement with and enjoyment of geography • Realise how geography contributes to children’s senses of identity, citizenship, and well-being

Knowledge and understanding for geography teaching

• Have a sound and well-balanced knowledge of geography for teaching • Value the role and purpose of geography for children • Know about children’s developing geographical experiences, knowledge, conceptions, and values (children’s geographies) • Be able to use key sources and approaches in geography teaching: fieldwork, mapping, reading pictures, interpreting diagrams, undertaking investigations and enquiries, gathering, analysing, evaluating and presenting data, and using digital media • Engage children in studies locally and about the world, to help them become informed and examine thoughtfully environmental concerns and issues

Geography curriculum and planning

• Appreciate subject-focused and integrated approaches for geography teaching, making relevant links with other subjects • Have high expectations of children’s geographical learning • Plan effective geography lessons, with clear intentions for and expectations of children’s learning • Be able to access resources, knowledge and teaching approaches from geography education and cognate organizations (continued)

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Table 5.1 (continued) Prospective primary teachers should have by the end of their pre-service course Geography teaching and assessment

• Teach geography so that all children progress in their learning, using varied methods and techniques • Foster children’s criticality, imagination, and creativity through geographical activities • Assess children’s geographical learning in various ways and provide feedback recognising their achievements and supporting their next steps

Continue personal geographical learning

• Appreciate using a range of sources, including geography education and cognate organisations, to enhance their knowledge for teaching geography • Know to continue their professional development of primary geography, through courses and personal studies • Develop their geography teaching through research and reflection

indeed, that it an important aspect of their lives. This requires that primary teachers understand and appreciate the subject, though they are not specialists in it. Closely connected to this is that they have a positive attitude to geography and its teaching, so that they communicate effectively and enthuse their class’s children. Whether their school uses a subject specialist or an inter-disciplinary or thematic approach to its curriculum, they need to be able to plan their geography teaching effectively and be able to know what their children have understood and where they have difficulties. This means that they need also to ensure they know the aspects of geography they teach well enough to support their children’s learning successfully. New teachers need to value their continuing learning about geography to maintain and improve their planning and teaching for their children. As generalists this is a responsibility to which prospective primary teachers must subscribe. Table 5.1’s professional expectations for teaching primary geography provide the grounding for its teaching. Given pre-service primary teachers’ diversity of backgrounds in geography, they propose that future primary teachers realise the value of geography in understanding the world in daily life and beyond direct experience, and its relevance in primary children’s learning. They emphasise that geography must be taught well, whether or not it is a national requirement for primary children, and emphasise that this is a professional responsibility to themselves as much as to their children (Ofsted, 2021). Future primary teachers must take into their early career teaching sound geography subject knowledge. It is vital that they appreciate that they continue to develop their own geographical learning so that always they have a positive impact for children in their teaching. Geography, just as other subjects, develops new understandings about the subject which affect its curriculum. Appreciating how children learn geography effectively needs to be drawn on to guide their

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teaching (Barlow & Whitehouse, 2019; Catling & Willy, 2018; Dolan, 2020; Pike, 2016), linking this to high expectations of their children and high-quality teaching (Ofsted, 2021). Governments may also change their policies and requirements for the teaching of geography which primary teachers should take up creatively. An effective pre-service primary programme instils in future teachers’ positive values about providing the best teaching of geography for children. Such expectations in and of programmes set future primary teachers on their professional road to providing a rounded, challenging and enticing geography curriculum for their children.

5.3.3 Expectations for Primary Geography Career Professional Development A teachers’ early career and development to become an experienced and expert practitioner requires consistent professional development (AITSL, 2018; DfE, 2013, 2019c; Menter et al., 2010). This, however, is not always straightforwardly achieved. There are several constraints which have already been indicated, including the policies and priorities of the headteacher, concerns about the quality of geography subject leadership in the school, and issues with the support provided to primary teachers to undertake professional development. Several obstacles may inhibit or limit developing geography within a primary school. Funding is a longstanding concern for primary schools globally. Professional development is costly. Equally, courses need to be available. Primary school leaders find it challenging, and at times impossible, to support its teachers attending courses covering all the curriculum subjects, even over several years; they make priorities usually based on national goals, which means that geography often is a low priority. Even using a teacher within the school to lead geography development is problematic if they are not a specialist or have no particular interest in the subject, though they may try their best. This can be exacerbated when such a subject leader does not have opportunities to develop their knowledge of geography and its teaching because funding and/or time and cover for their teaching is unavailable. This is more difficult to overcome when there is no readily accessible external support, or it is too costly for the school’s budget. National changes to a its geography requirements or guidance, without effective new funding, do nothing to ease the situations for primary schools. These are difficulties even in countries that seem to be well-provided for in education. Continuing professional and personal improvement builds on the standards expected of teachers. These are intended to have a positive impact on children’s learning, based on robust evidence, including through courses provided by experts who challenge and extend teachers’ current practices, bring new insights and perspectives, and raise expectations. High impact development courses are sustained over time, involve teachers’ collaborative development and trialling, and involve them in reflection on and evaluation of their evolving practices (DfE, 2016). They support the sparce findings from the primary geography in-service course studies.

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The key role to support and promote professional development in primary geography is provided by a school’s geography subject leader (Krause & Millward, 2010; Owens, 2019). To be effective, this responsibility must be enabled by the primary school’s senior leadership. At the heart of good geography professional development lies the school’s vision for geography, what teachers and children intend to achieve (Adams & Kinder, 2019). The geography leader needs good geography expertise and interpersonal and developmental skills to support and mentor colleagues (Howells et al., 2021; Owens, 2019). This requires evaluation of the state and quality of geography throughout the school, knowledge of colleagues’ geography capabilities and needs, and planning and implementing its improvement (Halocha, 1998; Owens, 2019). Central is the development of all teachers through personal and staff support, including using external advisers and courses (Durrant, 2020). The geography leader must be clear about their expectations for professional development over the long-term, including individual needs, while focusing on whole school ways to take forward children’s geographical learning. Primary teachers are expected to provide at least good geography teaching. Each teacher needs to update and deepen their knowledge for teaching of geography, based on well-selected support. Although there is limited research about the high quality in geography teaching that a subject leader should aim for, such expectations can be indicated. These are outlined in Table 5.2 (Catling, 2013, 2017b, 2021). They provide the basis for continued personal development for geography teaching. A teacher’s Table 5.2 Expectations for professional development to enable high quality primary geography (based on Catling, 2013, 2017a, 2017b, 2021) Over their career primary teachers should develop and extend their Valuing geography

• Commitment to and enthusiasm for geography • Belief that geography is important, motivating, fascinating and enjoyable

Appreciating children’s geographical knowledge

• Knowledge of children’s geographies, recognising these differ while sharing much • Appreciation of children’s interests, strengths and limitations in geographical knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes • Geography topics and teaching to connect meaningfully with children’s lives, interests, and curiosity, recognising they enjoy investigating ‘new territories’

Knowing themselves as teachers of geography

• Appreciation of their own geographies, their strengths, and limitations • Understanding and appreciation of geography • Teaching, grounded in good knowledge of the geography topics they teach • Awareness of the geography topics children have been taught and will study (continued)

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Table 5.2 (continued) Over their career primary teachers should develop and extend their Working as inclusive geography curriculum • Geographical goals and appreciation that makers geographical learning is broader and nuanced within and between topics and for each child • Planning, being flexible to allow topics to evolve, treating the geography curriculum as an active dialogue with children and colleagues • Consideration of new opportunities and the unexpected, including topicality and responding to children’s contributions and agency Understanding the excitement of teaching geography

• Focus on educating globally realistic children, optimistic and hopeful • Teaching about place and environmental and social situations, concerns, and issues • Creation of a well-structured geography curriculum, with clear aims, plans and stimulating topics, which fosters progression in geographical learning • Use of key environments, especially locally, to refocus and initiate ideas, topics, and methods of investigation • Use of motivating, active, and appropriate teaching approaches based in geographical enquiry, to adapt and introduce new elements to their teaching repertoire, and taking risks with their teaching to extend their children and themselves • Employment of a broad teaching repertoire to stimulate and engage children’s geographical thinking and encourage commitment and active involvement • Use, critically, of a good range of informative, good quality resources, including visitors and places visited • Use of rigorous, targeted questioning and discussion • Undertaking fieldwork-based studies • Tackling of children’s geographical ignorance and misperceptions • High expectations of themselves and of children • Knowledge and recording of children’s achievements, what was challenging and why, and identifying next and future geographical learning (continued)

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Table 5.2 (continued) Over their career primary teachers should develop and extend their Being positive about developing personal geography learning for teaching

• Their geographical knowledge, to deepen and enhance their geography teaching and respond helpfully to children’s enquiries and needs • Knowledge of how and where to obtain information, further ideas, approaches and activities, and resources, to enhance their geography teaching • Engagement collaboratively with geography support provided in and beyond school, to develop and improve their teaching and children’s learning • Evaluation of and reflection on their geography teaching and identification of goals and strategies for development, seeking support to ensure this happens

commitment to geography is grounded in their belief in the significance of geography in primary children’s lives, recognising children’s experiences of their lived geography. It is supported by a philosophy and set of values, led by headteachers and subject leaders, which sets store in geography teaching, learning and achievement. It lies in teachers’ realisation that geography affects themselves and children daily, that knowledge of, feelings about and study of the world lies in their hands, as does appreciation that teaching geography makes a real difference for children when its development and practice is based in the professional expectations identified in Table 5.2. Meeting these expectations requires primary teachers’ continuing professional development. The reasons geography professional development matters build on those given above for pre-service teacher education courses. Children’s geographical learning remains the core focus. This means that a school’s leadership and its staff value geography because it interests children and stimulates their thinking about the world, and because children, like the staff, live geography, particularly in their neighbourhoods, and their geographical awareness should be appreciated and built upon. It is important to remind primary teachers of this, particularly when there is pressure to emphasise national interests and requirements in geography. To achieve this balance primary teachers need to know themselves as teachers of geography and ensure they maintain and enhance their geographical knowledge for teaching through personal, in-school and externally-provided professional development, which requires maintaining a positive attitude to self-enhancement in their geographical knowledge and their curriculum planning, use of a wide variety of teaching approaches and resources and in assessing children’s geographical understanding and learning, particularly knowing when and how to motivate their children and intervene to tackle difficulties and move learning forward. This is a career commitment. Just as primary children are inquisitive, their teachers should exhibit a professional curiosity about and desire to

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improve the quality of their geographical teaching for the benefit of their children’s learning. Primary teachers’ geography professional development must focus on children’s learning, understanding and appreciation of geography. As generalists, how might primary teachers maintain and develop their teaching of geography? There are varied ways their career-long professional development can occur, involving school-based development, external providers, and personal learning. A key source is using subject organisations which promote geography curricula and teaching in schools. Many geographical and commercial organisations around the world provide professional development and a range of other services to subscribers, with some materials freely accessible. Many countries have subject organisations which support teaching geography.2 They provide face-to-face courses of one to two hours to two or more days, staffed by experienced and specialist primary geography educators. These courses are increasingly provided through their websites and through materials for self-delivery, via e-workshops, webinars, blog groups, Facebook and twitter pages, publications and consultancy by subject experts championing primary geography. Their geography education conferences provide sessions for primary teachers. These organisations may offer study tours and work with cognate organisations to provide courses. Possibly teachers can become chartered teachers (RGS) or gain a professional passport (GA) or other accreditation for teaching geography. Primary schools may also be able to apply for recognition of their geography teaching, such as through the GA’s Primary Geography Quality Mark (PGQM), which supports whole school improvement in geography (GA, 2019; Owens, 2013), encouraging the use of the professional development sources and approaches noted above. Geographical organisations provide subject updates, resources, and publications such as a geography education journal, though only the GA’s Primary Geography is aimed specifically at primary teachers. Subject associations have high levels of ‘hits’ to their sites and good take-up of their courses and digital provision, but there is a lack of research about the impact of their sites and courses on geography provision and teaching in primary schools. Subject organisations provide primary teacher support because it has perceived value, but the impact needs investigating. This is true, also, for State and local authority primary geography support, as it is for commercial providers, though these may undertake unpublished evaluations. Primary teachers 2

Among the major geographical organisations which have been noted to provide professional development courses to support primary teachers are: the UK’s Geographical Association (GA, www.geography.org.uk) and Royal Geographical Society (RGS, www.rgs.org), the USA’s National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE, www.ncge.org), National Geographic Society (www.nat ionalgeographic.com) and National Council for Social Studies (NCSS, www.socialstudies.org), the Australian Geography Teachers’ Association (www.agta.asn.au), the Board of Geography Teachers of the New Zealand Geographical Society (www.nzgs.co.nz/teachers-resources), the Southern African Geography Teachers Association (SAGTA, www.sagta.org.za), Canadian Geographic Education (www.cangeogeducation.ca) and the Geography Teachers’ Association of Singapore (www.gtasg.wordpress.com), Association of Geography Teachers of Ireland (https://agti.ie), and the Italian Association of Geography Teachers (http://www.j-reading.org/index.php/geography/ABO UTAIIG), to name a few. Readers are advised to check their own national geography teachers’ or social studies teachers’ organisations for up-to-date and further information.

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can use commercially published books to develop their geography teaching (e.g., Barlow & Whitehouse, 2019; Catling & Willy, 2018; Dolan, 2020; Pickford et al., 2013; Pike, 2016; Reynolds, 2019; Scoffham, 2017; Willy, 2019), and may have links to a university primary geography tutor to call upon (Owens, 2019). All of these are sources for primary teacher professional development, which is a longterm commitment for teachers and schools and can be challenging to meet given the curriculum demands on primary teachers.

5.4 Conclusion and Recommendations Geography is a significant subject in the education of primary school children, but it receives little priority in teachers’ professional development. There may be opportunities periodically, though infrequently, because of the range of primary subjects. Developing primary teachers’ geographical understanding for teaching can occur, even if not a school priority, if provided by a proactive subject leader. However, the deep concern is the lack of evidence about the nature, quality, and impact in the classroom on teachers’ practices of their pre-service and in-service geography professional development. Evidence overviews about pre-service and continuing primary teacher professional development lack reference to geography (Cordingley et al., 2018; DENI, 2016; Fitzgerald et al., 2018; Hargreaves & Rolls, 2021). To address this situation research is needed into pre-service and in-service primary geography, to examine which aspects of geography are covered and to investigate the accessibility, length, intentions, teaching and impacts of the units and courses available. This agenda reflects the paucity of information and evidence about primary teachers’ geography professional development and identifies a core professional challenge for primary geography. Nonetheless, there exist positive messages from what is known. Geography does appear in some form in many pre-service programmes and professional development courses, at times as a subject but also under a humanities or social studies umbrella. In-person courses predominate but increasingly these are being provided digitally and synchronously and as downloads. Period-based in-service courses, when ideas and approaches can be worked through in class and reported on, appear to be most effective, especially when run with a clear focus, and led by a primary geography specialist. Many primary geography resources are available, elucidating its topics and teaching, though they need careful and critical selection and use. Geography subject leaders and colleagues can usefully share experience and knowledge, and even undertake small-scale action research (Owens, 2019). Opportunities to collaborate, such as by jointly trialling approaches, stimulate and improve teaching geography. Much can be gained throughout a primary career teaching geography enabled by professional development. The key is effective school and subject leadership, for geography as for all else in a primary school.

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Given the critique and perspectives that have been presented, it is worthwhile offering some pointers to improve pre-service and continuing primary teacher development in geography. For the pre-service professional development of future primary teachers: It is important that prospective primary teachers receive and commit to the significance of children learning geographically about the world as it is today and for the future, and about how to teach well about local and other places, human and physical geography and environmental concerns and controversies, such as climate change, care for habitats and ecosystems and how services and trade enable or inhibit people’s access to goods and foodstuffs in urban and rural areas. This means that pre-service geography units, in whatever type of course, need to be taught by suitably qualified and experienced tutors who are given appropriate time to develop future teachers’ geographical knowledge, to introduce a good variety of ways to teach geography, to plan its teaching and to consider ways to assess younger children’s geographical learning and tackle their misunderstandings. It means committing, as with all their subject studies, to personal learning and to their future development. It is difficult to state a particular length of time for geography units, given the range of national contexts for pre-service teacher education and the variable priority given to geography, but a minimum of 15–20 h taught time and 30–50 h of personal and group study time should be a baseline for any geography unit, to provide a grounding, if not detailed development. For the career-long professional development of primary teachers: It is more challenging to be specific about the time to set aside for primary teachers’ career long professional development for geography teaching. Constraints of national priorities, funding, and teacher leadership in geography in primary schools will continue, but where schools can and nations ought to support primary children’s geographical learning through their teachers’ continually improving capabilities, the following are important. Primary schools’ and teachers’ needs will change as staff turnover occurs; the subject and its curriculum will evolve; and teachers’ experience will develop. However, across the years a school’s leadership and staff must show it values and gives time to primary children’s geographical education by supporting the development of a lead teacher for geography through regular opportunities for this member of staff to attend geography courses to develop their subject knowledge and teaching. This means course attendance every 2–3 years, as a minimum, for the geography lead teacher to improve their understanding and teaching of geography to pass on to their colleagues, while recognising children’s contributions within taking them beyond their current knowledge. It is important, evidence intimates, that school-based development by the geography lead teacher is used during this 2–3-year cycle, preferably for some ten or so hours per year. It is helpful periodically to bring in visiting specialists, and teachers should be sent on externally provided geography courses periodically. The geography lead teacher must be given time to undertake staff development with groups of colleagues and in one-to-one situations to focus on different aspects of the geography curriculum and its teaching, based on need. It is essential within schools that the lead teacher has time to monitor both the teaching of geography and children’s geographical learning in classes to identify priorities for staff

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development, and that they have access to funds to purchase resources that support the school’s geography teaching. This means that the approach within a school is one which appreciates that primary teachers’ knowledge and capability to teach geography well is always grounded in regular, consistent, and well-informed decisions about its purpose, curriculum, pedagogy, and resourcing, however constraining is the situation in which this occurs (Owens, 2019). The intention of professional development must always be the best geography teaching for the school’s children. There is no easy or simple solution to this goal other than rolling staff development, given the demands on teachers’ professional development as primary generalists. Professional development in geography for primary teachers is an essential part of their career, from their pre-service course, through their early years and as increasingly experienced teachers across the whole of their career. For primary children to receive the best geography education they can, alongside high-quality teaching by the same teachers in all subjects, their teachers need to undertake regular and wellprovided units and courses in teaching geography, to update their subject knowledge, their knowledge of pertinent teaching strategies and resources, and to appreciate what children bring to their geographical learning and can contribute to it. Geography within the whole curriculum must matter across the school. Geography professional development is an essential, not an optional, dimension of being a primary teacher.

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Chapter 6

The Potential and Reality of Postgraduate Education in Geography for Improving Primary Geography Teachers’ Professionalism: A Focus on South Korea Dong-min Lee

6.1 Introduction Primary geography is the initial area of study in geography education. Thus, primary geography provides the foundation of humans’ spatial thinking and abilities, understanding of the relationship between human beings and nature, the use of geographical representation, and global citizenship (Blankman et al., 2016; Williams & Catling, 1985). Therefore, a sophisticated and procedural understanding of geographic knowledge, concepts, and theories is required for primary school teachers to teach primary geography effectively and improve primary school students’ geographic perspectives and competencies (Hauselt & Helzer, 2012; Lee, 2018a, 2018b). However, compared to secondary school geography teachers, primary teachers have difficulty developing sophisticated and in-depth geographic perspectives, understanding, and competencies due to their major, primary curriculum, and duties in primary schools (Jan Bent et al., 2014). This difficulty may discourage primary school students’ interests and achievement in geography and cause misconceptions about geography among students (Blankman et al., 2015; Jan Bent et al., 2014; Lane & Catling, 2016). For example, Lane and Catling (2016) noted that preservice primary teachers’ insufficient and imprecise understanding of the causes, structures, and spatial distributions of tropical cyclones could cause primary school students to have inaccurate knowledge of or misconceptions about meteorological phenomena. Nevertheless, the difficulties of primary teachers mentioned above do not necessarily imply that primary teachers cannot provide robust geography teaching (Catling et al., 2007; Lee, 2018a). Several studies have reported that few primary teachers are aware that geography is an important subject essential for cultivating primary school D. Lee (B) Department of Geography Education, Catholic Kwandong University, Gangneung, South Korea e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_6

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students’ understanding of the world and spatial thinking despite their difficulties in learning and teaching geography (Catling et al., 2007; Lee, 2018a, 2018b). Moreover, effective teacher education focusing on geography can meaningfully improve primary teachers’ geography subject knowledge and professionalism in primary geography teaching (Lee, 2018a). Some studies have found that postgraduate education in geography majors1 can be a meaningful alternative for cultivating and improving primary geography teachers’ professionalism (Lee, 2018a, 2018b; Martin, 2008). Education in geography majors can encourage primary teachers to appreciate the spatial logics of geography, gain experience with research methodologies, and engage in producing academic knowledge of geography education or geography subject knowledge. Moreover, primary teachers who hold postgraduate degrees in geography majors may become primary geography teacher-researchers who promote discussions that are highly embedded in the primary school context or become agents of primary teacher education focusing on professionalism in geography subjects (Lee, 2018b, 2021). This chapter first investigates the trend in the number of primary teachers choosing postgraduate education in geography majors, the themes of their postgraduate dissertations and primary geography teachers’ motivation for postgraduate education. Then, the potential of postgraduate education in geography majors for primary teachers was probed by reviewing the changes, improvements, and refinements in the professionalism of primary geography teachers who complete postgraduate education in geography majors and their academic activities and achievements. Finally, this chapter discusses the implications of the implementation and improvement of postgraduate education in geography majors for primary teachers.

6.2 South Korean Primary Teachers’ Postgraduate Education in Geography Majors Since approximately 2000, the number of primary teachers who take and finish graduate courses has continuously increased in South Korea (Kim, 2015; Lee, 2018a, 2018b). South Korean people and society have begun to require that primary teachers have a higher level of education and teacher professionalism, and many primary teachers have engaged in postgraduate studies to improve their subject knowledge and teacher professionalism and enhance the quality of primary education. According to Lee (2017a), the number of dissertations in postgraduate education in geography majors published in South Korea has dramatically increased. More 1

Most of the primary teachers who engage in postgraduate education in geography-related majors choose geography education as the postgraduate major, but a few primary teachers major in geography studies, such as topography (Lee, 2018a, 2018b). This study uses the term “postgraduate education in geography majors” because all the majors are subdomains of geography, and even the teachers who major in geography studies usually regard their majors from the perspective of primary geography education.

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specifically, only 1–2 M.A. dissertations were published during the 1990s,2 but the number increased to 12.3 per year from 2000 to February 2017. In addition, Ph.D. dissertations in geography majors began to be published in 2000. From 2000 to March 2017, approximately twelve Ph.D. dissertations in geography majors written by primary teachers were published annually. These M.A. and Ph.D. dissertations were published at 37 South Korean universities and colleges. Nearly all of the dissertations were on primary geography education, while only one M.A. dissertation was on river topography. Lee (2017a) found that the major subjects of South Korean M.A. and Ph.D. dissertations written by primary geography teachers covered primary social studies, primary geography education, primary school, maps and map education, spatial cognition, regions and regional learning, and world geography. He noted that this characteristic of the dissertations written by primary geography teachers distinguished them from M.A. and Ph.D. dissertations in geography majors written by South Korean secondary geography teachers because the dissertations showed a pattern of being based on primary school and primary social studies. In other words, South Korean primary teachers who pursue postgraduate education in geography majors tend to focus on geographic content, such as spatial cognition and map education, from the perspective of primary social studies rather than geography as an independent subject.3 Moreover, he found that their dissertations tended to focus on geography for primary students or children. Children’s geography is an important research subject to improve the understanding of children’s geographical experiences and insights, spatial abilities, and geographical learning (Holloway & Valentine, 2000; Pike, 2011). Nevertheless, South Korean university- or institutebased geography education researchers have not had a strong focus on this subject (Lee, 2017a, 2017b). In this respect, South Korean primary teachers’ engagement in postgraduate studies has the potential to implement and improve South Korean geography education research and discourses.

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In 1996 and 1999, three Ph.D. dissertations written by primary teachers were published (Lee, 2017a). 3 In South Korea, geography is not an independent subject but a part of social studies in the primary and middle school curriculum. Geography becomes an independent subject in the South Korean high school curriculum. Nevertheless, South Korean middle school social studies teachers tend to consider middle school geography a particular area distinguished from other parts of social studies (Lee, 2020).

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6.3 The Context (or Reasons) of South Korean Primary Teachers’ Option for Geography as Their Postgraduate Majors There are several reasons why primary teachers choose geography as their postgraduate majors from among the diverse subjects in the primary school curriculum that they teach. Primary teachers who chose geography or geography education as their postgraduate majors were found to usually have strong interests in geography (Lee, 2018a, 2018b, 2021). According to Lee (2018a, 2018b), many primary teachers have been interested in geographic learning and content since their childhood, and their interests in geography did not decrease or disappear even after becoming primary teachers. Their interests in geography encouraged them to engage in in-depth study in geography as primary teachers. The South Korean national curriculum and policies are also significant factors encouraging some primary teachers to pursue geography major postgraduate education. Although geography is a part of the primary social studies curriculum, this part still emphasizes geography-particular content such as places, regions, climate, and globalization (Lee, 2017b, 2018a). Therefore, geography major postgraduate education may attract some primary teachers who have strong interests in geography teaching or geographic studies. In addition, primary teachers with geography major postgraduate degrees possibly have meaningful opportunities to improve their teaching careers, such as by participating in developing national primary social studies curriculum and textbooks or obtaining merits for teacher promotion (Lee, 2018a). In summary, the South Korean national curriculum and education policies provide some motivation encouraging primary teachers with interests in geography to engage in postgraduate education in a geography major. Nevertheless, primary teachers’ personal interests in geography are not the sole factor that makes these teachers engage in postgraduate study in geography majors. Most importantly, primary teachers with geography or geography education majors generally express strong criticism of the status of South Korean primary education and primary geography. The primary teachers with postgraduate degrees in geography majors who participated in Lee’s (2018a, 2018b, 2021) studies on South Korean primary teachers’ primary geography awareness, learning (including postgraduate education), and research tended to assert that South Korean primary education should focus on procedural, systematic, and accurate subject knowledge rather than the continued transmission of fragmented, superficial, and outdated knowledge. They emphasized the need for primary teachers’ sophisticated understanding of new and changing discourses of geography studies to enhance the status and quality of primary education based on this criticism. These South Korean primary teachers’ criticism of primary education and awareness of the necessity of primary teachers’ academic learning and research meaningfully encouraged them to engage in postgraduate education.

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Furthermore, the teachers’ experiences as primary teachers in primary school influenced their decisions to pursue postgraduate education in geography majors. The teachers recognized the importance and problems of geography in primary education, as they taught geography in primary classes. Moreover, the context of South Korean primary education emphasizing global and citizenship education also affected their awareness of primary geography education. Their experiences in primary school made them aware that primary geography education without an in-depth understanding of geographic subject knowledge led to the mere mechanical delivery of fragmented and superficial facts or rote learning. This awareness encouraged the primary teachers to begin postgraduate education in geography majors to develop the sophisticated understanding of in-depth geography subject knowledge necessary for designing and conducting effective primary geography teaching to substantially improve primary school students’ geographical perspectives, insights, and competencies. In addition to primary teachers’ personal interests and criticism of primary geography mentioned earlier, primary teachers’ experiences, learning, and relations with professors during their undergraduate courses in geography subjects significantly influence their decisions to major in geography in their postgraduate courses (Lee, 2018b, 2021). These factors meaningfully encouraged teachers to recognize the importance of geography in primary education and the academic structures and logics of geography as a discipline of spatial studies. For example, highly geographyoriented undergraduate education programs consisting of practical activities that promote their development of geographer-like perspectives, including systematic fieldwork and analysis of maps and GIS (geographic information system), make primary teachers appreciate the value of geography as a spatial discipline to improve children’s geographical competencies and spatial thinking.

6.4 The Potential of Postgraduate Education 6.4.1 The Potential of Postgraduate Education to Improve Primary Geography Education Since the late twentieth century, postgraduate education has been approached as an effective teacher education method based on its influence on teachers’ experience using academic research methods (An & Lee, 2012; Ion & Incu, 2016; Keane & Heinz, 2015). Educational researchers have noted that teachers’ postgraduate education potentially improves their teacher professionalism by providing them in-depth academic-level subject knowledge, academic insight into the subject, and experience with research methods. This trend is not exceptional to the field of geography education. Several geography researchers focused on the potential of postgraduate education in improving

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geography teacher professionalism (Brooks, 2015, 2018; Kolnik, 2010; Lee, 2020; Sanli ¸ & Bostancio˘glu, 2020). Geography learning and research experience can lead geography teachers to approach geography subject matter from the perspective of researchers and may encourage them to engage in academic research in geography education and geographical studies (Brooks, 2015, 2018; Lee, 2020). In addition, postgraduate education renews teachers’ understanding of geographic content and geographic teaching by providing information regarding new and in-depth geographic theories and discourses, such as the multiscalar approach (Lee, 2020). Of course, postgraduate education that effectively augments geography teachers’ subject knowledge from undergraduate education may still not fully provide the necessary knowledge (Sanli ¸ & Bostancio˘glu, 2020). Therefore, postgraduate education potentially works as an alternative method of lifelong education for geography teachers (Kolnik, 2010; Sanli ¸ & Bostancio˘glu, 2020). The discussions of postgraduate education, geography teachers, and primary teachers outlined here imply that postgraduate education in geography majors may be meaningful for improving primary teachers’ professionalism in geography teaching. Primary geography is the starting point of geography education and the basis of humans’ geographical insights and understanding of the world (Blankman et al., 2016; Hauselt & Helzer, 2012; Williams & Catling, 1985). The importance of primary geography indicates the importance of primary teachers in geography education. Primary teachers’ professionalism is essential for effective primary geography education. Therefore, postgraduate education in geography majors possibly functions as meaningful teacher education for improving primary geography teachers’ professionalism in geography teaching.

6.4.2 The Potential of Postgraduate Education in Geography Majors for Primary Geography Teachers’ Professionalism Lee (2018b, 2021) stated that the participating primary teachers’ engagement in postgraduate education in geography majors meaningfully enhanced their geographical insights, geographical subject knowledge, and competencies related to geography. Importantly, the teachers’ engagement in postgraduate education in geography majors qualitatively changed their geographical perspectives and insights rather than merely increasing the amount of their geography subject knowledge. More particularly, the primary teachers who pursued postgraduate education in geography majors developed geographer-like perspectives of the world, and the improvements in their knowledge were reflected in their perspectives and insights on their geography teaching. For example, one primary teacher with an M.A. in topography was able to address rivers and streams from the perspective of fluvial geomorphology rather than the unsystematic distribution of major and minor streams on maps, as he wrote his M.A. dissertation on the river system of Daegu Metropolitan City, South Korea

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(Lee, 2021). These changes resulting in this geographer-like perspective were noticeably helpful for conducting inquiry-based primary geography teaching based on his geographical insights and understanding of geography research methods obtained in his M.A. studies. In this respect, postgraduate education in geography majors has its own merits for enhancing primary teachers’ professionalism by helping them develop geographical or geographer-like perspectives, competencies, and insights. The improvement in the participating primary teachers’ professionalism in primary geography teaching through their development of a geographer-like perspective in their engagement in postgraduate education in geography majors was closely related to the characteristics of postgraduate education. Postgraduate education focuses on cultivating research methods and competencies rather than accruing a massive amount of knowledge. The primary teachers who engaged in postgraduate education in geography majors appreciated the process of how geography knowledge and theories are constructed and produced, as they learned and used research methodologies to complete their postgraduate courses. This learning and experience made them approach geography from geographer-like perspectives rather than draw on a collection of facts and knowledge. Of course, the primary teachers substantially increased their geographic subject knowledge as they completed their M.A. or Ph.D. dissertations. The primary teacher who had an M.A. in fluvial geomorphology mentioned above is an example. Another primary teacher with an M.A. in geography education who participated in Lee’s (2018b) study stated that her engagement in field trips in her M.A. course allowed her to appreciate the characteristics of the geographical fieldwork as a method for geographic studies and that the field trips were key opportunities for her to recognize geography as a scientific methods-based spatial discipline. The primary teachers’ enhanced professionalism in geography education led to their more sophisticated, procedural, inquiry-based, and geographer-like teaching in primary classes (Lee, 2018a, 2018b). Their geographer-like perspectives, insights, and geographic subject knowledge made them appreciate the approach and methods of geographer-like teaching of primary geography. One primary teacher who obtained an M.A. in geography education came to regard maps as visual representations of geographical phenomena rather than mere pathfinding tools to encourage primary students’ geographical and spatial inquiry (Lee, 2018b). Another primary teacher who completed her M.A. in geography education designed and practiced GIS- and geospatial technology-based geography teaching in primary classes to cultivate her students’ spatial thinking and geographical insights (Lee, 2018b). These changes and improvements in the geography teaching of these primary teachers were due to their postgraduate education, which showed them the spatial logics of geography studies and geographer-like methods of geography education (Lee, 2018b). The potential and merits of postgraduate education in geography majors for primary teacher professionalism are not limited to geographic subjects. The primary teachers who completed their M.A. or Ph.D. studies attempted to integrate geographic subject knowledge and geographic insights obtained through their engagement in postgraduate education as primary teachers. A primary teacher with an M.A. in geography education acts as an example (Lee, 2018a). As she completed her M.A.

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studies, she acknowledged that geography is a spatial discipline that is relevant to all activities of humans, society, and culture. Based on this insight, she attempted to integrate geography and other subjects to improve her students’ geographical perspectives and her teaching in primary classes. For example, she used maps when she taught world music to encourage her students to develop a geographical understanding of the world and a sophisticated and contextual appreciation of world music. This finding shows that the merits of primary teachers’ engagement in postgraduate education in geography majors are not limited to geography subjects: the merits possibly encompass wider dimensions of primary teacher professionalism. Some primary teachers who hold postgraduate degrees in geography majors attempt to improve their colleague primary teachers’ professionalism in primary geography education based on their learning, experiences, and insights developed through their postgraduate courses by means of teacher learning communities or teacher education programs (Lee, 2018a, 2018b). For example, one South Korean primary teacher with an M.A. developed online primary teacher programs focusing on primary geography education based on his learning, experiences, and insights developed during his M.A. studies (Lee, 2018a, 2018b). This program meaningfully enhanced several South Korean primary teachers’ professionalism in primary geography education; most of them did not have postgraduate degrees in geography majors (Lee, 2018a). This finding implies that primary teachers’ improved professionalism in primary geography education due to their engagement in postgraduate education possibly contributes to the increased professionalism of primary teachers in general. Moreover, some South Korean primary teachers who completed their postgraduate education were identified as primary teacher-researchers who continuously engaged in academic research (Lee, 2018b, 2021). Some primary teacher-researchers who participated in Lee’s (2021) study on primary geography teacher-researcher identities continuously engaged in research activities, including writing academic articles and books and making oral presentations at academic conferences, based on their research abilities and (teacher-)researcher identities developed in their postgraduate courses. These primary teacher-researchers were skilled in producing primary geography education research and discussions highly relevant to the primary school context because they were insiders of primary geography education (Lee, 2020, 2021). In other words, primary teacher-researchers can theoretically shed light on the actual processes and contexts of primary geography education and academically enhance geography education in primary school. University- or institute-based academic researchers or general primary teachers likely do not have such capabilities. Thus, postgraduate education in geography majors possibly functions as a facilitator of primary teacher-researchers.

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6.5 The Limitations of Primary Teachers’ Postgraduate Education in Geography Majors Although postgraduate education in geography majors has several benefits for the improvement of primary teacher professionalism in geography teaching and the quality of primary geography education, it possibly involves some limitations or controversies. First, primary teachers’ postgraduate education in geography majors does not necessarily lead to the improvement of their teacher professionalism in primary geography education. Although Lee (2018a, 2018b, 2021) identified the merits and potential of primary teachers’ engagement in postgraduate education for their teacher professionalism in geography teaching, these merits and potential did not necessarily apply to all primary teachers who completed their M.A. or Ph.D. degrees in geography majors. Lee (2018b) reported that a few primary teachers who finished postgraduate courses in geography majors did not develop the geographer-like perspectives, competencies, and insights described earlier, although they did increase the amount of their geography subject knowledge. Moreover, a few primary teachers who obtained postgraduate degrees had strong criticisms of the primary geography curriculum or geography education discourses developed by primary teachers with an M.A. or Ph.D. in geography education (Lee, 2018b, 2021). Therefore, even some primary teachers with M.A. or Ph.D. degrees in geography education do not have sufficient competency to design and practice in-depth geographer-like geography teaching despite their geography major academic degrees. This finding implies that South Korean primary teachers’ postgraduate education in geography majors does not necessarily guarantee strong professionalism in primary geography education or geography education research. Serious academic investigations of the qualitative level of geography-level postgraduate education for primary teachers or academic products produced by primary teachers who completed postgraduate education, including M.A. or Ph.D. dissertations in geography majors, have not been conducted yet. In this respect, these potential limitations of postgraduate education in geography majors for primary teachers should be investigated and illuminated.

6.6 The Barriers to Primary Teachers’ Postgraduate Education in Geography Majors First, some aspects of the primary education context likely discourage primary teachers’ engagement in postgraduate education in geography majors. South Korean policies on primary teacher personnel likely are associated with such a problem. The South Korean teacher promotion system is a prime example; in South Korea, some

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schoolteachers who receive high performance appraisals are promoted to vice principals and principals (Jeon, Lee, & Jang, 2019).4 Although a teacher being promoted to a principal does not necessarily imply that he or she is a successful teacher and although not all South Korean schoolteachers regard the promotion to principal as the mark of a successful teaching career, many South Korean teachers tend to be eager to be promoted to principal and consider promotion to be a sign of being a successful teacher (Eom, 2018; Jeon et al., 2019; Park, 2020).5,6 Postgraduate degrees and academic research have only marginal merits in the South Korean teacher promotion system. Even the recently proposed policy report entitled The plan for enhancing teacher promotion system created by South Korean National Council of Governors of Education (2020) noted the merits of teachers earning M.A. and Ph.D. degrees to encourage them to develop teacher professionalism in the classroom. This shows that primary teachers’ engagement in postgraduate education in geography majors is not properly appreciated and is possibly underestimated. The second limitation is closely related to my personal experiences. I assume that some primary teachers who are strongly interested in postgraduate education in geography majors and geography education or geography research likely give up their postgraduate education (especially Ph.D. studies), continuous engagement in academic research, or even teaching careers. I myself was a primary teacher who completed M.A. studies in geography. At that time, I had a dream of becoming a primary geography teacher-research who would produce meaningful academic works on primary geography education as a schoolteacher. However, my influential colleague teachers, including my principal, strongly discouraged my engagement in postgraduate education. They insisted that engagement in postgraduate education and academic research was not meaningful or helpful for my teaching career, student learning in primary classes, school management and student counseling, or teacher promotion. Their discouragement of my pursuit of M.A. studies was one of the important reasons why I decided to retire from primary school and become a fulltime geography education and cultural/military geography researcher. Moreover, 4

Since the mid-late 2000s, several South Korean primary, middle, and high schools have adopted the open recruiting principal employment system, a policy of appointing principals by open invitation, to complement the bureaucratic teacher promotion system and appoint diverse teachers and civil professionals who show innovative leadership and professionalism in school administration (Park, 2017). 5 Some South Korean teachers consider promotion to principal to be the only objective of their teaching careers and obsess about promotion; this phenomenon is regarded as a serious problem in South Korean education (Eom, 2018; Park, 2020). 6 Recently, South Korean teachers’ attitudes toward teacher promotion have gradually changed. Although some teachers are eager to be promoted to principal, the number of schoolteachers who do not wish to be promoted has gradually increased due to democratization, postauthoritarianism, and pluralization in South Korean society and the teaching culture (Jeon et al., 2019; Shin, 2020). Many South Korean teachers view the principal role as burdensome and as requiring hard work, with excessive workload and responsibility; promotion to principal is considered to require the sacrifice of the merits of being a schoolteacher, including a comparatively liberal working environment and long paid vacation, and to come with the excessive stress of managing troublesome disputes and conflicts that occur in school (Jeon et al., 2019; Shin, 2020).

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some of my former primary teacher colleagues gave up their postgraduate studies or continuous engagement in academic research despite their strong interests in geography learning and research because they believed that postgraduate education and academic research were not helpful for their teaching careers. Of course, this limitation is not critical. As argued earlier, several South Korean primary teachers successfully finished their postgraduate courses, and some of them continued to engage in geography education or topography research as primary teachers.

6.7 Discussion and Conclusion Postgraduate education has been recognized to be a meaningful potential method to improve geography teachers’ quality, competencies, and professionalism. Primary teachers’ engagement in postgraduate education in geography majors has considerable meaning and merits for primary teachers’ professionalism in primary geography education and primary education. Most importantly, primary teachers’ geographerlike perspectives, insights, and competencies and understanding of research methods developed in their postgraduate education can promote to their procedural, scientific, and inquiry-based geography teaching in primary school. Primary teachers’ geographer-like perspectives and competencies also contribute to the betterment of global and citizenship education in primary school. In addition, primary teachers’ engagement in geography major academic studies and research possibly accelerates systematic and scientific teaching of diverse subjects in primary classes. These improvements in primary teachers’ professionalism in primary geography education through postgraduate education in geography majors possibly encourage primary teachers’ development of teacher professionalism, including in geography education and continuous engagement in academic research relevant to the primary school context. However, there are some limitations related to primary teachers’ postgraduate education in geography majors. Primary teachers’ participation in primary education in geography majors does not necessarily guarantee substantial improvement in their teacher professionalism in primary geography education or in-depth academic learning. In addition, some aspects of South Korean education policies and culture likely discourage primary teachers’ engagement in postgraduate education in geography majors. In this sense, academic researchers, educational policy makers and administrators need to focus on the merits and limitations of postgraduate education in geography majors for primary teachers’ professionalism in primary geography education.

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References An, Y.-R., & Lee, D.-K. (2012). The experience and meaning of the early childhood teachers who work as a teacher while studying as a graduate student. The Journal of Korea Open Association for Early Childhood Education, 17(6), 27–52 [in Korean]. Blankman, M., Schoonenboom, J., van der Schee, J., Boogard, M., & Volman, M. (2016). Learning to teach geography for primary education: Results of an experimental programme. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 40(3), 425–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2016.114 4731 Blankman, M., van der Schee, J., Coleman, M., & Boogaar, M. (2015). Primary teacher educators’ perception of desired and achieved pedagogical content knowledge in geography education in primary teacher training. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 24(1), 80–94. Brooks, C. (2015). Research and professional practice. In G. Butt (Ed.), MasterClass in geography education: Transforming teaching and learning (pp. 49–65). Bloomsbury. Brooks, C. (2018). Insights on the field of geography education from a review of master’s level practitioner research. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 27(1), 5–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382047.2017.1285131 Catling, S., Bowles, R., Halocha, J., Martin, R., & Rawlinson, S. (2007). The state of geography in English primary schools. Geography, 92(2), 118–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2016. 1253674 Eom, M. (2018). Teachers’ story on teacher promotion system: In the perspective of behavioral decision making theory. Journal of Learner-Centered Curriculum and Instruction, 18(1), 713– 743. https://doi.org/10.22251/jlcci.2018.18.10.713 [in Korean]. Hauselt, P., & Helzer, J. (2012). Integration of geospatial science in teacher education. Journal of Geography, 112(5), 163–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2011.638722 Herrenkohl, L., & Kawasaki, K. (2010). Inside and outside: Teacher-researcher collaboration. The New Educator, 6, 74–92. Holloway, S., & Valentine, G. (2000). Children’s geographies and the new social studies of childhood. In S. Holloway & G. Valentine (Eds.), Children’s geographies: Playing, living, learning (pp. 1–26). Routledge. Ion, G., & Iucu, R. (2016). The impact of postgraduate studies on the teachers’ practice. European Journal of Teacher Education, 39(5), 602–615. Jan Bent, G., Bakx, A., & den Brok, P. (2014). Pupils’ perceptions of geography in Dutch primary school: Goals, outcomes, classroom environments, and teacher knowledge and performance. Journal of Geography, 113(1), 20–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2013.810299 Jeon, S.-B., Lee, H.-J., & Jang, H.-Y. (2019). Exploring teachers’ culture and perception on promotion. The Journal of Korean Teacher Education, 36(3), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.24211/tjkte.2019. 36.3.1 [in Korean]. Keane, E., & Heinz, M. (2015). Diversity in initial teacher education in Ireland: The sociodemographic backgrounds of postgraduate post-primary entrants in 2013 and 2014. Irish Educational Studies, 34(3), 281–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2015.1067637 Kim, K.-A. (2015). A qualitative inquiry on the acquisition process of expertise for elementary teachers: Focused on elementary teachers in Busan. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 33(3), 151– 177. https://doi.org/10.15708/kscs.33.3.201509.007 [in Korean]. Kolnik, K. K. (2010). Lifelong learning and the professional development of geography teachers: A view from Slovenia. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 34(1), 53–58. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/03098260902982542 Lane, R., & Catling, S. (2016). Preservice primary teachers’ depth and accuracy of knowledge of tropical cyclones. Journal of Geography, 115(5), 198–211. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341. 2016.1153133 [in Korean].

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Chapter 7

Chinese Secondary School Geography Teachers’ Perceptions of Professionalization Daihu Yang

7.1 Introduction The role of teachers is defined by cultural, social, and geographic environments which bring about the different conceptions of teachers’ roles (Makovec, 2018). It is acknowledged that teachers assume a pivotal role to support students in acquiring knowledge, skills and values contributing to society in the future. As such, the quality of teachers is critically associated with individuals’ learning outcomes and the overall quality of education as a whole. As Barber and Mourshed (2007) point out, the quality of an education system and student performance are positively correlated with the quality of its teachers. The quality of teachers is determined by numerous factors and one factor to be reckoned with is related to their professional development and professionalization. Teacher professionalization refers to a process with twofold meanings. One has to do with the improvement of the profession’s status. The other, often termed as professionalism, pertains to the improvement of the professional skills and competences to enhance teaching quality (Hoyle, 1974, 1982, 2001; Hoyle & John, 1995). In the Chinese context, teacher professionalization is more linked to the latter because in the exam-centric education system teachers are more concerned with how to improve their own professional teaching skills and competences which they believe have a direct bearing on students’ scholastic performance. Prior to the 1990s, the concept of teacher professionalization had been less understood and stressed by the Chinese educational administration and communities. Teacher professionalization was not a priority of government’s or teachers’ agendas and thus the government’s commitment to professionalization was little. With the influences and introduction of teacher professionalization from Western countries and an emphasis on teacher and teaching quality, the Chinese government was D. Yang (B) Hefei Normal University, Hefei, China e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_7

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increasingly aware of the importance of teacher professionalization in improving educational quality and learning outcomes. Pertinent laws and regulations favorable to the professionalization of teachers were then drafted. In 1994, the Teacher Act (Ministry of Education of China, 1994) was enacted, and it clearly states that teachers are professionals who assume educational and teaching duties. Although teacher professionalization gained more and more attention from the government and educational communities, the government had not given specific guidance as to the concept, implementation, content, and standards of teacher professionalization. How to understand and whether to administer professionalization is at the discretion of local schools. This leads to an absence or a disparity in the development of teacher professionalization in schools. In view of this situation, China’s top-level education department promulgated the Professional Standards for Secondary School Teachers (Pilot) (PSSST) in 2012 with the purpose of promoting and standardizing the professional development of secondary school teachers and building a team of high-quality secondary school teachers (Ministry of Education of China, 2012). Being the first of its kind in China’s education history, the PSSST lays down for secondary school teachers the professional requirements which are framed by three domains and fourteen strands as shown in Table 7.1. Although PSSST as a template setting benchmarks for all secondary teachers to meet is not tailored to specific subject teachers, its impacts are far-reaching in as much as all subject teachers in secondary schools should follow the guidance and ideas of the PSSST which explicitly states that teachers should make professional development plans. Accordingly, geography teachers should actively pursue professional development. As the PSSST is general and does not lay out detailed requirements and standards specifically for geography teachers, how geography teachers in local Table 7.1 The frame of the PSSST Domain

Strand

Professional philosophy and ethics

1. Professional understanding 2. Attitudes and behaviors towards students 3. Educational and teaching attitudes and behaviors 4. Personal cultivation and behavior

Professional knowledge

5. General educational knowledge 6. Subject knowledge 7. Pedagogical content knowledge 8. Liberal knowledge

Professional capabilities

9. Instructional design 10. Instructional planning and implementation 11. Class management and educational activities 12. Educational and teaching assessment 13. Communication and cooperation 14. Reflection and development

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schools understand their professionalization in the context of geographic education is the subject of this chapter.

7.2 Method 7.2.1 Participants A convenience sample was adopted because the sample was available and accessible. A total of thirty-five in-service geography teachers were invited from ten Chinese urban and suburban secondary schools. The teachers had obtained an associate degree (n = 12) and bachelor’s degree (n = 23). Fifteen teachers had less than five years of teaching experience, eighteen teachers had six to twenty years of experience and two teachers had more than twenty years of experience. Twenty-one teachers did not have a degree in geography and taught out of field, meaning that their training was not aligned to the geographic subject they were teaching. Twenty-two geography teachers also taught other school subjects besides geography.

7.2.2 Research Instrument The questionnaire was employed to explore what the in-service geography teachers thought about their professionalization. The questionnaire was constructed on the basis of the previous literature (Ifanti & Fotopoulopou, 2011; Kagoda & Ezati, 2014; Ozdemir et al., 2019) and the selected strands that the secondary school teachers and the researcher believed were more relevant to the learning and teaching which is a major concern of the teachers. Specifically, the questionnaire contains two sections. The first section intends to ascertain the background information of the geography teachers, including title, years of teaching experience, academic degree, and infield teaching. The second section asks the in-service geography teachers to answer six questions about their perceptions of professionalization, including their views on the role of professionalization, the aspects involved in professionalization, the professional knowledge, their instructional design and implementation, their pathways to professional development, and the factors affecting their professional development. Interviews were conducted to get more in-depth information as some responses in the questionnaire were unclear and uninformative. The main points of the interviews were extracted and noted.

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7.2.3 Data Analysis The questionnaire was administered to the thirty-five in-service geography teachers at their convenience. Then the data of the teachers’ responses were read, reviewed, and analyzed. Content analysis (Alkis, 2009; Krippendorff, 2004) and emergent coding (Stemler, 2001) were adopted to carefully extract emergent themes from the data in relation to the six questions. This process was conducted by the researcher and two assistants individually in order to ensure validity and reliability. The individually extracted themes were noted, split up, merged, and triangulated until we reached a full agreement. The extracted themes from the questions were evaluated and ranked by the calculated frequencies.

7.3 Findings 7.3.1 Role of Geography Teacher Professionalization If geography teachers are expected to engage in the professionalizing process, they themselves should understand why the teaching profession ought to be professionalized or the role played by professionalization. The themes extracted from their responses are various. As shown in Table 7.2, most of the geography teachers saw their professionalization as a process of improving geographic teaching quality, students’ learning outcomes, teaching skill level, geographic skills, and geographic knowledge while only a minority of the geography teachers deemed their professionalization as beneficial to the status of geographic education, a high-quality team, and the value of geographic education. The fewest number of teachers opined that professionalization was conducive to lifting the entry bar into the geographic teaching profession. The exchanges with the geography teachers revealed that the teachers took a utilitarian approach toward the professionalizing process, meaning that it was viewed as a facilitator and leverage to better teaching quality and learning results through enhancing their proficiency in teaching and disciplinary skills and knowledge in the professionalizing process. This approach is due to the fact that teaching quality is gauged by students’ performance in examinations in the exam-centric education system. Although students’ performance in examination is subject to numerous factors, the geography teachers wanted to take advantage of the professionalizing process to improve their teaching skills and disciplinary skills and knowledge which they believed can be translated into better students’ scholastic performance.

7 Chinese Secondary School Geography … Table 7.2 Perceived role of geography teacher professionalization

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Themes

Frequency

Improving geography teaching quality

31

Elevating students’ geographic learning outcomes

23

Uplifting personal teaching skill level

21

Further enriching geographic skills and knowledge

17

Elevating the status of geographic education and teacher

6

Building a high quality team of geography teachers

5

Demonstrating the unique value of geographic education

4

Establishing a responsible attitude toward geographic teaching

2

Lifting the entry bar to geographic teaching profession

1

7.3.2 Aspects of Geography Teacher Professionalization The geography teachers’ opinions on what aspects the professionalization may involve are diverse. The emergent themes of “geographic teaching skills, pedagogies, strategies, procedures or activities” (n = 35) in tandem with “knowing well the content of teaching materials and geographic standards” (n = 26) were ranked high by the geography teachers. In their perceptions, these two themes also serve as improving teaching quality and learning outcomes and reinforces the highranked themes in the previous section. In the education system the geography standards, which dictate what geographic content must be learned and the weighting of different content, are the basis for designing lessons and formulating examination questions. As such, the geography teachers expected to grasp well the standards’ requirements through the professionalizing process. A large proportion of the teachers articulated that the professionalization might involve “learning how to write good geographic lesson plans” (n = 21), “learning how to assess teaching effects and learning outcomes” (n = 19) and “learning educational and psychological knowledge” (n = 16), while a small proportion of teachers regarded “learning the frontiers and breadth of geographic technology and science”(n = 9), “learning modern educational technologies” (n = 7) and “making plans for geography teacher professional development” (n = 5) as important aspects of professionalization. The theme of “establishing good professional ethics” (n = 2) was identified as least cited because it was seen by the teachers as less impactful to their teaching quality and outcomes although it is equally reiterated in PSSST. The aspects about planning lessons and assessing teaching effects and learning outcomes reflect the common practices in Chinese secondary schools. Before walking into the classroom, teachers

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write geographic lesson plans which will be reviewed and inspected by the school administration and adjust and modify their lesson plans and teaching based on their assessment of teaching effects and learning outcomes.

7.3.3 Professional Knowledge Professional knowledge is defined as a set of knowledge a professional uses in teaching and learning (Sexton, 2007). A good command of professional knowledge is the fundamental base and core prerequisite to be a qualified geography teacher. All the geography teachers stated that their professional knowledge should contain “physical and human geography knowledge” (n = 35). Other principally perceived were the themes of “knowledge about teaching design and plan” (n = 28), “pedagogical knowledge” (n = 24), “regional geography knowledge” (n = 21), “map knowledge” (n = 20) and “educational and psychological knowledge” (n = 17). The geography teachers admitted that gaining deeper and broader geographic knowledge as well as beyond-geographic subject knowledge such as pedagogical and psychological knowledge through the professionalizing process could contribute constructively to their teaching and students’ learning. A minority of the teachers held that the professional knowledge should encompass “class management” (n = 7) and “local geography knowledge” (n = 4). Although geographic information systems are increasingly gaining traction in Chinese schools, a small number of teachers (n = 6) believed that it should be embedded into professional knowledge.

7.3.4 Instructional Design and Implementation The geography teachers were asked what specific instructional design and implementation capabilities a professional geography teacher should have. A large number of the teachers mentioned that “analyzing textbooks and geographic standards” (n = 35), “adopting appropriate teaching methods, media and strategy based on lesson content and students” (n = 33), “identifying the objectives of each lesson” (n = 32), “determining key and difficult points of each lesson” (n = 32) and “writing and drawing on the chalkboard concisely and systematically” (n = 18) were the important capabilities. A considerable number of teachers stated that “designing optimal teaching process based on the format of introduction-acquisition–consolidationreview” (n = 14), “arousing student’ interests and attention in geographic class” (n = 12) and “using everyday examples to inspire and explain geographic principles and laws in class” (n = 9) were the basic techniques a professional geography teacher should master. Again, the above high-ranked themes embody the common practice in geographic teaching design and implementation in Chinese schools. Before classroom teaching, the geography teachers must write lesson plans on the basis of the intense review and analysis of geography textbooks and standards. In

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writing lesson plans, the teachers should deliberately consider lesson objectives, teaching methods and strategies, key and difficult points, and allocation of teaching time. During the teaching process, the teacher should be able to create a context to introduce the new content, adopt optimal methods to facilitate the acquisition of new content, consolidate the newly learned, and assist students in reviewing or summing up the new content. Meanwhile, the outlines of the new content shall be presented systematically and concisely on the chalkboard in a timely manner. To be proficient in the lesson planning and teaching process was what the geography teachers wanted to gain in the professionalizing process.

7.3.5 Pathways to Professionalization There are multiple pathways to professionalization via professional development, including cooperative learning, cognitive coaching, mentoring, action research and workshops (Lieberman & Wilkins, 2006). However, most of the geography teachers favored the pathways of “learning from model lessons either in-person or online” (n = 35), “preparing and planning lesson collaboratively and collectively” (n = 32), “mentoring and coaching” (n = 26), “observing, assessing and learning peers’ teaching” (n = 22), “seeking higher teaching professional ranks or titles” (n = 19) and “teaching open lessons to colleagues for feedbacks” (n = 18). These high-ranked pathways mirror the popular way to improving professional competence in teaching in Chinese secondary schools. The geography teachers preferred exchanging their lesson planning ideas and fixing each other’s lesson planning deficiencies by studying, preparing, and planning lessons collectively. Mentoring and coaching is another way for less experienced teachers to acquire knowledge and skills about teaching from experienced or expert teachers through guidance and assistance (Koki, 1997). Inviting colleagues to observe class teaching and provide post-teaching feedback for further improvements as well as observing experienced or expert teachers’ class teaching are regular practices in their professional growth. Advancing to a higher professional rank or title also contributes to their professional development since the promotion entails higher teaching levels, better student learning outcomes, good ethics and morality, and academic research products. A few teachers believed that “advancing higher degree through geography-related education programs provided by colleges or universities” (n = 13), “participating in geographic teaching contests” (n = 9), and “participating in geographic curriculum training programs” (n = 9) would benefit their professional development. A minority of the teachers viewed that “continuing education program” (n = 6), “attending geographic teaching seminars” (n = 3), “conducting and publishing geographic education research” (n = 2) and “backbone geography teacher’s programs” (n = 1) will help improve their professional development.

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7.3.6 Factors Impeding Professionalization The impeding factors highly noted by the teachers are associated with “limited time due to heavy teaching and non-teaching workloads” (n = 30), “marginalized status of geographic education” (n = 21), “overemphasis on examination scores” (n= 19) and “slim chance of being promoted to high rank or title” (n = 16). Due to understaffing and oversized classes, teachers are subjected to an array of tasks such as multiple subject teaching, class meetings, correcting homework and political or ideological indoctrination (Yang et al., 2014). The geography teachers were often so busy with teaching and non-teaching, geographic and non-geographic work, and preparation for examinations that they complained little time available for professional development, particularly out-of-school professional training activities or programs. The marginalized status of geography education leads to some geography teachers thinking that it does not make much difference in improving their professional prospects with further professional development. A few teachers considered that “deficit of specific plans for geographic teacher professional development” (n = 11), “challenging to obtain a higher degree” (n = 10), “no leave from work for professional development” (n = 8) and “a lack of school leaders’ support” (n = 5) will somewhat affect their professionalization. Least mentioned in their responses were the factors of “being too old to learn and waiting for retirement” (n = 2) and “inability to do research due to limited accessible digital library (database)” (n = 2).

7.4 Discussion Teacher professionalization is a process encompassing multiple elements such as professional knowledge, lengthy training, practitioner autonomy, ethics, training requirements, working conditions, and profession status improvement (Hoyle, 1982; Li, 2016). However, in terms of this view the geography teachers’ perception of professionalization is relatively narrow. They mainly perceived the role and aspects of professionalization as improving geography teaching quality and learning outcomes as well as knowledge and skills necessary for high teaching quality. This can be explained by the reality that the Chinese education system increasingly gravitated to teacher performance which is measured by their students’ performance in examinations. The geography teachers expected to accomplish high teaching quality through the enhancement of knowledge and skills such as geographic teaching skills, pedagogies, and lesson planning in the professionalizing process. Previous research has verified that beyond disciplinary knowledge it is crucial for teachers to have general pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge about learners, curriculum knowledge, instructional design knowledge and classroom management knowledge (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2016; Shulman, 1986; 1987). However, most of the geography teachers failed to perceive these types of knowledge separately. They tended to view

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disciplinary knowledge, instructional design knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and educational and psychological knowledge as integral components of professional knowledge. Moreover, their perceptions of professional knowledge could not embody new areas of geographic sciences. For example, geographical information systems are increasingly incorporated into geographic teaching and geography teachers’ professional development in Western countries (Henry & Semple, 2012; McClurg & Buss, 2007), but most of the teachers did not anticipate the inclusion of geographical information systems in their professional knowledge. As a required part of professionalization in the PSSST, instructional design and implementation is at the heart of the educational process that determines teaching quality and outcomes. It is a common practice that the geography teachers must intensively review and analyze the content of geographic standards to which their lesson planning must align before class teaching. The instructional design and implementation by teachers are generally characterized by analyzing textbooks, objectives, determining key and difficult points, and adopting best teaching approach and process. These specifics are what the geography teachers wanted to sharpen up through the professionalizing process. For the geography teachers, their desire for improving teaching quality rapidly dictates their pathway to professional development. The immediate pathways to gaining professional experience in teaching are related to learning from exemplary lessons and experienced teachers, observing expert teachers’ lessons, and teaching open lessons to peers for feedbacks, and/or mutually assessing lessons. All the activities center on improving their teaching quality rapidly by addressing class teaching issues. The geography teachers believed that the initial way to become a professional geography teacher was to learn know-how from and model on those experienced and expert teachers. Thus, visiting experienced teachers’ class teaching and learning their lesson planning are a regular way to advance their professional skills and knowledge. Compared with previous studies in Turkey and Uganda, the geography teachers tended to disfavor seminars, conferences, qualification upgrading, training programs, and doing research as major pathways to professionalization (Bellibas & Gumus, 2016; Kagoda & Ezati, 2014). The differences can be due to their perception that these less favorable pathways are too demanding, time-consuming, or have insignificant benefits. For example, conducting education research is very demanding and time-consuming. Some geographic curriculum training or continuing education programs the teachers had experienced were too theoretical, commercial, or of low quality, producing no significant benefits to their practical and teaching needs. According to the geography teachers’ responses, there were several major barriers to professionalization. Overloaded teaching and non-teaching work and overemphasis on examination lead to the shortage of time for their professional development. This was thought as the utmost factor affecting their professional development by most of the teachers. Another factor relates to the low status of geography which leads to the teachers foreseeing few benefits from professionalization as well as a lack of plans for geographic teacher professional development by school administrators. The ranking and title promotion system can also impact the teachers’ professional

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development. Teachers must further develop their knowledge and skills via professional development in order to be promoted to higher rank or title (Huang et al., 2017). The effects of the rank and title system are ambivalent. On the one hand, it indeed incentivizes some teachers to move up their teaching profession ladder via professional development; on the other hand, the narrow chance of being promoted to a higher title due to limited quotas reduces many teachers’ motivation for continuous professional growth even if they have met the requirements of higher rank or title. Compared with previous studies in Greece and Uganda (Ifanti & Fotopoulopou, 2011; Kagoda & Ezati, 2014), the geography teachers tended not to perceive working conditions, financial support, and lack of self-esteem and respect as the foremost barriers to their professionalization. The differences might be attributed to economic and cultural factors. For example, in the Ugandan culture the teaching profession is less revered than in Chinese society.

7.5 Conclusion The findings of this chapter have several implications for policy and practice regarding the professionalizing process. First, the teachers’ perception of the roles and aspects of professionalization narrowly focuses on teaching quality and learning outcomes, disciplinary knowledge, and skills. However, less attention is paid to other equally important aspects of professionalization such as profession status and autonomy. The educational administration should deemphasize the role of students’ examination performance in assessing geography teaching and put equal efforts on how to improve autonomy, ethics, and geography teaching status. Second, their professional knowledge primarily encompasses the knowledge contributive to improving their teaching quality or student examination performance. The optional or new knowledge in geography would be ignored. For example, few teachers were keen to acquire knowledge in GIS because it is optional in the curriculum. It is recommended that the educational administration should integrate important new geographic knowledge into compulsory content of the curriculum. Third, the geography teachers tended to favor the immediate pathways to professionalization such as learning from in-school exemplary lessons and experienced teachers. The education administration could establish a professional organization of excellent expert and experienced teachers across schools to coach and mentor young and novice teacher online or offline in teaching and lesson planning on a regular basis. In addition, professional training programs should be revamped to meet practical teaching needs and address class teaching issues. Local schools could invite experts and professors from institutes and universities to guide geography teacher how to prepare a higher degree program and how to conduct geographic education research. Last, local schools should cut down non-essential, non-teaching and non-geographic workloads so that geography teachers have more available time for their professional development. Moreover, the education administration should further improve the status of geography to an equal footing in schools to let geography teachers feel proud and honored

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to undertake the geographic teaching profession. The promotion system of rank and title should be overhauled, particularly the quotas provision, which reduces most teachers’ enthusiasm for moving up the professional ladder via professional development. With these changes it is believed that geography teachers would change their understanding from being merely an enhancement of teaching quality to embracing a broader and wider conception of professionalization. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to the secondary school teachers for participating and contributing information to this study.

References Alkis, S. (2009). Turkish geography trainee teachers’ perceptions of geography. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 18(2), 120–133. Barber, M., & Mourshed, M. (2007). How the world’s best-performing school systems come out on top. McKinsey and Company. Bellibas, M. S., & Gumus, E. (2016). Teachers’ perceptions of the quantity and quality of professional development activities in Turkey. Cogent Education, 3(1), 1–15. Henry, P., & Semple, H. (2012). Integrating online GIS into the K–12 curricula: Lessons from the development of a collaborative GIS in Michigan. Journal of Geography, 111(1), 3–14. Hoyle, E. (1974). Professionality, professionalism, and control in teaching. London Education Review, 3(2), 13–19. Hoyle, E. (1982). The professionalisation of teachers: A paradox. British Journal of Educational Studies, 30(2), 161–171. Hoyle, E. (2001). Teaching as a profession. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 15472–15475). Pergamon. Hoyle, E., & John, P. D. (1995). Professional knowledge and professional practice. Cassell. Huang, R., Ye, L., & Prince, K. (2017). Professional development of secondary mathematics teachers in Mainland China. In B. Kaur, O. N. Kwon, & Y. H. Leong (Eds.), Professional development of mathematics teachers: An Asian perspective (pp. 17–28). Springer. Ifanti, A., & Fotopoulopou, V. (2011). Teachers’ perceptions of professionalism and professional development: A case study in Greece. World Journal of Education, 1(1), 40–51. Jiang, Y. (2016). A study on professional development of teachers of english as foreign language in institutions of higher education in Western China. Springer. Kagoda, A. M., & Ezati, B. A. (2014). Secondary school teachers’ perception of “teacher professional development”: A case study of teachers from five districts of Uganda. Journal of Teacher Education and Educators, 3(2), 185–202. Koki, S. (1997). The role of teacher mentoring in educational reform. PREL Briefing Paper. Pacific Resources for Education and Learning. Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Sage. Li, J. (2016). Quest for world-class teacher education? A multiperspectival study on the Chinese model of policy implementation. Springer. Lieberman, J. M., & Wilkins, E. A. (2006). The professional development pathways model: From policy to practice. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 42(3), 124–128. Makovec, D. (2018). The teacher’s role and professional development. International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education, 6(2), 33–43. McClurg, P. A., & Buss, A. (2007). Professional development: Teachers use of GIS to enhance student learning. Journal of Geography, 106(2), 79–87.

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Ministry of Education of China. (1994). The Teachers Act of China. http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/ A02/zfs__left/s5911/moe_619/tnull_1314.html (in Chinese). Accessed 16 July 2020. Ministry of Education of China. (2012). Professional standards for secondary school teachers (Pilot). http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A10/s6991/201209/t20120913_145603.html (in Chinese). Accessed 21 July 2020. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2016). Supporting teacher professionalism: Insights from TALIS 2013. OECD Publishing. TALIS. Ozdemir, T. Y., Demirkol, M., & Polat, H. (2019). Teaching as a professionalism through teachers’ perspective. Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, 10(3), 296–320. Sexton, M. (2007). Evaluating teaching as a profession—Implications of a research study for the work of the teaching council. Irish Educational Studies, 26(1), 79–105. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. Stemler, S. (2001). An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(17), 137–146. Yang, D., Wang, Z., Xu, D., & Deng, Z. (2014). A small-scale survey of the views and attitudes of junior high school teachers in China toward geographical fieldwork. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 23(3), 197–212.

Chapter 8

The Professional Development of Geography Teachers in England Rebecca Kitchen and Alan Kinder

8.1 Introduction Geography is a compulsory subject in the curriculum in England in grades 1–9. It is also included within the English Baccalaureate measure of secondary school accountability and has grown significantly, in terms of the number of students taking it as an optional subject, since 2010 (Worth & De Lazzari, 2017). There is consequently a compelling need for professional development for new teachers of geography and non-specialists timetabled to teach the subject, adding to the already considerable challenge of providing sufficient high-quality support for practising geography teachers. However, as we explore in this chapter, there are three key tensions which make this problematic. First, there is a lack of connection between policy intentions and policy actions which mean that teacher supply and the necessary resources for effective professional development are compromised. Second, the structure of the landscape of provision, which is critical in making sure that professional development is affordable, responsive to geography teachers’ individual needs and of high quality, is fragmented and therefore difficult to navigate. Finally, there is an obvious tension between marketization and both points noted, especially with respect to finding a balance between compliance with curriculum, qualification and school requirements and the wider development of geography teachers’ professional agency, skills and knowledge. Figure 8.1 provides a simplified view of the professional development landscape in England, which is split into policy, provider, and consumer layers. While connections exist between these layers, these are largely fluid and flexible. For example, teachers R. Kitchen (B) · A. Kinder Geographical Association, Sheffield, UK e-mail: [email protected] A. Kinder e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_8

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Fig. 8.1 The professional development landscape in England

and other school staff who ‘consume’ (i.e., are in receipt of) professional development typically have free choice over the providers they use and while the Department for Education (DfE) has published standards for professional development, providers do not have to meet, or even acknowledge these. Some providers—individual schools, groups of schools and subject organisations such as the Geographical Association (GA)1 —are also active in the policy arena. For example, subject organisations such as the GA, advocate for geography education on behalf of their members. At the same time, large groups of schools, operating as Multi-Academy Trusts (MATs) are also politically active in pursuit of their interests. This chapter is organised according to the stakeholders identified in Fig. 8.1: policy makers, providers, and consumers. We begin by outlining a policy direction that appears to privilege subject-specific professional development, before challenging this position to reveal contradictions and a fluid, marketized environment. Negotiating this fragmented provision and accessing the professional development that teachers of geography want and need is therefore shown to be challenging. However, striking a more optimistic tone, the final section of the chapter foregrounds the experiences of two teachers who have managed to navigate the landscape with some success. To conclude, we take account of what we believe should happen at the various scales of analysis we have employed to call for a more coherent and strategic response going forward.

1

The Geographical Association (GA) is a professional association for teachers of geography, with most of its members located in England and Wales. It supports high-quality teaching by publishing geography education titles, member journals and website materials; running professional events, networks, curriculum projects and accreditation schemes; and by leading public debate around geography education. The GA was founded in 1893 and is a registered charity.

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8.2 Policy Initiatives: The Privileging of Subject-Specific Professional Development Since the publication of the Government policy paper The importance of teaching (Department for Education [DfE], 2010), the rhetorical emphasis has been on socalled ‘traditional’ approaches to teaching ‘traditional’ subject disciplines, which are usually taken to include geography (for example, Gibb, 2015). One expression of this policy stance with important implications for professional development—the creation of a new national curriculum—involved “a greater focus on subject content” (DfE, 2010, p. 42). In hindsight, it may also be understood as a response to “concerns that England’s education system was falling behind other jurisdictions internationally [and] that a shift of emphasis away from ‘traditional subject disciplines’ meant school leavers in England were not equipped with the knowledge they needed to succeed in the workplace or higher education” (Kinder, 2015, p. 80). The subsequent reforms to the geography statutory curriculum and qualifications for students in grades 1–13 prescribed a core of geographical knowledge and skills, with the intention of advancing place and locational knowledge and knowledge of geographical processes (Kinder, 2015; Rawling, 2020). The creation of the English Baccalaureate (EBacc), “introduced in 2010 as a [secondary school] performance measure to encourage the study of English, mathematics, science, a modern or ancient foreign language, and either history or geography” (DfE, 2017, p. 3) proved to be at least as significant. Since its inclusion, the number of curriculum hours devoted to geography has grown significantly and the proportion of students choosing to study the subject in grades 10 and 11 has risen from as little as a quarter to around 40% (GA, 2020; Gibb, 2015; Worth & De Lazzari, 2017). The Government’s ambition for 90% of secondary students to study EBacc subjects by 2025 is expected to lead to continued growth in both measures and therefore to fuel the demand for more teachers of geography (Foster, 2019; Lynch et al., 2016). A logical consequence of the curriculum knowledge turn has been an increased emphasis placed on the need for teachers to deploy robust disciplinary and specialist pedagogical knowledge within their classrooms. The Teachers’ Standards for England (DfE, 2013) are an influential example of this. Updated most recently in 2013, they represent the “minimum level of practice” expected of teachers from the point of being awarded Qualified Teacher Status (p. 6). They are unambiguous in relation to subject expertise, requiring teachers to “have a secure knowledge of the relevant subject(s) and curriculum areas, foster and maintain pupils’ interest in the subject, and address misunderstandings” (p. 11) and “demonstrate a critical understanding of developments in the subject and curriculum areas, and promote the value of scholarship” (ibid.). In addition to the reforms described above, wide-ranging changes to the training and induction of teachers in England have been ongoing since 2010 (with reference to geography, see Biddulph & Kinder, 2020; Tapsfield, 2016). Their overall effect represents a ‘rolling forwards’ of the state into areas formerly at the discretion of

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institutions and organisations providing Initial Teacher Education (ITE) and Continuing Professional Development (CPD), often through the publication of advisory standards in the first instance, closely followed by statutory measures. In the field of ITE for example, the publication of guidelines to define the “essential elements of course content” by an independent panel (HM Government, 2016) was soon followed by a statutory requirement to incorporate a successor document, the ITT Core Content Framework, into the planning of ITE provision (DfE, 2019a). Precise requirements are detailed throughout the document, with specific references to state-mandated views about the role and nature of subjects and effective subject teaching within the curriculum. In 2020, a new inspection regime for ITE providers came into force (Ofsted, 2020), making clear that inspectors will take account of the application of the ITT Core Content Framework when reaching judgements about the quality of ITE subject provision. The system to induct beginning teachers into the profession is currently undergoing even more significant reforms. The induction period has been doubled from one to two years, a period during which the teacher is termed an Early Career Teacher (ECT) and receives mentoring support to achieve the criteria set out by an Early Careers Framework or ECF (DfE, 2019b). The ECF sets out detailed and specific requirements with respect to subject teaching, which are more demanding than the expectations placed on pre-service teachers. Increased expectations have also been articulated for school-based subject mentors, who have long provided substantial (often unfunded) support both to pre-service teachers on placement in school and to beginning teachers joining the profession (GA, 2015). Although they are nonstatutory, the National Standards for school-based initial teacher training (ITT) mentors (DfE/National College for Teaching and Leadership, 2016), urge mentors to maintain “excellent subject knowledge” (p. 7) and to further develop their expertise through professional development and “robust research” (p. 12). Whilst the national curriculum and systems of initial training and induction represent important policy levers influencing the professional development of teachers, for more experienced teachers and school leaders, the English system of school inspection arguably exerts more powerful influence over practice. In accordance with the trend already observed, the 2019 Education Inspection Framework (Ofsted, 2019) introduced “a much sharper focus on the curriculum and the specialist knowledge, understanding and skills required to teach and learn subjects like geography” (Kinder & Owens, 2019, p. 97). Following the introduction of this framework in September 2019, national organisations like the GA recorded increased interest in and engagement with subject-focused professional development support from teachers and schools in both the primary and secondary phases (Kitchen, 2021; Ofsted, 2021). Policymakers have also provided and enabled guidance and infrastructure in support of an emerging system of quality standards and assurance for professional development in England. The publication of national guidance for school leaders, teachers, and organisations that offer professional development for teachers in England—known as the Standard for teachers’ professional development (DfE, 2016), represented a significant step in this direction. These standards advise that

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Fig. 8.2 Overview of national professional development frameworks, accreditations and pathways in England (DfE, 2021b, p. 10)

professional development is most effective when teachers “expect to improve pedagogical knowledge and subject knowledge” (p. 8, authors’ emphasis). Whilst it is fair to suggest that these standards have not gained the widespread publicity and purchase their authors desired (Van den Brande & Zuccollo, 2021), they have influenced proposals to create a more robust, sector-led national system of professional development quality assurance (see for example Chartered College of Teaching, 2021; Leonardi et al., 2021; Perry et al., 2019). The picture that emerges thus far is one of consistent policy commitment since 2010 in support of professional development for subject teaching, something the GA welcomes. This narrative is reinforced by recent work from the DfE to map out the various professional development frameworks, accreditations, and pathways it has created through its reforms (Fig. 8.2). However, several features and factors serve to complicate, and undermine, this simplified account.

8.3 The Complex and Contradictory Nature of the Policy Environment If the overall policy vision for professional development since 2010 has been one in which the teaching profession in England would become progressively more adept at teaching subjects like geography, then there seems to us to be two fundamental questions about the effectiveness with which this has been pursued. The first is around the depth of commitment by policymakers to this goal. In terms of securing an adequate supply of subject specialist teachers to teach the prescribed curriculum within schools, the data suggest that the government has too often failed to meet “one of the fundamental tasks facing those responsible for the education system in any country” (Biddulph & Kinder, 2020, p. 101). In geography, the “clear signals of a looming crisis of teacher supply” that emerged in the middle of the last decade (GA, 2015, p. 3) failed to prompt an effective policy response, with the result that by 2018, the country was reported to “be in the throes of that crisis” (GA, 2018, p. 5). Not only did the subject have the third-lowest proportion of teachers holding a relevant degree, but it was one of only two school subjects in which this proportion

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had declined over the long term (National Audit Office, 2017; Sibieta, 2018a). Spatial inequalities in teacher supply remain closely associated with entrenched social and economic disparities, with schools serving lower income communities more likely to employ teachers with less experience or lacking a formal teaching qualification at all (Allen et al., 2016). In geography, the proportion of grade 10 and 11 lessons taught by subject specialists is approximately 80% for the least deprived schools but only 70% for the most deprived, and there are statistically significant differences between the proportion of geography teachers with relevant degrees in the most and least deprived areas (Sibieta, 2018b). Many geography subject leaders, who know through first-hand experience that “the real extent of the shortage of qualified geography teachers in our schools is masked by non-specialist teaching” (Tapsfield, 2016, p. 106), have needed to adapt their professional support for non-specialist colleagues within their schools (Shreeve, 2018; Rawlings Smith & Kinder, 2022). The commitment of financial resources towards teachers’ professional development is another critical aspect which remains “an area of comparative weakness in the UK” (Institute of Physics [IoP], 2020, p. 10). The proportion of school funding for teachers’ professional development in maintained schools in England fell to 0.55% in 2018–2019, the lowest level since 2011 (ibid.). As a result, “teachers in England engaged in less CPD overall and are less likely to engage in subject-specific CPD than in most other high-performing countries” (ibid.). Localised inequalities are also in evidence here: across English schools, the highest expenditure-per-student on teacher CPD is nearly ten times greater than the lowest (Cordingley et al., 2015). The degree to which claims about the importance of subjects represent a deeply held commitment to improving subject-specialist teaching has also been queried (see for example Kinder et al., 2019). It is notable that in recent years the delivery of several large, national training programmes has been handed to private companies or consortia, many of which lack organisational traditions of subject specialism or strong connections with specialist communities of practice (see for example Gibbons, 2021). This problem reflects one of the ongoing fault lines within English education policy since 2010, which arises from the tension within the conservative political tradition between its instincts for centralisation and control (hence the ‘rolling forwards’ of state influence) and its belief in a liberal economy and plural society, which encourages the commercial outsourcing of policy implementation to entrepreneurs from the state education and for-profit sectors and results in a fragmented system of implementation and uneven provision at regional and local scales. Our second question picks up on the notion of ideological fault lines and asks whether there has been adequate consistency and clarity of thinking driving professional development policy and its implementation. Whilst it should come as no surprise that ideas around education and teaching are contested in England (as elsewhere), the contradictory signals emanating from central government around ideas underpinning its own reform programme have been confusing at best. For example, considerable ambiguity has persisted around the very nature of the knowledge needed for teaching, with obvious implications for teacher training, induction, and professional development. One view, in which teachers integrate subject and pedagogical

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knowledge with their practical experience and research literacy, is founded in educational research (British Educational Research Association, 2014) and has prompted occasional calls for the profession to become Masters-only in the future (Gibbons, 2019). An opposing view positions teaching as a practical craft, the knowledge and skills for which may be acquired through observation and mimicry (Winch et al., 2013). This conception continues to find purchase in a national culture that has long celebrated the pragmatic over the intellectual, and has seen practical expression through the creation of apprenticeship routes into teaching (DfE, 2019c) and even a ‘troops to teachers’ scheme (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service, n.d.), both of which appear to be driven more by a desire for workforce flexibility and cost savings, rather than a heartfelt commitment to teacher professional development and subject fidelity. A degree of ambiguity also persists around the value and use of research evidence within teaching. True, significant investments have been made to generate a more explicit, reliable evidence base to inform teaching practice, through the establishment of the Education Endowment Fund (Education Endowment Fund, n.d.) and a network of Research Schools (Research Schools Network, n.d.). However, the trend to site more research activity within schools and to marginalise Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) also speaks to mistrust of theoretical or problem-posing research and a preference for predictive research and generalizable conclusions (Kinder & Brace, 2022).

8.4 Professional Development Provision: Navigating the Policy Agenda Over a decade ago, Pedder et al. (2010) published a study which examined the ‘state of the nation’ of teacher professional development. While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to address many of the questions posed in this original research, here we focus on two: What are the most commonly identified CPD foci? and Are there differences between the needs and requirements of teachers in different types of school or at different career stages?. In their study, Opfer and Pedder (2010) report that generally teachers are offered a narrow range of professional development opportunities and that as experience, career stage and leadership responsibility increase, so the number and range of opportunities also increases. As we have seen above, those who have the responsibility for providing professional development for teachers are working in a system which is marketized and fragmented (Jopling & Hadfield, 2015). While most professional development is occurring within schools under the current school-led system (see for example Teaching School Hubs, DfE, 2021a) an online search of professional development providers for geography teachers in England, returns a range of external providers which are also active in this layer. These include exam awarding organisations, publishers, commercial organisations, individual consultants, and subject organisations, including the

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GA. However, while there is an increasing range of actors, the policy agenda, coupled with low and dwindling professional development budgets, limits the foci of opportunities (IoP, 2020). For example, in the secondary phase student performance in external GCSE and A level exams2 is used as a high-stakes accountability measure linked to teacher pay (Atkinson et al., 2009). It is therefore unsurprising that aspects of the curriculum which feature in these exams become privileged as a result of teaching to the test. The resulting landscape is one where many providers of support focus narrowly on exam success (Brill et al., 2018; Kitchen, 2021). This accountability and policy agenda similarly shapes provision in the primary phase where many teachers and indeed leads of geography are non-geographers; only about half have a GCSE qualification in the subject (Catling & Morley, 2013). The introduction of the 2019 Education Inspection Framework and the process of ‘deep dives’ which seek to interrogate and establish a coherent evidence base of the quality of the curriculum (Ofsted, 2019) has led to many providers offering professional development for geography leads who may be required to examine their curriculum intent, implementation and impact in some detail as part of a school inspection (Kitchen, 2021). In these two examples, the tensions between support for performativity and compliance as opposed to rich professional development and learning with associated gains in professional knowledge, confidence, skills, and attitudes, are clear. As well as opportunities for professional development provision being limited, often along statutory policy lines, teachers of geography come to teach the subject through a variety of routes or pathways, which complicates the access to provision. Figure 8.2 highlights that this is acknowledged within policy documents and frameworks, but as we have seen, it is imperfectly implemented. There are formal and accredited professional development routes for experienced teachers, middle leaders, senior leaders and heads, but these are either focused on leadership (Leadership National Professional Qualifications) or on generic specialisms such as teacher development, behaviour, and culture (Specialist National Professional Qualifications). This aspect of policy does not translate easily in a subject-specific arena and so tends to be overlooked. While it is common to have a clear primary/secondary phase split in provision, there is little that is more nuanced than this. For example, specific support for geography leads or experienced but non-specialist teachers of geography is lacking (Kitchen, 2021). It is therefore up to the teacher to diagnose their own professional development needs and access provision. The ‘state of the nation’, at least where geography provision is concerned, therefore appears to have improved little since 2010. There are differences in the needs and requirements of teachers in different schools and different career stages, but these are not explicitly acknowledged by providers, who also narrow opportunities to focus on areas aligned with statutory policy. However, it is also worth highlighting that teachers’ ability to access professional development is not the same as teachers’ ability to access quality professional development. There is a robust, although not 2

General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and GCE Advanced Level (A level) public examinations taken in England, typically at the end of grade 11 and grade 13 respectively.

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uncontested, research base of the characteristics of effective professional development (see for example Cordingley et al., 2015; Sims & Fletcher-Wood, 2021) and although the Standard for teachers’ professional development exists and a quality assurance system has been piloted, neither yet has the traction to distinguish providers from one another in terms of quality. While the GA does try to signpost explicitly how its provision meets these standards, and the Geography Quality Marks have featured in the Chartered College of Teaching quality assurance pilot (2021), there is no compulsion for providers to act in this way, making it difficult for teachers to distinguish between different offers of support.

8.5 Consumers: What Does This Mean for Teachers ‘on the Ground’? As we have highlighted in the previous sections, while opportunities for subjectspecific professional development exist, the fragmented policy landscape and lack of a coherent, career-long and career-supporting journey of development makes navigating support difficult. Only 10% of teachers taking part in a pilot project to provide 35 hours of CPD per year accessed sufficient high-quality, subject specific professional development (Van den Brande & Zuccollo, 2021). There are tools available, such as the GA Professional Passport, which serve to help teachers of geography on their journey, but it remains the case that those who can craft a journey for themselves stand out (GA, n.d.). In this section, we draw on interviews and evidence from GA Enhanced Professional Award portfolios to present the experiences of two such teachers. These teachers self-selected by engaging with the GA and were chosen to represent teachers from both the primary and secondary phase who typically use the GA as a provider of professional development. The intention is to provide illustrations for our previous arguments, specifically that the current situation is unsystematic and policy driven, but to also offer a note of optimism as the teachers find a route through the landscape to meet their professional development needs.

8.5.1 Experience 1: Geography Lead in a Nottingham Primary School I am fortunate as I am part of a network of geography leads who have regular professional development from the GA’s Primary Curriculum Leader. We meet termly and decide the focus of each session collaboratively. We’re all geography leads with varying degrees of experience, but the new Ofsted framework has meant we have a common focus. There are some aspects of this that we’re all finding difficult and so recent sessions have included practical strategies for using maps in schools and making good use of the school site and local area for fieldwork.

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Being part of the network means I can find out how other teachers are leading geography in their primary schools, and we can share ideas. I’ve found that many schools focus their curricula on ‘big questions’; we don’t and so I’d like to explore this further to see how this works with planning, resourcing, and example activities. My school have given me some time to work on curriculum design and assessment for primary geography. There is also an expectation that I’ll cascade ideas to other school staff so that geography teaching and learning policies are well-aligned with the curriculum and what the school needs. The professional development that I’ve engaged with has been of good quality, but I feel that it would be better if it was part of an annual cycle of training in geography focused on different topics and year groups. I’m not a subject specialist and so at the moment, I feel that I’m focusing on what the school needs – better outcomes for Ofsted – rather than what I need – subject knowledge updates.

8.5.2 Commentary This experience illustrates the policy-driven nature of the professional development which this teacher is experiencing. The network to which his school belongs has worked with the GA to provide regular meetings, focused on an area of statutory policy. There is therefore a tension between promoting professional development and agency while simultaneously doing so in response to and driven by the priorities and structures promoted by the Ofsted Education Inspection Framework. While this training has, according to the teacher, been of good quality and is likely to develop the teacher as a geography subject lead, this seems to be more as a result of good fortune rather than design. There is little sense that he has been able to direct the training so that it better meets his needs or indeed that there has been a diagnosis at any stage of what his individual needs might be.

8.5.3 Experience 2: Geography Teacher at a Secondary School in Exeter I have been teaching geography for four years. My focus over the last 18 months has been on improving the exam technique of my GCSE students; an analysis of past performance highlighted a good grasp of geographical content, but students were less secure in their application of knowledge in issue evaluations. I wasn’t sure how to address this, so I read some articles in Teaching Geography to research others’ approaches. This, combined with an exam feedback session run by the Awarding Organisation enabled me to develop some strategies. I tried these out with my GCSE class and then used the GA Professional Passport to reflect on my journey. I also had weekly sessions with a coach who provided a fresh pair of eyes on my practice. The four of us in the department submitted our online portfolios and achieved a GA Enhanced Professional Award as a result of reflecting deeply and critically on the professional development that we engaged in. This process gave me a structure to articulate what I want to happen, why it needs to happen and how it impacts on my students’ understanding of geography.

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8.5.4 Commentary This experience offers a different view of professional development to the previous one. While the stimulus for professional development is still driven by statutory policy, in this case national, public examinations, the way in which this teacher has accessed professional development through the GA appears more self-driven. She has a clear goal, but the way in which she is accessing provision and critically reflecting on it is more bespoke and varied. This may be because the GA Professional Passport signposts sources of GA professional development so that this teacher is better informed and able to navigate the menu of experiences which best meet her individual needs while at the same time working towards her defined goal. The fact that she is also critically reflecting on her experiences at each stage and sharing these with the rest of her department also suggests that she is thinking deeply about her next steps and has ownership of them.

8.6 Conclusion As we argue throughout this chapter, the case remains to be made for a strategy to address the professional development challenges facing geography education at the national scale. The present complex and contradictory policy environment drives a marketized and piecemeal provision which privileges statutory areas and neglects teachers’ needs according to their career stage. The experiences illustrate that while it is possible for teachers of geography to navigate and access high quality and subjectspecific professional development, this is certainly not widespread or common. We therefore echo the sentiments of the Subjects Matter report (IoP, 2020) and “call on the governments of the UK to invest in creating a more confident, engaged teaching profession, through a sustained world-class system of subject-specific CPD for all teachers” (p. 4). To achieve this, we argue that there needs to be action at all the scales of analysis we have employed: policy, provider, and consumer. First, there is a need for the Department for Education to connect its policy intentions for increased subject expertise more effectively to its policy actions and instruments. To do this it needs to make sufficient funding for professional development available, draw on the collective knowledge and experience of subject specialists and help create a national education system and culture that supports and encourages teachers in their development throughout their careers. Providers, in turn, need to consider the professional development that they are offering to ensure that it is affordable, high-quality and informed by expertise, evidence and research. They also need to ensure there is a balance between addressing issues of curriculum, qualification and school compliance and the development of individual geography teacher’s professional agency, skills, and knowledge relevant to their needs and career stage. Finally, we suggest that teachers

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of geography need to be given more agency, scope and information about the professional development options available to them so they are able to make effective choices which result in genuine progression. Subject organisations, such as the Geographical Association, are well-placed to support and enable action in all three domains, given their large teacher membership and advocacy work with the Department for Education (Fig. 8.1). We therefore suggest two practical actions that would begin this reform. First, that clear, phase and career-stage professional development pathways for teachers of geography should be identified. As well as enabling providers to audit against these pathways and identify any gaps, these pathways would enable easier navigation of the fragmented landscape for geography teachers. Second, we suggest the creation of a subjectspecific professional development framework for teachers which again, takes account of their phase and career stage (their pathway), but also their existing knowledge and skills. This framework would specify the subject knowledge, skills and behaviours for teaching geography effectively and provide tools—such as the GA Professional Passport—for teachers to reflect on their own practice, identify opportunities to strengthen their knowledge, skills and behaviours and direct their own professional learning as part of a sustained plan. Taken together, these concrete actions would provide coherence and structure to the professional development landscape, while also acknowledging a diversity of needs, and give teachers ownership and direction over the course of their careers.

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Sibieta, L. (2018b). The teacher labour market in England: Shortages, subject expertise and incentives. Education Policy Institute. https://epi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018b/08/EPI-TeacherLabour-Market_2018b.pdf. Accessed 28 Apr 2021. Sims, S., & Fletcher-Wood, H. (2021). Identifying the characteristics of effective teacher professional development: A critical review. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 32(1), 47–63. Shreeve, J. (2018). Addressing the shortage of specialist geography teachers. Teaching Geography, 43(3), 98–100. Tapsfield, A. (2016). Teacher education and the supply of geography teachers in England. Geography, 101(2), 105–109. Universities and Colleges Admissions Service. (n.d.). Troops to teachers. https://www.ucas.com/ teaching-option/troops-teachers. Accessed 28 Apr 2021. Van den Brande, J., & Zuccollo, J. (2021). The effects of high quality professional development on teachers and students: A cost-benefit analysis. https://epi.org.uk/publications-and-research/theeffects-of-high-quality-professional-development-on-teachers-and-students/. Accessed 28 Apr 2021. Winch, C., Oancea, A., & Orcard, J. (2013). The contribution of educational research to teachers’ professional learning—Philosophical understandings. https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/media/ universityofexeter/collegeofsocialsciencesandinternationalstudies/education/research/groups andnetworks/educaationtheoryreadingnetwork/BERA-Paper-3-Philosophical-reflections.pdf. Accessed 28 Apr 2021. Worth, J., & De Lazzari. G. (2017). Teacher retention and turnover research. Research update 1: Teacher Retention by subject. https://www.nfer.ac.uk/publications/NUFS01/NUFS01.pdf. Accessed 28 Apr 2021.

Part II

Institutionalization, Networking, and Informal Learning—Different Solutions to Foster Geography Teacher Education

Chapter 9

The Effects of the Bologna Declaration on the Initial Training of Geography Teachers: The Case of Portugal Fernando Alexandre

9.1 Introduction The expansion of post-primary education in Portugal during the 1970s and 1980s triggered important changes in the overall structure of the educational system, as an effect of both the first wave of expansion of the system that started in the late 1960s and of the reforms that emerged in the aftermath of the 1974 political regime shift. Given the considerable increase in the demand for teachers, the state was forced to set up a massive in-service teacher education programme, which not only developed into the main professional teacher certification path, but also as the easiest way to entry the teaching career. Alongside, the tertiary education system was upgraded through the establishment of new Universities, which began to propose many programmes specifically focused on the training of teachers. Such driving forces gave rise to a process of transverse massification of the educational system that also led to the design of new models of teacher training and recruitment. Therefore, the process of mass schooling was at the origin of two different and apparently divergent policies of teacher recruitment and training. On the one hand, in-service training programmes run by the educational authorities, which promoted access to the teaching profession to university graduates, valuing the role of school experience rather than pedagogical theoretical knowledge. On the other hand, the creation of professional models of initial teacher education explicitly aimed at the new comprehensive school, which valued theoretical information on educational subjects and were based on Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). The policy which intended to close the gap between these two opposing approaches

F. Alexandre (B) NOVA School of Social Sciences and Humanities, NOVA University, Lisbon, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_9

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came out just in 1986, when the government decided to adopt the model of integrated initial teacher education as the only path to teacher certification. In the 1990s teachers intended for teaching in all areas of the curriculum were trained in accordance with the new model. From then on, the mainstream of professional teacher education was provided by HEIs, which were also in charge of supervising the final on-the-job stage of the training process. Such universitisation of teacher education was reinforced by the establishment and development of several private colleges and universities offering teacher education programmes. Moreover, the importance of HEIs as regards teacher education was also consolidated by the creation of many post-graduate programmes, which decisively contributed to improve both the research and the knowledge produced in the field of teachers’ professional development. But as in most European countries, the structure of initial teachers’ education (ITE) programmes also had to submit to the Bologna Declaration (BD) framework (cf. Worek & ENTEP, 2018), whose regulations were implemented nationwide in 2007. From then on, the route intended to certify teachers’ qualifications for all levels of teaching is regarded mainly as a process focused on the development of professional competences, through five years consecutive training programmes. In view of the intensive debate about students’ and schools’ performance, which is leading to growing criticism vis-à-vis the quality of education, there is an increasing tension between the political decision-makers’ education quality agenda and the established classroom practices. Consequently, many stakeholders question the overall suitability of the existing ITE programmes. Given this context it seems possible to raise some key questions, namely in what concerns geography teachers’ training: is it feasible to increase the quality of geography teachers’ education on the basis of consecutive training programmes? Does the amount of time allocated to teacher education, including “on-the-job” opportunities, promote the development of professional competences? Are consecutive models flexible enough to adjust their training practices to geography student-teachers’ beliefs and social representations? The chapter intends to address the previous questions in the light of the Portuguese context and will be focused on the following issues: (i) the effects of the BD framework implementation on the overall structure of geography teachers’ training; (ii) the structure and contents of competence profiles that geography teachers’ candidates should develop as an outcome of the training process; and (iii) the review of the prevailing perspectives regarding teachers’ training. As a starting point it is important to emphasise that in what concerns teaching in lower and upper secondary education (grades 7th to 12th), Portuguese teachers are trained and certified to teach only one curriculum subject, or in some cases two related subjects (e.g., biology and geology, physics and chemistry, Portuguese and one foreign language). Therefore, the four ITE programmes that will be mentioned in the next sections are exclusively aimed at qualifying geography teachers.

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9.2 The Universitisation of Initial Teachers’ Education In Portugal, the late expansion of the public education system is related to the weak economic development that the country recorded when compared with other European states, especially from the middle of the nineteenth century. According to Reis (1984), such gap can be explained by three interdepended reasons: (a) excessive external dependence, especially in relation to England, characterized by the export of primary products and the import of manufactured goods, a fact that deprived the country of the benefits of industrialization; (b) unbalanced agrarian structure, with excessive concentration of land-ownership in the southern regions and an excessive fragmentation and dispersion of peasant ownership in the northern regions, which associated with technical backwardness resulted in the low productivity of the agricultural sector (i.e. low income, weak domestic demand, lack of resources for investment, thus contributing to hold back the industrialization process); and (c) social and intellectual structures that were averse or not favourable to the profound transformations required by the agricultural, industrial and transport revolutions (strength and rigidity of the aristocratic-religious domination typical of the society of the Ancien Régime). A context that remained very much unchanged until the end of the 1960s, when the Portuguese society began to experience some signs of change, which were consolidated after the political rupture that took place in 1974. That sociocultural and economic environment is unsurprisingly reflected in some of the data that portray the Portuguese education system up to the beginning of the 1960s (Peixoto, 1989; PORDATA, 2021): in 1961, the enrolment rates for primary, lower, and upper secondary education were 130.7, 20.2 and 2.8, respectively. It was only in 1968 that the political regime established in the 1930s embarked on a deep structural reform of the educational system and started to implement policies of democratization and mass schooling (e.g., expansion of compulsory education from 4 to 6 years, measures intended to assure equal opportunities and equity, granting subsidies to low-income families). A process that was heightened after the 1974 political shift, mainly in what concerns upper secondary education (Table 9.1). The data reveal that the expansion of the school system was mainly due to the sharp increase in the number of students attending the whole of post-primary education, whose variation rate between 1961 and 1980 attained overall 314.7%. However, data also point to the very strong rise in the number of students attending upper secondary education, whose growth rate for the period 1970–1980 reached 527%. A decade during which the education system was compelled to increase the demand for teachers, whose numbers raised from 53,786 to 108,361 (101.5% growth), though showing a clear contrast between the variation rates attained in primary education (42.8%) and lower and upper secondary education (163.8%). A disparity that was amplified during the following decade, when the variation rates registered, respectively, −2.8—effect of the reduction in the number of students due to the decline of the birth rate—and 50.5% (PORDATA, 2021). A pace of growth, which the existing in-service teachers’ training programmes were unable to manage, explains why in 1986 there were still 48.5% of non-qualified teachers, of which 36.6% with a degree

13,116

Upper secondary

Source PORDATA (2021)

887,235

101,172

Lower secondary

1961

27,028

186,914

935,453

1970

No. of students

Primary

Level of schooling

106.1

84.7

5.4

Var. 61–70

43,653

256,974

919,026

1974

61.5

37.5

–1.8

Var. 70–74

169,156

304,878

927,852

1980

288.3

18.6

0.9

Var. 74–80

Table 9.1 Students enrolled in primary, lower, and upper secondary education: total public and private schools (1961–1990)

309,568

370,607

715,881

1990

82.6

45.8

–22.8

Var. 80–90

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and 11.9% without (Braga et al., 1988). A problem that the system tackled by deeply reforming not only the whole tertiary education environment, but also the entire teachers’ training framework. In the mid 1970s the Portuguese higher education landscape was deeply transformed by the establishment of the so called “New Universities”, which played an important role as regards the process of expansion and diversification of higher education in Portugal. They launched a model intended to cross interdisciplinary approaches with technological developments while, at the same time, safeguarding offerings in traditional academic domains. In what concerns ITE, the new Universities also began to devise new training models, thus bringing about a concurrent approach, during which teachers were trained and certified all along the same process. This entailed a structural change in teacher education, through which the training institutions tried to adapt to the new demands of mass schooling. Consequently, the new teacher education curricula started to include a significant number of new topics from the emerging educational sciences (e.g., curriculum development, educational technology, sociology of education, psychology of education, didactics, school administration and management). The establishment of a national network of ITE programmes spanned almost two decades. It was a process designed to achieve two main goals: (i) to assure the certification and supply of qualified teachers; and (ii) to support the definition of the standards required to guarantee the quality of the training provided by both public and private universities. The route followed during that period led to what Formosinho (2000) describes as the universitisation of teacher education. The term was intended to make evident the kind of changes that began to frame ITE programmes since the mid 1970s, as regards their institutional background and curricular structure: (a) given the fact that HEIs gradually took over the responsibility to provide the theoretical and practical pedagogical education required to assure the qualification of teachers, while needing to ensure the full collaboration of schools; and (b) since the nature of the training provided by universities ended up enhancing its academic dimension and weakening the importance of school-centred professional training. The universitisation of teacher education was joined together with a movement of growing university autonomy that protected their power to decide on the structure and content of the training process. Nevertheless, it also contributed to raising awareness regarding the problems that resulted from the mismatch between the universities’ academic culture, which traditionally framed their organisation and performance, and the specificity of the programmes they should conceive in order to qualify and certify teachers. Furthermore, university-based teacher education programmes appeared to be unaware of the dissonance between the socialisation experiences of student teachers during their own schooling and practicums, and the contents of the training programmes, a fact that is indicative of a broader theory versus practice dichotomy in education (Gleeson et al., 2015).

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9.2.1 Geography Teachers’ Training Under the Bologna Framework When in 1987 HEIs became the centre of all ITE programmes, geography teachers’ training was organised in accordance with two main institutional arrangements: (i) independent geography and education departments attached to universities, in which the former provided students with specific academic training in geography, and the latter assured both the theoretical and practical part of training devoted to teaching as such; and (ii) university departments with specific academic training in geography that also provided professionally oriented teacher training. Such organisational models put forward either a concurrent model of teacher training, hence made available from the outset of tertiary education (involving programmes blending general education in geography with theoretical and professional teacher training), or a consecutive model (involving general education in order to obtain a degree in geography, followed at or near the end of this period of study by a programme of initial professional training that could still contain some general educational courses). In both cases, the teacher’s training process ended with an “on-the-job” qualifying phase, which was compulsory for all students who wanted to be considered as qualified teachers. From this standpoint, it is thus possible to conclude that geography teachers’ initial training was structured around two core components: (a) general training aimed at providing trainees with a thorough knowledge of geography; and (b) professional training corresponding to the theory and practice of teaching, which included both courses in various educational subjects and teaching practice in a real school setting. Much of the norms that shaped the system described above were revoked in 2007, following the approval of a body of law intended to regulate and frame all initial teacher training programmes in accordance with the framework imposed by the BD. From then on, the route to teachers’ qualification is regarded exclusively as a process intended to develop their professional competences, which for lower and upper secondary school teachers means attending a training path with a total duration of five years. In May 2014 a new reform introduced minor changes in the structure of the previous model and reinforced the consecutive nature of the existing training route: three years of general education (the candidate must hold a bachelor’s degree in geography), followed by two years of initial professional training, in which the on-the-job qualifying stage can be distributed throughout the whole training process. This stage includes both classroom activities performed by the student-teachers (usually equivalent to a minimum of 900 min of teaching), as well as direct observation of the practices of a fully qualified teacher who acts as school mentor. The training itinerary presented above means that all candidates who are successfully qualified as geography teachers for lower and upper secondary education are currently certified with a MA degree in Geography Education and Teaching (equivalent to the 2nd cycle of studies, as established by the BD framework, which implies a total of 120 ECTS—European Credit Transfer System—distributed over

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two years of training). Concerning the time allocated and the workload of the different training components included in such MA programmes, the 2014 regulations define as follows the minimum requirements to which their study plans must comply with: general educational sciences (18 ECTS—15%); subject-specific didactics (30 ECTS—25%); supervised teaching practice (42 ECTS—35%); subject-matter knowledge (18 ECTS—15%). Unpublished data from the Portuguese Ministry of Education Directorate-General for School Administration show that within the existing corps of about four thousand geography teachers placed in both state and private schools, 60.1% attended initialtraining programmes structured on the bases of the models implemented since 1987, while 38.7% got their qualifications through the in-service programmes that were dominant prior to that date, and the remaining 1.2%—during unspecified paths. In the near future, the retirement of elder teachers will naturally make the number of professionals whose certification was obtained by attending in-service training programmes increasingly residual. At present there are only four universities in Portugal that offer ITE programmes specifically designed to qualify geography teachers. Their study plans are summed up in Table 9.2 in accordance with the training components previously mentioned. Obs: In Portugal 1 ECTS equals a total workload of 28 study hours (each course must meet a minimum of 6 ECTS). Despite being equivalent to at least 60% of the workload allocated to the training process, the number of curricular units which comprise the components of specific didactics and supervised teaching practice (STP) is relatively small, and their attendance is mandatory. While two of the training programmes manage the domain of geography’s didactics in line with an approach that tends to detach some of its topics (e.g., courses on problem-based learning, field work, ICT), in the other two the subject is handled in a less fragmented way (e.g., courses on Didactics of Geography I and II, Teaching Geography). Likewise, as regards the STP component (which always implies the performance of teaching activities in a real school setting), some programmes consider it as a single curricular unit, supported by a follow-up seminar delivered at the HEIs; while others, for reasons of mere internal management, tend to split the component into smaller ECTS units, which they usually match with courses dealing with research methods in education or geographical education. An option that can be justified by the fact that to successfully complete the training process all teacher candidates have to publicly present and defend a reflective report on the activity carried out at the school where their teaching skills and knowledge were tested. Regarding the more general training components, the list of subjects is generally high, despite the relatively small number of courses that the candidate must attend in total (3 up to 4). In this case, the courses whose attendance is mandatory usually correspond to the traditional disciplines of the educational sciences (psychology, sociology, curriculum and assessment), with the future teacher also being given the possibility to choose one or two optional courses, covering a wide range of topics within the domain of education. The existence of such elective options allows candidates to shape their training paths according to different fields of specialisation.

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Table 9.2 List of the courses included in the study plans of the whole four geography teachers’ training programmes available in Portugal, in accordance with their main training components General educational sciences

Subject-matter knowledge

Subject-specific didactics

Supervised teaching practice

No. courses

ECTS

No. courses

ECTS

No. courses

ECTS

No. courses

3 up to 4

18 up to 24 2 up to 4

18 up to 24

3 up to 5

30 up to 32

1 up to 3 48 up to 50

Ethics and Education School and Society Curriculum Assessment Curriculum Development and Evaluation Educational Policies and Curriculum Educational Psychology Psychology of Development and Learning School Organisation and Management Education and Multiculturalism Education Systems and School Cultures History of Education in Portugal Health Education Indiscipline and Violence in School Special Educational Needs Adult Education

Physical Geography Human Geography Geography of Globalisation Geography and Territorial Planning Regional and Local Development Trends in Transforming Cities and Regions Population and Conflicts Remote Sensing and GIS GIS and Coastal Management Digital Cartography and Design European Union: Actors, Policies and Institutions Environmental Hazards and Society Environment and Global Changes Mediterranean Ecosystem Degradation Energy and the Environment Transports and Mobility

Didactics of Geography Teaching Geography Geography Teaching Methodology Geographic Education and Teaching Field Work in Geography Problem Based Learning Technologies in the Teaching of Geography Information Technologies and Geography Teaching Resources for Geography Teaching Organization and Management of Educational Projects in Geography

ECTS

Introduction to Professional Practice Supervised Teaching Practice in Geography Teaching Research Supervision Seminar Research Practice in Geography Teaching Research in Education Follow-up Seminar in Geography Internship and Report

To complete their training, teacher candidates also need to attend some elective courses in the domain of geography (Table 9.1). While envisaged to expand the candidates’ subject knowledge, the specific contents of such courses are usually not linked with the other components of the training programme, since they are also part of the study plans of the bachelor and master’s degrees in geography offered by the same university.

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9.2.2 Competence Profiles Within Geography Teachers’ Training The framework of competences, according to which ITE programmes are structured and to which they intend to respond, is the result of both the process of universitisation of teacher training and of the organisational arrangements that every HEI was forced to implement in order to manage their entire training offer. Since the four HEIs that train geography teachers in Portugal also assure the initial training of teachers for other subjects of the school curriculum, it is possible to find two main organisational models: (i) universities which attribute to one of its schools (usually the faculty of psychology and education) the centralized management of all ITE programmes, though holding the scientific departments responsible for delivering the subjectspecific courses; and (ii) universities that assign to each faculty (e.g. Arts, Science, Technology) the responsibility of running all ITE programmes that fall under their scientific domain (e.g., history, geography, mathematics…), thus requesting each subject department to assure the programme’s specific components. In either case, however, there is a standardisation of the reference competences framework to be developed by all teacher candidates, due to the existence of a common core of training modules, which also extends to the STP component, whose guidelines and objectives are evenly applied by all existing ITE programmes. The definition of competence frameworks for teaching is at the centre of the educational debate in Portugal and elsewhere. The discourse of educational improvement and policy reforms, which usually accompanies the question of quality in teaching, brings to the fore the definition of what it takes to be and act as a “good” teacher. It also focuses on comparative views regarding teachers’ competences, which are envisaged as a key factor to promote their professional mobility. Many EU and OECD reports stress the importance of digital literacy and civic competences, together with a display of meta-competences (e.g. learning to learn, adapting to change, critical awareness, autonomy and self-direction). Still, conceptualising what teachers should know and be able to do might vary according to education and policy cultures across countries, with debates and tensions between different approaches (Caena, 2014; OliverTrobat et al., 2015; Voogt & Roblin, 2012). When analysing the present-day core competences requirements for teachers it is possible to conclude that they reflect the teaching profession as an integrated and complementary set of aspects: the teacher as reflective agent, knowledgeable expert, skilful expert, classroom actor, social agent, and lifelong learner. A standpoint that should be considered incompatible with the perspective that tends to establish a relationship between teacher competences and professional standards. An inconsistency that emerges from the conflicting meaning ascribed to the concepts of competence and professional standards. The first is usually defined as a complex combination of knowledge, skills, understanding, values, attitudes and desire, leading to effective action in a particular situation and domain, thus converging towards a holistic, dynamic and process-oriented view of teachers’ competences. The second describes what teachers are expected to know, understand and be able to do

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as specialist practitioners in their fields; standards define what to measure, how to collect evidence, and what counts as performance, with focus on pupils’ learning as a result of teaching. Therefore, standards frequently act as an instrument to legitimise teachers’ professional knowledge and quality and overlook the distributed and shared nature of teachers’ competences. The use of professional standards might lead to making linear, causal connections between teachers’ behaviours and student outcomes, an approach which is acceptable once stakeholders are mainly focused on accountability, regulating and measuring teachers’ behaviour (Caena, 2014; Clarke & Moore, 2013). The priority of setting up teacher competence frameworks is seen as a way to stimulate, assess and support teachers’ professional development along their career. However, wide variety prevails in the features and uses of teacher competence frameworks or standards across Europe, in particular concerning the extent to which and for what purpose competence frameworks are used for teacher selection and assessment along the professional career (Caena, 2014; Voogt & Roblin, 2012). A plain example of this conceptual haziness can be outlined a apropos the twenty-first century competences, which different international organisations assume as lifelong learning competences, as key competences, as twenty-first century skills and twenty-first century learning. Moreover, it seems possible to question whether these terms are used to designate new competences, or rather to give greater emphasis to a specific set of long known competences that are considered as especially relevant to the knowledge society.1 In addition to the definition of broad competence frameworks similar to the ones stated above, it is also worth mentioning the tendency to propose new sets of competence frameworks focused on specific domains of the curriculum, for which teachers would supposedly have to develop new sets of specialized skills (e.g. sustainability competences, multimodal communicative competences, digital competences, diagnostic competences). However, while it is possible to accept their purpose as representations conceived to highlight the development of emerging professional profiles and/or social needs, it seems also possible to question their usefulness, either because they do not add to any of the existing competence frameworks, or because they suggest and induce a sort of layered training process that tends to atomize teachers’ professional knowledge. The problems and conceptual lack of clarity outlined before were deepened throughout the last decades of ITE evolution in Portugal, thus affecting the quality of geography teachers’ training, whose epistemological awareness regarding the value of school geography was weakened and replaced by wide-ranging views about the 1

As regards twenty-first century competences the following frameworks can be found in the literature: Partnership for twenty-first century skills (P21); EnGauge; Assessment and Teaching of twentyfirst Century Skills (ATCS); National Educational Technology Standards (NETS); Technological Literacy Framework for the 2012 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP); twentyfirst century skills and competences for new millennium learners (OECD); Key competences for lifelong learning (EU); ICT competency framework for teachers (UNESCO).

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meaning of being a teacher, which make even more noticeable the difficulties experienced by many qualified geography teachers with regard to the identification of the core concepts that should frame geography’s teaching and guide the development of its school curriculum (Bladh, 2020; Maude, 2020; Till, 2020).

9.3 The Bologna Framework and the Gap Between Discourses and Practices Over the last three decades, geography teachers’ training in Portugal was moved from school settings towards HEIs. Although it is possible to acknowledge that such movement led to positive effects at various levels (e.g., theoretical foundation for teaching, recognition of the teaching profession, research in geography education), it seems also undeniable that it was not able to break with the long established university culture, from which emerged some of the problems that most affect the quality of geography initial teacher education: departmental compartmentalization; excessive subject specialization; curricula as juxtaposition of individual courses. As a result, geography teacher training continues to be conceived as an “academic” process, based on a technical and rational paradigm, which assumes that theory must be the starting point for practice. That is why novice geography teachers tend to identify a major contradiction between the strategies in which they are involved as learners, and the ones they are urged to adopt as teachers (Alexandre, 2016, 2017). Furthermore, within ITE programmes the educational sciences are presented as isolated disciplines, not as a coherent body of knowledge structured around different cross-curricular topics, which teachers would be able to recognise as useful theoretical frameworks. Changes to teacher education are seen as a means to improve the quality of education and one of its essential outcomes is the development of teacher education standards, which are becoming a common feature within the European teacher education landscape. In addition, although the Bologna process induced some major reforms in Higher Education in general and in teacher education in particular, the fact is that it seems apparent that the proposed changes emerge mainly in the form of official discourses (e.g. the contents of the documents and regulations issued by the HEIs), rather than as concrete actions envisaged to change existing teachers’ education practices. Such assumptions intend to underline the inadequacy of the consecutive model of geography teachers’ training which prevails in Portugal since the implementation of the Bologna framework. Firstly, because the general education provided during the initial graduation programme is not oriented to the teaching profession; its subject centred emphasis is not aimed at training for teaching, but rather at preparing skilled geography professionals able to act as experts in non-educational contexts (Alexandre, 2018; Harland & Wald, 2018). Secondly, because the curricular structure that arose from the Bologna framework broke with the previous concurrent model of

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initial teacher training and, therefore, no longer offers the conditions which would allow student-teachers to start socialising as teachers within a real school setting from the beginning of the training process, an option that also hinders the early development of their professional identity: a system where beliefs, social representations, practices and identities are dialogically linked (Alexandre, 2016). Consequently, some ambiguities persist regarding the professional identities of prospective teachers, a problem that seems to emerge from both the training programmes’ organisation and the nature and extent of the wide-ranging roles that they will have to perform (Alexandre, 2016; Jones, 2019; Ye & Zhao, 2019). Under such circumstances the training provided decreases the possibility of building a specific professional identity. In other words, the model resulting from Bologna has created conditions that delay student-teachers to embrace a new professional identity, thus retaining what Boyd (2010) defines instead as “double identities”, or as proposed by Leite et al. (2017), an “hybrid professional identity”. A problem that displays the inconsistency between the desire for high-quality ITE and the professional socialization opportunities that are offered to teachers’ candidates. The present ITE model moved away from schools and, for that reason, became also fragile when it comes to bring real life situations into training. In what concerns Portuguese geography teachers, the universitisation of ITE led to a tension between the education quality agenda and the established practice, as much as the Bologna process led to the standardization of the whole ITE system. On the one hand, HEIs carry on viewing geography student teachers as receivers of quality training, which they might transpose into their practice. On the other hand, HEIs persist in envisaging geography student-teachers as any other undergraduate students, thus seeming to disregard the fact that they are geography graduates, whose beliefs about what it means to be a geography teacher are already well rooted in the beliefs’ systems that frame the way according to which they receive and filter the contents delivered during training (Alexandre, 2016, 2017; Pajares, 1992). Assuming that the teaching profession is intrinsically socially and culturally embedded, then the real Bologna challenge regarding the design of ITE programmes would be to find the best way to incorporate reflective strategies within the overall training methodological approach. In spite of all the trends and legal changes that shaped Portuguese teacher education policies, it is possible to sustain that the basic principles that underline its practices remain relatively unchanged, thus reinforcing the weaknesses that come out from the outset of teacher education universitisation: (i) as a university culture based on subject specialisation (Harland & Wald, 2018; Millar, 2016) is not the most adequate environment to foster attitudes of interdisciplinary cooperation, or multiprofessional work (Rowe & Skourdoumbis, 2019); (ii) as a university culture that envisages curricula as a simple juxtaposition of individual courses does not promote a global vision of teaching within the context of mass schooling; and (iii) as a university culture based on departmental compartmentalisation does not contribute to develop the links between theory and practice and, therefore, to engage teachers in reflective practice and teamwork.

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9.4 Final Remarks Data gathered either from the national population census, or from surveys made by the training institutions themselves, show that more than 80% of all Portuguese geography graduates currently work as geography teachers in lower and upper secondary schools: (i) because nationally enforced recruitment standards require that teachers hold an academic degree in the curricular subject in which they intend to teach; and (ii) because the strong position that geography holds in the national curriculum made the teaching career an appealing professional route for young geography graduates, though, as pointed out before, their general training foundation was not directed towards the teaching profession. A consequence that can be envisaged as a positive outcome provided is our assumption that the admission by the educational system of geographers with sound scientific qualifications and skills could contribute to renew school geography. However, it seems difficult to assess in what way such regeneration process did actually occur, as regards either the contents or the practices of geography teaching. The content analysis of the regulations and evaluation criteria issued by several Portuguese HEIs shows that the competences profile officially endorsed is applied in quite a marginal way, since training programmes—mainly in what concerns the practicum stage—continue to put an accent on the more technical dimension of the teaching profession, that is, on both subject specific and instrumental competences. When assessing the effects of the universitisation of geography teachers’ training on the transformation of long-established classroom practices, it is possible to sustain that its results fell below what would be expected. One of the reasons that might explain the failure of such transformative ability lies behind the nature of the training process designed and implemented by HEIs, which is usually founded in a performance-based approach, thus focused on outcomes rather than on processes. Regarding the overall higher education policies, some of the changes generated by the BD framework can only be assessed positively: the greater flexibility that students have within the system, which allows them to change training paths more easily; the training structured around the development of competences; the promotion of a more transversal and interdisciplinary education; the adoption of the ECTS based on students work. Therefore, some of the issues raised in the previous sections result more from the process of universitisation of teacher education, than from the implementation of the Bologna process itself. Nonetheless it contributed to further move teachers’ training away from schools, which is one of the vulnerabilities affecting teachers’ education in general, geography teachers in particular: prior to 2007 student-teachers would have to assure at least 6 h per week in classroom activities throughout an entire school year, whereas at present that experience is reduced to just over 15 h during the complete period. Finally, it should be noted that the results of the Bologna process also fell behind what would be expected as regards the mobility of students attending teacher training programmes. Although ECTS credits obtained in other countries are accepted by most

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national training programmes, the truth is that the mobility of these students at European level is relatively modest, when compared to what happens, for example, in the fields of science and technology, or even in social sciences such as economics (European Commission, 2013; Worek et al., 2021). This problem is certainly not unrelated to the specificities of the education policies that are implemented either at national or regional levels, which might contribute to a less positive perception of the advantages of an experience abroad and further explain the reduced mobility of qualified teachers. In fact, the specific requirements for the teaching activity that are defined by each state—namely regarding the proficiency in the national language—end up overlapping the formal recognition by the national authorities of the qualifications obtained abroad, though that recognition is formally guaranteed by multiple EU directives.

References Alexandre, F. (2016). The standardization of geography teachers’ practices: A journey to selfsustainability and identity development. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 25(2), 166–188. Alexandre, F. (2017). The place of epistemological beliefs within teachers’ social representation systems: A model to explain geography teachers’ practices. In G. Schraw, J. Brownlee, L. Olafson, & M. Vanderveldt (Eds.), Teachers’ personal epistemologies: Evolving models for transforming practice (pp. 353–386). Information Age Publishing. Alexandre, F. (2018). Teoria e prática na formação inicial de professores em Portugal [Theory and practice in initial teacher education in Portugal]. Revista Cenas Educacionais, 1(2), 57–104. Bladh, G. (2020). GeoCapabilities, Didaktical analysis and curriculum thinking–furthering the dialogue between Didaktik and curriculum. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 29(3), 206–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2020.1749766 Braga, C., Dias, A., Formosinho, J., Ruivo, J., Pereira, J., & Tavares, J. (1988). A situação do professor em Portugal [The teacher’s condition in Portugal]. Análise Social, XXIV (103–104), 1187–1293. Boyd, P. (2010). Academic induction for professional educators: Supporting the workplace learning of newly appointed lecturers in teacher and nurse education. International Journal for Academic Development, 15(2), 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/13601441003738368 Caena, F. (2014). Teacher competence frameworks Europe: Policy-as-discourse and policy-aspractice. European Journal of Education, 49(3), 311–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12088 Clarke, M., & Moore, A. (2013). Professional standards, teacher identities and an ethics of singularity. Cambridge Journal of Education, 43(4), 487–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X. 2013.819070 European Commission (2013). Key Data on Teachers and School Leaders in Europe. Eurydice Report. Formosinho, J. (2000). Teacher education in Portugal. Teacher training and teacher professionality. In B. Campos (Ed.), Teacher education policies in the European Union (pp. 25–42). Ministério da Educação. Gleeson, J., O’Flaherty, J., Galvin, T., & Hennessy, J. (2015). Student teachers, socialisation, school placement and schizophrenia: The case of curriculum change. Teachers and Teaching, 21(4), 437–458. Harland, T., & Wald, N. (2018). Curriculum, teaching and powerful knowledge. Higher Education, 76, 615–628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0228-8

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Jones, L. (2019). The ‘C-Word’: novice teachers, class identities and class strategising. Pedagogy, Culture and Society 27(4), 595–611. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681366.2019.1566161 Leite, C., Fernandes, P., & Sousa-Pereira, F. (2017). Post-Bologna policies for teacher education in Portugal: Tensions in building professional identities. Profesorado – Revista De Currículum y Formación Del Profesorado, 21(1), 181–201. Maude, A. (2020). The role of geography’s concepts and powerful knowledge in a future 3 curriculum. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 29(3), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2020.1749771 Millar, V. (2016). Interdisciplinary curriculum reform in the changing university. Teaching in Higher Education, 21(4), 471–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2016.1155549 Oliver-Trobat, M.F., Forteza-Forteza, D., & Urbina, S. (2015). Análisis Del Perfil Competencial Del Profesorado Europeo. Profesorado – Revista de Currículum y Formación Del Profesorado, 19(2), 281–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2 Pajares, M. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 361–369. Peixoto, J. (1989). Alguns dados sobre o ensino superior em Portugal [Some data on higher education in Portugal]. Revista Critica De Ciências Sociais, 27(28), 167–188. PORDATA. (2021). Base de Dados Portugal Contemporâneo [Contemporary Portugal Database]. https://www.pordata.pt/en/Home. Accessed 15 August 2021. Reis, J. (1984). O atraso económico português em perspetiva histórica (1860–1913) [The Portuguese economic backwardness in historical perspective (1860–1913)]. Análise Social, XX(80), 7–28. Rowe, E. E., & Skourdoumbis, A. (2019). Calling for ‘urgent national action to improve the quality of initial teacher education’: the reification of evidence and accountability in reform agendas. Journal of Education Policy, 34(1), 44–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2017.1410577 Till, E. (2020). Fused identities: an exploration of primary teachers’ geographical identities. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 29(1), 74–88. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10382046.2019.1657677 Voogt, J., & Roblin, N.P. (2012). A comparative analysis of international frameworks for 21st century competences: Implications for national curriculum policies. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 44(3), 299–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2012.668938 Worek, D., & ENTEP. (2018). 20 Years On – And Not Much Wiser – Has Bologna Made European Teacher Training Education a Living Reality? Retrieved from https://www.entep.eu/about_dis cussion_papers.php. Accessed 25 May 2022. Worek, D., Uzerli, U., Bierbach-Müller, H. (2021). The interrelationship between mutual trust and mutual recognition in European teacher education. In D. Worek & C. Kraler (Eds.), Teacher Education – The Bologna Process and the Future of Teaching (pp. 99–108). Waxmann. Ye, J., & Zhao, D. (2019). Developing different identity trajectories: lessons from the Chinese teachers. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 25(1), 34–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13540602.2018.1532408

Chapter 10

English Experiences of Developing Identities of Pre-service Geography Teachers Susan Bermingham-Ward and Joanna Baynham

10.1 Introduction As university based PGCE (Post Graduate Certificate in Eduction) tutors since 2001 we have a rich knowledge of English geography Pre-Service Teachers (PSTs). This chapter includes data from our doctoral empirical research studies which were carried out during the academic periods 2008–2012, and 2017–2018 at a large university in Northwest England. We commence this chapter setting our context and methodology. We draw on the main findings from our research, including the types of knowledge drawn upon by PSTs as they experience the transformative process of becoming a teacher, a consideration of identity shifts of both, themselves and their disciplinary knowledge, and how this has subsequently supported our understanding of the way PSTs experience their training year.

10.2 Context Initial teacher education in England is tied to government policies at a particular moment in time. Our PGCE course needs to be compliant with the outcomes set out by the Department for Education (2011). Training bursaries change annually to meet the national demands for subject teachers. For example, in 2019–2020 the geography S. Bermingham-Ward (B) Education and Social Research Institute, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK e-mail: [email protected] J. Baynham School of Teacher Education and Professional Development, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_10

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training bursary was £26,000 and for 2020–2021 it was £15,000. The 2021–2022 cohort will receive no bursary. In 2020–2021 prospective PSTs had a range of options available to them to train to be a teacher. Some of those were based in university and others are in School Centred Initial Teacher Training (SCITT). The majority of PSTs will have a geography honours degree, or a geography related degree but a small minority will have completed a degree in a different subject and then undertaken a subject knowledge enhancement course (SKE) prior to starting their initial teacher training. The government funded geography SKE courses from 2016 (funding ceased in 2020) for those graduates without a geography degree. The expectation is that the PSTs have a good grounding in geography subject knowledge. In addition to a degree all PSTs must also have a high school English and Maths qualification. In England this is a GCSE at grade 4 or above. There is no current requirement for the PSTs to have any recent school experience, although it is encouraged. Our university provides a university-led PGCE route which gives the students 60 Master’s credits (one third of a Master’s degree) and a minimum of 120 days in school on placement. PSTs train to teach one curriculum subject (geography). Each year we have between 12 and 50 geography PSTs (with between 3 and 13% identifying as BAME (Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic) and typically 40–50% males). We also have a small number of PSTs who are on a school based PGCE route where they apply to a particular school provider who organises their placement and school based training. They take part in university sessions as part of the cohort of PGCE Geography PSTs. Our university based PGCE course starts in September with a three-week induction in university which includes a two-day residential fieldtrip, followed by a school placement Monday to Thursday until the end of term, with Fridays at university. School placements are allocated by the university (unless following the school-led route). Most university time is spent as a group of geography specialist PSTs with a small proportion of the time spent in mixed subject groups studying contemporary professional issues in education, including behaviour management. This allows PSTs to explore issues within the wider educational context from a variety of subject perspectives. In January, two weeks are spent in university before starting a second placement for five days a week, until the end of May. The final three weeks of the course are an enrichment phase allowing PSTs to tailor the programme to their own developmental needs. For some PSTs they spend their enrichment overseas, others chose a different school context, or focus on a project based within their placement school. Whilst PSTs are on school placements, they are supported by classroom based mentors in addition to their university tutor. The university tutor roles include: recruitment to the PGCE as well as teaching subject pedagogic units, placing students in partnership schools, monitoring progress in schools, assessing written assignments, writing references and making recommendations to award exam boards. By the end of the PGCE programme the PSTs must have passed the academic assignments and met the Teachers’ Standards to gain a PGCE with Qualified Teacher Status (QTS).

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10.3 Methodology This chapter is based on our professional experiences as PGCE Geography university tutors and enhanced by our doctoral studies which are focussed on the training of geography PSTs. Being mindful of our dual roles as both academic tutor and researcher, and following ethical guidelines, we employed semi-structured interviews with PSTs in our doctoral studies. Being active researchers allows us to critically reflect on our PSTs’ experiences to adapt and evolve the PGCE course. The earlier doctoral empirical research (Bermingham, 2015) was carried out during the academic periods 2008–2012. The focus was on the implications for initial teacher training of the inclusion of personal geographies in the school curriculum. The selection of ‘volunteer’ student teachers was organic and emergent. Student teachers were provided with detailed information about the research and a participant consent form. A total of eight paired interviews with PGCE geography students took place, four during the induction phase, and four on the last day of the PGCE course (15 students in total). Life history drawings completed in a university session on the first day of the course were used as a stimulus during the interviews. Five pupil focus groups within placement schools were carried out in 2009. During the academic year 2017–18 the more recent data was collected for a smallscale case series focusing on the experiences of PSTs during their training year (Baynham, 2018). The PSTs were interviewed as the well as their subject mentor in their school placement, and their university tutors. Informed consent was gained from all participants in the study. A wider group of PSTs volunteered, however the number of participants reduced to five PSTs with consenting mentors. The focus of this ongoing study (due to be completed 2022) is on the professional knowledge PSTs need to become a geography teacher. As qualitative researchers we employed multiple analytical methods for our research including discourse and thematic analysis. In this chapter we will use the data from our research in the form of illustrative snippets from interviews with PSTs as they train to become geography teachers. We will reference these short quotes by identifying which data set they belong to e.g.; PST A are from 2008 to 2012 and PST B from 2017 to 2018. Whilst our empirical data is focussed on a small number of PSTs (20 over five cohorts) the common emerging themes of knowledge, identity, and silence from our analysis have wider implications beyond individual PSTs. This chapter continues with a section on the transitions experienced within the training year followed by discussions on the emerging themes.

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10.4 Transitions and Challenges During the PGCE year The structure of our course has three main transition points for PSTs. For many PSTs these are experienced as emotionally challenging moments that prompt and lead to identity shifts in becoming a teacher. PSTs may also experience additional challenges during the course due to bereavement, marriage, births, ill health, relationship breakups etc. Whilst we cannot change what happens in their personal lives, we can be aware of the course transition points and offer support for the PSTs. Our course identifies these transitions points as: 1. Arrival transition, 2. Transition to school placement 1, and 3. Transition to school placement 2. 1.

Arrival transition

For most PSTs the PGCE involves the transition from undergraduate to postgraduate study. Writing at Masters’ level in education is challenging for many PSTs as the requirement to be reflective and write in the first person can feel unnatural in those initial stages of writing an assignment. In addition to the academic demands the PSTs must acquire the skill of conveying geographical knowledge in an accessible manner to younger pupils. As university tutors we support the PSTs through sharing extracts from exemplar assignments and providing opportunities for peer group teaching. A range of expectations exist within each cohort. Some PSTs verbally ask for explicit knowledge of future assignments, assessments etc. from the start. This can cause concerns for others who trust that the organisation of the course will provide all relevant information at appropriate times. One PST summed this up when he reflected, at the end of the year, that he “felt like the whole programme in September was to bring everyone onto a level playing field.… you said, ‘We’ll drip-feed you, as and when you need it, what you need’” (PST B). Within a few weeks the PSTs frequently speak of the increasing distance between themselves as a beginning teacher and their friends beyond the course. This sense of ‘insiders’ versus ‘outsiders’ develops after their brief yet significant immersion within educational discourse and some shared experiences. Their peer group, of geography PSTs, all in the same situation has a strong influence on them and this notion of being on the ‘inside’ of something. This developing group identity is important as they become part of something previously unfamiliar. Maclure (2003, p. 10) refers to this as ‘binary oppositions’; for example, an insider view of the group is shared during an induction interview, “I feel that I know this group that I am with now inside out and I am quite happy to go to them if I have got any troubles or concerns” (PST A). Identity and sense of self is an important feature of the arrival transition. Creating a group identity offers a level of security of peers to go to for help. However, it also brings new challenges in bench-marking individual experiences and opportunities, creating a fear of missing out and of not progressing fast enough.

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Transition to school placement 1

The second course transition point occurs in course week four as PSTs commence their school placement. PSTs are now visible to others as a teacher. For a minority there are anxieties about walking into their placement school, and in rare instances a PST may decide to withdraw from the course on the eve of their first placement. A key transition identified in the 2008–12 research concerned the rapid induction into professional discourses and practices. This was described by PSTs as intense. The speed of the transition from classroom observer of practice and receiver of information to teacher of pupils and provider of information was traumatic for some. Additionally, a fear of forgetting university sessions was also expressed. Some PSTs on our PGCE experience a wobble in confidence after a period of assimilation into the school context, as they start to teach whole classes. To survive and gain respect within placement contexts, some PSTs abandon aspects of their disciplinary knowledge to become ‘insiders’ within ‘their’ school. PSTs can feel they have to silence, or have amnesia, about the discipline of geography as a survival strategy, as they desire acceptance as ‘expert’ teacher within a particular school context. The curriculum within a school may include outdated geography for example China’s One Child Policy or Mount St Helens as a volcanic eruption rather than a more recent example. A PST arriving with a contemporary disciplinary knowledge that contradicts the school curriculum knowledge can find themselves in a challenging situation. They may feel it preferable to keep silent and teach the planned school geography under the gaze of the classroom based mentor, as they desire acceptance and furthermore, to pass their placement. This situation has been heightened by the increasing range of newer routes into teaching. A few PSTs who are on school led routes have found themselves in the same classroom they sat in as a pupil, with their school geography teacher now their classroom based mentor, ‘…confronted not only with the traditions associated with those of past teachers and those of past and present classroom lives’ (Britzman, 2003, p. 41). Being constantly observed and being open to constructive criticism is for many PSTs a challenge during school placements. Prior life experiences may help or hinder an individual’s ability to adjust to their role as a PST. A challenge highlighted by a PST (A), who withdrew from the course during the first placement, involved the demands of thinking on different time periods, being present in the classroom, reflecting upon experiences as well as planning for progression. Such multi-tasking disrupted her ability to sleep, she could not stop thinking about school. Most PSTs successfully complete their first school placement, and a new challenge emerges as they disrupt and break away from the attachments they have created within the school. 3.

Transition to school placement 2

Following the first school placement, there are a couple of weeks back at the university to consolidate learning and progress and to help prepare for the next stage in their training. PSTs commence their second placement in a contrasting school context. Having been successful in one context, PSTs need an assimilation period in their new,

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unfamiliar context. English schools are all unique, from their feel, smell, sound, ethos, curriculum, location, school uniform etc. PSTs often lose some of the confidence gained from their first placement, and experience a wobble, as what was considered appropriate in their first placement can now be frowned upon. Training to teach within a cohort offers the opportunity to share information and learn from the knowledge and experiences of peers. This can add new challenges as they all experience placements differently. For example, one participant recalls the fear they felt when finding out their second placement (PST B). They were basing their knowledge of the school on what others had told them and this drained their confidence. The PST talked about feeling out of control and that his whole PGCE was over. A very dramatic, but a very real feeling at that moment. The PST then expressed how much they learnt on that placement both about themselves, and how to get over that feeling of fear and failure. They had a very successful placement and by the end of the course they were able to reflect on their experiences and discuss how this had made them more resilient. There is a common theme during this placement of making the unfamiliar familiar. This can happen at other times in the course for some PSTs but for all PSTs this second placement challenges their knowledge and identity as they continue to train to be a geography teacher. A myth perpetuates from one cohort to the next that ‘you will cry’ during the course, and for many PSTs this was a reality. One PST (A) described the year as ‘more intense than [the] Army Officer training’ he had experienced. In response to the interview question “What have you’ve learnt this year?”, PSTs (A) audibly drew breath indicating the enormity of their answer. Their views appeared to come from deep within their bodies, “the amount the change that I have gone through in terms of being a teacher has been absolutely immense”. This acknowledgement of their changing identity and sense of self is representative of PSTs across cohorts. The majority of our PSTs complete a second successful placement and then go on to fulfil the academic requirements set out by the university and gain QTS. The section below will explore the permeable themes of knowledge, identity and silence which have emerged from our professional knowledge and enhanced by our doctoral studies.

10.5 Types of Knowledge Our students come with a range of geography degrees such as B.A. Geography, B.Sc. Geography, B.Sc. Physical Geography, B.A. Human Geography, B.Sc. Environmental Geography, M.A. Town and Country Planning, or a joint honours degree of geography with a range of subjects for example mathematics, sport, history etc. Even within the geography content of these degrees there will be huge variation as to what is studied. Moreover the ‘new geographies’ studied at university are not usually found on the secondary geography curriculum in England. During an early university

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session, PSTs share their dissertation titles and focus, updating both tutors and peers on contemporary disciplinary knowledge. Even those with a background in the discipline of geography must still learn the school geography curriculum knowledge, but they have a different starting point from those students who have studied other subjects at university. They have an appreciation of the geographical concepts and specialist language used. To assist PSTs to appreciate the complexity of the knowledge needed for teaching, university sessions have included a ranking activity of areas of professional knowledge. The educational literature based around Shulman (1986) and his pedagogical content knowledge was used to create a set of types of professional knowledge. These areas were: practising teaching, geography subject knowledge, observing teachers, talking to other people about teaching geography, knowing what to teach in geography, general pedagogical knowledge, knowing the geography curriculum, knowing how to teach geography, reading about how to teach geography. This is what we see as professional knowledge. It is complex, and different types of knowledge are needed at different times but during the PGCE the PSTs need to have an awareness of all these to become a successful practitioner (Baynham & Frank, 2021). Understanding school geography curriculum knowledge and pedagogical knowledge are important as PSTs transform from expert student of the discipline to teacher of the school subject. Polanyi (2003) argues the relevance of ‘knowledge how’ and ‘knowledge that’. How we establish what is important and how we teach can cause tension as we consider what policy tells us, and what our own professionalism suggests is right. This can cause friction for PSTs when their placement school has a specific way of teaching. The importance of local contextual knowledge for teaching school curriculum geography has been a recurring theme during both our doctoral studies. A PST (A) said “I think it is most important as a geography teacher to actually know what is around your school and to know the geography of the area”. Another PST (A), from West Africa, whose placement was in an all-girls’ school, in which the girls were mainly from a Pakistani Asian heritage, found both he and his pupils had limited knowledge of the local geography. As Bell notes, ‘our teaching is informed by the culture of the pupils in our classrooms’ (Bell, 2011, p. 39). Within the later research the small sample of school class-based mentors (4) had different opinions about what knowledge was important and when for the PSTs. Some felt that the school geography curriculum knowledge was the priority whereas others talked about needing to know about the pedagogy, for example behaviour management, first. For one PST she could not get beyond the feeling of needing to know everything about behaviour management. Her school class-based mentor also spoke of this being a barrier to her moving forward in her practical teaching (PST B). This contrasted with the sample of university tutors (3) who spoke about the need to know how to reflect on practice was a more important skill than subject and pedagogic knowledge.

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10.6 Identity The concept of identity is not easy to define and is often described as a sense of self. It is how one perceives oneself, and how this may change over time. PSTs are likely to have an assumed image of what makes a good teacher which will be based on both external and internal factors; the media, their family and friends, their own experiences of education and their motivations for going into teaching as career (Samuel & Stephens, 2000). The PSTs are somewhere between Lacan’s mirror image of the ideal image and the ego ideal. They think they know what they want to be, but they don’t have the experience to have that symbolic point that puts it into a context (Leader & Groves, 2014, p. 129). In our experience, PSTs identify as a certain type of a geographer; either a human or a physical geographer. Their degree is part of their identity. Joining a group of ‘post graduate geographers’ can cause confidence challenges for those with a joint degree, a degree over 10 years old or a non-UK degree, as they compare themselves against others and strive to update their subject knowledge. One PST (A) chose to study a B.A. joint honours degree in Geography and Sports Sciences. Early in the research interview this PST looked for opportunities to link the subjects together, perhaps feeling he needed to justify his passion for both subjects whilst on a course amongst others who had 100% of their degree made up of geography modules. This included the other PST involved in this paired interview. They talked about what is ‘inside’ them, and their personal connections to the discipline. The ‘sport in me’, was a phrase used to make the links to this PSTs identity. A small number of non-geographers joined the PGCE having completed a SKE course and one of those was a participant in our research (PST B). This PST (B) had a background in performing arts and worked hard on her geographical knowledge. When interviewed she talked about feeling the pressure of having to learn the geographical content but also the geographical language needed to explain it. In the classroom she could ‘perform’ but she struggled at times to have confidence in her knowledge. She is one of few PSTs without a geography degree, who remains in teaching. In our experience the PSTs who came from other disciplines also lacked confidence and either did not complete or did not stay in teaching. The financial context for the 2011–2012 cohort, a year with no training bursaries, was used to highlight the PSTs commitment to the profession as those who ‘really want to teach’. To change professions, to ‘tear’ away from another profession is risky, “A big gamble and a big risk because a lot of my colleagues said you are very brave coming out of work especially now the bursaries have gone” (PST A). This involved a deliberate choice on their part. During an induction session we encourage the PSTs to reflect their sense of self and identity and consider how this might change during their training. An early session focuses on what a geography teacher looks like, and where this image comes from. In one cohort where we had a similar number of male and female PSTs, all drew a male geography teacher, typically sporting facial hair and either a tweed jacket with elbow patches or hiking clothes, carrying a map. This activity can enlighten us

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as tutors as to what their expectations are both of the course, and of themselves. If the image of a geography teacher is male, then how can female PSTs create their own identity and sense of self? At this stage few draw themselves as the teacher and this in itself leads to an interesting discussion about viewing themselves as a teacher. On the threshold of becoming a qualified teacher, a PST talked about ‘past me’ and ‘present me’, showing that they were aware of the process of personal transformation (PST A). There were personal difficulties experienced by some of the PSTs in making such transformations. For example, for one PST with prior experience as a professional, the transition to the identity of professional educator was not smooth; it included a shift in his notions of professionalism and acceptance of the need to be critically observed by others. For some PSTs the transition from their prior experience as a Teaching Assistant working alongside and observing teachers to becoming a teacher involved thinking differently. The significance of prior occupational experience varies therefore according to the current perspective of the PST. The external factors involved in the building of one’s identity is what Holland et al. (2001) called figured worlds. These figured worlds are a ‘cultural phenomenon’ to which people are recruited or enter into. They suggest that collectively developed symbols are created, and emotions put on them. This might include tangible objects which have meaning attributed to them. For example, the images the PSTs drew of geography teachers have objects attached to them. Globes feature heavily, as do associated ‘geographical’ artefacts such as maps and outdoor clothing. When the task was repeated at the end of the first term there were fewer symbolic representations of geographical paraphernalia and more to do with teaching; lesson plans, objectives etc. Alsup (2005) refers to this as a visual metaphor and can be helpful in engaging with the borderland discourse whereby teachers integrate their personal and professional subjectivities whilst creating their professional identity and personal pedagogy. Figured worlds also allow for a ‘context of meaning’ to be attributed to encounters with others whereby someone’s position matters and the encounter is significant. These figured worlds are organised socially and sorted in a way that others can learn to relate to (Holland et al., 2001). The PSTs soon feel the hierarchical nature of school placements. Holland et al. (2001, p. vii) describe identity as an unfinished process. It is constantly changing depending on ‘the discourse, embodiment and imagined worlds that inform each moment’. One of the outcomes of our research and our experience as teacher educators is how we notice identity being developed through interactions with other people, suggesting that PSTs develop their professional identity as part of the school they are placed in. Their values and beliefs in what are important in education can shift based on these interactions. However, this can become problematic if the context is alien or the mentors have a set idea of what a teacher should be. If the PST does not fit that mould they can struggle to succeed. During the training year their idea of who they are shifts and may well change but they do not always appreciate why. This can create a tension in their development. As Taylor highlights:

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‘… each individual is situated within a complex set of nested and intersecting relational groups, within and outside the school context’ (2011, p. 1037), this can lead to anxieties for individuals, as well as support.

10.7 Silence Silence can be defined as cloaking aspects of one’s identity, views, or knowledge from others. This might be as an expression of one’s agency, in choosing not to share, to feel ‘normal’, or to minimise the gaze of others. However, silencing can be the result of the context that forces one into a particular way of being in order to attempt to fit in. Figured worlds helps us to understand how PSTs shape and change their sense of self as they move through different identities of themselves during the training year. Some PSTs may never feel able to enter some figured worlds, as they feel excluded or don’t fit in. This might be academically, culturally or other reasons personal to the PST. The breadth of contrastive experience gained through school placements, interspersed with university-based provision, provides PSTs with resources to critically interrogate the question of what might count as geographical knowledge. PSTs might not recognise that they could be silencing some pupil voices, if they are not placed in situations that force them to confront the fact that the way they see the world may differ from how individual pupils see the world. The knowledge of the context of pupils is a key area of professional knowledge needed for teaching. One PST (B) reflected on the notion of insider and outsider as she felt she was entering and leaving a community each day. She saw the importance of knowing and understanding the religious and ethnic diversity of the school, and local community, so she could make her lessons relevant to the pupils she was teaching. As a PST (A) perceptively raised in 2008, pupils may wish to escape their lives. The pupils in the pupil focus groups during 2009 raised concerns over potential judgements by adults and peers. Pupils want to fit the norm, to feel safe within the classroom. They may want to avoid public embarrassment and are aware that they may play down their outsider identities (see work of Yoshino, 2006 quoted in Mazzei, 2007). The normalising dominant educational discourse of white, middle class for many PSTs is silenced; they are unaware of their role in maintaining such discourse which may result in pupils silencing aspects of their own lives that do not fit the one-size-fits-all, hegemonic view. When reflecting on the year during a paired interview PSTs (A) discussed how they were forced to confront their own views and their impact within the classroom in order to relate their pupils with the subject geography. At this traumatic moment they felt they were not part of their school’s figured world and they were forced to change, and gained resilience along the way. The implication from this research study is that the placing of PSTs in contrasting placements does matter.

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However, the link between prior experiences and the teacher they are becoming is not linear; there are many factors to further explore to understand in more depth how the training of teachers can be enhanced to benefit the learning of geography. Each PST has their own unique conceptualisation and construction of what is geography. Some PSTs talk of the subject dissolving the blinkers of everyday routines and surroundings; paradoxically, some PSTs seem to adopt contextually based professional routines within school contexts that may add a barrier between them and the pupils they have entered the profession to teach. The normalising culture of schools we argue also changes the PSTs, a diverse group arrive and by the end of the PGCE there are greater similarities. Quirkiness is not always seen as a positive as it does not fit the mould, for some PSTs they silence and hide aspects of their identity to be a successful practitioner. Knowledge, identity and silence are ongoing themes that challenge us as academic teacher educators striving to develop and support PSTs as they enter the teaching profession.

10.8 Experiences During the Covid 19 Pandemic The pandemic focussed our attention on what we valued as important in training our PSTs. Local and national policies and guidelines meant the course had to quickly adapt and provided us with the opportunity to question how we train future geography teachers. It was much harder to create a group identity for the cohort of 2020–2021 as during the pandemic, the group has not had the same opportunities to get to know their peers, to know each other as geographers, or bonding on a residential. Furthermore, nearly all the university time has had to be online. Moreover, the weekly contact with tutors at university has been missed, to regroup and reflect and feed forward. The lack of physical presence within university and schools changed the nature of taught university sessions and placements, some of which also had to be conducted online when schools were closed to the majority of pupils. This affected their identity as a geographer and as a teacher as they navigated through a rapidly changing situation. However, the PSTs felt better prepared for their first placement. The sequencing of 2020–2021 course provided a longer induction phase on educational theories and school preparation with the first placement delayed until late October. Conversely, the transition to the second placement was more challenging than in the past. At the start of the second placement all schools in England were teaching online and for some PSTs developing their identity as a teacher was a continuing challenge if they remained teaching online. Teaching online further highlighted gaps in local contextual knowledge. For example, in 2021 many PSTs had the challenge of teaching local case studies on the school curriculum. As they were not able to visit the school or locality, they were unaware that pupils might also lack local knowledge. In previous cohorts, this had only been an issue for a small of number of students whereas the restrictions

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on travel highlighted this. To counteract this, we spent time in an online university session exploring how to gain local and contextual knowledge in different ways. This heightened the need for PSTs to understand the pupils’ lived experiences and school context and allow time to explore this both with their university tutor and their peers. The daily choice of language and bodily actions of all actors (pupils and PSTs) is tempered to the cultural and educational norms (both national and locally based) that are learned through observation and experience in the public space of the classroom, this is an immense challenge when teaching online. This may well be a massive challenge for the 2020–2021 PSTs as they begin their teaching careers.

10.9 Conclusions The challenges we have raised in this chapter are drawn from our own doctoral research and our professional experiences with geography PSTs. Whilst we have focussed on one university, we believe that these challenges are pertinent for all geography PSTs and the conclusions that we draw whilst not offering definite solutions help us consider the support we put in place for our PSTs whilst they train to be geography teachers on a university led course. PSTs, we continue to argue, need to be cushioned and supported during the training year (and beyond) as they face unfamiliar contexts and personal and professional challenges. We believe PSTs benefit from training within a supportive group of peers. Such support needs developing with guidance and strategies from their tutors to assist individuals in confronting their own identities and cultured lived experiences, to be open to diverse ways of viewing and experiencing shared spaces and other places. Our university aims to provide a safe space for difficult discussions as PSTs need to know how they see the world and how this is different to how others see the world and the pupils they teach. This can be problematic when the visual signage within university spaces expects a certain amount of compliance rather than personal expression with power residing with the tutor. As tutors we need to work at creating safe spaces within institutional buildings. Discussions on how spaces make you feel and assisting PSTs to be aware of the visual signage within the school placements is a useful induction session. The course structure alerts us as tutors to the potential shared wobble weeks as PSTs experience unfamiliar challenges in public spaces that are familiar settings, though from a past life as a pupil of geography. Explicitly deconstructing with the PSTs such challenges in advance, offering the chance to voice anxieties as well as signposting the support available, can smooth transitions for PSTs. In our experience PSTs become more open to a range of pupils’ views of the world when they are placed in school placements that challenge their own cultured ways of being. PSTs need support as they overcome such personal challenges. English schools as institutions offer a familiar setting, one that the PSTs have years of experiences of as a pupil. Pupils and teachers learn to cloak personal differences, to fit

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in with the expected norms of behaviour and expected lifestyles. As PSTs strive to be visually recognised as a teacher, they may embody norms of behaviour they observed as pupils, and they now observe of the behaviour professionals around them. In embodying this new persona, PSTs may silence aspects of themselves to fit in, they may silence their geographical interests and experiences to fit in with the school professionals and curriculum. Their ability to fully listen to pupils’ answers and views may be blinkered by their need to be seen to be following a lesson plan and planned for question-and-answer sessions under the observation of classroom-based mentors. We include a session where PSTs deconstruct images within current school resources, asking whose view of the world is valued? This builds upon an icebreaker where students bring three items that represent aspects of themselves, they listen to others making sense of their items, often misread and misunderstood without insider knowledge. PSTs critically reflect on whether those whose experiences and views that are not recognised and silenced in the classroom, are then pushed away from further studies in geography? An image of the cohort is used as a stimulus to a critical discussion asking, ‘Does the group reflect the diversity within the region?’ PSTs need to be aware that their training year is a unique moment in time, that many local and national education policies have led to this year. Being aware of the dynamic nature of education can assist PSTs resilience and expectation that next year will be different. An understanding of the relationship between the knowledge creating discipline and school geography is essential for their role in selecting powerful geographies for their pupils. PSTs may arrive on PGCE courses wanting to be agents of change however, they need to be open to being changed themselves and for some of them that is problematic. Being open to unknown challenges whilst being observed undergoing changes, demands a supportive environment within universities and school placements from all stakeholders and a well sequenced initial teacher training programme and early career pathways to ensure resilient professionals. At the end of the course when asked, “Do you feel ready for your first geography teaching post?” PST(A) whispers her answer, “Terrified but yeh I think I am ready”.

References Alsup, J. (2005). Teacher identity Discourses: Negotiating personal and Professional Spaces. Routledge. Bell, B. (2011). Theorising teaching in secondary classrooms: Understanding our practice from a sociocultural perspective. Routledge. Baynham, J. (2018). Interview data collected for Doctor of Education Thesis [unpublished data]. Baynham, J., & Frank, H. (2021). The professional knowledge of teachers. In M. Hulme, R. Smith, & O’Sullivan, R. (Eds.), Mastering teaching thriving as an early career teacher (pp. 1–11). Open University Press.

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Bermingham, S. H. (2015). Problematising the concept of ‘personal geography’ within initial teacher education (PhD thesis), Manchester Metropolitan University. https://e-space.mmu.ac. uk/id/eprint/579562. Accessed 5 Aug 2021. Britzman, D. P. (2003). Practice makes practice: A critical study of learning to teach. Suny Press. Department for Education. (2011). Teachers’ standards: Guidance for school leaders, school staff and governing bodies. DFE-00066–2011, Crown copyright 2013. http://www.gov.uk/gov ernment/publications/teachers-standards. Accessed 5 Aug 2021. Leader, D., & Groves, J. (2014). Introducing Lacan: A graphic guide. Icon Books. Holland, D., Lachicotte, W., Jr., Skinner, D., & Cain, C. (2001). Identity and agency in cultural worlds. Harvard University Press. Maclure, M. (2003). Discourse in educational and social research. Open University Press. Mazzei, L. A. (2007). Inhabited silence in qualitative research: Putting poststructural theory to work. Peter Lang Publishing. Polanyi, M. (2003). Personal knowledge: Towards a post-critical philosophy. Routledge. Samuel, M., & Stephens, D. (2000). Critical dialogues with self: Developing teacher identities and roles—A case study of South African learner teachers. International Journal of Educational Research, 33(5), 475–491. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. Taylor, L. (2011). Investigating change in young people’s understandings of Japan: A study of learning about a distant place. British Educational Research Journal, 37(6), 1033–1054.

Chapter 11

Research Publications’ Impact on Geography Teachers’ Conceptions and Practices Kathrin Schulman

There are many new geography and geography education publications each year. More than half of teacher educators in a German study thought it challenging to keep up-to-date with research publications (Diery et al., 2020, p. 7). Yet, in publications and teacher standards there is a push for practice based on research evidence (see e.g., summary in Diery et al., 2020). Teaching should reflect the current state of knowledge in a subject (National Research Council, 1996). Thus, geography teachers must continue to learn geography. Teachers should also make decisions guided by educational research evidence to improve their practices and students’ learning (Booher et al., 2020; Haberfellner & Fenzl, 2017; Hargreaves, 1997; IGU, 2016; Hinzke et al., 2020; Lane & Bourke, 2017; Mills et al., 2020; Pekel and Akçay, 2018; Perines & Ion, 2021; Simpson, 2019; Thomm et al., 2021a; 2021b; Wiltshier, 2007; Wrigley, 2015). This is not just the case for teachers, but also “[t]eacher educators [who] are encouraged to promote evidence-based practice in teaching and to use evidence for their own teaching” (Diery et al., 2020, p. 1). But what is an evidence-based practice? The Sicily Statement outlines five steps of evidence-based practice in medicine (in Larsen et al., 2019, p. 2). Applied to geography education, this means: a. b. c. d. e.

“asking a […] question” related to geography, geography education or education; “collecting the most relevant evidence”; “critically appraising the evidence”; “integrating the evidence with one’s […teaching and subject] expertise, […student] preferences and values to make a practice decision”; and “evaluating the change or outcome” (Larsen et al., 2019, p. 2).

K. Schulman (B) School of Education, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Windisch, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_11

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In this chapter, I first outline some benefits of evidence-based practice (part 1). Then I describe the extent to which teachers consume research evidence (especially informally) (part 2), and how that evidence impacts their practice (part 3). In part 4 I discuss the role of textbooks in evidence-based practice. Afterwards, part 5 outlines several factors that hinder teachers’ informal learning of research evidence. Based on that, I outline some strategies researchers can employ to increase the impact of their work on teachers’ practice (part 6), and how that benefits the researchers themselves (part 7). The chapter concludes with an outlook and call to action.

11.1 Benefits of Evidence-Based Practice Geography educators and researchers can learn a lot from another evidence-based profession—medicine. In medicine, “too many doctors were relying on habit or tradition despite solid evidence to the contrary” (Wrigley, 2015, p. 277). When there was a move towards evidence-based practice, “patients […] benefited enormously” (Wrigley, 2015, p. 277). In education, studies showed that teachers’ practices impact student’s learning (Hattie, 2009), some learning arrangements lead to significantly better geography learning than others (Reinfried et al., 2010), and “teachers may convey […their] misconceptions to their students through inaccurate teaching […]” (see literature review in Yates & Marek, 2014, p. 2). Thus, more evidence-based teaching practices should improve learning (Diery et al., 2020).

11.2 Learning Research Evidence Informally Teachers learning about research evidence is a prerequisite for them having more evidence-based practices. Formal teacher education compels students to engage with research, such as in their master thesis or class assignments. For example, in one of my master courses, participants collaborate in creating a research article, published online (e.g., Avci et al., 2021; Billo et al., 2019). Outside of these ‘forced’ situations, however, many teachers do not read, otherwise keep up with or use research (e.g., discussions in Alhumidi & Uba, 2017; Otto et al., 2019; Pekel and Akçay, 2018; Thomm et al., 2021b). Thus, more recent research has no impact on many teachers (Galton, 2000). In one UK study, only 28% of teachers read popular science and 38% scientific journals (Dekker et al., 2012). In the Netherlands, such readership was 73% and 62%, respectively (Dekker et al., 2012). In a Kuwaiti study, only 12% “read published educational research” (Alhumidi & Uba, 2017, p. 25). In Switzerland, one study found that 61.5% of pre- and in-service teachers did not “inform themselves about research results in […] geography or social studies education” (Billo et al., 2019, p. 6, translated). Another Swiss study found that teachers informed themselves “significantly more often about geography research

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results than about results concerning geography education” (Avci et al., 2021, p. 17, translated). Only 29.5% of the respondents never or rarely sought knowledge about geography/social studies research, but 45.5% about geography/social studies education research (Avci et al., 2021). I conducted a small online survey (SOS) in Switzerland with teacher students in spring 2021, using Questback. 21 participants (57.1% male, 42.9% female) gave informed consent. Participants were recruited from an introduction to social studies education (focusing on geography education) class for teacher students wanting to work in grades 7–9. In the SOS, 14.3% of teacher students said they never encounter research in education or geography/social studies education outside of their studies (e.g., in their own reading, talking with colleagues). 9.5% encounter such research on average less than once a semester, 28.6% about once a semester, and 28.6% about once a month. Only 9.5% of the respondents each do so about once a week and several times a week. As social desirability might affect the results of such studies, these results might overestimate the extent of teachers’ research engagement. Informal learning does not even work for all teacher educators. In a German study, 3% never read empirical evidence, and 12% did so only up to four times a year (Diery et al., 2020). While in-service teachers can have more access problems, pre-service teachers and faculty have access to publications through their university (Alhumidi & Uba, 2017; Booher et al., 2020; Henderson & Dancy, 2007; Maclellan, 2016; Sato & Loewen, 2019; Thomm et al., 2021b; Williams & Coles, 2003). Even for inservice teachers, however, there are multiple places to encounter research evidence informally, including: • Reading, for example – – – – – – – • • • •

freely available academic publications, research-based practitioner articles, books, newsletters, association circulars, blogs, and learning materials with teacher commentaries;

Talking with their colleagues; Keeping up with news (e.g., newspapers, magazines, TV, radio); Watching YouTube videos; and Being active on social media (e.g., Twitter, Pinterest, Facebook groups); or through internet searches (Avci et al., 2021; Billo et al., 2019; Booher et al., 2020; Diery et al., 2020; Galton, 2000; Hinzke et al., 2020; Imhof, 2005; Lastrapes & Mooney, 2020; Mills et al., 2020; Rohling et al., 2016; Otto et al., 2019).

How frequently teachers access these sources varies by (a) study and country, (b) teacher status and (c) research field.

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In a study in the UK and Australia, some of the most popular sources for educational research were social media (e.g., Twitter), blogs, academic and professional publications (Mills et al., 2020). In one U.S. study “[t]he sources that the teachers did share are not commonly considered reliable sources of empirical research (e.g. Pinterest)” (Booher et al., 2020, p. 222). But in another U.S. study, teachers used mostly “online search engines, university library databases, or colleagues” and rather less “social media” (Lastrapes & Mooney, 2020, p. 11). In a U.S. study, pre-service teachers used online search engines, social media, professional journals and university library databases more than in-service teachers “for obtaining information about an evidence-based strategy, intervention, or practice” (Lastrapes & Mooney, 2020, p. 7). In-service teachers used more professional books, colleagues, and other sources than pre-service teachers (ibid.). In a Swiss study, on average, geography/social studies teachers used online and print newspapers, TV and streaming TV, YouTube, digital journals, blogs, social media, infographics, and Wikipedia significantly more often for getting information about geography research than geography education research (Avci et al., 2021). Teachers got information about geography research often or very often “from online newspapers (74.4%), colleagues (71.8%), printed books (64.1%) and YouTube Videos (53.8%)” (Avci et al., 2021, p. 20, translated). Sources for geography education research were mostly colleagues (61.8%) and printed books (58.8%) (Avci et al., 2021, p. 21, translated). 50% or fewer frequently used the other sources such as ‘blogs’ and ‘social media’ (2.9% each for geography education research; 5.1 and 10.3%, respectively, for geography research) (Avci et al., 2021).

Regarding publications for teachers, a U.S. study showed that 68% of pre-service and 62% of in-service teachers did not read practitioner journals at all (Lastrapes & Mooney, 2020). The range of practitioner articles “read in the past year” was 0 to 100 (Lastrapes & Mooney, 2020, p. 7). In a Belgian study practitioner journals were “not well known by school leaders, and even unknown by teachers”, with teachers using for example “websites or teacher forums on the Internet” instead (Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010, p. 308). Other content that teachers encounter informally is increasingly provided in formats very different from academic publications, like graphics, short texts, and videos. Videos are more memorable than texts, and shared more (Stafford, 2017). In a Swiss study, 70.8% of teachers said they would watch YouTube videos about geography education research on climate change (Avci et al., 2021). Significantly more teachers (96%) would watch such videos about geography research on climate change (Avci et al., 2021).

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11.3 Impact of Encountering Research Evidence Overcoming the first hurdle and encountering research does not automatically mean it affects teachers’ practice. In one UK study, 22.8% of teachers, “having given serious consideration to research, could not subsequently give a single example of research that had influenced them” (Galton, 2000). How does this lack of ‘research impact’ affect teachers’ conceptions? Two examples: a.

b.

Climate change: In a U.S. study, only 68.0% of teachers “correctly attributed global warming to human activities”, and only 39.7% believed that there is wide scientific consensus on climate change (Hannah & Rhubart, 2019, p. 7). Misconceptions: In a German study, teachers did not know about evidence from conceptual change research and did not have sufficient conceptions about student conceptions (Barthmann et al., 2019, p. 92).

In both cases, teachers’ lack of research-aligned conceptions impacted their teaching practices (Barthmann et al., 2019; Hannah & Rhubart, 2019). In general, a literature review (Thomm et al., 2021a, p. 2) shows that when faced with evidence that contradicts their beliefs, people “tend to discount, reinterpret, or ignore the evidence rather than revise their own assumptions”. Moreover, search engines and social media use algorithms to personalize results and suggestions. This can lead to a “filter bubble”, which “insulates us from any sort of cognitive dissonance by limiting what we see” (FS, 2017, referencing Eli Pariser). For example, these algorithms can cause teachers with misconceptions about climate change to see more information skeptical of climate change. This in turn likely strengthens their misconceptions. Having conceptions consistent with research is not enough, as people “can be quite adept at separating their knowledge from their decisions” (Blanton & Ikizer, 2019, p. 157). In a U.S. study, tenured physics faculty knew about physics education research results and held conceptions consistent with those results. Yet, their practice often did not reflect this (Henderson & Dancy, 2007). Many schoolteachers and higher education faculty do not use research results in their practice (e.g., Avci et al., 2021; Billo et al., 2019; Booher et al., 2020; Henderson & Dancy, 2007; Hinzke et al., 2020; Joram et al., 2020; discussion in Perines & Ion, 2021; Thomm et al., 2021b; Wahlgren & Aarkrog, 2021). In a Swiss study, 36.4% of teachers said they “almost never” “consciously include geography/social studies education research results into lesson planning”, 21.2% did so rarely (Billo et al., 2019, p. 11, translated). In another Swiss study, when preparing lessons 22.7% of teachers thought it unlikely they would use current “geography/social studies education research results” and 11.4% “geography/social studies research results” (Avci et al., 2021, p. 18, translated). On average, it is “significantly more likely that they use geography/social studies research results for preparing

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lessons than geography/social studies education ones” (ibid., p. 18, translated). In a U.S. study, only 44% of STEM teachers said they “use educational research to inform [their] STEM teaching” (Booher et al., 2020, p. 218). In a German study, 2% of teacher educators never integrated research into their courses, 5% less than once a year and 7% two to four times a year (Diery et al., 2020). Sometimes research impact is not a change in practice or conceptions, but a new insight or new way to talk about practice (Haberfellner & Fenzl, 2017; Wahlgren & Aarkrog, 2021). In a U.S. study (Booher et al., 2020), 52% of teachers “agreed that research is useful for providing new ideas” (p. 219), but only 36% of the teachers stated that they can “use research to improve student learning” (p. 220).

11.4 Textbooks Textbooks have a big impact on learning. In a German study, 80% of teachers used textbooks in their everyday lesson planning (Haas, 2005). In a Swiss study, 91.7% of teachers would use textbooks when planning lessons about climate change (Avci et al., 2021). But researchers cannot rely on textbooks to bring their findings into classrooms. For example, textbooks often do not include evidence-based methods, such as Concept Cartoons (e.g., Viehrig, 2020). Some textbooks actually promote misconceptions instead of countering them, for example about Africa (e.g., Awet, 2018; Knauer, 2013) or climate change (e.g., Levy et al., 2018).

11.5 Hurdles of Applying Research Researchers identified several factors that hinder teachers’ informal learning of research evidence. One is access, discussed above.

11.5.1 Having Time Both teachers and higher education faculty report lacking time to keep up with, read, and apply research (Alhumidi & Uba, 2017; Avci et al., 2021; Billo et al., 2019; Booher et al., 2020; Diery et al., 2020; Henderson & Dancy, 2007; Joram et al., 2020; Maclellan, 2016; Roberts, 2010; Sato & Loewen, 2019; Thomm et al., 2021b; Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010). In a U.S. study, 41% of teachers said they “don’t have time to keep up with research” (Booher et al., 2020, p. 221). In a German study, “spend[ing the] necessary time” was an issue for 67% of teacher educators (Diery et al., 2020, p. 7).

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Moreover, according to another German study, “[t]he more participants assessed their […] time to be too constrained to engage in research reception, the more they judged research findings to be irrelevant to their practice” (Thomm et al., 2021b, p. 1).

11.5.2 Understanding Research A considerable (and increasing) share of the population does not read much for pleasure and has poor reading skills (e.g., Amos, 2006; Education standards research team, 2012; National Endowment for the Arts, 2007; Washington Post, 2018; Wylie, 2020). As college graduates, in-service teachers should have decent reading skills. Yet, many teachers do not understand research publications (discussion in Alhumidi & Uba, 2017; Maclellan, 2016; Thomm et al., 2021b; Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010). As one UK teacher phrased it: I need a translator to understand what this article is saying. I just cannot understand what [Hattie] means and what he wants us to do. (Maclellan, 2016)

Even 2–5% of teacher educators saw “[t]he used language and terminology […as] difficult when using evidence for […higher education] teaching” (Diery et al., 2020, p. 6). This might be acerbated by “the readability of science […] steadily decreasing” (Plavén-Sigray et al., 2017, p. 1). In one study, 22% of abstracts had “a readability considered beyond college graduate level English” (Plavén-Sigray et al., 2017, p. 4). As a Harvard professor puts it, academics’ “writing stinks” (Pinker, 2015). This development is in stark contrast to what teachers encounter in other areas of informal learning. For example, website and public health information authors are encouraged to write at the 8th grade reading level or below (Bailyn, 2019; Hirsch, 2020; printwand staff, 2013). Many bestselling fiction and non-fiction books are written at a 9th grade level or below (Snow, 2015). Newspaper readability varies from below 7th grade to college level (Readable, 2020; Tauberg, 2019; Wasike, 2018; Wethington, 2015). If teachers do not understand a publication, they cannot apply it. Additionally, German researchers discovered that “[t]o cope with their insufficient understanding, teachers may also tone down the relevance of educational research findings to improving their professional practice” (Thomm et al., 2021b, p. 4). Another issue is language. In academia, it is often “Publish in English or Perish” (see discussion in Viehrig et al., 2019). But for some teacher students, “access[ing] research results” in English is difficult (Viehrig et al., 2019, p. 5). In a Swiss study, “all respondents who inform themselves about research read research results in German” (Billo et al., 2019, p. 10, translated). In contrast, “research results […] published in English […] reach only 64% of the respondents who inform themselves about research results at all” (Billo et al., 2019, p. 10, translated). 20% of teachers in another

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Swiss study said they “would rather use research results less” if a platform showcasing them would be in English (Avci et al., 2021, p. 26, translated). In a German study, even 10% of teacher educators saw “[u]nderstand[ing] English language” as a challenge (Diery et al., 2020, p. 7). Publications with better readability could help these educators. Beyond readability, authors cannot assume that teachers have the skills to understand research (e.g., discussions in Thomm et al., 2021b; Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010). In an Australian study, 60% of teachers thought “that they are good” “at reading and interpreting educational research that uses qualitative data”, and 50% at interpreting quantitative data (Mills et al., 2020, p. 86). In a study in England, 73% “were certain or thought that they could probably” interpret quantitative and 77% qualitative research (Mills et al., 2020, p. 86). In a German study, some teacher educators thought assessing findings (10%) was difficult (Diery et al., 2020, p. 6).

11.5.3 Applying Evidence to Practice Teachers might also lack other skills to apply evidence-based practices. In a Thai study, English teachers “rarely applied storytelling and role-play activity” because of their own limited English-speaking skills (Sunyakul & Teo, 2020, p. 154). Some were also introverted or felt they were not “good at singing and telling stories” (ibid, p. 155).

11.5.4 Seeing the Practical Relevance “Kaestle (1993) […] describes educational research as having an ‘awful reputation’” (Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010, p. 302). An educator using the pseudonym Dr. Gaz (2018) argues: Experience as a teacher and as a consumer of education research has led me to conclude that reading educational research is a waste of time for teachers, incurring huge opportunity cost for almost zero gain.

Some teachers and even some higher education faculty around the world complain that a lot of educational research is, for example: • • • • •

impractical, not applicable to their classrooms and the problems they face, not ‘worth the effort’, not beneficial, e.g., not improving education, or too inconclusive;

while others see educational research as important or have a positive view (see e.g., discussions in Alhumidi & Uba, 2017; Avci et al., 2021; Billo et al., 2019; Booher

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et al., 2020; Diery et al., 2020; Galton, 2000; Hinzke et al., 2020; Joram et al., 2020; Mills et al., 2020; Pekel & Akçay, 2018; Perines & Ion, 2021; Thomm et al., 2021a; 2021b; Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010; Wahlgren & Aarkrog, 2021; YancovicAllen, 2018). In a U.S. study, 36% of teachers agreed that they had “difficulty in putting research into action” (Booher et al., 2020, p. 220). In a German study, 27% of teacher educators found “it difficult to identify practically relevant studies” (Diery et al., 2020, p. 6). In my SOS, 23.8% of teacher students thought (geography/social studies) education research results are rather not useful for their own teaching practice. 14.3% chose the middle category and 61.9% saw (geography/social studies) education research results as rather or very useful (n = 21). Educators are more likely to apply research which (a) is connected to concrete practice and issues the educators face, and (b) overtly describes the benefits—missing these elements is often the reason application does not happen much (discussion in Haberfellner & Fenzl, 2017; Maclellan, 2016; Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010; Wahlgren & Aarkrog, 2021). In a Swiss study, 76% of teachers claimed that they would rather apply research results (both for geography and geography education) if ready-to-use learning materials were included than if that were not the case (Avci et al., 2021). In another Swiss study, 61.5% of teachers answering an open question wanted “practical examples with learning materials” to accompany research results (Billo et al., 2019, p. 13, translated). If publications do not clearly describe how to translate research results into practice, teachers might not see why (or how) to change their practices. Some teachers in a UK study (Maclellan, 2016, referencing a study by Gorard, See & Siddiqui) thought they already gave students feedback. The feedback strategy publication they read “didn’t provide examples or resources practitioners could use in a class” (ibid.). Thus, they did not understand what to do (differently) and there was no beneficial effect for their students (ibid.).

11.5.5 Having Supportive Institutional Environments School culture (norms, beliefs), school climate and institutional support influence teachers’ engagement with research evidence (e.g., Alhumidi & Uba, 2017; Henderson & Dancy, 2007; Joram et al., 2020; Opfer & Pedder, 2011; Sato & Loewen, 2019; Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010). Classroom set-up and infrastructure (like technology) can determine if certain evidence-based practices are easily applied (Henderson & Dancy, 2007; Sunyakul & Teo, 2020). State standards (Hannah & Rhubart, 2019), perceived pressures (Joram et al., 2020; Sato & Loewen, 2019; Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010), student expectations (Henderson & Dancy, 2007), and “[e]xpectations of content coverage” (Henderson & Dancy, 2007, p. 020102-9) also have considerable impact on teachers’ engaging with and applying research evidence.

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11.6 Promoting Research Impact on Teachers’ Practices 11.6.1 Readability Writing in a way that is easy to understand is hard. Explaining technical terms “can multiply […an author’s] readership a thousandfold” (Pinker, 2015). Making a text easier to understand helps even ‘educated’ readers to understand it better (Schrackmann, 2010). Tools that can help authors get started with writing easier texts include: • Tools evaluating the reading level of a text (e.g., Microsoft Word, Bachmann, 2014; Readability Formulas, 2021; Readable, 2021; WebFX, 2021; Wild & Pissarek, n.d.; n.a., n.d.) • Tools showing all the words in a text and their frequency to identify difficult or overused words which then can be explained or replaced (e.g., Wolff, n.d.; Adamovic, n.d.) • Tools highlighting issues like difficult sentences, passive voice, style etc. (e.g., The Microsoft Word Online Editor; LanguageTooler, n.d.; n.a., n.d.; Panko, n.d.; RussTek, 2021; Wortliga Tools, 2021). Preferred length varies. In a U.S. study, 87% of pre-service and 74% of in-service teachers favored practitioner articles under 5 pages (Lastrapes & Mooney, 2020, p. 9). Teachers in the UK also preferred “[s]hort, succinct and clear texts” (Williams & Coles, 2003, p. iii). But in another U.S. study, teachers preferred “books over research articles” (Joram et al., 2020, p. 5). This might not just be an issue of length, however, but also of readability.

11.6.2 Application and Benefits When possible, authors should describe how to apply their results and the benefit of doing so. The clearer the link to classroom practice or professional development, the easier for teacher readers (e.g., Maclellan, 2016; Williams & Coles, 2003). This can also mean that there is no practical conclusion for teachers. “[K]ey messages” can “encourage teachers to read research outputs” (Williams & Coles, 2003, p. iii; see also e.g., Maclellan, 2016). In medicine, some articles already include such a section (e.g., Djulbegovic & Guyatt, 2017; Herregods et al., 2015). In geography and geography education publications this is not yet common. Researchers should also create short publications for teachers alongside their academic articles (Maclellan, 2016; Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010). According to U.S. pre-service and in-service teachers, a practitioner article should for example include “implementation checklist diagrams” (88%/93%, p. 9), “at least one practice

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example (educator-student scenario)” (94.6%/97.1%, p. 10), and real, not hypothetical stories for the application vignettes (81%/90%, p. 9) (Lastrapes & Mooney, 2020). In my SOS, teacher students, on average, gave only 3.76 stars (out of 6) to “applying research results yourself, e.g., with the help of the tasks about the fictional students” (SD = 3.76, range 1–6, n = 21, translated). In contrast, “showing examples of applying research results, e.g., through making some of the educational decisions of […the instructor] visible/giving reasons for them” got 4.95 stars (SD = 1.12, range 3–6, n = 21, translated). This supports the preference of teachers for real, not fictional stories.

11.6.3 Access Authors cannot always make academic articles freely available on the internet due to publisher restrictions. But if allowed, sharing it on a personal website and platforms like ResearchGate/Academia can help teachers find it. Open access can also make publications more widely available. ‘Search Engine Optimization’ that has teachers and academics in mind also helps. Authors should consider making their work available on other channels (e.g., social media) to help teachers encounter their research evidence, especially if they have a teacher-oriented summary.

11.6.4 Platforms Teachers from different countries wish there were ‘translators’ or ‘platforms’ that present research in a ‘pre-digested’, curated form (e.g., Avci et al., 2021; Billo et al., 2019; Dr. Gaz, 2018; Joram et al., 2020; Maclellan, 2016; Williams & Coles, 2003). Contributing research to them can increase the impact on practice. In a Swiss study (Avci et al., 2021, p. 27, translated), teachers said they would rather use research results if there was a free (64.0%) internet platform that combines “research results with learning materials (84.0%)”; content which has been checked for “quality, up-to-dateness and relevance (83.3%)”; and “research results [filterable] by grade” (76.9%), educational track (62.5%) and “competences of the [Swiss Curriculum]” (56.0%). It should also present “research results in German language (64.0%)”. Fewer than 50% of teachers chose the other options. One platform option is clearing houses (e.g., Diery et al., 2020; Thomm et al., 2021b). Clearing houses for evidence-based practice review and summarize existing research, with the “[…] goal […] to provide educators with the information they need to make evidence-based decisions” (What Works Clearinghouse, n.d.). A number of clearing houses focused on education exist (e.g., Dube, 2020). Thus far, for example “Clearing House Unterricht” (https://www.clearinghouse.edu.tum.de/) only covers few topics. It claims that the summaries, based only on published meta-analyses,

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“are written in such a way that the information is condensed and easy to understand” (Clearing House Unterricht, n.d., translated). Yet, checking the summary about selfexplanations with Bachmann’s (2014) tool shows a very low readability score. Another option are books. For example, besides the meta-analysis (Hattie, 2009) itself, Hattie also wrote books for teachers (e.g., Hattie, 2012). Some subject-specific projects exist. For example, “Education in Chemistry” seeks to translate research into something usable for teachers (Maclellan, 2016). A geography education example is the GeoConcepts Blog (https://www.fhnw.ch/plattf ormen/geoconcepts/), which I initiated together with Rod Lane. Students post about results of research on geographic (mis)conceptions and their conclusions, selecting topics and studies based on their interests. Blog post quality and readability can vary widely. Despite this drawback, the project has the advantage of training teachers to find and understand research, cite references, and draw conclusions for their practice. At the same time, they are doing something for the wider teacher community instead of writing only for the instructor.

11.7 Author Benefits Many authors simply want to improve education. Yet, researchers are assessed not by their impact on practice, but by their contribution to academic debate, measured by publications, citations, and impact factors (Vanderlinde & van Braak, 2010; van Aalst, 2010). Getting cited is not easy, according to Google Scholar. While some geography (e.g., Vörösmarty et al., 2000) and education (e.g., Hattie, 2009, 2012) publications have thousands of citations, many publications do not get cited even once (Remler, 2014). If a publication is easier for teachers to find, access, and read, then it is easier for researchers too. This can also lead to more citations. Studies found a significant relationship between readability and citations: the harder to read a publication is, the fewer citations it gets (Gazni, 2011; McCannon, 2019).

11.8 Outlook There is more research to be done. Wrigley (2015, p. 278) argues that “[…] doctors’ use of research is far in advance of teachers, because of […] serious efforts to make medical research findings accessible, including thorough systematic reviews […]”. There is only a limited supply of meta-analyses and systematic reviews for geography education (Bednarz et al., 2013; Lane & Bourke, 2017). Additionally, Mills et al., (2020, p. 78) argue that “in the moves towards evidence-based teaching […] research evidence is often decontextualized and assumed to be easily replicated elsewhere”. This is not automatically the case. More studies comparing different countries and “different regions within one country” are needed (Schulman et al., 2021). Moreover,

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studies should assess how to design useful online resources or books for teachers interested in evidence-based practice. If you are interested in helping to build a ‘translation’ platform for geography (education) research, please contact me. Acknowledgements Thank you to the participants of the study and to the two reviewers for their helpful comments. Thank you also to T.S.

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Part III

Special Fields and Discourses of Geography Teacher Education

Chapter 12

Misconceptions and Conceptual Change in Geography Teacher Education Lenka Havelková and Martin Hanus

12.1 Introduction One of the central goals of geography education is to go beyond teaching simple facts and enable learners to think geographically. However, schools mostly fail in this mission, partially because they are unable to deal with learners’ misconceptions. Misconceptions (also known as alternative conceptions, naive/intuitive theories/ideas, folk knowledge, etc.) are ideas that are inaccurate or incommensurate with scientifically accepted knowledge (Chi, 2013; Köse, 2008). These ideas need to be restructured based on everyday experience or education, which is known as conceptual change (Vosniadou, 2007).1 Although many factors (media, parents, textbooks, personal experience, etc.) can influence learners’ conceptual understanding, teachers are no doubt the most important, at least from the perspective of formal learning (Kikas, 2004; Lane, 2011; Yip, 1998). In addition, teachers with sufficient subject matter knowledge (SMK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), inter alia, knowledge of learners’ common misconceptions, can lessen the negative influence of other factors and 1 In recent years, the term ‘conceptual alignment’ can be encountered in similar meaning as the term ‘conceptual change’. The term ‘conceptual alignment’ is mainly used in relation to (human) verbal communication though for reaching the mutual conceptual understanding, the necessary processes in the brain are similar (Stolk et al., 2016).

L. Havelková (B) · M. Hanus Faculty of Science, Department of Social Geography and Regional Development, Centre for Geographical and Environmental Education, Charles University, 128 00 Prague 2, Czechia e-mail: [email protected] M. Hanus e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_12

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deepen learners’ conceptual understanding (Chen et al., 2020; Sadler et al., 2013; Yates & Marek, 2014). The need for teachers to have solid SMK (Shulman, 1986) is stressed by the fact that a large proportion of pre-service and in-service teachers hold serious misconceptions in their subject area (Chen et al., 2020; Kanli, 2014; Kikas, 2004; Lane, 2015; Ratinen, 2013; Sadler et al., 2013; Yates & Marek, 2014). The aim of this chapter is to point out the role that teachers’ misconceptions can play in education and to present ways to identify misconceptions and encourage conceptual change in pre-service teachers’ training. This chapter is focused on maps, one of the fundamental geographic concepts, since a deficient or incorrect understanding of maps can lead to misunderstanding of the information they depict. However, maps are still too general of a concept for a single chapter to investigate; thus, the chapter focuses on the concept of contours as a form of relief depiction, mainly on topographic maps. Although navigation systems and GIS are replacing these maps in smartphones, the need to understand the concept of contour lines persists. For example, the navigation systems help us to find the shortest or the fastest hiking route to the destination, nevertheless, none of the suggested routes has to be optimal (e.g., given our physical condition). Each user of these systems should be educated in critical evaluation of the depicted routes and the terrain in general to avoid unpredictable situations. Understanding contour lines is vital to navigating safely and effectively. However, beyond hiking, contour lines (and understanding relief representation in maps) are critical in order to identify and predict natural hazards, soil degradation, drainage areas, and migration limits, or to make decisions in urban planning. Additionally, the use of contours develops spatial imagination, the component of spatial thinking that is of interest not only to geography but also to geometry, physics, etc. Therefore, understanding contours is one of the crucial parts of teacher-training, as many teachers lay considerable emphasis on the development of learners’ map skills related to navigation, observing the landscape, and practical use of maps (Hanus & Havelková, 2019).

12.1.1 Background The approach to conceptual change amongst pre-service teachers presented here was developed by and is applied in the geography teacher training program at Charles University, Prague. During their university education, all pre-service geography teachers (approx. 100/year) take a mandatory cartography course in the first semester of their bachelor studies. This thirteen-week course consists of lectures (2.25 h per week) and practical courses (1.5 h per week). The lectures cover important theoretical cartographic topics (e.g., map projections, map composition, generalization, thematic cartography, and history of cartography) since it is the only cartography course that pre-service teachers must complete.

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The main purpose of the cartography practical courses is to enable pre-service teachers to apply their theoretical knowledge to practical situations so that they can reinforce and deepen their understanding, build positive attitudes and confidence in cartography, and learn how to use their knowledge during their own geography lessons in the future. The curriculum of the practical courses is primarily focused on the concepts of map design, symbolic representation, contours, map ambiguity (map power), and choropleth maps, although other concepts are indirectly evoked as well.

12.2 Teachers’ Misconceptions and Their Role in the Educational Process As stressed above, when teachers have a lack of knowledge or even misconceptions in the subject(s) they teach, it can have severe consequences on educational process in general and specifically on learners’ conceptual understanding. Thus, teachers’ insufficient understanding and misconceptions can lead to: • Avoiding or minimizing some content and oversimplifying fundamental concepts, explaining them too generally, or using a single stereotypical schema/image (Acheson, 2003; Dove, 1998; Lane, 2011; Tambyah, 2007; Yip, 1998). • Heavily relying on and uncritically using textbooks i.e., not recognizing inaccurately or inappropriately presented knowledge (Dove, 1998; King, 2010; Kose et al., 2009; Lane, 2011; Yip, 1998). • Reliance on teacher-centered teaching methods in favor of learner-centered methods, i.e., not engaging learners and not supporting their natural curiosity (Kikas, 2004; Lane, 2011, 2015; Lane & Catling, 2016; Larkin, 2012; Tambyah, 2007). • Using ineffective teaching strategies that encourage ineffective learning strategies (Chen et al., 2020; Lane, 2011, 2015; Larkin, 2012; Sadler et al., 2013; Yip, 1998). • Not recognizing learners’ misconceptions and not knowing their potential origins, i.e., not being able to avoid them when possible (Dove, 1998; Kikas, 2004; Lane & Catling, 2016; Larkin, 2012; Sadler et al., 2013). • Inability to appropriately respond to learners’ misconceptions, let alone use them as valuable resources during lessons (Lane & Catling, 2016; Larkin, 2012; Sadler et al., 2013). • Unintentionally delivering teachers’ own inaccurate knowledge to their learners (Chen et al., 2020; Kanli, 2014; Kikas, 2004; Larkin, 2012; Yates & Marek, 2014; and many more). • Inhibiting learners’ readiness to advance to more complex and abstract concepts due to them lacking an accurate and deep conceptual understanding (Chen et al., 2020; Kikas, 2004; Lane & Catling, 2016; Sadler et al., 2013; Yip, 1998).

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Teachers with insufficient conceptual understanding and misconceptions can only provide a fragmented understanding and experience(s) to their learners (Catling & Morley, 2013). The teachers’ misconceptions, therefore, have a fundamental role in the educational process and sufficient attention needs to be devoted to them.

12.2.1 Misconceptions About Maps The current research on pre-service and in-service teachers’ misconceptions about maps, their use, and design is insufficient. Only a few studies have aimed, at least indirectly, to identify pupils’ or students’ misconceptions about maps. Although, insufficient knowledge and misunderstanding of maps, specific map types, and concrete map elements frequently occur in children (Battersby et al., 2006; Blades & Cooke, 1994; Gregg, 1997; Ishikawa & Kastens, 2005; Liben, 2008; Liben & Downs, 1989, 1993; Liben & Yekel, 1996; Myers & Liben, 2008; Wiegand, 2002, 2003). In contrast to preschoolers and pupils, the vast majority of geography teachers and adults in general should have an accurate and sufficiently developed general mental model for the concept of a map (MacEachren, 1995). They should, for instance, understand that an absolute position on a map is related to an absolute position in space via a coordinate system; relative position and distance of objects on a map correspond to their relative position in reality; objects and phenomena are represented by a point, line, or area symbol on a map; objects/phenomena characteristics can be coded as visual variables of used symbols (shape, color, etc.) that do not fully correspond to reality (i.e., shape, color of the objects/phenomena); the meaning of map symbols can be derived from the map legend (see MacEachren, 1995, pp. 198– 199). Nevertheless, empirical evidence of teachers’ understanding of map concepts is scarce. Even less clear is if teachers sufficiently and correctly understand specific cartographic concepts (e.g., cartogram, choropleth mapping, weather maps). Based on the results of existing research, several concepts that can be misunderstood or insufficiently acquired by teachers can be tentatively identified, i.e., map ambiguity, map projection, map scale, and contours (Acheson, 2003; Aksoy, 2013; Anderson & Leinhardt, 2002; Clark et al., 2008; Griffin & Lock, 1979; Larangeira et al., 2016). In this chapter, the concept of contours serves as a practical example of how to identify and refute misconceptions; thus, common misconceptions about contours are stated (see Table 12.1).

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Table 12.1 Previously identified adults’ misconceptions about contours M1 Contour spacing indicates elevation (contours closer to each other indicate higher elevation) M2 Number of contours indicates elevation independently of their values and contour interval M3 Spacing of contours indicates how rugged the terrain is (rougher terrain is represented by a higher density of contours) M4 Shape of contours indicates how rugged the terrain is (rough terrain is represented by more curved contour lines) M5 Circular contours within each other always represent a peak (the highest elevation is in the circle center) M6 Elevation is relative to the map frame (the terrain is higher on the top edge of the map) M7 For the identification of terrain ascent/descent direction, only contour labels and peak elevation value can be used Note: The list of misconceptions was compiled on the basis of works by Clark et al. (2008), Griffin and Lock (1979), and Larangeira et al. (2016)

In general, most studies giving attention to map use from an educational perspective aim to identify subjects’ level of map skills. Misconceptions that often result in a low level of map skills can sometimes be derived from the results of these studies. Nevertheless, these unsubstantiated predictions about subjects’ misconceptions may be faulty and lead to inappropriate educational interventions. Therefore, the misconceptions should be directly identified.

12.3 How to Identify Misconceptions? Qualitative and quantitative methods for the identification of misconceptions have been developed over the decades, i.e., interview; drawing; concept mapping; prediction-observation explanation; word association; free-writing; open-ended question test; one-, two-, three- or four-tier multiple-choice test (Kanli, 2014; Köse, 2008; Sadler et al., 2013; Tsai & Chou, 2002). Each has advantages and disadvantages to be considered. Specifically, interviews and prediction-observation explanations provide in-depth information about subjects’ cognitive structures and reasoning, but they reach a limited number of subjects and require additional training and time to conduct, analyze, and make interpretations (Kanli, 2014; Tsai & Chou, 2002). Similarly, drawing, concept mapping, and word association provide a deep insight, but are not limited to few subjects. Nonetheless, their scoring is time-demanding, subjective, and requires training (Köse, 2008). The difference in (dis)advantages is apparent even among test types. While open-ended tests (qualitatively analyzed tests) can explore the subjects’ reasoning processes, the analysis of the results is more tedious and less objective (e.g. Simpson & Marek, 1988), the multiple-choice tests (quantitively analyzed tests) can be marked objectively and efficiently but may not probe into

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the processes and the causes of the misconceptions (Tsai & Chou, 2002). In order to overcome this disadvantage, multiple-tier tests (the first tier involves a multiplechoice question about the concept, the following tiers involve justification of and confidence in the answer [Kanli, 2014]), and conceptual tests (answers in multiplechoice questions reflect previously identified common misconceptions in a given population [Sadler, 1998; Treagust, 1986]) are being developed. Considering the need for the objective identification of misconceptions in a higher number of subjects (requiring easy administration and scoring) and at the same time the effort to identify all possible subjects’ misconceptions together with their reasoning processes, a partially open-ended conceptual test for contour understanding has been developed and used in the teacher training.

12.3.1 Conceptual Test for Contour Understanding Development of the conceptual test for identifying misconceptions about contours consisted of three main phases, each with several stages based mainly on the procedure of Treagust (1988) and Arthurs and Marchitto (2011). These phases are: (1) defining the content, (2) developing and administrating the open-ended test, and (3) developing and administering the partially open-ended test. Following the concept selection, i.e., contours, seven basic propositional knowledge statements were identified (see Fig. 12.1). Preliminary test items were based on these propositional knowledge statements and took into consideration other information about learners’ misconceptions (see also Table 12.1). To cover the content, one test item was developed for each propositional knowledge statement in a way that does not require knowledge of the other statements to answer correctly (see Fig. 12.2). Additionally, one item was developed for each identified group of interrelated propositional knowledge statements to ascertain that the test results will have practical implications. Given that, map users usually need to concurrently understand and apply more than one statement to be able to effectively use the contours on a map. To better understand the relationship between the propositional knowledge statements and test items, a specification grid was designed. Next, cutouts of a topographic map contour background were created for each of the test items. The cutouts were as simple as possible (see Fig. 12.2) and did not contain any unnecessary elements for a given item (e.g., contour labels, index contour lines) since they could influence participants’ solving process and answer (e.g., participants might cover a misunderstanding of the assessed propositional knowledge statement by applying another knowledge). During the test development, the test items together with the cutouts were refined many times and discussed with

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Fig. 12.1 Propositional knowledge statements related to the concept of contours and their illustrations

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Fig. 12.2 Example of the items from the partially open-ended version of the test (Note: The first depicted item verifies the understanding of statement PK2 and the second item of PK7 in Fig. 12.1)

cartographers, geography educators, and teachers. The prefinal version of the openended test was also evaluated from the perspective of the item’s comprehensiveness and unambiguity. The final version of the open-ended conceptual test consisted of 14 items requiring participants not only state/calculate/draw the correct answer but also write down its justification. The open-ended version was administered to 589 participants in total (specifically, 386 students from lower-secondary schools, opportunity sample, 127 pre-service geography teachers, and 76 geography undergraduate students, convenience sample).

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All incorrect answers provided for each test item were coded and identical responses were bound together into a single category using the content-analysis technique. For each category, the misconception behind the incorrect answers was identified based on the propositional knowledge statement assessed, relevant literature, test developers’ teaching experience, and discussion with other experts in geography education. Thus, the misconceptions were not defined based on the assumption of a single researcher, but from a thorough process involving both authors and at least two other experts. Following that, the 2–5 (depending on answers’ variability) most common misconceptions were used as distractors. The necessity of knowing both the correct answer and its appropriate justification was preserved for the items where the incorrect answer did not clearly indicate the misconception or where the correct answer could be chosen for an incorrect reason. On top of that, apart from choosing one of the answers, the chance to write one’s own answer was provided. Therefore, the test can be considered partially open-ended (Fig. 12.2). Nevertheless, to simplify the test scoring process, the correct answer was always provided as one of the offered answers (this information was not provided to participants). The final version of the conceptual test consists of 15 items, as one item was shown to require an understanding of four related statements; thus, the test was supplemented by a newly designed item for that statement. The conceptual test was once again discussed and validated by experts and checked for language appropriateness. To assure that the incorrect answers were caused by misunderstanding or an inability to properly apply the understanding, definitions of basic terms related to contours together with their exemplary visualizations are provided on the first page of the test, which participants are required to read and able to return to during testing.

12.3.1.1

Misconceptions of Pre-Service Teachers

To show the effectiveness of the conceptual test for the identification of misconceptions, the main results from the years 2018 and 2019 are summarized. The test was administered during the first lesson of the mandatory cartography course to all firstyear pre-service geography teachers’ (n = 127, 49 women and 78 men, convenience sample) at Faculty of Science, Charles University. Their success rate was 59% on average (±18%) on the test. From the items verifying understanding of single propositional knowledge statements, statements PK5 and PK7 (see Fig. 12.1) were the least understood (less than 25% of pre-service teachers answered the item correctly), followed by statement PK4 (39% of teachers answered correctly), and statement PK6 (54% success rate). The results showed that many pre-service teachers did not have knowledge, or at least not sufficient knowledge, of indexed contour lines, down-slope indicators, or the meaning of contour label orientation. The test items that required the application of understanding of more than one propositional knowledge statement were generally solved more successfully. Nevertheless, an increase in the number of propositional statements involved was associated with a corresponding decrease in success rate. Given that, items that combine an

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understanding of five propositional knowledge statements were solved correctly by less than half of the pre-service teachers, while items combining an understanding of four statements were solved correctly by approx. 60%, and the rest of the items, i.e., those of two or three statements, were correctly solved by more than 75% of the pre-service teachers. During the coding of incorrect answers, almost 30 different misconceptions were discovered, including all seven previously identified misconceptions (see Table 12.1) of which M5 and M7 were the most common (held by 69 and 81 pre-service teachers respectively). Apart from them, M1 and M2 were identified in more than 25 preservice teachers (i.e., in more than 20%) together with several newly identified misconceptions. Incorrect answers and their justifications that pre-service teachers thought that: • to identify the elevation/elevation gain/slope/terrain features, it is sufficient to analyze the shape of contour lines; it is neither necessary to consider their density and value nor the orientation of the contour labels (e.g., an elongated shape of contour lines always indicates the descending direction); • to identify the elevation gain/ terrain features, it is sufficient to look at the density of contour lines, and it is not necessary to consider their number, value, and shape (e.g., a higher density indicates higher elevation gain, higher density indicates a valley); and • to identify the elevation/elevation gain, it is sufficient to count the number of contour lines, i.e., without considering their value (e.g., two adjacent contour lines cannot have the same value). It is important to point out that the application of propositional knowledge statements that can be considered as the most important regarding the concept of contours (i.e., PK1 to PK3) in relatively common tasks was not found problematic. However, their application showed to be difficult for the pre-service teachers when the items required drawing an elevation profile, panoramic sketch, or contours based on an array of values.

12.4 How to Reach Conceptual Change in Pre-service Teachers? There is no consensus on what is an effective conceptual change mechanism (Lane et al., 2018). Some of the traditional approaches proved dysfunctional, especially simplifying concepts, relating concepts to everyday situations and personal experience, and teaching simple fact (Dove, 1998; Land et al., 2005; Vosniadou, 2007). A multidimensional approach is necessary to encourage conceptual change. Moreover, learners’ elicited and anticipated conceptions should guide the pedagogy (Chen et al., 2020; Land et al., 2005; Larkin, 2012).

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For conceptual change (not only amongst pre-service teachers), it is especially important to: • • • • •

• • • •

provide a supportive environment (Land et al., 2005). make concepts explicit (Chen et al., 2020; Vosniadou, 2007). build awareness of common alternative conceptions (Lane, 2015). elicit prior knowledge and adapt the instruction according to it, i.e., treat misconceptions as resources rather than obstacles (Arthurs et al., 2015; Dove, 1998; Lane et al., 2018; Land et al., 2005; Larkin, 2012). actively engage the learners—ask them to explain and justify the concept, to apply it in new situations, and to explore the implications of their conceptions; involve inquiry (Chen et al., 2020; Lane, 2015; Land et al., 2005; Larkin, 2012; Vosniadou, 2007). lead discussion to a cognitive conflict and to the awareness of the inconsistencies of their conceptions and the “scientific theories”; incorporate holistic confrontation (Chen et al., 2020; Chi, 2013; Land et al., 2005; Lane, 2011; Vosniadou, 2007). provide scaffolding—mentoring, peer collaboration, materials, technologies (Land et al., 2005). provide feedback in the form of interactive questioning, demonstrations, and openended explorations (Tsai & Chou, 2002). concurrently work on learners’ SMK, positive attitudes to, and confidence in the topic (Chen et al., 2020; Land et al., 2005; Lane et al., 2018).

12.4.1 Approach to Conceptual Change in Contour Understanding In the described cartography course, the attention to the concept of contours is paid for two weeks, then it is interrelated with the concepts of map design and symbolic representation for the next three weeks to build important relations amongst the cartographic concepts. The teaching approach encompasses various methods and activities and can be divided into several phases: (1) motivational introduction of the topic, (2) identification of misconceptions through the conceptual test (see Section 12.3.1), (3) whole-class discussion and individual task solving adapted to the test’s results and supported by lecturer’s scaffolding when necessary, (4) coursework on reading and analyzing contours on topographical maps (three attempts with feedback provided), (5) explanation and assignment of the main coursework, i.e., the creation of a map of a fictional island, (6) map creation (three attempts, opportunity to consult with the lecturer), and (7) reflection on the learning process. The appropriateness and efficiency of the approach is backed up by final written reflections of pre-service teachers (hereinafter referred to as students): Firstly, a new perspective on how to engage students while finding out what they think or what they already know. Furthermore, understanding of the discussed ideas and phenomena so that I will be able to explain them to students in the future (thanks to the practical experience of map creation).

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Good tips on ways and methods of teaching cartography in geography at primary/secondary schools in a fun and at the same time educational way (working with a map, creating a map and “field mapping”, the use of modern technologies in lessons). Better understanding of the map (its essentials and its creation). I think that my own skills in working with computer programs and, of course, in working with a map have improved a lot. And I absolutely fell in love with maps and working with them. During assignment elaboration, I acquired various skills. I liked that for each assignment, there were reasons why we should learn this as future teachers. The interest in passing on (not only the cartographic) curriculum in a good way during geography lessons (clearly, interactively, objectively, usable in future life, etc.)

Despite the importance of all the phases, attention will be further devoted to the ones related to the creation of the map of a fictional island (Fig. 12.3) given its key role, even from the students’ viewpoint, in improving their conceptual understanding, i.e., leading to the conceptual change. The process of the fictional map creation requires applying an understanding of all aspects of terrain depiction by contours (Fig. 12.1) and understanding their relation. The success of the conceptual change process is ensured mainly thanks to students already being aware of the weakness/incorrectness of their conceptions based on the conceptual test results and the necessity to apply the conceptual understanding during the map creation by their own representation of

Fig. 12.3 Example of pre-service teacher’s map of a fictional island. For the full resolution see: shorturl.at/ijFR7

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the chosen terrain and, additionally, by adaptation of other land features to the drawn contours. The fictional map creation is a complex activity, and it thus includes two blocks of lecturer’s instruction covering the obligatory map content. The first block focuses on map layout and depiction of elevation (i.e., contours), hydrography, and built-up areas; the second focuses on the depiction of land cover and specific geographic features (points of interest), labelling, and map layout elements (legend, map scale, imprint). The lecturer provides scaffolding: she interacts with students by asking/answering questions and giving practical tasks related to the instructions to ensure sufficient understanding. The lecturer also shows and explains common shortcomings of maps from previous years. Despite giving students specific instructions on what the map must include and what their fictional island should look like (e.g., height of the highest point from 600 to 1000 m, 3–5 peaks, at least 6 watercourses and 1 body of still water on the island) to ensure the application of the taught concepts, space is provided for students’ creativity in which the activity resembles the Make-A-Place (MAP) activity by Hayes (1992). However, even though their island is fictional, its physical and geographical conditions should be plausible. Prior to creating the map, students are provided with the evaluation sheet to know exactly what will be assessed and thus to what they should pay attention. Students have three attempts at most to meet the criteria. Each attempt is assessed and feedback is provided to each student (for misunderstandings in basic principles/concepts, general comments are written and small mistakes are highlighted). The opportunity to refine their map enables students to realize, reflect on, and revise their mistakes, insufficient understandings, and misconceptions; they can identify the origins of their misapprehensions. Between each submission and prior to the first submission, students have one week during which they can consult their map creation process, their map, and its identified shortcomings, i.e., take advantage of formal assessment. This opportunity was frequently used and highly appreciated by students: I appreciate the approach chosen where the student can discuss his misunderstandings or gaps in the topic before submitting the assignment. I think it would be useful at upper-secondary schools as well. I think that the consultations are very nice. Not only to discuss mistakes after submission, but also before. If a person started the assignment on time, then he had the opportunity to directly submit a checked version.

The creation of the fictional island map is an engaging activity enabling pre-service teachers to apply their understanding of contours, maps in general and their design, symbolic representation, and other cartographic concepts in practical and new situations. Thus, the pre-service teachers elicit their conceptions, question them, explore the implications of their conceptions, deepen and restructure them if necessary. Above that, they experience and gain an understanding of the ways the cartographer thinks and works.

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12.5 Conclusion In good quality and effective geography education, teachers must consider learners’ misconceptions. Nonetheless, despite the fact that pre-service teachers recognize the importance of misconceptions in the learning process, they still remain unsure about what to do with them and how to incorporate them into lessons (Larkin, 2012). Therefore, pre-service teachers must be trained with efficient instruction methods that will challenge their misconceptions and prevent them from transmitting those misconceptions to their learners (Köse, 2008). One effective approach is presented in this chapter. However, the work is never done. There is still a need for the continuous development of courses and methods dealing with (mis)conceptions, especially to reflect on and restructure newly emerging misconceptions. Finally, teachers should be aware of the difference between the need to refine students’ misconceptions and the necessary (and for society valuable) plurality of young people’s opinions. The refinement (conceptual change) is primarily suitable for concepts with a certainty of scientifically correct definition. While for concepts with (temporally or spatially) variable definitions, it is appropriate to encourage learners in the plurality of opinion. Acknowledgements This work was supported by Charles University under Charles University Research Centre program no. UNCE/HUM/024. We would like to thank all colleagues and teachers who contributed to the development of the conceptual test and all pre-service teachers enrolled in cartography course whose feedback helped us to fine-tune the described teaching approach.

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Chen, C., Sonnert, G., Sadler, P.M., Sunbury, S. (2020). The Impact of High School Life Science Teachers’ Subject Matter Knowledge and Knowledge of Student Misconceptions on Students’ Learning. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 19(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.19-08-0164 Chi, M. T. H. (2013). Two kinds and four sub-types of misconceived knowledge, ways to change it, and the learning outcomes. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook of research on conceptual change (pp. 49–70). Routledge. Clark, D., Reynolds, S., Lemanowski, V., Stiles, T., Yasar, S., Proctor, S., et al. (2008). University students’ conceptualization and interpretation of topographic maps. International Journal of Science Education, 30(3), 377–408. Dove, J. E. (1998). Students’ alternative conceptions in Earth science: A review of research and implications for teaching and learning. Research Papers in Education, 13(2), 183–201. https:// doi.org/10.1080/0267152980130205 Gregg, M. (1997). Problem posing from maps: Utilizing understanding. Journal of Geography, 96(5), 250–256. Griffin, T. L. C., & Lock, B. F. (1979). The perceptual problem in contour interpretation. The Cartographic Journal, 16(2), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1179/caj.1979.16.2.61 Hanus, M., & Havelková, L. (2019). Teachers’ concepts of map-skill development. Journal of Geography, 118(3), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2018.1528294 Hayes, D. A. (1992). Initiate cartographic literacy with the MAP activity. Journal of Reading, 35(8), 659–661. Ishikawa, T., & Kastens, K. A. (2005). Why some students have trouble with maps and other spatial representations. Journal of Geoscience Education, 53(2), 184–197. Kanli, U. (2014). A study on identifying the misconceptions of pre-service and in-service teachers about basic astronomy concepts. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 10(5), 471–479. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2014.1120a Kikas, E. (2004). Teachers’ conceptions and misconceptions concerning three natural phenomena. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41(5), 432–448. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20012 King, C. J. H. (2010). An analysis of misconceptions in science textbooks: Earth science in England and Wales. International Journal of Science Education, 32(5), 565–601. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09500690902721681 Kose, E. O., Pekel, O., & Hasenekoglu, I. (2009). Misconceptions and alternative concepts in biology textbooks: Photosynthesis and respiration. Journal of Science Education, 10(2), 91–93. Köse, S. (2008). Diagnosing student misconceptions: Using drawings as a research method. World Applied Sciences Journal, 3(2), 283–293. Land, R., Cousin, G., Meyer, J. H. F., & Davies, P. (2005). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge (3)*: Implications for course design and evaluation. In C. Rust (Ed.), Improving student learning diversity and inclusivity (pp. 53–64). Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development. Lane, R. (2011). Exploring the content knowledge of experienced geography teachers. Geographical Education, 24, 51–63. Lane, R. (2015). Experienced geography teachers’ PCK of students’ ideas and beliefs about learning and teaching. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 24(1), 43– 57. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2014.967113 Lane, R., Carter, J., & Bourke, T. (2018). Concepts, conceptualization, and conceptions in geography. Journal of Geography, 118(1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2018.149 0804 Lane, R., & Catling, S. (2016). Preservice primary teachers’ depth and accuracy of knowledge of tropical cyclones. Journal of Geography, 115(5), 198–211. Larangeira, R., van der Merwe, C. D., & Larangeira, R. (2016). Map literacy and spatial cognition challenges for student geography teachers in South Africa. Perspectives in Education, 34(2), 120–138.

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Larkin, D. (2012). Misconceptions about “misconceptions”: Preservice secondary science teachers’ views on the value and role of student ideas. Science Education, 96(5), 927–959. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/sce.21022 Liben, L. S. (2008). Understanding maps is the purple country on the map really purple? Knowledge Quest, 36(4), 20–30. Liben, L. S., & Downs, R. M. (1989). Understanding maps as symbols: The development of map concepts in children. In H. W. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (pp. 145– 201). Academic Press Limited. Liben, L. S., & Downs, R. M. (1993). Understanding person-space-map relations: Cartographic and developmental perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 29(4), 739–752. https://doi.org/10. 1037/0012-1649.29.4.739 Liben, L. S., & Yekel, C. A. (1996). Preschoolers’ understanding of plan and oblique maps: The role of geometric and representational correspondence. Child Development, 67(6), 2780–2796. MacEachren, A. M. (1995). How maps work: Representation, visualization, and design. Guilford Press. Myers, L. J., & Liben, L. S. (2008). The role of intentionality and iconicity in children’s developing comprehension and production of cartographic symbols. Child Development, 79(3), 668–684. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01150.x Ratinen, I. J. (2013). Primary student-teachers’ conceptual understanding of the greenhouse effect: A mixed method study. International Journal of Science Education, 35(6), 929–955. https://doi. org/10.1080/09500693.2011.587845 Sadler, P. M. (1998). Psychometric models of student conceptions in science: Reconciling qualitative studies and distractor-driven assessment instruments. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(3), 265–296. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199803)35:33.0. CO;2-P Sadler, P. M., Sonnert, G., Coyle, H. P., Cook-Smith, N., & Miller, J. L. (2013). The Influence of Teachers’ Knowledge on Student Learning in Middle School Physical Science Classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 50(5), 1020–1049. https://doi.org/10.3102/000283121 3477680 Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. Simpson, W. D., & Marek, E. A. (1988). Understandings and misconceptions of biology concepts held by students attending small high schools and students attending large high schools. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 25(5), 361–374. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660250504 Stolk, A., Verhagen, L., & Toni, I. (2016). Conceptual alignment: How brains achieve mutual understanding. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(3), 180–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015. 11.007 Tambyah, M. M. (2007). What do SOSE teachers know? The significance of subject content knowledge among middle school teachers and teachers’ professional identity. In AARE 2006 International Education Research Conference. Presented at the AARE 2006 International Education Research Conference. Treagust, D. F. (1986). Evaluating students’ misconceptions by means of diagnostic multiple-choice items. Research in Science Education, 16, 199–207. Treagust, D. F. (1988). Development and use of diagnostic tests to evaluate students’ misconceptions in science. International Journal of Science Education, 10(2), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0950069880100204 Tsai, C.-C., & Chou, C. (2002). Diagnosing students’ alternative conceptions in science. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 18(2), 157–165. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0266-4909.2002.002 23.x Vosniadou, S. (2007). Conceptual change and education. Human Development, 50(1), 47–54. https:// doi.org/10.1159/000097684 Wiegand, P. (2002). School students’ mental representations of thematic point symbol maps. The Cartographic Journal, 39(2), 125–136.

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Wiegand, P. (2003). School students’ understanding of Choropleth maps: Evidence from collaborative mapmaking using GIS. Journal of Geography, 102(6), 234–242. Yates, T. B., & Marek, E. A. (2014). Teachers teaching misconceptions: a study of factors contributing to high school biology students’ acquisition of biological evolution-related misconceptions. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 7(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12052-0140007-2 Yip, D. Y. (1998). Teachers’ misconceptions of the circulatory system. Journal of Biological Education, 32(3), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.1998.9655622

Chapter 13

The Atlas and the Purple Crayon: “Purple Mapping” and Place-Based Education in Geography Teacher-Training Studies and Practice Arnon Ben Israel

Dr. Arnon Ben Israel is a senior lecturer of Geography and the head of the center for Place-Based-Education at the Kaye Academic College of Education, Be’er-Sheba, Israel.

13.1 Introduction It was Thursday noon at the Khan in Hatzeva,1 towards the end of an academic course, which is a desert workshop called “Journey”.2 The task: a symbolic processing of a group-building process during the workshop. The instructions were to represent the group experience in the trip, with the help of various objects, such as ropes and toys, that were spilled out onto a large mat. In two groups, the students picked the accessories they would use to tell the story of the journey that had just ended, using above objects to give it shape, character and meaning. After about half-an-hour the groups started to present their telling. In the first group, each student presented a section of the trip, giving each object a symbolic meaning. The rope snaking across the floor depicted the route. Twisting like a river of Zin,3 curving into a loop at the cistern, rising to the table like a mountain spur, descending into the creek and closing to a circle. The objects were placed 1

Desert accommodation complex located in Moshav Hatzeva. The course includes four days of hiking in a rugged desert area in the eastern Negev. The author of this article is one of the three facilitators leading this workshop in the field. 3 Zin is an ephemeral stream located in the eastern Negev desert in one of the most popular hiking areas in Israel. 2

A. Ben Israel (B) Kaye Academic College of Education, Be’er-Sheba, Israel e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_13

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along the rope, signifying remarkable events in the construction of the group along the way. A pile of stones marked the beginning of group formation, the hiking shackles reflected the formation of commitment between the people, the badminton shuttlecock symbolized the team’s power to overcome challenges, and so on. The rope, objects and stories formed a kind of map, illustrating a significant educational process that was intertwined with the basin of the Zin river, the geographical area where the course took place. Each speaker described their personal part in the formation of the group. The rest listened deeply. It was thrilling. We all moved to the other side of the Khan to see the second group presenting. The rope was laid casually on the mat, with no clear shape and no objects around it, except for a pouch containing pebbles. Wasn’t the group inspired? Suddenly, they stood along the rope and lifted it. According to the rhythm of a stone tapping on the floor, they began a group dance while holding the rope. Each student had a role in the group performance: movement, reading a passage from the journey diary, singing, acting. The group story was embodied in powerful movement, connecting the participants’ experiences with the hiking space: the cliff, the ascent, the view from the summit to the horizon. A three-day field workshop danced in the body of the group through dynamic mapping of the important geographical anchors and social events that established them as a group. Tears of excitement stood in our eyes. What is the secret of the method which delivered the components of the educational process so powerfully? In this chapter I propose as a possible explanation the concept of “purple mapping”. It is a geo-reflective tool that allows dynamic and creative observation of the internal landscape, the external landscape and countless meeting points between them. I argue that purple mapping can be used as a leading tool in Place-Based Education (PBE), which in my view, can introduce a new pedagogical dimension into education in general and geography studies in particular. In the next sub-chapter, I will introduce the idea of purple mapping, which corresponds with two images taken from two famous children’s books: the Atlas and the Purple Crayon. The Atlas is the “Big Book” that appears in Antoine de SaintExupery’s The Little Prince (1959). The purple crayon appears in Croquet Johnson’s “Harold and the Purple Crayon” (1955). The first image represents the old order in the world of mapping and geography, and the second image takes this issue to new horizons. Later in this paper I will present examples from several courses that are taught as part of a Geography teacher training program at Kaye College.

13.2 Between Two Images: The Atlas and the Purple Crayon Geography is perhaps most closely associated with the systematic scientific efforts to represent space accurately. However, despite the great influence of maps on our spatial imagination, they are not entirely accurate representations of space (Monmonier, 1991). Authors of children’s stories preceded geographers by about four decades in

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recognizing the gap between the seriousness, even the arrogance, inherent in scientific mapping projects and the political-cultural-ideological bias inherent in the products (Crampton, 2010). With the advent of critical geography of the late last century, geographers taught us that alongside the effort to scientifically and accurately represent the space, the mapping project in modern history informed and accelerated colonial occupation and assisted in a variety of ways to establish the hegemonic forces (Cosgrove, 2008; Sparke, 1998; Wood & Fels, 1986). It is not by chance, after all, that the “picture of the world” engraved in the imaginations of billions across the globe reflects the prejudices of Northern mappers, with Europe “on top” while the relative size of the South is small (Pickles, 2004). The interpretive move inherent in mapping, its shortcomings on the one hand and the potential inherent in it for giving voice to weak social groups on the other, developed only after the “cultural turn”, towards the end of the century (Harley, 2002). The tension between the objective-natural concept of mapping and the interpretative-critical approach is reflected in this article in the tension between the image of the atlas and the purple crayon. The first image, the atlas, is presented in the dialogue that takes place between the Little Prince and the old Geographer on the sixth planet (Saint-Exupery, 1959, Chap. 15). The dialogue is nothing but a mutual inquiry—the geographer, the one who “never leaves his office”, examines the information that the Little Prince brings (as for the planet he came from) and vice versa: “Where do you come from?” the old gentleman said to him. “What is that big book?” said the little prince. “What are you doing?” “I am a geographer,” said the old gentleman. “What is a geographer?” asked the little prince. “A geographer is a scholar who knows the location of all the seas, rivers, towns, mountains, and deserts.” … “Your planet is very beautiful,” he said. “Has it any oceans?” “I couldn’t tell you,” said the geographer. “Ah!” The little prince was disappointed. “Has it any mountains?” “I couldn’t tell you,” said the geographer. “And towns, and rivers, and deserts?” “I couldn’t tell you that, either.” “But you are a geographer!” “Exactly,” the geographer said. “But I am not an explorer. I haven’t a single explorer on my planet. It is not the geographer who goes out to count the towns, the rivers, the mountains, the seas, the oceans, and the deserts. The geographer is much too important to go loafing about. He does not leave his desk. … The geographer was suddenly stirred to excitement. “But you—you come from far away! You are an explorer! You shall describe your planet to me!”

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And, having opened his big register, the geographer sharpened his pencil. The recitals of explorers are put down first in pencil. One waits until the explorer has furnished proofs, before putting them down in ink. “Well?” said the geographer expectantly. “Oh, where I live,” said the little prince, “it is not very interesting. It is all so small. I have three volcanoes. Two volcanoes are active and the other is extinct. But one never knows.” “One never knows.” “I also have a flower.” “We do not record flowers,” said the geographer. “Why is that? The flower is the most beautiful thing on my planet!” “We do not record them,” said the geographer, “because they are ephemeral.” “What does that mean – ephemeral’?” “Geographies,” said the geographer, “are the books which, of all books, are most concerned with matters of consequence. They never become old-fashioned. It is very rarely that a mountain changes its position. It is very rarely that an ocean empties itself of its waters. We write of eternal things.” … “My flower is ephemeral,” the little prince said to himself, “and she has only four thorns to defend herself against the world. And I have left her on my planet, all alone!” That was his first moment of regret. (Saint-Exupery, 1959, pp. 35–37)

The “big book” on the geographer’s desk is an atlas, in which geographical knowledge is written and assigned. This knowledge is the product of the exclusive expertize of the old geographer who knows the places of all things. Only after a careful examination of the validity of their memories and the moral level of the explorers, does the geographer write the knowledge in an atlas and seal it in ink. This knowledge then acquires the status of eternal knowledge. Descriptions of changing, moving, and “ephemeral” elements, in fact, everything that is alive is excluded from this great book. From the point of view of the Little Prince, the old geographer shows a complete lack of interest in what, for the Little Prince, is “the most beautiful thing” on his planet, the center of the prince’s subjective-emotional world: his rose, his great love, whom the crisis with which leads the Little Prince to embark on his inter-planetary journey. If the atlas is the image of an organized, authoritative world, the purple crayon is the opposite image of spatial knowledge production. In the children’s book Harold and the Purple Crayon, Harold, a little boy, embarks on a nocturnal journey by the light of the moon, holding a purple crayon. Until Harold begins to move in space, there is no space. The purple crayon creates the places Harold wishes to go to. Everything that Harold draws with his purple crayon “becomes reality”: a path, a mountain, a tree, a dragon, a pie, an ocean, a city, and finally his bedroom. Moreover, as Harold creates space while moving, he also reflects his changing inner self: his mood, his feelings, his dreams and his desires. The theme of the story ranges from stability to “getting lost”, from certainty to uncertainty, between the expected and the surprising, between Harold’s private bedroom and the waves of the ocean:

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He made a long straight path so he wouldn’t get lost. And he set off on his walk, taking his big purple crayon with him. But he didn’t seem to be getting anywhere on the long straight path. So he left the path for a shortcut across a field. And the moon went with him. The shortcut led right to where Harold thought a forest ought to be. He didn’t want to get lost in the woods, so he made a very small forest with just one tree in it. It turned out to be an apple tree. The apples would be very tasty, Harold thought, when they got red. So he put a frightening dragon under the tree to guard the apples. It was a terribly frightening dragon. It even frightened Harold. He backed away. His hand, holding the purple crayon, shook. Suddenly, he realized what was happening. But by then, Harold was over his head in an ocean. (Johnson, 1955, pp. 2–18)

At the end of the journey, the purple crayon and Harold return home, to the spatial-narrative starting point—that is, to Harold’s familiar, welcoming room. In the concluding scene, Harold’s grip on the purple crayon weakens, the purple crayon drops to the floor, joining other crayons colors and paints at the end of the day. Like the drop of the purple crayon, “Harold dropped off to sleep”. The last illustration shows a child sleeping in his bed, reinforcing the dream dimension of the whole story.

13.3 Purple Mapping According to the classical geographical approach, a line drawn on the map reflects conditions prevailing somewhere in the world (Kitchin et al., 2011). The purple crayon goes one step further: the line drawn not only reflects reality, but actually creates it, uniting map and space. At the same time, this line represents Harold’s inner psychic reality. The term coined here—purple mapping—is meant to allude to this inner-outer unity, as well as to other principles. One of these is the right to the map,4 which in purple mapping is given to all. The atlas, a grotesque image in The Little Prince, is a sealed, seemingly closed signification of spatial-geographical mapping. It is the product of an objective epistemology based on a systematic methodology, mastered by a professional geographer. In the context of the contrast between the world of adults and the world of children, one can see in the atlas a representation of the world of adults and of their ways of producing scientific knowledge. It is a sorting and cataloging device, rational and unswayed by emotion, fortified by striving for absolute (as possible) truth, that approves, scores and incorporates those elements that meet its criteria, and filters out whatever does not. However, this world is indifferent to the child’s inner, subjective, emotionally rich world. The purple crayon, in contrast, is an unrealistic device that combines imagination, dream, mobility and fantasy. Purple mapping challenges the knowledge of the scientifically constructed adult world by giving the “mapping power” to untrained children who map, as they create, the small and large things which are relevant to them. 4

In correspondence, of course, with Lefebvre’s ‘Right to the City’ (Lefebvre, 1996).

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The second principle proposed by purple mapping is the emphasis on process rather than product. In contrast to the sanctification of the map, as a complete product that represents space in modern geography, the process by which the purple crayon maps and produces space and place does not accumulate into any static reality. It is an ongoing and open mapping process. As such, using purple mapping makes it always possible to draw an alternative landscape. Furthermore, in emphasizing the processes, new possibilities are added for a flexible, variable and fluid representation of the space. Thus, purple mapping may occur through speech, body movement, music or entirely within the imagination. The third principle of purple mapping is that its value stems entirely from human creativity. Without the hand that holds the crayon, the magic fades. And like any other deep creative process, purple mapping embodies and reflects emotions and feelings. The main interest of purple mapping, so to speak, is anything that encourages curiosity, wonder and reflectivity. The atlas, then, symbolizes conventional, scientific mapping, alienated, complete, a mapping that is the work of adults and professionals. Children’s literature, on the other hand, offers the concept of purple mapping, characterized by a rhizomatic construction of spatial experience and knowledge. It is drawn by a wandering child, and follows the Little Prince’s perception that “one never knows”. This is not a product-oriented mapping rather a process-based practice of doing. It asks, is open, and does not seal, combining the exterior landscape with the interior one. It is a learning process of the outside, which takes place in the world itself, rather than in an office with a desk, a laboratory or a class, locales that imply a closedness to the world. Purple mapping is a creative process that invites and allows a child, Harold, and basically everybody else, to develop their imagination and dreaming ability in order to get to know the outside world as well as the inner self. Whereas the Little Prince leaves the old geographer’s glorious planet without seeing it, much like the geographer himself, such is the power of geography, purple mapping created for Harold a place and sense of belonging.

13.4 The School as a Non-Place: The Spatial Critique The importance of purple mapping as a characteristic of Place-Based Education (PBE) stems from the crisis in conventional education, one dimension of which is institutionalized isolation, which separates learning from the environment and from the local community (Sobel, 2004). In general, it can be said that the typical modern school is usually designed as a compound which is distinct from its social and natural environment and in many cases surrounded by a fence or a wall (Hecht, 2005). Within the classroom, a common pedagogy has been developed over the generations, based on the transfer of knowledge from top to bottom (Glassner & Back, 2020). Meanwhile, out-of-class learning has become increasingly rare over the years. City tour, annual trip and the like are usually the exceptions that prove the rule. Architecturally, the typical modern school is planned and designed as a facility that represents

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and encourages values such as efficiency, uniformity and hierarchy. On an institutional or class scale, the design contributes to maximum control and supervision over the learning process (Hecht, 2005). The principle of zoning regulation also dictates the internal organization of school spaces: the study complexes (classrooms) are usually separated from the areas of operation and control as well as from the intermission areas (courtyard, soccer field). A large clock and a deafening ring regulate the dimension of time in the institution. In terms of Edward Relph’s approach (Relph, 1976) the archetypal school is designed in such a way that may evoke an inauthentic sense of place and therefore is likely to be experienced as a “non-place” (Gullov & Olwig, 2003). Moreover, such spatial-educational structures are detached from the daily pulse of society—the spaces and places in which “real life” takes place (Dewey, 1959). Indeed, Vygotsky (1930/1978) claims that such a structure can only promote abstracttheoretical learning because meaningful experiential learning is only possible if the learners participate in real social activities that take place in situ. According to Vygotsky (ibid.), in the absence of an experiential and multi-sensory dimension of education, so dominant in the construction of knowledge in pre-modern human history, modern education remains soulless.

13.5 Place-Based-Education (PBE) As a possible alternative to the educational conditions described above, the “PlaceBased-Education” approach, a term first coined by John Elder (Elder et al, 1998), attaches great importance to anchoring educational processes in the living environment in order to remove formal education from the confined classroom and into a variety of spaces and places: the schoolyard, neighborhood, city and surroundings and so on (Knapp, 2005). This approach seeks to include in the educational process an examination of “local knowledge”, the cultural and sensual landscape that make up the learners’ daily living environment. The local dilemmas and challenges that conventional education systems tend to ignore are at the center of interest in PBE (Gruenewald, 2003). Great importance is given to the design of the learning spaces in accordance with local cultural values, so that the pupils will feel the school as a “place”—a warm and welcoming space. In doing so, attention will be given to different modes and traditions of space organization. The movement from the intramural to the outside, as a central pedagogical principle, diversifies the didactic range, and connects the learners to their community and culture. Methods such as outdoor learning and active learning while on the move, through “exploratory movement” in the urban environment and open areas, allow students to observe the processes that shape their lives as well as to conduct an environmental-reflective clarification of questions that interest them (Gruenewald & Smith, 2008). If the conventional educational rationale is to isolate learning processes from “background noise” to avoid distraction in the refined process of knowledge transfer,

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then PBE pedagogy sees precisely in this “noise” a potential for making a deep, multidimensional pedagogical change. In this framework, students are involved in experiencing and asking questions concerning their environment and culture, they study in a variety of spaces around the city and the surrounding area and produce knowledge relevant to their life contexts. In doing so, students acquire a variety of skills and establish feelings of belonging and responsibility to their communities and environments (Gruenewald & Smith, 2008).

13.6 Purple Mapping as a Characteristic of PBE: Examples from Geography Studies as Part of an Academic Program for Teacher Training The principles of purple mapping are inherently integrated into the perception and practice of place-based education. This relationship is presented below through some examples from courses in geography and education in the teacher-training program at Kaye Academic College of Education. The College serves a mainly lower-middleclass population, consisting of members of diverse ethnic groups in southern Israel, Jews and Arabs.

13.6.1 The Course “Get up and Walk” “Get up and walk” is the name of a course which is actually a workshop lasting five full days of study (08:30–16:00), chosen by students from different years of their degree studies. Over the years, I have led this course as a lecturer. During it we examine various aspects of outdoor learning while experiencing spaces that are on the continuum between the urban and the natural, while focusing on the variety of contexts of movement and culture. The students are exposed to theories and practices concerning the connection between movement in space and mental-pedagogical and cultural processes (Cresswell, 2006; Feinberg, 2016; Jung, 2014). Alongside the theoretical learning sections, the students went on several tours of the neighborhood. It should be noted that the College is located near one of the largest low income neighborhoods in Israel. The preliminary tours are quite free in their pedagogical structure. Students note interesting encounters with local landscapes, residents and passers-by. These interactions arouse curiosity and raise a variety of questions. The group is divided into teams that formulate a research question and conduct mini-research on a subject related to their experiences in neighborhood. The range of research questions is quite wide. For example—what is the planning history of the neighborhood? What is the role of local art in the context of a neighborhood in a low socio-economic status? What are the implications of a government project to rehabilitate buildings and courtyards? What

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are the socio-economic effects of the university, which is located near the eastern part of the neighborhood, etc.… Knowledge is gathered by the teams and presented to the entire class at the end of each tour, using an outline map of the neighborhood for feedback. What starts as a blind map merely representing the contours of the neighborhood, is slowly being filled with layers of knowledge of different types: social and spatial knowledge, points of interest, sites of insight, points of introspection, intersections of questions and experiences, and areas of deliberation-so in an ongoing and spiral process. During the first three days of the course, students became acquainted with the neighborhood and gather a variety of information to answer their research question. Students are exposed to a variety of local knowledge sources such as local informants, experts, formal and informal archives, the municipality website, etc. On the fourth day, each team presents the learning process and some key insights. The presentation takes place in the neighborhood itself at a location chosen by the team. During the tours, the students developed a diverse emotional range in relation to the neighborhood. Among many students who grow up in poor neighborhoods, the challenges and difficulties they encounter during urban tours and fieldwork evoke childhood memories; this motivates the research processes and gives them great relevance. Other students are exposed to a whole world that they are used to passing by every day on the way to college without seeing it at all. In the post-presentation feedback, the pros and cons of out-of-class learning are discussed, with reference to the scientific literature. Among other things, the difficulties of the method are examined: uncertainty in the learning and research processes due to the need to “produce” diverse data under field conditions, distraction in encounters with outsiders, dealing with weather conditions, the complexity of unmediated (and usually unexpected) human encounters, and so on. These aspects of PBE can make it difficult to create and internalize knowledge and to present it. But at the same time they can arouse curiosity, connect the students to the object of their research and make the learning experience personally meaningful. Either way, the meta-cognitive and pedagogical discourse that developed during the course regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the method is of great value in formulating the students’ perception of their role as future geography teachers. One example of pedagogical complexity occurred during a presentation. The team focused on researching the history of a therapeutic institution for children with severe disabilities and its relationship with its social environment. In the middle of the presentation, the school day at the institution ended. As the pupils made their way to the modified minibuses waiting to take them home, the presentation, held nearby the entrance of the educational institution, was discontinued. The College students felt that it would be inappropriate to discuss their research in the presence of the disabled pupils, for they saw them as part of the human fabric of the neighborhood, and not as “subjects” or objects of research. The presentation was moved a few meters away, so that the group of students will be invisible and will not be heard from the gate area. This presentation not only reflected an earlier move of knowledge production, but also added an experiential learning of the ethical complexity of field research.

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This ongoing and multi-layered process of spiral spatial learning is consistent with the idea of purple mapping. Another team examined the deterioration of the old shopping center in the heart of the neighborhood. In the middle of the day, the whole class walked into a small flower shop there. For a full hour, at the height of daily business activity, the owner took a break from business to host the students. The students met him at the store, and he told them the story of the place. Throughout this story, findings and insights from the mini-research of the shopping center were presented. The place was too narrow to accommodate all the students, and they sat wherever possible—on plastic chairs that were brought into the shop, on inverted buckets, on stools, and on top of each other. After half an hour, the store owner pulled out a guitar, played and sang along with the students. The story of the place was a familiar one of urban decay, and yet at the same time endearing and fascinating. The visit lifted our spirits. In the spirit of purple mapping, geographical knowledge is processed and presented as part of an experiential human encounter, where a story, song and place are intertwined. The final activity of the course is held on the fifth day, after the interpersonal relationships in the heterogeneous group of learners has already been established, when the students set out for a day of hiking and movement in the vast, inspiring nature reserve far outside the city. By this point each student is already able to share with classmates a personal story of their own individual journey, which they do on a site of their choice along the route. During a day which was constructed by a rhythm of movement/stopping according to the route, terrain and landscape, the students shared with each other significant personal journeys such as family migration stories, residences relocations, backpacking trips etc. Many of the students used objects which they brought from home, that have a symbolic value relevant to their personal journey story—such as a photograph, a travel diary, a small stone or a souvenir. Words, objects, body gestures and landscapes, put together into auto-biogeographical narratives. Using the principles of purple mapping, PBE pedagogy exposes students to a variety of geographical issues related to development difficulties and deterioration in the condition of old neighborhood in the city; it reveals personal affiliations or alienation towards everyday spaces; teaches neighborhood exploration skills; and enables personal sharing through a reflective walk in an open natural landscape.

13.6.2 Teaching Experience Workshop Using purple mapping, as part of place-based pedagogy by third-year pre-service teachers results in diverse learning processes. In their practicum, students lead PBE processes with pupils in schools in different neighborhoods in the city of Beersheba. The examples that follow show some of the many possibilities that PBE contains. “The path to the trail”—The learners dealt with the general issue of open spaces, and about the route of a hiking trail that circumscribes the city. The College students guided the pupils to find a route that connects their school and neighborhood to

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the city hiking trail, and to map it. Among other things they drew a map of the city hiking trail and the neighborhood route to it on a central wall in the school, near their class, noting street names and local institutions. Another project, named “spatial mandalas”, dealt with the pupils’ circles of connection and belonging, from the individual level through the neighborhood level to the environmental level. A graphic representation of these spatial relationships was given in the drawing of mandalas on the school walls. In another project that examined various aspects of “text in the neighbourhood”, the pupils chose significant personal texts (proverbs, lyrics, quotes, etc.), and then located a site in the landscape where they photographed themselves holding their personal text which was written on cardboard. This project ended with an exhibition of these photos. In another project, pupils investigated the issue of “street games”. Grandparents were invited to class, to teach the games they used to play as children in less motorized and computerized times. After learning four street games, the optimal sites in the neighborhood for playing them were chosen and mapped. The other classes were invited to join in, and were taught the games by the pupils themselves. In contrast to more conventional methods of didactic processes of drawing maps, in the student’s practicum, space representation techniques were not tested according to measures of accuracy and systematically. On the contrary, the qualities of ‘purple mapping’ stem precisely from the variety of uses and creativity in the use of the tools of representing space as part of learning human/place relations. During the practicum, students and young boys and girls creatively and symbolically mapped out their spaces of life through storytelling, dancing or drawing mandalas. They did so while moving from the educational institution out and back, and while being open to the local knowledge embedded in the community and environment. It should be noted that these activities include the activation of emotions, the imagination and personal relations, as well as developing a host of higher-order thinking skills. As discussed and demonstrated so far, purple mapping is part of an alternative pedagogy that calls for leaving the classroom for additional daily spaces, exploring and experiencing them in a variety of reflective methods and representations. The “mapping power” provided in this manner allows all learners to examine their connections, affiliations and relationships with living environments: the neighborhood, the city, neighboring locales and natural and agricultural environments, all of which are beyond the institution’s walls.

13.6.3 Purple Mapping—the Pedagogical Added Value From a very wide range of place-based experiential courses, which have been given in the last decade in teacher training programs at Kay College, several examples have been illustrated in this chapter. The term ‘purple mapping’ is claimed here, as a quality that characterizes the pedagogy in these courses. Basically, this quality reflects methods of deep observation on human/space relations and a diverse and creative

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representation of insights about these relationships, using graphic, movement and verbal tools. As part of the teaching process, we dedicate time and attention to student’s reflective discourse and feedback. It follows from this discourse that the methodological diversity inherent in purple mapping activities allows many students to express themselves. It is especially important to point out the fruitful involvement of students whose theoretical learning skills are relatively weak. Communication skills, for example, are widely used during learning and are a clear advantage for students, as part of the required conversation abilities with passers-by and the relationships that are forged with city residents. So are artistic expression abilities, whether it be graphic, verbal, or performative skills. Another interesting point raised in the feedback is related to the clear advantage of learning as part of a culturally/ethnically mixed team. Given the great cultural diversity of the Israeli street, the ability to communicate with the community, understand it and interpret it optimally, depends on the existence of diverse cultural skills and perspectives. Experiential learning, which illustrates the importance of multiculturalism—its value is invaluable. Furthermore, and with all the modesty required, I would argue that the place-based educational processes may be experienced as highly significant individual and group learning. Frequently, students approached us at the end of courses and claimed that the learning experience brought about an internal perceptual change. Students reported on improving their perception of self-ability and on strong sense of exploration they have experienced. More than once, the students claimed that following the course they feel able to overcome some behavioral avoidances, especially those related to going out, to what once was perceived by them as a challenging environment. But above all, given the closures and traffic restrictions imposed on many of us in the wake of the pandemic, it is difficult to overstate the importance of pedagogy focused on the local community. The strength of the local community or its weakness, were well felt and significantly impacted the lives of millions in neighborhoods, cities and rural areas around the world. There doesn’t seem to be a better time than this to expand the pedagogical lens from the enclosed and crowded classroom complexes, to other local educational spaces around us (Fig. 13.1).

13.7 Epilogue The long, straight path that Harold draws at the beginning of his nocturnal journey, so as not to be lost, does not lead him to a desired destination. Harold leaves the “path” and “makes a shortcut” towards an unknown end. His brave choice is the way of uncertainty and exploration, and this what moves the plot in the story. It is his departure from the main road that sparks the real journey. It is an intriguing one, possibly scary, but undoubtedly instructive and therefore inspiring. The purple mapping described and demonstrated in this chapter is not just a teaching tool; it is more appropriate to see it as the key to a process of spatial,

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Fig. 13.1 Personal-narrative summary in the ‘Journey’ course: After introducing the concept of ‘chronotope’, the students were asked to reflect on a piece of paper the personal process they experienced during the field workshop

individual and group journey of discovery that when we pause to re-examine the daily, the obvious, the overlooked in our living environments. Let us always keep looking.

References Cosgrove, D. (2008). Cultural cartography: Maps and mapping in cultural geography. Annales De Géographie, 660–661(2), 159–178. Crampton, J. W. (2010). Mapping: A critical introduction to cartography and GIS. John Wiley & Sons. Cresswell, T. (2006). On the move: Mobility in the modern western world. Routledge. Dewey, J. (1959). Dewey on education: Selections with an introduction and notes. Teachers College Press. Elder, J., Basnage, M., Caswell, K., Danish, J., Dankert, B., & Kay, J. (1998). Stories in the land: A place-based environmental education anthology. The Orion Society. Feinberg, P. P. (2016). Towards a walking-based pedagogy. Journal of the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies, 14(1), 147–165.

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Glassner, A., & Back, S. (2020). Exploring heutagogy in higher education: Academia meets the Zeitgeist. Springer Nature. Gruenewald, D. A. (2003). The best of both worlds: A critical pedagogy of place. Educational Researcher, 32(4), 3–12. Gruenewald, D. A., & Smith, G. A. (2008). Creating a movement to ground learning in place. In D. A. Gruenewald & G. A. Smith (Eds.), Place-based education in the global age: Local diversity (pp. 345–358). Routledge. Gullov, E., & Olwig, K. F. (2003). Children’s places: Cross-cultural perspectives. Routledge. Harley, J. B. (2002). The new nature of maps: Essays in the history of cartography. JHU Press. Hecht, Y. (2005). Hachinuch Hademocraty—Sipur Im Hatchala [The Democratic Education: A Beginning of a story]. Keter, and The Democratic institute (Hebrew). Johnson, C. (1955). Harold and the purple crayon. Harper Collins. Jung, Y. (2014). Mindful walking: The serendipitous journey of community-based ethnography. Qualitative Inquiry, 20(5), 621–627. Kitchin, R., Perkins, C., & Dodge, M. (2011). Thinking about maps. In R. Kitchin, C. Perkins, & M. Dodge (Eds.), Rethinking maps (pp. 19–43). Routledge. Knapp, C. E. (2005). The “I-Thou” relationship, place-based education, and Aldo Leopold. Journal of Experiential Education, 27(3), 277–285. Lefebvre, H. (1996). The right to the city. In E. Kofman & E. Lebas (Eds.), Writings on cities (p. 158). Wiley-Blackwell. Monmonier, M. (1991). How to lie with maps. University of Chicago Press. Pickles, J. (2004). A History of spaces: Cartographic reason, mapping and the geocoded World. Routledge. Relph, E. (1976). Place and placelessness. Pion. Saint-Exupery, A., (1959). The little prince, written and illustrated by Antoine de Saint-Exupery (trans. Woods, K.). Harcourt, Brace and Company. Sobel, D. (2004). Place-based education: Connecting classrooms and communities. Orion Press. Sparke, M. (1998). A map that roared and an original atlas: Canada, cartography, and the narration of nation. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 88(3), 463–495. Vygotsky, L.S. (1930/1978). Interaction between learning and development (trans. M. LopezMorillas). In L.S. Vygotsky (Ed.), Mind and Society: The development of higher psychological processes (pp. 79–91). Harvard University Press. Wood, D., & Fels, J. (1986). Designs on signs: Myth and meaning in maps. Cartographica, 23(3), 54–103.

Chapter 14

Towards an Augmented Geography Education Jesús Granados-Sánchez

14.1 Introduction The International Charter on Geographical Education (IGU-CGE, 2016) says that geography can fascinate and inspire people if it is taught effectively. The charter also emphasizes the need for ensuring that all students can benefit from a high-quality geographical education in schools. But some findings from research carried out in countries like the United Kingdom (Catling & Morley, 2013) suggest this is not happening. Those studies show that unsatisfactory teaching and learning is associated with geography teachers’ weak subject knowledge and pedagogical subject knowledge, and their associated lack of confidence. Although the education and professionalization of geography teachers differ from country to country and from one educational stage to another, some authors state that past and current teacher education programs have failed in several countries in preparing well geography primary and secondary teachers (Arenas-Martija et al., 2016; Benejam, 2015; Catling, 2017; Morgan, 2017), mainly due to the reduced time allocated to geography and geography education subjects within degree programs (GranadosSánchez & Batllori, 2017). Under this scenario, many voices are calling for an improvement in the quality of geography teacher education (Owens, 2013), but this arises many questions: which are the characteristics of effective and powerful teaching? How can the education of geography teachers be improved in order to raise the quality of teaching and the levels of achievement in geography in schools? The purpose of this chapter is to contribute to this debate with an approach for improving teacher education of future primary and secondary geography teachers, so they are capable to deliver high quality geography education to their future pupils.

J. Granados-Sánchez (B) University of Girona, Girona, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_14

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Our proposal has been called augmented geography education and has been introduced in geography teacher education programs at master and degree levels at the University of Girona. It is focused on the professionalization of geography teachers through the identification of the essence, purpose and meaning of geography as a discipline, and how it can contribute to school knowledge through threshold concepts and appropriate learning technology. The chapter is structured in two main sections: the first one defines what we understand by augmented geography education and develops a rationale for its three main components. The second part describes the didactic capsules as tools for creating and delivering teaching units for an augmented geography learning.

14.2 Augmented Geography Education By augmented geography education we understand an improved education of future geography teachers that enhance their professional knowledge and competences in geography education, so that they are able to provide the best possible learning situations in geography where students can acquire higher quality disciplinary knowledge and take advantage of the best available digital resources. This approach is underpinned by the following three principles: • Conceptual learning is key in knowledge development and must be the guiding learning strategy. This first principle understands that teachers need to know the structure of the knowledge system of school geography, what entails differentiating types of concepts, their function and how to use them within their teaching (Granados-Sánchez, 2019). • The creation of learning experiences for students must be highly significative, engaging, and effective, and must be carried out in short time slots (starting and ending in the same learning session). This principle is rooted in neuroscience (Mora, 2017) and uses the threshold concepts’ theory for teaching and learning (Land et al., 2016). • Technology and digital resources must be used strategically; this principle implies moving from a perspective of how to integrate digital technologies in teaching, to a focus on what digital technology resource is the most suitable to develop a key geographical concept or skill. We understand teachers as designers of the curriculum and for doing that, they need to integrate the three above listed components (concepts, pedagogy and technology) simultaneously in a holistic manner, in order to promote educational practices that help in developing geographical key ideas in a rich, coherent and powerful way. Table 14.1 summarizes the main questions, theories and frameworks that inspire the three principles of the proposal.

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Table 14.1 The three principles of an augmented geography education Principle

Central questions

Sources

Powerful geographical ideas and/or concepts

What do we understand by powerful geographical ideas?

Social realism, threshold concepts theory and conceptual change theory

Engaging and How can students better learn effective geography education the geographical knowledge and procedures? What implications does it has for teaching?

Neuroeducation, threshold concepts theory

Strategic use of technology

TPACK and SAMR frameworks

What digital technologies are the most appropriate for geography education and how can we use them?

Source The author

14.2.1 Powerful Geographical Ideas and Concepts Social realism (Young et al., 2015) argues that to combat social inequality, education has to reform itself and provide learning situations where students can acquire high-quality disciplinary knowledge that is powerful (powerful knowledge). While Young et al. (2015) have not specified what geographic knowledge is powerful, they do point out that it must be conceptual. On the other hand, and from a constructivist point of view, Reinfried and Hertig (2011) affirm that geography education is in charge of knowing how geographic knowledge is learned and, therefore, how it has to be taught. For this they say that the important thing is to investigate and reflect on conceptual development (how geographic concepts and ideas are built) and for them the conceptual change theory and the educational reconstruction model are key (Duit et al., 2012; Niebert & Gropengiesser, 2013). Even being divergent approaches, we could say that both, social realism and the supporters of the educational reconstruction model, share the assumption that concepts are the basis of knowledge. In our view, social realism can help us in reflecting on and distinguishing what conceptual knowledge is powerful, and educational reconstruction can serve us as a starting point for creating a teaching framework focused on conceptual learning. The importance of concepts in geography education has generated many reflections and contributions in recent years (Brooks, 2013, 2018; Fögele & Mehren, 2015; Fouberg, 2013, 2016; Granados-Sánchez, 2019; Jackson, 2006; Lane et al., 2018; Maude, 2009; Taylor, 2008). There is not a single definition of concept. For Brooks (2018), a concept is a fairly general term that is used in a variety of contexts to mean different things. Concepts can refer to concrete things or abstract phenomena and their acquisition can be acquired independently of the language we use to represent them (Graves, 1984). Taylor (2008) defines concepts as classifiers or manageable units that allow us to understand and structure our experiences. In addition, concepts allow effective communication when a community of users shares the same meaning

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(Lane et al., 2018). For Catling and Morley (2013) concepts are like the grammar of the discipline: they are the great ideas that geography uses to understand the world and make sense of it. Teachers should know the main geographical concepts, their hierarchy or degree of importance and how they can be introduced to students in order to develop their geographical thinking. Gergen (2001) distinguishes between exogenic and endogenic approaches in conceptual learning. The exogenic approach sees knowledge and concepts as something external to the learner and that the learner must learn. Thus, the role of academics or experts in the discipline is to determine which concepts are important and advise politicians and technicians to determine the school curriculum and help teachers to know the value of those concepts for selecting and teaching them. The endogenic approach, on the other hand, focuses on the concepts and meanings that students have and how they develop them during their experiences of everyday life and by making sense of the new meanings and knowledge learned in school. Most of the literature focuses on an exogenic approach, since these are the ones used to define the school curriculum and teaching. There is no consensus on which geographic concepts are the most important: Maude (2009) affirms that there cannot be a definitive list of concepts since there is a great diversity of ideas about the nature of school geography, which leads to different options where each author chooses a series of concepts and names them accordingly to the purpose that he or she gives to them. Figure 14.1 presents a conceptual framework for school geography (partly inspired in Brooks, 2018). This proposal is structured into three major types of concepts depending on whether the concepts are related to the academic knowledge of the discipline and the curriculum, if they have to do with the teaching practice, or if they are part of students’ knowledge and/or learning. The concepts of the first group are called hierarchical concepts, the second group are the secondary concepts, and the third type are called own concepts.

Fig. 14.1 Conceptual framework for school geography (Source Adapted from Granados-Sánchez [2019])

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Hierarchical Concepts

The hierarchical concepts are those that are normally defined by the academics of the discipline. They tend to present a high level of abstraction and their function is to differentiate the great ideas of a discipline or a field of knowledge. We can consider that hierarchical concepts include two types of concepts: key and substantive concepts. The key concepts are those fundamental ideas of geography that are characterized by being technical and that are placed at the top of the conceptual hierarchy (if we understand conceptual frameworks as hierarchies). They have also been referred to as big concepts or big ideas (Taylor, 2008), the heart of geography (Jackson, 2006), meta-concepts (Maude, 2018) or fundamental ideas of the discipline (Holloway et al., 2003). These concepts are usually few and are presented in the form of brief listings, such as those shown in Table 14.2. Although we cannot say that there is a consensus among the concepts that appear in those lists, the key concepts of space, place and scale are usually the most repeated ones in geography internationally. Even so, in each context there is a different appreciation and, for example, as Fögele (2016) points out, the German Educational Standards contemplate the concept “system”. In our view, the key concepts are necessary but insufficient and not very functional if we want to create conceptual geographic school knowledge frameworks, since these are the most abstract concepts and therefore the most difficult to conceptualise. As Uhlenwinkel (2013) explains, what benefit does a concept have that contains all the possible components and reproduces the complexity of the broad phenomena that we want to explain? Taylor (2008) states that the great concepts such as space, time and place are always in the background of any geographic knowledge, and it is necessary to give them another function (to have them above as the ultimate great knowledge to be developed). Rawling (2007) believes that key concepts should not be used as the starting point for curricular planning but can serve as a skeleton on which to set the curriculum. In this sense, it seems necessary that the key concepts contain a description of their components and how to advance in the knowledge of their complexity. That is why we must consider a well-defined progression for these great geographical ideas. On the other hand, it must be stated that some of these concepts Table 14.2 Key concepts in geography Holloway et al. (2003)

Jackson (2006)

Granados-Sánchez (2011)

IGU-UGI (2016)

Space Place Scale Time Social formations Physical systems Landscape–Environment

Space-place Scale-connection Proximity-distance Relational thinking

Space Scale Interrelation Change-evolution Agency-structure

Spatial interaction Place Region Location Distribution People-environment relationships

Source The author

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are not exclusively geographical and can also be at the heart of other curriculum subject-matter. The substantive concepts refer to the large containers of the discipline and serve both students and teachers to know the great areas of disciplinary knowledge (the so called “geographies” such as geopolitics or urban geography). If we look at these concepts in a curricular code, they would be the concepts that act as major thematic areas, such as the concept of climate.

14.2.1.2

Secondary Concepts

Secondary concepts are related to the didactic practice, and we can find four different categories: • Content concepts constitute all that terminology proper to the discipline (such as river, city or erosion) and that are concrete concepts and observable in part or in its entirety. • Concepts by definition (Graves, 1984) are abstract ideas that relate two or more variables, and they help us to understand geographic phenomena and spatial associations more easily. A simple example would be population density; a more complex case would be the human development index, since it includes a greater number of variables. • Organizer concepts are used to formulate questions and guide geographical inquiry. Taylor (2008) states that each discipline has few concepts of this type and proposes the following four for geography: diversity, change, interaction and perception-representation. In my opinion, some of the organizing concepts proposed by Taylor are rather interdisciplinary concepts and not specific to geography. Still, they are concepts that have great potential to facilitate geographic analysis. • The concepts that Meyer and Land (2003) called “threshold concepts” are defined as portals that open the way to a new form of thinking about something, that is, they represent a transformative way of understanding and interpreting reality without which the person who learns cannot progress. Hence, we believe that they are the most important or determining concepts in learning and they must be the central focus of an augmented geography education. White et al. (2016: 53) describe threshold concepts through seven characteristics as: Transformative (a significant shift in the learner’s perception of the content); troublesome (a concept that is alien, tacit, counterintuitive, subversive, or conceptually difficult); irreversible (unlikely to be forgotten); integrative (awareness of the interrelatedness of concepts, beliefs and theories); bounded (constrains the boundaries of the subject); constitutive (repositioning oneself in relation to the content); and discursive (gaining language related to the content).

Cousin (2006) proposes that the curriculum design adopts a “less is more” approach where the acquisition of threshold concepts is prioritized, since the learning of these concepts supplements and exceeds the contents. The threshold concepts framework opens the door to think about a progression of conceptual learning, since

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it is understood that the experience must be accompanied with increasingly transformative approaches. Fouberg (2013, 2016) concluded that it is necessary that learners, in addition to learning these concepts must be exposed to metacognitive activities to know the value they have and the role they play in their personal learning (selfconsciousness). One of the interesting points of debate around these concepts is to know who should define this typology of concepts: if academics or teachers must do it, or the students by themselves, or jointly.

14.2.1.3

Own Concepts

Own concepts are those concepts generated by learners themselves through their life experiences or ethno-geographies (Catling & Martin, 2011) and through the process of learning. Before any educational intervention it is necessary to know students’ prior conceptions, as well as it is interesting to see how new learning penetrates and contributes to the development of new meanings. In fact, the concepts in development usually consist of the appropriation of meanings of new ideas, but from the language and the expression of the learner. In the field of geography, these concepts have been studied by Hopwood (2011). The challenge for an augmented geography education is to create knowledge frameworks around key geographical ideas or threshold concepts that are supported with other types of concepts that are necessary to build geographical thinking around an issue. This task is arduous and requires collaboration among teachers and the creation of networks to exchange teaching resources as well as research findings.

14.2.2 Engaging and Effective Geography Teaching Through Threshold Concepts Our proposal of an augmented geography education is focused on conceptual teaching and learning from a constructivist perspective and considers the findings from neuroeducation and the threshold concepts theory. The two contributions of neuroeducation that guide our proposal are the role of emotions and learning in bits. Emotions such as surprise, curiosity and satisfaction are basic ingredients of cognitive processes. They are the most important foundation on which all learning and memory processes are based. Everything that leads to the acquisition of knowledge, such as attention, memory or decision-making, requires that energy that we call emotion. Therefore, the ideas that we learn are impregnated with emotional meaning (Mora, 2017). At the same time, our brain needs intellectual stimuli. For Klafki (2000) teaching is a fruitful encounter between content and the learner. Then, from the point of view of didactics, the teacher must look for a prospective object of learning (let’s say a concept or idea) and see how the learner can be motivated and engaged to experience its significance. On the other hand, the

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learner must have a particular learning disposition and being open-minded, curious, engaged, and willing to venture beyond the comfortable and the known. The threshold concepts framework provides a structure of thinking that allows someone to analyse problems as they are defined by a body of ideas and procedures of a discipline (White et al., 2016). We understand that learners must build knowledge frameworks through complex ideas, and they must reflect on the importance of those ideas and how and when they are useful to solve some problems, and why they apply in some contexts and not others. According to Northcote et al. (2020), the learning of threshold concepts must produce a change in perspective, rather than simply the development of an idea. There are different methodologies to identify threshold concepts of a discipline. Our proposal is a reinterpretation of the combination of the works of Cousin (2006), White et al. (2016) and Northcote et al. (2020) and include the following steps: • Teachers must identify the threshold concepts, the understanding of which are key to progress in the discipline. They can identify pre-existing threshold concepts from previous research and recognised experts and to reflect on their own experience. • Teachers must relate threshold concepts to issues and to categorise them in hierarchical form in order to establish categories of description. • Teachers must gather further data from their own context from dialogue with their pupils. Which concepts are pupils familiar with? Which concepts are pupils ready for its conceptualization? • Teachers must create conceptual frameworks where new concepts are melted onto and interconnected to pupils’ previously held ideas, in a way that promotes both confidence and challenge. • Once the design of conceptual learning activities is implemented is time for the pupils’ learning assessment through metacognitive activities. The data gathered from this assessment will help in the validation, correction, or adjustment of the conceptual framework. • The final step is to share the conceptual framework with other teachers and experts in geography education.

14.2.3 The Strategic Use of Digital Technologies Digital technologies have made available a wide range of resources that have the potential to improve the teaching and learning of geography. The augmented geography education approach understands that digital technologies must be used strategically in order to promote a transformative education. The technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework (Koehler et al., 2013) and the substitution, augmentation, modification, and redefinition (SAMR) model (Puentedura, 2014) are two works that have inspired our vision of the use of technology in teaching geography.

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(a). TPACK framework.

(b). Augmented TPACK

Source: based on Koehler et al (2013)

Source: the author

Fig. 14.2 An augmented TPACK framework a TPACK framework Source Based on Koehler et al. (2013) b Augmented TPACK Source The author

Koehler et al. (2013) describes the TPACK framework as a unifying structure that provides the integration of content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK) and technological knowledge (TK), that are the three kinds of knowledge that teachers need for their professionalization to teach in the digital era (see Fig. 14.2). The authors describe the TPACK framework as the synthesis of each of the three bodies of knowledge, with a focus upon how technology can be uniquely crafted to meet pedagogical needs to teach certain content in specific contexts (Koehler et al., 2015). The framework proposes that tackling all the variables at once creates effective teaching with technology, but they don’t explain what does an effective teaching entail. At the same time, their emphasis is on teaching and not on learning and they don’t mention that TPACK must imply the design of learning activities in a comprehensive way. Neither they include a justification of the framework as a way of providing the best way of learning for students. And this is the point for us. We find that this framework is an interesting starting point that needs some reformulations in light of an augmented geography education. Geographical ideas and procedures are learnt in a specific way, so geography education should involve knowing how certain concepts or ideas are developed and conceptualised and what technology is the most appropriate to help learners in the process of learning. For this reason, geography teacher education programs should avoid general knowledge of technology, pedagogy, and content (TK, PK and CK), and must focus their attention on the intersection (TPACK) as the key area (see Fig. 14.2). To augment the TPACK intersection we can incorporate some aspects of the SAMR model (Puentedura, 2014) to create learning activities and experiences in a way that would not be possible without technology (see Table 14.3). This implies a key shift in teachers’ professionalization because technology is used strategically and meaningfully, in a way that enhances learning

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Table 14.3 The SAMR model Type of Technology Integration

USE of technology in the design of learning activities

Impact on learning

Substitution

Traditional analogical resources are replaced by technological tools, but with no functional change

Enhancement

Augmentation

Technology improves the student experience and increases learners’ understanding

Modification

Technology allows a significant task redesign

Redefinition

Technology allows the creation of teaching and learning activities that are not possible without it. Learners enjoy a transformative experience

Transformation

Source Adapted from Puentedura (2014)

and promotes transformation. In both models, TPACK and SAMR, the use of technology comes after the design of learning activities as a final integration (technology is seen as an “add-on”). An augmented geography education understands technology in a transformative way because the task is designed considering concepts and its didactics together with technology in a comprehensive way from the beginning.

14.3 Didactic Capsules A capsule is a small container that contains something important. Thus, in flowers the capsule hides the seed and in a rocket is the part where people travel. “To encapsulate” has to do with compressing and synthesizing. By didactic capsule we understand an enriched educational intervention that takes place in a short space of time. It integrates engaging pedagogy and the best available digital resources that enables the understanding and construction of powerful geographical ideas, such as threshold concepts. The didactic capsule is an instrument to implement the augmented geography approach and is used for improving both the initial training of geography teachers, as well as the teaching and learning of school geography. The didactic capsule is an independent short lesson that starts and ends in a session and is part at the same time of a capsule strip. If storytelling is used, the capsule is considered as an episode of a larger story that is narrated throughout other capsules. This “story” must refer to a geographical issue and must be close to students’ real life and motivations in order to create highly meaningful learning situations. On the other hand, they must move from everyday knowledge to scientific knowledge. At the time of planning the didactic capsules, we will consider content, pedagogy and technology simultaneously and we will contemplate the following key actions:

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• To choose a powerful geographical issue (the capsules strip) and to formulate the main aim that is associated to it. • To create or find stories in which geographical ideas are contextualized and motivate students. The value of cases that pupils believe are relevant to their interests in order to motivate their initial engagement needs to be considered. • To choose a threshold concept and to develop a conceptual framework that is associated to it, and that will be used for the whole sequence. At this point, the preparation of a conceptual map is essential. It is important to integrate pupils’ knowledge and be sensitive to their readiness: how many ideas are they currently capable of bringing together? • To choose a concept or key idea from the conceptual framework to be developed in each capsule. There must be a specific objective for each capsule. • To select the most suitable (or known) digital resource that enables the conceptual development of this key idea or concept. • To formulate some key questions that should guide the learning activity. These key questions can be presented to students in the form of a problem, a challenge or an enquiry. It is necessary to plan activities that require different levels of cognitive demand (Granados-Sánchez, 2017), as well as threshold network exercises (in which it appears all the concepts that might be used to make sense of the problem). • To assess pupils’ learning. As we want them to be aware of the importance and relevance of the concepts they are learning, metacognitive activities must be prioritised for the pupils’ learning assessment. Pupils can be encouraged to create and appreciate conceptual maps and reflect on the way they have attempted to analyse the problem, and how concepts are related and how the threshold concept has changed their perception. Which concepts did pupils find difficult? What confidence (self-efficacy) and comfort level (affective response) did pupils show? • To evaluate the design of the capsules strip and the adjustment of the conceptual framework.

14.4 Conclusions The purpose of our augmented geography education approach is to propose a model of professionalization of geography teachers that focuses on the creation of conceptual frameworks for school geography that are related to the best digital resources that can provide rich learning opportunities to primary and secondary students. Those conceptual frameworks must be articulated through threshold concepts and must include different kind of concepts and ideas. As Barradell (2013) states, the identification of threshold concepts is a challenge, and the process will require time, reflection, discussion, and debate. The collaboration between academics and teachers is necessary for the identification and classification of these types of concepts, but the contribution of learners is also very important, since they are the ones who, in the end, detect and make them their own. Another challenge for the development of this approach is to find the best digital resources for each key geographical idea and procedure. The

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use of technology must be focused on learning, the creation of knowledge and the development of thinking. For those reasons, it is important to increase the dialogue between teachers and pupils; to implement more metacognitive activities that allows pupils’ reflection on their own learning; and to create a network culture for sharing powerful resources, stories and learning activities amongst teachers, nationally and internationally, and to create what Mitchell (2016) has called a “hyper-socialised” curriculum making.

References Arenas-Martija, A., Salinas-Silva, V., Margalef-García, L., & Otero-Auristondo, M. (2016). Fragility of pedagogical content knowledge in geography. Journal of Geography, 116(2), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2016.1228002 Barradell, S. (2013). The identification of threshold concepts: A review of theoretical complexities and methodological challenges. Higher Education, 65(2), 265–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10 734-012-9542-3 Benejam, P. (2015). ¿Qué Educación Queremos? Octaedro. Brooks, C. (2013). How do we understand conceptual development in school geography? In D. Lambert & M. Jones (Eds.), Debates in geographical education (pp. 75–88). Routledge. Brooks, C. (2018). Understanding conceptual development in school geography. In M. Jones & D. Lambert (Eds.), Debates in geographical education (pp. 103–114). Routledge. Catling, S. (2017). Not nearly enough geography! University provision for England’s pre-service primary teachers. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 41(3), 434–458. Catling, S., & Martin, F. (2011). Contesting powerful knowledge: The primary geography curriculum as an articulation between academic and children’s (ethno-) geographies”. Curriculum Journal, 22(3), 317–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2011.601624 Catling, S., & Morley, M. (2013). Enquiring into primary teacher’s geographical knowledge. International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education (Education 3–13), 41(4), 425–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2013.819617 Cousin, G. (2006). An introduction to threshold concepts. Planet, 17(1), 4–5. Duit, R., Gropengieser, H., Kattmann, U., Komorek, M., & Parchmann, I. (2012). The model of educational reconstruction: A framework for improving teaching and learning science. In D. Jorde & J. Dillon (Eds.), Science education research and practice in Europe: Retrospective and prospective (pp. 13–47). Sense Publishers. Fögele, J. (2016). From content to concept: Teaching global issues with geographical principles. European Journal of Geography, 7(1), 6–16. Fögele, J., & Mehren, R. (2015). Implementing geographical key concepts: Design of a simbiotic teacher training course based on empirical and theoretical evidence. RIGEO, Review of International Geographical Education Online, 5(1), 56–76. Fouberg, E. H. (2013). The world is no longer flat to me: Student perceptions of threshold concepts in world regional geography. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 37(1), 65–75. https:// doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2012.654467 Fouberg, E. H. (2016). Reflecting on threshold concepts in world regional geography. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 40(1), 9–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2016.1131903 Gergen, K. (2001). Social construction and pedagogical practice. In K. Gergen (Ed.), Social construction in context. Sage. Granados-Sánchez, J. (2011). Teaching geography for a sustainable world: A case study of a secondary school in Spain. RIGEO, Review in Geographical Education on-Line, 1(2), 150–174.

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Granados-Sánchez, J. (2017). La formulación de buenas preguntas en didáctica de la geografía. Documents d’Anàlisi Geogràfica, 63(3), 545–559. http://hdl.handle.net/10256/14797 Granados-Sánchez, J. (2019). Definición y justificación de un marco conceptual para la didáctica de la geografía. In M. J. Hortas, A. I. Dias, & N. De Alba (Eds.), Enseñar y aprender didáctica de las ciencias sociales: la formación del profesorado desde una perspectiva sociocrítica (pp. 40–50). Ediciones Escola Superior de Educaçao, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa y AUPDCS. Granados-Sánchez, J., & Batllori, R. (2017). L’ensenyament de la geografia al segle XXI. Documents D’anàlisi Geogràfica, 63(3), 521–526. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/dag.498 Graves, N. J. (1984). Geography in education. Heinemann Educational Books. Holloway, S., Rice, S. P., & Valentine, G. (2003). Key concepts in geography. Sage. Hopwood, N. (2011). Young people’s conceptions of geography and education. In G. Butt (Ed.), Geography, education and the future (pp. 30–43). Continuum. IGU-UGI. (2016). International charter on geographical education. IGU-UGI, CGE. Jackson, P. (2006). Thinking geographically. Geography, 91(3), 199–204. Klafki, W. (2000). Didaktik analysis as the core of preparation. In I. Westbury, S. Hopmann, & K. Riquarts (Eds.), The German Didaktik tradition (pp. 139–159). Erlbaum. Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., & Cain, W. (2015). ¿Qué son los saberes tecnológicos y pedagógicos del contenido (TPACK)? Virtualidad, Educación y Ciencia, 10(6), 9–23. Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., Akcaouglu, M., & Rosemberg, J. M. (2013). The technological pedagogical knowledge framework for teachers and teacher educators. In CEMCA (Ed.), ICT integrated teacher education: A resource book (pp. 1–7). Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia. Land, R., Meyer, H. J., & Flanagan, M. T. (Eds.). (2016). Threshold concepts in practice. Sense Publishers. Lane, R., Carter, J., & Bourke, T. (2018). Concepts, conceptualization and conceptions in geography. Journal of Geography, 117(6), 1–10. Maude, A. (2009). Re-centring geography: A school-based perspective on the nature of the discipline. Geographical Research, 47(4), 368–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-5871.2009.005 89.x Maude, A. (2018). Geography and powerful knowledge: A contribution to the debate. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 27(2), 179–190. Meyer, E.. & Land, R. (2003). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: Linkages to ways of thinking and practising within the disciplines, ETL-Project Occasional Report 4. Universities of Edinburgh, Coventry and Durham. Mitchell, D. (2016). Geography teachers and curriculum making in “changing times.” International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 25(2), 121–133. Mora, F. (2017). Neuroeducación. Alianza editorial. Morgan, J. (2017). Persevering with geography. Documents d’Anàlisi Geogràfica, 63(3), 529–544. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/dag.457 Niebert, K., & Gropengiesser, H. (2013). The model of educational reconstruction: A framework for the design of theory-based content specific interventions: The example of climate change. In T. Plomp & N. Nieveen (Eds.), Educational design research—Part B: Illustrative cases (pp. 511– 531). SLO. Northcote, M. et al. (2020). At the troublesome edge of recognising threshold concepts of online teaching. In J. A. Timmermans & R. Land (Eds.), Threshold concepts in the edge (pp. 19–36). Brill Sense Owens, P. (2013). More than just core knowledge? A framework for effective and high-quality primary geography. Education 3–13, 41(4), 382–397. Puentedura, R. R. (2014). SAMR: Moving from enhancement to transformation. http://www.hip pasus.com/rrpweblog/archives/000095.html. Accessed 25 Mar 2021. Rawling, E. (2007). Planning your key stage 3 geography curriculum. Geographical Association.

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Reinfried, S., & Hertig, P. (2011). Geographical education: How human-environment-society processes work. In UNESCO-EOLSS Joint Committee (Ed.), Encyclopedia of life support systems (EOLSS). Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO. Eolss Publishers. Taylor, L. (2008). Key concepts and medium-term planning. Teaching Geography, 33(2), 50–54. Uhlenwinkel, A. (2013). Geographical Concepts als Strukturierungshilfe für den Geographieunterricht. Ein international erfolgreicher Weg zur Erlangung fechlicher Identität und gesellschaftlicher Relevanz. Geographie Und Ihre Didaktik, 1, 18–43. White, B. A., Olsen, T., & Schumann, D. (2016). A threshold concept framework for use across disciplines. In R. Land, J. H. Meyer, & M. T. Flanagan (Eds.), Threshold concepts in practice (pp. 55–63). Sense Publishers. Young, M., Lambert, D., Roberts, C., & Roberts, M. (2015). Knowledge and the future school: Curriculum and social justice. Bloomsbury.

Part IV

Methods and Practices Under the Lens

Chapter 15

Digitalization in Geography Education: Theoretical and Practical Considerations for Developing a Collaborative Seminar About Digitalization and Using Digital Media in Geographical Educational Processes Nicole Raschke

15.1 Introduction Digital media have provoked a paradigm shift in the ways people consume knowledge in everyday life (Kuhn, 1997; Kuhn & Hacking, 2012; Stalder, 2016). Questions exist over how to use digital media in geography education and pre-service teacher training. This chapter summarizes, evaluates, and discusses best practices for a digital media seminar taken by prospective geography teachers at TU Dresden in 2020. Although many teachers recognize the importance of digitalization in learning processes, they do not use digital media as extensively as their everyday use and relevance might suggest (Schmid et al., 2017; Feierabend et al., 2018). Geography education in schools integrates the use of to geomedia, geospatial technologies, and geospatial data (DeMers, 2017) to help students develop spatial citizenship that fosters geospatial awareness (Gryl & Jekel, 2012; Jekel et al., 2015a). This includes critical citizenship education, along with the technological and pedagogical competences of teachers, reflective thinking, and participation (Bennett et al., 2009; Jekel et al., 2015b). Prospective teachers are convinced that information and communication technology (ICT) can fundamentally change teaching (Schmidt & Reintjes, 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to include digitalization as content and form in teacher training to improve prospective teachers’ professional competencies. This chapter begins with an overview of various debates about digitalization in geography education and teacher training. Based on this, a seminar is presented, which has been utilized and evaluated in the geography teacher training at TU N. Raschke (B) Department of Geosciences, Technical University of Dresden, Dresden, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_15

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Dresden in 2020. This contribution examines the conception, its implementation, and evaluation. This chapter concludes that low-threshold access to digital media, collaborative planning of lessons and reflection processes support professionalization of prospective geography teachers.

15.2 Digitalization and Geography Education There is no doubt that digitalization has been accompanied by a profound social change toward a culture of digitality that interweaves analog and digital realities (Stalder, 2016). Against this backdrop, we need to ask and redefine the meaning and practical implementation of learning processes in educational contexts (Allert & Richter, 2016). Digitalization and digital media are influencing high school education in a substantial way. Both subject-related as well as digital knowledge and skills have to be combined. Teachers need to develop and refine digital competencies, which is why teacher training and professional development opportunities are important (Eickelmann et al., 2016). According to the position of the University Association for Geography Education in Germany (Dorsch et al., 2020), it is necessary to be aware of changing forms of production and construction of knowledge, as well as changing social practices. Geography education is changing through the integration of ICT, digital media, and social media in geography learning processes (Rempfler, 2018). This chapter provides an overview of different perspectives on digitalization in geography educational contexts, including the challenges postulated in these debates.

15.2.1 Geospatial Technologies and Education for Spatial Citizenship Geography has fundamentally changed through the use of geospatial technologies (GST). Digital geographies, user-generated geographic information, neogeography, and web-based forms of geographic information are more than the connection of coordinates and information. These technologies open up a complex, socially produced space that blurs the binary of virtual and material spaces (Crampton et al., 2013). Everyday practices with geomedia, especially with volunteered geography informations (VGI) characterized as collaborative and participatory, focusing on the use of geospatial technologies, the production of spatial information, and spatial appropriation through GST or volunteered geographic information (Boeckler, 2014; Felgenhauer & Gäbler, 2019). Within these changing geographic practices and interactions networks, neogeography has been defined as a blurring of the distinctions between producer, communicator, and consumer of geographic information (Goodchild, 2009). By using geospatial technologies, the production of spatial information and the associated practices of place-making are omnipresent. Social spaces are

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also digital spaces, and the increasingly simultaneous use and production of mobile data requires a spatial competency, which is addressed in the approach of education for spatial citizenship (Gryl & Jekel, 2012). The demands placed on geography education are changing, for example because the teaching use of digital media is aimed at the development and expansion of media competence to enable reflected participation in the digital world (Höhnle et al., 2015; Jekel et al., 2015b). Baker et al. (2015) proposed a research agenda focusing on four main fields: (1) GST and geospatial thinking, (2) learning GST, (3) curriculum and student learning through GST, and (4) educators’ professional development with GST. The focus of this paper lies on parts three and four. The reflection and reflexivity in the everyday use of GST requires the critical questioning of GST itself, its operation and effects on attitudes and practice. These are central components of digital literacy (Gryl et al., 2013; Jekel et al., 2015a; Lindner-Fally, 2012). In educational contexts, the challenge is not only developing skills to use GST but, in particular, establishing skills in geographical thinking and spatial practice. Education for spatial citizenship combines GST with individual and collective strategies of place making and political education (Jekel et al., 2015b). Technical, learner-specific, content-specific, and didactic considerations must be embedded to implement GST in educational contexts. This educational design task is fundamental in the higher education of geography teachers.

15.2.2 Teacher Training and Digitalization The professionalization of teachers is a central component in discussions about geography education in a digital society. Geography teachers need to have digital literacy, critical awareness, and a critical understanding of GST. Views on content, didactic and conceptual approaches, and the media and methods of learning, need to be combined in order to provide digital pedagogical and content-related knowledge. The professionalization of teachers has to be understood as twofold. It is based, on the one hand, on the acquisition of a scientific, knowledge-critical attitude and, on the other hand, on the acquisition of a practical attitude of professional skills (Helsper, 2021). Developing skills and professionalization can be understood as the experiencedbased processes of constructing knowledge and meaning (Košinár, 2014). It is about the development of critical media competencies and apprehends education as an interaction of subjects with their environment through active and reflexive activities (Deinet & Reutlinger, 2014). Media education based on knowledge about the didactic design of media as well as a critical reflexivity about technological developments and media trends. In addition to professional knowledge, motivation, attitude, and self-regulation also play an important role (Baumert & Kunter, 2006). In this context, job-related beliefs regarding ICT are central (Schmidt & Reintjes, 2020). Teachers’ beliefs depend on many factors such as self-efficacy expectations, personal school experience, beliefs about good teaching, subject and technical knowledge, school cultures, ICT equipment, and more (Schmidt & Reintjes, 2020). Empirical studies indicate

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that convictions around the usefulness of learning with digital media have a greater influence on the quality of lesson planning than technological-pedagogical knowledge (Backfisch et al., 2020). Individual beliefs can be a starting point for teacher training courses. It is not just about the acquisition of the learning material, but about critical-reflexive examination and everyday practices. Competencies of teachers are generally geared towards professional competencies, which includes various fields of activity: teaching and educating, diagnosing, assessing and advising, further professional development„ ability to self-regulate in dealing with workloads, etc. (Terhart, 2011). Competence models of digital teacher education formulate a normative idea of how digitally competent teachers act and how digital education should be designed. Using digital media requires teachers to have Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPaCK) competencies that imply technological and educational, as well as technological-educational knowledge (Mishra et al., 2013). The subjectspecific pedagogical competencies enable teachers to deal with various themes or specific information and subject-related competencies. The IT competencies relate to algorithmic thinking, data literacy, computational thinking, and data security (van Ackeren et al., 2019). Basically, it can be assumed that the professionalization of geography teachers must begin by looking at individual competencies and backgrounds. It must include a critical, reflective, and participatory use of digital geographic information technologies in geographical educational settings. The digital turn is not just a new mode of teaching. Teachers are called upon to discuss, assess, and address the educational content of digital geographies that are significantly shaped by GST and VGI. In summary, geography teacher training must take a number of aspects into account. First, it is important to include individual attitudes toward and experiences within a culture of digitality. Second, a teacher training seminar should create different experience spaces for dealing with digital media in educational contexts. Third, geography teacher training is of course related to teaching methods and its reflection, as well as didactic questions of lesson planning processes.

15.3 Digital Geography Education Seminar The main objective of the seminar is to motivate students to use digital media in geography lessons through providing experiences of self-efficacy in dealing with digital learning environments. The aims of the seminar are • the low-threshold integration of digital tools in the conception and implementation of teaching and learning opportunities by prospective geography teachers; • the development of skills for designing effective, digitally supported geography lessons; • testing and reflecting on the developed concepts, their quality and innovative character, reflecting on technical aspects of teacher and student activities.

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As a key part of the seminar, digital media are consistently thematically and methodically integrated into each session. The seminar is flexible because processes and products of learning with digital media are designed by the students themselves. The seminar focuses on interaction, collaborative production, practical experiences in a semi-realistic scenario, and mutual reflection. It is about exploring the possibilities and opportunities of digitalization in geographical educational processes through their own educational experiences in the seminar. The seminar is aimed at future mid-degree teachers who already have a basic understanding of lesson planning and geography education. A total of 75 teacher students took part in the seminar in the 2020 summer semester. Due to the Covid pandemic, the seminar was carried out virtually. Asynchronous sessions about digital media in geography education alternated with synchronous sessions to try out the developed concepts. Based on an inverted classroom scenario, the phases of selfstudy alternated with video-conferencing sessions (Geiger et al., 2019). In small working groups, the students designed their own teaching concepts that take digital media and geographic learning into account. Three sessions in which the developed concepts were presented, implemented, and reflected upon in the form of a role play were highlights of the seminar. The use of a virtual learning platform, a blog, an online forum, and a collaborative online notice board (padlet) were used to facilitate the learning process and the presentation and discussion of results. In addition to the joint development of learning arrangements, the students had the task of critically reflecting on two teaching concepts of other working groups. The peer-reflections and the teaching concepts were exchanged among the group. In addition, selected digital applications were practically integrated into teaching processes in order to discuss the opportunities and challenges of digitalization for geography teaching using specific examples. The students used digital media as tools during the course and, at the same time, developed concepts and materials for integrating digital media into geography lessons. In doing so, they consistently reflect upon their own work process and the media used in teaching contexts (Table 15.1).

15.4 Evaluation The evaluation of the seminar is based on two levels. On the one hand, the students are interviewed at three points in time (T1, T2, T3) in order to find out what views they have on the seminar and the results. On the other hand, the developed lesson plans are analyzed as results of the seminar. The concepts are classified according to the addressees (age of learners) and the type of ICT integration.

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Table 15.1 Structure of the seminar “Digital Geography Education” No.

Session

Media examples

T1

Survey: questionnaire 1

limesurvey

1

Kick-off: ActivInspire, padlet Expectations and experiences, challenges of digitization in teaching contexts, media literacy, and education for spatial citizenship

2/3

Maps and GI(S) Digital geographies, digital atlases, real-time satellite images, maps, anamorphic maps, cartograms, and critical and collective mapping

4

Films YouTube, Tik Tok, Twitch, explanatory Learn with, from, and through films and videos using films in geography education and learning videos and moving graphics by and for students

5

Pictures Sketches, PicCollage, Working with images (satellite images, Sketch Master drawings, photographs, block images, etc.); Miro visual critical-reflexive competence; evaluate, produce, edit, change, and manipulate images

6

School books and exercise books, digital and analog Creating, evaluating, and critically questioning texts and statistics; potentials and challenges of digital books; and open educational resources (OER)

different digital teaching assistants OER platforms

T2

Survey: questionnaire 2

limesurvey

7–9

Role play: The students’ concepts Practical experiences in digital geography education, and working groups present their teaching concepts

10/11

Reflection and reflexivity Chances of using digital media in geography lessons and practical challenges in working with digital media

12

Finishing Evaluation and feedback culture in the classroom

T3

Survey: questionnaire 3

Truesize, Google Maps, ArcGIS online, Story Maps, WebGIS

slido, mentimeter

limesurvey

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15.4.1 Accompanying Survey Questionnaire surveys were carried out to accompany the seminar. The surveys related to various dimensions of the theoretical discussion, such as attitudes and experiences, seminar-related reflections on content, and one’s own skills. The questionnaires contained closed questions with a 5 level, fully verbalized rating scale (for example: 1 totally disagree; 2 disagree; 3 undecided, don’t know; 4 agree; and 5 totally agree), as well as open questions on each topic. According to Menold and Bogner (2015), reviews show that fully verbalized, bipolar rating scales increase reliability in the case of repeated measurements (test–retest reliability) and validity. Statements in the surveys were formulated to be precise and unambiguous. The comprehensibility of the statements was qualitatively checked in a pre-test. The first survey played a special role, because it asked about the respondents’ previous experiences, attitudes, and expectations. The two surveys that followed focused on the respondents’ assessments of the seminar, the materials used, and the importance of communication and collaboration, as well as reflections on the seminar results. All three surveys asked about the respondents’ perspective on the importance of using digital media in geography lessons.

15.4.1.1

Previous Experiences, Attitudes, and Expectations (Questionnaire 1)

The students have a lot of experience dealing with digital media; they report using the Internet several times a day or even constantly. They rate themselves as interested or very interested in digital media. Regarding digital media, digital networks and everyday practices in our society, a predominant portion of the students ascribe a significant role to geography education. The analysis of the clustered open responses shows that this is often grounded in the interdisciplinarity of geography and media diversity as well as subject specific content. Only a very small proportion of the students cannot imagine working with digital media in their future everyday teaching (Table 15.2). The students are primarily interested in the topics of digital maps, films, and moving images, using interactive boards, and getting to know various tools and apps for teaching, as well as methods of dealing with digital media. There is a clear expectation of developing practical skills. Their concerns are based on the lack of exchange with fellow students and the predominance of theoretical content, instead of applied practice. Theoretical considerations are more often assessed as being “unrealistic” as the following quote shows: My concerns: no exchange/discussions, only theory, no practice/tests or phases to try out, little new content, only deepening of the known knowledge or already known applications, unrealistic, since implementation in schools is often difficult, especially in rural areas. (T1FB32Q12, translated by author)

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Table 15.2 Selection of the results from the first survey (n = 57) on student’s experiences and attitudes How do you rate your everyday experience in dealing (time, intensity, security) with digital media? • have a lot of experience, very confident 3.5% • have lots of experience, confident 52.6% • have experiences, rather uncertain 33.3% • hardly any experiences, unconfident 7.0% • no experience, very insecure 3.7% How often do you use internet-enabled devices/internet? • very rare 0% • rare 0% • occasionally, once a day 5.7% • frequently, several times a day 79.3% • permanently online 15.1% How interested in digital media and developments in the digital world do you rate yourself? • very interested 29.6% • interested 55.6% • less interested 14.8% • not interested 0% • absolutly not interested, distant 0% In your opinion, do geography lessons play a particularly important role in dealing with digital media? Please give a brief reason for your answer • yes 64% (Reason: clarity, speed, topicality, interactivity) • no 26% (Reason: also important in other subjects, geography does not play a special role) Can you imagine working with digital media later in your everyday classroom? • yes of course 72.2% • yes very likely 24.1% • rather unlikely 3.7% • no I can’t 0%

15.4.1.2

Overall Satisfaction and Views on Communication and Collaboration (Questionnaire 2 and 3)

The evaluation of the second and third surveys shows satisfaction with the organization, transparency, and content of the seminar (items: the structure is logical, the organization is transparent, the content corresponds to my expectations, and the objective is clear to me) with an increasing tendency. The arithmetic mean for items on satisfaction on a scale between 1 (totally disagree) and 5 (totally agree) lies between 3.3 and 4.0 in the second survey and between 3.5 and 4 0.1 in the third survey. With regards to their professionalization, the students evaluated the seminar as very important (Table 15.3). At T2, the students dealt with the various media aspects of digital geography lessons both in self-study and in the synchronous sessions and had already developed their lesson plans. However, these had not yet been tried out and reflected upon.

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Table 15.3 Overall satisfaction and views on communication and collaboration (questionnaire 2 and questionnaire 3) Item

q2 (n = 45)

q3 (n = 40)

Mean SD

Mean SD

(1) I strongly disagree (2) I tend to disagree (3) I am undecided (4) I tend to agree (5) I fully agree I am satisfied with the seminar

3.38

0.99 3.58

0.85

The content corresponds to my expectations

3.37

0.96 3.48

1.01

I am aware of the importance of the seminar for my future work as a teacher

4.02

0.99 4.12

1.17

I’m looking forward to the second part of the seminar

3.36

1.11 3.62

0.96

I exchange ideas intensively with fellow students at the seminar

2.69

1.49 3.4

1.15

Through the exchange with fellow students, I get ideas for working 3.13 with digital media in geography education

1.15 3.96

1.03

I get adequate feedback on my contributions from my fellow students

1.2

0.95

2.45

2.8

At T3, the students had already completed the seminar, had developed, presented, tested, and reflected upon their lesson plans. The assessment of the intensity of the exchange with other students increased. However, the peer group’s assessment of the quality of the feedback increased only slightly and on a lower level. The seminar is designed to encourage and support exchange between the participants and to increase competencies on reflections. To improve the quality of feedback in future events, these aspects must be taken into consideration even more strongly.

15.4.1.3

Reflections on Content and Results (Questionnaire 2 and 3)

Survey 3 focused on assessing the learning arrangements developed. The diversity and innovative potential of the lessons that emerged was rated high. Most of the students are interested in the materials of the other groups and said they could imagine implementing the resulting lesson plans later as teachers of geography. The results showed that participants learned from the concepts developed by the other prospective teachers, including their ideas about content, media and methods (Table 15.4).

15.4.1.4

Importance of Digital Media in the Teaching of Geography

The surveys enable a comparative analysis regarding the students’ perspectives on digital media in geography education. The collected data shows a more uniformly positive perspective at the beginning and an increasingly heterogeneous or uncertain perspective by the end. For example, in order to item: “digital media make geography lessons more difficult to plan” (Table 15.5).

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Table 15.4 Reflections on seminar content and results (questionnaire 2 and questionnaire 3) Reflections on seminar content

q2 (n = 45)

Item

Mean

SD

q3 (n = 40) Mean

SD

The seminar deals with the importance of digital media for geography education

3.69

1.02

3.87

0.96

The seminar itself builds on the use of digital media, because digital media are used all the time

3.97

0.88

3.97

0.94

In the seminar, ideas for the teaching 4.08 use of digital media are given

0.99

4.16

0.08

The seminar discusses the challenges 3.39 and opportunities of digital media in the classroom

0.98

4.19

0.96

Reflections on results (only q3, n = 40)

Mean

SD

The ideas for digital geography education that arose in the seminar are diverse

4.27

1.05

The developed concepts for digital/digitally supported geography lessons are innovative

3.85

0.96

I could imagine trying the concepts out later in school

4.18

0.83

I am interested in the materials/concepts from the other groups

4.45

0.85

Table 15.5 Students’ perspectives on digital media in geography education (questionnaire 2 and questionnaire 3) Digital media make geography lessons more (…)

q2 (n = 45)

q3 (n = 40)

Mean

Mean

SD

SD

Interesting

4.07

1.00

4.09

0.86

Contemporary

4.23

1.03

4.27

1.03

More varied

4.21

1.0

4.13

0.97

Differentiated

3.5

0.99

3.68

0.86

Methodologically diverse

4.1

0.85

3.97

0.99

Complicated

3

1.05

3.42

1.01

Difficult for teachers

2.8

1.07

3.06

0.95

Difficult to plan

2.66

1.03

3.94

0.88

Prone to failure

3.73

1.03

3.03

0.99

The statement, “I am unsure,” increased across the surveys for the following items: digital media make geography lessons more interesting, digital media make geography lessons more contemporary, digital media make geography lessons more varied, and digital media make geography lessons more methodologically diverse. Additionally, the arithmetic mean of the following items increased slightly: digital media make geography lessons more complicated, digital media make geography

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lesson more prone to failure, and digital media make geography lessons more difficult to plan. This raises the question of whether this could be interpreted as the beginning of a progressive learning and professionalization process of prospective teachers and their recognition of the complexity this entails. For this purpose, further investigations about the individual process of professionalization are necessary. In summary, the media-didactic approach of the seminar was rated as very helpful because it formed a good bridge between the individual education backgrounds of the students and the media-didactic and content-related demands of digitalization in geography education. At the same time, it is practice-oriented through the conceptualization and planning of learning arrangements, which is expressed in the following quotations: Very instructive and diverse. A seminar that I will go back to for a long time. Great! (T3FB12Q6, translated by the author) I found the content of the seminar very interesting! The additional offers, e.g. for ArcGIS and the tablet class, are great. That’s why I’m very satisfied with the seminar. Digitalization in schools is becoming more and more up-to-date, so I feel it is very important that we are prepared to deal with new media in our studies. (T3FB9Q6, translated by the author)

15.4.2 Consideration of Digital Geography Lesson Plans Developed by the Students The seminar participants developed their own teaching examples and performed them in a role play. A total of 24 lesson plans with different topics in different age groups were created. The contents were freely chosen by the prospective teachers. The following themes have been addressed in the lesson plans in relation to different age groups: • Grades 5 and 6: Climate and vegetation in Europe, Germany at a glance, tourism in the Alps, the North and Baltic Sea coasts, our Earth • Grades 7 and 8: Metropolises of Europe, climatic zones of Africa, graticule and time zones of the earth, volcanism and earthquakes, oceans and their use, cities in transition • Grade 9 and 10, and Sec. II: Global disparities and interdependencies, land use conflicts, climate change, and geographic zones of the Earth. On the basis of the theoretical explanations, the focus lies on the types of ICT used, as well as the agency/role of the teacher within the lesson plan. The ICT beliefs of the students are also expressed in the lesson plans they developed, which is why the typology according to Schmidt and Reintjes (2020) appears suitable for clustering the lesson plans that emerged (Fig. 15.1). • Type 1, “Laptop and projector in traditional classrooms:” ICT is embedded in the organization of teaching and learning within the existing framework of school subjects and lessons. This is an instrumental view of ICT. Teachers take on the

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role of instructors and use ICT to support the organization of their lessons or as a supplement to the teaching materials for illustrative purposes. ICT, therefore, does not change the structure of teaching itself. • Type 2, “Interesting lessons using tablets, smartboards, and virtual reality (VR):” ICT is used in the context of a conventional lesson and is used as means of making lessons more interesting. ICT is used on the basis of a functional understanding without significantly taking into account pedagogical or didactic criteria. • Type 3, “Classrooms and learning landscape—supplemented by ICT:” ICT is viewed as a means to achieve educational or professional goals, whereby, ICT is seen as a complementary addition to other forms of learning. ICT is used in the implementation of specialist didactic knowledge. • Type 4, “Self-directed learning in virtual space and the teacher as a coach:” ICT changes schools and lessons significantly, virtual learning environments replace the functions of traditional lessons, teachers become learning companions; a substitute understanding of ICT. The figures (Fig. 15.1) shows that the learning arrangements for the younger grades (grades 5–6) are more teacher-centered and that the use of ICT there can be described as substituting (see Fig. 15.1). For example, digital blackboard pictures were created that generate teacher centered step-by-step lessons in which technical features are used with a motivational psychological justification. In the teaching– learning arrangements for older students, conceptions emerged that are predominantly attributed to ICT and provide for an advisory role of the teacher (see Fig. 15.1). For example, a complex simulation game is being developed in which learners analyze geographical conflicts from specific perspectives and evaluate media reports, social media, and scientific sources in order to interact with each other in a virtual conference with the aim of coming to a decision. The determined age-specificity was not intended in the conception of the seminar and refers to the inherent logic of learning processes and perspectives on education. The analysis of the developed conception also shows limits because geographic didactic aspects, especially the integration of the spatial citizenship approach, can only be insufficiently integrated. Some limitations to this exploratory study are important to take name. On the one hand, the data presented here was collected during one seminar in one semester. The

Fig. 15.1 Cluster of lesson plans

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number of respondents is small so it is not possible to generalize the results. This was not the purpose of the evaluation. It is rather aimed at depicting the perspectives of the students about digital media and their attitudes through different phases of the seminar. It should also be mentioned that not all participants of the seminar filled out the questionnaire. A total of 75 students took part in the seminar in different groups. The response rate is around 50%. With regard to the interpretation of the data, it must be noted that the seminar was held during the first pandemic lockdown. During this time, the conditions around analog and digital teaching methods changed rapidly. It can be assumed that this has had an impact on attitudes and experiences of the students. It is therefore of great interest to evaluate the subsequent seminars that employ this conception. Despite the limitations of the study, the following findings can be derived for geography teacher training. Prospective geography teachers have a lot of experience in dealing with digital media, but do not feel sufficiently prepared for digital teaching. They are very interested in geomedia and methodological ideas for the development of lesson plans and less in technical aspects of digitalization. Teacher education should be a bridge between the individual educational biographies of the students and the media-didactic and content-related demands of digitalization in geographical education. It was found that in general there is a lack of knowledge about how different teaching conception can be classified. The joint development of concrete teaching examples and, in particular, their testing in a role play promotes a differentiated point of view. However, more attention should be paid to reflection and reflexivity.

15.5 Conclusion Based on the challenges that exist in the general and geographical educational context in a digital everyday culture, the development, implementation, and evaluation of the seminar show interesting findings on various levels and provide an outlook on further research. The low-threshold and consistent use of digital technology, tools, and media, and the associated enabling of individual action-oriented learning experiences enable an examination of education in a culture of digitality that is regarded as meaningful and enriching. Productive and collaborative processes support the professionalization of prospective teachers. However, substantial communication and reflection processes require special consideration in the conception of a course. Geography education in the spirit of a culture of digitalization (Stalder, 2016) requires a transformative use of existing, proven, and fundamentally new didactic resources. GST by itself cannot lead to automatic change of educational practice in learning and teaching. Prospective teachers need appropriate professional development and support. There is a need for meaningful reflexive practice. A major challenge for prospective teachers is to reflect upon and evaluate the lesson plans. In particular, there is a lack of instruments for the subject-specific classification of digital teaching learning arrangements. The seminar presented in this study aims to explore the wide spectrum of pedagogical possibilities. At the same time, it is about

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enabling prospective teachers to create high-quality learning arrangements in which the technical aspects of the (digital) tools take a back seat to the learning progress. In addition to assessing the availability of hardware and software at the educational institutions, the focus for geography teacher training has to be particularly on the target-oriented, educational quality of the digital or digitally supported teaching and learning opportunities offered and the professionalization of the teachers in the various training phases.

References Allert, H., & Richter, C. (2016). Kultur der Digitalität statt digitaler Bildungsrevolution. (working paper). https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-47527-7. Accessed 18 April 2021. Backfisch, I., Lachner, A., Hische, C., Loose, F., & Scheiter, K. (2020). Professional knowledge or motivation? Investigating the role of teachers’ expertise on the quality of technology-enhanced lesson plans. Learning and Instruction, 66(101–300), 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninst ruc.2019.101300. Accessed 18 April 2021. Baker, T. R., Battersby, S., Bednarz, S. W., Bodzin, A. M., Kolvoord, B., Moore, S., & Uttal, D. (2015). A research agenda for geospatial technologies and learning. Journal of Geography, 114(3), 118–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2014.950684. Accessed 18 April 2021. Baumert, J., & Kunter, M. (2006). Stichwort: Professionelle Kompetenz von Lehrkräften. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 9(4), 469–520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-0060165-2. Accessed 18 April 2021. Bennett, W. L., Wells, C., & Rank, A. (2009). Young citizens and civic learning: Two paradigms of citizenship in the digital age. Citizenship Studies, 13(2), 105–120. Boeckler, M. (2014). Neogeographie, Ortsmedien und der Ort der Geographie im digitalen Zeitalter. Geographische Rundschau, 6, 4–10. Crampton, J. W., Graham, M., Poorthuis, A., Shelton, T., Stephens, M., Wilson, M. W., & Zook, M. (2013). Beyond the geotag: Situating ‘Big Data’ and leveraging the potential of the geoweb. Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 40(2), 130–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/152 30406.2013.777137. Accessed 18 April 2021. Deinet, U., & Reutlinger, C. (2014). Tätigkeit – Aneignung – Bildung. Positionierungen zwischen Virtualität und Gegenständlichkeit. Springer VS (Sozialraumforschung und Sozialraumarbeit, 15). DeMers, M. N. (2017). Geography education: Digital and online trends. In D. Richardson, N. Castree, M. F. Goodchild, A. Kobayashi, W. Liu, & R. A. Marston (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of geography. People, the earth, environment, and technology (Bd. 28, pp. 1–7). Wiley Blackwell. Dorsch, C., Gryl, I., Hermes, A., Jekel, T., Lehner, M., Meyer, C., Pettig, F., Pokraka, J., Schrüfer, G., & Schulze, U. (2020). Der Beitrag des Fachs Geographie zur Bildung in einer durch Digitalisierung und Mediatisierung geprägten Welt. Positionspapier des Hochschulverbands für Geographiedidaktik (HGD) e.V. Hochschulverband für Geographiedidaktik. http://geographiedidaktik.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Positions papier_Geographische_Bildung_und_Digitalisierung_2020.pdf. Accessed 18 April 2021. Eickelmann, B., Lorenz, R., & Endberg, M. (2016). Die Relevanz der Phasen der Lehrerausbildung hinsichtlich der Vermittlung didaktischer und methodischer Kompetenzen für den schulischen Einsatz digitaler Medien in Deutschland und im Bundesländervergleich. In W. Bos, R. Lorenz, M. Endberg, B. Eickelmann, R. Kammerls, & S. Welling (Eds.), Schule digital – der Länderindikator 2016. Kompetenzen von Lehrpersonen der Sekundarstufe I im Umgang mit digitalen Medien im Bundesländervergleich (pp. 148–179). Waxmann.

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Chapter 16

Implications of the Anthropocene for Professional Ethics in American Geography Education Thomas Barclay Larsen and John Harrington Jr.

16.1 Introduction Professional ethics help discern right from wrong and are especially valuable for geography teachers and researchers to promote responsible citizenship (Hay, 1998; Hay & Foley, 1998). A moral code can guide professionals virtuously throughout college, career, and/or civic life by helping to organize and interpret reality (Proctor, 1998). Articulating an ethic for geographers proves challenging but essential (Chatterton & Maxey, 2009). Throughout the history of the American Association of Geographers (AAG), past presidents approached morality from different thematic lenses and frameworks, including quality of life (Helburn, 1982); professional responsibilities of geographers to the public (Morrill, 1984); housing issues (Adams, 1984); everyday forms of regard, respect, and responsibility (Birdsall, 1996); environmental/climate justice (Harden, 2012; Macdonald, 2020; Winkler, 2016); and social justice issues of racism and sexism (Alderman, 2019; Domosh, 2017; Kobayashi, 2014). In a discipline with widespread agreement that morals should drive what geographers do, disagreement continues over which perspectives and ideas should be highlighted (see Olson, 2018). Teaching geography at the K-12 level comes with its own ethical questions, with educators taking some responsibility for students, other teachers, school administrators, school districts, parents, and themselves (Campbell, 2000). Regularly, teachers do the hard work of reconciling the social part of education with the subject matter that needs to be covered and tested. Where does the environmental part fit into the professional ethics of geography teachers?

T. B. Larsen (B) Department of Geography, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA, USA e-mail: [email protected] J. Harrington Jr. Independent Scholar, Bay Center, WA, USA © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_16

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As geography teachers cultivate virtue in classrooms and school halls, they face the challenge of preparing their students for a rapidly changing planetary ecosystem. Scientists have recognized that humans have irreversibly changed the Earth system, but their warnings consistently fail to factor in the role of education in addressing environmental predicaments (Reid et al., 2021). Many scholars now claim that we live in the Anthropocene (Age of Humans), a period of time in which human activities are now a major driver of change in the system (Crutzen, 2002; Crutzen & Stoermer, 2000). Human demand for resources (e.g., our ecological footprint) has surpassed the planet’s ability to generate them on an annual basis (Kitzes et al., 2008). For scale, people in the twenty-first century move twenty-four times more sediment than what is deposited into oceans by the world’s major rivers (Cooper et al., 2018). With these transformations come consequences for future generations of students. K-12 social studies standards emphasize readiness in college, career, and civic life (NCSS, 2013). To achieve such preparedness, teaching with a social, cultural, and emotional lens is necessary (see Markowitz & Bouffard, 2020), but insufficient. As David Orr (2020, p. 278) argued: Environmental and sustainability educators are, in effect, the first responders working with the rising generation to help guide the formation of their attitudes, capacities, loyalties, and affections. No student at any level or in any major should graduate without knowing their responsibilities as dual citizens in the community of life and in a political community.

It is important to recognize that an understanding of a changing global environment is a foundation for student success. Educating the whole child must factor in an ability to learn and respond to critical transitions in the planetary ecosystem from global-to-local levels (see Scheffer, 2009). We advocate for an Anthropocene ethic for geography teachers, one that combines professional ethics with human–environment and spatial geographic thinking. The human–environment relationship has changed, and the future of our planet is uncertain. Geography teachers have a professional obligation to describe what is happening to the Earth system as clearly as possible, help students understand that complex situations do not have concrete solutions/easy answers, and guide them toward practical solutions. In this chapter, key ideas are presented which are necessary to advance educators’ understanding and, if appropriate, prepare their own professional development workshop. We examine the relationship between ethics and the Anthropocene in the context of sustainability, professionalism in teaching, and human–environment geography. To conclude, we summarize key takeaways to structure a workshop on the Anthropocene’s implications for professional ethics in geography education. To begin our discussion, we belly up to the bar.

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16.2 Anthropocene Fermentation and Prospects for Sustainability Three scholars reconvene at the college pub they once frequented years ago as graduate students. One scholar, a geologist, argued that it became a bar when the building’s foundation was placed. The second scholar, an anthropologist, said that the pub’s beginnings start as soon as humanity began brewing beers and spirits. The third scholar, a sociologist, argued that the pub appeared as an idea emerging and propelling its owners to action. When did the pub begin?

Stimulating the professional workshop is a bell ringer of scholars questioning the most legitimate beginning of a pub. The above scenario is called a thought experiment, a hypothetical situation with no obvious and agreed upon correct answer. Instead, thought experiments prompt readers to reason through complex issues in different ways, similar to mice navigating through a maze (Canales, 2020). In the passage above, each scholar has his or her own preconception about the bar’s beginnings based on academic background. Rather than simply opt for one interpretation, the geographer gains knowledge from all three arguments and attempts to synthesize the differing views into a more complete picture (Gober, 2000). The point of this mode of inquiry is that the start and end of something are not always firmly bounded (Gangatharan, 2008; Wishart, 2004). Suppose that workshop participants can discover the start time for the Anthropocene in the ground right underneath their feet, in the layers of soil and rock. How far must they dig to locate the beginning of the Human Age? Anthropocene proponents argue that a marker can be identified that signals the start of the time period when humans caused a tipping point in the global environment (Steffen et al., 2007). Tipping points occur when something gets introduced into a system, like radioactive material from above-ground nuclear testing or carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from gas-guzzling cars and coal-fired power plants (Gladwell, 2002; Scheffer, 2009). The system shifts to an alternate state when it can no longer be resilient given the new inputs (e.g., climate change from too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere). Like the pub’s history, the start of the Anthropocene is elusive yet fermenting with plausible explanations. There are multiple academic spectators attempting to locate exactly when the tipping point actually happened. What scientists do know is that human activities have, in the words of Ptolemy, transformed Earth’s airs, waters, and places (Folke et al., 2021). Scholars have disagreed over its beginnings since the Anthropocene idea first diffused after a conference in Mexico in 2000 (Zalasiewicz et al., 2021). Of these arguments regarding the start of the Age of Humans, we shall detail four: the geologic, agricultural, colonial, and industrial perspectives. The geologic perspective would claim that the current geologic epoch, the Holocene, has ended and that the Anthropocene began following World War II when detonation of nuclear weapons left the Earth’s surface impacted by radiation fallout from the mushroom clouds (Steffen et al., 2015).1 An agricultural perspective holds 1

Others have claimed that the Anthropocene runs contemporaneous with the Holocene (Smith & Zeder, 2013).

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that the Anthropocene’s beginnings align with the intensification of animal and plant domestication, which increased climate-changing greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide and methane) around the planet (Ellis et al., 2016; Ruddiman, 2003). By 12,000 BP, nearly three quarters of Earth’s landscape were humanized in some way; demand for livestock and crops resulted in sharp decreases in biodiversity (Ellis et al., 2021). The colonial perspective argues that the birth of the Anthropocene coincides with mass deaths of indigenous peoples; this hypothesis recognizes that disease transmission during the Columbian Exchange resulted in considerable reforestation of the New World and associated carbon dioxide uptake (Dull et al., 2010; Lewis & Maslin, 2015; van Hoof et al., 2006). Finally, the industrial perspective suggests that the Anthropocene began with the start of the Industrial Revolution in the mid-1700s (Smith & Zeder, 2013). Additional starting points have been suggested for the onset of the Anthropocene (Steffen et al., 2011). The lens of geology entails looking for a layer in the Earth that can be used across the globe to document a change, and this is the perspective employed by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) for formalization on the official geologic timeline (Zalasiewicz et al., 2021). Geologic time is deep time, spanning Earth’s 4.5-billion-year history (Bjornerud, 2018). The story of humans and our primate ancestors occurs on a much shorter temporal scale, a 1-million-year timeframe, or just a fraction of a percentage of all geologic time (Galway-Witham & Stringer, 2018). Within social science and humanities circles, we and others have posited that the Anthropocene is more than geologic (see Larsen & Harrington, 2021a, 2021b). In other words, a geologic time period is insufficient to capture the important periods of human–environment history and all relevant aspects of the Anthropocene. The Anthropocene idea has branched into many Anthropocenes, ideas adjacent to the original one, but with a disciplinary twist (Toivanen et al., 2017). Consider this situation akin to the pub experiment, only with a larger, more diverse group of scholars. Intoxicated by the Anthropocene dialogues, numerous intellectuals weigh in on the debate and offer their own variations. For example, the Urbanocene affirms that Earth’s system changed when urbanization became widespread, requiring more energy and resources (e.g., sand and gravel) to sustain rapidly growing and concentrated populations (West, 2017). The Capitalocene attests to the idea of capitalism going viral, the rapid accumulation of wealth becoming desirable, and the preservation of nature taking the backseat to economic progress (Davis et al., 2019; Haraway, 2015, 2016). The Novacene envisages a world in which life fuses with technology, and human–environment relations must account for cyborgs that will evolve and eventually replace their hominid creators (Lovelock, 2019). These ‘cenes’ provide imaginative variations on the Anthropocene by venturing beyond geologic explanations to consider humanist and social scientific positions. Ideas can be reimagined and reinterpreted to fit an array of scholarly and ethical agendas. Anthropocene dialogues complement ongoing research and activism for sustainability, working with the environment to meet current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The 1987 Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, popularized sustainability as a multinational concept designed to shift priorities and curb human impacts on the environment to preserve

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it for future generations. New perspectives and understandings arose in a 1999 National Academies Report, Our Common Journey (NRC, 1999), and a subsequent geographer-led proposal for sustainability science (Kates et al., 2001). Discussions shifted toward achieving milestones in generations rather than by fixed dates, leading to the idea of an adaptive path forward or journey toward sustainability. Central to sustainability are nine core concepts: (1) choices matter; (2) sustainability connects to what we see as desirable; (3) sustainability has different definitions; (4) what works at the regional scale may not work at the local; (5) sustainable practices will vary according to each place’s site and situation; (6) we should use systems to organize thinking about sustainability; (7) Earth systems have limits; (8) sustainability connects to other concepts, like vulnerability and resilience; and (9) change is a necessary precondition for sustainability (Harrington, 2016). Like the Anthropocene, sustainability is a multifaceted idea with varying meanings and modes of response. In sum, disagreement exists within the Academy over the usefulness of dedicating a new geologic epoch to the Anthropocene, declaring the Anthropocene as a continuation of the Holocene, and determining where and when it can be identified and measured on a global scale. What is known in the midst of this intellectual effervescence is that humans are a keystone species driving environmental change (Cooper et al., 2018; McKibben, 1989, 2019). Historians, not just geographers, have also begun to consider global-scale transformations in the Earth system and their relation to human history. The Great Acceleration, for example, refers to the massive changes after World War II in both the environment and society (McNeill & Engelke, 2014). Time periods have power as environmental ideas (Steffen et al., 2015; Wishart, 2004). They serve as markers for where we were and where we are going. Analysis of transitions between consecutive time periods may help identify better directions for moving toward sustainability. A Capitalocene or the Novacene, for example, would suggest different ethical pathways forward. An official human–environment timeline would more effectively represent this dynamism (Larsen & Harrington, 2021a). The introductory session of our professional development workshop would present relevant ideas and get the teachers thinking about what sustainability and the Anthropocene might mean for them and their students.

16.3 Anthropocene Ethics and a Pragmatic Sense of Place Why are the Anthropocene and its scholarly offspring significant? Because ideas inform ethics, ethics inform policies, and policies make places. As such, our professional development workshop next needs to advance teachers’ understanding of the relationship between ethics and the environment. Ethics pervade the Anthropocene for the following reason: to say that humans transformed the environment (in many cases for the worst) is to transgress the boundaries of reasonable human–environment interaction. Affirming the existence of the Anthropocene calls to question who ought to be accountable for such changes and for restoring the integrity of Earth’s system

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(Hourdequin, 2013). For the most part, moral discussions about the Anthropocene have been tethered to environmental ethics and social justice more broadly (Larsen & Harrington, 2021b). In studies involving environmental ethics, scholars determine when lines are crossed between good and bad impacts on the environment. Then, they must discern which person or organization should/must be held accountable. Mugerauer and Manzo (2008, p. 1) organize environmental ethics in terms of reflection and responsibility: For all practical purposes it is sufficient to begin by thinking of ethics in terms of reflection and responsibility. As human beings, we are called upon to become conscious of who we are, of our relationships in the world, and to become responsible for our actions. The process of social deliberation about these matters is what we call ethics.

Ethicists deliberate about environmental dilemmas through various forms of expression, such as activism, policies, scholarly journal articles, and contributing to nonprofits. For example, water pollution by a battery recycling plant can denigrate the ecosystem of a poor Los Angeles neighborhood, disrupting the health of its residents (Pulido, 2015). Holding parties accountable and rebuilding community environments stimulate a subset of social justice called environmental justice, a movement beginning in the 1980s and 1990s dedicated to protecting minority residents from having hazardous waste dumped in proximity to their neighborhoods (Bullard, 2000). When there is no ‘away’ to throw into (Hardin, 1993), polluting tends to get confined to the communities with the least say in the matter. Since its conception, the environmental justice movement has elevated public awareness about unequal exposure to pollution while empowering affected community members to speak out (Pulido, 2016). Professionalizing environmental ethics is predicated upon the extent to which geography teachers go beyond established rules to become more virtuous radical professionals, “people of irrepressible courage, creativity, joy, and humility dedicated to the causes of life, justice, truth, decency, and democracy knowing that these are parts of one system” (Orr, 2020, p. 278). As far as the planetary sustainability is concerned, professional geographers and geography teachers play a vital role in conveying how scientific consensus (what is happening to the planet?) and environmental ethics (why should we care?) intermingle to influence decisions (Mugerauer & Manzo, 2008). Anthropocene literacy will help students promote sustainable decision making through the realization of just how entangled their lives are with changes in the planet (Taylor, 2017). Effective geography education could mean the difference between business-as-usual and upstream thinking, the latter being a process that identifies adaptive pathways toward a more sustainable future. More on that later. An effective exercise is to envision what a ‘good’ Anthropocene would look like (Bennett et al., 2016). Current conceptions of the Anthropocene portray a world of drastic changes in population, climate, land use, pollution, water use, urbanization, and biodiversity. The power of the concept of the Anthropocene lies in its versatility, an umbrella term to help encapsulate multiple, if not all, human dimensions of global change. As Lisa Harrington (2016) mentioned, effective sustainability measures are place-based. So too are ethical environmental decisions (Mugerauer & Manzo, 2008).

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To bring the good Anthropocene down to Earth is to consider how global changes have affected and will affect local places (Pawson, 2015; Wilbanks & Kates, 1999). That is where we believe a pragmatic sense of place, a concept developed by humanistic geographer Edward Relph, comes into play. A pragmatic sense of place is based on three interrelated statements (Relph, 2009): (1) to some degree, we all have a concern for the places we inhabit; (2) each place responds differently to changes in climate, land use, and urbanization; and (3) we must make practical environmental decisions that reflect each place’s unique context. Under the lens of a pragmatic sense of place, a good Anthropocene is not one-size-fits-all, regardless of its global scope. A pragmatic sense of place in the Anthropocene requires environmental responsibility (Hay & Foley, 1998; Mugerauer & Manzo, 2008). An ill-equipped teacher and student population supports unsustainable pathways because incoming generations of leaders and bystanders are deprived of capabilities essential for navigating uncertain environmental futures (Biddulph et al., 2020; Lambert et al., 2015). As the reader might recognize, our professional development workshop needs a component on environmental ethics, geographic ideas related to the importance of local places, and educational methods for connecting global issues with addressable local problems.

16.4 Getting REAL and the Nature of Professional Ethics While other Anthropocene ethicists advocate going beyond this idea and toward that idea (see Larsen & Harrington, 2021b), we advocate an Anthropocene ethic that operates within the student’s personal lifeworld and worldview. Political scientist Timothy Snyder (2017, p. 32) wrote that we must “[t]ake responsibility for the face of the world.” The axiom relates to the concept of global citizenship, which provokes individuals to extend past parochialism to consider how their actions influence the rest of the planet (Davies, 2006). Students cannot take up that responsibility if they do not take cues from other places and time periods. Helping people in other countries during a time of strife, such as when the US helped Allied Forces in World War I, is one example of responsible citizenship that widens worldviews beyond national borders. Unfortunately, many people do not recognize change in the past and their power to implement future shifts. Instituting an Anthropocene ethic represents one way to combat the end of history illusion, a cognitive bias that assumes history no longer pertains to present and future decisions (Quoidbach et al., 2013). Even some of the most well-intentioned actions—programs of the highest moral standard—can yield unintended, ineffective, or even dangerous consequences.2 Good policy making benefits from a geographic imagination (Martin, 2001; Proctor, 1998). Derek Alderman (2019), past president of the AAG, advocated for 2

A litany of issues can be found in Galileo’s Middle Finger (Dreger, 2016), which describes how the moral biases of scientists and activists led to unintended and even dangerous side-effects among vulnerable populations.

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geographers to be REAL: Responsive, Engaged, Advocating, and Life-Improving. In other words, geographers, geography teachers, and geography students must be able to respond to social problems, engage with appropriate decision-makers, advocate for holistic solutions to problems, and ultimately use their powers for good to improve the lives of those affected. According to Sarah Bednarz (2019, p. 527), “[I]t behooves geographers and geography educators to continue to focus on teaching for a world that fully appreciates difference. It is not sufficient to merely teach in and about our world.” Being REAL echoes geographers’ longstanding tradition of influencing public policy reaching back to World Wars I and II (White, 1985; Wilbanks, 1985). Gilbert White (1911–2006), a human–environment geographer, was instrumental in establishing the relationship between flood hazards and risk (Cohen, 2006; Cutter et al., 2019). White’s contributions influenced government response to floods and even facilitated the development of flood insurance. Today, geographers continue to challenge one another to venture beyond merely identifying what’s wrong with the world toward making meaningful progress in correcting these problems (Ward, 2006). Studying geography for its own sake puts the discipline in danger of becoming an echo chamber of geographers praising and policing other geographers, rather than maintaining substantive influences beyond school grounds, professional conferences, and academic journals (see Zelinsky, 1975). Doing so requires professional geographers to assume the role of public intellectual, someone who speaks to a broader audience outside of academia (Alderman & Inwood, 2019; Harman, 2003). Our professional development workshop might include a section on methods available for sharing scholarly ideas more broadly and connecting with community leaders. Teaching is a professional activity and thus is “deeply implicated in ethical concerns and considerations” (Carr, 2000, p. 3; see also Strike & Soltis, 2009). Professional ethics in education tend to be hyper-social, emphasizing the societal implications of teaching as if environmental integrity did not matter. For example, nowhere in the U.S. National Education Association’s (2020) “Code of Ethics for Educators” is there a mention of the teacher’s front-line role in possibly changing human–environment relations. Failure to see education and environmental literacy as critical components for survival does a great disservice to students (Orr, 1992). This oversight happens as environmental management institutions consider altering their ethical practices in the Anthropocene (Schmidt, 2017). Geographers have recently begun to explore the Anthropocene’s implications on environmental ethics (Bartel, 2018; Gibson-Graham et al., 2019; Krzywoszynska, 2019; Schmidt, 2019). This connection becomes especially significant as students grow increasingly disconnected from nature (Kesebir & Kesebir, 2017). Environmental connections to professional ethics (e.g., careers in private and public realms) in geography education can be greatly expanded. Teaching about human–environment geography will aid in tying the Anthropocene with practical environmental decisions. Our professional development workshop can ask teachers to think about ways they could teach about human–environment thinking using local examples.

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16.5 Ethical Thinking in Human–Environment Geography Ideas without evidence are like blood without oxygen. The good Anthropocene requires accounting for different aspects of human–environment relations, such as environmental justice, sustainable agriculture, energy smart cities, and development of future knowledge (Bennett et al., 2016). Human–environment geography breathes oxygen into the Anthropocene idea by tying in evidence about what is happening at the interface between nature and society (Larsen & Harrington, 2021b). Big ideas like the Anthropocene must be supported with a growing knowledge of how humanity drives environmental changes at global, regional, and local levels. Teachers need to be prepared with the right information and tools in the toolbox to advance an Anthropocene ethic, one that signals wrongful human transformations of the environment and suggests practical pathways forward. Taking that cognitive leap requires that geography teachers equip students with appropriate knowledge, perspectives, and skills (Lambert et al., 2015). This component of the professional development workshop supplies attendees with relevant knowledge and proposes some useful ethical capabilities for the Anthropocene. Geographers discussing the Anthropocene have contributed at least three modes of human–environment thinking: synthesis, epistemological, and ethical thinking (Larsen & Harrington, 2021b). Synthesis thinking involves being able to tie together knowledge to create a more complete understanding of a system or place (see Gober, 2000; Lowenthal, 2019; Wilson, 1998). This powerful thinking process bears similarity to a jazz artist taking samples from various music genres and sounds to create an original piece (see Béneker & van der Vaart, 2020). Epistemological thinking entails interpreting human–environment relations from different perspectives (see Mugerauer, 1994). Anthropocene debates reflect innumerable interpretations of an Age of Humans (Zalasiewicz et al., 2021). Outside of academia, moral attitudes toward the environment tend to be influenced by political ideology, especially the care-harm perspective of progressives (Feinberg & Willer, 2013). On the subject of morals, ethical thinking considers the broader implications of environmental knowledge on society (e.g., who should be held accountable). Additional ideas from geographers can inform environmental decisions, such as L. Harrington’s (2016) big ideas in sustainability. Capable geography teachers and their students should cultivate three ethical capabilities: distinguish between is and ought, imagine future scenarios, and self-correct. First, to wear the white hat of moral virtue, one first needs to have a head (Dreger, 2016). Sustainable social justice starts with truth (what is) before going into what ought to be done with that knowledge (Dreger, 2016). Rich description of places and regions reflects not only the highest form of the geographer’s art, but it also steers teachers and students away from making unfounded claims about human–environment relations (Hart, 1982; Lewis, 1985). Students are especially susceptible to social desirability bias, which drives them to make claims that they believe would please the teacher (see Heerwig & McCabe, 2009). In our experience, university students who do not feel confident in their knowledge about global change will often make broad,

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sweeping claims about how the world is burning and change is needed. Such moralizing skips over the ability to identify which aspects of Earth’s human–environment system are at play and how scientists have arrived at their current understandings. Beyond the social desirability bias, teachers and students have varying moral attitudes about the environment (Feinberg & Miller, 2013). Integrating findings from scientific research and ethics in teaching geography becomes important in restoring ecological systems in the Anthropocene (Landres et al., 2020; Lowe, 2019). Human cognition enables discussing how moral issues and evolution enabled humans to be more socially sophisticated in their concerns about others and the environment (Haidt, 2012); but like the environment, morality contains limits. For example, donating to charity may seem like the right thing for affluent Westerners to do. Students of the Anthropocene could dedicate their tithing to various conservation non-profits around the globe. Not all charities or non-profits are alike. Some organizations are effective, while others simply maintain the aura of success (MacAskill, 2015). Political ecologists have discovered evidence of how conservation non-profits can negatively impact local populations in the developing world (Cavanagh & Benjaminsen, 2014; Peluso, 1993). Effective altruism holds that donating blindly to charities is unproductive (MacAskill, 2015). Rather, funds should be allocated to the most industrious and transparent organizations to help maximize the amount of good being done. In the context of the Anthropocene, putting ought before is could render many environmental decisions ineffective or even hazardous. Second, envisioning future scenarios requires upstream thinking. Upstream thinking affirms what ought to be, but through predictive measures, “When you spend years responding to problems, you can sometimes overlook the fact that you could be preventing them” (Heath, 2020, p. 2). In addressing the Anthropocene, this forward-thinking perspective helps overcome ethical blunders like being blind to environmental problems and refusing to take responsibility for one’s environmental decisions. The Anthropocene and the need to transition toward sustainability are aspects that have been identified as wicked problems, complex challenges like climate change that do not have a simple, clear-cut solution (DeFries & Nagendra, 2017; Heath, 2020). To envision future planetary scenarios, geography teachers and students could benefit from a brief statistics lesson on type 1 and type 2 errors (Harman et al., 1998; Trenberth, 2011). Type 1 errors are the upstream thinking kinds of errors. Rather than gamble on what the environment is going to do, people behave as though the planet is rapidly changing and take measures to prepare for it. Nothing catastrophic might happen, but at least society was prepared. Type 2 errors might occur when people continue with business-as-usual, unsustainable ways of interacting with the environment. In a sense, they are taking a gamble. Nothing might happen, but if something does, then they will be underprepared to confront arising challenges. According to Bill McKibben (2019), contemporary society is more of a gambler (type 2 error) than an upstream thinker (type 1 error). Finally, if new information is present, then self-correct. Environmental knowledge changes like the environment it represents. Thus, effective communication is key. For example, we have discussed the Great Acceleration, the rapid increase

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in human activities and environmental transformations starting with World War II (McNeill & Engelke, 2014; Steffen et al., 2015). Hockey-stick-like graphs show frightening increases in population, dams, water use, carbon dioxide, methane, and other indicators of the Long Emergency (Orr, 2020; Steffen et al., 2015). The Great Acceleration only represents one side of the story: the change, but not the rate of change (Dorling, 2020). Geography teachers and students are entering a society that may be slowing down while environmental changes (e.g., temperature rise) continue to accelerate. Population may be increasing in raw numbers, but not as fast as it used to. According to Danny Dorling, inequality will decline, average age will be older, fewer new ideas will transform society, and environmental interactions will hopefully be more sustainable. Self-correction is not simply exchanging one idea for another—Great Acceleration for Slowdown—but a recognition that the two ideas are interrelated. Problems of the Great Acceleration do not end when society pumps the breaks on its environmental impacts. In many ways, the damage has already been done. As society slows down, the climate is predicted to continue changing because of momentum from Great Acceleration activities (Orr, 2016). The relationship between Great Acceleration and Slowdown demonstrates the importance of clarifying which aspects of Earth’s system teachers are talking about and how they talk about them.

16.6 Overcoming Barriers to Getting REAL in the Anthropocene In our experience, a well-planned professional development workshop wraps up the sessions with a reminder of what was covered and the justifications for having invested the time and brain power. The workshop’s outline could be summarized as such: • Discussion of the thought experiment about the three scholars debating a pub’s beginnings. • Transition to the concept of the Anthropocene, its limitations, and the ideas emerging from it (e.g., Urbanocene, Capitalocene, Novacene). • Overview of the Anthropocene ethic—signaling that Earth’s system has changed and something must be done about it—and its connection to a pragmatic sense of place. • Enumeration of professional ethics in geography teaching and research, such as getting REAL (Responsive, Engaged, Advocating, Life-Improving). • Identification of ethical thinking in human–environment geography, such as distinguishing between is and ought, imagining future scenarios (e.g., type 1 versus type 2 errors), and self-correction. • A concluding session with the teachers sharing their new motivation and ideas about how they plan to implement workshop ideas in their classes.

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Earth is a lifeboat whose human passengers have become unruly and destructive (Hardin, 1974). On that lifeboat (Hagens, 2020, p. 14), A bunch of mildly clever, highly social apes broke into a cookie jar of fossil energy and have been throwing a party for the past 150 years. […] The party is about over and when morning comes, radical changes to our way of living will be imposed. Some of the apes must sober up (before morning) and create a plan that the rest of the party-goers will agree to.

In this paper, we have proposed the Anthropocene ethic as professional guide for geography teachers to help their students sober up and help stabilize the lifeboat. Hitched to that larger lifeboat is the rowboat of American education, where geography educators compete for space. No longer will geography be assessed through the only available countrywide test: the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) (Solem & Stoltman, 2020). Progress in geographic thinking can improve and ride the waves of change, even as student reasoning about human– environment issues has been documented at its lowest since 1994 (NAEP, 2018). Calls for adaptability stress that geography teachers cease “[h]anging squirrel-like onto what worked in the past” to avoid “a destructive educational shipwreck” (Mitchell, 2020, p. 71). The Anthropocene, sustainability, and environmental ethics in a geographic context provide one option for moving forward. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewer, as well as Drs. Jerry Mitchell and Jongwon Lee for working closely with them in the manuscript submission and revision. They would also like to thank Drs. Jay Harman and David Orr for their wisdom and inspiration, along with Dr. Matthew Gerike for his suggestions on the presence of morality in AAG Presidential Addresses.

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Chapter 17

Beginning Teachers’ Evaluation and Perceived Challenges in Using Geographical Fieldwork Inquiry in Singapore Geok Chin Ivy Tan

17.1 Background Many researchers and educators have highlighted that fieldwork is a distinctive and essential component in geographic education (Gerber & Goh, 2000; Gold et al., 1991; Kent et al., 1997). The field can be defined as any place outside the classroom where supervised learning can take place via first-hand experience (Lonergan & Andresen, 1988). Fieldwork refers to the carrying out of an investigative work at a field site to achieve some learning outcomes. Students would be able to gain a direct experience and connect the abstract concepts learnt in the classroom when in the field. Fieldwork basically helps to integrate theory into practice (Clark, 1996; Gold et al., 1991; Kent & Foskett, 2002; Lai, 1999, 2000; Lidstone, 2000). The importance and advantages of geography fieldwork have been documented by many researchers (Boyle et al., 2007; Cook, 2008; Fuller et al., 2006; Gerber & Goh, 2000; Kent et al., 1997; Lai, 1999, 2000; Lidstone & Lai, 1998; Stimpson, 1995). However, there are also researchers who found out that teachers encountered challenges when conducting fieldwork and these would affect their willingness to conduct fieldwork (Chew, 2008; Han & Foskett, 2007; Munday, 2008). Some of the challenges included the lack of time, monetary resources, parental and departmental support. Additionally, teachers also encountered logistical and the administrative challenges while planning and conducting fieldwork. Locally in Singapore, before 2013, fieldwork was recommended but it was not required within the geography syllabi for secondary schools (grades 7–10, aged 13– 16 years) and junior colleges (grades 11–12, aged 17–18 years). Most of the fieldwork conducted in schools were traditional teacher-led field excursions or fieldtrips. G. C. I. Tan (B) Humanities & Social Studies Education (HSSE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_17

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Students participating in such fieldtrips were mainly passive. They would usually be tasked to complete the field worksheets which required them to record what they had heard from the teachers in the field (Chew, 2008). Since 2013, fieldwork is increasingly gaining prominence and importance in geography education in Singapore. The geography curriculum has been revised such that the desired student outcomes of developing a confident person, self-directed learner, active contributor and concerned citizen can be achieved through geography education (Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board, 2013). The current secondary geography syllabus adopts the geographical inquiry approach to the teaching and learning of geography not only in the classroom but also in the field. It involves the geographical inquiry process (Roberts, 2003, 2010) of formulating questions, gathering data, exercising reasoning and reflective thinking. The assessment components for the grades 7–12 syllabi have also been modified to assess inquiry in fieldwork through geographical investigations. To a certain extent, assessment drives pedagogy. To prepare students for this component in the examination, teachers are now required to create opportunities for students to engage in geographical inquiry in the field. Conducting fieldwork is now a necessity and included in the syllabus. Students are given opportunities to embark on geographical investigations into an authentic geographical issue through fieldwork to give them a deeper and critical understanding of the complexities of the changing world. Research on school fieldwork in Singapore is very limited. Chew (2008) explored the value and importance accorded to fieldwork in geography education by seeking the opinions of two groups of participants, namely, the subject leaders and other stakeholders. Subject leaders in schools referred to Heads of Departments, subject heads and subject coordinators while other stakeholders referred to principals, viceprincipals, curriculum officers from the Ministry of Education and lecturers from the National Institute of Education. The participants surveyed were in consensus of the positive benefits accrued to fieldwork and its value in promoting learning and enhancing understanding within students. They are, however, acutely aware of the many challenges teachers face in the planning, organizing and conducting of fieldwork. The top two most challenging aspects of fieldwork cited by the participants include an insufficient number of teachers to manage students while on fieldtrips and a lack of time to conduct a reconnaissance before the actual fieldwork session. Despite the many challenges before, during and after fieldwork, 94.57% of the respondents agreed with the statements ‘fieldwork is of importance in the teaching and learning of geography’ and 76.4% agreed that ‘fieldwork should be made compulsory’ (ibid: 320). In addition, a majority (62.4%) of the participants saw a need for further fieldwork training. Teacher-led field excursion was the most dominant form practiced by school teachers in Singapore. In another study, Tan (2012, 2017) investigated 54 pre-service teachers’ conception of fieldwork and documented the reconceptualisation of the pre-service geography fieldwork module at the National Institute of Education in Singapore. She reported that her pre-service teachers had little or no fieldwork experience up to grade 12 (aged 18 years) in Singapore schools. Those who had some fieldwork experiences described them as field excursions or fieldtrips where they merely recorded what they

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had heard from the teachers or tour facilitators in the field. The geography fieldwork module serves as a highly important transitional space where pre-service teachers, through experiential learning, acquire the necessary geography pedagogical-contentknowledge skills as well as the psychological readiness in planning and implementing fieldwork when they are in schools. The understanding gain from knowing the preservice teachers’ fieldwork experience (or lack of experience), their prior negative conceptions of fieldwork, and their lists of concerns and challenges in organising fieldwork has enabled the curriculum academic staff to be aware and, hence, address the multi-faceted issues raised in the pre-service fieldwork module. The present study is seeks to extend and develop the research of Tan (2012, 2017) with a focus on beginning teachers (with about 5 years of school teaching experience). Through the analysis of responses to an online questionnaire, this study seeks to further our understanding regarding the conceptions, perspectives and concerns of geography fieldwork from beginning teachers who have started to design, organise and facilitate geography fieldwork in their schools. The research questions are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

What are the personal conceptions and perspectives of beginning teachers on geography fieldwork in Singapore? What are their self-evaluations of their effectiveness and abilities as a designer, organiser and facilitator of geography fieldwork? What are their challenges and struggles in designing and implementing fieldwork in schools? What are their conceptions of and concerns about geographical inquiry approach in the new geography curriculum?

17.2 Method A 25-item online survey questionnaire was used to collect primary data from the beginning teachers. Section A consisted of questions on the respondent’s profile such as age, gender and years of teaching experience. Sections B, C and D consisted of questions on their reflections on their fieldwork experiences; difficulties and challenges faced; support they have received. Finally, the last section E was on their reflection on value of fieldwork and conception of the geographical fieldwork inquiry (see Appendix A). Once the ethics approval (IRB-2014-04-022) was granted by the university, the author sent out an invitation to 92 of her ex-students from the 12-month initial teacher education programme at the National Institute of Education. Ten beginning teachers responded and agreed to participate in the research. These teachers were given pseudonyms and a summary of their profile is shown in Table 17.1.

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Table 17.1 Profile of Participants No. of beginning teachers

10

Gender

Males: 3 (Tong, Yan, Peh) Females: 7 (Leng, Kam, Mei, Ng, Ong, Tin, Fang)

Age

20–24 years old: 1 25–29 years old: 6 30–34 years old: 3

Grade Levels taught

Grades 7–10 (aged 13–16 years): 6 Grades 11–12 (aged 17–18 years): 4

Teaching Experience

< 1 year: 1 1–2 years: 0 3–4 years: 4 5 years: 5

Mode of Fieldwork approach used

Traditional teacher-led approach: 3 Geography inquiry approach: 3 Mix of both: 4

17.3 Results and Discussion The qualitative content analysis method (Schreier, 2012) was used to systematically describe the responses written by the participants from the online survey. The responses were automatically stored in an online database and transferred into Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for analysis. The most common responses to questions or patterns which generally emerged would be discussed in this section which is organised under two sub-headings: (i) beginning teachers’ fieldwork experiences and conceptions of geography fieldwork (research questions 1–3); and (ii) beginning teachers’ understanding and conception of the geographical inquiry approach (research question 4).

17.3.1 Beginning Teachers’ Fieldwork Experiences and Conceptions of Geography Fieldwork One aim of the study is to understand more about the beginning teachers’ reflections on their current status as early career fieldwork practitioners, the challenges they have encountered, the support they have been given, and how their conceptions of fieldwork has changed since their pre-service. As early career fieldwork practitioners, the beginning teachers wrote about the challenges they have faced at pre-fieldwork stage, during the fieldwork and post-fieldwork stage. For the challenges at pre-fieldwork stage, the beginning teachers highlighted the lack of time amidst a tight curriculum; monetary resources on the part of the school or students; lack of school, parental, departmental support; logistical and administrative challenges required before the fieldwork, the need to undertake reconnaissance beforehand to identify teachable

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moments for students. There is also the need to brief and prepare students with background knowledge prior to the fieldwork, and the task of coming up with a concrete and efficacious field inquiry design that, ideally, enables students to achieve desired learning outcomes. One teacher’s difficulty was as such: It’s a challenge to brief the myriad field techniques to students without sounding boring and cumbersome. (Yan)

These beginning teachers faced even more challenges while on-site during fieldwork, such as: bad weather, faulty equipment, encountering anomalies out in the field, the need to discipline students’ behaviour, keep them engaged, ensure safety, all whilst facilitating the session and juggling multiple tasks. One of the beginning teachers mentioned that her students tend to be easily distracted from the task at hand and start documenting themselves at the field site i.e. take selfies instead. One teacher shared that his: …students may not be fully familiar with field equipment. Not all students are able and are confident and assured to adjust their methodology when they are faced with constraints at the site. (Yan)

As for post-fieldwork, teachers must ensure that students have grasped the key learning points through a series of follow-up lessons to ensure student learning and reflection. Students might not have recorded their field data properly or sufficiently, which gave rise to subsequent problems of data presentation and analysis. Some of the beginning teachers also shared their difficulty in deciding the best way to present the data collected. Another teacher highlighted the problems around debriefing at the field site and lag time between fieldwork and class sharing of results: Debriefing at a centralised location, difficult to hear one another or write much on the spot. Delivery of final fieldwork findings in class: lag time between fieldwork and actual sharing. (Fang)

Organising fieldwork is undoubtedly not an easy feat and beginning teachers in particular require support from their schools which can significantly ease the burden. Generally, the beginning teachers agreed that their schools were quite supportive although this sentiment was also qualified. For instance, a beginning teacher expressed that the school is supportive “as long as there are sufficient student numbers.” Two teachers stated that while the school was supportive, funds were limited. Another reported that the amount of support varied between the schools she was teaching in: Depends on school to school. My former school helped by ensuring that on a certain day in the week, Geography lecture was the last lesson of the day and that ensured that students didn’t have any more lessons after that. So Geography teachers could take students out for fieldwork. (Mei)

Two beginning teachers raised the importance of help from fellow geography colleagues, while acknowledging that ultimately, the responsibility still lies largely on the individual teacher:

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Teachers in the department will try to help and give feedback during our department discussion sessions but if you are the teacher in charge of the respective classes, the ownership is on you to get all the necessary equipment and make sure the students know what to do before they are there. (Tin)

Out of the ten beginning teachers surveyed, only one teacher gave a wholehearted sense of feeling supported by her school leaders and colleagues: Great support from the school. My mentors helped me with organising the field trip - admin, organising equipment, which GIs [geographical investigations] to do at which site. We used iPads to facilitate in our learning too - which is a good start. (Kam)

Despite the challenges they encountered, most of the beginning teachers perceived that their current content knowledge and fieldwork repertoire were generally sufficient for them to facilitate effective fieldwork. The importance of a well-planned and well-researched fieldwork was emphasised by them as a crucial pre-requisite in determining the overall success for both teachers and students, albeit in different ways. One of the beginning teachers highlighted the significance and relevance of the fieldwork training sessions while she was a student teacher at the National Institute of Education (NIE) in bridging the transition as a student teacher learning the ropes, to a full-fledged teacher leading students on a real fieldwork. With good planning and research prior to the trip, it is possible to understand more about the site to enable a fruitful discussion. It was also helpful to borrow from the experiences of NIE organised trips and to speak to friends who teach geography/other geography departments at the university level in the countries we intend to visit. (Leng)

Another beginning teacher too, highlighted the value of the fieldwork training sessions she had in NIE in preparing her for the future fieldwork expeditions. I think the fieldtrips to Kuantan, Perth and Hong Kong with NIE helped a lot. But learning on the job also helped. Amount of content knowledge and fieldwork repertoire is never enough. The teacher needs to constantly improve and learn with every new batch of students, new sites, new syllabus, etc. (Mei)

It is interesting to note that both these beginning teachers similarly mentioned the importance of on-the-job training and continuous learning and re-learning of new geographical repertoire. While a solid foundation established in the initial teacher fieldwork training programme was a good and necessary start, the real challenge often lies ahead of the beginning teacher as they delve into their formal teaching duties and grapple with the realities of a school environment. A successful transition from a pre-service teacher to a full-time beginning teacher requires one to combine past knowledge and experiences as a pre-service teacher with current practice as a full-fledged teacher, and to acknowledge that as a teacher, the learning never stops. Additionally, the beginning teachers also highlighted four fieldwork skills which they would need more help to hone: technical measurement skills, conceptual understanding, field data management and handling the anomalies or the unexpected in the field. Evidently, some of them still struggled with certain fundamental physical geography fieldwork skills that are more technical in nature such as calculating wave

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steepness, field sketching, and measuring water quality. It appears that the beginning teachers also struggled to various degrees with the conceptual understanding or ‘big ideas’ within the fieldwork topics. Helping students see with ‘geographical eyes’ and ask geographical questions or formulate hypotheses were some of the other challenges the beginning teachers faced. They would also like to improve the management and presentation of data skills to better guide their students. Finally, they would also like to build up confidence in accounting for anomalies encountered in the field. As one beginning stated: Tanjung Sedili [in Malaysia] is rich in its tectonic history, which I was unable to link this to the coastal features that students saw during the field trip. Hence, some learning was lost. I could not explain scenarios seen at the field that do not align with textbook answer. For instance, bigger sediments were found nearer to the coast, which at the field, they were found further away from the coast. (Kam)

In general, the beginning teachers agreed that fieldwork has its rightful place in geography, although it also challenges them in wholly new and unexpected ways. Conducting a successful and effective fieldwork is often difficult and challenging for these beginning teachers. They find themselves stretched to acquire these new skills that fieldwork demands of them. Despite the difficulties, one beginning teacher reported that fieldwork has acquired even more importance in her conception of its place in teaching geography. This is largely due to the joy it brings to her students, which translates into personal satisfaction for her as a teacher. For another beginning teacher, conducting fieldwork for his students has reaffirmed the value of fieldwork and its essential place in geography for him. He has also acquired valuable fieldwork teaching knowledge, experiences and the discretion that comes only from being out in the field: Fieldwork is an essential part of Geography - it makes the subject authentic and alive. There are many different ways in which fieldwork can be conducted and each has its merits and cons. (Tong)

As pre-service teachers in NIE, they could only imagine or hear of the fieldwork experiences from experienced teachers. It is only when they are beginning teachers in schools can they fully grapple with the complexities and challenges that occur on the ground level. These young fieldwork practitioners found themselves being stretched in new areas and challenges that were simply not present or relevant until they found themselves in such scenarios: Fieldwork definitely has its place but we also need to be more mindful of the difficulties that will surface when doing fieldwork. In NIE, we tend to talk about how we need to let the students explore and plan everything to take ownership, but in reality, we need to take into consideration the demographics of the students and also their abilities. We also have to consider equipment constraints, manpower constraints and time constraints. Hence, sometimes we have no choice but to limit their choices. Nonetheless, fieldwork definitely has its place. (Tin) More aware of the need to ask meaningful questions that the students can think about and are interested in. As a trainee at NIE, we had time to spend at each fieldwork site but since time is limited now, it is important to plan varied fieldwork activities that allow students to employ different fieldwork techniques and explore a myriad of topics. (Leng)

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17.3.2 Beginning Teachers’ Understanding and Conception of the Geographical Inquiry Approach Given the development of a new syllabus which focuses on the geographical inquiry and the change in the examination focus to include a compulsory question on geographical fieldwork inquiry, it is important to understand the views of the beginning teachers concerning geographical inquiry in fieldwork. This is especially pertinent, as three teachers reported that they used only the traditional teacher-led fieldwork. The author sought to understand firstly, the teachers’ personal understanding of the geographical inquiry approach; secondly, the perceived strength of the geographical inquiry method over the traditional teacher-led fieldwork approach; thirdly, the perceived difficulties of adopting the geographical inquiry method in the field; and lastly, the concerns they have now that fieldwork is a component in the examinations. The beginning teachers generally displayed a good conceptual understanding of the geographical inquiry approach. Many spoke of its student-centric approach and the different stages of knowledge making, data collection, and reflection in their search for geographical answers such as the explanation below: Understanding genuine issues by generating questions on them, and seek to answer them through diverse methodologies and sources. Students must be fully aware of the conceptual lens Geographers use. (Yan)

The beginning teachers generally agreed that the geographical inquiry approach yields many learning benefits to both students and teachers. It is perceived to be a systematic, student-centred and student-directed learning method that promotes collaboration, self-reflection and analytical skills that collectively culminates in deeper learning. Helps students gain a deep understanding of the topic/issue at hand, allows them to take more ownership for their own learning. (Tong)

One of the beginning teachers highlighted the tangible benefits of the geographical inquiry approach that she personally observed in her students compared to the traditional teacher-led fieldwork: It provides ample opportunities for students to engage with the data they have collected. I have also noticed that students experience greater depth of understanding and retention of the geographical concepts. (Ng)

Two beginning teachers alluded to how the inquiry approach was a stepping stone to develop a ‘Geographical Eye’ and see everyday life from a new perspective: Students will be better equipped with the ‘Geographical Eye’- being sensitised to the manifestations of classroom knowledge in real life. Students may be able to grasp certain concepts with better clarity, thus allowing them to apply to new situations. (Fang)

While the geographical inquiry approach has been recognised for its multiple benefits to both student learning and engagement (Kent & Foskett, 2002; Naish et al., 2002; Oosta et al., 2011; Roberts, 2003, 2010), it is however, not without its

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challenges. Several beginning teachers brought up the problem of the lack of time to properly conduct fieldwork using the inquiry approach in the manner they wish to. On the same note, one beginning teacher highlighted the fact that the nature of the inquiry approach is in itself time-intensive and eventually led him to the decision against using the inquiry fieldwork approach: Time - inquiry is time-intensive, students need time to observe and question their assumptions. Unfortunately, the fieldwork that I conduct for my JC [grades 11-12, aged 17-18] students is largely teacher-driven as there are specific content and syllabus objective that I want to accomplish in the shortest possible time in the most efficient manner. (Tong)

Hence, the lack of time during fieldwork, as elucidated from above, has very real implications on the type of fieldwork that teachers conduct, which in turn, affects the type of fieldwork the students get to experience. The inquiry approach also works on the premise that the participant already possesses a certain amount of content knowledge and skills, enough to then engage in a higher level of independent and critical thinking. This pre-requisite however, might prove to be a stumbling block during fieldwork. The inquiry approach may prove to be a little too difficult to grasp for some students, as one teacher observes: Certain students need more scaffolding - ends up teacher guiding too much. This is because it is the first time students are exposed to field work. Certain parameters need to be set, otherwise students will be reflecting on any aspect. (Kam)

Apart from students, the inquiry approach places its demands on the beginning teachers as well at the various stages of fieldwork to fully utilise its learning benefits. As one of them wrote: More preparation needed on the teacher’s part in terms of equipment, leadings questions and also ability to think on the spot as we do not know exactly how the students will react or what questions they will ask. (Tin)

With the move towards a compulsory fieldwork component in the examinations, the author is interested in the opinions of the beginning teachers on this change. Most of the beginning teachers expressed concern on how this additional component in the examination would impact the weaker students, as well as the possible scenarios where it would be undermined. Some beginning teachers could foresee the emergence of ‘model’ answers to geographical fieldwork inquiry, which ironically, as one teacher puts it, “defeats the spirit of fieldwork”. The beginning teachers wrote about how the rote learning and regurgitative nature of examinations go against the outfield knowledge making, investigative process that is the essence of inquiry fieldwork: It’s a good move but Singaporean teachers know how to beat the system as usual. Some schools that have less support may use the easy way out by conducting theory lessons and drilling fieldwork questions. (Yan) Students are unable to express in proper prose what they learnt in the field. Teachers who don’t take their students out to the field but instead make students memorise fieldwork techniques achieve better results instead. Exam question tests for regurgitation instead of real application. (Mei)

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Another teacher speaks of the difficulties that weaker students may face: Weaker students may not be able to translate their personal experience into written form and students frequently ask if the fieldwork questions can be answered without actually doing fieldwork itself as they feel that they are unable to afford the time to go through the process of attending a fieldwork trip. (Leng)

A teacher was also concerned about the possible ramifications this move may lead to in an already tight curriculum. Will teachers be given more time or be better supported now that fieldwork is to be tested? Students maybe just concerned on getting the right answers. More time has to be allocated for fieldwork – A LOT of time is needed for pre post and during fieldwork. Lots of learning is taking place, but we still have loads of curriculum to work on. (Kam)

17.4 Conclusion and Recommendations Overall, the beginning teachers strongly perceived and believed that fieldwork is an important pedagogy in the teaching and learning of geography. If anything, they are even more convinced of its tangible and intangible value in aiding students on their learning and enjoyment of geography, and also in its power to instil within them a profound and deeper appreciation of the world that they live in. Fieldwork tends to be a visceral and sensory experience, the memory of fieldwork experiences can have a lasting impact on the student, perhaps even sowing the seeds of love for geography. Having transitioned into a formal school environment with its unique culture and norms, beginning teachers better understand the first-hand constraints that geography teachers face in the planning and implementation of the geographical fieldwork inquiry for their students. They are noticeably frustrated by the many challenges and worries before, during and after fieldwork. However, each challenge and frustration experienced in the course of their journey as geography teachers will continue to teach them to pre-empt problems and work around the constraints. The geographical inquiry approach was reported by the beginning teachers to be difficult to adopt in reality on fieldwork sessions. The primary factors cited by the respondents in this study were the lack of time and complex nature of the inquiry approach. In addition, the beginning teachers also revealed several areas that were lacking in their fieldwork expertise, namely the technical, conceptual as well as data management skills required for fieldwork. Hence, some beginning teachers veer between a teacher-directed approach and the geographical inquiry approach. The understandings gained from knowing the beginning teachers’ fieldwork experiences and their challenges in organising fieldwork will enable the author to be aware of the multi-faceted issues that geography teachers face on the ground level. A very important goal of the fieldwork module at NIE is not just to equip the pre-service teachers with the necessary pedagogical content knowledge within the field, but to also provide pre-service teachers with the psychological readiness in planning and implementing fieldwork when they are in schools. Based on the results garnered from

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the findings from this research, it is recommended that more opportunities should be provided within the fieldwork module to improve the pre-service teachers’ fieldwork skills and enable them to better develop the ‘geographical eye’ to draw better and stronger conceptual linkages between fieldwork theory and fieldwork data. With a strong conceptual understanding, teachers will consequently be able to better advise their students during fieldwork; and to analyse and present their fieldwork data in a manner that is clear, concise and easy to understand. The deeper understanding of the fieldwork experiences of geography teachers will facilitate the process of reconceptualising and actualising a more relevant fieldwork module or professional development courses that are student-centred and inquiry driven. Features that are relevant and can cater to the needs of pre-service teachers and even beginning teachers will be purposefully included so as to effectively prepare future batches of geography teachers for teaching in the twenty-first century and enable them to head out into the field ready and as well-equipped as they can be.

Appendix A: Question in the Online Survey Section A: Profile of Interviewer 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

What name? What is your gender? What is your age? What is the name of the school you currently teach in? How long have you been teaching? What subjects do you teach? Which level of geography do you currently teach?

Section B: Fieldwork 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Have you conducted fieldwork before? If yes, please proceed on to question 9. If no, please proceed on to question 14. How many times have you gone for fieldwork in the last 3 years (between 2011 and 2014)? Where and when did you go for fieldwork? How often do you conduct fieldwork? What is the mode of instruction you adopt for fieldwork? What kind of teaching materials do you use during fieldwork? If you answered no to question 8, please elaborate on why have you not gone on and/or conducted fieldwork?

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Section C: Geographical Inquiry 15. 16. 17. 18.

What are the strengths of the geographical inquiry method? Did you encounter any difficulties with the geographical investigation method as the mode of fieldwork instruction? What issues surface now that they are no longer student-teachers but full-time teachers? With fieldwork being necessary and tested in examinations now, can you anticipate any perceived difficulties in teaching and conducting fieldwork next time?

Section D: Difficulties and Challenges When on Fieldwork 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

What are the challenges you face: -before, during and after fieldwork? Is your current content knowledge and fieldwork repertoire sufficient to help you navigate and interpret the field? What fieldwork skills do you find you could improve on? In which aspects of organizing a field trip did you find yourself struggling with? How much support is given to teachers in the organization of a field trip?

Section E: Value and Conception of Fieldwork 24. 25.

What is the value of fieldwork? How has your conception of fieldwork change now that you have conducted field work as a teacher?

References Boyle, A., Maguire, S., Martin, A., Milsom, C., Nash, R., Rawlison, S., Turner, A., Wurthman, S., & Conchie, S. (2007). Fieldwork is good: The student perception and the affective domain. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 31(2), 299–317. Chew, E. (2008). Views, values and perceptions in geographical fieldwork in Singapore schools. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 17(4), 307–329. Clark, D. (1996). The changing national context of fieldwork in geography. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 20, 385–391. Cook, V. (2008). The field as a ‘pedagogical resource’? A critical analysis of students’ affective engagement with the field environment. Environmental Education Research, 14(5), 507–517. Fuller, I., Edmondson, S., France, D., Higgitt, D., & Ratinen, I. (2006). International perspectives on the effectiveness of geography fieldwork for learning. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 30(1), 89–101.

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Gerber, R., & Goh, K. C. (Eds.). (2000). Fieldwork in geography: Reflections, perspectives and actions. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Gold, J. R., Jenkins, A., Lee, R., Monk, J., Riley, J., Shepherd, I. D. H., & Unwin, D. J. (1991). Teaching geography in higher education. Blackwell. Han, L. F., & Foskett, N. H. (2007). Objectives and constraints in geographical fieldwork: Teachers’ attitudes and perspectives in senior high schools in Taiwan. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 16(1), 5–20. Kent, A., & Foskett, N. (2002). Fieldwork in the school geography curriculum: Pedagogical issues and development. In M. Smith (Ed.), Teaching geography in secondary schools (pp. 161–181). Routledge Falmer. Kent, M., Gilbertson, D. D., & Hunt, C. O. (1997). Fieldwork in geography teaching: A critical review of the literature and approaches. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 21(3), 313– 332. Lai, K. C. (1999). Freedom to learn: A study of the experiences of secondary school teachers and students in a geography field trip. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(3), 239–255. Lai, K. C. (2000). Affective-focused geographical fieldwork: What do adventurous experiences during field trips mean to pupils? In R. Gerber & K. C. Goh (Eds.), Fieldwork in geography: Reflections, perspectives and actions (pp. 145–171). Kluwer Academic Publishers. Lidstone, J. (2000). Learning in the Field: An Experience for Teachers and Students Alike. In R. Gerber & K. C. Goh (Eds.), Fieldwork in geography: Reflections, perspectives and actions (pp. 133–143). Kluwer Academic. Lidstone, J., & Lai, K. C. (1998). Field work in geography: The essence of the enterprise. Interaction, 26(2), 11–14. Lonergan, N., & Andresen, L. W. (1988). Field-based education: Some theoretical considerations. Higher Education Research and Development, 7, 63–77. Munday, P. (2008). Teacher perceptions of the role and value of excursions in years 7–10 geography education in Victoria, Australia. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 17(2), 146–169. Naish, M., Rawling, E., & Hart, C. (2002). The enquiry-based approach to teaching and learning Geography. In M. Smith (Ed.), Teaching geography in secondary schools (pp. 63–69). Routledge Falmer. Oosta, K., De Vries, B., & Van der Schee, J. A. (2011). Enquiry-driven fieldwork as a rich and powerful teaching strategy – School practices in secondary geography education in the Netherlands. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 20(4), 309–325. Roberts, M. (2003). Learning Through Enquiry: Making Sense of Geography in the Key Stage 3 Classroom. Geographical Association. Roberts, M. (2010). Geographical enquiry. Teaching Geography, 35(1), 6–9. Schreier, M. (2012). Qualitative content analysis in practice. SAGE. Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board. (2013). Geography GCE Ordinary Level Syllabus 2236. Retrieved April 20, 2013, from http://www.seab.gov.sg/oLevel/2014Syllabus/2236_2014. pdf Stimpson, P. (1995). Fieldwork in geography: A review of purpose and practice. New Horizons in Education, 36, 85–93. Tan, G. C. I. (2012). Geography student teachers’ reflections of fieldwork in the initial teacher training fieldwork module in Singapore. In G. C. Falk, H. Haubrich, M. Muller, Y. Schleicher, & S. Reinfried (Eds.), Experienced-based Geography Learning, IGU-CGE 2012 Symposium Proceedings. University of Education, Freiburg. Tan, G. C. I. (2017). Reconceptualising experiential learning in the pre-service geography fieldwork module. In O. S. Tan, W. C. Liu, & E. L. Low (Eds.), Teacher Education in the 21st Century: Singapore’s Evolution and Innovation (pp. 155–171). Springer Nature Singapore.

Chapter 18

Mentoring School Student Research as an Approach to Geography Teacher Professional Development Elizabeth Rushton and Helen Walkington

18.1 Introduction Over the last thirty years, researchers have demonstrated the valuable opportunities for students who undertake Independent Research Projects (IRPs) whilst at school (Bennett et al., 2018; Reiss, 1992; Rushton et al., 2021). The benefits of IRPs for students include increasing engagement with science and providing students with a greater understanding of what it is for a scientist to undertake research as well as insights into the diverse nature of careers in science. A research approach to learning however is not an entitlement in all geographical curricula. Therefore, to understand further benefits and how they are accrued we can learn from the experience of undergraduate education where independent research often defines higher education learning (Healey & Jenkins, 2009; Hill & Walkington, 2016; Shanahan et al., 2015; Walkington et al., 2018). While the initial focus of research with undergraduate researchers has been on student benefits such as increased confidence, aspirations, retention (in the case of post compulsory education) personal development, study skills and academic literacy, relatively little attention has been paid to mentor (academic staff) benefits. However, this has changed recently as academics begin to acknowledge that working with students doing research at undergraduate level is beneficial for their own research outputs and career development as a result of having a team of researchers and more ideas on a topic (Hall et al., 2018). Beyond these strategic benefits, mentors also describe how E. Rushton (B) School of Education, Communication and Society, King’s College London, London, UK e-mail: [email protected] Institute of Education, University College London, London, UK H. Walkington Department of Social Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_18

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much they enjoy the process of mentoring itself. In Lopatto’s (2003, 2010) surveys of undergraduate student experience and measurements of student learning outcomes, the quality and gains of undergraduate experiences could not be separated from the competence and personal consideration of mentors. Mentoring provides three forms of support for student researchers: support for their cognitive development and knowledge creation; socio-emotional support as the research process can be challenging; and professional socialisation support so that the student feels like they are a researcher and can interact with their discipline and work within the norms of the discipline (Thiry & Laursen, 2011). In school settings opportunities for research mentoring cover a range of activities from research-based learning as a pedagogic approach, to the delivery of the taught curriculum, to working with students who choose to do an extended project of their own. Teacher preparation and/or education, focuses on meeting a set of teacher standards that do not mention specifically being able to deliver research-based learning nor relate specifically to the mentoring of student research, despite the fact that a significant number of students may undertake research projects and require a teacher to guide this work. For example, in the UK each year, approximately 30,000 students undertake British Science Association CREST awards (Stock Jones et al., 2016), a further 30,000 complete an Extended Project Qualification (EPQ) (UCAS, 2019), and world-wide, 50,000 students complete the International Baccalaureate (International Baccalaureate, 2020). All three of these national and international schemes include independent project work. Supporting students’ cognitive development is paramount in the teacher training provision, with emotional support also part of training, but not specific to research-based learning activity. There is no expectation that students will engage with their discipline in a professional capacity, nor that student work will be shared publicly, although outlets for this exist for undergraduate students and school students aged 16–18 years including geography journals GEOverse (GEOverse, n.d.) and Routes (Routes, n.d.; Walkington, 2021). Within the EPQ and the IB students can address their own project and choose their own questions for investigation. In geography the potential range of topics is mindboggling! Topics range from scientific enquiry in physical geography to literature-based studies. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that a teacher will have personal experience of research in the full range of topics that their students are likely to propose. Therein lies a challenge and an opportunity. Students may eventually know much more about their project and research than the teacher who is providing guidance on the research, which changes the power dynamic. And teachers may also relish the opportunity to learn something new, to learn from their students and to learn alongside them. Therefore, for the teacher, it provides the opportunity to become a teacher-scientist (engaging with subject specific research) and also a teacher-mentor (developing expertise in guiding research). The balance between these additional identities and the ways they are developed provide a professional development opportunity through engaging in research and/ or through the mentoring of research.

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18.1.1 The Ten Salient Practices of Research-Based Learning for Students in University and School Settings Mentored research is well documented in higher education (Healey & Jenkins, 2009; Hill & Walkington, 2016; Shanahan et al., 2015; Walkington et al., 2018) with this activity being considered an expectation for most undergraduate degree programmes as it is a ‘high impact’ educational practice (Elgren & Hensel, 2006; Elrod et al., 2010; Kuh & O’Donnell, 2013; Lopatto, 2010). The ten salient practices for undergraduate research mentoring, when taken together, create an effective pedagogy of mentored research which applies across disciplines, institution types and countries (Shanahan et al., 2015). Subsequent research with award-winning undergraduate research mentors has begun to elicit nuances to this pedagogy, guided by a common set of underlying values that mentors hold (Walkington et al., 2020). These awardwinning mentors focus on establishing and sustaining a sense of challenge, while maintaining meaningful engagement and a sense of achievement amongst students (Walkington et al., 2020). Furthermore, undergraduate research mentoring has been conceptualised as a professional development activity when a co-mentoring model has been adopted (Ketcham et al., 2018). The challenges and affordances of student research mentoring activity have also been explored in relation to career and identity development for academics (Hall et al., 2018). The ten salient practices for undergraduate research mentoring have provided the theoretical frame against which to explore teacher practices in mentoring research in high school contexts. This framework, coupled with empirical findings from 96 high school teachers gathered from survey and interview data, has provided the ten salient practices of teachers mentoring high school student researchers (Walkington & Rushton, 2019) shown in Table 18.1. Teachers articulated a pedagogy which reflected the ten salient practices that had been previously identified from undergraduate contexts (Walkington & Rushton, 2019). Walkington and Rushton (2019) have described this as an ‘holistic pedagogy’ where teachers implement activities related to authentic research which may feature multiple practices simultaneously. The school context, the nature of the selected research project and the teachers’ own prior experiences and interests can impact on the pedagogic approach adopted by individual teachers. Walkington and Rushton (2019) highlight some of the differences in emphasis between mentoring research in school and university settings. For example, schoolteachers provided much more detailed scaffolding and project framing (practice 2) and greater guidance when networking (practice 8) than those mentoring in university settings which reflects the stage of education and prior experience of school students and, that the research is new to both teachers and students alike. There are, however, many similarities between mentoring undergraduate and school students, where through a shared experience between mentors and mentees, students can develop greater ownership and autonomy during the process of participating in an authentic research endeavour (Walkington & Rushton, 2019). This chapter makes an important and timely contribution because, whilst researchers have long recognised and demonstrated the valuable opportunities

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Table 18.1 Ten salient practices of teacher-mentors for school-based student research (Walkington & Rushton, 2019) 1. Do strategic pre-planning to be ready to respond to students’ varying needs and abilities throughout the research process a. Invest time early in the process for project selection, pre-teaching and student recruitment b. Consider wide variability in student age, motivation and skills c. Set achievable timelines that reflect curricular requirements d. Do not underestimate students’ abilities to do authentic scholarship 2. Set clear and well-scaffolded expectations for student researchers a. Attend to fluctuating needs of students at different points in the process b. Provide strong support early on c. Gradually give students more independence (e.g. use external frameworks such as EPQ and CREST awards) d. Outline expectations by creating research group ‘rules’ with students that they sign-up to at the outset 3. Guide students in the technical skills, methods, and techniques of conducting research in the discipline a. Introduce students to the expectations of scientific endeavour and research in the discipline b. Guide students through the technical practices needed to support project goals (e.g., protocols for labs, equipment, databases, software) c. Emphasise the importance of ethical standards (e.g. human participants) and safety (e.g. laboratory, fieldwork) 4. Balance rigorous expectations with emotional support and appropriate personal interest a. Provide positive yet constructive feedback b. Remain approachable to minimise anxiety and boost confidence c. Adapt your emphasis to suit student needs 5. Build a sense of community among the members of the research team a. Build trusting interpersonal relationships in the team b. Practice intentional team development c. Spread the benefits of research via peer- and near-peer mentoring, allowing student mentors to develop skills and pedagogy d. Engage the team in common interest, non-research activities to foster connections (e.g. visits and trips that involve social/recreational time) 6. Dedicate time to one-on-one, hands on mentoring a. Minimise false assumptions regarding ability and progress b. Provide personalised guidance and advice (e.g. drop-in sessions at lunchtime; use external frameworks including EPQ and CREST awards) 7. Increase student ownership of the research over time a. Explain how student tasks relate to larger project goals b. Welcome student opinions about their work c. Listen with patience and openness d. Foster autonomy by giving students ownership of specific tasks and important aspects of the overall project (continued)

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Table 18.1 (continued) 8. Support students’ professional development through networking and explaining the norms of the discipline a Provide networking opportunities by introducing students to researchers and other professionals (e.g. organise visits to university/specialist libraries) b Provide networking opportunities in informal environments (e.g. invite speakers to school and have informal Q&A with students) 9. Create opportunities for peer and near-peers to learn mentoring skills and give more students access to research opportunities a. Create intentional opportunities for peers and near-peers to learn mentoring skills (e.g. school science ambassador scheme) b. Model the characteristics of a successful researcher, as well as of a successful mentor c. Provide guidance for expectations of peer relationships (e.g. school mentor handbook/training) 10. Encourage students to share their findings and provide guidance on how to do so effectively in presentations and in writing a. Develop avenues for dissemination so that students understand what it means to be a scholar (e.g. write articles for local paper; create posters of student work to display in school) b. Encourage students to present work to peers, experts, community as a way to develop oral and written communication skills (e.g. local competitions; assemblies in other schools; present to parent groups)

for school students who participate in research projects (e.g. Bennett et al., 2018; Reiss, 1992; Rushton et al., 2021) less frequent attention has been paid to the practices and experiences of teachers involved in school-based research. Furthermore, studies which do explore the role and practice of teachers have been predominantly focused on science subjects (Dunlop et al., 2020; Rushton & Reiss, 2019) rather than the range of projects which might comprise research within geography. We now consider the ways in which mentoring school student research provides professional enhancement opportunities for teachers of all subjects, including geography.

18.1.2 Mentoring School Student Research and Teacher Professional Development Each national (and sometimes regional) legislative body outlines the professional standards that individuals are required to achieve to qualify and practice as a teacher. In England, these are called the ‘Teachers’ Standards’ and, in two parts outline the minimum level of practice required for those to achieve qualified teacher status (QTS) and, act as an assessment framework for all trainee and qualified teachers’ performance management (Department for Education, 2011). The preamble which accompanies the ‘Teachers’ Standards’ states the importance of teachers having ‘strong’ and ‘up-to-date’ subject knowledge and the expectation that they will ‘forge positive professional relationships’ (Department for Education, 2011). We suggest that mentoring student research projects is a clear example of how a teacher can both maintain or enhance subject knowledge that is current and develop positive

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professional relationships with their students and other research collaborators within and beyond the school setting. It is unsurprising that there are clear areas of overlap between the ‘Teachers’ Standards’ for those teaching in schools based in England and aspects of the ten salient practices for mentoring school student research (Walkington & Rushton, 2019). For example, standard four requires teachers to ‘plan and teach well-structured lessons’ and this is also reflected in salient practice two, which requires research mentors to set ‘clear and well-scaffolded expectations’ (see Table 18.1 for details of each salient practice). Likewise, standard five highlights the requirement for teachers to adapt their teaching to respond to the strengths and needs of all pupils and this is also evident in salient practice one, where research mentors do strategic pre-planning to ensure that the varying needs of students are met throughout the project. Similarly, standard seven requires teachers to provide a safe learning environment and this expectation is a fundamental part of effective research mentoring where, as part of salient practice three, mentors oversee projects that embody the highest standards of safe and ethical research practice. Standard eight focuses on the wider professional responsibilities of a teacher including the obligation for teachers to contribute to the wider life of the school, to develop effective relationships with colleagues and to take responsibility for their own professional development. We suggest that teachers who mentor student research projects fulfil these wider responsibilities, as the activities and networks that are developed as part of research projects are consistent with practices that constitute a teachers’ broader professional growth. There are also clear examples where the ten salient practices of mentoring school student research extend the work of the teacher beyond those documented in the ‘Teachers’ Standards’. For example, salient practice eight outlines the role of the mentor in supporting students’ professional development through networking. This could include facilitating networking opportunities by introducing students to researchers and other specialists including archivists and laboratory technicians as part of an external visit. Teachers could also provide more informal networking opportunities for students by hosting in person or online seminars for external guests and facilitating question and answer sessions between students and speakers. Similarly, salient practice nine foregrounds the importance of mentors creating opportunities for students to gain mentoring skills themselves so that they can mentor their peers or near-peers (such as students of a younger age) and therefore give a greater number of students access to research projects. In addition, salient practice ten shares how those who mentor school student research should provide guidance and encourage students to share their findings in writing and oral presentations with their peers, wider school community and experts in a variety of formats so that students understand what it means to be a scholar. This emphasis on dissemination and engagement with a wider research community requires mentors to support and develop opportunities for students that go beyond the assessment requirements of an exam board specification that are frequently confined to exams and portfolios that are not shared beyond the narrow audience of unknown examiners and moderators. A focus on the ways that mentoring school-student research might provide teachers with opportunities to extend and enhance their professional practice is

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timely when, different national bodies continue to reflect upon ways in which to improve the quality of support teachers receive during their first few years of practice. For example, in England, the Department for Education has implemented a new Early Career Framework for teachers which seeks to provide better integrated and more sustained professional development opportunities for teachers over a two-year period, rather than the previous entitlement to just one year of support (Department for Education, 2020). Providing teachers of geography with opportunities to develop their practice as research mentors is important as independent research projects currently form a substantial part of curricular programmes for school students. For example, since 2016, Advanced Level geography qualifications for students awarded in their final year of school (aged 17–18 years) have included an independent investigation called a ‘Non-examined Assessment’ (NEA). As part of the NEA, students are expected to identify their own research question, collect and analyse data, make conclusions and evaluate their findings which is documented in a written report of about 3,500words (Royal Geographical Society with-IBG, 2016). The inclusion of independent research as part of the geography Advanced Level has changed over time and was reintroduced in 2016. However, independent research does not appear as part of equivalent qualifications in science subjects including biology, chemistry and physics, where, since 2015, there has been no requirement for students who complete Advanced Levels to undertake independent or open-ended inquiry (Department for Education, 2014). Other curricular programmes which are grounded in independent research which are completed by students in and beyond the UK include the Extended Projection Qualification (EPQ). The EPQ is usually taken by students aged 17–18 years and is equivalent to half an Advanced Level qualification. The project enables students to undertake largely self-directed and self-motivated study where, with teacher support, they select a topic, undertake research and produce either a written report, artefact or production (Walkington & Rushton, 2019). In addition, the International Baccalaureate diploma qualification also includes an Extended Essay for which students complete an independent, self-directed piece of research which culminates in a 4,000-word report. The CREST award scheme is a large-scale national extra-curricular programme delivered by the British Science Association to support school student science investigations at three levels loosely associated with age (e.g. Bronze with students aged 11–13 years, Silver with students aged 14–16 years, and Gold with students aged 17–18 years). At each level, the time required to complete the award and the level of student independence increases (Stock Jones et al., 2016). This chapter now turns to two research projects which were established and supported by the Institute for Research in Schools (IRIS), a UK-based charity which promotes research as a key element of STEM (science, technology, engineering and technology) learning in schools (Rushton, 2021; Rushton & Reiss, 2019; Rushton et al., 2021). The charity has provided multiple projects for students to engage in from across a range of disciplines, and some teachers have integrated student participation in projects with their work for an EPQ, Extended Essay (IB) or a CREST award so that the qualification provides a framework or context for the project work. We provide two specific examples with a geographical focus which have been carried

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out by school students and their teachers namely, (1) Monitoring the Environment, Learning for Tomorrow (MELT ) and, (2) Well Word. MELT is an example of a largescale, multi-stage, international school research project which involves students at different ages to create and contribute authentic data (for example iceberg measurements). Both MELT and Well World provide opportunities for school students and teachers to engage in an authentic research project where they can genuinely provide new insights and knowledge that have value beyond the classroom (Bennett et al., 2018; Dunlop et al., 2020). Each project has a distinct framework, and project details are outlined below.

18.2 School-Based Research Projects with a Geographical Focus 18.2.1 Monitoring the Environment, Learning for Tomorrow (MELT) Running during 2018–2019, MELT enabled school students across different age ranges to research climate change (Rushton, 2019). Students aged 7–14 years from 30 different schools across England and Scotland explored climate change by using an online carbon calculator to measure their carbon footprint. Students then worked together within and across schools to develop a strategy to reduce the amount of carbon they produced over a specific period (for example four to six weeks) and then recalculated their carbon footprint to measure the impact of these changes. The findings of the carbon footprint research were communicated by students through a variety of events including school-based meetings and assemblies and as part of regional or national conferences involving other schools (Rushton et al., 2021). The second part of the MELT project was focused on Earth Observation and involved students aged 14–18 years from 20 schools based in England, Scotland and Norway. As part of this research strand, school students were supported by researchers from the Centre for Polar Observation and Modelling (CPOM, University of Leeds) to measure iceberg formation and movement on the Antarctic Peninsula using satellite imagery (Rushton, 2019). Training materials were developed by IRIS in collaboration with researchers from CPOM to support school students to make and submit measurements of iceberg break-off or ‘calving’ events and researchers provided feedback and further guidance through webinars. Students and teachers from schools located in different countries were able to discuss their work and compare their findings through online seminars hosted by IRIS. Research findings from school student teams were presented by students at school conferences (Rushton et al., 2021). As part of MELT, the data that students collected and analysed contributed to a well-established research project, led by university-based researchers. Here, the research questions, aims and objectives were identified and developed by researchers who provide bespoke support (for example the school carbon calculator) to enable

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school students and teachers to be part of an authentic collaboration. The role of the schoolteacher in MELT was to provide practical support for students, for example, facilitating student participation in all aspects of the project including the webinars and conferences (examples of salient practice eight). Teachers gave students support when navigating the project resources and enabled them to network with other students, teachers and university-based researchers (examples of salient practices eight and ten). Students also required the support of their teachers to put together presentations and posters to share their project findings and to rehearse their contributions in a supportive environment before participating in school-wide and external events (salient practice ten). Teachers used established extra-curricular frameworks to provide students with opportunities to leverage their participation in MELT (salient practice two). For example, schoolteachers in England encouraged students to assemble their MELT project work and submit it for a CREST award (Stock Jones et al., 2016). In this way, teachers ensured that school students were able to achieve additional credit and wider recognition for their participation in the MELT project (salient practices seven and ten).

18.2.2 Well World In contrast to MELT, the Well World project developed from the research initiative of a group of school students aged 16–18 years, based at a school in south east England. The students and their teacher wanted to explore the possible links between biodiverse areas and physical and psychological health and well-being, and at the same time, to raise awareness and appreciation of the value of the green spaces that formed part of their school grounds (Rushton, 2019). The school students included those studying subjects such as geography, biology and psychology and together, they posed the research question, ‘Does biodiversity make us happy?’ (Rushton, 2019). By drawing on a personal network of university-based researchers, the schoolteacher provided the students with access to relevant research papers and support to understand the information they provided (salient practices three, seven and eight). For example, students engaged with research that has previously demonstrated the positive impact that spending time in green spaces can have on physical and mental wellbeing (Barton & Pretty, 2010; Wood et al., 2017). As outlined in Rushton (2019), the schoolteacher that first initiated the Well World project with their students realised that to develop this research question into an authentic inquiry, the students would need external support including the academic input of university-based researchers and funding for equipment (salient practice eight). With this further practical and intellectual support, the students developed their own experiment to explore the impact of spending time in green space (salient practice seven). The students presented their research as part of a student research conference hosted by IRIS at an event at the Wellcome Trust London headquarters in November 2017 (Rushton et al., 2021) (salient practice ten).

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As a result of the positive engagement from students and teachers at this event, IRIS developed resources including student and teacher guides to enable other schools to develop their own Well World research projects. During 2018–2019, twenty schools based in England developed their own student-led research projects that explored the links between nature and well-being within their own communities. For example, one school located on the south west coast of England explored the links between spending time in ‘blue space’ (for example lakes and beaches) and improved mental well-being. The role of the teacher in the initial Well World project was to create a supportive learning space where students could identify their own research questions, based upon their own interests. Through a combination of personalized, individual mentoring and team building sessions, the teacher then helped the students identify the practical and intellectual resources they required to develop their interests into an authentic and rigorous inquiry and provided access to the networks they needed (salient practices five and six). This contrasts with MELT, where the research questions, aims and objectives were developed by external researchers and partners as part of an international collaboration. Indeed, Well World developed due to the work of a team of students based in one school that then inspired and seeded other related projects—an example of research that germinates other related projects as a result of dissemination at a conference. As part of both MELT and Well World, students had opportunities to disseminate their research findings at local school-based events and conferences with contributions from many schools. As such, students working on either project required the support of their teachers to prepare for and participate fully in the conferences (Rushton et al., 2021). It is important to recognise that projects involve ways of working that are unusual for school students, they often work on their own project with a single mentor, and that mentor may not be an expert in the specific topic, thus the type of professional involvement and therefore professional development potential will differ on a caseby-case basis. The following section describes the professionalisation and identity shifts that can take place for teachers in mentoring student research.

18.3 Teacher Professional Development Teachers play new roles when they work with students in research mode. These can differ according to the types of research that geography students engage in and the level at which they are working, whether assessment is being made of independent work or whether students and teachers are working in partnership on an investigation. Where students create the research questions themselves because they are working towards an independent qualification there are clear limits on the extent to which it is appropriate for teachers to have intellectual inputs. Where students are working with an established external project (as outlined in Sect. 18.2.1 for example) teachers may develop new scientific skills and techniques and help to translate these for students.

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18.3.1 Teacher Professional Identity as a ‘Teacher—Mentor’ Mentoring student research provides teachers with the opportunity to develop their practice as ‘teacher–mentors’ (Walkington & Rushton, 2019). There are four areas where negotiation between a teacher as a research mentor and their student as a research mentee is possible: negotiating the research topic; negotiating the research question; negotiating the research design/methodology; and negotiating the final output. Each of the four areas of negotiation hold an opportunity for teachers to adopt the role of a co-researcher and/or of a mentor. In addition, there are opportunities for teachers to work with others either in school (e.g. technicians or learning support staff, perhaps teachers in neighbouring schools) or even to develop new connections in support of the research or its dissemination.

18.3.2 Professional Identity as a Geographer or ‘Teacher-Researcher’ In addition to the role of a ‘teacher–mentor’, those who support students to undertake research can also develop a distinct professional identity as a ‘teacher–researcher’. This can be achieved through the teacher’s own engagement with subject specific research that is both necessary so that they can support their students but is also rooted in the teacher’s own disciplinary interests. Through the interdisciplinary nature of both MELT and Well World, teachers had the opportunity to further develop their understanding in a range of areas such as biodiversity, climate change and physiological and psychological wellbeing that have relevance to school subjects including biology, chemistry, geography and psychology. Rushton (2021) has previously argued that science teacher professional development can be rooted in mentoring subject specific research projects so that teachers develop a professional identity that include facets of ‘inquiry’ ‘subject’ and ‘social justice’ identities. We suggest that this argument holds true for geography teachers and that mentoring student research provides another way for teachers to retain and develop their professional identities as geographers and/or researchers as well as teachers of geography.

18.4 Conclusion Mentoring high school student research confers benefits not only on school students, but additionally on their teachers. These benefits can be summarised as career enhancement through the development of specialist subject knowledge; the development of professional networks within and beyond their own school setting; and to innovative pedagogical approaches which emphasise discovery and learning through

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doing (Dewey, 2004). Perhaps in contrast to other school subjects, there is great potential within geography to allow students to create new knowledge as a result of the disciplinary focus on the spatial aspects of phenomena. Research-based learning does not need to be complex, it can be replicated in a variety of different places, producing new data. This means that supporting students in their research endeavours can lead to an ongoing satisfaction of curiosity over the course of a career. This chapter has supported previous research which highlights the potential for using Ten Salient Practices to initiate individual teacher reflection and wider professional development, and a way of disseminating effective practice across the school sector (Walkington & Rushton, 2019). Teachers in this study suggested that engaging in mentoring was an enriching approach to continuing professional development and should be an opportunity made available to all teachers regardless of previous experience in post-graduate research. Further research might usefully consider how geography as a discipline might benefit from the affordance of research—based learning opportunities within the curriculum so that all students benefit, not only those who choose to extend their studies through a research project, and also to provide a scaffolding and confidence building to motivate students to engage in geographical research. As a planet, we will continue to require a population who will take an evidence-based approach to lifelong learning and to foster research opportunities into the future for our students.

References Barton, J., & Pretty, J. (2010). What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(10), 3947–3955. https://doi.org/10.1021/es903183r Bennett, J., Dunlop, L., Knox, K. J., Reiss, M. J., & Torrance-Jenkins, R. (2018). Practical independent research projects in science: A synthesis and evaluation of the evidence of impact on high school students. International Journal of Science Education, 40, 1755–1773. https://doi.org/10. 1080/09500693.2018.1511936 Department for Education. (2011). Teachers’ standards. Online. https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/teachers-standards. Accessed 21 Dec 2020. Department for Education. (2014). GCE AS and A level subject content for science. Online. https:// assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/593 849/Science_AS_and_level_formatted.pdf. Accessed 21 Dec 2020. Department for Education. (2020). Early career framework reforms: overview. Online. https:// www.gov.uk/government/publications/early-career-framework-reforms-overview/earlycareerframework-reforms-overview. Accessed 21 December 2020. Dewey, J. (2004). Democracy and education. Dover Publications. Dunlop, L., Turkenburg-van Diepen, M., Knox, K. J., & Bennett, J. (2020). Open-ended investigations in high school science: Teacher learning intentions, approaches and perspectives. International Journal of Science Education, 42(10), 1715–1738. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693. 2020.1778211 Elgren, T., & Hensel, N. (2006). Undergraduate research experiences: Synergies between scholarship and teaching. Peer Review, 8, 4–7. https://search.proquest.com/docview/216599047?pq-ori gsite=gscholar

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Chapter 19

Pedagogical Reasoning and Action (PR&A): A Framework for Research on Professional Knowledge of Geography Teaching Injeong Jo and Sojung Huh

19.1 Introduction A distinct body of specialized knowledge base is the most important component of a profession such as teaching (Goodwin, 2021; Menter & Flores, 2021). This specialized professional knowledge for teachers is what Shulman (1986, 1987) termed pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): the discipline-specific and pedagogical knowledge necessary to teach in different content areas. The concept of PCK has received special attention among teacher educators and education researchers because it identifies the distinctive bodies of knowledge that every teacher should be equipped with. PCK represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics or problems are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners and presented for instruction. PCK, however, is only one of seven interconnected components of Shulman’s (1987) conception of the complete knowledge base for teaching. This knowledge base includes (a) content knowledge; (b) general pedagogical knowledge; (c) curriculum knowledge; (d) PCK; (e) knowledge of learners and their characteristics; (f) knowledge of educational contexts; and (g) knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values. Shulman provided a detailed explanation of the content, character, and sources for such a knowledge base of teaching and suggested it be the intellectual, practical, and normative basis for the professionalization of teaching; however, a knowledge base for teaching is not fixed and final. Researchers can define, describe, and reproduce effective teaching by working with able teachers to develop codified representations of the practical pedagogical wisdom of practitioners.

I. Jo (B) · S. Huh Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_19

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Teacher professionalism starts from the proposition that teaching is knowledgebased, and knowledge must inform practice (Darling-Hammond, 1990; Loughran, 2019). In addition to the model of seven categories of knowledge base for teaching, Shulman (1987) derived six processes that teachers use to operationalize their professional knowledge base in practice. These processes comprise the pedagogical reasoning and action (PR&A) that a teacher undergoes during the teaching process and through which the teacher shifts from initial to new comprehension of subject matter, purposes, students, and self (Nilsson, 2009). Research about teaching as a profession should, therefore, examine how teachers use multiple, intersecting, and interdependent types of knowledge in complex recursive processes before, during, and after interactions with students (Shulman, 1987). The notion of PR&A is an attempt to illustrate reflective practice during the teaching process (Starkey, 2010) and provides a compelling and replicable conceptual framework for examining teacher practice and teacher learning (Pella, 2015). Despite the importance of understanding the nature and characteristics of teachers’ professional knowledge and practice, researchers have less frequently explored the PR&A of geography teachers than PCK or other knowledge domains, such as subject knowledge and curriculum knowledge. The complexity of pedagogical reasoning is related to but distinct from content knowledge or PCK (Buxton et al., 2013). The purpose of this chapter is to illustrate how the concept of PR&A can enhance research on teachers and teacher education. First, we provide a brief explanation of what PR&A is, based on Shulman’s (1987) initial conception. Next, we identify types of research questions for which PR&A can benefit as a conceptual framework with research examples in various subject areas, including geography. We conclude with recommendations for research on geography teachers and teaching geography.

19.2 PR&A as a Foundation of the Teaching Profession Shulman’s (1987) model of PR&A has emphasized teaching “as comprehension and reasoning, as transformation and reflection” (p. 13). The model consists of six processes that are interconnected, cyclical, and often simultaneously take place (Harris & Phillips, 2018; Nilsson, 2009; Shulman, 1987). PR&A should be understood from the point of view of teachers, who transform what they understand and are able to do into something they can teach (Shulman, 1987). Teaching begins with comprehension of subject matter. It is undoubtedly important that teachers understand what they teach. They should know the key ideas in the subject area and how these ideas are related to other ideas within the subject area or in other subject areas (Blankman et al., 2015; Brooks, 2010; Nixon et al., 2019). Teachers should also understand overarching goals and purposes of education; this is as important as understanding content (Shulman, 1987; Tatto, 1998). Following comprehension, teachers need to convert their understanding of content (e.g., geographical phenomena, scientific principles, and mathematical formulas) into conceptual models and learning activities that are effective and adaptable to specific

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groups of learners. Transformation involves preparing materials for teaching and learning, creating representation of content, selecting instructional strategies, and adapting/tailoring the representations to meet the various needs of students. Teachers consider learner characteristics (e.g., ability, gender, culture, prior knowledge, difficulties, conceptions, and misconceptions), so the teachers’ knowledge of content and pedagogy turns into “forms that are pedagogically powerful and yet adaptive to the variations in ability and background presented by the students” (Shulman, 1987, p. 15). Shulman characterized the processes of transformation as “the process wherein one moves from personal comprehension to preparing for the comprehension of others,” the “key to distinguishing the knowledge base of teaching,” and, therefore, the “essence of the act of pedagogical reasoning” (pp. 15–16). Instruction represents observable behaviors of teachers in the classroom, such as explaining content, leading discussions, interacting with students, asking and answering questions, organizing and managing the classroom. Pedagogical reasoning does not end when instruction begins. As Holmberg et al. (2018) pointed out, the separation of reasoning and action when discussing PR&A should be understood as an analytical and semantic division of a multidimensional process rather than as a separation of theory and practice. Indeed, instruction stimulates the reasoning process, and comprehension, transformation, evaluation, and reflection continue to take place during instruction (Shulman, 1987). Evaluation is first directed at student learning. Evaluation involves checking for student understanding and misunderstanding through formative assessments to improve teaching and summative assessments to provide students with grades and feedback. For evaluations, teachers must possess a deep understanding of the content and the students, and such understanding should be specific to the subject matter and individual topics. Evaluation of one’s own teaching comes next and leads to the next process, reflection. Shulman (1987) described reflection as a “set of processes through which a professional learns from experience” (p. 19), and Pella (2015) described reflection as “practice-based” learning (p. 82). Teachers reflect on their performance during instruction, review student learning, and ponder how to improve teaching and learning. Reflection is not merely thinking about teaching but a systematic analysis of teaching and learning in comparison to the goals and objectives the teacher planned to achieve. Reflection is an active, proactive, reactive, and action-based process and is “centrally important and relevant to the understanding of ongoing action” (Bright, 1996, p. 167). Reflection can take place at any point of the PR&A cycle, “prospectively or retrospectively,” (Bright, 1996, p. 167) and informs competent actions (Bright, 1996; Schön, 1983). As a result of the learning achieved through experience and practice, teachers finally arrive at new comprehension, which encourages them to develop a new repertoire of actions for teaching. It is important to understand that the shift from initial comprehension to new comprehension of content, purpose, students, and self does not automatically occur, even after evaluation and reflection. Specific strategies for documentation, analysis, and discussion are required throughout the processes of PR&A (Shulman, 1987).

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Fig. 19.1 A model of pedagogical reasoning and action (Source Shulman, 1987)

These six processes of PR&A, which are interconnected and cyclical, can be visualized as in Fig. 19.1. The limitation is that this visualization cannot fully represent the nature of PR&A, in which many of its processes often take place simultaneously or in different order. Shulman (1987) explained that sometimes the starting point for the planning of instruction may be the group of learners and not the subject matter. Cunningham (2007) argued that knowledge comprehension is not always the starting point of PR&A, and a significant portion of pedagogical reasoning happens in the moment of instruction. As Shulman warned, the model of PR&A should not be understood as a set of fixed stages, phases, or steps: “[s]ome may not occur at all during some acts of teaching. Some may be truncated, others elaborated” (p. 19).

19.3 PR&A as a Framework for Teaching and Teacher Education Research Teacher PR&A is an underdeveloped area in research on teaching and teacher education in geography, compared to content knowledge or PCK of teachers. Based on an extensive review of the literature, we identify four areas of research on geography teachers and teacher education for which a focus on teacher PR&A would be beneficial: (a) capturing the professional growth of teachers, (b) understanding the relationship between knowledge and practice, (c) detailing the practice of teachers in the classroom, and (d) ensuring high-quality teacher education. The four categories of research areas were derived based on the purposes, findings, and implications of the research reviewed in this paper. Our goal is to provide geography teacher educators and teacher education researchers with ideas for using PR&A as a research framework by categorizing and illustrating exemplary studies that can represent each of the four important research areas. We did not intend to conduct a systematic review. We focused on identifying exemplary studies on PR&A of teachers in a content area. Using educational databases such as ERIC and Google Scholar, we conducted an initial literature search for peerreviewed papers and book chapters that include “pedagogical reasoning and action” or “pedagogical reasoning” as a title or key word. We included a paper or book chapter for a full-text reading if the study was empirical research involving data collection and analysis of teacher’s pedagogical reasoning or action in a specific content area. We excluded papers or book chapters about teacher’s pedagogical reasoning and action if

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they are solely concerned with implementing technologies and tools without specific context of a subject or curriculum. Little research in geography has examined PR&A. To inform how the PR&A framework can contribute to enhancing, cumulating, and replicating research in the future, we included literature on geography teachers’ knowledge and knowledge base as far as the research questions and methodologies are relevant to one or more of the six processes of PR&A (i.e., comprehension, transformation, instruction, evaluation, reflection, and new comprehension).

19.3.1 Capturing How Teachers’ Professional Knowledge Develops PR&A provides researchers with an excellent framework to uncover how teachers develop their knowledge base for teaching over time. Teachers learn as they practice (Borko, 2004; Soini et al., 2016). Research focusing on or emphasizing practicebased teacher learning has used PR&A as a conceptual framework to detail how teachers’ initial comprehension of content is refined and deepened through PR&A and then developed to new comprehension. Research of this nature often requires longitudinal studies involving multiple observations or video recordings of participants’ classrooms; in-depth interviews; and collection of additional data, including lesson plans and student work examples. Not all studies examined each of the PR&A processes explicitly or in detail, and some studies in this category adopted the model of PR&A implicitly or focused on part of the six processes. The common purpose, though, was to better understand how teachers are refining and deepening their knowledge with practice and experience. For example, Lane (2009) conducted a 2-year longitudinal study with two experienced geography teachers and provided a rich account of ways they address student knowledge and perceptions in the classroom. The purpose was to identify characteristics of accomplished geography teachers in diagnosing and addressing student misconceptions and misunderstandings. Participating teachers’ PCK related to teaching about the causes and processes of tropical cyclones was the focus of analysis. The aspects of PR&A featured in this study are transformation and instruction: how two experienced geography teachers at different stages of professional accomplishment (i.e., 5 years vs. 15 years) are similar or different while transforming their knowledge about student misconceptions and misunderstandings and addressing it during classroom instruction. The study suggested that teachers’ capacity to reflect on and analyze their own practice plays a critical role in continuing the professional growth of teachers. The PR&A model provides terms with which researchers can identify, categorize, and describe the nature and characteristics of experienced teacher’s knowledge base for teaching. It helps design a research study on the knowledge growth and pedagogical shifts of teachers and communicate and cumulate these research findings in a cohesive manner.

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PR&A can serve as an analytical tool with which to design and evaluate professional development opportunities for teachers. In a 3-year longitudinal study with five English language arts teachers, Pella (2015) designed and implemented a model of collaborative inquiry lesson study. The purpose was to determine whether and how a practice-based teacher education model afforded opportunities for teachers to make pedagogical shifts and develop their knowledge base for teaching literacy more broadly. Various types of data were collected, including field notes from observations, audiotaped and transcribed participant discussions, participant-generated written reflections, participant-created curriculum materials, samples of students’ work, and follow-up interview data. PR&A was used as primary units of analysis to capture the process of the teachers’ understanding, judgment, and actions, which lead to “wise pedagogical decisions” of teachers in practice (p. 14). Pella argued that the process of pedagogical reasoning and action, through which they shift from initial states of comprehension to new comprehension, provides a compelling and replicable conceptual framework for examining the effect of the lesson study model implemented in the study on practice-based teacher learning. Unlike Pella’s (2015) study, Lane and Caldis (2018) did not explicitly use PR&A. They featured the six processes of PR&A implicitly throughout their study as the participating teachers were helped to represent, instruct, evaluate, and reflect to come up with new comprehension of what students know and do not know about the concepts being taught. The researchers used collaborative participatory action research as a tool to help secondary geography teachers enhance their knowledge base for teaching. The researchers argued that this approach helped teachers build a community of practice and develop a greater understanding about implications of research to inform their future practice. Participatory action research also challenged teachers to rethink their assumptions about student knowledge and processes of learning. PR&A would have provided a framework to analyze how teachers deepen their understanding of the students, content, and themselves through the research participation experience.

19.3.2 Understanding How Teachers’ Knowledge Base Influences Practice A key question in teacher education research has been how teachers’ understanding, beliefs, and orientations toward the subject matter affect their practice (Demirdö˘gen & Uzuntiryaki-Kondakçı, 2016; Ritchey et al., 2015; Seow, 2016). Orientations refer to teachers’ overarching conceptions of the subject and are an important component of knowledge base for teaching (Hong et al., 2018; Magnusson et al., 1999). For example, teachers may view geography as the study of the earth, the study of human–environment interactions, or the study of people and places (Catling, 2004; Morley, 2012). A teacher may possess multiple orientations (Hong et al., 2018) but often express stronger orientation toward one (Walford, 1996).

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Orientations can serve as tools for understanding teachers’ instructional decisions, influencing teachers’ purposes for and beliefs about teaching, and affecting the nature of other components of the knowledge base (Hong et al., 2018). For example, Brooks (2006) interviewed two experienced geography teachers to examine ways teachers’ subject knowledge affects how they teach and make decisions for practice. Brooks identified similarities and differences between the two cases. PR&A was not explicitly referred to or adopted as a framework but implied because the research detailed the reasoning processes that participating teachers go through to make curricular and instructional decisions based on their knowledge base of teaching—knowledge of curriculum, knowledge of content, and knowledge of context. Using teacher narratives as primary sources of data (Elbaz, 1990, 2007) is similar to the approaches that most PR&A research takes. Brooks concluded the following: [Teachers] do not appear to have developed a similar or comparable ‘knowledge’ about teaching that is divorced from their understanding of geography or pedagogy, or indeed that has been transformed or emerged from them. It would seem, however, that their interest in geography has had some influence on how they teach. Each has demonstrated that they are able to understand how what they are teaching is part of a broader geographical understanding of what geography is to them. (p. 367)

In contrast, Clausen (2018) worked with four geography teachers to investigate how teachers’ beliefs, orientations, and conceptualization of subject matter affect their enacted PCK in the classroom. The focus was on geography teachers’ topic-specific professional knowledge about weather formation and climate change. The teachers’ understandings, purposes, and classroom practices were detailed through analysis of classroom videos, field notes from classroom observations, and semistructured interviews. The findings suggested that teachers’ enacted PCK be aligned with their orientations and beliefs. For example, the teacher who was dedicated to physical geography and science also emphasized this in the classroom when teaching the topic. The teachers’ orientations and conceptualization of the subject operated as a filter between the teachers’ topic-specific knowledge base and their enacted PCK. The reasoning processes of teachers that Brooks (2006) investigated and enacted PCK of teachers that Clausen (2018) examined are along the idea of teacher PR&A. Although not being explicitly adopted, the overall idea helped researchers uncover how teacher knowledge base related to their beliefs and orientations toward the subject (comprehension) is translated and transformed (transformation) into instructional practice (instruction). Future research similar to these would greatly benefit from using PR&A as a conceptual framework.

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19.3.3 Understanding How Teachers Pedagogically Reason in Action Teachers are continually developing and refining their professional knowledge base throughout all processes of PR&A. However, some researchers have focused on teachers’ judgment on what is happening and why it is happening in the classroom. The purpose is to account for how teachers adapt planned instructional decisions according to the judgment they make while teaching. Research of this nature takes the form of a single-subject case study because it requires a close observation of a teacher in action, working with students in an authentic classroom setting. The model of PR&A provides a lens through which to view this process and detail teachers’ pedagogical reasoning during instruction. An example is Endacott and Sturtz’s (2015) study of a middle-school history teacher’s pedagogical reasoning while the teacher incorporated historical empathy into her class. The researchers tested a hypothesis that a significant portion of pedagogical reasoning would take place during instruction than during the planning phase. Various methods of data collection were adopted to evidence participating teacher’s pedagogical reasoning that occurred before (planning log and think aloud), during (preobservation interview), and after instruction (postinstruction interview and videostimulated recall). The researchers observed that although the teacher prepared to teach historical empathy in a certain manner during the planning phase, the teacher made many changes to the approach during instruction. The teacher’s content knowledge was only one of many elements being considered when teaching for enduring understanding. Endacott and Sturtz recommended the following: For those interested in helping new or experienced teachers incorporate historical empathy into their pedagogical repertoire, the results of this study suggest that an iterative and reflective approach in which the classroom teacher works with familiar content and maintains a critically introspective stance towards pedagogical reasoning is warranted. Paying particular attention to the selection of materials, structuring of essential questions, “in the moment” student interactions, “evolving positionalities of student historical investigators, and suitability of the display activity would be especially prudent. (p. 15)

A single-subject case study that Larsson (2018) conducted makes a good example of using PR&A as a tool to grasp the essence of teaching practice in a pre-kindergarten science classroom. One preschool teacher and four children were observed in an authentic situation. The purpose was to understand how the participating teacher adapts (transformation) the content—floating, sinking, and stability—to enhance children’s learning. The focus of analysis was observable features in both teacher’s planning and the strategies and representations used while teaching (instruction). In addition to a range of specific strategies and actions the teacher used to make the content relevant to the children, the study demonstrated that preparation is done not only before but also during the course of the activity. Larsson said, “This raises issues about teacher’s knowledge; it takes both pedagogical and conceptual skills to capture such transitory moment” (p. 779).

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Case studies such as these can serve as excellent pedagogical devices for teacher education (Shulman, 1998) but are lacking in geography teacher education literature. Studies like these are often fragmented and dispersed because they have not used a coherent conceptual or analytical framework. PR&A can help tackle such issues and facilitate the compilation of case studies on instruction processes, so researchers can synthesize insights and share them broadly.

19.3.4 Ensuring High-Quality Preservice Teacher Education It is critical but challenging to educate preservice teachers. Grossman et al. (2009) pointed out the following: All professional education must find ways of helping students build professional knowledge in a relatively brief amount of time, develop habits of mind and character that are appropriate to professional practice, learn clinical skills that they will need in their future practice, develop new ways of thinking that are characteristic of professional reasoning, and begin to construct a professional identity. (p. 2060)

The PR&A model can help teacher educators design and select effective learning experiences and opportunities for preservice teachers because it helps analyze and evaluate those experiences and opportunities in a systematic way. For example, Nilsson (2009) demonstrated how the PR&A model can serve as both a conceptual and an analytic framework to systematically unpack and articulate science preservice teachers’ pedagogical reasoning underpinning their actions. Using critical incidents as a pedagogical strategy, Nilsson had 10 primary science preservice teachers attend to and reflect on incidents within their teaching experiences. The purpose was to help preservice teachers better understand the nature of teaching and become “empowered to seek new ways of conceptualizing their practice” (Nilsson, p. 240). Participating preservice teachers focused on their own personal stories and situations “which they experienced as critical and which caused them to reason about aspects of teaching and learning science that they had not explicitly questioned previously” (Nilsson, p. 254). By closely looking at and reflecting on their own teaching experience, they came to realize that teaching science required much more than simply delivering scientific knowledge to students. The findings suggested that PR&A framework helps teacher educators provide preservice teachers with an opportunity to reflect on their reasoning and actions and see “complexities of teaching and learning in ways that foster their moving beyond the technical in their learning to teach” (Nilsson, p. 243). In another study, Harte and Reitano (2015) adopted microteaching videos as a pedagogical strategy and examined the learning of 16 geography preservice teachers while they reflected on their own microteaching experiences. Through videostimulated recalls following the microteaching, researchers were able to detail and elucidate the processes of participating teachers’ knowledge representation and transformation, which is the essence in the act of teachers’ pedagogical reasoning. In these

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two studies, researchers explored ways to help preservice teachers develop necessary knowledge and skills to transform subject matter content knowledge into something teachable to their future students. Although not explicitly mentioned, processes of PR&A, especially comprehension, transformation, and reflection, were the focus of the study. PR&A can also serve as a framework to examine the role of teacher educators carefully coaching (Schön, 1987) preservice teachers’ learning by engaging them in deliberate practice (Ericsson, 2002). In an exploratory study with four geography preservice teachers, Reitano and Harte (2016) examined their understanding of what makes the learning of specific topics easy or difficult for students. The researchers found that the participating preservice teachers, with multiple school-based practicum experiences, were able to link pedagogical theory and practice. The instructional scaffolding and opportunities for experimentation with knowledge transformation and representation that teacher educators provide to preservice teachers are important for preservice teachers to develop such skills. Explicit modeling during method courses is suggested to be a good strategy because preservice teachers prefer to mimic the observed practices of their supervising teachers.

19.4 Discussion and Conclusions The foundation of teacher professionalism is the discipline-based knowledge that teachers develop through education and their own experience in practice. Researchers have pointed out that assessing teachers’ knowledge base is challenging (Schell et al., 2013). Being able to capture and unpack how teachers develop their knowledge base for teaching and how this specialized knowledge unfolds in the classroom is the essence of research on teaching and teacher education. In this chapter, we reviewed existing literature and identified areas of research for which the PR&A model can serve as a conceptual or analytical tool. Figure 19.2 presents the four areas we identified; example research studies; and the PR&A components focused, either explicitly or implicitly, in those studies.. Using PR&A as an overall framework would help cumulation, replication, and communication of research findings. The PR&A model also helps identify strengths and weaknesses in the current literature. For example, we observed that relatively more literature is available on teachers’ transformation of subject matter knowledge (e.g., representing content knowledge and adapting and tailoring these representations to meet student needs) in geography than on other components of PR&A. Few studies in geography examined teachers’ pedagogical reasoning during instruction or practice regarding evaluation (e.g., [evaluation of student learning, one’s own teaching, and materials they are using] Fig. 19.2). The idea of ‘reflection-in-action’ (Schön, 1983) and teacher research based on this would be helpful. In some studies, researchers have emphasized the importance of teacher reflection, but little is known about how to guide teachers to a systematic analysis of their own performance and the reconstruction and reenactment of teaching after reflection.

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Fig. 19.2 Potential of PR&A as a research framework, example studies and research methods used

There are methodological considerations that the PR&A framework suggests for future research on geography teaching and teacher education. As shown in Fig. 19.2, most research studies concerning teacher PR&A have taken qualitative approaches to data collection, such as observation, interview, and focus-group discussion. A collection of case studies that seek a deeper understanding of the nature and characteristics of the professional knowledge base and practice of geography teachers would be desirable. As Shulman (1998) pointed out, cases can be “strategies for helping professionals to chunk their experience into units that can become the focus for reflective practice” and “the lingua franca of teacher learning communities” (p. 525). Video-based observation technologies can enhance teachers’ reflective practice (Blazar et al., 2018). As researchers and teachers can revisit the video repeatedly, the complexity of teaching practice can be captured and analyzed effectively (Prilop et al., 2020). A 360-degree video device, like Swivl, allows recording diverse viewpoints of students, the teacher, and the researchers (Gold & Windscheid, 2020). Research on potentials, challenges, and effective uses of video-based observation technologies will benefit future PR&A research in geography. A problem is that case methods and findings of case studies are hardly replicable or reproducible, making evaluation of the implications of the research difficult. Effort to organize and conduct a series of coherent case studies with a representative sample of geography teachers may help address this problem. It is also critical to develop, test, and validate a suite of instruments that researchers can use in these case studies. Instruments such as self-reports of teachers’ knowledge base and their PR&A; performance-based assessments that are related to teachers’ planning and instruction; and interview protocols or other tools to collect evidence of teachers’ PR&A reflections, self-evaluations, and new comprehensions relative to and stimulated by recollections of their observed teaching are desirable. Harris et al.’s (2010,

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2012) works provided insights into the assessment tools that can reveal and assess the specific nature of teachers’ PR&A.

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Nixon, R. S., Smith, L. K., & Sudweeks, R. R. (2019). Elementary teachers’ science subject matter knowledge across the teacher career cycle. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 56(6), 707–731. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21524 Pella, S. (2015). Pedagogical reasoning and action: Affordances of practice-based teacher professional development. Teacher Education Quarterly, 42(3), 81–101. Prilop, C. N., Weber, K. E., & Kleinknecht, M. (2020). Effects of digital video-based feedback environments on pre-service teachers’ feedback competence. Computers in Human Behavior, 102, 120–131. Reitano, P., & Harte, W. (2016). Geography pre-service teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. Pedagogies, 11(4), 279–291. https://doi-org.libproxy.txstate.edu/10.1080/1554480X.2016. 1195740 Ritchey, K. D., Coker, D. L., Jr., & Jackson, A. F. (2015). The Relationship between early elementary teachers’ instructional practices and theoretical orientations and students’ growth in writing. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 28(9), 1333–1354. https://doi-org.libproxy. txstate.edu/10.1007/s11145-015-9573-0 Schell, E. M., Rth, K. J., & Mohan, A. (Eds.). (2013). A road map for 21st century geography education: Instructional materials and professional development (A report from the instructional materials and professional development committee of the road map for 21st century geography education project). National Council for Geographic Education. Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner. How professionals think in action. Basic Book Inc. Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. Jossey-Bass. Seow, T. (2016). Reconciling discourse about geography and teaching geography: The case of Singapore pre-service teachers. International Research in Geographical & Environmental Education, 25(2), 151–165. https://doi-org.libproxy.txstate.edu/10.1080/10382046.2016.1149342 Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x015002004 Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 Shulman, L. (1998). Theory, practice, and the education of professionals. The Elementary School Journal, 98(5), 511–526. Soini, T., Pietarinen, J., & Pyhältö, K. (2016). What if teachers learn in the classroom? Teacher Development, 20(3), 380–397. https://doi-org.libproxy.txstate.edu/10.1080/13664530.2016.114 9511 Starkey, L. (2010). Teachers’ pedagogical reasoning and action in the digital age. Teachers & Teaching, 16(2), 233–244. https://doi-org.libproxy.txstate.edu/10.1080/13540600903478433 Tatto, M. T. (1998). The influence of teacher education on teachers’ beliefs about purposes of education, roles, and practice. Journal of Teacher Education, 49(1), 66–77. Walford, R. (1996). ‘What is geography?’ An analysis of definitions provided by prospective teachers of the subject. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 5(1), 69–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.1996.9964991

Chapter 20

South African Geography Teachers’ Involvement in Self-Directed Professional Development Activities in Geography Education Aubrey Golightly

20.1 Introduction In response to the changing needs of learners in the twenty-first century, continuous professional development (CPD) is recognised as an essential part of a geography teacher’s need to remain current in geography knowledge and pedagogy. Geography teachers need in-depth content knowledge, an understanding of how geography learners learn the geography content, an understanding of classroom environments that optimise learning and renewed and revised curricula, as well as active teaching and learning strategies to be mixed and adjusted to their specific school context and learners (Brooks, 2010; Mokhele & Jita, 2010; Weir, 2017). In the South African context, geography teachers can pursue learning through CPD that includes formal professional development (PD) and self-directed professional development (SDPD). The formal PD is organised by the Department of Basic Education in the different provinces of South Africa and aims to assist geography teachers’ need to be appropriately equipped to meet the evolving challenges of society. With reference to SDPD, the geography teacher takes the lead role in facilitating his or her own professional growth. According to Easton (2008), SDPD means that teachers will have to move from being trained or developed to becoming active self-directed learners in their own PD. Teachers should be active participants in their SDPD in order to address the real needs of teachers (Louws et al., 2017). It is against this background that the researcher, at a university in South Africa, decided to give an overview of geography teachers’ involvement in SDPD activities and their self-directed research in the various school geography subdisciplines and themes.

A. Golightly (B) North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_20

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20.2 Literature Review Since the first democratic election in South Africa in 1994, geography teachers have experienced various curriculum changes. The last curriculum change occurred in 2011 when the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) document was finalised and its implementation in schools started in 2012. In the CAPS, geography in the General Education and Training phase (Grade 4–9) forms part of social sciences and life sciences. In the Further Education and Training phase (Grade 10– 12), geography is an elective subject. In the geography CAPS curriculum, geography teachers are required to implement active and critical learning (Department of Basic Education, 2011a). It is necessary that geography teachers implement teaching and learning strategies and methods, such as problem-based learning (PBL), inquirybased learning, debates, role play, simulation, games, fieldwork and assignments, in their classrooms (Golightly, 2018) to help achieve the general and geography aims as stated in the CAPS. It is important to highlight that in order to facilitate active learning in the geography classroom, the geography teacher also needs to be a content expert (AlHaqwi, 2014; Golightly, 2016). With reference to research in geography education in South Africa, in most geography classes, teachers are still implementing teacher-centred instructional strategies (Alexander et al., 2010; Anyanwu et al., 2015; Dube, 2017; Wilmot & Dube, 2015). One of the possible reasons for this, as highlighted by Anyanwu et al. (2015), Wilmot and Dube (2015) and Dube (2017), is geography teachers’ weak geography content knowledge (what is taught) and pedagogical content knowledge (how it is taught). These authors recommend that South African teacher educators and policymakers improve CPD programmes and support interventions in teacher knowledge and understanding of geography concepts, so as to enhance geography education in schools. It is of the utmost importance that geography teachers are challenged and supported to use their own initiative to undertake different types of SDPD activities to consistently improve their geography knowledge, teaching and learning skills and teaching practices despite all the challenges they experience in their geography classrooms.

20.2.1 The Geography Teacher as a Self-Directed Learner In the South African context, the Department of Basic Education (2011b), in Goal 16 of the Action Plan 2014, Realisation of Schooling 2025 requires geography teachers to remain lifelong learners, as the Department regards teaching as an ongoing learning process and requires that geography teachers’ professionalism, teaching skills and subject knowledge are improved upon throughout their careers. Consequently, geography teachers need to be equipped to effectively continue through self-directed learning (SDL) to address their learning needs throughout their careers (Guglielmino, 2013). A basic tenet of SDL is that one has the ability to identify and achieve learning

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goals through the effective use of learning strategies to understand, monitor, manage, evaluate and reflect on one’s own learning and locate the appropriate resources (Francom, 2010). In this regard, Mushayikwa and Lubben (2009) also point out that teachers with a higher level of SDL skills tend to participate in PD activities with greater enthusiasm. It is, therefore, necessary for geography teachers to continually reflect on their teaching experiences to improve their proficiency.

20.2.2 Self-Directed Professional Development in Geography Education In the South African school system, formal PD is externally driven by the Department of Basic Education (Govender, 2015). The CPD of geography teachers in South Africa is treated as a duty of geography teachers, and therefore they are given varied options of programmes for participation. They also earn different points for their participation in different activities and programmes. Points may be accrued by activities initiated by the teacher through self-directed professional learning (Type 1), by the school (Type 2) or by an external provider endorsed by the South African Council for Educators (SACE, 2013) (Type 3). Teachers are required to participate in all three types of PD activities in a three-year cycle (Department of Higher Education and Training, 2015). In the South African context, SACE is supervising the process. SACE requested the geography teachers to submit a professional development portfolio. In this regard, SACE developed guidelines for school-based educators in compiling the professional development portfolios. The professional development portfolios provide geography teachers with an opportunity of collecting a range of evidence that reflects their ongoing PD, which includes self-directed PD. In the literature, a clear distinction is also made between formal and self-directed PD. Formal PD is usually organised by the education department or school management and includes attending local and national conferences, seminars and workshops, participating in school or district in-service training programmes, engaging in collaborative learning with a team of co-workers and enrolling in on-site, online or university courses (Mizell, 2010). Mushayikwa and Lubben (2009) highlight that formal PD activities play an important role but warn that these activities ignore the role of selfdirection and tend to develop dependency syndromes among teachers, thus resulting in an unsustainable impact. In this regard, Smith (2017) also points out that formal teacher development programmes and activities seem to be designed according to a one-size-fits-all approach, focusing on cost-efficiency instead of on teachers’ real learning needs. Various researchers view traditional formal CPD approaches, such as workshops and one-day seminars, as the least effective method for improving teachers’ skills in facilitating active learning in their classrooms (Wan & Lam, 2010; Wei et al., 2010). In South Africa, the training of geography teachers through formal PD activities with the implementation of new curricula has had mixed results. With reference to

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the training of geography teachers with the implementation of the CAPS curriculum, Moodley (2013) and Phasha (2016) indicate that most geography teachers have welcomed the training in CAPS and have received useful learning material. However, many geography teachers express dissatisfaction with the PD made available to them in schools. They state that they have experienced challenges related to the quality and amount of training, including CAPS presenters having scant knowledge of what the geography CAPS entails (Mokhele & Jita, 2010). As mentioned earlier, it is suggested that teachers should take charge of their own PD and be given the opportunity to plan, develop and implement their own PD (Shurr et al., 2014; Visser et al., 2014). This suggestion concurs with studies where teachers indicated that they preferred SDPD to the other forms of PD they had experienced previously because SDPD allowed for autonomy to make decisions about the content and the manner in which the teachers learnt it to meet their varying needs (Grosemans et al., 2015; Hamilton, 2013; Weir, 2017). SDPD is internally motivated and arises from a geography teacher’s own initiative and will to learn (Lopes & Cunha, 2017; Mushayikwa & Lubben, 2009; Weir, 2017). With reference to geography education, Gerber (2002) refers to SDPD as all types of self-initiated learning experiences that geographical educators undertake during their professional lives. Geography teachers are allowed to decide what they desire or need to learn to be effective and to raise their professional efficacy (Shurr et al., 2014; Visser et al., 2014; Weir, 2017). Maximising the self-directed drive of geography teachers will ensure that these teachers take ownership of their own learning to keep up with all of the new developments in geography education (Schell et al., 2013). Moreover, it will allow geography teachers to explore practice-related questions that are generated and to pursue the learning and mastery of skills that are relevant to their positions (Slavit & McDuffie, 2013). There is evidence that the more teachers are involved in selecting their own PD activities, the more they report improvements in their subject knowledge, their commitment to teaching, their teaching practice and the learning of their students (White et al., 2006). It is necessary to highlight that most of the research dealing with teachers’ involvement in SDPD activities is on self-evaluation, and that can lead to bias in the reporting of the teachers. In geography education, there is a relatively small body of literature that is concerned with SDPD. Also, there is a lack of theoretical understanding of geography teachers’ involvement in SDPD activities. However, Gerber (2002) highlights that the main ways in which geography teachers learn with SDPD activities include making mistakes, self-education on and off the job, problem solving, interacting with others and offering leadership to others. Other researchers have also identified and discussed various individual and collaborative SDPD activities, including searching the Internet for information, reading professional literature for self-guided reading, community engagement, conducting independent research, asking advice from colleagues, leading school projects and researching and experimenting with new or alternative teaching and learning strategies (Hiemstra & Brockett, 2012; SACE, 2018). Other SDPD activities can include action research (Grootenboer, 1999), experimenting and collaborating (Grosemans et al., 2015), peer classroom observation (Hamilton, 2013), reading and study groups

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(Voltz et al., 2004) and visiting education-focused blogs, wikis and podcasts (Visser et al., 2014). The importance of teachers sharing knowledge and experiences with fellow teachers, especially in the form of “participation in a network of teachers” (Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development, 2014: 168), is necessary for self-directed professional learning. According to Vescio et al. (2008: 81), these teachers constitute a ready source of knowledge that is situated in the day-to-day lived experience of teachers and “best understood through critical reflection with others who share the same experience”. Some researchers point out that teachers engaging in self-reflection can also be a form of SDPD activity, where the teacher can implement inquiry-based learning to overcome problems experienced in practice (Grosemans et al., 2015; Minott, 2010). Geography researchers such as Gerber (2002), Kolnik (2010), and Schell et al. (2013) declare that the involvement of geography teachers in SDPD activities is more about the self-motivation to be a better teacher. Interestingly, Bouchard (1996) observes that SDPD appears to be most prominent when teachers are operating in deprived environments. It is, therefore, no surprise that Kolnik (2010) is of the opinion that self-motivated learning and SDL, through CPD, remain the best way of improving educational quality in geography. She further states that SDPD can be an important source of innovation in teaching and learning geography.

20.3 Empirical Investigation 20.3.1 Research Design This study adopted a non-experimental design, which entailed administering a survey instrument to geography teachers in the North-West Province of South Africa. Surveys are used frequently in educational research to describe attitudes, beliefs, opinions and other types of information, and the research is designed so that information about the population can be inferred from the responses obtained from the respondents (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). In this study, the empirical investigation entailed a quantitative methodology that was embedded in the post-positivist paradigm. A post-positivist perspective not only focuses on the objectivity of findings, but also recognises the limitations of a human interpretation of reality and the influence thereof on the objectivity of the study (Doucet et al., 2010). In this study, the geography teachers themselves had to indicate their involvement in SDPD activities in the instrument, which involved a degree of subjectivity.

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20.3.2 Respondents In this study a convenience sampling was used to collect quantitative data. Further Education and Training phase (Grade 10–12) geography teachers (n = 130) in the North-West Province (one of the nine provinces of South Africa) completed the selfdirected professional development in geography education instrument developed by the researcher.

20.4 Data Collection and Analysis 20.4.1 Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis The self-directed professional development in geography education instrument is self-rating and organised in categories and subcategories dealing with geography teachers’ involvement in SDPD activities (13 items) as well as their self-directed research in the geography subdisciplines and learning domains (13 items) over the past 12 months. For the selections of the sub-disciplines and learning domains, the Grade 10 to 12 geography CAPS document (Department of Basic Education, 2011a) was used. The responses to the items are rated by using a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = never; 2 = seldom; 3 = sometimes; 4 = often; 5 = always). Hancock and Mueller (2010: 98) state that if one uses a five-point ordered scale, it can be used as if it were a continuum, as the chance of bias is little for five or more ordered categories. Open-ended questions at the end of each subcategory were included in the instrument, where respondents could list any other issue that had not been included in the instrument. The researcher employed the following quantitative data analysis: • An exploratory factor analysis of the items dealing with the geography teachers’ involvement in SDPD activities was done. According to the grouping of items, two subcategories were identified, namely “Reading articles and books as well as watching videos” (Items 1–6) and “Consulting different role players and experimentation” (Items 7–13). • The internal reliability for the self-constructed self-directed professional development instrument was measured by the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient. The Cronbach alpha values for the category and subcategories of SDPD were on an acceptable level. The Cronbach alpha values for the subcategories “Reading articles and books as well as watching videos” (Items 1–6) and “Consulting different role players and experimentation” were 0.807 and 0.835 respectively. For the category “Self-directed research in geography subdisciplines and learning domains” (Items 14–26), the Cronbach alpha was 0.928.

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• Descriptive statistical techniques, such as the mean and standard deviation for the items in the category and subcategories of the self-directed professional development in geography education instrument, were applied to organise, analyse and interpret the quantitative data from the geography teachers.

20.4.2 Data Analysis of the Open-Ended Questions With reference to the use of open-ended questions at the end of each subsection of the questionnaire, the author of this chapter agrees with Singer and Couper (2017) that the adaptation of open-ended questions to some functions in quantitative surveys will result in more respondent-focused surveys that encourage more truthful answers. These open-ended questions will encourage geography teachers to refer to their personal experiences. The data collected from the open-ended questions were analysed using qualitative thematic analysis.

20.5 Ethical Considerations This study took place within the research unit of SDL at a South African university. The SDL project complied with all the ethical regulations of the university and was approved by the ethics committee of the university. The respondents had to give written consent for the information they provided to be used in the study. Participation was voluntary, and the respondents could withdraw at any time.

20.6 Results Both the quantitative and qualitative results are outlined in this section.

20.6.1 Geography Teachers’ Involvement in Self-Directed Professional Development Activities An analysis of the data from the responses of the geography teachers with regard to their involvement in the subcategories of SDPD activities is reported in Table 20.1. With reference to the subcategory “Reading articles, books and watching videos”, all the items received high ratings from the geography teachers. More than half of the geography teachers indicated that they often (n = 39 or 30%) or usually (n = 44 or 33.8%) used “Independent search on the Internet (websites) for geography education” and “Watching online videos to enhance my geography knowledge and

Items

Never

Consulting different role players and experimentation 4 (3.1%)

15 (11.6%)

Interacting with other geography teachers to learn more about geography knowledge and how to teach geography

Asking geography learners for feedback to improve my geography lessons

7 (5.4%)

Visiting professional educational sites on the Internet 1 (0.8%)

30 (23.1)

9 (6.9%)

Visiting blogs, Twitter, wikis, podcasts, Google and YouTube

Sharing teaching and learning materials and resources with fellow geography teachers

25 (19.2%)

Reading articles in magazines and 3 (2.3%) newspapers

20 (15.4%)

17 (13.1%)

6 (4.6%)

30 (23.1%)

12 (9.3%)

3 (2.3%)

Consulting geography books and geography-specific academic journals

13 (10.0%)

2 (1.5%)

11 (8.5%)

Seldom

Watching online videos to enhance my geography knowledge and improve my teaching and learning skills

Reading articles, books and watching Independent search on the Internet 1 (0.8%) videos (websites) for geography information

Subcategories

Table 20.1 Geography teachers’ involvement in SDPD activities over the last 12 months (n = 130)

26 (20.0%)

23 (17.7%)

21 (16.2%)

37 (28.5%)

27 (20.8%)

33 (19.2%)

38 (29.2%)

31 (23.9%)

35 (26.9%)

Sometimes

41 (31.5%)

48 (36.9)

47 (36.2%)

35 (26.9%)

32 (24.6%)

33 (25.4%

42 (32.3%)

39 (30.0%)

39 (30.0%)

Often

28 (21.5%)

38 (29.2%)

55 (42.3%)

21 (16.2%)

32 (24.6%)

45 (34.6%)

35 (26.9%)

45 (34.6%

44 (33.8%)

Usually

1.29

1.11

0.91

1.14

1.27

1.07

1.03

1.06

1.00

SD

(continued)

3.36

3.76

4.15

3.25

3.37

3.48

3.72

3.86

3.88

X

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X = mean; SD = standard deviation

Subcategories

Table 20.1 (continued)

28 (21.5%)

23 (17.7%)

26 (20%)

Volunteering to attend university or college workshops, seminar or symposiums on teaching and learning

14 (10.8%)

Observing fellow geography and other teachers’ lesson presentations

25 (19.2%)

27 (20.8%)

5 (3.8%)

Trying and experimenting with teaching and learning strategies and methods in my geography classroom

Seldom

Preparing geography lessons with 18 (13.8%) colleagues in my school or neighbouring schools

Never

Items

24 (18.5%)

26 (20.0%)

35 (26.9%

36 (27.7%)

Sometimes

33 (25.4%)

39 (30.0%)

35 (26.9%

47 (36.2%)

Often

22 (16.9%)

20 (15.4%)

20 (15.4%

17 (13.1%)

Usually

2.98

3.12

3.16

3.35

X

1.41

1.29

1.23

1.06

SD

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improve my teaching and learning skills” and also received the highest mean scores of 3.88 and 3.86 respectively. A few of the geography teachers (n = 5) stated in the open-ended question that they had consulted the Grade 12 Geography study guide Mind the gap published online by the Department of Basic Education, while a few teachers also stated that they had bought the X-Kit Achieve! Geography Grade 12 study guide online or from a bookstore. In the subcategory “Consulting different role players and experimentation”, 78.5% of the geography teachers stated that they often or usually “shar[ed] teaching and learning materials and resources with fellow geography teachers” (X = 4.15), and 66% of them often or usually “Interact[ed] with other geography teachers to learn more about geography knowledge and how to teach geography” (X = 3.76), which also received the highest mean scores. More than half of the geography teachers indicated that they had been “trying and experimenting with teaching and learning strategies and methods in my geography classroom” (X = 3.35). Interestingly, only 42, 3% of the geography teachers stated that they often or usually “volunteer[ed] to attend university or college workshops, seminars or symposiums on teaching and learning”, which received the lowest mean score of 2.98. In the open-ended questions, a few geography teachers (n = 7) also mentioned that they had learnt a lot from their involvement in acting as mentors for beginner and less experienced geography teachers in their schools.

20.6.2 Self-Directed Research of Geography Teachers in the Geography Subdisciplines and Learning Domains In Table 20.2, the responses of geography teachers with regard to their self-directed research in the different school geography subdisciplines and learning domains are reported. What is insightful is the fact that all the items referring to the subdisciplines and learning domains received above-average ratings from the geography teachers. However, most of the geography teachers (60% and higher) indicated that they often or usually did self-directed research in map work and aerial photographs (X = 3.70), as well as climatology (X = 3.68) and geomorphology (X = 3.68). Interestingly, the items dealing with geography methodology received the lowest mean scores ranging from 3.53 to 3.33, with 54.6% or less of the geography teachers indicating that they were often or usually involved in these geography themes. In the open-ended questions, some of the geography teachers (n = 4) indicated that they did a lot of research online to find old geography examination papers and class tests with their memorandums, as well as interesting geography activities and assignments.

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Table 20.2 Self-directed research of geography teachers (n = 130) in the geography subdisciplines and learning domains over the last 12 months Geography subdisciplines and learning domains

Never

Seldom

Sometimes Often

Usually

X

SD

Map work and aerial photographs

5 (3.9%)

16 (12.3%) 28 (21.5%) 45 (34.6%) 36 (27.7%) 3.70 1.12

Climatology

7 (5.4%)

13 (10.0%) 31 (23.8%) 43 (33.1%) 36 (27.7%) 3.68 1.14

Geomorphology

5 (3.9%)

13 (10.0%) 32 (24.6%) 48 (36.9%) 32 (24.6%) 3.68 1.07

Rural and urban settlements

7 (5.4%)

13 (10.0%) 33 (25.4%) 41 (31.5%) 36 (27.7%) 3.66 1.15

Economic geography

9 (6.9%)

10 (7.8%)

Geographical information systems

7 (5.4%)

16 (12.3%) 31 (23.8%) 41 (31.5%) 35 (27.0%) 3.62 1.16

Development geography

11 (8.5%) 12 (9.2%)

Water resources, resources and sustainability

7 (5.4%)

15 (11.5%) 37 (28.5%) 39 (30.0%) 32 (24.6%) 3.57 1.14

Population geography

9 (6.9%)

17 (13.1%) 31 (23.8%) 38 (29.2%) 35 (27.0%) 3.56 1.21

Assessment in geography

6 (4.6%)

15 (11.5%) 38 (29.3%) 46 (35.4%) 25 (19.2%) 3.53 1.07

Geography classroom management

8 (6.2%)

16 (12.3%) 34 (26.2%) 45 (34.6%) 27 (20.8%) 3.52 1.14

Geography teaching and learning aids

3 (2.4%)

15 (11.5%) 45 (34.6%) 45 (34.6%) 22 (16.9%) 3.52 0.98

Geography 9 (6.9%) teaching–learning strategies and methods (subject methodology)

20 (15.4%) 39 (30.0%) 43 (33.1%) 19 (14.6%) 3.33 1.12

32 (24.6%) 48 (36.9%) 31 (23.8%) 3.63 1.14

29 (22.3%) 46 (35.4%) 32 (24.6%) 3.58 1.20

X = mean; SD = standard deviation

20.7 Discussion The focus on the involvement of geography teachers in SDPD activities is part of an effort to make geography teachers aware of their moral obligation to be involved in independent and self-directed learning to improve their subject knowledge and

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teaching skills. As a first step, the study addresses the lack of research in geography education in South Africa regarding geography teachers’ involvement in SDPD. Most of the geography teachers participating in the study stated that they were sometimes, often or usually involved in SDPD activities (see Table 20.1). This indication supports the views of Avalos (2011) and Mushayikwa and Lubben (2009) that SDPD often naturally occurs within the teaching profession and is the most frequently used type of workplace learning. Bakhshi (2019) points out that SDPD gives teachers the opportunity to gain control of their own learning based on their individual needs and transforms professional learning from a passive exercise to an active experience. However, for SDPD to be effective, it is crucial for geography teachers to take ownership in their PD and to be actively engaged in deciding, based on their learners’ needs, on what, how, when and where to learn for their PD (Alhasan, 2019; Govender, 2015). In this study, most of the geography teachers indicated that they did independent research on the Internet, watching online videos and consulting geography books and articles to enhance their geography knowledge and improve their teaching and learning skills. These findings concur with the findings of Bakhshi (2019) where teachers also reported that they mostly used online resources, such as journals and magazines, the websites of teacher associations, Google Classroom, webinars, online courses and workshops and online groups and forums, for self-study about topics in which they were interested. The types of SDPD activities revealed in this study are similar to those that have come to the fore in the findings of other studies, where teachers also took the initiative to engage in various ways of developing themselves as professionals (Bakhshi, 2019; Govender, 2015). The involvement of geography teachers in searching the Internet for geography information or watching educational videos in this study can possibly be attributed to the immediate access to information and resources on the web that minimises time and distance constraints (see Starkey, 2012). Lewis and Day (2004) point out that SDPD can help to refresh and increase the subject knowledge of teachers and to maintain their interest in the teaching profession. Moreover, Riddle (2018) and Mushayikwa and Lubben (2009) found that teachers ultimately engaged in SDPD to improve their efficacy in the classroom. In the South African context, the involvement of geography teachers in SDPD activities can be to improve geography teachers with poor content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, as highlighted in the South African literature on geography education (Anyanwu et al., 2015; Maduane, 2016; Wilmot & Dube, 2015). Interestingly, most of the geography teachers in this study highlighted that they interacted with other geography teachers to learn more about geography knowledge and how to teach geography themes and to share geography learning material with fellow geography teachers. A few geography teachers pointed out that their involvement to act as mentors for beginning or preservice teachers helped develop their own teaching skills as well. Such engagement in dialogue, informal communication and teacher collaboration is consistent with prior empirical findings with regard to teacher collaboration and forming a professional learning community (e.g., Akiba & Liang, 2016; Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development, 2009; Vescio et al., 2008). Ward et al. (2006) and Avalos (2011) state that teachers tend to seek out advice

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from peers, and professional discussions among teachers can lead to positive educational changes in schools. In an international study dealing with the impact of SDPD activities, it was found that informal dialogue among teachers, reading professional literature and the mentoring of novice teachers could improve their teaching (Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development, 2009). According to Akiba and Liang (2016), teacher collaboration and communication that involve in-depth teacher discussions of teaching approaches and learner understanding based on actual classroom situations can lead to improved learner achievement as well. Discussions and collaboration among geography teachers can also assist teachers in dealing with real rather than hypothesised problems in teaching geography (De Clercq & Phiri, 2013) and can reduce stress, improve confidence, provide feedback and new ideas and create greater enthusiasm for cooperation and more commitment to changing practice, ultimately affecting learner performance (De Vries et al., 2013). It is no surprise that Kolnik (2010) is of the opinion that SDPD can be an important source of innovation in teaching and learning geography.

20.7.1 Geography Subdisciplines and Methodology With reference to geography teachers’ self-directed research in the various geography subdisciplines and methodology, most of the geography teachers indicated that they did an independent research in map work and aerial photographs, climatology and geomorphology. A possible reason for this, as highlighted by the Department of Basic Education (2018), Ezeudu (2014), Golightly (2009), Maduane (2016), Schoeman (2018) and Tshibalo and Schulze (2000), can be that some South African geography learners struggle with map work and aerial photographs in that these skills pose perceptual and conceptual barriers to learners and thus pose challenges to teachers who teach map work and aerial photographs. Moreover, these researchers point out that many geography teachers in disadvantaged South African schools use ineffective traditional direct instructional methods in teaching map work. In Ahiaku and Mncube’s (2018) study in a district in KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, geography teachers expressed their dislike for the teaching of map work and climatology because of the lack of resources in their schools. They further stated that most geography teachers’ lack of mathematical skills contributed towards the poor teaching of map work, geographical information systems and climatology. The abovementioned challenges in the South African context for teaching map work, climatology and geomorphology can be a motivation for geography teachers to engage in SDPD to improve their geography knowledge and skills. In this regard, Mushayikwa and Lubben (2009: 381) emphasise that teachers engage in SDPD activities under conditions of adversity, and “when teachers are fighting for professional survival, they tend to become tenacious in their bid to improve themselves”. It is also possible that some geography teachers realise they do not have the necessary geography knowledge or teaching skills and act as active agents in efforts of educational change (Hoban, 2002) and are, therefore, involved in self-initiated professional

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learning activities (Mushayikwa & Lubben, 2009) to improve their geography knowledge and skills. In this regard, White et al. (2006) report that the more teachers are involved in selecting their own PD activities, the more they report improvement in their subject knowledge, their commitment to teaching, their teaching practice and the learning of their students. However, Mushayikwa and Lubben (2009) point out that teachers may need some assistance in this process of reflection and enactment in order to be involved in SDPD.

20.8 Limitations This study relied on self-reporting measures through the application of a questionnaire rather than an objective assessment of geography teachers involved in SDPD activities. Consequently, caution is needed in generalising these results. It was not expected of the geography teachers to explain how these SDPD activities might have influenced their teaching and learning practices. It is further necessary to point out that it is possible that social desirability bias could have occurred when the geography teachers answered the question and when, in the self-reported data, they provided more positive feedback. Social desirability bias, according to Nancarrow and Brace (2000), is when respondents tend to give answers they believe will make them look better in the eyes of others. In this study, the geography teachers were volunteers, and it is possible that they might have a more positive attitude towards self-directed professional learning. The participating geography teachers in this study were from only one province in South Africa. It is possible that geography teachers from other provinces might have had different views with regard to their involvement in SDPD activities.

20.9 Conclusion and Recommendations This study was conducted to explore the involvement of geography teachers in SDPD activities. The findings revealed that most of these geography teachers often and usually engaged in SDPD activities, such as independent searching on the Internet, watching online videos, sharing teaching and learning material and resources with fellow geography teachers and interacting and collaborating with other geography teachers to learn more about geography knowledge and how to teach geography. On average, the geography teachers highlighted that they did self-directed research on map work, climatology and geomorphology. To conclude, the researcher offers the following recommendations for the Department of Basic Education and school managers to support geography teachers in SDPD. The findings of this study can also assist the Department of Basic Education and school managers in their understanding of what type of SDPD geography teachers value and what geography teachers find meaningful in order to design

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effective CPD programmes accordingly. It is necessary to move away from geography teachers being trained or developed to their becoming active learners instead. Involving geography teachers in SDPD can also be highly cost-effective to improve the quality of teaching and learning of geography in South African schools. Giving the willingness of these geography teachers to do self-research online, the use of online learning technology can thus be considered as an option for the sustainability of geography teachers’ PD. It is also recommended that the Department of Basic Education provides geography teachers with the necessary online training and online resources and creates online opportunities to network and learn with and from other geography teachers in order to effectively address their professional needs in this changing and challenging profession. In this regard, open educational practices that include the creation, use and reuse of open educational resources, as well as open pedagogies and the open sharing of teaching practices can assist in the selfdirected learning of geography teachers. The Department of Basic Education should develop criteria and guidelines for geography teachers in the selection and use of adequate sources for their self-directed professional learning. It is also essential that geography teachers provide proof of how their involvement in SDPD activities has positively influenced their teaching and learning of geography in their classrooms. It is necessary that school managers promote SDPD in their respective schools and provide the support, guidance and advice needed when these are sought. Moreover, geography teachers should be offered guidance on how to self-select, through reflection, professional learning activities that can improve their geography knowledge and skills. It is recommended that geography teachers create professional communities, face to face or online, where geography teachers can learn from one another in collaborative ways that support them in their professional learning. Lastly, in further research, it is necessary to report on the influence of demographic variables such as gender, teaching experience, academic qualification, school quintile on geography teachers’ involvement in SDPD activities. It is important to explore possible reasons why geography teachers are involved in SDPD activities, as well as the challenges that make it difficult for them to be involved in such activities.

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Chapter 21

Learning from Common Concerns and the Path Ahead for Geography Teacher Education and Professionalism Eyüp Artvinli, Inga Gryl, Jongwon Lee, and Jerry Mitchell

What does professionalization mean for a geography teacher? We have invited authors from across the globe to address this question, contributing essays in four relevant areas: (I) the qualification, described in the section “Pathways of professionalization as geography teacher”, (II) the institutions, explained in “Institutionalization, networking, and informal learning”, (III) the various fields in geography education, named in “Special fields and discourses of geography teacher education”, and, finally, (IV) different praxis in a section on “Methods and practices under the lens”. The chapters provide insights mainly from a national viewpoint; together they give an impression of the common problems, challenges, and solutions found from one country to another. We intend in this final chapter to tie together loose ends, identify common discourses, and pose questions for future research in geography teacher education.

E. Artvinli (B) Faculty of Education, Department of Social Sciences Education, Eski¸sehir Osmangazi University, Eski¸sehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] I. Gryl Geography/Didactics of General Studies, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany e-mail: [email protected] J. Lee Department of Social Studies Education, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea e-mail: [email protected] J. Mitchell Department of Geography, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. Artvinli et al. (eds.), Geography Teacher Education and Professionalization, International Perspectives on Geographical Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04891-3_21

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21.1 Qualifications The book’s first section explored various professionalization pathways for geography teachers in several countries, among them Germany, South Korea, and the United States. Of these several pathways, geography teachers are able to continue their own learning to enhance their professional qualifications. If we expect high-quality geography teaching, then provisions must be made to develop educators well-versed in geography content and proven pedagogical strategies. These paths can include in-degree (pre-service) and post-degree (in-service) professional development, and the acquisition of graduate degrees. While these strategies exist in common across different countries, each faces a set of headwinds that make geography learning harder for educators to achieve. What should be provided in initial teacher education (pre-service learning) is the subject of Chaps. 2 (Scholten et al.) and 3 (Streitberger et al.). Through a scoping review of intervention studies and the presentation of ongoing interventions, these two author sets make the case for more research on what works (evidence-based) with an “overarching goal of honing (future) teachers’ skills which are relevant to practice based on current scientific knowledge.” Bridging theory and scientific knowledge with actual classroom practice can be a very useful outcome of intervention studies as training programs are tested and those findings implemented into geography education courses to focus on competencies relevant to practice. Geography education has had intervention study difficulties in the past (e.g., small scale studies, lack of replicability), so their call to identify what works with evidence to refine teacher training programs—wherever they exist—is a welcome suggestion. Once initial teacher training is complete, continuous refinement occurs through actual classroom practice, peer sharing, and externally provided professional development. In-service geography professional development was described for Colorado in the United States by Theobald (Chap. 4). Within she highlights how geography—as an often marginalized subject—can need to find collaborators to be successful. This introduces yet another set of concerns, including “increased time for planning and coordination…[and] agreement on sharing credit for accomplishments and accepting blame for errors”, however, the disadvantages of collaboration are worth the effort if participant teachers “leave inspired and invigorated to teach another day.” The takeaway message here is that even the most successful and effortless looking professional development requires hard work and continuous follow through to remain successful and useful for educators. Care must be taken, however, to recognize how professional development in geography—whether pre-service or in-service—must be tailored for educators differently based upon their student’s grade band or developmental level. Catling (Chap. 5) makes the case for what is needed for primary teachers. As generalists, and the first geography teachers students will have, these educators can be expected to learn how to teach geography within inter-subject contexts. This may be less true in higher grade bands where geography can be a stand-alone course. In either case, Catling argues that “for primary children to receive the best geography education they can,

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alongside high-quality teaching by the same teachers in all subjects, their teachers need to undertake regular and well-provided units and courses in teaching geography, to update their subject knowledge, their knowledge of pertinent teaching strategies and resources, and to appreciate what children bring to their geographical learning and can contribute to it.” We argue that this continued professionalization is true for all teaching levels. Lee (Chap. 6) suggests another pathway—post-graduate education—that can be “a meaningful potential method to improve geography teachers’ quality, competencies, and professionalism.” Focusing like Catling on primary teachers, he notes that “South Korean education policies and culture” are the factors tending to discourage primary teachers’ engagement in postgraduate education in geography. Each of these authors demonstrates that teacher professionalization is a process that spans from the novice to the most senior teachers. Qualifications to become a well-trained geography teacher are necessary to enter the profession and to stay ahead of content and pedagogical innovations as one matures in their teaching career.

21.2 Institutions The book’s second section deals with the institutional conditions and frameworks of geography teacher training. The institutionalization of education is crucial as education is a core component of well-functioning societies. One function of education is to maintain and/or renew society for and by future generations. Thus, the formalization of teacher education is a consequence of this target. In order to secure common aims and quality in an education capable of serving this challenging task, teachers’ qualifications must fulfill certain common standards, provided by ministerial curricula, programs of study, and comparative tests. System theory (Luhmann, 2017) can support the understanding of institutions in education. Although education is related to societal changes (normally in a reactive way to changes, but ideally as an innovator, too), parts of the education system can be understood as a kind of closed system, where political institutions formulate requirements and guidelines that are handed from the top to the bottom, from institution to the individual teacher. At the bottom, teachers have a certain degree of dependence on the structures above but a limited degree of freedom is possible in the form of individual values and responsibilities and creative strategies (Coleman, 2010). Apart from that, we also know that “institutional support influences teachers’ engagement” (Schulman). Therefore, the relation between teachers and institutions is of high interest for research, particularly, when the function of educational policy is to be assessed. Chapter 8 (Kitchen and Kinder) illustrates the complexity of relations between stakeholders in the educational system, differentiating between policy, providers, and consumers of education. The contributions in this section come from China, Portugal, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom—countries with similarities but also differences in their educational institutions—and aim at different aspects of institutionalization.

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These chapters mostly connect different parts of the education system, or even link different societal systems. For instance, Chap. 9 (Alexandre) connects European politics with institutional consequences on a national and regional level, while Chap. 11 (Schulman) links the school system and teacher professionalization to the highly ritualized publication culture present in the academy. The chapters refer to formal institutionalized education and informal approaches in different degrees. Chapter 11 (Schulman) provides the loosest (but still significant) links to teacher training institutions by focusing on informal learning with research publications. However, with this she involves other highly complex systems of social interaction such as academia and publishers. The communication between those systems, however, remains complicated due to different aims and needs. In contrast, Chap. 7 (Yang) describes requirements (unknown in many other places) where inservice and experienced teachers are expected to have school administrators check their lesson plans. The chapters also differ concerning scale. While Chap. 9 (Alexandre) argues on a European, national, and institutional level, Chaps. 7 (Yang) and 10 (Bermingham and Baynham) focus on individual teachers’ and teacher candidates’ concerns and perceptions about geography teaching professionalization. All chapters in this section illustrate the complexity of educational systems and its institutions, and some of the problems encountered when developing modern geography education and teacher professionalization within historically developed institutions as part of the education system. At the same time, the authors challenge us to ask how geography professionalization should look given the differing interests, contradictions, and teachers’ praxis present from one country to another.

21.3 Special Fields and Discourses In Section III, the chapters challenge geography educators to reflect on and develop their pedagogical practice and professional competency in response to particular fields relevant to geography education, namely misconceptions, mapping excursions, threshold concepts, digital technologies, sustainability, and ethics. Though common to other fields, these topics still distinguish geography from a few other subjects and thus require special attention in teacher education. These fields prove to be relevant for the subject independent of any one country. The contributions from Czechia, Israel, Spain, Germany and the United States show the universality of the topics. The identification of key elements of the subject and how to help teachers identify the “essence, purpose and meaning of geography as a discipline” to develop their professional knowledge and competency is the aim of Chap. 14 (GranadosSánchez). The author posits that an understanding of the nature of the subject and a careful use of concepts, pedagogical approaches and digital technologies will enable teachers to develop their own understanding of the discipline and provide rich learning experiences for their students.

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Chapter 13 (Ben Israel) focuses on classical fields of geography education— excursions and mapping—but rethinks them in a new manner of “purple mapping”, an experience-inspired and emotionally-driven form of subjective cartography that supports understanding of place, conceptual change, curiosity, and communication skills. This chapter illustrates that classical geography education methods can be developed into something radically new to enhance competence development. Chapter 12 (Havelková and Hanus) addresses the importance of previous everyday knowledge and misconceptions in geography education as this subject is remarkably lifeworld oriented. Teachers’ and pupils’ pre- and misconceptions from everyday theories and experiences may hinder the learning of scientifically-related concepts of the subject due to cognitive conflicts. Besides illustrating one example of misconceptions in map reading, the chapter concludes with a distinct call for continued research about how to effectively deal with, reflect on, and restructure misconceptions for school students, in-service teachers, and pre-service teachers. In Chap. 16, Larsen and Harrington draw attention to geography as a subject of sustainability. Geography education seems to be the one subject that is particularly appropriate, even committed, to teaching for living in the Anthropocene. Against this background they consider the role of professional ethics in geography education and highlight that geography teachers need to address their own ethics and action in response to geographically-related challenges encountered in the current and future world. The “Anthropocene ethic […] operates within the students’ personal lifeworld and worldview.” It is a response of the subject to an extremely complex world and allows the learners to make personal sense, understanding, and responsibility. This chapter shows that geography education is not only about factual knowledge but also about political education and competences. The role of digitalization in and for geography education is explored in Chap. 15 (Raschke) to illustrate how technology changes the subject. Again, geography has a special role as digital media have been part of the subject for a long time (e.g., with GIS), and as digitalization clearly has a spatial component (e.g., in Smart Cities). Therefore, geography teachers must be aware of the subject’s leading role in learning about and with new technology, make use of the advantages, and react to the challenges of digitalization. The topics mentioned in this section seem to be only loosely linked but they have in common that they shape and distinguish the subject. Some of the authors focus more on the professionalization of the practitioner (Chaps. 12 and 13), while others consider the progression of geography as a discipline (Chaps. 14 and 16). Thus, all topics raise further questions on different scales and levels of conceptualization and implementation between theory and praxis.

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21.4 Variations in Praxis Teacher education is defined as systematic efforts to bring about change in the classroom practices of teachers, their attitudes and beliefs, and the learning outcomes of students (Guskey, 2002). Various methods and practices are used for these efforts. As described in the Introduction chapter, the notion of a teacher’s professionalism varies between different contexts and cultures. The approaches to methods and practices also show significant differences between countries. The last section of this book discussed different national approaches to similar problems and new perspectives on teacher education that have been academically overlooked. Chapters 17 (Tan) and 20 (Golightly) show the differences in how teacher education responds to changes in the competency required of geography teachers by country. Through recent national curriculum revisions, Singapore and South Africa have undergone a change in which geography education is transformed into an inquiry-based approach and an active and critical learning-based approach, respectively. The authors described how geography teachers in the two countries maintained their professionalism in response to external changes. Tan (Chap. 17) investigated beginner geography teachers’ fieldwork where the impact of an inquiry-based approach was obvious in Singapore. Her results show that beginning teachers have sufficient knowledge to perform fieldwork but lack data management skills and a geographic perspective to connect data from fieldwork with theory. Tan suggested that the National Institute of Education (NIE)’s preservice education should be strengthened to respond to this problem. This reflects the unique situation of Singapore, where teacher education is centered on NIE. However, this example of novice teachers’ needs is surely transferable to other countries. On the other hand, Golightly (Chap. 20) studied the case of self-directed professional development (SDPD) in South Africa as an approach to respond to external changes. While formal professional development programs and activities are designed according to a one-size-fits-all approach focusing on cost-efficiency, the SDPD allows teachers to read books, watch videos, or interact with fellow teachers according to their individual needs. The South African case reported by Golightly is important because it shows that the line between professional development and teachers’ everyday experience within the teaching profession may not be sharply demarcated. Attempts to view the daily teaching activities of geography teachers as professional development are also observed in Chap. 18, where Rushton and Walkington argued that mentoring student research provides professional enhancement opportunities for geography teachers. According to the authors, while guiding students’ independent research projects, teachers can develop specialist subject knowledge, professional networks within and beyond their school setting, and innovative pedagogical approaches. Rushton and Walkington argue, therefore, that both teachers and students benefit from the process of teachers directing students’ research projects. Teachers may appreciate the “opportunity to learn something new, to learn from their students and to learn alongside them. Therefore, for the teacher, it provides the

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opportunity to become a teacher-scientist (engaging with subject-specific research) and also a teacher-mentor (developing expertise in guiding research).” Although the notion of Shulman’s PCK (Pedagogical Content Knowledge) is quite well-understood, the concept of Pedagogical Reasoning and Action (PR&A) is still under-theorized. If teachers’ PR&A has been seen as an important component of teaching expertise, then how do we evaluate and enhance the PR&A of teachers? Jo and Huh (Chap. 19) examine this question through an analysis of previous studies. According to them, PR&A provides researchers with an excellent framework to uncover how teachers develop their knowledge base over time. In other words, it is possible to understand how teachers’ teaching expertise has changed in the process of guiding students’ independent research projects in the UK through the PR&A framework. Perhaps the way to maintain the professionalism of geography teachers in the world is to create a diverse landscape of programs within and across different pathways. While a traditional professional development program is often preferred, alternatives such as self-directed approach or learning through mentoring are also being sought. Rather than implying that one method is better than another, this shows that the characteristics of professionalism expected of geography teachers, and the resources, systems, and cultures that can be utilized to improve professionalism, vary across the world. While it is difficult to achieve more than describing and synthesizing the cases from these four countries, we do show that there are a variety of practices in existence.

21.5 Future Directions What does professionalization look like for the geography teacher? And how does this differ from teachers of other disciplines? We argue that geography is unique by virtue of the constant changes we experience on Earth. While all teachers grapple over their careers with changes in norms, institutions, politics, methods, technology, and attitudes, geography’s content area is constantly changing in ways unlike any other discipline. In addition to a unique content situation, geography teachers also encounter different sets of methods and technologies that demand continuous professionalization pathways to stay current with the discipline. Consider for example how geography teachers and their students engage in fieldwork (a method unknown to but a few of the physical sciences), use geospatial technology (again, unique primarily to geography by using GIS, GPS, and so on), and apply both to a changing physical and social environment (where the findings can differ substantially over short time frames). These issues are unique to geography and occur on top of the others faced by all teachers (negotiating institutions, politics, and the like). With change for geography teachers as a given, we—along with the authors in this volume—suggest that values, expertise, technology and institutions are areas needing more research to optimize geography teacher professionalization.

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21.5.1 Value—What Do Geography Teachers Care the Most? Geography educators’ teaching is influenced by a variety of expectations and requirements such as curriculum, the national value system, and education acts. Furthermore, local and global changes and challenges require reaction and positioning from geographical education. A continued comparison of the perspectives and approaches of geography teachers in different countries leads to common ground and bridging the differences in what affects their teaching and professionalism.

21.5.2 Expertise—What is Geography Teachers’ Subject Expertise? A teachers’ subject expertise has a significant impact on classroom practice, and geography teachers are no exception (Brooks, 2010). Identifying the unique content area of geography as a subject helps not only to train good geography teachers but also to secure the professionalism of geography teachers. As suggested in Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), emphasizing the role of technology, geography education researchers can advocate the concept of FPCK that integrates the competency to design and practice fieldwork.

21.5.3 Technology—How Can We Catch-Up with Ever-Changing Geography-Related Technology? In geography education, how to integrate new technologies, especially geospatial technologies, was an important issue for the last two decades. Because GIS is not just a technology, but a good teaching method in geography teaching, it becomes an important skill for teachers to possess. Recently, in addition to GIS, interest in the use of virtual reality, big data, and artificial intelligence in geography classes is increasing, and research on how to prepare teachers for these ever-changing geography-related technologies is expected.

21.5.4 Institution—What Are Good Practices and How Do Institutions Foster the Quality of Geography Education? Geography education continues to be an area of concern to many countries. There is some evidence of advancement, but many are dubious about progress. Having teachers who are not qualified geography educators certainly does not help the

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progress. Research is required to understand good practice in the training of (primary and secondary) teachers of geography, based on evidence from a variety of high performing countries around the world. We have little comparative information on how geography teachers are trained in other countries, nor have we compared their geography teacher training systems. Geography education can contribute to learning and problem-solving for a number of the world’s problems, and serve as a guide for newly developing technologies and institutions. This will only happen, however, with a professional geography teaching corps that is indeed professional—meaning well-equipped with preparation in content knowledge, different forms of pedagogy, and unique technologies, and carrying with them a disposition that geographic inquiry can be key to both student and societal success. This preparation takes on several forms during one’s career, and as this book demonstrates for the geography teacher, that learning must be both global and lifelong.

References Brooks, C. (2010). Why geography teachers’ subject expertise matters. Geography, 95(3), 143–148. Coleman, J. S. (2010). Grundlagen der Sozialtheorie. Band 1: Handlungen und handlungssysteme. Oldenbourg. Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 8(3/4), 381–391. Luhmann, N. (2017). Systemtheorie der Gesellschaft. Suhrkamp.