International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century 9811657386, 9789811657382

Citation preview

Wendy Boyd Susanne Garvis   Editors

International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century

International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century

Wendy Boyd · Susanne Garvis Editors

International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century

Editors Wendy Boyd Faculty of Education Southern Cross University Lismore, Australia

Susanne Garvis Swinburne University of Technology Melbourne, Australia

ISBN 978-981-16-5738-2 ISBN 978-981-16-5739-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

Across the globe early childhood education and care is rapidly expanding with unprecedented numbers of children accessing early childhood settings. Interest is now on the provision of the quality of early childhood education and care with the focus on the supply and quality of educators. Little is known about policy approaches, registration agencies to develop and shape course content, and the design of programs as universities, governments and agencies work together to create early childhood teacher education programs. This book brings together 16 countries’ approaches to the provision of early childhood teacher education programs. Wendy Boyd Southern Cross University Lismore, Australia Susanne Garvis Swinburne University of Technology Melbourne, Australia

v

Introduction

Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) is expanding rapidly across the globe with unprecedented numbers of children attending ECEC centeres, requiring the investment in educators to provide good quality ECEC. The supply and quality of educators is of paramount importance to supporting children’s learning and development. Yet little is known about policy approaches, registration agencies to develop and shape course content, and the design of programs as universities, governments and agencies work together to create early childhood teacher education programs. Many countries in the world have invested significantly to prepare early childhood teachers for their work in ECEC settings. The quality of the ECEC program is closely aligned to the EC workforce (Dalli, Barbour, Cameron & Miller, 2018) with the quality of the interactions between children and teachers a marked predictor of children’s learning outcomes (Sabol, Soliday Hong, Pianta & Burchinal, 2013). As higher teacher qualifications are significantly correlated with higher quality in ECEC (Manning, Fleming, Wong & Garvis, 2019), this edited book investigates how countries address ECEC teacher programs. This book is a collection of sixteen countries’ perspectives on early childhood teacher education in contemporary times. The themes that emerge from the chapters include • Current policies for ECEC teacher education—this could include entry into programs, professional experience, what is in the teacher education program, etc • Registration agencies/bodies and how they work with other stakeholders—are there any registration bodies—if so, what is their role and how do they impact on teachers and teaching? • Research on teacher education from your country (including professional experience)—you have info on professional learning as well • Information on the age focus within teacher education (for example, birth to 2 years, birth to 5 years) • Current situation of staffing (shortage/over supply) for early childhood teachers Each country’s contributing author is well known in their field for their indepth knowledge of early childhood teacher education programs including content, vii

viii

Introduction

structure, and professional experience, that works within the scope of policy, and registration agencies. There are various models of early childhood education teacher degrees throughout the world. The models vary from a focus on preparing teachers for working in settings for birth to two years; birth to five years; birth to eight years; or birth to 12 years. It is not known which model of initial early childhood teacher programs best prepares graduates to provide quality ECEC for young children (birth to five years) and their families (Fenech, 2017). There is an inconsistent approach to early childhood teacher preparation and the quality of existing programs is not known. In some countries, it has been reported that attraction and retention of early childhood university trained teachers is difficult. Current information regarding staffing—shortage or oversupply, of early childhood teachers, is reported explaining the current situation in their country. As all countries across the world establish requirements for early childhood teacher programs, this book highlights 16 countries’ situations and makes a significant contribution to understanding the environment for early childhood teacher programs. We have decided to list countries in alphabetical order, without a pre-defined ranking or order of countries. In Chap. 1 of Australia, decade long changes to the early childhood workforce are presented. Across Australia there appears to be an inconsistent approach to early childhood teacher education programs, especially with differences in age ranges and professional experience if early childhood and primary degree programs are combined. Findings also show that when early childhood/primary degrees programs are combined, the content of early childhood education and care becomes superficial and limited in depth. In Chap. 2, we learn that early childhood teacher education in Canada varies by provincial and territorial levels. Early childhood educators work with children from 0 to 5 years of age and appear to take on many different roles. The chapter focuses specifically on the context of British Columbia. Recent studies in early childhood teacher education show that through participation in communities of practice, educators’ professional identity development is supported alongside improvement in teacher efficacy. China is presented in Chap. 3. The chapter introduces the status of early childhood education and Care teachers’ training with a specific focus on the types of teaching. The provision of quality early childhood education remains a major challenge in China, with low numbers of educational degree qualified teachers, high ratios of teachers to children, differences in resource allocation and more in-service training needed. Suggestions are given for improving the current situation to support teacher skill and knowledge development. In Chap. 4, we learn about early childhood teachers at 15 campuses in the Pacific, including Fiji, provided by the University of the South Pacific. Early childhood teacher education covers children aged birth to eight years, with professional experience required with all age ranges. Programs are also accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission, Australian Children’s Education and

Introduction

ix

Care Quality Authority and the Fiji Higher Education Commission. Other mandatory requirements include first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation training. Finland is well regarded as having high quality education and teacher education programs. In the last few years, all steering documents for early childhood education have been renewed. The chapter takes a closer look at three policy documents that are steering the quality of early childhood teacher education. Finnish early childhood education working teams are multi-professional, consisting of professionals with a range of qualifications (bachelor degree to lower educational degrees). A key focus is educating for future quality within early childhood education and care. Chapter 6 presents insights into the traditions, reforms, and current challenges of early childhood teacher education in Germany. From the beginning of the twentieth century, early childhood teacher training has taken place at vocational schools and, until the end of the century, has never been seriously questioned. In 1999, with the Bologna Reform and its commitment for all European Union countries to set up academic level early childhood courses, this practice was put into focus. The system of qualifying professional kindergarten teachers in Germany had to be reformed. The following article gives an overview of the historical development of early childhood teacher training in Germany and describes current changes within the system as well as associated challenges on the path to academization. Opportunities and conflicts are discussed against the backdrop of policy making, curriculum development, job entry, and working conditions. In Chap. 7, the current reform agenda from Ireland is presented. Early childhood education and care ranges from 0 to 6 years of age, and has been crucial in political, social and economic agendas for the past two decades. The chapter presents a range of initiatives directed toward reforming the sector, including the standardization of initial teacher qualifications and preparation, while also advancing professionalization of the sector. The State seeks to establish a graduate led workforce by 2028. Japan in Chap. 8 shows the many changes that have occurred in early childhood education and care. In particular, the “triple revisions” that were issued in 2017. To work in the ECEC field, there is a nursery teacher certificate and a kindergarten teacher license for children aged 3–5 years. The split system and privatization of ECEC add complexity to the field, especially with professional development opportunities. New Zealand is recognized as a world leader in early childhood education. In Chap. 10, we learn about initial teacher education programs to understand more about the context, policies, and processes. A key feature is that when student teachers are on professional experience, they are expected to work with all age groups in the early childhood services. Professional experience also occurs throughout all phases of the program. Initial teacher education programs are approved by the Teaching Council. There is also a robust system of quality assurance for early childhood ITE programs. In the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), teacher training policies are mainly designed by governments and/or teacher training institutions and, to some extent, with advice from teachers and other stakeholders. This chapter covers three main points: first it examines the national context of the RMI regarding educational settings.

x

Introduction

Then, the chapter focusses on current policies of Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) teacher education offered at the University of the South Pacific (USP) RMI campus regarding curriculum content and pedagogies including information. Discussions on the current situation on staffing for early childhood teachers and how teacher registration agencies work with other stakeholders are also presented. The third part highlights the Teacher Induction Program (TIP) design and development as a critical teacher development model for ECEC teachers at the RMI. Early childhood education in Russia is covered in Chap. 11, and it is a statefunded public service for children aged 0–7 years. According to official statistics in Russia, 47.1% of all preschool teachers have higher teacher training education, while 47% have vocational education from college. In the chapter, the authors present a tool called “professional glasses” for examining teachers’ skills in regard to reflective professional action around supporting child development, observation, and the ability to see the relationship between teacher action and children’s behavior and emotions. In Chap. 12, a historical reflection on Swedish early childhood teacher education is presented. In particular, key moments in time are documented that show a strong influence between preschool education policy and preschool teacher education. In Sweden, preschools range for children from 1 to 5 years, with preschool teachers undertaking university training. The chapter concludes with a summary of the current tensions within the profession and the influence on preschool teacher education. In Chap. 13, we are provided with a brief history of early childhood teacher education in Turkey, before current research and problems are discussed. There is a registration structure to early childhood teacher education programs in Sweden, with evaluations of pre-service teachers made during their university education and after their graduation when they are nominated to preschools. One problem identified is that in Turkey, there are is no criteria for entrance to early childhood teacher education programs. This may result in low quality among students. Early childhood teacher education in the United Kingdom is complex, due to the nature of the Union. The chapter highlights the continued gap between education and education in each of the four countries. There also appears to be a common trend of clear demarcation in working conditions for those who work with children in “formal” years of schooling and those staff who work with children aged 0–3 years. The author suggests that taking the lead from Wales is a way forward. The Welsh Teachers’ Standards are broad and seek to challenge the status quo. Chapter 15 shares the context of Vietnam, where early childhood education and care is transitioning from being a teacher-centered curriculum to being a childcentered curriculum approach Early childhood education and care includes children from 3 months of age to 6 year olds. Significant reforms are underway to the early childhood sector with a specific focus on early childhood teacher education. This has included the mandated increase in teacher qualifications in education law. An advantage of being a registered early childhood teacher has also meant that teachers can work in the public school system and enjoy the staff benefits of staff payroll. In the final chapter, the context of Zambia is presented with the notion of Early Childhood Care, Development and Education (ECCDE). While early childhood teacher education is provided at a tertiary level, it appears undervalued within the

Introduction

xi

educational sector, also leading to low levels of research specific to Zambia about teacher education. ECE teacher education is for children aged 2–6 year old children, with no teacher education qualification for those working with 0–2 year old children. The final chapter draws together the key themes of the edited collection into a word cloud which highlights the common terminologies across the 16 countries’ early childhood teacher education programs. The various authors in this book have made a key contribution to informing policy regarding content of ECT preparation programs and provide evidence of current courses across many under-represented countries throughout the world. We thank them for their important insights around current situations and future developments in their country. From this we are able to look across different contexts and learn from different approaches. We would also like to thank the peer reviewers involved in the book that allowed each chapter to be double peer reviewed. Their comments and feedback have been vital in enhancing the themes of the book within early childhood teacher education. Lastly, we hope that as readers explore each of the different countries, they also start to re-imagine new awakenings for early childhood education and care in their own countries. By reflecting on new approaches and policies, it is hoped that changes for improvement can be developed to support early childhood teacher education programs around the world. Lismore, Australia Melbourne, Australia

Wendy Boyd Susanne Garvis

References Dalli, C., Barbour, N., Cameron, C., & Miller, L. (2018). Closing comments: Future directions for early childhood policy. In L. Miller, C. Cameron, C. Dalli & N. Barbour (Eds). The Sage handbook of early childhood policy. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. Fenech, M. (2017). Preparing teachers for the early years: Evidence, ideology or market driven initial teacher education? Presentation ACECQA Roundtable. Manning, M., Garvis, S., Fleming, C., & Wong, G., (2017). The relationship between teacher quality and the quality of the early childhood education and care environment. Retrieved from www. campbellcollaboration.org/library/. Sabol, T., Soliday Hong, S., Pianta, C., & Burchinal, M. (2013) Can Rating Pre-K Programs Predict Children’s Learning? Science, 341(6148), 845–846. DOI: 10.1126/science.1233517.

Contents

1

2

3

Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher Programs in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wendy Boyd and Alicia Phillips

1

Early Childhood Teacher Education in Canada: Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laura K. Doan

17

Contemporary Early Childhood Education and Care Teacher Training in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ying Liu and Wendy Boyd

31

4

Early Childhood Teacher Education in Contemporary Times . . . . . . Lavinia Tiko

5

The Role of Early Childhood Teachers in Finnish Policy Documents—Training Teachers for the Future? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heidi Harju-Luukkainen and Jonna Kangas

65

Early Childhood Teacher Education in Germany—Insights into Traditions, Reforms and Current Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Martina Müller and Stefan Faas

81

Ireland’s Reform Agenda: Transforming the Early Childhood Education and Care Sector into One of the Best in the World . . . . . . Mary Moloney

93

6

7

49

8

Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher Education in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Chiharu Uchida

9

Early Childhood Teacher Education in New Zealand: Facts, Values, and Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Qilong Zhang

xiii

xiv

Contents

10 Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in the Republic of the Marshall Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Kelesi Whippy 11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences as a Way to Increase the ECE Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Igor Shiyan, Olga Shiyan, Anna Iakshina, and Tatyana Le-van 12 A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts and Transformations in Swedish Early Childhood Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Maelis Karlsson Lohmander and Susanne Garvis 13 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey: Description, Research and Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Senil Unlu Cetin 14 Early Childhood Teachers and Teaching in the UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Catherine Carroll-Meehan 15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam: From Confucianism to 21st Century Reforms in Curriculum and Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Gerardine Neylon and Xuyen Le 16 Early Childhood Education and Care in Zambia: ECE Provision and Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Ronald L. Kaunda and Joanne Ailwood Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Contributors

Joanne Ailwood The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia Wendy Boyd Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia Catherine Carroll-Meehan University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK Senil Unlu Cetin Kırıkkale University, Kırıkkale, Turkey Laura K. Doan Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, BC, Canada Stefan Faas University of Education Schwäbisch Gmünd, Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany Susanne Garvis Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia Heidi Harju-Luukkainen Nord University, Levanger, Norway; University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland Anna Iakshina Moscow City University, Moscow, Russia Jonna Kangas University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland Ronald L. Kaunda The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia Xuyen Le University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia Tatyana Le-van Moscow City University, Moscow, Russia Ying Liu Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China Maelis Karlsson Lohmander University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden Mary Moloney Department of Reflective Pedagogy and Early Childhood Studies, Mary Immaculate College, Limerick, Ireland Martina Müller University of Education Schwäbisch Gmünd, Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany Gerardine Neylon University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia

xv

xvi

Contributors

Alicia Phillips Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia Igor Shiyan Moscow City University, Moscow, Russia Olga Shiyan Moscow City University, Moscow, Russia Lavinia Tiko The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Chiharu Uchida Faculty of Human Life Design, Toyo University, Kita-ku, JapanTokyo, Kelesi Whippy University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Qilong Zhang College of Education, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates

Chapter 1

Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher Programs in Australia Wendy Boyd and Alicia Phillips

Abstract In 2009 the Australian government invested in developing the early childhood workforce initiative via the National Quality Agenda. This agenda focused on improving the supply and quality of the early childhood workforce. Evidence shows that there are serious and persistent concerns with the quality of education and care in early childhood settings across Australia with Australia ranked by UNICEF (2017) at 39/41 of the wealthiest countries in the world on delivering quality early childhood education and care (ECEC). With evidence now showing that the strongest predictor of provision of quality ECEC are the qualifications of the educators the focus now turns to how the educators are qualified. Across Australia there is an inconsistent approach to early childhood teacher (ECT) programs. Programs are for birth to five years, birth to eight years, and birth to 12 years. In the latter two programs graduates are trained to teach in early childhood settings, and in primary school. These approaches vary according to jurisdiction, and at times are in response to teacher registration agencies. Research of the combined early childhood/primary degrees show that the content is too watered down for early childhood teaching, and graduates want to teach in primary schools making this program for qualifying early childhood teachers unsound. Research is presented on the current situation of staffing, and status of early childhood education.

Introduction The chapter is titled Getting it right for early childhood teacher programs in Australia. The reason for this title is that there are persistent and serious concerns regarding the quality of early childhood education and care (ECEC) in Australia and the need to better quality provision is apparent. Over the past 40 years there has been an ongoing increase of maternal employment. As the Australian Government continues to encourage women’s workforce participation (Australian Government, 2017), this increase is likely to continue. Consequently, the number of children enrolled in W. Boyd (B) · A. Phillips Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_1

1

2

W. Boyd and A. Phillips

formal ECEC services is also continuusly increasing. For example, in 2018, 1 283 225 (about 31.4 percent) of children aged 0–12 years attended formal ECEC services, an increase of 1.8% from 2017 (Australian Government Productivity Commission, 2019). There has also been an increase in the number of hours children spend at an ECEC service (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2018; Australian Government Productivity Commission, 2019). The increase in children’s ECEC attendance has sparked a surge of attention on the child’s environment and the quality of education and care they receive while in ECEC services. Additionally, it is now well established that high quality ECEC is integral to children’s optimal development and wellbeing. Thus the environment of the child in the early years needs to be of such quality that children are thriving in a stimulating, safe and secure environment. The early childhood teacher is responsible for the provision of the early childhood environment and it has been established that the qualifications of the early childhood educator impacts the children’s learning outcomes (Manning et al., 2019, Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2017). But it is not known how to best train early childhood teachers. This chapter calls for a planned and evidenced based approach to review early childhood teacher programs in Australia to get it right for young children: thus the title of Getting it right for early childhood teacher programs in Australia. Introduction to early childhood education in Australia. Early childhood education and care (ECEC) in Australia is for children aged from six weeks to six years. Children attend for up to 50 h per week in various ECEC services including long day care, preschools/kindergartens, and family day care. Australia has a compulsory quality assessment and rating system linked to government funding. Early childhood services receive funding from the Australian Government and then must participate in the assessment and rating of quality of their ECEC service. Services are assessed and rated according to the National Quality Standard (NQS), overseen by Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACECQA, 2018). There are many ways to interpret what quality ECEC looks like. While it is recognsed that quality is considered to be a multi-dimensional concept that aims to support children’s outcomes; it is ongoing; and contextualised within societal conditions (Dahlberg et al., 2007), within the NQS (ACECQA, 2018) quality is considered to be assessable. The quality of the early childhood education setting is assessed according to seven quality areas including. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Educational program and practice Children’s health and safety Physical environment Staffing arrangements Relationships with children Collaborative partnerships with families and communities Governance and leadership (ACECQA, 2018)

There are four main levels of assessed ratings: Significant improvement required; Working towards National Quality Standard (NQS), Meeting NQS, and Exceeding

1 Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher …

3

NQS. Services who achieve an Exceeding NQS rating across the seven quality areas can then choose to apply for an Excellent rating by completing a rigorous application process to demonstrate meeting the ‘Excellent’ criteria. Every three months ACECQA publishes the progress of the quality assessments and in January 2020, 21% of early childhood services were assessed as Working towards the NQS (ACECQA, 2020). That is, one in five children in ECEC services are not meeting the NQS and therefore the children are not receiving adequate education and care that meets the NQS (ACECQA, 2018). The Lifting our game report (Pascoe & Brennan, 2017) recommended a new national workforce strategy that includes the review of the current approach to, and knowledge of ECT programs. This outcome requires attention and there have been policy initiatives to work towards improving the quality of ECEC services as outlined in the following section.

Current Policies for Early Childhood Teacher Education There are serious concerns with the quality of education and care being provided in early childhood settings across Australia. In 2017, UNICEF ranked Australia at 39 of 41 of the wealthiest countries in the world on delivering quality education. In 2008 UNICEF published a report that ranked Australia 23rd out of 25 of Organisation for Economic and Cooperative Development (OECD) countries demonstrating that this is a persistent and ongoing problem within Australia. There have been efforts taken to address this problem by ACECQA. Two of the five strategies from the National Quality Agenda to improve the quality of ECEC services were: 1. 2.

Ongoing assessment and rating of the quality of early childhood centres to raise the standard of care. Building a National Early Years Workforce Strategy that focuses on the skills and attributes of high quality early childhood educators to improve the supply and quality of the early childhood workforce. This strategy aimed to improve the quality of ECE services by investment in a highly skilled sustainable early childhood workforce (ACECQA, 2016).

Evidence shows that the strongest predictor of quality ECEC for children is the qualifications of the ECTs. The approaches and practices of the ECT influences children experiences in the ECEC service (Manning et al., 2019; OECD, 2018; Urban, Vandenbroeck, Lazzsari, Van Laere & Peeters, 2012). Manning et al. (2019), in a meta-analytic review found the higher qualifications of teachers the higher the quality of ECEC. A significant correlation existed between the assessed quality of early childhood learning environments and qualified teachers. Other research has also identified similar findings that higher qualifications of teachers are associated with optimal outcomes for children (Hu, Torr, Degotardi, & Han, 2017; Sylva et al., 2010; Warren & Haisken-DeNew, 2014). Additionally, research shows that higher qualified teachers also perform better in leadership roles (Abbott & Langston, 2005;

4

W. Boyd and A. Phillips

Burchinal Cryer, Clifford & Howes 2002) and that having a tertiary degree trained teacher as a leader and a good proportion of tertiary degree trained educators within a centre, are key contributors of high-quality (Siraj-Blatchford & Manni, 2006; Sylva et al., 2006). Overall, while it is difficult to identify the specific staff characteristics and qualifications, it is agreed generally that a high quality workforce is critical to the provision of quality ECEC (An & Bonetti, 2017). However, there is limited understanding of the knowledge, skills and dispositions that are required of ECT’s in order to provide good quality ECEC in services. Phillips’ recent Australian study identified eight key attributes and capabilities that an educator must possess in order to achieve high quality ECEC. These were high qualifications; an intrinsic drive for high quality ECEC; superior communication skills; strong knowledge of the ECEC context; excellent application of the planning cycle; a caring nature and humour. Interestingly, the educators in Phillips’ study, who held higher qualifications such as a university early childhood teaching degree, demonstrated stronger communication skills, critical thiking and theoretical knowledge regarding child development and early learning than the lower qualified educators (Phillips, under examination). As it is known that the qualifications of the early childhood educators are of key importance, the focus has turned to how the early childhood educators are trained and qualified. The second strategy of building the National Early Years Workforce Strategy (ACECQA, 2016) focuses on delivering high quality educators through training and funding universities and colleges train up the early childhood educator workforce. In the National Quality Agenda (ACECQA, 2016) ‘educators’ refers to everyone who works with the children. In Australia this includes university qualified early childhood teachers; educators with a Diploma of Early Childhood Education and Care; and educators with a Certificate in Early Childhood Education and Care. All educators who work with the children in ECEC services are required to be qualified at least to the Certificate III level. Within this strategy there has been a focus to train up university qualified ECTs, and to increase the quantity of ECTs. But this is a double edged sword for Australia: Australia faces significant problems with the supply of university qualified ECTs. There is already a shortage of ECTs who do not stay in early childhood teaching with low retention rates of those who work in ECEC centres (Community Early Learning Australia, 2019; McDonald et al., 2018; Department of Education & Training, 2017). The low retention rate of early childhood staff inhibits secure relationship development between children, families and staff, with impact upon stimulating interactions (OECD, 2018) and consequently the quality of ECEC. Low retention rates of early childhood educators exist beyond Australia as staff shortages are common across many countries (OECD, 2018; Schleicher, 2019). Added to the current shortage of ECTs it is estimated that 9,000 more ECTs are required by 2023 to meet the updated requirements by new National Regulations for Childcare Services (Department of Employment, Skills, Small and Family Business, 2019). In addition to this requirement, enrolment rates are declining into EC teaching programs: ECT degree programs, Diplomas of ECEC and Certificate III in ECEC; and there is a low course completion rate of 60% (Job Outlook, 2019).

1 Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher …

5

To work towards meeting this target significant investment by the Australian government was made for early childhood educators to become qualified. Funds were made available for tertiary institutions to increase their student intake to train early childhood teachers. Many universities, who had an existing primary school teaching program, included an early childhood education component (in the place of electives) to qualify graduates to teach early childhood and primary education. These programs were assessed and approved by state/territory accreditting authorities and the early childhood accreditting authority ACECQA. As a result of this initiative, ECTs in Australia who have undertaken this degree are qualified to teach into primary and early childhood education in programs that are for birth to 8 or birth to 12 years. This chapter now turns to how early childhood teacher programs are designed and delivered within Australia.

Research on Early Childhood Teacher Education The Australian government’s investment in the ECEC national workforce strategy focuses on preparing ECTs to improve the supply and quality of the early childhood workforce (ACECQA, 2016). Early childhood graduates are capable and competent teachers who influence, support and nurture children’s experiences and interactions in early childhood services (Ackerman, 2005). The ECT programs need to adequately prepare graduates to fulfil these requirements. Darling-Hammond (2010) states: The bottom line is we need highly effective, adequately researched models of preparation for all teachers without exception (p.39), and so to move ECEC forward requires agreement on what teachers should learn, what skills they should have, and the dispositions they require to provide good quality ECEC. Throughout the world there are various models of ECT degrees but no agreement for the optimal model, knowledge, skills and dispositions an early childhood teacher should have to provide good quality ECEC (Dalli, Barbour, Cameron, & Miller, 2018). The various models include foci on preparing teachers to work with chidlren aged from birth to two years; birth to five years; birth-eight years; birth-12 years; and nine months up to seven years- the latter being the most common in the Nordic countries. This produces an inconsistent approach to ECT programs (Kagan & Roth, 2017), with little understanding of the optimum model for supporting children’s learning. The inconsistent approach to the structure, design and delivery of ECT programs (Boyd, in press) means that little is known about the quality of each program to prepare ECTs for working in ECEC services. This situation has also been identified in the USA where no clarity was found in the content and structure of ECT programs. As LiBetti (2018) states: We can’t say with certainty the type of content that early educators complete within these programs or what practices and strategies they learn. Without information on program content, we can’t develop research on program effectiveness (p.5).

6

W. Boyd and A. Phillips

WA SA NT QLD

Birth-5

NSW

Birth-8

ACT

Birth-12

VIC TAS 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Fig. 1.1 Early childhood ITE programs accredited by ACECQA, 2012-June 2017 (Fenech, 2017)

The Structure of Early Childhood Teacher Degrees Australia has three different structures to the ECT degrees: a focus on birth-five years, birth-eight years, and birth-12 years. Working as an ECT requires qualifications to teach children aged from birth to five years. Graduates from the two programs that focus on birth-eight, and birth-12 years are able to work in either birth-five settings (early childhood education), and in primary school settings (five-12 years’ settings). The most common ECT program is the birth-8 years degree, however in more recent times the degree has changed to birth to 12 in some jurisdictions.1 Fenech (2017) mapped the 98 ECT programs on offer across Australia in 2017- see Fig. 1.1. The birth-eight programs were the most common in Tasmania, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia. New South Wales, Victoria, Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory predominantly offered birth-12 or birth-five programs. The birth to five years ECT program has been found to be the most highly preferred by the academics to prepare ECT graduates for their profession as an ECT(Boyd, in press) and also the most highly preferred by employers (Boyd et al., 2020). The birth to five degree has a strong focus of study on early childhood teaching. The birth to eigth years program has been found to be suitable for graduates who want to work in lower primary school (five to eight years), and it is viewed as providing knowledge and understanding regarding before school, the transition to primary school and the early years of school. However it is problematic if the focus 1

The jurisdictions are made up of six states and two territories in Australia. Each jurisdiction has its own assessment and accrediting authority of teacher programs.

1 Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher …

7

is to train up ECTs as the majority of graduates don’t want to work in early childhood settings, preferring the better work conditions in primary schools (Boyd, in press). The birth to eight degree has also presented problems for graduates who want to work in the upper grades of primary school: they are viewed as not being suitably trained by some school principals. The birth to 12 degree has been found to be a poor pathway to becoming an ECT. Academics (Boyd, in press), students (Boyd & Newman, 2019; Liu & Boyd, 2018) and employers (Boyd et al., 2020) have condemned this program for being too focused on primary education, resulting in the watering down of the ECEC content. Many students choose the birth-12 degree as it provides them with dual career pathways into either early childhood education or primary education. Graduates from this program, who are unable to gain employment in primary teaching, have been reported to work in ECEC biding their time until they can gain employment in priamry school settings, which has irked early childhood employers who want staff with dispositions of loyalty and commitment (Boyd et al., 2020).

Assessment and Accrediting Authorities Each ECT degree is designed within each university based on the ACECQA guidelines (2019a) for the early childhood component and the relevant state/territory accrediting authority’s requirements. Academics in universities develop the programs based on guidelines from the accrediting authorities and the course is assessed and ultimately approved. The academics are in a powerful position to make decisions regarding the structure, content, design and professional experience of the program. Consequently, the academics should provide careful scrutiny to the design and delivery of the programs (Gibson et al., 2018). As a result of differing contextual locations of universities and the unique perspective each academic brings to early childhood teaching each program based on the academics professional knowledge, and expertise, and interpretation of the accreditation requirements. While ACECQA assesses the ECEC component of the degree when the program includes birth to eight and birth to 12 in the combined degrees, assessment is then conducted by the relevant state/territory accrediting authority. The academics will consider the entry requirements, the structure, design and delivery including professional experience when constructing the program for both primary and early childhood education. Ultimately there is perceived to be a ‘watering down’ of ECEC within the combined degrees, as room needs to be made for early childhood and primary education knowledge and skills. Unfortunately, the accrediting primary education authorities are deemed to be very powerful and early childhood content is pushed aside to make way for primary content. Often the early childhood content has only been 10% of the content, however ACECQA released new guidelines in late 2019 that requires one third of the content to be inclusive of ECEC. This is a small gain and it must be asked why is the content only one third? Why not one half? This is interpreted to mean that primary education is deemed to be of greater importance than

8

W. Boyd and A. Phillips

early childhood. It is perplexing that primary education is so dominant as research demonstrates the value of investment in the early years of early childhood for social and economic well-being of the nation (Heckman, 2013; OECD, 2017; PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2014, 2019), and that the provision of good quality ECEC has lifelong effects on children’s well-being, attainments and social inclusion (Schweinhart, 2003). Nuttall (2018) suggests that this may be because primary education is compulsory, however it is also likely to be linked to the low professional status of ECEC in Australia. This policy approach towards the structure of combined early childhood/primary teacher degrees raises questions about the effectiveness of the combined degrees to produce ECTs who are able to provide quality ECEC. The intent of accreditation of university teacher programs is to ensure that effective teachers result from the study of the degree, however one must ask are the accreditation requirements for the combined early childhood/primary programs effective? As it is known that within Australia 21% of early childhood settings are working towards the NQS (ACECQA, 2020) then it could be considered that these programs are not producing ECTs who are prepared to deliver quality ECEC. The accreditation process for the ECT component of the combined degrees needs to more robust especially when compared to the primary education accreditation process. Combined early childhood/primary teacher programs are not unique to Australia, and there are questions about how to balance pedagogy across the two teaching areas of ECEC, and primary, and about how responsibility is shared between the accrediting authorities (Oberheumer, 2011). In the USA Halpern (2013) asserts that primary education should be kept separate as primary schools have a ‘history of failing to respect the integrity of other institutions that join them in efforts to better meet children’s needs’ (p.1). When educators include primary school type activities within early childhood settings this results in a ‘pushdown curriculum’ and what the OECD (2017) terms ‘schoolification of early childhood’. This is unsatisfactory as primary school focuses on a very different pedagogical approach compared to to early childhood teaching.

Professional Experience Within the Early Childhood Teacher Degree Professional experience is regarded as a valuable real-world experience essential for early childhood teachers and central to all teaching programs (Girod & Girod, 2008). Professional experience provides students the opportunity to apply the theory they have learned at university into practice under the guidance of an experienced mentor teacher. It is an essential for providing students an understanding of early childhood education and care (ECEC) and has been linked to attracting and recruiting highly skilled early childhood graduates (Schleicher, 2019). Practicing teaching with children enhances students’ skills and abilities and students are in a position to learn

1 Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher …

9

how to effectively teach for children’s learning (Hyson, Tomlinson & Morris, 2009). Professional experience has been found to be a potent influence for students’ decision for future careers. Australian research shows that students found professional experience to be the most satisfying aspect of the early childhood teaching degree (Harrison & Heinrichs Joerdens, 2017). However professional experience has also been found to be a strong influence over students’ decisions regarding choosing to work in either early childhood or primary teaching. Thorpe et al. (2011) found that if students, who were undertaking a combined early childhood/primary degree had a good experience while on professional experience then this was more likely to support their decision to teach in early childhood, while if their experience was unsatisfying then they were less likely to teach in early childhood education. There has been a call by early childhood employers in Australia for students to have more effective engagement in professional experience as graduates in this study were not well prepared in applying theory into practice (Boyd et al., 2020). Across Australia, professional experience is structured in a diverse number of ways at universities. The diversity occurs in the number of days students undertake in early childhood settings; the differing supervision and assessment models of the students; the structure of the professional experience regarding the timing when placements begin and internships; and the quality of ECEC placement. Each university implements these components in different ways.

The Duration of Professional Experience The minimum number of days that must be undertaken in professional experience placements is determined by ACECQA (2019a), the accrediting authority for early childhood teacher programs. ACECQA has identified that there needs to be. 1.

2.

80 days supervised professional experience for undergraduate early childhood teaching qualifications. This must include a minimum of 10 days in Australian early childhood settings with children under three years old (0 – 35 months), and a minimum of 30 days in Australian early childhood settings with children aged three until before they start formal schooling, including days with children under five years of age. The remaining balance may be undertaken with school aged children. 60 days supervised professional experience for post graduate early childhood teaching qualifications. This must include a minimum of 10 days in Australian early childhood settings with children under three years old (0 – 35 months), and a minimum of 20 days in Australian early childhood settings with children aged three until before they start formal schooling, including days with children under five years of age. The remaining balance may be undertaken with school aged children (p.3).

10

W. Boyd and A. Phillips

The majority of Australian universities have more professional experience days than the minimum required by ACECQA and there is no consistency across universities. In early childhood undergraduate degrees that include primary education there are options to take professional experience in schools. Primary school accrediting authorities have required numbers of days that students must complete in addition to the ACECQA requirements. For professional experience with children aged from birth to three years there is only ten days of professional experience required. While Australian National Regulations for early childhood education do not require university qualified early childhood teachers to work with children of this age (ACECQA, 2019b) concern has been expressed that students cannot develop a deep understanding of pedagogical practices with children of this age in ten days (Boyd, in press). During professional experience the formation of secure, reciprocal relationships is key to good practice (Department of Education, Employment & Workplace Relations [DEEWR], 2009). How can this be possible in ten days with a child who is aged from six weeks to three years?

The Supervision and Mentoring of Students Supervision of students while they are on professional experience is necessary to ensure the student is adhering to and implementing the university guidelines. Across Australia there are different ways to conduct supervision. As some students are studying online then supervision may be undertaken by phone, or digital technology, between the supervisor, the student and the early childhood centre. Supervision by phone, or digital technology, is a cost effective way for the university as the travelling component of visiting the student is excluded. Face to face supervision occurs in most universities with two to three visits taking place over the professional experience placement. The supervisor employed by the university may be an academic familiar with the ECT program; an academic who is not familiar with the ECT program; or a non-academic such as an ECT employed specifically for supervision by the university. The assessment of the student is conducted either by the supervisor or the mentor teacher in the ECEC centre. The student is placed with a mentor teacher, engages in practice teaching under this mentor’s guidance. Questions have been raised about the suitability of supervisors who are unfamiliar with the ECT program and if they are the best people to supervise the student. If Australia wants to have good quality ECTs, then it makes sense that the assessment of students while on professional experience is under the auspices of a person who is familiarwith the ECT program. If supervisors are unfamiliar with the ECT program then it makes sense that the mentor’s ability matters: the mentor needs to provide leadership, and ECEC knowledge and skills with a deep understanding of what the student needs to learn. Early childhood academics are best placed to be the assessors of the students on professional experience. This will be a cost for universities money however the end result would be that students benefit from quality feedback provided

1 Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher …

11

by academics who understand the ECT program. Under the guidance of a good mentor, students will have the opportunity to apply their knowledge gained from university, to try it out in the real world (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017).

The Structure of the Professional Experience The structure of the professional experience differs widely across Australia. Professional experience is usually undertaken in a block of days- for example the student attends the early childhood centre for two to six weeks continuously. However, there is no set model for the way this is enacted within Australia. The professional experience may begin with one day per week for ten weeks followed by a ten day block; or there may be just the full block of six weeks with no lead in days. During these observation days students become familiar with the ECEC centre and its community. It is not known what the optimum approach for students’ learning in professional experience is. Research needs to be undertaken to identify the optimum learning experience for the students under varying approaches to structure of professional experience. The timing of the professional experience blocks varies across ECT programs. As a result of the accrediting authorities’ requirements for the first year of study in the early childhood/primary teaching degree many universities do not have professional experience in the first year of study. Instead students are required to successfully pass the first year of the degree building up their theoretical knowledge. Research shows that students prefer to start professional experience early in year one of their degree so that they can determine if this career suits them (Harrison & Heinrichs Joerdens, 2017). Towards the end of the degree some universities offer students the opportunity to have an internship in a location of the student’s choice. The internship, which is usually around ten weeks duration, provides students with a strong transition to the real world of teaching as they have independence and autonomy to make teaching decisions.

The Quality of the Early Childhood Placement As 21% of early childhood settings within Australia are not meeting quality standards the placement of students in a good quality centre can be challenging. The impact upon students is likely to be negative as it has been found that the experience while on placement influences decisions for working in ECEC. Australian research has identified that students who experience good quality practices while on professional experience are attracted to working in early childhood centres when they graduate (Thorpe et al., 2011, 2012). Students need to observe and reflect upon good quality practices that are evident in good quality ECEC centres. Such experiences provide

12

W. Boyd and A. Phillips

exemplars for students on pedagogical leadership for their careers (Recchia & Shin, 2010; Schleicher, 2019). To manage the quality of ECEC centres for students’ placements there are some options available for academics within universities. One option is to place students with experienced mentors in good quality centres. While this sounds like an optimal solution, some universities are unable to be selective. Reasons include that the required number of good quality early childhood centres for students’ placements are not available; and in some universities in Australia students organise their own placement which do not guarantee good quality (Boyd, in press). There ae several ways to ensure that early childhood students develop a deep understanding of what it is like to be an early childhood teacher while on their professional placement experience. One strategy is to manage if students observe practices that are considered to be of poor quality, then the student is able to recognise this, share this with their supervisor (a person who is external to the centre) and reflect upon how the practice could have been done differently so that good quality ECEC was evident. Other ways of addressing this could be for the students to return to university during their professional experience to share their experiences with their peers and learn from each other; or for partnerships to be developed between the university and good quality early childhood centres so that students are assured of a placement of good quality.

The Status of Early Childhood Education Despite the National Quality Agenda’s focus on improving the quality of the ECEC workforce, the ECEC sector continues to suffer from low professional status across society. Low wages and unappealing work conditions suggest that there is little government recognition of the important work ECEC educators do. Whilst the National Early Years Workforce Strategy’s (ACECQA, 2016) focus is to increase the qualifications of the ECEC workforce is a step in the right direction, there needs to be more incentive for people to actually want to become qualified ECTs. Additionally, as previously mentioned, ECT programs are inconsistent and problematic. It could be plausible that combined primary and early childhood teaching programs are not producing teachers who are prepared to deliver quality ECEC. Therefore, the current incentives to increase teacher qualifications could perhaps have a deleterious effect on the level of quality in the ECEC sector.

1 Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher …

13

Conclusion: Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher Programs This chapter has introduced the status of ECEC teacher training as it exists in Australia. As persistent concerns exist for the provision of quality ECEC focus has turned to the role of the ECT. The training of the teachers has come under scrutiny as Australian ECT programs are frequently combined with the study to be a primary teacher. The requirements by the accreditation authorities for primary teaching across Australia have resulted in watering down of early childhood education and care content, knowledge, skills and dispositions within the degrees. Consequently, the low professional status of the ECEC sector is reinforced as not being worthy of equal treatment within the degrees. With the ongoing provision of 21% of ECEC centres not meeting the NQS (ACECQA, 2020) the training of ECTs needs to be reviewed in the light of evidence presented in this chapter.

References Abbott, L., & Langston, A. (2005). Birth to three matters: A framework to support children in their earliest years. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 13(1), 129–143. Ackerman, C. J. (2005). Getting teachers from here to there: Examining issues related to an early care and education teacher policy. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 7(1). Retrieved from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v7n1/ackerman.html. An, R., & Bonetti, S. (2017). Developing the early years workforce: what does the evidence tell us? Retrieved from https://epi.org.uk › Publications & Research › Early Years Development. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2018). 4402.0 - Childhood Education and Care, Australia, June 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/4402.0. Australian Children’s Early Childhood Quality Authority (ACECQA). (2020). Snapshots. Retrieved from http://snapshots.acecqa.gov.au/Snapshot/index.html. Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACECQA). (2019a). Requirements for early childhood program assessments. Retrieved from www.acecqa.gov.au/qualifications/ass essment/approval/early-childhood. Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACECQA). (2019b) National regulations. Retrieved from www.acecqa.gov.au/nqf/national-law-regulations/national-regulations. Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACECQA). (2018). National quality standard. Retrieved from https://www.acecqa.gov.au/nqf/national-quality-standard. Australian Children’s Early Childhood Quality Authority (ACECQA). (2016). National Quality Agenda. Retrieved from www.acecqa.gov.au. Australian Government. (2017). Towards 2025: An Australian Government strategy to boost women’s workforce participation. Retrieved from https://womensworkforceparticipation.pmc. gov.au/sites/default/files/towards-2025-strategy.pdf. Australian Government Productivity Commission. (2019). Report on Government Services 2019. Retrieved from https://www.pc.gov.au/research/ongoing/report-on-government-services/2019/ child-care-education-and-training/early-childhood-education-and-care. Boyd, W. (In press). Australian early childhood teaching programs: Perspectives and comparisons to Finland, Norway and Sweden, Springer.

14

W. Boyd and A. Phillips

Boyd, W., Fenech, M., Mahony, L., Wong, S., Warren, J., Lee, I. -F., & Cheeseman, S. (2020) Employers’ perspectives of how well prepared early childhood teacher graduates are to teach in early childhood education and care services, Australasian Journal of Early Childhood. In press. Boyd, W., & Newman, L. (2019). Primary + Early Childhood = chalk and cheese? Tensions in undertaking an early childhood/primary education degree. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 44(1), 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1836939119841456 Burchinal, M., Cryer, D., Clifford, R., & Howes, C. (2002). Caregiver training and classroom quality in child care centres. Applied Developmental Sciences, 6(1), 2–12. Community Early Learning Australia. (2019). International ECEC workforce survey results. Retrieved from https://www.cela.org.au/2019/11/21/ecec-workforce-survey-results/?utm_med ium=email&utm_campaign=Amplify%20261119&utm_content=Amplify%20261119+CID_ cfd8f6a9945ba1797c6428ce83c95af2&utm_source=email&utm_term=Read%20more. Couse, L. J., & Recchia, S. L. (2016). Handbook of early childhood teacher education. Routledge. Dahlberg, G., Moss, P., & Pence, A. (2007). Beyond quality in early childhood education and care: Postmodern perspectives (2nd ed.). Falmer. Dalli, C., Barbour, N., Cameron, C., & Miller, L. (2018). Closing comments: Future directions for early childhood policy. In L., Miller, C., Cameron, C., Dalli & N., Barbour (Eds). The SAGE handbook of early childhood policy. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526402004. Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Teaching education and the American future. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1–2), 35–47. Darling-Hammond, L., Burns, D., Campbell, C., Goodwin, L., Hammerness, K., Low, E. L., … Zeichner, K. (2017). Empowered educators: How high performing systems shape teaching quality around the world. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Department of Education & Training (2017). Final Report—Improving retention, completion and success in higher education. Commonwealth of Australia: Author. Department of Education, Employment and Workplace relations (DEEWR). (2009). The early years learning framework. Bardon, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia. Department of Employment, Skills, Small and Family Business. (2019). Newsroom: Employment projections. Retrieved from https://www.employment.gov.au/newsroom/employment-pro jections. Fenech, M. (2017). Preparing teachers for the early years: Evidence, ideology or market driven initial teacher education? Presentation for the ACECQA Higher Education Roundtable: 30 November. Girod, M., & Girod, R. G. (2008). Simulation and the need for practice in teacher preparation. Journal of Technology and Teacher, 16(3), 307–337. Gibson, M., McFadden, A., & Zollo, L. (2018). Discursive considerations of child care professional experience in early childhood teacher education: Contingencies and tensions from teacher educators. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 39(4), 293–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10901027.2018.1458259 Halpern, R. (2013). Tying early childhood education more closely to schooling: Promise, perils and practical problems. Teachers College Record, 115(1), 1–28. Harrison, C. & Heinrich Joerdens, S. H. (2017). The combined bachelor of education early childhood and primary degree: Student perceptions of value. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 42(1), 4–13. Heckman, J. J. (2013). Investing in disadvantaged young children is an economically efficient policy. Paper presented at the Iowa Business Council: Early Childhood Summit, Iowa. Hu, J., Torr, J., Degotardi, S., & Han, F. (2017). Educators’ use of commanding language to direct infants’ behaviour: Relationship to educators’ qualifications and implications for language learning opportunities. Early Years: An International Research Journal. Doi: https://doi.org/10. 1080/09575146.2017.1368008.

1 Getting It Right for Early Childhood Teacher …

15

Hyson, M., Tomlinson, H. & Morris. C., (2009). Quality improvement in early childhood teacher education: Faculty perspectives and recommendations for the future. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 11(1). Retrieved from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v11n1/hyson.html. Job Outlook. (2019). Explore careers. Retrieved from https://joboutlook.gov.au/Career?keyword= early%20childhood. Kagan, S. L., & Roth, J. (2017). Transforming early childhood systems for future generations: Obligations and opportunities. International Journal of Early Childhood, 49(2), 137–154. LiBetti, A. (2018). Let the research show: Developing the research to improve early childhood teacher preparation. Retrieved from https://bellwethereducation.org/publication/let-researchshow-developing-research-improve-early-childhood-teacher-preparation-0. Liu, Y., & Boyd, W. (2018). Comparing career identities and choices of pre-service early childhood teachers between Australia and China. International Journal of Early Years Education. https:// doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2018.1444585 Manning, M., Wong, G., Fleming, C., & Garvis, S. (2019). Is teacher qualification associated with the quality of the early childhood education and care environment? Review of Educational Research, 89(3), 370–415. McDonald, P., Thorpe, K., & Irvine, S. (2018). Low pay but still we stay: Retention in early childhood education and care. Journal of Industrial Relations, 60(6), 647–668. Nuttall, J. (2018). Engaging with ambivalence: The neglect of early childhood teacher education in initial teacher education reform in Australia. In C. Wyatt-Smith & A. Adie, (eds.), Innovation and accountability in teacher education. The Netherlands: Springer. Oberheumer, P. (2011). The early childhood education workforce in Europe between divergencies and emergencies. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, 5(1), 55–63. Organisation for Economic and Cooperative Development (OECD). (2018). Engaging young children: Lessons from research about quality in early childhood education and care. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264085145-en. Organisation for Economic and Cooperative Development (OECD). (2017). Starting Strong 2017. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/education/starting-strong-2017-9789264276116-en.htm. Pascoe, S. & Brennan, D. (2017). Lifting our game: Report of the review to achieve educational excellence in Australian schools through early childhood interventions. Melbourne: Three’s a crowd. Phillips, A. (PhD thesis under examination). Exceeding the National Quality Standard: An investigation of high-quality long day care services in Australia. The Faculty of Education and Social Work: The University of Sydney. PriceWaterhouseCoopers. (2014). Putting a value on Early Childhood Education and Care in Australia. Retrieved from https://www.pwc.com.au/pdf/putting-value-on-ecec.pdf. PriceWaterhouseCoopers. (2019). A smart investment for a smarter Australia: Economic analysis of universal early childhood education in the year before school in Australia. Retrieved 01/09/2019 from https://www.thefrontproject.org.au/images/downloads/Cost-benefit%20analysis_brochure. pdf. Recchia, S. L., & Shin, S. (2010). ‘Baby teachers’: How pre-service early childhood students transform their conceptions of teaching and learning through an infant practicum. Early Years: An International Research Journal, 30(2), 135–145. Schleicher, A. (2019), Helping our Youngest to Learn and Grow: Policies for Early Learning, International Summit on the Teaching Profession, OECD Publishing, Paris. http://dx.doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264313873-en. Schweinhart, L. J. (2003). Benefits, costs, and explanation of the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program. Retrieved from www.hscope.org/Research/PerryProject/Perry-SRCD-2003.pdf. Standing Council on School Education and Early Childhood (SCSEEC). (2012). Early years workforce strategy. Retrieved from https://apo.org.au/node/31262. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (2010). Early childhood matters. Routledge.

16

W. Boyd and A. Phillips

Thorpe, K., Boyd, W., Ailwood, J., & Brownlee, J. (2011). Who wants to work in childcare? Preservice early childhood teacher’s consideration of work in the child-care sector. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 36(1), 85–94. Thorpe, K., Millear, P., & Petriwskyj, A. (2012). Can a childcare practicum encourage degree qualified staff to enter the childcare workforce? Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 13(4), 317–327. UNICEF. (2017). Building the future: Children and the sustainable development goals in rich countries. Retrieved from https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/series/16/. Urban, M., Vandenbroeck, M., Lazzari, A., Van Laere, K., & Peeters, J. (2012). Competence requirements in early childhood education and care. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED5 34599.pdf. Warren, D., & Haisken-DeNew, J. P., (2014). Early bird catches the worm: The causal impact of pre-school participation and teacher qualifications on Year 3 national NAPLAN cognitive Tests. Melbourne Institute Working Paper No. 34/13: University of Melbourne.

Dr. Wendy Boyd is Associate Professor in early childhood education at Southern Cross University, Australia. Wendy’s research has focused on the provision of quality early childhood programs to support the optimal development of all children. This has cut across parents’ views of early childhood programs; the effectiveness of the early childhood workforce training; and the provision of sustainable practices in ECEC. Prior to entering academia Wendy was the Director of a large early childhood centre for 25 years, which was consistently assessed as providing high quality ECEC. Dr. Alicia Phillips is a Lecturer in early childhood education at Southern Cross University, Australia. Alicia’s research areas of interest are quality in ECEC, the Australian National Quality Framework (NQF), and attributes and capabilities of high quality teachers. Alicia’s PhD thesis investigated the factors that contribute to high-quality ECEC in long day care centres that have achieved high quality ratings under the NQF.

Chapter 2

Early Childhood Teacher Education in Canada: Challenges and Opportunities Laura K. Doan

Abstract Early childhood teacher education in Canada varies, as education is determined at the provincial and territorial levels. This creates challenges as there is a diversity of required education levels for educators, funding levels, and curriculum types. Several provinces have adopted early learning frameworks which have helped to shed light on the importance of early learning. In addition, there is a heightened awareness of Canada’s history with Indigenous people, including the impact of residential schools. Across Canada, there is a shortage of qualified early childhood educators (ECEs), and in BC, 50% of beginning ECEs leave the field within the first five years of work (Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia, 2012). Recent research on peer-mentoring, has shown that through participation in communities of practice, educators’ professional identity development is supported and teacher efficacy improves (Doan, 2019).

Introduction to the Canadian Context In Canada, education is determined at the provincial and territorial levels, not at the federal level. This means that there is a lack of consistency across the ten provinces and three territories, with different levels of qualifications for early childhood educators, as well as varying types, structures, regulations, and funding of early learning programs (Friendly, Larsen, Feltham, Grady, Forer, & Jones, 2018). For example, in New Brunswick, 70% of staff in regulated early learning programs do not have recognized early childhood education training (Government of New Brunswick, 2008), whereas in Ontario, staff are considered to be registered through the College of Early Childhood Educator (Ministry of Education, 2019). Early learning in Canada has been described as a patchwork quilt of qualifications, funding, and curriculum (Mayfield, 2001). Many provinces now have an early learning framework, which provides a vision for how children are seen, and includes curriculum with a focus on making the learning visible, through documentation. In addition, early learning L. K. Doan (B) Thompson Rivers University, 805 TRU Way, Kamloops, BC V2C 0C8, Canada e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_2

17

18

L. K. Doan

frameworks also emphasize the significant role of families and the importance of communication between educators and family members. In British Columbia, the first Early Learning Framework was created in 2009 and has recently undergone revisions, and now includes much more content on reconciliation and Indigenous world views, inclusive practice, and an expanded focus on children from infancy to eight years of age (Government of British Columbia, 2019). Where in the past, early childhood education would be seen within the Ministry of Children and Family Development, there is now recognition from the Ministry of Education, and the Minister of Education, Rob Fleming is pursuing the idea of the seamless day for children. This seamless day could mean that children have far less transition in their day and begin and start their day in the same room, with the same people (British Columbia Government, 2020), as opposed to starting in a before and after school program, and then being transported to school, only to return back to the before and after school program. Some school districts are piloting an approach where a kindergarten teacher works alongside two early childhood educators in the same classroom. While the details still need to be worked out, it is positive to see a valuing of the educators in both early learning and primary school settings. In Ontario, early childhood educators have been working alongside school teachers for many years, working in primary classrooms (Government of Ontario, 2021). Canada has recently completed the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which has resulted in a much greater awareness of the impact on colonialism, and specifically residential schools, on Indigenous people. The commission’s goal was to, “create a historical account of the residential schools, help people heal, and encourage reconciliation between aboriginal and non-aboriginal Canadians” (CBC News, 2008). The Truth and Reconciliation Commission put out 94 calls to action, and has made special mention of education, saying that if change is to happen, it must happen through education (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2012). Much harm occurred through education, so it is thought that this is the way that it will be changed. Justice Murray Sinclair, Chair of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada has said, “It is precisely because education was the primary tool of oppression of Aboriginal people, and miseducation of all Canadians, that we have concluded that education holds the key to reconciliation” (British Columbia Teacher Federation, 2015). With a greater awareness of the harms brought about through colonialism, postsecondary institutions are undergoing curriculum changes that include bringing in the history of the Indigenous peoples of Canada. Early childhood education students across Canada are learning about Canada’s history of residential schools, as well as Indigenous world views. One of the calls to action specifically mentioned the role of early childhood education: “We call upon the federal, provincial, territorial, and Aboriginal governments to develop culturally appropriate early childhood education programs for Aboriginal families” (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2012, p. 2). There is much to do in the coming years and based on the number of professional development offerings and requests, early childhood educators in British Columbia are ready to learn more about how they can be part of moving the calls to action forward.

2 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Canada …

19

Early childhood educators, as they are called in Canada, work with children from birth to age five and are hired into a variety of positions such as infant–toddler child care, campus based child care, school-age child care, Strong Start programs, parent cooperative nursery schools, laboratory/demonstration nursery schools, teen-parent programs, head start programs, family resource centers, and play therapy programs (Mayfield, 2001). Beginning early childhood educator roles include: “nurturer; facilitator, guide and instructor; model; program and curriculum organizer; observer and evaluator; learner and researcher; and colleague and professional” (Mayfield, p. 115). Looking at these descriptions of the role, one can see the complexity of both the work and the role of an early childhood educator, especially when one considers the addition of the calls to action by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, as well as implications from the newly revised British Columbia Early Learning Framework. In this chapter, we will look at the British Columbia context, identifying the educational qualifications, the workplace circumstances, theories that relate to educator development, and a peer-mentoring program that has recently been expanded across the province, with an aim support educators with their ongoing professional development needs.

The British Columbian Context Early childhood educators in British Columbia graduate with a certificate, which is completed in two semesters; a diploma, completed in three semesters; or a bachelor’s degree, completed in four years. Bachelor degrees in early childhood education are offered in two institutions in British Columbia, and most early childhood educators graduate with a certificate or diploma. In addition to practica, early childhood educators are mandated by the province of British Columbia to complete 500 h of paid or volunteer work in a licensed early childhood education program under the supervision of a certified educator. After completing their coursework and 500 h of work experience, early childhood education graduates apply to the province to receive a certificate to practice, which is a requirement of early childhood practitioners who want to work in a licensed early childhood education program. This first license is valid for five years when the educator must go through a renewal process. The only requirement to renew one’s license is to complete forty hours of professional development over the five year time span (Government of British Columbia, 2020). The early childhood education field is one where there is a high turn-over of staff, and early childhood educators are elevated to positions of leadership when they may not be prepared (Bella & Bloom, 2003). In British Columbia there are 12,000 licensed early childhood educators on the ECE registry, yet only fifty percent of the educators are currently working as early childhood educators (Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia, 2011). Moreover, it is estimated that half of all early childhood educators leave the field within the first five years of work (Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia, 2012). Additionally, beginning early childhood educators may find themselves working in a child care program where they are the only staff member

20

L. K. Doan

with recognized post-secondary credentials. A constant rotation of new staff and/or very few qualified educators can lead to role ambiguity and workplace conflict, which in turn can result in burnout (Manlove, 1993). Further to this, due to a shortage of staff, early childhood educators move quickly into positions of leadership, be they team leaders, supervisors, or directors, and many do not have adequate training or experience (Costigliola & Peek, 2009). A study by the Child Care Human Resources Sector Council confirmed a need for additional training for early childhood educators: Many employers indicated that they were promoted into their current role because they were good practitioners; but did not necessarily have the educational or experiential background of an “employer” or administrator. Many lacked formal HR training and learned most of the human resources/management skills required on their own. Thus, the issues that employers face are often compounded by a relative lack of knowledge and/or experience with human resources. (Costigliola & Peek, 2009, p. 17)

Professional Identity Development When attempting to understand the needs of beginning early childhood educators, it can be helpful to look at theories of educator development. Katz (1972) proposed a theoretical model for the stages of early childhood educators. The first stage, survival, as its name suggests is where the educator simply tries to get through the day or week, and this can last up to one year. Katz wrote, “During this period the teacher needs support, understanding, encouragement, reassurance, comfort and guidance. She needs instruction in specific skills and insight into the complex causes of behaviour—all of which must be provided on the classroom site” (p.4). What is key here is the on-site support the beginning early childhood educator requires, making it important that the mentor is physically nearby to assist the educator in daily situations, such as how to guide children’s behavior, form connections with family members, and plan programming based on children’s needs and interests. Veenman (1984) has described the transition into one’s first teaching position as being a “reality shock”, where teachers can experience vast differences between what they idealized in their teacher training versus the reality of the classroom. In addition to being introduced to the teaching profession, the beginning educator may also be dealing with the realities of living in the adult world, which may include leaving home and transitioning into a new community (Veenman, 1984). Moreover, cognitive development plays a role in the development of a professional identity as teachers who are at a higher developmental level are better able to adapt to the demands placed upon them. Katz (1972) went on to describe stage two: consolidation, a phase when educators are “consolidating overall gains made during the stage and to differentiate specific tasks and skills to be mastered next” (p. 5). This period is one where educators feel more confident and are able to focus less on themselves and more on the individual needs of the children. Katz described the third and fourth stages, renewal and maturity, as times when educators are seeking further professional development and asking some of the deeper questions about topics such as philosophy and how change occurs.

2 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Canada …

21

When comparing the Katz’ model of educator development to Veenman (1984) one question is, do all early childhood educators proceed to stage two, three or four? Approximately half of all beginning early childhood educators in British Columbia will leave the profession in the first five years (Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia, 2012). Of those that remain, do they pass through the stages, getting to a place of maturity as described by Katz? In the past, one could assume that all early childhood educators working within a program were fully certified through the province, but now, due to the shortage of qualified early childhood educators, certified educators will be working along side with “Responsible Adults”, a designation by the Early Years Registry, as well as “Early Childhood Educator Assistant”, which means they have completed at a minimum, one course. I wonder how these new realities impact educator development through these stages. According to Veenman, the influence of teacher training is weakened by the daily teaching experiences and in some cases, teachers who become more conservative in their first year of teaching do not revert back to the liberalization of their training. In 2007 the Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia wrote a report entitled, Developing a strategy for professional leadership where they reported, “a mentoring framework is needed to help people take steps to be mentors” (Gay, p. 18). Additionally, it was suggested that Katz’ (1972) developmental stages of early childhood educators be explored. Furthermore, the OECD has suggested that teacher development be viewed as a continuum, with teachers receiving support at the beginning of their career in addition to on-going professional development (OECD, 2005). Could communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) be an approach that would work to support the ongoing development of educators?

Learning Within Communities of Practice Lave and Wenger (1991) put forth the theory that learning takes place within the framework of participation, not in the mind of an individual. Lave and Wenger asserted that practitioners within communities are at work helping to bring more practitioners into the community, by way of apprenticeship. From this perspective, learning occurs through “hands-on” participation as opposed to teaching that takes place in a classroom, far removed from the workplace. Lave and Wenger’s research is based on the premise that practitioners are naturally drawn to communities of practice, and their work came out of the apprenticeship experiences of tailors who became skilled master tailors through informal learning within communities of practice. Wenger and Snyder (2000) defined communities of practice as “groups of people informally bound together by shared expertise and passion for a join enterprise” (p. 139). Wenger (2000) argued that participation in a community of practice “is essential” to learning and helps to define “what constitutes competence in a given context” (p. 229). In an early childhood education context then, through participation in a community of practice, novice early childhood educators could learn what it means to be a practicing early childhood educator. Furthermore, through participation

22

L. K. Doan

in communities of practice, practitioners learn their identities within the community and gain belonging. Moreover, practitioners gain understanding of what they do in their craft. Early childhood educators are not consistently inducted into the profession in informal ways through communities of practice. For example, Nicholson and Reifel (2011) described early childhood educators’ perceptions of entry training experiences as “sink or swim” (p. 5). While the early childhood educators admitted their greatest learning came from other educators, they also spoke about the lack of mentoring and the reality of being left to figure it out on their own. One participant shared: “They ended up throwing me in the classroom and just told me to go for it. That’s basically what they told me.” (p. 10). There are examples in other disciplines where novices learn alongside a more experienced colleague. In these cases, it is typical to have a system where the novice is identified with a particular role or title. In contrast, in the early childhood education field, graduates enter the workplace with the same title and role as more experienced educators. This results in similar expectations being put on the beginning educator as those assumed of other more senior educators.

Recent Government Initiatives The current provincial government has recognized the lack of child care spaces, as well as a shortage of early childhood educators, and has made a commitment to ensuring better access to quality early learning programs for children and families. A robust plan has been enacted that includes funding for new early learning spaces, funding for new spaces in the post-secondary system for early childhood education students, bursaries for students, greater funding of early learning programs who opt in with the government, which results in a significant lowering of fees for families, prototype sites where families pay ten dollars a day or less for childcare, a wage enhancement for early childhood educators (an increase of two dollars an hour over two years), bursaries for educators to access professional development, and funding of programs like the Early Childhood Pedagogy Network and the Peer-Mentoring Project for Early Childhood Educators Project, which support the ongoing development of early childhood educators (British Columbia, 2018). The peer-mentoring project will be discussed below.

Peer-Mentoring Project Recently, a peer-mentoring project for early childhood educators has been expanded across the province of British Columbia and now includes close to 200 educators and 20 facilitators in 17 regions (Doan & Jang, 2019). This project is based on previous research with beginning and experienced educators across British Columbia (BC), as well as pilot projects in the interior of BC (Doan, 2014, 2019). Peer-Mentoring

2 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Canada …

23

projects were set up within a community of practice (Wenger) and include being matched up with a peer-mentor, for mutual mentoring, taking part in a face-toface community of practice, online support through a private online platform, and access to professional development based on educators’ needs. In the pilot study, educators reported a greater awareness of the value of mentoring, and their abilities to be a mentor and to receive mentoring; they felt a greater connection to the early childhood community, realizing they had more people in their professional circle; and they learned new skills and gained knowledge through professional development that was responsive to their needs (Doan, 2019). The current study has been able to expand through funding through the provincial government, as mentioned earlier. I collaborated with the provincial association representing early childhood educators in British Columbia, ECEBC, and utilized the existing structure they had through their 19 local branches. This has proven to be positive as it enabled me to work with early childhood educators who were knowledgeable about the local issues facing educators and who were connected to the early childhood education community. While I am still at the data collection phase, I am hearing that the project has helped to infuse enthusiasm for the local branches of the professional association.

Project Structure As mentioned, there are 17 peer-mentoring groups, across the province. Each of these groups is working together as a community of practice, with 12 early childhood educators (approximately six with five years or less experience and six with five years or more experience), and a facilitator. The groups meet once a month, face-to-face. In addition, each group has a secure online platform where educators can engage in discussion, posting comments and questions, and sharing resources. Within each community of practice, early childhood educators are paired up with each other, using a peer-mentoring model. This peer to peer model is very different from the mentor—protégé model where one is the expert and one is the novice. Beginning early childhood educators who took part in a research study on their needs and experiences in their first year of work, shared that while they were still needing support, they had value, and were ready and able to contribute. Emma talked about the importance of beginning early childhood educators being valued in the work environment: We can’t really see them [beginning early childhood educator] as an incompetent somebody, who doesn’t really know. We can’t really see them as empty vase… They are not empty vase. They have something there already…Try to bring that out. Help them to bring that out. But also collaborative means both sides, right? New people, experienced people also learn something new. So we work together. That is the collaboration that I am talking about. And it is lacking. I think it is lacking...My ideal situation is, there is a supervisor in the centre and her job is to create the environment where colleagues, I mean people, like educators can work together. (Doan, 2014).

24

L. K. Doan

Professional Development Within the Community of Practice One component of the project is professional development, and this takes place within the community of practice. It is believed that educators need access to ongoing professional development to support the complex work they are engaged in. In addition, when looking at professional identity development, it is recognized that educators continue to need support in moving through the stages of development. This is especially important when we consider the fact that approximately 50% of early childhood educators in BC leave the field within the first five years of work. Unlike stand-alone workshops, the professional development takes place within a community of practice, where educators have the opportunity to engage with the content over time. For example, educators continue on the conversations about the professional development in subsequent meetings, in the online forum, and within the weekly meetings. Educators are reporting that there is a distinct difference between a workshop and what is happening within the community of practice, and relationship and trust seems key. The participants in this study are sharing that within a workshop, educators often sit with their individual groups, and the sharing is different due to the fact they are not as comfortable. Contrast this with professional development that takes place within a community of practice, which includes confidentiality, as well as a comfort level in knowing all of the educators, and you have a very different type of professional development. One educator has described this as having the barriers removed. Another important distinction for the professional development that is taking place within this project, is that the topics are determined by the educators themselves. Educators have agency, as mentioned previously, and decide what professional development they want. This fits well with adult learning theory (Knowles et al., 2012), and specifically the notion that adults need to be motivated to learn. In this instance, the professional development can be accessed when educators are motivated to learn about a specific topic. For example, in one community of practice, the educators indicated a strong need for support with their stress management. The facilitator worked with a local expert who designed a workshop for the group, and this took place within a community of practice. The educators then had the opportunity to continue to unpack the content through subsequent group meetings, within the online forum, and through weekly meetings with their peer-mentor.

Weekly Meetings Peer-mentors in this project had the opportunity to meet on a weekly basis, either face-to-face, on the telephone, through messenger or another online format. Peermentors have shared about the experience of having someone to debrief with, a person to talk with about the daily experiences as an educator. This is not something that typically happens within the workday, as educators are incredibly busy and have

2 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Canada …

25

little to no time for talking, other than brief communication about the children. Peermentors have indicated there was value in sharing with someone who was outside of the workplace as the peer-mentor had an unbiased opinion. Some educators have shared that through this experience, they gained confidence in their own abilities and were better able to advocate for themselves, the children, and families. Educators have also shared that it was valuable to be with peers who understood them.

Peer-Mentoring Model This model puts value on both experienced and beginning educators, recognizing that both have much to contribute to. Experienced early childhood educators have a depth of experience which has much value. In addition, experienced educators have knowledge about how to sustain one’s practice. As beginning early childhood educators have just completed their schooling, it is assumed that they will have up to date knowledge and experience, having been exposed to the most recent early learning initiatives and pedagogy. For example, as mentioned previously, the British Columbia Early Learning Framework is still a somewhat unknown and unused document. Where we may see limited uptake from educators in our community, new early childhood educators are using the document regularly in classes and practicum. In this instance, it would be the newer early childhood educators who may have greater familiarity with using the Early Learning Framework and creating pedagogical narrations (learning stories). In a peer-mentoring, non-hierarchical model, educators learn from each other, and each can benefit from the other’s experience, be that as a newer educator or as an experienced educator with a depth of experience. The peer-mentoring project described here is is relevant for both new and experienced early childhood educators. In this kind of mentoring relationship, learning is occurring for both educators, and this happens within the relational safety of this dyad.

Agency This peer-mentoring within a community of practice model is predicated on the belief of agency lying within the educators. Biesta and Tedder (2007) have described agency as being related to both the individual and the context: “This concept of agency highlights that actors always act by means of their environment rather than simply in their environment [so that] the achievement of agency will always result from the interplay of individual efforts, available resources and contextual and structural factors as they come together in particular and, in a sense, always unique situations” (2007, p. 137, emphasis added). In an era where we see more and more being imposed onto educators, this model is structured from the ground up, not in a top-down model. In addition to peer-mentors choosing what they wish to talk about in their weekly meetings, the educators within the community of practice determine (with the help

26

L. K. Doan

of the facilitator) what takes place in the monthly face-to-face meeting times. In the interviews with facilitators and educators, we have heard that for some, there was confusion or questioning about what it was they should talk about. In some cases, they were looking for direction from the research team. This, of course, would have been a top-down approach, but it is one that educators are somewhat accustomed to, especially in a neo-liberal environment, where educators are being told what to do. This approach puts the educator in the forefront of decision making, believing that educators know what they need. This is indeed a very different approach to what many educators experience when taking part in professional development through a particular workshop. This typically includes a set time, where a specific set of objectives are shared, the curriculum is shared, and educators receive a certificate of participation, which is accrued and used for re-certification through the Early Years Registry, with the provincial government. While the approach used in this peermentoring project may have begun with some initial apprehension, based on initial analysis, it seems that educator efficacy, their belief and confidence in themselves has in fact, increased. Not only is this happening on an individual level, but it is increasing the collective efficacy, as the educators see the value in each other, and in the power of the group. Collective efficacy has been defined as “a group’s shared belief in the conjoint capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given levels of attainment” (Bandura, 1997, p. 447).

The Role of the Facilitator As alluded to previously, the facilitators who were invited to take part in the project were educators who were well-connected with their local early learning community. I assert that relationships are key in work that is authentic, personal, and meaningful. As participants have acknowledged, this is not a one-time workshop type of offering, but rather, the meetings are with the same group of educators, within a community of practice, where each voice is valued. Furthermore, there is confidentiality, which participants have described as pivotal to their openness in sharing real struggles. Given all of this, the facilitator then, needs to be someone who is able to work with the entire group of educators, listening to them, supporting them, setting up conditions for the educators themselves to support each other. This is not a classroom.

New Directions Looking to the future, how do we ensure that educators know how to mentor each other? Some educators in this current study have suggested that there needs to be a required course on peer-mentoring within the post-secondary system. What structures need to be in place so that educators receive the support they need and deserve? When looking at the school system in Canada, we see a structure that includes regular

2 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Canada …

27

professional development days, both at the local and at the provincial levels. This paid non-contact day is an opportunity for teachers to gain new information, such as how to put into practice the new BC Curriculum, how to include Indigenous ways of knowing into the classroom. Contrasting this is the experience of early childhood educators who access professional development in the evening or on weekends, and at their own expense. One educator in a recent peer-mentoring project spoke about barriers to her participation in the weekend meeting, saying, “After a full week of being around lots of people with a lot of communication I feel as though I need time for myself.” In addition, to the paid access to professional development, teachers in the school system receive a wage that is much higher than educators in early learning programs, and further to this, salaries increase based on increased education. Sadly, the same cannot be said for early childhood educators. A further disparity is the difference in contact hours between early childhood educators and teachers, with teachers having approximately 6 contact hours per day, with two short breaks, a lunch break, and at times a spare block for planning. This is in contrast to early childhood educators who have eight to nine contact hours with young children, and receive one to two breaks. Furthermore, beginning early childhood educators receive two weeks or 10 days off a year, in contrast to school teachers who receive time off at Christmas, Spring Break, Easter, and two months in the summer. Given the high attrition of early childhood educators in BC, and indeed across the globe, working conditions must be looked at. Imagine a a time when early childhood educators from across the globe are recognized for their worth and receive a commensurate wage, good working conditions, and access to ongoing professional development within the workday.

Conclusion Peer-mentoring within a community of practice is an excellent way to support early childhood educators’ ongoing professional identity development needs. In addition, peer-mentoring can help to raise teacher efficacy, an educators’ confidence in their own ability. This is particularly important considering the current working conditions where structured support specifically for new educators is not widely available. Participation in peer-mentoring within a community of practice can help to sustain educators and reduce levels of retention. Communities of practice, as described in this chapter, value each educators’ voice and their ability to contribute to the group. In addition, this puts value on the collective efforts of the group. One early childhood educator described her experience in the peer-mentoring project this way: During this visit my peer-mentor and I discussed how I was feeling after having a coworker I was close with leave my work place. The coworker was my boss but also my mentor and I consider myself extremely lucky to have a mentor in the field early on in my career. I was losing confidence in my skills as an ECE, but talking with my peer-mentor helped reassure me that it was alright to not have all the answers early on in my career. This meet up with my mentor was incredibly helpful and reassuring. It is helpful knowing there are people who

28

L. K. Doan have been in the profession long term, that see the same issues I see and feel the same way about them. It makes me more inclined and supported to advocate for higher standards in the profession. I was also happy to be reassured that it is not expected of me to know everything, that I am still learning and growing as an educator. (Meg, peer-mentor).

It is hoped that as governments in Canada continue to support early childhood educators with projects like this, educators’ collective capacity will thrive.

References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY, US: W H Freeman. Biesta, G. J. J., & Tedder, M. (2007). Agency and learning in the lifecourse: Towards an ecological perspective. Studies in the Education of Adults, 39, 132–149. British Columbia Government. (2020). B.C. families to benefit from school-age child care on school grounds. Retrieved from https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2020EDUC0009-000332?fbclid=IwA R0gZUZ9jr7xHPpEXiz0ROnEuU8ZQm7dlJnsCfjB-RFwJQ5k8Px_S0iTpx8. British Columbia Government. (2018). Early Years Strategy Update. Retrieved from http://www. llbc.leg.bc.ca/public/pubdocs/bcdocs2018_2/687580/early_years_strategy_update.pdf. British Columbia Teacher Federation. (2015). Education for reconciliation. Teacher Magazine, 28(1), 1. Retrieved from https://bctf.ca/publications/TeacherArticle.aspx?id=38000. CBC News. (2008). FAQs: Truth and reconciliation commission. Retrieved from https://www.cbc. ca/news/canada/faqs-truth-and-reconciliation-commission-1.699883. Doan, L. K. & Jang, S. (2020). Peer-mentoring for early childhood educators in British Columbia: Building capacity and leaving a legacy. The Early Childhood Educator, 35(1), 14–16, 19. Doan, L. K. (2019). Finding community: An exploration into an induction support pilot project. Journal of Childhood Studies, 44(1), 68–79. Retrieved from https://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/ jcs/article/view/18778. Doan, L. K. (2016). The early years: Beginning early childhood educators’ induction experiences and needs in British Columbia. Journal of Childhood Studies, 41(2), 43–54. Doan, L. K. (2014). The early years: An exploration of the experiences and needs of novice early childhood educators in British Columbia (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://theses. ucalgary.ca/bitstream/11023/1606/2/ucalgary_2014_Doan_Laura.pdf. Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia. (2012). May 2012 is child care month: Early childhood educators matter to BC’s economy [media release]. Retrieved from http://www.ecebc. ca/news/ECEBC_ChildCareMonth_2012.pdf. Friendly, M., Larsen, E., Feltham, L., Grady, B., Forer, B., & Jones, M. (2018). Early childhood education and care in Canada: 2016. Childcare Resource and Research Unit: Toronto, ON. Gay, C. (2007). Developing a strategy for professional leaders. Early Childhood Educators of British Columbia Strategy Session. Retrieved from http://www.ecebc.ca/leadership/files/ECEBC_Str ategy_Session.pdf. Government of British Columbia. (2020). Become an early childhood educator. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/education-training/early-learning/teach/training-andprofessional-development/become-an-early-childhood-educator/apply-for-ece-ecea-certificate. Government of British Columbia. (2019). British Columbia early learning framework. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/education-training/early-learning/teach/ early-learning-framework. Government of New Brunswick. (2008). Be Ready for Success: A 10 Year Early Childhood Strategy for New Brunswick. Retrieved from http://ecereport.ca › 2011-eys3_profile_nb-en. Government of Ontario. (2019). Ontario’s Early Years and Child Care Annual Report 2019. Retrieved from http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/childcare/annual-report-2019.html.

2 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Canada …

29

Government of Ontario. (2021). Who is working in the classroom? Retrieved from: http://edu.gov. on.ca/kindergarten/whoisworkingintheclassroom.html Full-day kindergarten (gov.on.ca) Katz, L. (1972). Developmental stages of preschool teachers. Urbana, Illinois: Educational Resources Information Centre Clearinghouse on Early Childhood Education. Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2012). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. Routledge. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. Mayfield, M. I. (2001). Early childhood education and care in Canada: Contexts, dimensions, and issues. Pearson Education. Nicholson, S., & Reifel, S. (2011). Sink or swim: Child care teachers’ perceptions of entry training experiences. Journal of Childhood Teacher Education, 32(1), 5–25. OECD. (2005). Teachers matter: Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. Author. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2012). Calls to action. Retrieved from http://trc. ca/assets/pdf/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf. Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of Educational Research, 54(2), 143–178. Wenger, E. (2000). Communities of practice and social learning systems. Organization, 7(2), 225– 246. Wenger, E. C., & Snyder, W. M. (2000). Communities of practice: The organisational frontier. Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 139–146.

Chapter 3

Contemporary Early Childhood Education and Care Teacher Training in China Ying Liu and Wendy Boyd

Abstract China’s approach to early childhood education and care (ECEC) has dramatically changed since 1994. The National Medium to Long Term Planning Outline for Educational Reform and Development (2010–2020) was implemented in 2010. The ECEC policies are viewed as an integral part of education and social public welfare at present. The number of teachers and overall enrolment for eligible children has risen dramatically. However, ECEC is still the weakest element in China’s educational system and faces a severe lack of qualified and committed teachers. This lack of human resources has seriously affected the quality of ECEC. Therefore, the Chinese State Council and The Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE) have issued a series of policies and documents for ECEC, which provide an unprecedented platform and opportunity for the development of ECEC. The ECEC teachers’ training has developed rapidly, with a series of governmentsponsored short-term intensive teacher training plans implemented, and construction of professional learning community and kindergarten-based initial teacher training had been widely conducted as well. This chapter briefly introduces the status of ECEC teachers’ training and development in China, focused on current policies for ECEC teachers, identification and acquisition of ECEC teacher qualification, and the modes and channels of cultivation and training of ECEC teachers. This chapter also reveals the main problems of ECEC teachers’ training and development in China and proposes measures and suggestions for improvement. Keywords Early childhood education and care · Teacher training · China · Cultivation and development

Y. Liu (B) Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China e-mail: [email protected] W. Boyd Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_3

31

32

Y. Liu and W. Boyd

Introduction After The Reform and Open Door policy in 1978, delivered over four decades ago, China has made great achievements in economic and social construction. The economic development has brought enormous changes and benefits to ECEC in China. The number of kindergartens and teachers and the ratio of eligible children enrolled in kindergartens have risen dramatically. The statistics show that the total number of children in kindergartens across the country has risen from 8.79 million in 1979 to 46.56 million in 2018 (Liang, 2019). The total number of ECEC teachers has also grown (from 0.533 million in 1979 to 3.818 million in 2016), and the ratio of teacher-children has reduced from 1: 30 in 1979 to 1: 17.7 in 2016, with the level of educational degrees and qualifications gained by teachers also showing great improvement (Hu & Hu, 2018). Meanwhile, both central and local governments have gradually increased the fiscal budget in ECEC. The total fiscal budget in 2000 was 10 times that of 1991, and in 2005 it was twice that of 2000 (Pang, 2009). Early childhood education and care is the beginning of lifelong learning, and it is an important part of the national education system and social public welfare undertaking. With the implementation of the National Medium to Long Term Planning Outline for Educational Reform and Development (2010–2020), ECEC has engaged in a period of rapid development. As everyone knows in China, ECEC is highly valued and strongly supported by society. The teacher plays a critical role in determining the quality of early childhood education programs (Damjanovi & Blank, 2018). ECEC teachers are the key factors that affect the quality of early childhood education (Manning et al., 2019), so how to train high-quality early childhood teachers is a common concern for the whole of society. Therefore, The Chinese State Council and The Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE) issued a series of policies and documents for ECEC. These policies and documents provided an unprecedented platform and opportunity for the development of ECEC (Liu & Pan, 2013). The ECEC teacher training institutions (Normal Universities and schools1 ) have developed rapidly, enrolments increased, and improved step by step. Research reveals that there are 106 Normal universities or colleges, 264 comprehensive universities and more than 500 vocational colleges training ECEC teachers (Hu & Hu, 2018). Meanwhile, in-service training for ECEC teachers has made significant progress, particularly, a series of government-sponsored short-term intensive teacher training plans have been implemented, and the construction of professional learning community and kindergarten-based initial teacher training widely conducted. Although great achievements have been reached, there are still many problems. These problems have become prominent since the economic transformation from planning mode to market mode in the 1990s (Liu & Pan, 2013). In spite of the rapid 1

Normal Universities are specialized institutions for pre-service training of teacher in China, similar to the Faculty of Education in western countries. The students study 4 years education in Normal Universities and obtain a Bachelor degree when they graduate. Normal schools are also specialized institutions for diploma pre-service training, similar to Vocational Education and Training Organizations in western countries.

3 Contemporary Early Childhood Education …

33

development of the economy in China over four decades, the provision of ECEC in China remains a major challenge. The ECEC sector is still the weakest element in China’s education system (Chinese State Council, 2010b), compared with compulsory education of primary and secondary education. The enrolment ratio for eligible children in kindergartens was 81.7% in 2018 (MOE, 2018c), whereas enrolment ratio of school-age children in primary schools was 99.95% in 2018 (MOE, 2018d) The total number of ECEC teachers has increased rapidly. However, the supply source of ECEC teachers is still concentrated in Normal Schools, whereas primary and secondary teachers are from Normal Universities (Chen et al., 2019). Kindergartens face a severe shortage of qualified and committed teachers, with approximately 1.4 million teachers required (MOE, 2017). This lack of resources has severely affected the provision and quality of kindergartens. That is why the ratio of teacher-children is much higher than the National Configuration Standard of Minimum Ratio of Teacherchildren (MOE, 2016). Research reveals that the ratio of teachers-children was 1: 14 in the cities, 1:17 in the towns, and 1: 25 in the countryside in 2016 (Hu & Hu, 2018). The ratio had reached 1: 60 in some remote rural areas in 2008 (Yu & Liang, 2008). Moreover, many teachers do not have a teaching qualification certificate and the general level of education is relatively low, with the majority having junior college diploma. The percentage of ECEC teachers with postgraduate diploma is only 0.18% of all teachers, compared to 1.36% in primary schools, 10.58% in secondary schools (MOE, 2019c). Research has revealed that the development of ECEC remains uneven within different regions, and between urban and rural areas (e.g. Liang, 2019; Zhang, 2019; Chen et al, 2019; Hu & Hu, 2018; Yu & Liang, 2008). In addition, pre-service and in-service training of ECEC teachers also face a wide variety of challenges. Early childhood education and care includes two parts in China. The first part is early childhood education, and the second part is nursery education. Usually, ECEC refers to education for eligible children, namely for children aged three to six years, while nursery education refers to educating children from birth to three years. In this chapter, there is a focus on the cultivation and training of ECEC teachers, who are working for children aged from three to six years.

Present Status of ECEC Teachers’ Training and Development Current Policies for ECEC Teacher Education Since ‘The Reform and Open Door’ in 1978, China has made great achievements in each aspect of economic and social construction. Compared with the situation four decades ago, the number of kindergartens and teachers and the ratio of eligible children enrolled in kindergartens have risen dramatically. Statistics show that the total number of kindergartens across the country has risen from 166.5 thousand in 1979 to 266.7 thousand in 2018, the total number of children in kindergartens

34

Y. Liu and W. Boyd

has risen and ECEC teachers has also risen in 2018 (Liang, 2019). Liu and Boyd (2018) indicated that ECEC has undergone transformative development with China’s political and economic reform, The Chinese government has shown considerable interest in reforming ECEC, particularly in the area of early childhood teachers’ training and preschool development since the 1990s. The Chinese government has paid increasing attention to the development of ECEC and enacted a series of policies and regulations to ensure the rapid development of ECEC. For example, Teachers’ Law of the People’s Republic of China, issued by the Chinese State Council of the People’s Republic of China, and officially implemented since 1994 (Chinese State Council, 1994) points out: (1) We should improve the working and living conditions of teachers, protect their legitimate rights and interests, and improve their social status. (2) The whole society should respect teachers. (3) September 10th is Teachers’ Day every year. National Medium to Long Term Planning Outline for Educational Reform and Development (2010–2020) was issued by Chinese State Council of the People’s Republic of China in 2010 (Chinese State Council, 2010a). This was another major policy decision made by the state to realise universal preschool education. This document required local government (1) to rigidly execute the criteria of ECEC teacher qualifications, (2) to strengthen cultivation and training for pre-service and in-service teachers, (3) to enhance the entire quality of ECEC teachers, (4) to improve ECEC teachers’ social economic status and income according to the law, (5) to strengthen macro-management and macro-direction to ECEC, (6) to support the development of ECEC through mobilizing all positive factors. The reform and development of ECEC entered a new era and new stage since this document was issued. The Chinese State Council issued the Documents of Early Education Development in 2010 (National Document No. 41) (Chinese State Council, 2010b) which were called the National Ten Principles (NTP) by scholars. The NTP emphasises public interest and universality. The Chinese State Council also issued the Documents of Construction of Teaching Staff in 2012 (National Document No. 41) (Chinese State Council, 2012), which required all levels of administrative departments of education to build the teacher teams. The Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE) issued Kindergarten Working Regulation (amended edition) in 2016 (Ministry of Education’s Document No. 39) (MOE, 2016a), which stipulated amendments of kindergarten work, for instance the mission of kindergarten, entrance age, enrolment work, class organization, safety, health care, education, equipment, constructions, teaching and administrative staff, expenditure, the relationship among kindergarten, family and community, and administration. The amended content involves ECEC teachers and includes: (1) kindergarten staff have to stop work in the kindergarten during an outbreak of infectious disease. (2) People with the records of criminal, drug abuse and a history of mental illness are not allowed to work in the kindergarten. (3) The employment system will be implemented for ECEC teachers instead of previous appointment system. The Action Plan for Invigorating Teacher Education has been issued by the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China and four other ministries in 2018 (MOE, 2018a). The aim of this plan is to provide sufficiently

3 Contemporary Early Childhood Education …

35

qualified teachers for the development of higher quality and fairer education. Early children education and care teacher education is part of this action plan. The Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE) also issued the Notice of Special Administration for the “Tendency of Kindergarten Education toward Primary Degree” in 2018 (MOE, 2018b). The main tasks of administrative departments on education include: (1) to strictly prohibit teaching primary school curricula. (2) to correct educational method of “tendency of kindergarten education toward primary degree”. (3) to change the educational approach of the “tendency of kindergarten education towards the primary degree”. (4) to resolve the problem of unqualified ECEC teachers. (5) to check whether primary schools insist on “teaching from zero”.2 This notice impacts kindergartens’ administration, curricula content, and teachers’ teaching strategies and method. In addition, the Chinese State Council issued the Documents of Deepening Reform and Regulated Development of ECEC in 2018 (Chinese State Council, 2018). This document emphasizes that local government should strengthen construction of ECEC teacher team. The specific requirements include: (1) Teaching and administrative staff are provided in strict accordance with the criteria of teacher qualification. (2) The social economic status and income of ECEC teachers are guaranteed by law. (3) Improving the system of teacher education of ECEC. (4) Improving the system of teacher training of ECEC. (5) The administration towards ECEC teachers should be strictly supervised.

Identification and Acquisition of ECEC Teacher Qualification The Teachers’ Law of the People’s Republic of China has been implemented in China since 1994. It is clearly stipulated that in order to obtain the certificate of ECEC teacher’s qualification, people should have a qualification of ECEC junior Normal college graduate or above. The Regulations on the Qualifications of Teachers, which had been launched in December 1995 explains the ECEC teacher’s qualification. Citizens who do not possess the ECEC teachers’ degree as prescribed by the Teachers Law, must apply for the qualifications of teachers, and need to pass the National Teachers’ Qualification Examination which is recognized by the State. Since 2000, China began to implement the system of teacher certification (MOE, 2010). The identification of ECEC teacher’s qualification is responsible by administrative departments of education at county or district where the applicants’ place of domicile is located or the school where the applicant teaches. The basic procedure is as follows: First, every applicant has two opportunities to submit an application for the ECEC Teacher Qualification each year, in Spring and Autumn. The materials of application include application form, identity certificate, certificate of passed ECEC Teacher 2

Teaching from zero means teachers of primary schools must teach new pupils from the simplest basic knowledge instead of not teaching what ECEC teachers have taught.

36

Y. Liu and W. Boyd

Qualification Examination, certificate of physical examination, authenticate of no criminal record, and a Certificate of Mandarin proficiency. Second, the administrative departments of education check the applications within the time-frames prescribed by the provincial department of education and inform applicants. Finally, the applicants will receive the teacher certification within 30 days from the final date of the application and the applicant will train to be a legal licensed teacher. The Preschool Teacher’s Professional Standards, (MoE, 2012), defines the profession of ECEC teachers from three key dimensions, and 14 fields that ECEC teachers need to undergo strict cultivation and training, have good professional ethics, and possess systematic professional knowledge and skills (MOE, 2012). The Provinces of Zhejiang, Hubei, Shanghai, Shanxi, Anhui and others, have implemented the reform of Teacher Qualification Examination, known as the national civil service exam (Jiang Shuang, & Wen, 2015). By the end of 2016, it was implemented nationwide. All Normal college graduates3 or ordinary citizens must pass the national education examinations organized by National Education Examination Institute to obtain the certificate of ECEC teacher qualification. The examination consists of two steps: a written test (first step) and an interview (second step). The content of the written test is is on knowledge of pedagogy, educational psychology, educational system, educational management, educational philosophy, instructional technology and so forth. The interview is a demonstration of teaching skill, which consists three parts: five minutes answering questions concerning educational ideas, ten minutes on-site simulation teaching, and 5 min defence (answer the questions from ECEC experts). After passing the written test and interview, applicants submit their application, and after being qualified, they obtain their ECEC teacher certificate.

The Cultivation and Training of ECEC Teachers ECEC teachers are the key factors that affect the quality of early childhood education (Manning et al., 2019). Therefore, how to train high-quality early childhood teachers is a common concern for the whole of society in recent years. With a series of policies and documents issued for ECEC, the cultivation and training of ECEC teachers has acquired an unprecedented platform and opportunity for the development (Liu & Pan, 2013). I.

Professional cultivation of ECEC teacher

In recent years, although Normal college graduates and non-Normal college graduates have the same right to obtain the ECEC teacher certificate, the majority of ECEC teachers employed by preschool institutions still come from Normal college 3

Normal college graduates are graduates from Normal university/college, and the major belongs to the category of teacher education, which has accepted systematic theoretic and practical training of teacher education curricula.

3 Contemporary Early Childhood Education …

37

graduates. The main reason is that students in Normal colleges have received systematic professional training, and possess strong professional understanding and identity, extensive professional knowledge and solid teacher skills. Moreover, they also acquire psychological knowledge and experience to know how to deal with the problems of children’s development. Since then most ECEC teachers have engaged in systematic training at university, sponsored by the central or local government. At present, there are some regional differences in the training programs of Normal colleges in China, but all of them contain the following same elements: courses of teacher education, professional courses of teaching, teacher skills and educational practice. General courses of normal education mainly focus on the mastery and understanding of the general knowledge of education and teaching, including four major fields: humanities, natural sciences, social sciences, arts and sports, for example, Pedagogy, Law, History, Language and so on. Professional courses of teaching mainly focus on the study of theoretical knowledge in the field of teacher education, such as Educational psychology, Teaching method, Early childhood education, Research methods of early childhood education, History of Chinese and foreign early childhood education, and Curriculum of preschool. Courses of teacher skills focus on ECEC teachers’ skill training, such as Environment creation of preschool institutions, Piano lessons, Activity and game design, Dance creation, and Drama. Educational practice focuses on the theory of practice, namely using theoretical knowledge in education and teaching practice to find and solve problems. In general, Educational practice consists of three parts: course practice, observation of teaching practice, and educational internship. Course practice is arranged by the specialized teacher to undertake observation, recording, research and reflection in preschool institutions according to a related topic or task. Observation of teaching practice is usually one week every semester, and students are required to complete specialized tasks, such as observation of children’s behaviors, organization of a teaching activity, and classroom management. Furthermore, every student must do educational internship before graduation, which is arranged for the last semester, and lasts four to five months. The role of college students during this period is an assistant or apprentice of ECEC teachers, thereby, student’s transition to work. The total number of ECEC teachers has increased rapidly (Hu & Hu, 2018). II.

Multi-channel’s in-service training for ECEC teachers

Based on the actual situation of ECEC teachers in China, teachers can participate in various way of in-service training through a variety of channels. The following parts explain four ways that ECEC teachers can be involved in in-service training. (1)

Government-sponsored short-term intensive teacher training plans.

There are three levels of training plans sponsored by the government for ECEC teachers: National Short-term Intensive Training Plan (NSITP), Provincial Shortterm Intensive Training Plan (PSITP), and Regional Short-term Intensive Training Plan (RSITP). China began to implement the NSITP in 2011. The central government provides special funds to support this plan. The Ministry of Education and the

38

Y. Liu and W. Boyd

Ministry of Finance are responsible for the overall planning and macro-management of the plan. The training themes and content are chosen on the basis of the actual needs of early childhood education and ECEC teachers; are closely combined with the practice of early childhood education; and are refined from ECEC educational practice. The policy-makers will publicly collect the opinions, advises and needs towards all ECEC teachers, principals, experts, researchers and so on in society, and then produce the final training plan. In general, there are eight training projects of NSITP for ECEC teachers in 2019, they are: (1) Standard of Professional Behavior of ECEC Teachers, (2) Normalization of New ECEC Teachers, (3) Systematic Professional Training for ECEC Non-Teachers, (4) Improving The Ability of Health Care and Education for Rural ECEC Teachers, (5) Inviting ECEC Core Teachers to Be Visiting Student in Famous University for 20 Days, (6) Law and Security Education for ECEC Principals, (7) Promoting Management Capacity of ECEC Principal in Rural Areas, (8) Improving Management Philosophy and Behaviors for ECEC Principals in Private Institutions. Provincial Short-term Intensive Training Plans vary across provinces. The Regional Short-term Intensive Training Plan is determined according to local situation of ECEC teacher training. The training plan is generally designated to local Normal college. (i)

Professional learning community (PLC) of ECEC teachers.

Professional learning community is desirable factor for organization professional development (Damjanovi & Blank, 2018). Assumptions underlying PLCs include an understanding of teacher learning as situated within day-to-day lived experiences in classrooms and the view that dialogue makes critical examination of teaching practices possible (Vescio et al., 2008). PLCs emphasize value on teachers’ practical knowledge, gained through experience in the classroom, and the provision of space and time to reflect upon these experiences with other teachers. The main activities of PLCs consist of classroom observations, documentation, teaching and research salon, independent study, outstanding teachers’ workshop, and a demonstration in class. The most popular pattern of PLC in China is mentorship which is formed between new and old teachers (Wu, et al., 2018). The new ECEC teachers have acquired recent professional theoretical knowledge, and also have a wide range of perspectives, but they lack teaching experience, whereas the rich experienced ECEC teachers can solve problems in teaching process more easily. This kind of knowledge growth and skill improvement can affect all aspects of teachers’ education and teaching eventually. Kindergarten-based initial teacher training. School-based initial teacher training has been studied extensively since it was introduced in the UK in the early 1990s (Brooks, 2000). Zhou and Fan (2009) estimated that kindergarten-based initial teacher training (KITT) has been conducted extensively since late 1990s in China. KITT is utilized to meet the development goals and needs of kindergartens and ECEC teachers and is usually initiated and organized by the kindergarten based on actual needs. KITT aims at improving the overall educational level and quality and promotes the sustainable development of the kindergarten. At present, KITT is one of the most popular teacher training modes in

3 Contemporary Early Childhood Education …

39

China, almost every kindergarten has their own KITT plans (Gong, 2019). The needs of ECEC teachers are focused on innovation of teaching skills, absorption of new theoretical and practical knowledge, improvement of professional ability, attitude and emotion (Ma & Cai, 2012). The mode and content of KITT across regions is flexible and diverse; generally, the main modes of KITT including team teaching, case-based teaching, courses’ resource development, certain skills training, kindergarten-based current issues research, design and implementation of activity plan, construction of kindergarten-based traditional culture, ECEC teachers’ club, specialist seminar, and practical act research (Liu, 2008). Compared with other teacher training programs, Xia (2006) outlined that the following advantage of KITT: (1) It is helpful to promote personalized development of kindergartens. (2) It is beneficial to promote the individualized development of teachers. (3) It is in favor of motivating enthusiasm of kindergarten administrators. (4) It has realized the integration of teaching, scientific, and research training. (5) It can save time and expenditure, and also can solve the conflict of work and study. (6) It is useful to build learning organizations. (ii)

Workshops, seminars, forums, conferences of early childhood education.

Workshops are usually used to develop certain skills in kindergarten-based initial teacher training programs. Seminars are diverse according to solving different problems, such as a teaching seminar, academic seminar, administrative seminar, theme seminar, security seminar, health and care seminar. Forums are sponsored by special educational institutions, like Normal university, large-scale education group. Several issues will be chosen according to the needs of local developmental situation of early childhood education. In particular, some ECEC teachers from private kindergartens pay more attention to forums because it NSITP and PSITP, and private kindergartens support their teachers to improve themselves through forums. Conferences are usually sponsored by Normal university. For example, the 2019 China Academic Annual Conference of Early Childhood Education was held in East China Normal University, and the sponsors were Department of Education of East China Normal University and Specialized Committee of Early Childhood Education of The Chinese Society of Education.

Problems of Early Childhood Education and Care Teacher Training in China Despite the rapid development of the economy in China over four decades, the provision of early childhood education in the nation remains a major challenge. Early childhood education is still the weakest element in China’s education system (Chinese State Council, 2010b). There is inequitable attendance across China: the gross enrollment for eligible children was only 81.7% in 2018 (MOE, 2018c), and it was only approximately 60% in rural areas (Liang, 2019). ECEC teacher training also face many problems.

40

Y. Liu and W. Boyd

Table 3.1 ECEC teachers with educational degree in China in 2018 Number of Postgraduate Undergraduate Junior Vocational Below teachers qualification qualification college high School high qualification (Teacher school training school) Full-time teachers

2,581,363

Percentage 100%

I.

4,856

581,592

1,503,628

448,850

42,437

0.18%

22.53%

58.25%

17.39%

1.65%

The numbers of educational degree of ECEC teachers is low

Even though the total number of ECEC teachers has increased rapidly the supply of ECEC teachers is still concentrated in junior Normal colleges. The enrolling number of junior college students accounts for 74% of the total number of ECEC students, and only 65 universities have postgraduate programs, enroll about 1,000 students every year by the end of 2017 (Chen et al., 2019). Thus, in China ECEC teachers with junior college degree account for 58.25% of the total number of ECEC teachers, and the percentage of ECEC teachers with postgraduate qualification is only 0.18% of all teachers. For historical reasons, being that some ECEC teachers who worked in rural area were graduated from junior high school before 2000, there are still 42,437 ECEC teachers whose educational degree are even below high school matriculation level, and 1.65% of all teachers by the end of 2018 (MOE, 2019c). In addition, although many in-service ECEC teachers graduated from teacher training school, the number is only half of all teachers. In recent years, the percentage of ECEC teachers graduated from Normal University is gradually increasing, on the one hand, teacher training schools were abolished or upgraded to Normal colleges; on the other hand, ECEC teachers obtained higher academic certificates through in-service learning, but the percentage of undergraduate and postgraduate qualification is still very low. He the educational degree of full-time ECEC teachers nationwide in 2018 is shown in Table 3.1 (Educational Statistics Yearbook of China, MOE, 2019c). II.

ECEC teachers’ professional titles are problematic

China has a designated professional title system for ECEC teachers from high to low and includes senior, first-grade, second-grade, and third-grade. The evaluation of teachers’ professional title is in accordance with professional knowledge and ability, educational degree, work experience and performance. However, the vast majority of ECEC teachers are too busy to address the professional title, meanwhile, most private kindergartens do not pay attention to the appraisal of professional title. Therefore, the status of professional title of ECEC teachers in China is not optimistic by the end of 2018 (MOE, 2019c). The situation of no professional title of ECEC teachers in rural area is problematic, the percentage is over 80% (MOE, 2019c)- see Table 3.2

3 Contemporary Early Childhood Education …

41

Table 3.2 Professional titles of ECEC teachers in China in 2018 Total

Senior

First-grade

Second-grade

Third-grade

No Title (untrained)

Full-time teachers

2,581,363

174,8199

271,115

154,226

27,789

1,953,414

Percentage

100%

6.77%

10.5%

5.98%

1.08%

75.67%

(ii)

The number of ECEC teachers is insufficient, the ratio of teachers-children is high, and the teaching team is unstable.

According to the National Configuration Standard of Minimum Ratio of Teacherchildren (MOE, 2016), each class is no more than 25 children for 3–4 years olds, 30 children for 4–5 years olds, and 35 children for 5–6 years olds, with at least three ECEC teachers are required. There are more than 46 million children in China in 2017 (MOE, 2017), and with a ratio of 1:10, 4.6 million ECEC teachers are required. However, there are only 3.2 million ECEC teachers (MOE, 2017), the shortage is approximately 1.4 million. Due to the increasing number of children in kindergartenage, especially since the implementation of the universal Two-children Policy, the number of kindergartens are insufficient and kindergartens expand their class size. Research reveals that the ratio of teachers to children was 1:14 in the city, 1:17 in the towns, and 1: 25 in the countryside in 2016 (Hu & Hu, 2018), with extremely high ratios (1: 60) in some remote rural areas in 2008 (Yu & Liang, 2008). Young teachers with less than five year’s work experience are the main teaching staff of kindergartens (Hu, 2018). The reason is thought to be the social and economic status of ECEC teachers is very low. The salary has great influence upon those who enter studying ECEC teaching (Chen, et al., 2017). Traditionally ECEC teachers were often viewed as babysitters by the public, without much professional knowledge and ability and did not require a higher educational degree- as long as they have patience. Therefore, ECEC teachers are not respected by society compared with teachers in primary, secondary schools and universities. Also salary of ECEC teachers in most cities is low in society, and some ECEC teachers in rural areas were not receiving the basic wage in 2000s (Pang et al., 2002). Yuan (2018) found that approximately 75% of ECEC teachers earned between 2,000 and 3,000 RMB per month, and only 15% of them earned more than 3,000 RMB, while the city’s average monthly income in that year was 6,114 RMB. Hu (2018) found that the attrition is high with the average annual rate of leaving work in private kindergartens in Hebei province between 15%, and 22%. High dismission rate has caused an unstable ECEC teacher team, especially in some economically underdeveloped areas. VI.

Educational resources are not balanced, rural ECEC work is very difficult.

Educational fairness has always been an ideal of education in China. However, the regional differences in social and economic development, results in a huge gap between urban and rural education. In 2002, more than 580 billion yuan was invested

42

Y. Liu and W. Boyd

in education by the whole of society. In that year, rural areas, which account for more than 60% of the total population, received only 23% of this investment, while urban areas which accounted for the minority of the population, received the major investment (Hu & Hu, 2018). Even nowadays, with the rapid social and economic development, nine-years of compulsory education is still not guaranteed in many rural areas, and ECEC is also not guaranteed. The gross enrollment for eligible children only 81.7% in 2018 (MOE, 2018c), and it was only approximately 60% in rural areas in 2018 (Liang, 2019). The number of books in rural kindergartens is 18.1% of total books of all kindergartens (Ji & Chang, 2018). The number of ECEC teachers in remote mountainous areas are also not guaranteed, sometimes one teacher is responsible for all the work, and children are in mixed age classes exist owing to the teacher shortage. Many ECEC teachers in the remote mountainous areas do not accept professional training, and do not have an ECEC teacher qualification. Compared with their counterparts who work in urban kindergartens, their salary is much lower, and there are limited opportunities to participate in-service training (Wu, et al., 2018). That is why the vast majority of students who graduated from Normal university are not willing to return the rural or mountainous areas to work. IV.

The pre-service training quality of ECEC teachers needs to be improved

The training quality of ECEC teachers depends on high quality teachers’ team, teaching conditions, training curricula and a practical system. Zhang and Guan (2019) outlined problems of pre-service training of ECEC teachers: (1) The system of training curricula cannot be optimized and integrated according to actual and developmental needs of ECEC. (2) The latest research is not incorporated into the content of course, so it is relatively old. (3) Teacher-led classes are the main mode of teaching, with inadequate professional experience, causing students’ vocational adaptability to be relatively deficient. (4) Instructional mode is dogmatic and conservative, and teaching aims are ambiguous, which restricts the cultivation of students’ practical innovation ability. (5) The training content focuses on artistic skills such as music, dance and drawing and so on, whereas little attention is paid to educational ability. (6) The management of students’ internships is often chaotic, the number of kindergartens is not enough for students to do internship, and lack of systematic planning and arrangement for the selection, guidance and management of the internship base. As a result, students’ internship objectives are not clear and management is not standardized, it seriously restricts the students’ internship effect. In addition, the number of practical instructors is not enough, and it is difficult to give students concrete professional guidance. V.

The in-service training of ECEC teachers needs to be improved

In-service training is an important way to promote professional development of ECEC teachers Chinese State Council, 2012, 2018), and research has focused on in-service training of ECEC teachers with existing problems identified of in-service training. Nong (2013) indicated some problems of ECEC teachers’ in-service training

3 Contemporary Early Childhood Education …

43

in Nanning city: (1) Training opportunities are unbalanced. (2) Arrangement of training time is unreasonable. (3) Training content is lack of target, training methods are traditional and monotonous. (4) The mode of evaluation is inappropriate, and training pragmatically not high. Other problems of ECEC teachers in-service training include: Training opportunities and course quality are unevenly distributed; training mode and organizational form are not systematic; some teachers’ training needs are not met (Li, 2017). Other research has found that (1) ECEC teachers’ lack of motivation to participate in training. (2) Kindergarten-based teacher training is conducted independently with a lack of support. (3) In-service training focuses on explicit knowledge and ignores tacit knowledge. (4) Training time, training funding, and training quality are difficult to guarantee, and the professional level of the person in charge of the training is not high (Gong, 2019; Liu, 2008; Xia, 2006).

Measures and Suggestions for Improvement I.

To improve the treatment of ECEC teachers, especially to guarantee the basic welfare of rural ECEC teachers

The National Medium to Long Term Planning Outline for Educational Reform and Development (2010–2020) clearly indicates the importance of improving the status and treatment of ECEC teachers in accordance with the law (Chinese State Council, 2010a). Only if the basic life of ECEC teachers is guaranteed, and then can talk about how to improve the quality of ECEC. Educational policy-makers all over China have taken various measures in the training of ECEC teachers, and achieved certain effect (Zhang, 2010). The general office of the Beijing municipal government issued the Implementation Measures for The Support Plan for Rural Teachers in Beijing (2015– 2020), ECEC teachers in urban and rural areas will be given a subsidy of 1,400–4,000 RMB per month (RMB is Chinese currency) according to the distance of kindergartens in rural and mountain towns from the urban center of Beijing (MOE, 2016b). These practices aim to improve the treatment of ECEC teachers, protect the basic welfare of ECEC teachers, and is worthy of wider promotion. The fiscal budget going into ECEC, is quite important. Therefore Liang (2019) suggested the government should increase the budget of ECEC and establish a long-term mechanism to ensure funds for ECEC increased from 3.5% in 2013 to 7%. Liu and Pan (2013) indicated that local governments should implement the Outline and the State Ten Principles with positive measures based on actual local conditions and avoid making any hasty, unfounded advances. Factors including economic developmental level, distribution of eligible children, change of birth rate, flow of population and potential provision of kindergarten teachers should be taken into consideration.

44

II.

Y. Liu and W. Boyd

To establish a special training mechanism for rural ECEC teachers

According to the situation of the development of ECEC in urban and rural areas in China, special training funds for rural ECEC teachers should be established, and the annual training quota will be determined by local education authorities and kindergarten principals (Lao & Zhang, 2018). The special funds and training quota should be focused on the central and western regions. Every year, ECEC teachers in rural mountainous areas can be organized to participate in-service training in cities through winter and summer holidays or national statutory holidays, to improve the level of expertise of ECEC teachers in rural areas. Another initiative aim is to organize ECEC experts or outstanding ECEC teachers to visit rural mountainous areas and carry out volunteer teaching services. This initiative aims to bring advanced ECEC philosophy and experience to kindergartens in rural and mountainous areas to support the work of ECEC in underdeveloped areas. The local departments of education may provide favorable policies to the ECEC teachers in the appraisal of professional titles (Jiang et al., 2015). Li and Pan (2013) suggested that the government should design developmental goals according to actual conditions, reform the public revenue and tax system, and the ECEC funding system and introduce a new way to provide ECEC teachers training service. III.

To adjust the system of ECEC teachers training, and improve the quality of ECEC teacher training programs

In order to alleviate shortage of the number of ECEC teachers, the training mode can be changed to meet the actual needs of ECEC teachers in different regions between urban and rural areas. Zhang and Guan (2019) indicated that ECEC teachers training need exerts synergistic effect among local governments, teacher training institutions and kindergartens, and establishes a developmental mechanism of shared responsibility combined three sides, such as resource sharing, cooperative teaching and research between teacher training institutions and kindergartens. Moreover, in the training process, the enrollment scale needs to be reasonably adjusted through evaluating society’s needs for ECEC teachers e.g. Increasing the enrollments of students; implementing five year of joint secondary schools and vocational colleges; adding new ECEC teacher training colleges; encouraging in-service ECEC teachers through distance education;), and access to ECEC teacher training institutions should be strictly controlled, particularly, the quality standards of teaching and graduation. Furthermore, to improve training quality, the construction of the teaching team should be strengthened through stimulating teachers’ professional development or hiring high-level teachers with professional guidance for ECEC students improved. In addition, the reform of curriculum and teaching of ECEC teacher training needs to deepen, and teaching can be improved through the construction of professional experience. Another suggestion is to expanding enrollments of “Public-funded Education for Normal University Students4 ” of ECEC (MOE, 2018a). Each province can 4

The program of Free Normal Education starts from 2007 in China. If students chose this program, he/she must sign a contract with local government, and must return and work in local area where is

3 Contemporary Early Childhood Education …

45

increase the enrolment of “Public-funded Education for Normal University Students” of ECEC year by year based on the actual needs of each region. IV.

To enhance the ability of ECEC teachers’ practical reflection

In-service training aims to motivate ECEC teachers’ self-development and reflection (Liu, 2008). Before in-service training, ECEC teachers’ needs and preferences should be identified, and aligning with their career strategy (Sun & Zhang, 2019). The cultivation of intelligent teachers in practice requires teachers to have reflective ability, which refers to teachers considering themselves and educational activities thinking about them in the process of education, and continually thinking innovatively, while engaging in evaluation and exploration (Sun & Zhang, 2019). Writing reflective diaries is also a kind of reflective ability. Writing reflective diaries can not only establish a dialogue foundation between ECEC teachers and training experts, but also develop the cognitive ability and self-understanding ability of ECEC teachers and improve the practicality and pertinence of in-service training. The ECEC teachers can observe, record, communicate and summarize through teaching practice, then raise the reflective record to the level of teaching research, achieve the integration of theory and practice, teaching and research. Through teaching and scientific research activities, ECEC teachers can not only improve the teaching quality, but also widen the road of professional development.

Chapter Summary China’s ECEC teachers’ training has developed rapidly, with government-sponsored short-term intensive teacher training plans implemented, and construction of professional in-service training. This chapter has briefly introduced the status of ECEC teachers’ training and development in China, focused on current policies for ECEC teachers, identification and acquisition of ECEC teacher qualification, and the modes and channels of cultivation and training of ECEC teachers. The main problems of ECEC teachers’ training and development in China with suggestions for improvement have been presented.

References Brooks, V. (2000). In the lion’s den? Pupils and school-based initial teacher training. Educational Studies, 26(1), 101–114. Chen, S., Wang, S., & Yang, J. (2019). 70 years’ development of pre-service training system of ECEC teachers since 1947 in China: History, features and prospects. Journal of Huanggang Normal University, 39(5), 53–59. usually located in rural or mountainous area after graduation, certainly, they can get many favorable policies.

46

Y. Liu and W. Boyd

Chinese State Council. (1994). Teachers’ law of the People’s Republic of China. Beijing, China: Government of China. Chinese State Council. (2010a). National Medium to Long Term Planning Outline for Educational Reform and Development (2010–2020). Beijing, China: Government of China. Chinese State Council. (2010b). Documents of Early Education Development (National Document No. 41). Beijing, China: Government of China. Chinese State Council. (2012). Documents of Construction of Teaching Staff (National Document No. 41). Beijing, China: Government of China. Chinese State Council. (2018). Documents of Deepening Reform and Regulated Development of ECEC. Beijing, China: Government of China. Damjanovi, V., & Blank, J. (2018). Building a professional learning community: Teachers’ documentation of and reflections on preschoolers’ work. Early Childhood Education, 46, 567–575. Gong, J. (2019). A brief comment on the effective development of kindergarten-based teacher training. Course Education Research, 33, 35–36. Hu, G. (2018). Research on the reasons and countermeasures of teacher turnover in private kindergartens in Hebei province. Western Quality Education, 11, 95–96. Hu, Y., & Hu, Q. (2018). The development, achievements and problems of kindergarten teacher education in China in the 40 years of reform and opening-up. Teacher Education Research, 30(6), 1–9. Chen, J. J., Martin, A., & Mehaffey, E. V. (2017). The process and impact of the infant/toddler credential as professional development: Reflections from multiple perspectives and recommendations for policy. Early Childhood Education Journal, 45, 359–368. Ji, X., & Chang, J. (2018). Where is high quality of teachers’ team of early childhood education from? China Education News, 3/16/2018. Jiang, X., Shuang, L., & Wen, J. (2015). Discussion on early childhood teacher certification. Education Exploration, 7, 118–122. Lao, F., & Zhang, H. (2018). Research on fiscal policy of preschool education based on unbalanced regional development. Modern Economic Information, 3, 484–485. Li, M. (2017). Exploration on dilemma and outlet for in-service teacher of early childhood education. Foundations of Educational Research, 5, 17–20. Li, Y. (2008). Post-service training of early childhood teachers based on professional development (Unpublished Master thesis). Southwest University. Liang, H. J. (2019). On the development of preschool education during the 40 years’ reform and Opening-up in China and its future. Studies in Early Childhood Education, 1, 9–21. Liu, Q. (2008). Research on the school-based training of non-preschool education major teachers. Studies in Early Childhood Education, 12, 22–25. Liu, Y., & Pan, Y. (2013). A review and analysis of the current policy on early childhood education in mainland China. International Journal of Early Years Education, 21(2), 141–151. Liu, Y., & Boyd, W. (2018). Comparing career identities and choices of pre-service early childhood teachers between Australia and China. International Journal of Early Years Education. https:// doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2018.1444585 Ma, W., & Cai, H. (2012). Multi-dimensional instruction: New ideas for kindergarten teachers’ training. Education and Teaching Research, 26(7), 122–125. Manning, M., Wong, G., Fleming, C., & Garvis, S. (2019). Is teacher qualification associated with the quality of the early childhood education and care environment? Review of Educational Research, 89(3), 370–415. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2010). Teacher qualifications ordinance. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/ A10/moe_918/tnull_11555.html. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2012). Notice of the Ministry of Education on printing and distributing professional standards for early childhood teachers

3 Contemporary Early Childhood Education …

47

(trial), professional standards for primary school teachers (trial), professional standards for middle school teachers (trial). Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2016). The notice of Standards for Teaching Staff in kindergartens (interim). Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2016a). Kindergarten Working Regulation (Ministry of Education’s Document No. 39). Beijing, China: Ministry of Education, China. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2016b). The notice that the general office of the Beijing municipal government issued the Implementation Measures for the Support Plan for Rural Teachers in Beijing (2015–2020). Beijing, China: Ministry of Education, China. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2017). Educational statistics yearbook of China 2019. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www. moe.gov.cn/s78/A03/moe_560/jytjsj_2017/qg/201808/t20180808_344717.html. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2018a). The Action Plan for Invigorating Teacher Education. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http:// www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A10/s7034/201803/t20180323_331063.html. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2018b). Notice of Special Administration for the “Tendency of Kindergarten Education toward Primary Degree”. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A06/s3327/201807/t20180 713_342997.html. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2018c). Annual report on Chinese preschool education 2018. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www. moe.gov.cn/jyb_sjzl/sjzl_fztjgb/201907/t20190724_392041.html. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2018d). Annual report on Chinese preschool education 2018. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www. moe.gov.cn/s78/A03/moe_560/jytjsj_2018/qg/201908/t20190812_394222.html. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2019a). Response to recommendation no. 6681 of the second session of the 13th National Congress. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/xxgk_jyta/jyta_jijiaosi/201912/t20 191205_410918.html. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2019b). Annual report on Chinese preschool education 2019. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www. moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/s5147/202002/t20200203_417501.html. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). (2019c). Educational statistics yearbook of China 2019. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.moe. gov.cn/s78/A03/moe_560/jytjsj_2018/qg/201908/t20190812_394144.html. Nong, L. (2013). The investigation and analysis of kindergarten teachers in-service training in Nanning (Unpublished Master thesis). Southwest University. Pang, L., Hu, J., & Hong, X. (2002). Problems and Suggestions on the development of preschool education in China. Studies in Early Childhood Education, 1, 40–42. Sun, L., & Zhang, L. (2019). The developmental way on professional capacity of early childhood teachers. Journal of the Chinese Society of Education, 2, 18–21. Vescio, V., Ross, D., & Adams, A. (2008). A review of research on the impact of professional learning communities on teaching practice and student learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 80–91. Wang, H. J. (2019). Investigate and research on the effect of Short-term Intensive Training of preschool teachers’ “National Training Plan” (Unpublished Master thesis). Nuoyang Normal University. Wu, L., Zhao, J. C., & Yang, Y. (2018). Strategies of preschool teachers’ professional growth in underdeveloped region in the east China: A case study of Linyi City, Shandong Province. Educational Practice: Theory & Practice, 18(6), 3230–3238.

48

Y. Liu and W. Boyd

Xia, Y. (2006). Dialectical view on the kindergarten-based training for teachers. Studies in Early Childhood Education, 7, 14–15. Yu, Y., & Xu, Y. (2019). The gains of students, the barriers in training and the improvement of effects in teachers’ training. Education Teaching Forum, 9, 60–61. Yu, D., & Liang, H. (2008). The main problems and developmental countermeasures of ECE teachers in rural China. Studies in Early Childhood Education, 2, 13–16. Yuan, Q., & He, H. (2018). Analysis on the value of preschool education policy in rural areas. Modern Education Management, 2, 40–44. Zhang, W., & Guan, Y. (2019). The Study about the pre-service training of kindergarten teachers in Guangxi. Studies in Early Childhood Education, 24(4), 81–84. Zhang, X. (2010). Social status of early childhood teachers. Studies in Early Childhood Education, 3, 55–57. Zhou, Y., & Fan, X. (2009). History of preschool education (p. 237). Fudan University Press.

Chapter 4

Early Childhood Teacher Education in Contemporary Times Lavinia Tiko

Abstract The University of the South Pacific (USP) is the premier provider for teacher education in early childhood education and care (ECEC) for 15 campuses in the Pacific, including Fiji. This chapter focusses on the status of ECEC teacher education programmes which are offered at the USP. In addition, discussions on current policies surrounding ECEC teacher education and information on the age focus are included. Furthermore, the inclusion of the various registering bodies with which the ECEC teacher education programmes are accredited to, for example, the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) Western Senior College and University Commission (WSCUCS), the Australian Children Education, Care and Quality Authority (ACECQA), and the Fiji Higher Education Commission (FHEC) are provided to substantiate that high quality teacher education programmes offered at the USP-School of Education. Moreover, the chapter brings to the fore, common problems for example, the current situation associated with staffing including shortages and over supply of trained early childhood teachers in the region including other challenging issues that confront teachers and teacher educators.

Introduction Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) is one of the academic programmes at the School of Education (SOED), in addition to primary and secondary education. The school takes pride as the leading premier pre-service and in-service teacher education provider in the Pacific region. The mission of the SOED is to provide programmes of excellence to prospective and professed teachers for all Pacific Island schools and communities through teaching and learning, research, consultancy, publications and outreach community services. The SOED teacher education programmes believe that ethics, relevancy, accessibility and inclusivity are the cornerstones of its policies, programs, courses and outreach activities. These are L. Tiko (B) The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_4

49

50

L. Tiko

developed through partnership with the Pacific communities and international institutions and stakeholders including non-governmental organization (NGOs) like teacher unions and Save the children Fiji (SCF) for example. It upholds quality learning and teaching, and provides quality educational services as well as professional development programmes to the teachers and practicing teachers (Faculty of Arts and Law Business Plan, 2020). This focus ensures that the services provided by SOED are responsive to both the individual needs of students and their communities as well as the developmental needs of their countries. The outcome of these initiatives is to develop life-long learners who are keen to contribute constructively to society, live and interact peacefully in our diverse Pacific and global contexts. Consequently, with the global education instruments such as the Education for All (EFA), the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and recently with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)-Education 2030, instrument in place, the Pacific Island nations (PIN) are working towards making the ECEC sector a government priority. This is also due to the immense amount of research evidence showing that quality ECEC gives children a stronger foundation for formal education (Heckman, 2013) and the socio-economic implications for investing in education early as opposed to later.

Childhood Education Teacher Education Programmes As the premier provider for early childhood teacher education in the 15 campuses, the ECEC programmes are offered through either online or blended delivery mode during the semester. Courses are offered during flexi schools upon request from USP member countries; this is mostly taught on a face to face mode of delivery. The SOED offers two programmes namely the Diploma and Degree in ECEC. These undergraduate programmes are offered simultaneously to preservice as well as to in-service prospect practitioners and teacher educators. The Bachelor of Education in Early Childhood Education and Care (BEDECEC) is an undergraduate course taught in the English language and consists of 180 credit points. Advanced standing of 90 credit points is granted to students who have an accredited Diploma in Early Childhood Education and Care (DIPECEC) within the school, plus two years of experience as an early childhood (EC) teacher in an ECEC education setting. This BEDECEC normally takes three years of full-time study or part-time equivalent, and similarly for DIPECEC, a two-year full time or part time equivalent. Both programme are only offered off and on campus and in Distance Education mode. Delivery of flexi schools (both in summer and winter) are normally on a face to face mode, and this is offered only upon request from the member countries. Such face to face training is fully financed by the country that request. For instance, if the government of Fiji request such training, it is the responsibility of the Fiji government to meet the financial costs of such training including the fees of the teachers, learning and teaching resources including the trainer’s allowance.

4 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Contemporary Times

51

The early childhood teacher education program has been meeting the specific needs of our Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) student population in the 15 campuses around the Pacific region. The student population are typically women aged mid-20 to mid-40 years, who are already working in Early Childhood educational settings or early years mainstream schools and already have several years of experience. These students are usually working full time and have young families and therefore appreciate a course they can do part time and by distance education mode. The ECEC programme is fully offered online and as mentioned previously, modes of offering vary depending on the country needs. Therefore, the School of Education, USP believes in providing pathways to the profession by building on an equivalent diploma, workplace experience and through the flexibility of ‘stepping off and stepping on again’ (through approved leaves of absence/intermissions) in the BEDECEC. Students can exit the program at the end of the third year with a Bachelor of Education (Early Childhood Education and Care).

Early Childhood Team There are three persons teaching the ECEC programme and they are all qualified in their own specific ECE field of expertise. They all teach from various campuses such as Fiji’s Laucala campus, Fiji’s Lautoka campus and USP’s Republic of the Marshall Island (RMI) campus. In all these three campuses, a good number of students are enrolled in the ECEC programmes, either at the diploma or at the degree level. The presence of each personnel in these three campuses makes it viable for students to engage in face to face consultations. In contrast, students in remote and rural locations connect through virtual (online) consultations provided they have good internet access. Moodle is the learning platform used widely at the USP and the tools provide learning opportunities for all students in the attempt to provide access to education and to further the notion of ‘no student left behind’ which is specified in the Education for All instrument. The ECEC teacher education programmes prioritises students’ learning needs and is premised on the belief that students can reach their optimal level of learning to know, learning to do, learning to be and importantly learning to live together (Delors, 1996) in peace, harmony and prosperity through scaffolding opportunities. The early childhood team ‘teach through assessment’ whereby students are actively engaged in real life issues and scenarios that are contextually based. Such engagement moves students beyond the regurgitation of readings to higher levels of thinking, deeper understandings and a working knowledge of how theory informs and transforms student practice. The Professional Experience (PE) is also designed especially for students who already have a great deal of practical experience in the field. Professional Experience is embedded within each unit of study and closely linked to the unit content. Students are typically asked to identify a gap between theory and their practice and develop an action research project to address this gap.

52

L. Tiko

We find that this often brings about remarkable changes in practice while adding values to the student’s pedagogical knowledge of the workplace. Further to that, the Early Childhood Team’s role is to facilitate and scaffold learning, as previously mentioned. Therefore, each staff member is expected to scaffold students learning by building upon what they have already experienced and what they already know. Each staff is to develop and utilize multimedia materials such as virtual images to facilitate learning. The teaching staff are also expected to plan and provide opportunities to engage with students in a timely manner and important topics; support the communication process and guide students as a learner to be aware of their own learning through critical reflection. One of the crucial responsibilities is to provide meaningful feedback to improve learning and further encourage the involvement of students input to improve course content, delivery, assessment and evaluation. Thus, the idea is to work collaboratively in order to improve the pedagogical content knowledge and practice (Curtis et al., 2019) based on global best practices. In this regard the School of Education early childhood team further expects students to engage with the readings and other resources provided. Students are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning using the appropriate resources made readily available on the moodle portal where there are online educational resources (OERs) in addition to utilizing the resources provided at the University of the South Pacific Library.

Team Philosophy The USP SOED ECE team believes in social constructivist view (Vygotsky, 1978), and work towards supporting students to become members of the wider circle of learning within USP, early childhood contexts within the local communities and other communities. The team also take into account the importance of ‘quality’ and ‘relevance’ as part of the university wide focus in its mission and vision and embeds this in its ECE teacher preparation (Faculty of Arts, Law and Education Business Plan 2020). The philosophy of teaching and learning in ECEC is very different from the upper levels of education in that it uses a play-based approach (Fleer, 2009), with a focus on individuality and the uniqueness of each child, rather than seeing children as homogenous group (Sims, 2015). Thus ECEC uses a broad-base of knowledge which includes health, nutrition, holistic development, developmental psychology, leadership, art, craft, music, movement, language, working with families and early intervention (Fleer, 2004). The experiences of students in the programme is considered paramount, including their beliefs, values and practices. The team honors students’ multiple ways of demonstrating their knowledge, abilities and understanding and of course commitment towards young children and their families in their work through a responsible active approach that will see to the personal development of students’ professional approach (Hughes, 2008). Students’ way of communicating is respected, including

4 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Contemporary Times

53

understanding towards diversities, Pacific culture consciousness (Nabobo-Baba, 2005; Thaman, 2012; Tiko, 2016) and contemporary knowledge. The team’s philosophy is also guided by the intention that the ECEC programme is preparing students for varying work/employment opportunities in communities, requiring contemporary knowledge, diverse leadership problem solving and collaborative relational skills (Nabobo-Baba, 2005; Tiko, 2016).

Student’s Role in the Programme At USP-SOED, students are expected to build their professional knowledge through the course content entailed in the programme. There are ongoing assessments tasks in each unit/course which provide students with the opportunities to put into practice theoretical orientations as outcomes of either individual or collaborative tasks. In doing so, students are able to appreciate multiple forms of expressions, thinking and communication. Further, students are expected to engage in the core readings of each unit and also engage in utilizing other online educations resources (OERs), and supplementary resources provided. Moreover, students are also expected to engage in the organized activities suitably adapted to meet assessment tasks which include weekly forum discussions, perusal and workshops. The library stores display an abundance of resources where students are expected to spend significant hours working towards assessment tasks, and more so increased understanding of pedagogical content knowledge. With this, students are encouraged to use proper citations in their work, and in such case, ECEC students are encouraged to use American Psychological Association (APA) referencing style.

Age and Developmental Focus Overall the age focus for this degree is from birth to the age of eight. The student population works mainly in all of these age ranges, thus there is a strong focus in these areas, however, considering there are variations in developmental level of understanding from young children. Therefore, the idea of ‘developmentally appropriate’ (Bredekamp & Copple, 2006) and socio-culturally appropriate practice (Sims, 2011) is encouraged. The program envisaged that it is important that student’s academic and professional experience with children extends to the units in terms of assignments to be more on real classroom practice rather than theory-focused. Some units spread the age focus across the birth to age eight ranges. For example, in most of ECEC courses, the practicum component focuses on literacy and numeracy for children from birth to eight. The professional experience component covers children from birth to age eight. This also covers the mandatory birth- to-two requirement, while other areas from three to five are covered as well including years one, two and three age bracket.

54

L. Tiko

Therefore, the age focus of the programme covers the ECEC years from birth to the eight year olds.

Program Accreditation WSCUC Accreditation The University of the South Pacific, as an institution is accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission (WSCUC). WSCUC is a regional accrediting agency established for the purpose of accrediting senior colleges and universities throughout California, Hawaii, and the Pacific and a limited number of international institutions (USP Prospectus, 2020). The accreditation process has been designed to build a culture of evidence, promote a commitment to institutional improvement, validate institutional integrity, and provide feedback that improves the accreditation process itself. This is to ensure and assure stakeholders that a WSCUC-accredited institution (such as USP) has been rigorously evaluated and that it meets or exceeds the criteria required to maintain accreditation. The USP’s term of accreditation spans over a period of six years without condition, however an accreditation visit is due for 2024. WSCUC is recognized by the U.S. Department of Education (USDE) and by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) as a reliable authority concerning the quality of education provided by member institutions of higher education offering program such as associate degrees, baccalaureate degrees and postbaccalaureate degrees. With this accreditation, USP graduates (such as early childhood teachers) and academics could work in the United States of America, thus placing USP as a renowned internationally recognized institution.

Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACECQA) The Australian Children’s Education and Care Quality Authority (ACECQA) is an external accreditation agency in Australia that the USP engaged to benchmark the ECEC programme. ACECQA approves programmes and licensing of educational settings in response to meeting their quality standards. The diploma and degree in early childhood programme at the SOED responded to the requirements for Early Childhood Teacher accreditation outlined by Australian Children’s education and Care Quality Authority (ACECQA) where a four-year degree is required. However, in this in-service programme the two-year Diploma in ECEC from the University of the South Pacific and other institutions (that have an accredited Diploma in ECEC) are considered, which reduces the duration of student study if they are full time students or equivalent time to that as part timers. The current three-year in-service Bachelor

4 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Contemporary Times

55

of Education (Early Childhood Education and Care) was initiated and developed in 2010. It has been running since then and now the program has been accredited so the contents have been strengthened and aligned to international standards such as the ACECQA.

Fiji Higher Education Commission (FHEC) The diploma and degree in early childhood education and care is also recognized by the Fiji Higher Education Commission (FHEC). While its main role is to oversees the development and improvement of higher education in Fiji; FHEC aim is to ensure that leaners have the best possible opportunity to gain relevant qualifications required to support and sustain Fiji’s economic and social prosperity. FHEC regulates the registration and operation of all higher education (HE) institutions, ensuring they meet quality standards and guidelines that reflect national and international imperatives. It is also responsible for establishing and maintaining the Fiji Qualifications Framework (FQF), which enable Fiji qualification to be measured both in Fiji and internationally (fhec.org.fj/about-us/).

Cultural Values USP recognizes that traditional and cultural values differ greatly amongst the Pacific people (Nabobo-Baba, 2004). However, it was vital that in the teacher training programme, teachers learned about their own traditional patterns of child rearing and the cultural values first, in order to be able to develop the most appropriate programmes for the children in the centres (Tiko, 2016). Further to that, teachers are encouraged to use the local vernacular or mother tongue language during their play learning and teaching time. In the programme teachers are encouraged to be aware of the need to enhance traditional values, develop young children’s language abilities and stimulate mental development, as well as encourage the involvement of parents and community elders in the early childhood centres (Tiko, 2016).

Teaching Resources USP promotes the teaching resources that are environmentally user-friendly, one that is developmentally appropriate and socio-culturally appropriate. This meant that teachers need to think critically and utilized local environmental resources to support play based learning and teaching to enhance learning and development in young

56

L. Tiko

children (Whippy, 2018). Teachers are encouraged to recycle materials as learningteaching resources, develop and use improvise materials—as these are cheaply available around the environment. Whilst commercial play resources are attractive and widely available nowadays, they are costly and need to be carefully selected, as some are fragile which could pose danger to children. Further, teachers are always reminded that indoor and outdoor play equipment require careful choosing as well as regular maintenance to ensure compliance to children’s health and safety (Fleer, 2012). Open ended learning resources are encouraged as they are provokers to young children’s learning and development (Fleer, 2015). In addition, locally available reading books are recommended as they are familiar to children and helps them understand better because of its contextual nature. Considering the time, we are in, teachers are also encouraged to produce their own local reading books instead of relying on imported costly books. James (2008) argues that resources are all about imaginations, creativity, innovations, community participation, local materials with cheap and no expenditure. Thus, the ideas of sustainable resources are encouraged as the world focus on sustainable development (Siraj-Blatchford, 2009) to save planet earth.

Policies Teacher education policies at the University of the South Pacific spells out a scope for entry into the programme. In the diploma programme, students are required to pass a Senate recognized Year 13/Form 7 or equivalent examination; and a few clauses for example students to obtained at least a B+ grade in the USP Certificate level 4 and pass the required English language courses required by the university. Students could also enroll if they have a certificate from other teacher training institution with at least a B grade average point. Mature students are given recognition of prior learning and could enter into the programme should they deemed have the relevant qualification and the experience. The diploma in early childhood education and care programme (DIPECEC) has a total of 12 units and all these units are given advance standing into the degree programme. This leaves diploma graduates with another 12 units to complete the degree in ECEC or Bachelor of Education Early Childhood Education and Care (BEDECEC). Similar provisions are also provided on a case by case basis to students from other teacher training institutions. For the degree in early childhood education and care (BEDCECEC), the entry point is that, a person shall have completed the requirements for a USP diploma in ECEC; or have equivalent qualification from a recognized teacher training institution; and have taught for a minimum of two years. The BEDECEC consists of 24 courses of which 8 at 100- level, 8 at 200-level and a further 8 at 300-level. The core units are embedded within the 24 units, and this is mandatory for all students to take. The course is fully online and students are expected to complete the number of specified hours required for the programme.

4 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Contemporary Times

57

Additional Requirements Apart from policies and regulations within the degree in early childhood education and care, there are other mandatory requirements that students undertake in order to be recognized as a fully-fledged early childhood teacher. For example, students in the programme also undertake first aid and the cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) programme. The students take this programmes for a week or so and they get certificated afterwards. Students are also encouraged to have a e-portfolio outlining relevant readings and best practices they have learned during the entire duration of study. The portfolio is envisaged to be a useful resource upon their teaching. It must be noted that some of the fifteen member countries have their own teacher training colleges such as Tonga, Samoa, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands including their own teacher registration authority, for example in Fiji, the Fijian Teachers Registration Authority (FTRA), are where teachers register so they could be in the employment register regardless of whether they will be employed by the government or private sector. There are also legislations governing the teacher registration authority for example, teacher code of ethics, a full medical check, police check and children’s check as per in the requirement of the Child Protection Policy (CPP). Teachers are encouraged by law to abide by these legislations in order to be registered and fully recognized to become a full-fledged classroom teacher. This is apart from other regulations that govern teacher education within the USP.

Practical, Clinical or Work Experience All students under the ECEC programme undergo professional experience in four specific age groups of ECEC, and they are the 0–2 (child care), 3–4 (preschoolers), 5 (kindergarten), 6–8 (years 1–3). The professional experience or practicum is a course in itself Students undergo a solid seventeen weeks of face to face teaching experience in educational settings as stipulated in the table below: Practicum 0–2 years

3–4 years

5 years

6–8 years

4 weeks

4 weeks

4 weeks

5 weeks

The practicum provides links between theory and practice in early childhood education and care and in the early years’ educational settings in a more structured and meaningful way. Students are expected to demonstrate competence in the design and implementation of the indoor and outdoor lessons through learning experiences, taking an inclusive approach towards young children’s diverse learning needs in all the six specifications. The six specifications include: 1. Psychology and child development, 2. Education and curriculum studies, 3. Early childhood pedagogies, 4. Family and community contexts, 6. History and philosophy of early childhood,

58

L. Tiko

and 6. Early childhood professional practice (Early Childhood Education and Care Programme Accreditation, 2017). Activities are centered around these six specifications so students are able to show competence in each of these. Students are also expected to work on projects and conduct professional development to the teachers and parents including community in the educational setting they are in.

Advanced Standing The USP offers credit transfers to students who have relevant qualifications from other tertiary institutions. In the case of students at the USP, all those who have completed the ECEC Diploma will have an automatic credit transfer of twelve units towards the BEDECEC. This happens if students wish to progress towards the degree programme. Institutions with relevant programs may be given advance standing provided they meet the USP clause regarding advance standing.

Period of Candidature For candidates admitted under full time, they will have study duration of three years and equivalent to those on part time study. Students get re-enrolled into the programme if they have lapsed their study for sometimes.

Course Requirements To qualify for the award a candidate admitted must pass units to the value of 180 credit points which includes seventeen weeks of professional experience.

Award of the Degree Candidates who meet the course requirements shall be awarded the Bachelor of Education (Early Childhood Education and Care).

Exit Pathway Candidates who discontinue their studies due to unforeseen circumstances must apply for readmission and will be subject to the current requirements of the Bachelor

4 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Contemporary Times

59

of Education (Early Childhood Education and Care). This mean that they may not receive full recognition of their previous studies should the course structure have changed in the period between their discontinuation and readmission.

Professionalism Students are encouraged to maintain professionalism and respect the values of the institution at all times during the tenure of their studentship (Excellence in Uniquely Pacific Learning and Innovation, 2010). As students graduate, what they learn at the institution amply prepares them well as they join the world of work. The teacher code of ethics of teaching are a reminder that they are a chosen people whom the young children look up to for educational knowledge, care and development. They are seen as exemplars and mentors to young children and to the community they serve in.

Common Problems Associated with ECEC Staffing (Shortages and Over-Supply) Status of staffing issues varies across the Pacific Island countries. Fiji today, staffing may longer be an issue as most of the early childhood centres (specifically the Kindergarten) have two or more teachers to cater for the number of young children enrolled. The Fijian Ministry of Education (MoE) have seriously eased this issue which had been longstanding for a while. However, there may be still some staffing issues with the below fives as the Fiji MoE has not really given much attention on these age groups. The onus lies on the child-care and preschool management authorities to sort staffing issues which at times hiring of person whether be female or male who have interest in young children’s learning, growth and development. In most cases in the rural, remote-rural, and semi urban–rural locales, staff’s recruitment may be anyone who has reached an acceptable level of education for example year 10 level. Staffing in terms of teacher education at the University of the South Pacific remain an issue. Currently, there are three staffs as mentioned earlier on in the chapter, minus the staff from the Republic of the Marshall Island Campus, leaves only two staffs to man the regional institution’s teacher education programme. This is a huge overload for two staffs to teach a programme and considering the model used by the institution, makes staffs overworked and overloaded. The outcome could be seen where staffs cannot publish; and considering the fact that the staffs are required to publish. Having said that, there is no space provided for publication, however staffs must find their own spaces to do this. It could be said that this is an unfriendly environment where staffs are not supported with space to do so. Publications is important for staffs as this is a pre-requisite to one’s promotion and salary increment.

60

L. Tiko

Other Issues and Challenges Generally, teacher education in the Pacific, including early childhood is at the crossroads. Global influence and the so called inheritance of outdated, cumbersome, colonial and neocolonial education structures (Sims & Tiko, 2016), ideologies, values and attitudes wherein curriculum, pedagogy and assessment continue to reflect twentieth century ways of learning, knowing and doing. On the other side is the desire for governments to implement reforms they believe will bring the education (including ECEC teacher education) and economic systems on par with the global world (Puamau, 2007). The notion of ‘playing catch-up’ with the rest of the world, usually known as Western ideologies has never been easy and poses challenges for Pacific countries which have with limited resources and small economies. Fiji for example continue to struggle with issues associated with basic education provision, resource and infrastructural development, curriculum relevance, indigenous education, teacher education which includes ECEC. With all mentioned, it is the mindset of people (Camaitoga, 2008) that matters and this is explained next.

Dismantling of Mindset Over the years, one of the pressing issues in early childhood education and care is understanding the cultural context of the people. Students in the ECEC programme, tend to think that white pedagogies are better than their own cultural ways of learning, knowing and doing. For example, in Fiji, there is a vaka-Viti space—this is the cultural space that defines how things are done in Fijian or ITaukei to be specific. Likewise, in Tonga, the faka-Tonga and similarly in Samoa, fa’a Samoa. The vaka, faka, fa’a situates the importance of cultural space that needed to be understood by graduates and maybe anybody that engages in learning and teaching including research. Understanding culture is vital and the literature (Thaman, 1999, NaboboBaba, 2006) suggest that it is a way of life, a way of knowing of a discrete group of people, which includes its accumulated body of knowledge, skills, beliefs and values. The focus of the issue here is graduates’ understanding the contexts of young children. For instance, in Fiji, when a child enters an education setting, they already know who they are and what culture they belong to. They already have the cultural skills such as knowing their first language or mother tongue and if this is validated at school, the child or children will have greater confidence in themselves due to familiar context (Tiko, 2016; Whippy, 2018).

4 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Contemporary Times

61

Copycat Mentality This is an inescapable part of the Pacific’s historical experience, that most teacher education institutions take on the model of the Wester education system and its patterns. This is still very much evident in most ECEC educational settings adopting curricula, pedagogical approaches, assessment methods and the like derived solely from foreign theories of learning and teaching without much though on their appropriateness to the Pacific and in particular, the Fijian context. Vygotsky, Piaget, Bruner, Maslow and Gardiner continued to be seen as superior compared to the Pacific theories such as Thaman, Nabobo-Baba, Tiko, Whippy, Lagi, Camaitoga and the like. Teaching practice models continued to be imported from other contexts and accumulated issues and dilemma continue to be seen because of such differences.

Culture Sensitive Pedagogy Puamau (2007) asserted that teacher education training programmes including ECEC continue to resemble closely what happens in the Pacific neighboring countries such as New Zealand and Australia, including the United Kingdom. As of today, the current government thinks that Fiji should follow the Singaporean education model. This clearly tells that education system does not value the Indigenous epistemologies, the culture and the value systems of the Fijian/iTaukei people. As a result, children are affected as they seem to see schooling as alien and unfriendly, offering irrelevant content and using practices that marginalized and lead to the underachievement of students. Therefore, there is a need for recognition of culture-sensitive pedagogy reflected in policy and practice in teacher education programmes and also in schools so to speak (Hayashikawa, 2008).

Moral or Values Education Values education has now become one of the serious issues in early childhood teaching. In these new times of rapid social, cultural, political, economic and technological change, one cannot afford to ignore the importance of fostering values and make moral and ethical judgements/decisions to everyday life or living. While moral values are integrated in the teacher education courses, yet, teachers are still found to display unethical approaches in the teaching arena, while they are supposed to be exemplars to the children they teach! Maybe teacher education institutions such as the USP must again reiterate and develop in ECEC teachers the need for integrity and sound character, who will be able to guide young children into making admirable moral and ethical choices in their learning and living.

62

L. Tiko

Professional Development Another gap that exists is outdated content knowledge in the teacher education institutions and more-so the teacher educators who need to keep abreast with current education trends, initiatives, policies and practices that will help in their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of learning and teaching (Tiko, 2017). This could be solved if teachers attend professional development sessions, go for in-service training and read around relevant literature that support and will improve their work in terms of theory and practice. In addition, there should be a better coordination mechanism between the Ministries of Education and the teacher education institutions on educational reforms or any international development of significance to teaching and learning (Toganivalu, 2008). A question that needed to asked may be, how many ECEC teacher educators or ECEC teachers in schools know of the most recent educational reform at the national and international level, or are familiar with international education documents like the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the previous Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Education for All (EFA) and others alike. How can ECEC teachers weave in knowledge into their practice?

Qualification There is no escaping to the fact that there is shortage of experienced, and appropriately trained ECEC teachers around the Pacific Island Countries. While such issue varies amongst the smaller Pacific island countries, some hire mothers and school leavers to teach young children as mentioned earlier on. This was the case for Fiji in the last few years, but now, the government have stressed and encourage all those involved with young children to have a formal teaching qualification either with a certificate, diploma or at degree level. Further to that, teachers are required by law to be registered with the Fiji Teachers Registration Authority (FTRA) before they could be allowed to enter a classroom to teach. The child being the most important priority in the registration equation, FTRA ensures that in this way that the best teachers are allowed to teach in the classroom. Other than that, no person is allowed to teach without a formal ECEC teaching qualification.

Monitoring and Evaluation Monitoring and evaluation of ECEC teachers’ practice is a general major concern for the Pacific. This chapter is arguing that each country’s Ministry of Education could begin this exercise in collaboration with teacher training institution to see how well teachers have performed their role in alignment to what is required of them in their

4 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Contemporary Times

63

work- from theory to practice especially in the syllabi—and how it is translated to meaningful outcomes in each country. In addition, and most importantly, a research study could be undertaken to this effect—to measure the classroom performances of ECEC teachers and how effective their study has been.

Conclusion This chapter has provided some insights into Early childhood teacher education in this contemporary time for the Pacific Islands. USP as a premier teacher education institution has continuously trained early childhood teachers across the Pacific Islands who have contributed to the development of their countries, with the inclusion of Fiji, considered to be the most developed country in the USP region. Shortages of qualified staffs remain an issue, even ‘over-supply’ of trained staff today due to lack of forecasted future, which for example in Fiji today has left teacher graduates to be employed in other sectors. Other Pacific islands may be similar, however a lot of graduates have left for overseas to work and of course for greener pastures. Untrained staffs also pose problems as these teachers lack the pedagogical content knowledge of early childhood education, care and development (ECECD). When this happens, a vicious cycle occurs and results in issues for example, of non-readers and child abuse to name a few. Therefore, the future of early childhood teacher education is highly dependent on improving collaborative effort with the Ministries of Education in the Pacific Island countries. The biggest hurdle is the mindset, where everyone needs to be educated to support what we could call the best for our children, and when we have a cohort of ECEC teachers who are vibrant, visionary and futurist. It is further envisaged that strengthening collaborative partnerships between teacher training institutions and the Ministries of Education play a pivotal role in expanding and improving ECEC teacher education policies which could result in better teacher graduate outcomes.

References Bredekamp, S. & Copple, C. (2006). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs: Serving children from birth to eight. NAEYC. Camaitoga, U. (2008). The way forward for ECCE in the Pacific islands. In Early childhood care and education in the Pacific. Institute of Education. The University of the South Pacific. Curtis, E., Martin, R., & Broadley, T. (2019). Teacher and teaching education. Science Direct, 77–86. Delors, J. (1996). Treasure within. United Nations Educational Science and Cultural Organisation. Paris. France. Early Childhood Education and Care Programme Accreditation. (2017). The University of the South Pacific. Suva. Fiji. Excellence in Uniquely Pacific Learning and Innovation. (2010). The University of the South Pacific prospectus. The University of the South Pacific. Suva.

64

L. Tiko

Faculty of Arts, Law and Education Business Plan. (2020). The University of the South Pacific. Suva. Fiji. Fleer, M. (2004). The cultural construction of family involvement in early childhood education: Some indigenous Australian perspectives. The Australian Educational Researcher, 31(3), 51–68. Fleer, M. (2009). A cultural-historical perspective on play: Play as a leading activity across cultural communities. In Play and learning in early childhood settings (pp. 1–17). Springer. Fleer, M. (2012). The development of motives in children’s play. Motives in children’s development: Cultural-historical approaches (pp. 79–96). Cambridge University Press. Fleer, M. (2015). Pedagogical positioning in play—Teachers being inside and outside of children’s imaginary play. Early Child Development and Care, 185(11–12), 1801–1814. Hayashikawa, M. (2008). Global and regional imperatives. In Early childhood care and education in the Pacific. Institute of Education. The University of the South Pacific. Heckman, J. (2013). The economic case for Investing in young children. In National business leader summit on early childhood investment, Atlanta, GA. September 22. Hughes, D. (2008). Teacher education in ECCE. In Early childhood care and education in the Pacific. Institute of Education. The University of the South Pacific. James, J. 2008. Resources for ECE. In Early childhood care and education in the Pacific. Institute of Education. The University of the South Pacific. Sims, M. (2015). Social justice, children’s needs and rights: An approach to planning. Journal of Curriculum and Teaching, 4(2), 122–129. Nabobo-Baba, U. (2005). Knowing and learning: An indigenous Fijian approach. The University of the South Pacific. Nabobo-Baba, U. (2004). Research and Pacific indigenous peoples: Silenced pasts and challenged futures. Researching the Pacific and indigenous peoples: Issues and perspectives: pp.17–32. Siraj-Blatchford, J. (2009). Education for sustainable development in early childhood. International Journal of Early Childhood, 41(2), 9. Thaman, K. (2012). Reclaiming a place: Teachers and the education of the Indigenous people. Key Note Address in the MATSITI National Conference, July 9–11. In https://pdfs.semanticscholar. org/b821/ec372cbebb4acb38004c5035e6eefc64bd43.pdf The University of the South Pacific Strategic Plan. (2020). The University of the South Pacific. Suva. Fiji. Tiko, L. (2016). The Indigenous Fijian Notions of Child Development: understanding children’s ways of learning, knowing and doing and implication for policy and practice in the early years of school. Unpublished PhD thesis. Tiko, L. (2017). Creating an early childhood curriculum pathway for sustaining indigenous Fijian cultural knowledges. NZ International Research in Early Childhood Education Journal, 20(1), 17–33. Toganivalu, D. (2008). Early childhood care and education in the Pacific: Reflections of our past, our present and future. In Early childhood care and education in the Pacific. Institute of Education. The University of the South Pacific. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.

Chapter 5

The Role of Early Childhood Teachers in Finnish Policy Documents—Training Teachers for the Future? Heidi Harju-Luukkainen and Jonna Kangas

Abstract During the last few years all steering documents in Finland, on the field of early childhood education, have been renewed. This have had its effects on the practices on the field, but also on the teacher education. In this paper we explore, with the help of content analysis, three different policy documents that are steering the quality of teacher education in Finland. We examine the role that teachers are given in these documents from three categories. These categories are defined by the Ministry of Education and Culture in Finland and they describe the objectives for both pre-service and in-service training. As our theoretical frame we describe current policies and practice within the field of ECEC. We point out the responsibilities of different stakeholders and describe the structure of the Finnish early education system with qualification requirements. According to the results, recent policy documents highlight the current knowledge and role of teacher’s but point out only occasionally towards needed future competencies.

Introduction to the Finnish ECEC System In Finland there are several policy documents steering the ECEC provision. At national level, ECEC is a responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Culture and the national expert agency for ECEC is the Finnish National Agency of Education. The Ministry of Education on Culture designs the acts and the Finnish National Agency of Education develops tools to put them into practise. There are also international, national, and local policy documents governing early childhood education and care in Finland. On the international level, the guiding documents come from European Commission (1996), the United Nations (1989, H. Harju-Luukkainen (B) Nord University, Levanger, Norway e-mail: [email protected] University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland J. Kangas University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_5

65

66

H. Harju-Luukkainen and J. Kangas

2006), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) (1994). Further, the content of ECEC is guided by the national curriculum for early childhood education (ages 1–5; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2018) and national curriculum for preschool education (age 6; Finnish National Agency for Education, 2018). Naturally, also other Acts and policy documents are guiding the work in ECEC settings, but with a smaller impact regarding the everyday pedagogical work. The Finnish early childhood education working teams are multi professional, consisting of professional with varying combination of qualifications. The teams consist of at least one teacher with an academic bachelor’s degree and two assistant teachers with lower educational degrees. Further, the law of early childhood education (Finnish law of early childhood education 540/2018) declares the child-teacher ratios. For a maximum of every four child under the age of three and for seven children over the age of three, there needs to be one teacher with an bachelor’s degree. It is common practice that a team consisting of three staff members is in charge of a group of 21 three to five years olds or 12 one to two year old children. Social sustainability is highlighted in the Finnish policy documents which creates equitable well-being and liveable communities in the future. Here especially accessibility, quality and affordability of each childhood education plays an important role (Garvis et al., 2019). One of the key principles of the ECEC system is therefore the universalism, meaning that everyone should have access to good-quality services (Paananen et al., 2018). In practise this means that when parents need an ECEC placement for their child they contact the local municipality and within three months they get one. Therefore in Finland, every child (10 months to 6 year-olds) have a subjective right to participate in public ECEC (Finnish law of early childhood education, 540/2018). In 2015 68% of 4-years-olds, 76 percent of 5-years-olds and almost 100 percent of 6-year-olds participated in ECEC (Karila et al., 2017; OECD, 2016). These are much lower percentages compared for instance, to the other Nordic countries (Garvis et al., 2019) and to other OECD countries (2019), where the average is 87% amongst 3–5-year olds.

The Concept of Finnish Early Childhood Education Finnish ECEC pedagogy is described as systematic and goal-oriented activities based on multidisciplinary knowledge, particularly in the fields of educational sciences and early childhood education, that are professionally managed and implemented by professional personnel aiming to support children’s well-being and learning by the National Curriculum Guidelines (2018). In addition, Finnish pedagogy of early childhood education is understood to be as a dynamic and holistic process of interaction, scaffolding and joint meaning making where the children together with teachers shape the culture of their society, its practices and values through active meaning making (Kangas et al., 2016; Kumpulainen, 2018). For this kind of early childhood education solution teachers need to be high qualified professionals who are able to

5 The Role of Early Childhood Teachers in Finnish Policy Documents …

67

design, plan, implement, modify, document, evaluate and finally develop the education, their teaching, the interaction in the classroom and their professional skills. In Finland there are no readymade lesson plans, no textbooks or ready printed material for classes and no teachers’ guidebooks for the daily education. Therefore, the National Core Curriculum for ECEC (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2018, 31) define the role of teachers by underlining: “The preschool teacher has the overall responsibility for planning the activities for the group of children, the implementation of activities with a goal-oriented and systematic approach as well as the assessment and development of the activities.” Teachers are expected to create the classes by paying attention to children’s personal skills, competences and needs for learning. (Kangas & Brotherus, 2017). In their everyday practices teachers observe children’s development and skills, interact with children as individuals and as a group, design, implement and evaluate activities and children’s learning, and finally reflect on their own professional skills, cultural routines of class and policy documents such as curriculums to develop the practical ECEC further (see Kangas et al., 2019; Karila & Kinos, 2012). The entire ECEC in Finland is built on a holistic view of children’s growth, development, and learning, including pedagogical knowledge, phenomenon based (cross-curricular) knowledge, and pedagogical interaction and expertise (Finnish law of early childhood education 540/2018). Therefore, it can be said that Finnish early childhood education is planned to create the foundation for a child’s lifelong learning, balanced growth and development, well-being and health (Education and Research 2011–2016, 2012). The latest Finnish curriculum of ECEC was introduced in 2016 and updated in 2018. This document renewal can be seen as a part of a larger reform process of Finnish curriculums, but also of the entire education system, which took place between years 2014–2016 (Välijärvi & Sulkunen, 2016). During the process, for example the values of education and the greater goals, called transversal competencies were created and a path of ongoing learning from early education to higher education were created through these transversal competencies (More about the reform and the transversal competencies Kumpulainen, 2018 and Niemi et al., 2016). There are several concepts that are central for the Finnish ECEC. These are for instance the children’s agency and possibilities to participation, children as members of the society and children’s right to playful learning. In the latest Finnish early childhood education guidelines the promotion of children’s agency and participation are seen an essential (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2018; Kangas et al., 2016). In the whole process the view of children’s competences and agency are underpinned by the understanding that children are not merely receivers of knowledge, but creators of meaningfulness and full members of the society. Teachers are challenged to implement pedagogical methods to support children to become active agents of their learning and to create shared learning experiences (Sairanen et al., 2019; Välijärvi & Sulkunen, 2016; Kangas et al., 2016). According to Sairanen et al. (2019) latest research, the Finnish teachers are not only delivering the curriculum but they are making their own pedagogical choices and designing the pedagogy so that the children’s agency, learning materials and the context (subjects) were taken into

68

H. Harju-Luukkainen and J. Kangas

account. In this process teachers were mentioned to have agency when designing and conducting the pedagogy (Sairanen et al., 2019). In the Finnish IEA Preprimary Study, when teachers of 4-year-olds were interviewed about their expectations of the children’s learning and development in eight different areas, the results underlined that the three most important skills, in order of importance, were social competence, self-sufficiency, and language competence (Montie et al., 2007). In the Finnish educational context playful learning is a highly valued approach, where children’s natural way of acting, exploring and understanding of the world is emphasised (see Kangas et al., 2019; Sintonen et al., 2015). In this approach teachers play an important role in taking into account children’s own initiative and further promoting these as a part of the joint meaning making process. Thus, imagination shapes these meaningful and productive learning processes where children’s participation in the society and the world around them becomes evident (Thomas & Seely Brown, 2011). The role of parents in early education is also considered strong, and staff should practice open and dialogic education to emphasise parents’ participation to the services. (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2018; Uusimäki et al., 2019). It is however argued that teachers have a limited understanding of how to address people with different family, social and ethnic backgrounds (Layne & Dervin, 2016) and proposed new reflectional models to support parents’ participation (Lastikka & Lipponen, 2016) including twice a year held discussion about the child’s interest, strengths and competencies (Finnish law of early childhood education 540/2018).

ECEC Teacher Training in Finland The bachelor’s degree, that is required of ECEC teachers, is a three-year degree earned from a university or from a university of applied sciences. The minimum requirement for a teacher is a bachelor’s degree in education or in social sciences. Other personnel should have at least a vocational upper secondary qualification in the field of social welfare or health care. The 1995 Act on Pedagogical Studies and Teacher Education (Asetus kasvatustieteellisen alan tutkinnoista ja opettajankoulutuksesta) defines which universities in Finland can educate teachers and, on a general level, the content requirements of each program. For example, the main goal of Finnish teacher training is to develop inquiryoriented teachers (Jyrhämä & Maaranen, 2012). In doing so, teachers will be able to combine both theoretical and practical knowledge and, based on this knowledge, form a practical but personal theory that is applicable to their classroom. While programs do conduct research in the field, in Finland being research-based also focuses on developing teaching candidates’ pedagogical thinking and decision making, especially in regards to how to justify his/her decisions (see Kansanen, 2006). Since 2007, prospective students have been required complete a written examination as part of their admittance process, adding to the competitiveness to enter the teacher training programs. This exam is administered by VAKAVA (Valtakunnallinen kasvatusalan valintayhteistyöverkosto), a cooperative network of teacher training programs, and

5 The Role of Early Childhood Teachers in Finnish Policy Documents …

69

provides a single application process to all member programs in Finland. Those students who are the most successful on the VAKAVA examination are then selected to continue in the application process. Since the VAKAVA is demanding, students in Finnish teacher training programs tend to be older than are those students in many other countries that also require entrance exams (see Hauschildt et al., 2015).

Educating Teachers for the Future? Teacher education is constantly battling with a discrepancy. We are supposed to educate teachers for the future, but we do not know how the future looks like. We only have research based information of the moment at hand and the past. Therefore, educating teachers for the future needs continuous development from many instants in the policy chain of the education system. Also one of the important aspect of this work is to identify most likely challenges in the future that needs to be addressed with the help of teacher education. At the same time teacher education is teaching teachers for the future, since teachers with current education will be working for decades in the future. In 2016 Finnish government founded a teacher education forum to guide and discuss the future needs of the teacher education in Finland. The founding document of the forum defines and predicts some of the existing and future challenges of teachers’ profession and states the goals for teacher education itself as following: Teacher’s work is knowledge intensive expert work, and demanding interactive work in changing contexts. The current challenges in a teacher’s work include e.g. increasing diversity of pupils/students and families, changing working contexts due to the availability and usage of knowledge and digitalisation, and learning focused emphasis in instruction. For this demanding work, a teacher needs versatile pedagogical skills and content knowledge, especially capabilities related to learning and instruction, interaction, well-being and school development. Teacher competence is the major factor influencing on student learning. The most important task of teacher education is to support learning to teach throughout the career. Finnish academic teacher education provides solid basis for a teacher’s work, although inservice teacher education requires significant developments. Teacher education and teacher educators are makers of future teachers, and thus, it is necessary to develop them in researchbased manner. Here the national strategy for research on teacher education is crucial. (Husu & Toom, 2016, 5).

Further Toom and Husu (2016) suggest, that in Finland teachers’ autonomy and the opportunities teachers have to explore and innovate what works in their practice, is part of the accommodation process in the evolving Finnish Education System. Also that year, the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (2016) published a strategic policy document about refinements to teacher training in Finland on all levels. It defines future objectives for both pre-service and in-service training. The main objectives emphasise the need to provide perspective Finnish teachers with a wide basic knowledge, expertise and acting that creates innovations, and both individual and organisational expertise (see Fig. 5.1; Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2018).

70

H. Harju-Luukkainen and J. Kangas

Fig. 5.1 Objectives for future teacher competence in Finland (translated from Finnish; Ministry of Education & Culture, 2016)

Research Question During the latest years Finnish ECEC system has undergone a transformation regarding its guiding documents. In this study our aim is to take a closer look at these documents and the role that they give ECEC teachers. From the premises, we have formulated three research question. Our questions were (1) what are the areas of knowledge future teachers should have? (2) how are creativity and active agency stated in the descriptions of a future teachers’ professional skills? and (3) how the teachers are understood to develop their skills in the future? (Table 5.1).

Data As data for this research we use four policy documents published by the different levels of the Finland ECEC system between years 2017–2019 (Table 5.2). The first document is called the roadmap for early childhood education 2030 (Karila et al., 2017), published by the Ministry of Education and Culture. The second one is a document giving guidelines and recommendations for evaluating the quality of early

5 The Role of Early Childhood Teachers in Finnish Policy Documents …

71

Table 5.1 Policy documents used in this research, publisher, year and the intended audience Name

Publisher

Year

Audience

Online access

The roadmap for early childhood education 2030 (Karila et al., 2017)

Ministry of Education and Culture

2017

Municipalities organising ECEC services, Teacher education programs in Universities

http://julkaisut.valtio neuvosto.fi/bitstr eam/handle/10024/ 80221/okm30.pdf

Guidelines and FINEEC—Finnish recommendations for Education evaluating the quality Evaluation Centera of early childhood education and care

2018

Municipalities organising ECEC services, Teacher education programs in Universities

https://karvi.fi/en/ early-childhood-edu cation/guidelinesand-recommendati ons-for-evaluatingthe-quality-of-earlychildhood-educationand-care/

The Quality Finnish teacher Standards for Future student association Teacher Education in SOOL Finland

2019

Teacher education programs at Universities

https://www.sool.fi/ in-english/goals-forteacher-education/

a FEEC

operates under the Finnish National Board of Education

Table 5.2 The analysis framework. Amount of identified sentences in each category and subcategory Total number of sentences found across three documents

Sub-categories Teacher’s role(s)

Values of teaching

Future competencies

42

22

16

4

Teachers as creative 34 and active agents

19

9

6

Teachers’ life-long learning and organisational expertise

24

9

4

11

Mentions in total

100

50

29

21

Teachers’ knowledge

childhood education and care published by the FEEC (2018). The last document is published by Finnish Teacher Student Association describing the Quality Standards for Future Teacher Education (2019). All of these documents can be considered as documents describing the quality giving guidelines to experts in order to make decision regarding the future teacher education, teachers’ duties, and teachers’ job descriptions on several levels. They describe the teacher’s job from a country

72

H. Harju-Luukkainen and J. Kangas

perspective, municipal perspective, private/public sector perspective and also from university’s perspective.

Systematic Content Analysis as Method In this paper we use systematic content analysis. For our content analysis framework we use the latest policy document published by the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (2016) describing the goals for all teacher training in Finland. It defines future objectives for both pre-service and in-service training on three levels. These three areas are (1) wide basic knowledge, (2) expertise and acting that creates innovations and (3) both individual and organisational expertise (see Fig. 5.1). Our thematic content analysis was conducted on the basis of these three categories. Leedy and Omrod (2001) describes content analysis as ‘a detailed and systematic examination of the content of a particular body of material for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes or biases’ (p. 155). Therefore in this study, the content is not steering the analysis, but the framework document from the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (2016) is. The documents were analysed by the research team, exploring any description connected to the three above mentioned areas. These three areas are described closer in the document by the Ministry of Education and culture (2016) as following: The first area of wide basic knowledge in education, teaching and learning requires teachers of the future to have a deep didactical competence, pedagogical expertise, understanding of values, social, and ethical questions in education, understanding about learning environments, and competence to predict future. The second theme of creative expertise and innovative agency consisted of items such as teachers’ curriculum knowledge, creativeness and curiosity to develop new innovations and solutions, as well as reflective and evaluative skills. The third area focused on individual development and organisational expertise and there are competencies such as development of operational and organisational culture, development of professional skills, and co-operational and networking skills and competencies. The research team then did searchers for ‘chunks of meaning’ within the documents. There were in total 100 sentences identified across the documents considering teachers’ knowledge, skills and future roles. The identified material was then discussed and shared amongst the researchers to define their meaning under the thematic approaches from the document by the Ministry of Education and culture (2016) meanings were further divided in three categories ‘the areas of knowledge’, ‘creative and active agents’ and ‘developmental competence’ as explained above. These were then further divided into sub-categories: teacher’s role, values and future competencies. According to Leedy and Omrod (2001) this type of an approach leads to highest level of objective analysis as the identification of material can be studied and discussed, allowing the quality examined to be mutually agreed upon. This kind of documentary research holds a critical position in the development of both social science and educational practice. When setting up policy documents the politician

5 The Role of Early Childhood Teachers in Finnish Policy Documents …

73

are not always familiar with different discourses having influence on education and teachers’ work. The policy document level and the day-to-day implementation may not always meet in the way the policy makers have aimed for (see Kangas et al., 2019). Research on document sources has particular applicability in educational sciences, as educational systems consistently produce excessive amounts of documentary data (Punch & Oancea, 2014).

Results In the following section we describe our findings divided into the three categories. These three categories are highlighted as objectives for future teacher competency by the Ministry of Education and Culture in Finland (Ministry of Education & Culture, 2016). During the analysis three sub-categories emerged. These were connected to a) teacher’s role(s), values of teaching and future competencies (see Fig. 5.1 closer). The content in these three sub-categories are described under each objective as following.

Knowledge Areas of Future Teachers The first insight is for future teacher’s pre- and in-service training according to the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (2016) strategic policy document were teachers’ wide basic knowledge. Within this category emerged mentions varied around teachers’ role as the implementor of educational practices as well as a role model for the children. Teacher were described to have knowledge and skills for scaffolding children skills in socially, cognitive and artistic skills and be experts of wholistic teaching to provide transversal learning experiences. Pedagogical excellency was a key element: Teachers were considered as independent actors whose role was bring together curriculum, children’s personal needs, parents wishes and merge all these using pedagogical expertise. Totally 25% of all the mentions in this category had to do with pedagogical expertise. Teacher’s role was also to be capable of creating suitable learning environment and being expert of materials and methods, like in the quote from Finnish teacher student association SOOL (2019) “Teacher education should use different methods and equipment diversely and teach the student how to use them pedagogically.” Finally, the role of teacher was to scaffold children participation and belonging in the classroom through care and active listening, as the FINEEC—Finnish Education Evaluation Centre (2018) document states: “teachers ensure that each child thrives in early childhood education and care. The children feel they are heard and valued just as they are.” Values were mentioned also within this category and teachers are expected to both understand the important role of childhood in human life, but also support children to join and participate in the society from very first years of their life. Teachers were also expected to be role models of sustainable and inclusive society for children and

74

H. Harju-Luukkainen and J. Kangas

families like stated in The roadmap for early childhood education 2030 (Karila et al., 2017) “…the role of the teacher as a role model in teaching sustainable lifestyles.” However, the future trends and life-long-learning were rarely mentioned, but the future goals for teachers skills were set for environmental issues and the use of ITC like evident in following quotation from the the roadmap for early childhood education 2030 by the Ministry of Education and Culture (Karila et al., 2017) “Recently, issues such as ICT, early language learning and environmental education have emerged alongside these as areas requiring strong expertise.”

Teachers as Creative and Active Agents The second insight is for future teacher’s pre- and in-service training according to the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (2016) strategic policy document was teacher’s as creative and active agents. Teacher’s role was seen in this category as following. The documents described teachers’ agency and interaction skills as important and teachers were expected to be expert in multi-professional co-operation and interaction. The role of teachers in the agency theme was understood to be safe and responsible member of society who could create learning environments and atmosphere in schools warm and positive, and interaction with children but also with parents to be understood wide and holistic, like the document by the Finnish teacher student association SOOL (2019) mentions: “Teacher education should include the opportunity to study different communication methods that support interaction and speech and alternative communication methods.” Strong values were shaping the teachers’ work in this category. Critical understanding of the curriculum together with reflective practices was mentioned in all the documents. Teachers’ were expected to understand not only the curricula but also to be critical and shape the values of society to support children to become responsible human beings. This was states as following “…will also help the teacher see what is essential in growing up and what ultimately are the educational goals, content and methods that can help the child in this process of growing up.” (Karila et al., 2017). Further, the life-long-learning and organisational expertise were considering teachers”key role’ in and their professional values about the changing the society. Teachers were expect to be more research oriented and more critical, like in the next mention from the the the roadmap for early childhood education 2030 pulished by the Ministry of Education on Culture (Karila et al., 2017): “The rapid increase of the amount of knowledge and the growing research findings in the field of early childhood education require the knowledge processing skills of the teachers. They also involve a critical attitude to knowledge.” In general the theme of creative and active agents teachers in Finland are expected to be the best experts of the society of multitude themes, topics and also provide excellent learning experiences to children. The statement of the Finnish teacher student association SOOL (2019) describes teachers’ agency to cover pretty much every aspect in the society and a bit more regarding future trends:

5 The Role of Early Childhood Teachers in Finnish Policy Documents …

75

“Teacher education should give the student the skills to teach the following subjects related to being a societal actor: – emotional skills and communication skills – environment: combating climate change, sustainable development – equality: equality education, language awareness and cultural diversity, democratic education, sex education, gender awareness, social justice – financial literacy: consumer and entrepreneurship education – multiliteracy”.

Teachers’ Life-Long Learning, Individual and Organisational Expertise The third insight is for future teacher’s pre- and in-service training according to the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (2016) strategic policy document was teacher’s both individual and organisational expertise including life-long learning. These competencies were strongly depending on both the role and the values of teachers. In general teachers were stated to need strong multi-professional networking skills as well as competence for assessment based personal development. Teacher’s role in a team of educators was described to be dualistic in the future. Teachers should both be aware and capable of critical evaluation towards the practices, the curriculum and the organisational culture. At the same time teachers should act as a leader for the other working staff like the FINEEC—Finnish Education Evaluation Center (2018) document mentions about both values and roles of the teachers “[a teacher] is responsible for the goal-oriented and methodical leadership, evaluation and development of their units’ pedagogy and the staff’s opportunities for learning in their work.” In the sub-category future goals and life-long-learning were the majority of mentions. Three main areas were addressed considering development and future. Firstly the parents’ role in early childhood education should be strengthen. Secondly, the leadership skills (as mentioned also above) were mentioned and thirdly the teachers’ continuous learning skills and their own understanding of their role model of life-long learning as stated in the Finnish teacher student association SOOL’s document about The Quality Standards for Future Teacher Education in Finland (2019) “Planning the teacher’s professional development should be started during teacher education.”

Conclusion As described in this chapter the steering documents defining teacher training and early childhood education in Finland has been renewed during the latest years. In

76

H. Harju-Luukkainen and J. Kangas

this study our aim was to take a closer look at three policy documents that are steering the quality regarding early childhood teacher education. These documents have an impact on individual teacher’s quality and further towards the quality of early childhood services in Finland. As a framework for our analysis we used a strategic policy document regarding teacher training in Finland published by the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture (2016). It defines future objectives for both pre-service and in-service training divided into three categories. These are teachers’ wide basic knowledge, expertise, and acting that creates innovations and individual and organisational expertise. From the premises, we investigated the documents through three questions as following: (1) what are the areas of knowledge that the future teachers should have? (2) How teachers’ creativity and active agency is stated in the descriptions of these documents? and (3) How teachers are understood to develop their skills in the future? In the analysis three sub-categories emerged for each question. These were connected to teacher’s role(s), values of teaching and future competencies (see Table 5.2 closer). Even though the strong conceptual base was one of the developmental areas in teacher profession, in fact statements about teachers didactical and subject base knowledge were rarely mentioned. A holistic idea of education through a phenomenon-based approach where substance knowledge of single subject is not anymore required and can be seen as a challenge to teachers’ professional competence (Holmqvist, 2019). However it can also be seen as an opening for a new educational culture where learning is not anymore about facts but social negotiations and skills to take other peoples conceptions into account and being able to interact and critically develop our society (Lonka et al., 2018). Our results suggest that teachers are given a large amount of different roles as well as values across the different documents. Teachers are asked to be ‘more of everything’ now and in the future. For instance, more research oriented, more critical thinkers, better active agents, better knowledge processors, more digital, stronger multi-professional networkers, and to have a better competency for assessment based personal development (which is not standardised in Finnish educational model). How all of this achieved, is not stated. However, in global perspectives teachers have been reported to become tired and quit in their jobs all around the world. In for instance US, Sweden and in Finland big social movements organised by parents and teachers, making statements about better salaries and improving working conditions (see Allegretto, 2019; YLE, 2018) while teachers seems to be over exhausted for continuous demands. According to our results the most mentions (of in total 100 mentions) were placed into teacher’s knowledge (42 mentions) and teachers as creative and active agents (34 mentions) and least into the category of teacher’s lifelong learning (22 mentions). Further in the sub-categories called teacher’s role it was emphasised across the three documents mostly, with 50 mentions. However, least mentions were to be found in the teacher’s future competencies. Our results suggest that today’s role of teachers is quite well covered. For instance, according to Husu and Toom (2016) the current challenges in a teacher’s work include e.g. increasing diversity of students and families, changing working contexts due to the availability and usage of knowledge and digitalisation, and learning focused emphasis in instruction. A challenge emerges

5 The Role of Early Childhood Teachers in Finnish Policy Documents …

77

when we try to imagine the future. In our study references towards the future and future competencies were made marginally. However the demands and requirements for the future education are stronger than ever before in history and education is seen to have a major role in the supporting the process of students’ learning and socialisation into active citizens (See Kangas et al., 2015, 2016). As mentioned before one of the important aspects of this future work is to identify most likely challenges that needs on some level to be addressed with the help of teacher education. If we cannot imagine or identify these most likely challenges, it becomes difficult to educate teachers for tomorrow. It is also important that teachers’ education and education policy in general is contributing actively to the discussion of the future and not only follows the demands of technology experts, politics or social consultant. As states by the Finnish teacher students’ association SOOL (2019) our future teachers are already aware of the big changes and challenges in education. They have not remained silent but instead they are taking actively part in the national discussion. We state that in this national and international discussion Finnish teacher education across the country should be more active in contributing to the joint picture of the future teacher. However, with the existing teacher education in Finland and in any other part of the world, we are always educating teachers for the future. Teacher’s will be working on the field with their current education for decades. Therefore the overall quality of the teacher education programs and in these different roles and values given to teachers becomes crucial elements of future quality. According to Husu and Toom (2016) in-service teacher education requires significant developments in Finland. This is alarming, since one important way to target today’s teacher educational needs and possible future challenges are through in-service training.

References Allegretto, S. (2019). For Teachers, the Money Keeps Getting Worse. https://www.theatlantic.com/ ideas/archive/2019/09/pay-teachers-more-because-women-have-other-options/597322/. European Commission. (1996). The charter of Luxembourg. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission. Finnish law of early childhood education, 540/2018, set in Helsinki 13th of July, 2018. Finnish National Agency for Education. (2018) Finnish national core-curriculum of early childhood education and care. Määräykset ja ohjeet, 17. Finnish teacher student association SOOL (2019). Finnish teacher student association SOOL. Goals for Teacher Education. https://www.sool.fi/inenglish/goals-for-teacher-education/ (cited: 17.11.2020) Finnish Education Evaluation Center (2018). Guidelines and recommendations for evaluating the quality of early childhood education and care. https://karvi.fi/en/early-childhood-education/ guidelines-and-recommendations-for-evaluating-the-quality-of-early-childhood-education-andcare/. Finnish national core-curriculum of early childhood education and care (2018). Finnish National Agency for Education. Finnish law of early childhood education, 540/2018, set in Helsinki 13th of July, 2018. Garvis, S., Harju-Luukkainen, H., Sheridan, S., & Williams, P. (2019) Nordic Families, Children and Early Childhood Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.

78

H. Harju-Luukkainen and J. Kangas

Hauschildt, K., Gwos´c, C., Netz, N., & Mishra, S. (2015). Social and economic conditions of student life in Europe: 2012–2015. Bielefeld, Germany: Eurostudent. http://www.eurostudent. eu/download_files/documents/EVSynopsisofIndicators.pdf. Harju-Luukkainen, H., Wang, J., & La Torre, D. (2018). Using Content Analysis to Compare a U.S. Urban Teacher Residency to a Finnish Teacher Education Program. Urban Review, 1–23. Holmqvist, M. (2019). Lack of qualified teachers: A global challenge for future knowledge development. In R. Monyai (Eds.) Teacher education in the 21st Century. IntechOpen. Husu, J., & Toom, A. (2016). Opettajat ja opettajankoulutus – Suuntia tulevaan. Selvitys ajankohtaisesta opettaja- ja opettajankoulutustutkimuksesta opettajankoulutuksen kehittämisohjelman laatimisen tueksi. Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriön julkaisuja 2016:33. http://julkaisut.valtioneu vosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/75552/okm33.pdf. Jyrhämä, R., & Maaranen, K. (2012). Research Orientation in a Teacher’s Work. In H. Niemi, A. Toom, & A. Kallioniemi (Eds.), Miracle of education: the principles and practices of teaching and learning in Finnish schools (pp. 97–114). Sense Publishers. Kangas, J., Harju-Luukkainen, H. K., Brotherus, A. M., Gearon, L., & Kuusisto, S. A. E. (2019). Playing to learn in Finland: Early childhood curricular and operational context. In Garvis, S., & Phillipson, S. (Eds.), Policification of childhood: Early childhood education in the 21st Century (Vol. 3). Routledge. Kangas, J., & Brotherus, A. (2017). Osallisuus ja leikki varhaiskasvatuksessa: “Leikittäisiin ja kaikki olis onnellisia!”. In Toom, A., Rautiainen, M., & Tähtinen, J. (Eds.), Toiveet ja todellisuus: Kasvatus osallisuutta ja oppimista rakentamassa (pp. 197–223). (Kasvatusalan tutkimuksia; No. 75). Turku: Suomen kasvatustieteellinen seura. Kangas, J., Venninen, T., & Ojala, M. (2016). Educators’ perceptions of facilitating children’s participation in early childhood education. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 41(2), 85– 94. Kangas, J., Ojala, M., & Venninen, T. (2015). Children’s self-regulation in the context of participatory pedagogy in early childhood education. Early Education and Development, 26(5–6), 847–870. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2015.1039434 Kansanen, P. (2006). Constructing a research-based program in teacher education. In F. K. Oser, F. Achtenhagen, & U. Renold (eds.) Competence oriented teacher training (9–22). Brill Sense. Karila, K., Kosonen, T. & Järvenkallas, S. (2017). Varhaiskasvatuksen kehittämisen tiekartta vuosille 2017–2030. Suuntaviivat varhaiskasvatuksen osallistumisasteen nostamiseen sekä päiväkotien henkilöstön osaamisen, henkilöstörakenteen ja koulutuksen kehittämiseen. Opetus-ja kulttuuriministeriön julkaisuja 2017:30. Lönnberg Print & Promo: Helsinki. http://julkaisut.val tioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/80221/okm30.pdf. Karila, K., & Kinos, J. (2012). Acting as a professional in a Finnish early childhood education context. In Miller, L., Dalli, C., & Urban, M. (Eds.), Early childhood grows up. Towards a critical ecology of the profession. Series: International perspectives on early childhood education and development, vol. 6. London, UK: Springer. Kumpulainen, K. (2018). A principled, personalised, trusting and child-centric ECEC system in Finland. In S. L. Kagan (Ed.), The early advantage 1: Early childhood systems that lead by example (pp. 72–98). Teachers College Press. Layne, H., & Dervin, F. (2016). Problematizing Finland’s pursuit of intercultural (kindergarten) teacher education. Multicultural Education Review, 8(2), 118–213. Leedy, P., & Ormrod, J. (2001). Practical research: Planning and design (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Lastikka, A. L., & Lipponen, L. (2016). Immigrant parents’ perspectives on early childhood education and care practices in the Finnish multicultural context. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 18(3), 75–94. Lonka, K., Makkonen, J., Berg, M., Talvio, M., Maksniemi, E., Kruskopf, M., Westling, S. K. (2018). Phenomenal Learning from Finland. Helsinki: Edita. Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland. (2012). Education and Research 2011–2016. A development plan. Reports of the Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland 2012, p. 3.

5 The Role of Early Childhood Teachers in Finnish Policy Documents …

79

Ministry of education and culture. (2016). Opettajankoulutuksen kehittämisen suuntaviivoja. Opettajankoulutusfoorumin ideoita ja ehdotuksia. Opetus-ja kulttuuriministeriön julkaisuja 2016:34. http://minedu.fi/documents/1410845/4583171/Opettajankoulutuksen+kehittämi sen+suuntaviivoja++Opettajankoulutusfoorumin+ideoita+ja+ehdotuksia. Montie, J., Xiang, Z., & Schweinhart, L. (2007). Preschool experiences in 10 countries: Cognitive and language performance at age 7. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21(3), 313–331. Niemi, H., Toom, A., & Kallioniemi, A. (Eds.). (2016). Miracle of education. The principles and practices of teaching and learning in Finnish schools. Sense Publishers. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2016). OECD in education at a glance 2016: OECD indicators. Paris, France: Author. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2019). Good practice for good jobs in early childhood education and care: Eight policy measures from OECD countries. Good practice for good jobs in early childhood education and care: Eight policy measures from OECD countries.https://www.oecd.org/education/good-practice-for-good-jobs-in-early-chi ldhood-education-and-care-64562be6-en.htm (cited: 12.3.2020) Paananen, M., Räikkönen, E., & Karila, K. (2018). Yksivuotiaiden lasten huoltajien subjektiivisen varhaiskasvatusoikeuden rajaamiseen liittyvät asenteet ja niitä selittävät tekijät. [Attitudes and explanatory factors related to the restriction of the subjective right to early childhood education of parents of one-year-old childrenAttitudes and explanatory factors related to the restriction of the subjective right to early childhood education of parents of one-year-old children]. Yhteiskuntapolitiikka, 38(4), 360–373. Punch, K. F., & Oancea, A. (2014). Introduction to research methods in education. Sage Publications. Sairanen, H., Kangas, J., & Sintonen, S. (2019). Finnish Teachers Making Sense of and Promoting Multiliteracies in Early Years Education. In K. Kumpulainen, & J. Sefton-Green (Eds.), Multiliteracies and early years innovation: Perspectives from Finland and beyond (pp. 42–60). London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429432668-3. Sintonen, S., Ohls, O., Kumpulainen, K., & Lipponen, L. (2015). Mobiilioppiminen ja leikkivä lapsi. Helsinki: Helsingin yliopisto, opettajankoulutuslaitos. Toom, A. & Husu, J. (2016). Finnish teachers as ‘Makers of the many’: Balancing between broad pedagogical freedom and responsibility. In Niemi, H., Toom, A. & Kallioniemi, A. (Eds.), Miracle of education. The principles and practices of teaching and learning in Finnish schools (pp. 41–55). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Thomas, D., & Seely Brown, J. (2011). A new culture of learning. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. United Nations. (1989). Convention on the rights of the child. http://www.unicef.org/crc/. United Nations. (2006). Convention on rights of people with disabilities. http://www.un.org/disabi lities/convention/conventionfull.shtml. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (1994). The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education. Paris: UNESCO. Uusimäki, L., Yngvesson, T. E., Garvis S., Harju-Luukkainen, H. (2019). Parental Involvement in ECEC in Finland and in Sweden. In Garvis S., Harju-Luukkainen H., Sheridan S., Williams P. (Eds), Nordic families, children and early childhood education. Studies in childhood and youth (pp. 81–99). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16866-7_5 Välijärvi, J., & Sulkunen, S. (2016). Finnish school in international comparison. In Niemi, H., Toom, A., & Kallioniemi, A. (Eds.), Miracle of education. The principles and practices of teaching and learning in Finnish schools (pp. 3–23). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. YLE. (2018). Teachers’ union calls for 1k pay hike for daycare teachers. YLE news. https://yle.fi/ uutiset/osasto/news/teachers_union_calls_for_1k_pay_hike_for_ daycare_teachers/10107458. European Commission (1996), the United Nations (1989, 2006), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) (1994).

80

H. Harju-Luukkainen and J. Kangas

Heidi Harju-Luukkainen works as Professor and Vice director at Kokkola University Consortium, University of Jyväskylä. She also works as professor of education at Nord University, Norway. She holds a Ph.D. in education, special education teacher qualification and a qualification in leadership and management from Finland. She has published more than 200 international books, journal articles and reports as well as worked in more than 35 projects globally. HarjuLuukkainen has worked at top ranked universities in the USA like UCLA, USC as well as in many Nordic research universities. She has developed education programs for universities, been a PI of PISA sub-assessments in Finland and functioned as board professional. Her research areas are early childhood education, justice in education and international student assessment. Jonna Kangas is a Ph.D. of Education and an adjunct professor, University Lecturer and joint research member in Playful Learning Center, Faculty of Education Science, University of Helsinki. Her research and teaching in ECE teacher training program focuses in pedagogy, participation, and play. She has designed innovative and blended teacher training and mentoring programmes in Finland and developing countries for ECE. She is a member of board of The Union for University Teachers and Researchers in Finland (YLL) and Finnish Early Childhood Education Association (ECEAF).

Chapter 6

Early Childhood Teacher Education in Germany—Insights into Traditions, Reforms and Current Challenges Martina Müller and Stefan Faas

Abstract Early childhood teacher education in Germany has a long non-academic tradition. From the beginning of the twentieth century, early childhood teacher training has taken place at vocational schools and, until the end of the century, has never been seriously questioned. In 1999, with the Bologna Reform and its commitment for all European Union countries to set up academic level early childhood courses, this practice was put into focus. The system of qualifying professional kindergarten teachers in Germany had to be reformed. The following article gives an overview of the historical development of early childhood teacher training in Germany and describes current changes within the system as well as associated challenges on the path to academization. Opportunities and conflicts are discussed against the backdrop of policy making, curriculum development, job entry and working conditions. Based on research results, this chapter reflects the transformation of the system in the context of reforms, resistance and further challenges.

Introduction The field of Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) in Germany has undergone various processes of transformation and change since the early 2000s. At the same time, social challenges (e.g.: migration and inclusion), new research findings on early childhood learning and its significance, as well as national and international educational studies have contributed to a substantial increase in expectations regarding the performance of institutional early childhood education and care. German kindergartens are increasingly perceived as important educational institutions, and the achieved pedagogical quality as well as its further development have become key topics of scientific discourse, as well as of practical and political debates and developments (OECD, 2012, 2015; Aktionsrat Bildung, 2012; Tietze et al., 2013). Concurrently, these institutions are often still linked with the idea of care facilities to ensure the harmonization of family, care and work. Nevertheless, the expectations placed M. Müller · S. Faas (B) University of Education Schwäbisch Gmünd, Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_6

81

82

M. Müller and S. Faas

on kindergarten teachers have changed whereby the qualification system of educational professions has also been challenged while various reforms have been triggered, especially in recent years. These reforms, or reform efforts, are complex, partly contradictory and can probably only be understood against the backdrop of the historical development and current challenges of the ECEC system in Germany. Therefore, the present contribution first describes the historical roots of early childhood education and the progression into a regulated early childhood teacher training in Germany (Sect. 6.2). Secondly, the development of the system of vocational training will be described up to the rise of increased criticism in the 1990s (Sect. 6.3). Furthermore, developments which finally led to university level study courses for early childhood education in Germany will be described (Sect. 6.4), before the article ends with a conclusion and outlook (Sect. 6.5).

The Beginning of Early Childhood Teacher Education in Germany—Social and Educational Roots As mentioned above, the development of early childhood teacher education in Germany is closely linked to the historical development of kindergartens, or their location in the child and youth welfare sector. In this context, the difficult social situation of mass poverty at the beginning of the nineteenth century represents a central starting point. The establishment of public early childhood education institutions had the aim of supporting poor families to stabilize their household income by enabling all employable family members to work, while avoiding accidents among unsupervised children. In addition, children should be prepared for their future poor living situation through specific educational measures (Erning, 1987). Against this background, children’s daycare centers in Germany first developed as “emergency facilities”, mainly supported financially by ecclesiastical organizations. Their main focus was on family and child welfare with primary concern on the supervision and care of children (Erning, 2004; Reyer, 2006a). With the emergence of these institutions, the first approaches to vocational preparation for the women working there were also developed. However, this was primarily a matter of instruction in practical work, not of professional training. Only gradually, approaches to vocational training began to emerge, for example, at the “Diakonissenanstalt” in Kaiserswerth founded by the Protestant pastor Theodor Fliedner (1800–1864), with a strong social welfare and religious orientation (Aden-Grossmann, 2002). A counterpoint to this social welfare model was the approach of Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852). The basic idea for his conception of early childhood education was an independent educational mission for pedagogical work with young children, and not the care of otherwise unattended children. However, the didactics and the methodical approach did not simply follow the school model, although Froebel paid attention to the question of how early childhood and scholastic education processes could be

6 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Germany …

83

coordinated. The central reference points of this approach are the children’s activities and play as the preferred medium of learning (Froebel, 1839/1982). For this reason, the pedagogical support and attendance of educational processes of children are important elements of his pedagogy. Froebel’s approach also contains two main possibilities to work with children: on the one hand, situational aspects of “free play” are used and passed on (e.g.: in terms of basic experiences). On the other hand, it also involves the providing of specific activities (e.g.: finger games, exercise games, gardening), didactic materials, and specific defined topics and contents (Heiland, 2003). Froebel implemented his concept in early education institutions, which he called “kindergarten”. The ambitious pedagogical concept required staff with well-founded qualifications. Therefore, in 1839, Friedrich Froebel started to offer courses in which he trained women, but also some men, in his pedagogical ideas. Later, these courses were continued by his students, which eventually led to a gradual spread of the kindergarten idea. From 1851 until 1862, there was a politically motivated ban on “kindergartens”, which was connected to a prohibition of employment. During that period, not only the institution of kindergarten was forbidden, but also the dissemination of Froebel’s pedagogy in courses and lectures. In contrast, the more social welfare-oriented courses described above were allowed to continue (Aden-Grossmann, 2002). Nevertheless, both traditions persisted. Thus, the development and differentiation of the professional childcare in Germany took place in an education-related setting. In the beginning of the twentieth century, discussions in this area led to intensive efforts to establish the kindergarten as a part of the educational system, and with Froebel’s pedagogical concept, which would have made attendance at these institutions compulsory for all children. In this sense, going to kindergarten should be the first level of the educational system. However, at that time, most people thought that young children could only be educated in the immediate vicinity of, and by, their mothers (Reyer, 2006a). For this reason, professional childcare institutions were not the rule, but rather the exception to be used in a situation of emergency and with the idea of social welfare. In 1922, new social legislation (Reichsjugendwohlfahrtsgesetz) was enacted, and was implemented in 1924. In that context, a conclusion was reached in the debate related to the legal and administrative position of early childhood education. From then on, it became part of the child and youth welfare sector, a classification which is valid till today. The classification as a part of the child and youth welfare sector has influenced and formed the field of early childhood education as well as the field of early childhood teacher training in Germany. In the early twentieth century, and after the new classification, professional childcare institutions were strengthened in their care function and recognized as independent institutions (Reyer, 1987). In this context, the training of German kindergarten staff became uniformly regulated. While in the past, different ways lead to employment as professional daycare staff, in 1928, a two-year full-time training course was introduced (Derschau, 1987). However, classifying the appearance of early childhood teacher training as part of the development of professional early childhood education is only one aspect. There is also a strong link to the German women’s movement, which had the goal of increasing

84

M. Müller and S. Faas

educational opportunities for girls and young women as well as opening up possibilities for qualified professions to them (Ebert, 2015). In this context, from the end of the nineteenth century onward, a number of training centers for educational staff were established. In the beginning of the twentieth century, regulations on girls’ higher education were gradually introduced and examination regulations were issued (e.g. 1908/1911 in Prussia). This represented a decisive step towards the professionalization of day care and extra-familial education and built the foundation for a vocational school-based qualification for kindergarten teachers in Germany (Aden-Grossmann, 2002)—in connection with the above-mentioned regulations from 1928.

Vocational Training and Its Criticism The division of Germany after the Second World War represented a significant turning point in the early education system, as for other areas of society. The kindergarten system in the two German countries developed in different directions for almost half a century. There were two models of kindergarten education, which both understood ideas of social welfare, care and education in different ways. In East Germany and the later German Democratic Republic (GDR), the idea of early learning as a contribution to popular education, and the goal of integrating as many mothers as possible into the work force, were equally important reasons for institutional early childhood education. Kindergartens were considered to be the lowest level of schooling, and were administratively assigned to the Ministry of National Education. They were run under municipal or company management. Early on, there was a quantitative expansion of kindergartens and the establishment of full-day nursing care. By 1975, the attendance rate was over 90% (Roßbach, 2005; Reyer, 2006b). In West Germany, ECE was linked directly to the pre-war situation. Professional early childhood education again became part of the child and youth welfare system, with an emphasis on the care and supervision of children (Erning, 1997). The daycare centers were predominantly non-profit and private, with a dominance of church related institutions. Until the 1970s, the West German rate of participation had remained at less than 50% of all children (Reyer, 1987). Despite these differences, in both East Germany and West Germany, professional training for early childhood education teachers was similar. The courses were housed in vocational schools for social pedagogy. The programs usually lasted three years and included both theoretical subjects and guided practice (Schmidt, 2005). In the beginning of the 1970s, there was a strong expansion of vocational schools for social pedagogy in West Germany as a result of the educational policy discussions at that time and the sustainable expansion of kindergarten places. This expansion of vocational schools was accompanied by a significant shift in the public ownership structure, which happened at the same time. Unlike schools of general education, which are almost exclusively publicly ownership, the schools for social pedagogy have been taken over to a considerable extent by private sponsorship. Until today, they are often run by Protestant and Catholic organizations (Schmidt, 2005). These

6 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Germany …

85

aspects, both in terms of organization and program content or a specific connection between theory and practice, are continuously shaping the training of early childhood teachers until today—despite all the changes and adjustments. After the reunification of Germany in 1990, the ECE-system of the GDR was integrated into the system of the FRG. This means that professional early childhood education institutions in East Germany have been assigned to the child and youth welfare sector and that the public ownership structure—at kindergartens as well as at vocational schools—has been adapted to the West German private sponsorship system. In addition, the content and methods of pedagogical work in kindergartens, and consequently the training content at vocational schools, have gradually shifted (Roßbach, 2005). Since 1996, there is a law (Sect. 24 SGB VIII) which ensures the obligatory right of a place in a kindergarten for each child from age three. Today, 93% of all children from three to five years attend kindergarten. Furthermore, the number of children under three going to kindergarten is increasing. In 2019, for example, the rate was 34.3% (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2019). For this reason, since 2013, the claim of a place starts when children turn one. To cope with this requirements, many new kindergartens were and are still being build. In this context, the structure of kindergarten teacher-training has been increasingly questioned for different reasons. The starting point of this discussion can be seen in the middle of the 1990s, when more and more children were attending kindergarten, and the discussion on the quality of early childhood education started, which lasts until today (Tietze, 1998). The discussion about vocational schools refers to two main criticisms: 1.

2.

The educational level of the schools: In relation to structural-organizational aspects, the critics denounce the segmentation of content into school subjects, combined with a lack of options to focus on. Also, the greater emphasis on theoretical subjects (e.g.: psychology) versus practical topics (e.g.: pedagogical action) are part of this discussion. Furthermore, methodical-didactic aspects are questioned, because transfer of knowledge is more popular than independent learning, which would be more suitable to this sector of social pedagogy. Another part of the discussion is regarding content-related aspects. The vocational schools put an emphasis on the pupil (e.g.: self-reflection) rather than on the topic of the children and their parents (e.g.: inadequate knowledge transfer when it comes to the promotion of children with special needs or basics of early literacy) (Schmidt, 2005). The qualification of teachers: On the other hand, the critics refers to the qualification of the teachers at vocational schools. In the beginning, mostly kindergarten staff with low level knowledge in theoretical subjects (e.g.: psychology or sociology) worked in vocational schools. Later on, the teachers were mostly university educated specialists (e.g.: pedagogues, sociologists, theologians and psychologists) with no practical experience in kindergartens and no education in school pedagogy or the technical methodology of early childhood education. For this reason, in the 1970s a new study course in social pedagogy was introduced, which prepared students to work in vocational schools for early childhood teacher education. Nevertheless, until today there are not enough

86

M. Müller and S. Faas

graduates, and they often prefer working in governmental-run schools rather than in private-run ones. Therefore, until today, a variety of persons work in vocational schools and not all of them are qualified (Schmidt, 2005).

The Beginning of Academization The result of the discussion described above, and other developments in Germany, led to a wide consensus by scientific players about the necessity of an academic education. Political stakeholders and representatives from the vocational schools for social pedagogy, on the other hand, repudiated these aspirations because of huge costs and the question of what happens to the vocational schools (Nürnberg & Schmidt, 2018). Nevertheless, in 2004 for the first time, three universities (Berlin, Fribourg and Emden) offered a study program on early childhood education and care in Germany (Rauschenbach, 2013; Förster, 2014; Nürnberg & Schmidt, 2018). But what influenced this transition, beside the criticisms of the vocational schools? In the last twenty years, various developments in Germany, including influences from Europe and other countries, led to the transformation—and will now be described. International influence and international comparability are two main reasons for the changes. In other European countries, training usually takes place at universities. Thus, converting the training to a higher education system was an integration with other European countries (Asmussen, 2019). Furthermore, in 1999, the education ministers of 29 European countries signed the Bologna declaration with the goal of building homogeneous standards of higher-education qualifications (Rauschenbach, 2013). Until today, 48 European countries have decided to adopt the bachelor and master system of higher education and make student and staff mobility easier. In Germany, the signing of the declaration had a major impact on the higher education system: In the past, German universities, and their programs of study, were under strict state control. After the Bologna declaration, there was much more political openness and new bachelor programs could be established. This new freedom was especially used to advance the reform of the training of educators by building new study courses for Early Childhood Education (Diller & Rauschenbach, 2006). In 2000, the global player ‘OECD’ (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) influenced the German kindergarten system substantially. For the first time, they published educational studies which provided comparable data about the educational systems of different countries—for example, the PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) study. This led to a discussion about the kindergarten system of Germany, even though the PISA tested 15-year-old pupils and the study did not give any information about kindergartens (Diller & Rauschenbach, 2006). For the first time, public voices asked for a training of educators more similar to the training of school teachers including ideas about ‘Bildung’, and one that take place at university (Rauschenbach, 2006). Since then, hardly any pedagogical sector has experienced as much public exposure as the early childhood education sector (Rauschenbach, 2013). The already mentioned discussion about the quality of early

6 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Germany …

87

childhood education, which started in the 1990s, and the educational mandate of professional early childhood education which was settled in the year 2004, also contributed to the discussion and transition. Kindergarten teachers are seen as key figures when it comes to innovative changes and the development of early childhood education and care. The hope within the professionalization move is to secure and push forward the pedagogical quality of early childhood education and care, by qualifying the students in scientific foundations of pedagogical work and reflective faculty (Viernickel, 2009). Additionally, the German ‘Robert Bosch Foundation’ was and is playing an important role in the described development. The circle of academics working in the area of early childhood education in Germany has always been small. Therefore, the foundation took an instigator and coordinator role in the construction and expansion of educator professionalization. For example, the foundation developed an orientation framework for new study courses in early childhood education in 2005 and promoted the development of new early childhood study courses as well as junior scientists (Rauschenbach & Schilling, 2013). With their work, they pushed forward the development of early childhood study courses. Since 2004, when the first three study programs were established, the possibilities for studying early childhood education and care have increased immensely. Today in Germany, there are approximately 72 study programs at 55 universities or universities of applied science (Autorengruppe Fachkräftebarometer, 2019), but there is also substantial diversity or—in a more critical view—a confusion of different concepts, modules, titles and personal strategies without a mutual framework. In addition, the programs are very different in structure and content in respects to their understanding of early childhood education (Rauschenbach & Schilling, 2013).

Conclusion and Outlook In summing up, early childhood education and the professional training of kindergarten teachers in vocational schools has a long tradition in Germany. Especially since the late 1990s, there is increased discussion about the quality of the system and the professionals working in this area, which among other things, promoted the discussion of higher qualifications and led to study courses on early childhood education and care. However, the number of employees with a higher education degree working in kindergarten is still low. While in 1974, only 1.9% of all educators had a bachelor’s degree, it has only risen to 5.4% in 2016 (Rauschenbach & Schilling, 2013; Nifbe, 2016). The until today rather low integration of early childhood teachers with an academic degree in child day care centers has different reasons and points to different challenges for early childhood education programs: – First, a limited acceptance of academics in kindergartens can still be assumed. In practice, the accusation of insufficient practical experience of pedagogical staff with academic degrees is probably still the main issue (Klaudy et al., 2014).

88

M. Müller and S. Faas

Furthermore, there is a lack of empirical evidence that academization is connected with a better quality of early childhood education (see Faas & Tietze, 2021). Results of a comparative study by Mischo and colleagues on the acquisition of competencies by early childhood staff in training at vocational school and in study programs at universities suggest instead, that it is not the higher qualification per se that is significant, but rather specific study programs are showing effects (Mischo, 2017). Against this backdrop, on the one hand, the challenge arises to integrate and accompany internships in the study program in a convincing way. And, on the other hand, it seems to be necessary to develop programs which can provide empirical evidence of a sustainable increase in pedagogical quality in general and implement them broadly. – In addition, qualification at different levels raises the problem of permeability from non-academic to academic qualification programs. The recognition of professional competencies and qualifications is currently widely debated in Germany. Early childhood teacher education programs at universities are confronted with the recognition of non-academic competencies, especially with the vertical permeability between vocational and academic education. To this end, various procedures are already being applied (Müller et al., 2020). However, there is no uniform practice nationwide. This creates conflicts between different interest groups (professionals, students, universities, vocational schools, practice). An increase number of professionals with an academic degree in kindergartens then also presupposes that the recognition of practical or vocational training content and competencies is facilitated. Against this backdrop, universities are called upon to develop appropriate recognition procedures. – A better integration of academic staff in kindergartens is considered sensible both from the point of view of universities and many daycare providers under the heading of developing “multiprofessional teams”. However, multiprofessionality requires organizational development processes and corresponding support, which is currently not yet available like that (Klaudy et al., 2014). Universities are also challenged to develop early childhood education programs in a way that students can acquire competencies for multiprofessional work and interdisciplinary exchange. The existing challenges of academization are combined with various other challenges in the sector of early childhood education in Germany: Since 2013, children from one year have the right to attend a kindergarten, but until today, there are not enough places to accommodate all of them. Further development of early educational facilities is needed and there are not enough kindergarten teachers to work in institutions. In fact, Germany has an increasing lack of kindergarten teachers for different reasons (e.g.: fast extension of kindergartens, low income). Because of this, childcare workers are often hired who are less educated than kindergarten teachers. Their number has increased from 21,700 in 2006, up to 67,800 in 2018 (Autorengruppe Fachkräftebarometer, 2019). The absence of skilled personnel involves a reduction of adherence to the requirements, even lower than the traditional vocational training

6 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Germany …

89

described above. At the same time, the requirements for the personnel of early childhood education have been increased: a lot of kindergartens are become inclusive institutions and refugee children from various countries are now attending kindergarten. These children, at times, need special attention and encouragement, since they are often German language learners and may have other types of special needs. But kindergarten staff are often not sufficiently trained in working with minorities, for example, lacking intercultural training. That is to say, working in the sector of early childhood education has become more challenging and the staff have to handle more, and partly new, tasks than in the past. These developments highlight the complexity and interdependence of professionalization processes. It also illustrates the dilemmas and limitations of the idea of a professionalization of early childhood education through higher qualification. Therefore, academization is often described as a necessary project, because it would bring more professionalism, quality and better possibilities for the development of children. Such calls for academization and professionalization increase the pressure on staff at kindergartens to raise their qualifications without sustainably changing the associated framework conditions. This is also problematic, because we do not have sufficient evidence to support optimistic assumptions about academization (Cloos, 2013). Nevertheless, ECE research has been further developed and established while disciplinary knowledge has increased significantly in recent years. These developments point to a complex process, which at first glance appears to be a simultaneous process of progress and regression, but at second glance, must be understood as a process of negotiation and integration between societal demands, disciplinary developments and labour market challenges (Cloos & Faas, 2021).

References Aden-Grossmann, W. (2002). Kindergarten. Eine Einführung in seine Entwicklung und Pädagogik. Beltz. Aktionsrat Bildung. (2012). Professionalisierung in der Frühpädagogik: Qualifikationsniveau und -bedingungen des Personals in Kindertagesstätten. Gutachten. Waxmann. Autorengruppe Fachkräftebarometer (2019). Fachkräftebarometer. Frühe Bildung 2019. Weiterbildungsinitiative Frühpädagogische Fachkräfte (WiFF). Asmussen, S. (2019). Organisationsforschung in Kindertagesstätten. Springer. Cloos, P. (2013). Kindheitspädagogische Professionalität im Spiegel vergleichender Forschung. In Berth, F., Diller, A., Carola, C. N., & Rauschenbach, T. (Eds.), Gleich und doch nicht gleich. Der Deutsche Qualifikationsrahmen und seine Folgen für frühpädagogische Ausbildungen (pp. 39– 62). Deutsches Jugendinstitut. Cloos, P., & Faas, S. (2021). The professionalization discourse in German early childhood education and care and its social scientific references. In B. Bloch, M. Kuhn, M. Schulz, W. Smidt & U. Stenger (Eds.), Early Childhood Eduation in Germany – Exploring Historical Developments and Theoretical Issues (in preparation). Routledge. Von Derschau, D. (1987). Personal: Entwicklung der Ausbildung und der Personalstruktur im Kindergarten. In G. Erning, K. Neumann & J. Reyer (Eds.), Geschichte des Kindergartens, Bd. II: Entstehung und Entwicklung der öffentlichen Kleinkindererziehung in Deutschland von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (pp.67-81). Lambertus.

90

M. Müller and S. Faas

Diller, A. & Rauschenbach, T. (2006). Reform oder Ende einer Ausbildung – eine einleitendeSkizze. In A. Diller & T. Rauschenbach (Eds.), Reform oder Ende der Erzieherinnenausbildung? Beiträge zu einer kontroversen Fachdebatte (pp.7-12). Deutsches Jugendinstitut. Ebert, S. (2015). Kindergärtnerin – Erzieherin – Kindheitspädagogin: zur Jahrhundertproblematik des Erzieherinnenberufs in Deutschland. Diskurs Kindheits- und Jugendforschung / Discourse. Journal of Childhood and Adolescence Research, 10(4), 399–413. Erning, G. (1987). Geschichte der öffentlichen Kleinkindererziehung von den Anfängen bis zum Kaiserreich. In G. Erning, K. Neumann & J. Reyer (Eds.), Geschichte des Kindergartens, Bd. I: Entstehung und Entwicklung der öffentlichen Kleinkindererziehung in Deutschland von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (pp.13–41). Lambertus. Erning, G. (1997). Geschichte der öffentlichen Kleinkindererziehung – von der Bewahranstalt zur Bildungsanstalt. In M. Liedtke (Ed.), Handbuch der Geschichte des bayerischen Bildungswesens (Bd. 4, pp.718-745). Julius Klinkhardt. Erning, G. (2004). Bildungsförderung in einem klassischen frühpädagogischen Konzept: Die Entwicklung des Kindergartens. In G. Faust, M. Götz, H. Hacker, & H.-G. Roßbach (Eds.), Anschlussfähige Bildungsprozesse im Elementar- und Primarbereich (pp. 27–48). Julius Klinkhardt. Faas, S. & Tietze, W. (2021). Bildungspsychologie des Vorschulbereichs. In C. Spiel, T. Götz, P. Wagner, M. Lüftenegger, B. Schober (Hrsg.), Bildungspsychologie. Göttingen: Hogrefe. (in press) Förster, C. (2014). Professionalisierung in der Frühpädagogik: Potenziale, Probleme, Perspektiven. In C. Förster & E. Hammes-Di Bernardo (Eds.), Qualifikation in der Frühpädagogik. Vor welchen Anforderungen stehen Aus-, Fort- und Weiterbildung? (pp.12–28). Herder. Froebel, F. W. A. (1839/1982). Die Bildung der Kinder vor dem schulfähigen Alter, und die Ausführung einer Bildungsanstalt zu Erziehern und Pflegern in dem angegebenen Alter, besonders die Bildung zu Lehrern an Kleinkinderschulen betreffend. In K.-H. Günther & H. König (Eds.), „Kommt lasst uns unseren Kindern leben!“ Aus dem pädagogischen Werk eines Menschenerziehers (Bd. III, pp.184–188). Volk und Wissen. Heiland, H. (2003). Zur Aktualität von Fröbels Erziehungskonzept. Fröbels Konzeption der Elementarbildung. In H. Heiland & K. Neumann (Eds.), Fröbels Pädagogik verstehen, interpretieren, weiterführen. Internationale Ergebnisse zur neueren Fröbelforschung (pp.177–190). Königshausen & Neumann. Klaudy, E. K., Schütz, A., & Stöbe-Blossey, S. (2014). Akademisierung der Ausbildung für die Kindertageseinrichtung: Zur Entwicklung kindheitspädagogischer Studiengänge. IAQ-Report, 04. https://duepublico2.uni-due.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico_deri vate_00045086/IAQ-Report_2014_04.pdf Mischo, C. (2017). Professionalisierung kindheitspädagogischer Fachkräfte: Das Projekt „Ausbildung und Verlauf von Erzieherinnen-Merkmalen (AVE). In C. Gräsel & K. Trempler (Hrsg.), Entwicklung von Professionalität pädagogischen Personals. Interdisziplinäre Betrachtungen, Befunde und Perspektiven (pp. 93–112). Springer VS: Wiesbaden. Müller, M., Geiger, S., Faas, S., & Schmidt-Hertha, B. (2020). Anerkennung von Kompetenzen und Qualifikationen in kindheitspädagogischen Studiengängen. Bildungsforschung, 1(17). https://bil dungsforschung.org/ojs/index.php/bildungsforschung/article/view/273. Nürnberg, C. & Schmidt, M. (2018). Der Erzieherinnenberuf auf dem Weg zur Profession. Eine Rekonstruktion des beruflichen Selbstverständnisses im Kontext von Biographie und Gesellschaft. Barbara Buderich. Niedersächsisches Institut für frühkindliche Bildung und Entwicklung (Nifbe) (2016). 5,4 % der KiTa-Fachkräfte haben Hochschulabschluss. https://www.nifbe.de/infoservice/aktuelles/1003-54-der-kita-fachkraefte-haben-hochschulabschluss (11.07.2020). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2012). Starting Strong III: A Quality Toolbox for Early Childhood Education and Care. OECD Publishing. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2015). Starting Strong IV: Monitoring Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care. OECD Publishing.

6 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Germany …

91

Rauschenbach, T. (2013): Der Preis des Aufstiegs? Folgen und Nebenwirkungen einer früh pädagogischen Qualifizierungsoffensive. In F. Berth, A. Diller, C. Nürnberg & T. Rauschenbach (Eds.), Gleich und doch nicht gleich. Der Deutsche Qualifikationsrahmen und seine Folgen für frühpädagogische Ausbildungen (pp.15-37). Deutsches Jugendinstitut. Rauschenbach, T. (2006). Ende oder Wende? Pädagogisch-soziale Ausbildungen im Umbruch. In A. Diller & T. Rauschenbach (Eds.), Reform oder Ende der Erzieherinnenausbildung? Beiträge zu einer kontroversen Fachdebatte (pp. 13–34). Deutsches Jugendinstitut. Rauschenbach, T., & Schilling, M. (2013). Die Akademisierungsfrage der Frühpädagogik und ihre Nebenwirkungen. In Sektion Sozialpädagogik und Pädagogik der frühen Kindheit (Ed.), Konsens und Kontroversen. Sozialpädagogik und Pädagogik der frühen Kindheit im Dialog (pp.104-120). Beltz Juventa. Reyer, J. (1987). Geschichte der öffentlichen Kleinkindererziehung im deutschen Kaiserreich, in der Weimarer Republik und in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus. In Erning, G., Neumann, K., & Reyer, J. (Eds.), Geschichte des Kindergartens, Bd. I: Entstehung und Entwicklung der öffentlichen Kleinkindererziehung in Deutschland von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (pp. 43–81). Lambertus. Reyer, J. (2006a). Einführung in die Geschichte des Kindergartens und der Grundschule. Julius Klinkhardt. Reyer, J. (2006b). Geschichte frühpädagogischer Institutionen. In: Fried, Lilian/Roux, Susanna (Eds.), Pädagogik der frühen Kindheit. Handbuch und Nachschlagewerk (pp.268-280). Beltz. Roßbach, H.-G. (2005): Vorschulische Erziehung. In Cortina, K. S., Baumert, J., Leschinsky, A., Mayer, K. U., & Trommer, L. (Eds.), Das Bildungswesen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Strukturen und Entwicklungen im Überblick (pp. 252–284). Rowohlt. Schmidt, T. (2005). Entwicklungen in der Ausbildung von Erzieherinnen. Zeitschrift Für Pädagogik, 51, 713–730. Statistisches Bundesamt (2019). Betreuungsquote von Kindern unter 6 Jahren nach Bundesländern. https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Soziales/Kindertagesbetreuung/Tab ellen/betreuungsquote-2018.html;jsessionid=2A1CB62DA270942057B2C817A770203E.intern et8711 (11.07.2020). Tietze, W. (1998): Wie gut sind unsere Kindergärten? Eine Untersuchung zur pädagogischen Qualität in deutschen Kindergärten. Luchterhand. Tietze, W., Becker-Stoll, F., Bensel, J., Eckhardt, A. G., Haug-Schnabel, G., Kalicki, B., Keller, H., & Leyendecker, B. (2013). Nationale Untersuchung zur Bildung, Betreuung und Erziehung in der frühen Kindheit (NUBBEK). das netz. Viernickel, S. (2009). Reformmodelle für die Ausbildung des frühpädagogischen Fachpersonals. In H.-G. Roßbach & H.-P. Blossfeld (Eds.), Frühpädagogische Förderung in Institutionen (pp. 123– 138). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

Chapter 7

Ireland’s Reform Agenda: Transforming the Early Childhood Education and Care Sector into One of the Best in the World Mary Moloney

Abstract In Ireland, the Early Childhood Education and Care [ECEC] sector, which is recognised as the period from birth to six years, has been central to political, social and economic agendas throughout the past two decades. While much attention has focussed upon issues of accessibility, cost and affordability for parents, the relationship between the ECEC workforce and the quality of provision has been largely overlooked. Little attention has been paid to the need for early childhood teacher qualifications or initial teacher preparation. Yet, these teachers work within a highly complex policy and practice landscape where they face multiple layers of governance and increasing accountability. However, an initial first step towards reforming and enhancing the professionalisation of the ECEC sector came about in 2016, when the Early Years Services Regulations (Govt. Ireland. (2016). S.1. No 221/2016. Child care Act 1991 (Early years services) regulations 2016. http://www.irishstatutebook. ie/eli/2016/si/221/made/en/print) required that all early childhood teachers working with children in centre-based settings must hold a minimum qualification in early childhood education and care. As the State seeks to establish a 50% graduate led workforce by 2028 (Government of Ireland, 2018), a reform agenda, which is the focus of attention at a macro-level, involves sweeping changes to early childhood teacher preparation, the nature and extent of practicum experiences during initial professional development and, the professionalisation of the sector. This chapter explores a range of initiatives directed towards reforming the sector in Ireland, particularly in relation to standardising initial teacher qualifications and preparation and, advancing the professionalisation of the sector.

Abbreviations ACP CCC

Association of Childhood Professionals City and County Childcare Committee

M. Moloney (B) Department of Reflective Pedagogy and Early Childhood Studies, Mary Immaculate College, Limerick, Ireland e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_7

93

94

CECDE DCYA DES ECEC ECTS EYEI FET FETAC HEI HETAC IUQB NCCA NCS NFQ NVO NQAI OECD PACG PATD QQI

M. Moloney

Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education Department of Children and Youth Affairs Department of Education and Skills Early Childhood Education and Care European Credits Transfer System Early Years Education Inspection Further Education and Training Further Education and Training Awards Council Higher Education Institute Higher Education and Training Awards Council Irish Universities Quality Board National Council for Curriculum and Assessment National Childcare Scheme National Framework of Qualifications National Voluntary Organisation National Qualifications Authority of Ireland Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Professional Award Criteria and Guidelines Professional Award Type Descriptors Quality Qualifications Ireland

Introduction In Ireland, Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) encompasses the period from birth to six years, with six being the age by which children must start primary school (Government of Ireland, 1998). Historically, children commenced primary school as young as four years of age, a practice that continues to the present day. As such, the Department of Education (2021) reports that nearly 40% of 4-year-olds and virtually all 5-year-olds attend primary school, where early education is provided in infant classes. Consequently, early childhood extends into the first two years (junior classes) of primary school. However, Ireland does not have an educational continuum for young children and, as discussed in this chapter, there are considerable structural and process differences (e.g., governance, curriculum, and qualification requirements) in both domains. Although the ECEC workforce is recognised as one of the most influential determinants of quality (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2012; Urban, Vandenbroeck, Lazzari, Van Laere, & Peeters, 2012; European Commission, 2019), in Ireland, the need for qualification requirements for those working with children aged birth to six years, before school entry, has for decades, been overlooked. Vague terms such as suitable and competent adults have being used (Government of Ireland, 1996; 2006). However in 2006, the Childcare (Pre-School Services) Regulations, went a little further, giving a nod to the need for qualifications,

7 Ireland’s Reform Agenda …

95

recommending that “at least 50% of the staff in the service” should have a qualification appropriate to the care and development of the pre-school child and, that these staff should rotate between age groups (Government of Ireland, 2006, p.43). Yet, another decade passed before the Early Years Services Regulations, 2016 mandated a minimum qualification requirement. There is little doubt that in Ireland, the ECEC sector has developed in an ad-hoc manner, primarily due, to its association with labour market activation. In effect, the State has actively promoted ECEC as a mechanism to encourage parents, especially mothers to take up and, remain in employment, as a means of bolstering the economy. Accordingly, issues of access and affordability have been prioritised. While successive Governments have been concerned with the quality of provision, scant attention has been paid to: • Early Childhood teacher preparation; • The quality and duration of initial early childhood teacher preparation programmes; • Nature and extent of practicum experiences throughout initial preparation programmes. As part of a reform agenda, through which the State seeks to establish a graduate led workforce by 2028 and, transform the sector into one of the best in the world, early childhood teacher preparation and qualifications are the focus of attention at a macro level. This chapter explores a range of initiatives directed towards reforming the sector in Ireland, particularly in relation to early childhood teacher preparation and professionalisation, notably: • The ECCE scheme,1 a universal programme, introduced in 2010, which provides children aged between 2 years, 8 months and 5 years, 6 months, with their first formal experience of early learning. Critically, this is the first scheme to link State funding with qualification requirements; • The Early Years Services Regulations, 2016 introduced the first-ever mandatory training requirement for early childhood teachers (Government of Ireland, 2016); • First 5: A Whole-of-Government Strategy for Babies, Young Children and their Families proposes a 50% graduate-led workforce by 2028 (Government of Ireland, 2018); • Professional Award Criteria and Guidelines for Initial Professional Education sets out the values, knowledge and practices essential for all professionals working in the ECEC field and, informs the development of undergraduate degree programmes (Department of Education & Skills [DES], 2019). This chapter begins by introducing the Irish National Framework of Qualifications as a way of contextualising qualification levels, requirements and progression.

1

The Early Childhood Care and Education Scheme, commonly known as the ECCE scheme.

96

M. Moloney

National Framework of Qualifications Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI); established by the Qualifications and Quality Assurance (Education and Training) Act 2012, is an independent State agency responsible for promoting quality and accountability in education and training services in Ireland. It has taken over the functions of the following four bodies: 1. 2. 3. 4.

National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (NQAI); responsible for establishing and maintaining the National Framework of Qualifications Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC) Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) Irish Universities Quality Board (IUQB); responsible for quality assurance in the Irish university sector

Among its many roles, QQI promotes, maintains and develops the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ, introduced in 2003) a 10-level, single framework for the development, recognition and awarding of qualifications in Ireland (Fig. 7.1). QQI (2018) classifies awards as Major and Minor. It defines a Major award as the principal class of award made at each level, representing a significant volume of learning outcomes and, usually comprises of 8 minor awards/modules. A Minor Award is a Multi-purpose award-type that recognises the attainment of part of a major award and, has relevance in its own right. These awards are single modules, which can be completed and certificated individually. All minor awards are linked to a major award allowing learners the opportunity to build on their minor awards and work towards gaining a major award. As shown in Fig. 7.1, the final course in the Irish secondary school system, the leaving certificate, is placed at Level 5 on the NFQ. Awarded by the DES State Examinations Commission, the leaving certificate takes a minimum of two years preparation. It may lead to progression to a programme leading to a further education

Fig. 7.1 Irish National Framework of Qualifications. Source QQI (2018)

7 Ireland’s Reform Agenda …

97

Table 7.1 Difference between QQI Qualifications from Level 5 to Level 8 Level 5

Level 6

Level 7 – Ordinary Bachelor Degree

Level 8 – Honours Bachelor Degree

Provided in further education and training centers. Usually one year duration (120 ECTS-credits). Enables learners to develop a broad range of skills, which are vocationally specific and require a general theoretical understanding. They are enabled to work independently while subject to general direction

Provided in further education and training centers. Usually two year duration (120 ECTS- credits). Enables learners to develop a comprehensive range of skills, which may be vocationally specific and/or of a general supervisory nature and, require detailed theoretical understanding. Enables holders to work independently or progress to higher education and training

Provided in Universities and Institutes of Technology. Normally awarded after completion of a programme of three years durations (180 ECTs-credits)

Provided in Universities and Institutes of Technology. Normally awarded following completion of a programme of three to four years duration (180–240 ECTS-credits)

Source QQI (2018)

and training award at Level 5 or at a higher level, or to, a higher education and training award at Level 6 or higher. Table 7.1 illustrates the difference between QQI Level 5, Level 6 and Level 7 (Ordinary Bachelor Degree) and Level 8 (Honours Bachelor Degree). There are two credit systems in use across Further Education and Higher Education. Further education and training (FET) credits, are utilised for further education programmes awarded directly by QQI (up to Level 6 on the NFQ) whereas, European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) credits are utilized for higher education programmes awarded by recognized third level institutions (e.g. Universities and Institutes of Technologies) (from Level 6 to Level 10 of the NFQ). At Level 6, both FET and ECTS credits are used, dependent on the awarding body. A typical Level 6 FET (e.g. ECEC) Major award requires a student to complete 120 credits in total. As each credit has a notional workload of 10 h, the total award would accumulate to approximately 1200 student work hours. A typical FET module would be 12 credits, or 120 h.

98

M. Moloney

Early Childhood Teacher Mandatory Qualifications Notwithstanding the introduction of the NFQ in 2003, early childhood teachers were not required to hold a qualification for a further 15 years until the enactment of Part 111 (4a) of the Childcare Early Years Services Regulations, 2016 in January 2018. Accordingly, “each employee working directly with children in an ECEC service must hold at least a major award in [ECEC] at Level 5 on the National Qualifications Framework or a qualification deemed by the Minister to be equivalent” (Government of Ireland, 2016, p. 12). The Department of Children Equality Disability Integration and Youth (DCEDIY, formerly the DCYA) which holds responsibility for the sector, require that Major awards in ECEC, must include significant content on Child Development birth to six years, Early Childhood Curriculum and Child Health and Welfare. Furthermore, while the award must also include Supervised Practice Placement in an ECEC setting, the duration is not specified. However, in 2017, PLÉ2 conducted a national study3 to explore the attitudes, opinions and experiences of Higher Education Institutions [HEIs] offering full-time Level 7 and Level 8 degree programmes, final year ECEC students and ECEC providers of practice placement. Findings indicate that students engage in lengthy placement experience, ranging from 540 h (3 year Level 7 ordinary Bachelors) to 1,000 h over the duration of the degree programme (Moloney, 2017). As mentioned, the early childhood period extends into the infant classes in school, where “much of what is considered pre-schooling in other countries is already incorporated in the primary school system in Ireland” (Report of the Primary Education Review Body, 1990, p.72). Interestingly, while primary school teachers must hold a Level 8 honors Bachelor Degree, no such requirement exists for early childhood teachers. Consequently, in 2018/2019, 68.6% of all staff working directly with children in ECEC settings held a qualification at NFQ Level 5 or 6, with 23.6% holding a qualification at Level 7 ordinary Bachelor or Level 8 honors Bachelor degree (Pobal, 2019). As part of sectoral reform, First 5, a Whole of Government Strategy for Babies, Young Children and their families (Government of Ireland, 2018) sets out plans to establish a 50% graduate-led workforce by 2028. Two points are noteworthy here. Firstly, while current graduate numbers (i.e., 23.6% at Level 7 and Level 8) are promising, challenges with attracting and retaining staff are pervasive (SIPTU, 2019) with turnover standing at 23% (Pobal, 2019). Poor salaries drive much of the exodus from the sector. Pobal (2019) for example, indicates that six out of ten staff earn below the living wage of e12.30 per hour, i.e., the level of earnings that makes possible a minimum acceptable standard of living (Living Wage Technical Group, 2019). Achieving a graduate-led workforce may, therefore, prove challenging. Secondly, attitudes towards ECEC are rooted in the historical approach to children and childrearing in Ireland, where the care of young children was considered a 2

PLÉ: The Irish Association of Academics in Early Childhood Education and Care in Higher Education. 3 This study was funded by the National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education©.

7 Ireland’s Reform Agenda …

99

private matter and, the responsibility of the family. Education was thought to begin upon entry to school when the State assumed responsibility for children aged 4 to 6 years in the infant classes. Consequently, in spite of growing recognition that both care and education are essential for a child’s holistic development and, should be provided in a complementary seamless fashion (Department of Education and Skills [DES], 1999), a split system of ‘care and education’ exists in Ireland to the present day. This split system, typical of neo-liberal economies (Moloney et al., 2019), has resulted in complex Governance structures comprising multiple stakeholders, each with a say in how and what policy should be developed, prioritized and implemented. Moreover, it has resulted in competing demands, diverse qualification requirements, layers of inspection and increasing accountability demands, all of which create a highly pressured work environment for early childhood teachers.

Early Childhood Education and Care Governance In keeping with a split system, ECEC governance is shared across two government ministries; the DCEDIY and the DES and their agents, with the support of other stakeholders, primarily, the 31 City and County Childcare Committees [CCCs] who act as local agents in supporting the implementation of ECEC programmes. In addition, seven national voluntary organisations work with the CCCs locally and nationally to support ECEC providers to improve the quality of provision through professional development training, information and mentoring on quality practice (e.g., practice frameworks) and, guidance on DCDEIY funding programmes (Pobal, 2020) (Fig. 7.2). As illustrated, primary responsibility for ECEC rests with the DCEDIY under the stewardship of a Minister for Children, Equality, Disability Integration and Youth. In addition to formulating policy, the DCEDIY funds the sector, primarily through two seminal programmes: 1.

2.

The ECCE Scheme through which participating children are entitled to 76 weeks (2 full academic years) of free ECEC. The scheme runs in line with the primary school year - September to June and, is provided for 3 h per day, 5 days per week over 38 weeks per year. Capitation is paid directly to the service for each participating child. This is the first scheme for ECEC that links funding with staff qualification levels and, as discussed later, capitation is differentiated by qualification levels and years of experience; The National Childcare Scheme, the first statutory entitlement to financial support for childcare, which commenced in November 2019. To help parents with the cost of childcare, the NCS provides subsidies (universal and income assessed) to families with children aged between 24 weeks and 15 years.

The DCEDIY and the DES work collaboratively to develop ECEC policy and, implement national quality standards. In this respect, quality in ECEC is premised

100

M. Moloney

Oversight Policy Funding NaƟonal Quality Standards

Policy InspecƟon Regulatory Enforcement

Early Childhood EducaƟon & Care Policy NaƟonal Quality Standards Early Years EducaƟon InspecƟon

Department of Children, Equality, Diverity IntegraƟon Youth

Dept. EducaƟon & SKills Financial Oversight Compliance visits

Tusla: Child & Family Agency

Pobal Other Stakeholders

City & County Childcare CommiƩees

BeƩer Start

Mentoring

Support implementaƟon of ECEC programmes locally

NaƟonal Voluntary OrganisaƟons

Support ECEC services to implement naƟonal quality standards

Fig. 7.2 Overview of ECEC Governance. Source Original

upon two practice Frameworks: Síolta,4 the national quality framework (Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education [CECDE] 2006) and, Aistear,5 the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment [NCCA] 2009). Both focus upon children aged birth to six years, encompassing the infant classes in primary school. Although referred to as essential pillars of quality in ECEC (DES, 2011), neither framework has been enacted in legislation. With the exception of the ECCE scheme, therefore, which requires participating settings to adhere to the principles of the Síolta and Aistear frameworks, implementation with children under two years 8 months and children younger than six years attending primary school is disjointed. Moreover, while the State has rolled out training in the use of Aistear to infant class teachers, it has not provided similar training to early childhood teachers. Yet, in accordance with the Education Act 1998 (Sect. 13(3)(b)) and, in line with a Memorandum of Understanding between the DCEDIY and the DES, the DES inspectorate undertakes Early Years Education Inspections (EYEIs) to evaluate the quality of the nature, range and appropriateness of the early educational experiences of children participating in the ECCE scheme (DES, 2018). TUSLA: the Child and Family Agency, a dedicated State body with responsibility for improving well-being and outcomes for children, undertake a further layer of inspection. On 20th December, 2016, the then Minister for Children and Youth Affairs, Dr Katherine Zappone, T.D. published the Child Care Regulations (The Child Care Act 1991 (Early Years Services) Regulations, effective from the 31st December 4 5

The Irish word for seed. The Irish word for journey.

7 Ireland’s Reform Agenda …

101

2016. These Regulations apply to ECEC services catering for children under the age of 6 years who are not attending primary school. TUSLA enforce these regulations through scheduled unannounced bi-annual inspections, or an inspection; prompted by unsolicited information. Unlike the DES, TUSLA focus upon provision for all children aged birth to six and, evaluate four specific areas: Governance, Health, welfare and development of the child, Safety and Premises and facilities (Government of Ireland, 2016). It could be argued that this partisan approach to inspection reinforces the care education divide where children under 2 years 8 months are associated with care, while older children are clearly aligned with education. As discussed later, this dichotomy is especially apparent in the qualification requirements for early childhood teachers working directly with children in the ECCE scheme and, those working with children outside of this scheme. Issues of accountability are further compounded by a third layer of inspection undertaken by Pobal, which administers programmes on behalf of the Government. In terms of ECEC specifically, Pobal provides a range of services including paying providers and undertaking on-site compliance visits to ensure financial accountability. In 2018, Pobal disbursed e274, 769, 63 to service providers and, undertook 1, 487 on-site compliance visits (Pobal, 2019). As part of the reform agenda, the Irish Government established the Better Start Quality Development Service in 2015 to bring an integrated national approach to developing quality in ECEC. Working in collaboration with the City and County Childcare Committees and the National Voluntary Organisations, Better Start provides an Early Years Specialist team (qualified to Level 8) to work directly with services in a mentoring capacity. It is evident that educators operate within a highly complex pressurized field in which they are subjected to multiple layers of governance, are continuously in the DCEDIY/DES/Pobal regulatory gaze and, subject to ever increasing accountability in an environment where they are undervalued, underappreciated and underpaid (Moloney, 2019). As the CCCs and NVOs have been supporting the sector to enhance quality practice since the early 2000s, it may be that, the State overlooked the need for comprehensive coordinated initial early childhood teacher preparation. Regardless of how or why it was neglected, there is an increasing acceptance in Ireland, that early childhood teacher “skills and competencies […] crucially contribute to ECE quality as well as to children’s outcomes” (Vandenbroeck, Lenaerts & Beblavý, 2018, p. 12). To this end, some progress has been made in addressing the qualification/training requirements of early childhood teachers beginning with the introduction of a minimum QQI Level 5 for all those working or intending to work with young children.

102

M. Moloney

Early Childhood Care and Education Scheme Qualification Requirements From its inception in 2010 and, clearly signifying its importance, the DCEDIY required early childhood teachers working directly with children in the ECCE scheme to hold a qualification (i.e., a Major award on the NFQ). Various iterations of the scheme have resulted in amendments to the qualification requirement. Thus, from 31 December 2016, ECEC room leaders must hold a full QQI Level 6 Major Award. In return, the service receives standard capitation of e69 per participating child. As mentioned, capitation is differentiated by staff qualifications and years of experience in the sector. In instances therefore, where the room leader holds a Level 7 or Level 8 Bachelor’s degree, and has “three years paid post-qualification experience” (emphasis added) gained through a range of work activities but must involve work with pre-school or primary school-aged children” (DCYA, n.d) a higher capitation of e80.25 per participating child is paid. The requirement for early childhood teachers to have three years paid post-qualification experience, having already undertaken a 3 or a 4-year degree programme, does not exist elsewhere within the education system in Ireland (e.g., primary school) and, creates an additional obstacle for graduate employment. It may therefore, act as a disincentive to graduates to enter the sector. Pobal (2019) indicates that the numbers studying for an NFQ Level 7 qualification has increased over time, from 11% in 2016/17 to 16% on 2018/19. Pobal also indicates that one in five staff working with children aged between 3 + to 5 years has an NFQ Level 8 or 9 qualification. An unintended consequence of the ECCE scheme therefore, is that, the most qualified staff are most likely to be working with children aged 3 + to 5 years. None-the-less, the combination of higher qualification levels, increased capitation and Early Years Education Inspections create an association between teacher qualifications and programme quality.

Reform of ECEC Awards While ECEC clearly operates within a complex policy and practice landscape, there has been little national oversight of the structure and content of bachelor degree programmes to date. The DES (2019a) however notes the critical contribution of initial professional education programmes in ensuring that ECEC settings for “children in Ireland are of the highest quality thereby increasing the likelihood that children’s experiences of these settings will positively contribute to their learning, wellbeing and development in the present and into their future” (p.7). Consequently, in 2019, the DES published Professional Award Criteria and Guidelines (PACG) for Initial Professional Education (Level 7 and Level 8) new degree programmes beginning in 2021 and later, for the ECEC sector in Ireland. In the foreword to the PACG, the Minister for Children and Youth Affairs, Dr Katherine

7 Ireland’s Reform Agenda …

103

Zappone, T.D. stresses the need “to future-proof and professionalise the qualifications on offer to the current and future workforce so that we can be assured that they are prepared for the responsibility to deliver high-quality learning and care experiences for their young charges” (p.4). The primary objective of the PACG therefore, is to support the development and review of professional awards (Level 7 and Level 8) that lead to the formation of ECEC graduates who are fully prepared to take on the complex challenges of practice in the field and, be part of the graduate-led workforce envisaged in First 5 (DES, 2019b). It is hoped also, that they will have a positive effect in the development of a more cohesive professional identity among graduates and ultimately enhance the experiences of young children in ECEC settings (DES, 2019b). Moreover, the DES notes that an ECEC professional graduate requires a combination of attributes, which are developed through a range of experiences, including: • Academic attributes (e.g., establishing sound academic principles); • Professional practice attributes (e.g., planning and developing a curriculum for children) and, • Professional personal attributes (e.g., an ethical practice framework to inform their practice, the capacity for reflection and critical thinking) (p.12). Premised upon Síolta and Aistear, the PACG set out the values, knowledge and practices essential for all professionals working in ECEC and, specify the integral nature of professional practice placement. In future, degree programmes must provide for structured supervised assessed professional practice placement for a minimum of 35% of the overall duration of the programme. The DES stress that placement should be undertaken in a range of settings spanning childhood (birth to six years) and catering for a diverse range of children. Consideration must be given to non-practice settings: policy development agencies, research centres, regulatory agencies and support agencies. A Qualifications Advisory Board has been established to manage the review of new programmes for their coherence with the PACG in advance of their submission for validation by their authorised body (i.e. QQI or HEIs). QQI has also developed new awards standards for ECEC programmes at Levels 5 and 6. Known as Professional Award-type Descriptors (PATDs), these new standards must be used when designing programmes leading to ECEC awards. Major awards at NFQ Levels 5 and 6 will be deactivated in mid-2021, and replaced with two new awards: a Level 5 Certificate in Early Learning and Care and an Advanced Certificate in Early Learning and Care. ECEC training providers of programmes leading to QQI awards based on the new standards must have their programmes validated by QQI before offering them to learners. The first intake under the new standard should be no later than the start of the 21/22 academic year. As with Level 7 and 8 awards, professional practice placement is also integral to Level 5 and 6 programmes. However, even though Level 7 and 8 programmes must include a supervised practicum component for a minimum of 35% of the programme, QQI specify the hours required at Level 5 and 6. Consequently, these programmes must ensure that each (full-time) learner completes 150 h (per year) in a minimum of two ECEC settings . One practicum involves 50 h working directly with children

104

M. Moloney

aged between birth and 2 years, 8 months, and 50 h working with children from 2 years, 8 months – 6 years. The final 50 h can be with either of these two groups (QQI, 2019).

Teaching Staff and Supervision Requirements Both the QQI PATD and the DES PACG specify requirements relating to teaching staff and, those who supervise and monitor students engaging in professional practice placement during their training. Teaching staff involved in Level 5 and 6 programmes must therefore hold a relevant Major Award at NFQ Level 7 or higher and either a teaching qualification or five or more years of teaching experience on programmes designed to prepare learners for practice in the ECEC sector. Whereas, those teaching at Level 7 and 8, must be qualified and capable with expertise and experience in ECEC. The DES (2019a) specify that teaching staff should be qualified to one level above that which the participant on the degree programme is expected to attain. In addition, allied professionals may also engage with students for discreet aspects of the programme (e.g., psychologist, nutritionists) (Ibid. 2019). Standards relating to student supervision and mentoring during professional practice placement are also stipulated. Accordingly, supervisors involved with Level 7 and 8 programmes must be suitably qualified and experienced in ECEC and have experience in the assessment of learners (DES, 2019a). At Level 5 and 6, visiting tutors or supervisors should have suitable qualifications for and experience of the ECEC sector. In addition, and unlike the requirements at Level 7 and 8, they must work alongside co-operating educators within placement settings to support and assess learners (QQI, 2018). Across all programmes (Level 5 to Level 8), a formal written agreement (e.g., a memorandum of understanding) between the provider and the placement setting, which sets out respective roles and responsibilities and a code of practice for supervision of learners is required. Findings from the PLÉ (2017) study mirror much of what is proposed by QQI and the DES in relation to whom and how professional practice placement should be undertaken, supervised and mentored. Consequently, PLÉ has developed and published Best Practice Guidelines for Professional Practice Placement Experience in Initial Early Childhood Education and Care Professional Development (Moloney, 2019). The intention is that all HEIs and FETs in Ireland adapt these guidelines, thus, consolidating the principles of best practice in supervised practicum proposed by QQI and the DES. Commenting upon the PACG, the Minister for Education and Skills in 2019, Mr. Joe McHugh, T.D, asserts that they build upon the long commitment of the DES to support the evolution of the ECEC sector in Ireland and, in particular, the professionalisation of the workforce (DES, 2019b). Furthermore, the PACG will “complement the current exciting development of professional awards in the further education and training sector being undertaken by Quality and Qualifications Ireland” (p.3). Notably, he adds.

7 Ireland’s Reform Agenda …

105

For the first time in the history of the sector, the workforce will have access to a suite of professional awards from entry level qualifications at Level 5 to honours degree level, that recognise the value of professionals at all these levels working in [ECEC] settings across the country. (p.3)

Regrettably, the Minister’s ideology is not currently reflected within the sector which is beset by considerable unrest, related to the burden of evaluation and monitoring (DES, 2018) brought about by two disparate inspection systems (Moloney, 2018; Moloney and McKenna, 2019); lack of status (Moloney, 2019) and, salaries that are pitched below the living wage (Pobal, 2019; SIPTU, 2019; 2020).

Teacher Registration Although the DCEDIY and the DES are committed to the professionalisation of the ECEC workforce, the absence of a professional body for early childhood teachers is notable. At primary school level, the Teaching Council is the professional standards body for the teaching profession. In addition to promoting and regulating professional standards in teaching, it acts in the interests of the public good while upholding and enhancing standards in the teaching profession (Eurydice, 2018). The Council registers teachers under the Revised Teaching Council [Registration] Regulations 2016, noting that registration is a ‘mark of professional recognition as a teacher… [Ensuring]…that standards of entry to the profession are maintained’ (Teaching Council, 2020). As the professional body for teaching in Ireland, the Teaching Council has many functions relating to teacher education, spanning the entire teaching career from entry to initial teacher education programmes, accreditation of such programmes, and induction of newly qualified teachers into the profession, to the continuing professional development of teachers throughout their careers (Teaching Council, 2016). There is no corresponding overarching body with decision-making power to determine the suitability of training, and fitness to practice, of early childhood teachers in Ireland. As such early childhood teachers with equivalent Level 8 qualifications are not conferred with the mark of professional recognition given to primary school teachers. In the absence of a professional regulator, the DCEDIY maintains a list of approved qualifications for the purposes of compliance with statutory regulations and funding requirements associated with ECEC schemes and oversees a process to validate staff qualifications (DCYA, 2019). The establishment of an Early Years Council, would, according to Moloney & McKenna (2019) regularize this situation by promoting the professional standing of early childhood teachers, establishing a Code of Professional Practice and Responsibility for and, creating a national register of teachers. First 5 commits to developing a workforce development plan to ensure the appropriate number of staff at all levels in the sector; set out plans to raise the profile of careers in ECEC; establish a career framework and leadership development opportunities and, work towards building a more gender-balanced and diverse workforce (DCYA, 2019). However, there are no plans to establish a professional body. In 2019

106

M. Moloney

therefore, three national organisations (PLÉ, SIPTU and the Association of Childhood Professionals [ACP] came together to explore the establishment of such a body and, work is ongoing in this regard. Furthermore, preliminary findings from research by Moloney (2021) into establishing a professional body for the ECEC sector in Ireland confirms the need for such a body and its role in progressing the professional standing of early childhood teachers.

Transforming the Irish ECEC Sector into One of the Best in the World This chapter documents unprecedented change in the Irish ECEC policy and practice landscape spanning two decades. Childcare (Pre-School Services) Regulations, first introduced in 1996, were revised in 2006 and further revised in the Child Care Act 1991 (Early Years Services) Regulations 2016. The practice frameworks Síolta and Aistear, were introduced in 2006 and 2009 respectively. In 2016, the Government introduced a minimum qualification requirement at QQI Level 5, increased the qualification requirements associated with the ECCE scheme, and initiated Early Years Education Focussed Inspections. Notwithstanding these multiple initiatives, the value and status afforded the sector and its early childhood teachers has remained relatively unchanged. As mentioned previously, staff turnover across the entire sector stands at 23% (Pobal, 2019). Furthermore, findings from a SIPTU (2019) Early Years Professional’s survey, to which over 3,200 individuals responded, including room leaders, assistants, owner-managers, managers and assistant managers, indicate that: • 90% of ECEC staff are considering quitting the sector because of low pay and, • 94% of staff cannot make ends meet on their pay. Pobal (2019) report that the average hourly wage for those working over 20 years in a service is e15.92, while the rate for those with less than one year’s tenure is e11.50 – a difference of e4.42 or 38%, also 80 cents below the living wage. Irrespective of qualification level, an early childhood teacher employed for 39 h per week and paid for 52 weeks of the year, earns an annual salary of e32, 285 after 20 years’ service. Conversely, a primary school teacher appointed after January 1 2011, attracts a starting salary of e36, 318 rising to e61,188 after 20 years’ service (DES Circular 0022/2019). The difference is stark. Little wonder that early childhood teachers are quitting the sector. The Pobal (2019) survey reveals that 20% of services lost one staff member in 2018/2019, while 21% lost two or more staff members. For the first time in 2018/19, services were asked to indicate the level of qualification of staff that left. Of the 3,888 staff who left, 93% had an NFQ Level 5 qualification or above (Fig. 7.3). As illustrated, 65% of those who left ECEC in 2018/19 held a qualification at Level 6, Level 7 or higher. Should these trends continue, the sector will experience

7 Ireland’s Reform Agenda …

107

Fig. 7.3 Percentage of Staff who left ECEC in the last 12 months by Qualification Level

a skills stasis in the short to medium term. In any case, they do not bode well for the establishment of a graduate-led workforce by 2028.

Conclusion Ireland has finally set a target for a graduate-led ECEC workforce, and progressive steps are being taken to realise this objective. The introduction of a mandatory training requirement, publication of Professional Award Criteria and Guidelines are welcome developments and central to the long-overdue reform agenda. While this agenda has the potential to enhance the quality of children’s experiences in settings and, raise the status and profile of the sector, it may be a question of too little too late. On its own, and in the absence of ring-fenced, sustained increased investment that recognises early childhood teacher qualifications, experience, and contribution to children’s education and care, and which remunerates them with a professional salary, the inordinate focus upon to their preparation and professionalisation is not enough. On its own, it cannot stem staff turnover, which ultimately impedes progress towards policy objectives.

108

M. Moloney

References CECDE. (2006). Síolta, the national quality framework. http://www.cecde.ie DCYA. (2019). Workforce development plan for the early learning and care (ELC), school-age childcare (SAC) and childminding sector. Background note and draft terms of reference for the steering group. https://assets.gov.ie/26650/a384c2888749488d8e93badc501507b3.pdf DCYA. (n.d). Rules for ecce programme. https://assets.gov.ie/26553/8a6844640f3b422da3cff8ca 18593199.pdf DES. (1999). Ready to learn. White paper on early childhood education. https://www.education.ie/ en/Publications/Policy-Reports/Ready-to-Learn-White-Paper-on-Early-Childhood-Education. pdf DES. (2011). Literacy and numeracy for learning and life. The national strategy to improve literacy and numeracy among children and young people 2011 – 2020. https://www.education.ie/en/Pub lications/Policy-Reports/lit_num_strategy_full.pdf DES. (2018). A guide to early years education inspection. https://www.education.ie/en/Publicati ons/Inspection-Reports-Publications/Evaluation-Reports-Guidelines/guide-to-early-years-edu cation-inspections.pdf DES. (2019a). Professional award criteria and guidelines for initial professional education (Level 7 and Level 8) degree programmes for the early learning and care (ELC) sector in Ireland. https://www.education.ie/en/The-Education-System/Early-Childhood/professional-award-cri teria-and-guidelines-for-initial-professional-education-l7-8-degree-programmes-elc-ireland.pdf DES. (2019b). Circular 0022/2019: Revision of 2011 entrant teacher salaries with effect from 1 March 2019 - Application of additional increments. https://www.education.ie/en/Circulars-andForms/Active-Circulars/cl0022_2019.pdf European Commission. (2019). Council recommendation on high-quality early childhood education and care systems. C/189/4. Official journal of the european union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/leg alcontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32019H0605(01)&from=EN Eurydice. (2017). Description of national education systems – Ireland. https://webgate.ec.europa. eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Ireland:Early_Childhood_Education_and_Care Eurydice. (2018). Initial education for teachers working in early childhood and school education. https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/initial-education-teachers-wor king-early-childhood-and-school-education-36_en Govt. Ireland. (1996). S.1. No. 398/1996. Child care (pre-school services) regulations 1996. http:// www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1996/si/398/made/en/print Govt. Ireland. (1998). S.1 No 51/1998. Education Act, 1998. http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/ 1998/act/51/enacted/en/html Govt. Ireland. (2006). S.1. No 604/2006. Child care (pre-school services) (No 2) regulations 2006. http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2006/si/604/made/en/print Govt. Ireland. (2012). S.I. No 28/2012. Qualifications and quality assurance (education and training) Act 2012. http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2012/act/28/enacted/en/html Govt. Ireland. (2016). S.1. No 221/2016. Child care Act 1991 (Early years services) regulations 2016. http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2016/si/221/made/en/print Govt. Ireland. (2018). First 5: A whole-of-government strategy for babies, young children and their families. https://assets.gov.ie/31184/62acc54f4bdf4405b74e53a4afb8e71b.pdf Living Wage Technical Group. (2019). Living wage update 2019. https://www.livingwage.ie/dow nload/pdf/living_wage_2019_-_4_page_document.pdf Moloney, M. (2017). An exploration of the evidential base for early childhood education and care professional practice placement in higher education institutes in Ireland. https://dsp ace.mic.ul.ie/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10395/2597/Pope%2c%20J.%20et%20al.%20%282016% 29%20An%20exploration%20of%20the....pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y Moloney, M. (2019). In Morton, K. TV show exposes malpractices in Ireland. https://www.nurser yworld.co.uk/nursery-world/news/1168367/tv-show-exposes-malpracticein-ireland

7 Ireland’s Reform Agenda …

109

Moloney, M & McKenna, I. (2019). Is it time to establish an early years council? https://education matters.ie/downloads/YB20172018-Early%20Childhood.pdf Moloney, M., Sims, M., Rothe, A., Buettner, C., Sonter, L., & Waniganaya, M…Girlich, S. . (2019). Resisting neoliberalism: Professionalisation of early childhood education and care. International Journal of Elementary Education, 8(1), 1–10. NCCA. (2009). Aistear, the early childhood curriculum framework. https://www.ncca.ie/en/earlychildhood/aistear OECD. (2012). Starting strong III: A quality toolbox for early childhood education and care. OECD Publishing, Paris,. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264123564-en Pobal. (2019). Annual early years sector profile report 2018–19. https://www.pobal.ie/app/uploads/ 2019/12/Annual-Early-Years-Sector-Profile-Report-AEYSPR-2018-19.pdf QQI. (2018). The Irish national qualifications framework. https://www.qqi.ie/Articles/Pages/Nat ional-Framework-of-Qualifications-(NFQ).aspx SIPTU. (2019). The early years professional survey. https://medium.com/@BigStartIreland/theearly-years-professionals-survey-ec02f7bf2b55 The Teaching Council. (2016). Teaching council regulations, 2016. Revised. https://www.teachi ngcouncil.ie/en/Publications/Registration/Revised-Teaching-Council-Registration-Regulations2016.pdf The Teaching Council. (2020). Registration. https://www.teachingcouncil.ie/en/Registration/ Urban, M, Vandenbroeck, M, Lazzari, A, Van Laere, K & Peeters, J. (2012). Competence requirements in early childhood education and care. Final Report. http://ec.europa.eu/education/moreinformation/doc/2011/core_en.pdf Vandenbroeck, M, Lenaerts, K & Beblav ý. (2018). Benefits of early childhood education and care and the conditions for obtaining them. EENEE Analytical Report No.32. Prepared for the European Commission. file:///D:/SEQUAL%20Background%20papers/Vandenbroeck%20et%20al.pdf

Chapter 8

Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher Education in Japan Chiharu Uchida

Current Policies in Japanese ECEC In order to establish a shared understanding of the current policies of early childhood teacher education (ECTE) and professional development systems in Japan, firstly it is necessary to share the historical background of the Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) system and pedagogical philosophies. In 2017, what we call “Triple Revisions” were issued. Because of historical and political reasons, there are three systems and three different curriculum guidelines for kindergartens (Yochien), childcare centers (Hoikusho), and integrated certified child centers (Yohorenkeigata Nintei Kodomoen). Each guideline was discussed in its committee, which included members such as university researchers and practitioners. With the measures taken by the Ministries of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW) and the Cabinet Office, at least the aims, philosophies, and contents has become aligned to ensure that all children will equally have the benefits of early childhood education no matter which ECEC system the child is in. Early childhood education is considered as the foundation of lifelong development in Japan. The Basic Act of Education states: Article 11 …. in consideration of the importance of early childhood education as a basis for the lifelong formation of one’s character, the national and local governments shall endeavor to promote such education, by providing an environment that is favorable to the healthy growth of young children and by other appropriate means.

Thus, early childhood education is not considered as a preparatory program for compulsory schools but rather it has its own values and roles for the lifelong wellbeing and development.1 C. Uchida (B) Faculty of Human Life Design, Toyo University, Kita-ku, Japan1-7-11 Akabanedai, 115-8650, Tokyo e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_8

111

112

C. Uchida

Firstly, its pedagogical philosophy primarily values children’s play as the spontaneous activity initiated by children, which leads teachers to respect each child’s individual characteristics and interests. The National Curriculum Standard for Kindergarten states that: teachers should systematically create a learning environment with the intention of ensuring that children participate in voluntary activities based on an understanding and anticipation of the individual actions of each child. Teachers should therefore create a physical and psychological environment that recognizes the importance of the relationship between the child and other people and things through the creative use of various teaching aids… (MEXT, 2017)

This pedagogy is described with the term “ECEC through the environment,” which is shared among kindergartens, childcare centers, and integrated certified child centers. Secondly, the aims of the pedagogy are for each child to become independent in the aspects of life, and teachers are expected to guide children in play and in their daily lives. The role of the teacher is as a co-agent of the classroom community while actual interactions with children differ depending on the child’s age, development, and individual characteristics. Thirdly, its pedagogy emphasizes socio-emotional development as well as cognitive aspects. Primarily teachers seek to encourage each child’s emotional stability, as well as healthy interactions among children. In these interactions, intellectual experiences are embedded. In other words, collective projects and activities encouraging social interactions are intertwined in the Japanese ECEC curriculum. Fourth, the Curriculum Standards/guidelines do not state details of the contents, but provide a general framework and philosophical foundations. They do not have achievement standards for children. Thus, ECEC teachers are given the responsibility to organize children’s daily life “appropriately” and enhance educational opportunities. Fifth, the guidelines/standards aim to establish coherence across centers. There are variety of ECEC centers in terms of their size, location, structure, curricula, pedagogical style, and management body because the system of ECEC has been split in the last 30 years, and the complexity has increased in recent times. For example, there are more private programs in ECEC than compulsory schools. The balance between kindergartens and childcare centers depending on the prefectures (units of local government in Japan). Even though the split system deeply affects teacher education programs, significant steps have been taken to integrate two teacher education systems and will be explained in next sections.

The System of Japanese ECEC and Teacher Licenses In order to work in the ECEC field, there are two kinds of qualifications in Japan. One is Hoikushi (nursery teacher certificate to work for children under age 18)

8 Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher …

113

and Yochien-Kyoyu (kindergarten teacher license for children age 3–5). Hoikushi is regulated by the Ministry of Welfare, Labor and Health (MWLH); while, YochienKyoyu is regulated by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (MEXT) (Shown in Table 8.1). In 2009–2011, when the integration of two systems was pursued by the cabinet (Democratic Party of Japan), many stakeholders, such as associations for private kindergartens, private childcare centers, and so on, lobbied to prevent the change and were successful. Therefore, in 2012, when the Children and Child Rearing Support Act was issued, the Yohorenkeigata Nintei Kodomen or the integrated certified child center system was established in addition to kindergartens and childcare centers. This new institution is to provide early childhood education and care for children age 0–6 in any circumstances both under school and welfare system. To manage the two regulations, integrated certified child centers are under the regulations of the Cabinet Office. Therefore, the teachers who work in Child Centers are to have both qualifications as Hoikushi (Nursery teacher) and Yochienkyoyu (Kindergarten teachers) and to be called a Hoiku-kyoyu or ECEC teacher.

Kindergarten Teacher (Yochien-kyoyu) Kindergartens are under the school system. Its regulations are aligned with other teacher licenses for elementary, junior-high, and high schools. In the Basic Act of Education, Article 9 states the responsibility of the teacher as: (1)

(2)

Teachers of the schools prescribed by law shall endeavor to fulfill their duties while remaining deeply conscious of the exalted nature of their calling and continuously devoting themselves to research and self-improvement In consideration of the importance of the calling and the duties of the teachers referred to in the preceding paragraph, the status of teachers must be respected, their fair and appropriate treatment ensured, and measures must be taken to improve their education and training. (The Basic Act of Education, Article 9)

In 1949 after World War II, new Teaching License Act was established. Japanese teacher licenses have three types, Type II, Type I, and Advanced licenses. Type II license requires Junior College Associate Degree (ISCED 5), while Type I licenses require a Bachelor’s degree (ISCED 6). The Advanced Level require graduate level education (ISCED 7). Graduates who completed a teacher education program required by law are awarded a teaching license from a prefectural board of education (Table 8.1). Regarding professional trainings, there are required trainings for school teachers such as the first-year teacher training sessions, and the trainings after 10-yearexperience. These trainings are typically organized for kindergartens by the regional association of private kindergartens and the prefectural Board of Education or the city’s board of education/the section of child affairs in the city office. In addition, teacher licenses are valid for 10 years and teachers are required to take renewal

114

C. Uchida

Table 8.1 Three systems of early childhood education and care in Japan Institutions

Yochien Hoikusho Yohorenkeigata (Kindergarten) (Nursery/Childcare Nintei Kodomoen Center) (Integrated Certified Child Center)

Age

Age 3–6 ISCED 01

3 months to Age 6 ISCED 01 & 02

3 months to Age 6 ISCED 01 & 02

Time

Minimum of 4 h/day, More than 49 weeks/year

At least 9 h/day (each center decides opening hours)

At least 9 h/day (each center decides opening hours)

Government

Ministry of Ministry of Health, Cabinet Office Education, Labour and Welfare Culture, (MHLW) Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)

Legal background

School Education Act (Act No. 26 of 1947)

Child Welfare Act (Act No. 164 of 1947)

School Education Act and Child Welfare Act

Mandatory Guidelines/Standards for National curriculum Curriculum Guidelines for Early Childhood Education in Kindergarten

National Curriculum Standards for Early Childhood Education and Care in Childcare Centers

National Curriculum Guidelines for Early Childhood Education and Care

Teacher qualifications

Yochien-kyoyu or Kindergarten Teacher License

Hoikushi or Nursery Teacher Certificate (for Children under age 18)

Hoiku-kyoyu or ECEC teacher (with both of Hoikushi and Yochien-kyoyu)(3)

Teacher’s Lowest Academic Level

2-year college or above(1)

2-year college or above(2)

2-year college or above

License registrations

Prefectural Board of Education

Prefectural office N/A where the person is qualified

(1) Teacher licensure has levels such as the Type II (2-year-college), the Type I (4-year-college), and the Advanced (graduate level) (2) It is possible to obtain Hoikushi or nursing teacher certificate through the national examination with at least 2-year college level education. (3) Because this is a relatively new policy from 2012, currently staff with one qualification may work in Child Centers. The government offered special allowances for the teachers with more than five years of experience in the ECEC field to apply the other license/certificate by taking five special courses certified by the MEXT and the MHLW.

8 Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher …

115

courses of 40 h offered by a university or other institutions. Renewal courses must be validated by the MEXT. There are several different trends between kindergarten and other schools such as elementary, junior-high, and high school teachers, in terms of license types. In general, regular teachers possess Type I licenses, but many kindergarten teachers have Type II licenses. Kindergarten teachers are more likely to be females. The National School Basic Statistics indicated that the total number of teachers in kindergarten are 93,579, and among them, 87,336 are female (93.3%).

Nursery Teacher (Hoikushi) The Hoikushi or Nursery teacher certificate is regulated under the Child Welfare system. In the Child Welfare Act, the child is defined as under 18 years of age, which is the period that every child is protected with the Child Welfare Act. With this act, the Hoikushi or Nursery teacher is defined as below: Article 18-4 The term "nursery teacher" as used in this Act shall mean a person who is registered as prescribed in Article 18-18 paragraph (1) and works for daycare of children and guidance concerning daycare to their guardians, in the name of nursery teacher and through using his/her specialized knowledge and skills. (MHLW: the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan 1947, revised in 2007) Article 18-6 A person who falls under any of the following items shall be qualified as a nursery teacher:

(i)

(ii)

A person graduating from a school for training of nursery teachers or other facility as designated by the Minister of Health, Labor and Welfare (hereinafter referred to as “Designated Nursery teacher training facility”); or A person passing a nursery teacher examination. (MHLW: the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare of Japan 1947, revised in 2007)

The Nursery teacher, Hoikushi was once called as Hobo or Nursery mother from 1947–1999, although there were some male teachers already. Then in 2003, finally, the Hoikushi or Nursery teacher became a national certificate and the Child Welfare Act was revised as below: Article 18-18 (1)

(2) (3)

In order for a person who is qualified as a nursery teacher to actually work as a nursery teacher, his/her name, date of birth and other matters specified by an Ordinance of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare shall be registered in the nursery teachers’ registry. The nursery teachers registry shall be kept by the prefectural government. When an applicant is registered as a nursery teacher, the prefectural governor shall issue a nursery teacher registration certificate stating the matters provided in paragraph (1) to the applicant. (MHLW: the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan 1947, revised in 2007)

116

C. Uchida

Before 2003, there was no registration system or legal procedure to prohibit someone to call oneself as Nursery teacher without qualifications. This change raised the status of the nursery teacher. The Nursery teacher certificate system does not have Types nor Classes/Levels. When they graduate, approximately 90% of new graduates with the Nursery teacher certificate work in the ECEC field. However, the other 10% work in other child welfare institutions such as child and family support centers, infant homes, maternal and child living support facilities, Children’ recreational facilities, foster homes, institutions for mentally retarded children, daycare centers for mentally retarded children, institutions for blind or deaf children, institutions for orthopedically impaired children or severely-retarded children, short-term therapeutic institutions for emotionally disturbed children, and children’s self-reliance support facilities.

Teachers Working in the Integrated Certified Child Center (Hoiku-kyoyu) Ninteikodomoen or the integrated certified Child Center is regulated under both MEXT and MHLW. In 2012, the Children and Child-Rearing Support Act and the Act on Advancement of Comprehensive Service Related to Education, Child Care of Preschool Children (Act No. 67 of 2012) was issued. With this set of laws, new system started and teachers who work in the Integrated Certified Child Center are required to have both Nursing and Kindergarten Teacher Licenses in order to fulfill requirement from both MEXT and MHLW. With many national political discussions, changing to integrated certified child centers was not mandated for existing childcare center and kindergartens. The changes are slow in metropolitan areas. In the less populated prefectures, more nursing centers and kindergartens have been changing into Integrated Certified Child Centers, even before the new system was issued. Therefore, EC teacher education programs have been changing to provide both the kindergarten license and nursery teacher certificate, as discussed in later sections.

Expectations for ECEC Teachers in Japan Even before the triple revisions of guidelines/standards in 2017, childcare centers and kindergartens shared cultural values in their practices (Ito & Izumi-Taylor 2018). The Japanese educational guidelines have been emphasizing children’s relationships in which they learn to help and care for others and to work and play together. Teachers are expected to provide opportunities to develop warm relationships with teachers, other children, and people in the community, and facilitate the positive interactions among children. Japanese teachers let children impose their own rules and take responsibility for their own actions as much as possible. Through this kind of daily

8 Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher …

117

experience, children’s self-regulation, cooperative play activities, self-expressions, and self-efficacy are promoted. The basic ideal of guidelines is for teachers to understand the nature of the child and to educate them accordingly. Children need to be childlike and to be able to share their emotions with teachers and other children. Teachers accept children as they are while children enjoy every day play-based activities with their own initiatives (MEXT, 2017; Cabinet Office, 2017; MHLW, 2017). Pre-service teachers are trained at the university/college to support children’s socialization skills through play activities and daily routines by intentionally preparing the environment (Muto, 2009; Ito & Izumi-Taylor, 2018). However, with the diversity among centers, it is true that teacher-directed practices, which are away from the philosophy of the three guidelines can be found in different types of centers and areas of Japan. While this chapter was written, the Free ECEC system for children age 3 to 5 started in October 1 of 2019. It became more critical to guarantee the basic quality of the ECEC for any child at anywhere in Japan. Because the research has informed that teachers are the key factor for education, professional development systems and ECEC teacher education system have also revised and been updated. In the next section, how two teacher education systems are aligned together is discussed, then new context of professional development system for two licenses is explained.

Teacher Education System in Japan Types of Teacher Education Institutions Figure 8.1 shows the numbers of accredited teacher education institutions regarding teacher licenses for nursery teachers, kindergarten teachers, and elementary school teachers. These numbers were obtained from the list of the accredited institutions published by MEXT and Hoikushi Yosei Kyogikai (the Council of Nursery Teacher Education Programs). In this graph, “other” includes vocational schools (ISCED 5). Compared to the teacher education program for elementary school teachers, early childhood teacher education relies on institutions “2-year-college” (ISCED 5) level institutions and offers Type II teacher licenses. “4-year” (ISCED 6) institutions offer Type I teacher licenses for kindergartens and elementary schools. Because in the long run, the Integrated Child center is expected to become the major institution, whose teachers are required to have both kindergarten and nursery teacher qualifications. In fact, according to the survey conducted by Hoikushi Yosei Kyogikai (2019) (Association of the nursery teacher education programs), 80% of the programs offer the kindergarten teacher education programs as well as the nursery teacher education program. Table 8.2 shows the numbers and ratios of types of institutions offering ECEC and elementary teacher licensure programs based on the same statistics as Fig. 8.1.

118

C. Uchida

Table 8.2 Numbers and ratios of types of institutions offering ECEC and elementary teacher licensure programs Other

2-year

4-year

Total

Nursery teacher

103 (18.8%)

216 (39.4%)

229 (41.8%)

548

Kindergarten

30 (5.9%)

206 (40%)

276 (53.9%)

512

Elementary

0 (0%)

21 (7.9%)

245 (92.1%)

266

MEXT (2019a, b); Hoikushi Yosei Kyogikai (2019) 300

276

250

216

245

229 206

200 150

132 111

103 100 50

30

21 0

0 Nursery

Kindergarten other

2-year

4-year

Elementary Master

Fig. 8.1 Number of Accredited Teacher Education Institutions by levels for Care Nursery teacher Cerificate, Kindergarten Teacher Licensure, and Elementary School Teacher Licensure (MEXT, 2019a, b; Hoikushi Yosei Kyogikai, 2019)

According to the national School Basic Statistics (MEXT, 2019a, b), Japan is one of the most rapidly aging societies. The population of those who are 18 years of age declined from approximately 2,000,000 in the 1990s to approximately 1,200,000 in 2018. However, we have more young people entering higher education in the previous 30 years. As the Fig. 8.1 shows, in 2018, 82.8% of high school graduates entered into/ post-secondary education. Among these graduates, 53.7% attended 4-year universities, while only 4.4% entered junior-colleges and 23.8% entered vocational schools. We also have good news that more female students attend 4-year universities (45.4%) reaching record highs Morozumi, (2016) indicated that in response to this trend, the 4-year colleges/universities offering ECEC teacher education programs increased in the 2000s and 2010s. However, as shown in Fig. 8.1, still half of the ECEC teacher education programs depend on 2-year institutions, while other teacher licenses already shifted to bachelor’s degree and even toward master’s degree programs (Uchida, 2016). One reason that the change did not promptly occur for ECEC is that Japan has a split system

8 Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher …

119

controlling ECEC with different laws as already outlined in this chapter. Another reason is the gender in equality in the society relating to the fact that most of the ECEC teachers are female.

Who Can Teach in Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs Regulated by MHLW, the programs for nursery teacher education must be taught by the individuals with (a) master’s or doctorate degrees and published academic work, (b) published academic work which is equivalent to definition (a), (c) teaching experience and educational or academic work, (d) exceeding academic skills, and/or (e) particularly memorable work on child welfare. MEXT also require similar standards for faculties, and to accredit the teacher education program, each instructor’s academic work list and resume are submitted for each subject so that MEXT can check the instructor’s capability to teach. Accredited teacher education programs must be inspected regarding the management of the program periodically. And if a course instructor is replaced, the program has to report the change officially to MEXT.

Kindergarten and Nursery Teacher Education Accreditation System As of April 2019, the new guidelines for teacher education programs for all ages were implemented nationally, which is a response to the revisions of the national curriculum guidelines in 2017. Because of the split system of the two licenses, there are two accreditation systems. Nursery teacher (Hoikushi) education programs are accredited by MHLW through the prefectural MHLW offices, which was changed from the regional offices in 2018. The Kindergarten teacher (Yochien-kyoyu) education programs are accredited by MEXT through the national office (Fig. 8.2). The accreditation standards for nursery teacher education programs were revised in 2018. The standards for Nursery teacher education programs are determined by the Child Welfare Act Enforcement Regulations, Article 6-2-1 (3) Subjects, Units, and Teaching Methods for Registered Nursery Teacher Education Institutions (MHLW 2018 revised: (Tables 8.3 and 8.4)). Although these two guidelines were aligned by the two ministries, this time, the aligned curriculum model was published through the collaboration of two academic associations, the Research Institute of ECEC teacher education programs (Hoikukyoyu Youseikatei Kenkyukai) and the Japanese Society for the Study of

120

C. Uchida

2. Inquiry Central Council for Education: Teacher Education Section

The Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology

5. Report 6. Accreditation 3. Referral

4. Conclusion report

Committee of Accreditation

1. Application Individual national, public, and private universities

Fig. 8.2 Overview of the teacher education accreditation system in Japan (MEXT, 2019a, b, p. 1)

Hoikusha education (Hoikusha Yosei Gakkai). This curriculum model provides shared standards among teacher education institutions. In 2017, teacher education core curriculums were published by the MEXT for each of teacher licenses at all levels and types. The intention to announce and implement core curriculum is to indicate minimum standards of most critical subjects for teacher education programs. However, if managed incorrectly, this policy could lead to excessive controls and rigid teacher education. On the other hand, core curriculum could play important roles to improve the quality of teacher education because of two reasons. One is that, unfortunately, especially in early childhood teacher education fields, quite a few teacher educators are not well prepared because either they come from other academic areas or they have practical experiences, but have a limited research background. The second reason is that this core curriculum development was in fact an opportunity to align nursery and kindergarten teacher education curriculum standards. Since 80% of ECTE programs are offering both kindergarten and nursery teacher education programs, in practice this alignment was necessary for the field (Table 8.5).

Research and Policymaking for ECTE in Japan Reports by the Central Council for Education and its Subcommittees The MEXT calls a consultative advisory committee, the Central Council for Education which consists of experts from a variety of areas in the field of education. The council proposes the policy directions of the future based on the analysis of the research evidence and social contexts including political dynamics. Its proposals are influential and sets the future courses of action regarding policymaking within

8 Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher …

121

Table 8.3 Subject Areas and contents for kindergarten teacher education programs: (a) “basic understanding of education” (An example in the submission manual of the teacher education program accreditation) Subject areas by law

Included contents

Foundational understanding of education (10 credit hours)

Pedagogical Philosophy and philosophies, and history theories of education and theories on education

Courses (example)

2

Meaning of the teaching, General theories of the definition of roles ECE teaching and responsibilities of teachers (including “School management as a team”)

2

Social, systemic, and Educational Sociology managerial issues of School Safety education (including cooperation between schools and communities and safety issues in schools)

2 2

Physical and Educational psychological psychology development and process of learning from early to middle childhood

2

Understanding children with special needs

1

Special education

Type I credit hours

Curriculum organization Theories of educational 2 and management curriculum teaching methods, student guidance, counseling

Theories of curriculum development (including application of ITC and materials)

Theories of educational 2 curriculum

Theories and methods to Theories and methods understand children to understand children Theories and methods of and educational counseling educational counseling

2

(including basic knowledge of counseling) Student teaching and Student Teaching practice seminar Student Teaching (continued)

122

C. Uchida

Table 8.3 (continued) Subject areas by law

Included contents

Courses (example)

Type I credit hours

Teaching Practice seminar a Translated

by the author from the submission manual of the teacher education program accreditation MEXT (2019a, b) Table 8.4 Subject Areas for kindergarten teacher education programs: (b) Five content areas and methods of teaching (An example from the submission manual of the teacher education program accreditation) Subject areas by law

Courses

Type I total credit hours

Content areas for specialists

Health

2

Relationship with others

2

Environment I Environment II

1 1

Language

2

Expression

2

Methods of teaching regarding five General theories of ECEC content areas (including application Content Areas of ITC and materials) Research on ECEC Content Areas

2

Teaching methods of Health Area

2

Teaching methods of Relationship

2

Teaching methods of Environment

2

Teaching methods of Language

2

Teaching methods of Expression I

1

Teaching methods of Expression II

1

2

Courses combining multiple Areas and teaching of contents

(decided by each program)

Other courses uniquely provided

Volunteer practicum 2 Experiential practicum in the 2 first year

a Translated

by the author from the submission manual of the teacher education program accreditation MEXT (2019a, b)

8 Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher …

123

Table 8.5 Subject areas and contents to be included for nursery teacher education

Required

Subject areas

Subjects or subject areas (format of the class)

Minimum credits

Subjects related to foundational and essential theories and objectives of ECEC

Philosophies and theories of ECEC (lecture)

2

Philosophies and theories of education(lecture)

2

Child and family welfare (lecture)

2

Social Welfare (lecture)

2

Theories of child and family support (lecture)

2

Social Care I (lecture)

2

Theories on ECEC and nursing teachers (lecture)

2

Psychology for Early Childhood Education and Care (lecture)

2

Psychology for Child and Family Support (lecture)

2

Understanding Children and Guidance (seminar)

1

Child’s Health (lecture)

2

Child’s Food and Nutrition (Seminar)

2

Planning and Evaluation of Early Childhood Education and Care (lecture)

2

Comprehensive Content of ECEC (Seminar)

1

Subjects related to ways to understand children

Subjects related to ECEC Content Areas and Methods of teaching

Contents of ECEC/ Areas 5 of ECEC Contents (Seminar) Understanding the content 4 of ECEC and methods to implement (Seminar) Infant Education and Care 2 I (lecture) Infant Education and Care 1 II (seminar) Child Health and Safety (lecture)

1 (continued)

124

C. Uchida

Table 8.5 (continued) Subject areas

Practicum

Comprehensive seminar

Elective requirement

Subjects or subject areas (format of the class)

Minimum credits

ECEC for children with special needs (seminar)

2

Social Care II (seminar)

1

Parenting Support (seminar)

1

Nursing Teacher Practicum I (20 days of practicum) 1)

4

Guidance on Nursing Teacher Practicum I (Seminar)

2

Practical Seminar of Early 2 Childhood Education and Care (Seminar) Nursing Teacher Practicum II (10 days practicum in a childcare center)2)

2

Guidance on Nursing Teacher Practicum (seminar)

1

Nursing Teacher 2 Practicum III (10 days practicum in a child-social welfare institution other than childcare centers) 2) Guidance on Nursing Teacher Practicum III (seminar)

1

Other courses on Subjects N.A related to foundational and essential theories and objectives of ECEC Other courses on Subjects N.A related to ways to understand children Other courses on Subjects N.A related to ECEC Content Areas and Methods of teaching (1) Practicum I is typically divided into two periods: A minimum of 10 days in child-social welfare institutions other than childcare centers, and a minimum of 10 days in a childcare center. (2) Students are required to take only one elective practicum either II or III.

8 Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher …

125

MEXT and other ministries, as well as the allocation of the national budget, accordingly. The summary report is negotiated among the committee members and some topics are then taken and discussed further in several sub-committees consisting of researchers, practitioners, and policymakers. One of the unique natures of the early childhood teacher education field in Japan is its relatively collaborative relationship between policymakers and researchers. The members of the ECEC related subcommittees consist of researchers in related fields, experienced teachers from private and public sectors, and representatives from some local education committees.—The subcommittee for early and middle childhood education reported its “summary for future directions” to the Central Council in December 2019 emphasizing the following points: 1.

Securing and improving the number, quality, and professionalism of the ECEC staff – lowering employee turnover rate—it is rather high among young teachers – better conditions of employment for teachers – lowering regional discrepancies in terms of effective professional development training at each career stage – leadership in each kindergarten/center to help their teachers/staff to seek their own professional development responding to the high demands from society – policy making for kindergarten teachers to promote their licenses from Type II to Type I

2.

establishing the system to drive early childhood education – local governments to plan and implement systems applicable to any center: e.g., national, public, or private; integrated centers, kindergartens, or childcare centers. – establishing a center for early childhood education and professional development at each local government integrating national split systems in local areas – educating and positioning capable ECEC pedagogical advisers in local areas – enhancing the roles taken by the Early Childhood Education Research Center at the National Educational Policy Institute established in 20162

With the above recommendations, the national and regional governments fund research and practical projects aiming to overcome challenges indicated in the reports from the subcommittees of the Central Council for Education. As such, the funding is determined by the ministries but also being responsive to the demand from the academic and practical fields.

126

C. Uchida

The National Government’s Initiatives of ECEC Research on Pedagogy and Teacher Education Every year, the ministries publicly present research topics to be funded. In response, organizations/schools send proposals for open tenders for funding. The research topics may have prescribed objectives such as to accumulate data/cases on excellent practices, to inform policy-makers, create guidebooks on certain topics for teachers and/or teacher educators organizing guidelines for the core curriculum, accumulating data on teacher education, and so forth. A recent example is the Core Curriculum Standards for ECETE (Hoikukyoyu Yoseikatei Kenkyukai & Nihon Hoikusha Yoseikyouiku gakkai, 2018). Despite the split system, it is necessary for both nursery and kindergarten teachers to have ready access to good professional development opportunities. Therefore, the Early Childhood Education Adviser System with local Early Childhood Education Centres began in 2016. However, as of 2018, only 5.5% of local governments could put the system into practice (CEDEP, 2019). CEDEP (2019) indicates that the success of ECE centres may relate to the local government’s decisions to unify Courses for Professional Development (CPDs) for all three ECEC sectors/institutions. MEXT and MHLW continuously provides funding for professional development. For example, the Japanese Association of Private Kindergartens’ Research Organization on Early Childhood Education published a professional development chart, and the chart was revised in 2018. The chart is shared nationally among private kindergarten teachers and directors so that they can organize in-service training opportunities within and outside of the centre. The Study for ECEC Teacher Education (Hoikukyoyu Yoseikatei Kenkyukai, 2019) published reports regarding another professional development model including midcareer leaders, administrators, and community leaders. The latter reports are intended to inform public kindergartens/integrated child education centres, local government officials, and community leaders inclusively, and to be used when organizing on- and off-site trainings in local communities.

Implications of the Results from the OECD Starting Strong Survey 2018 (The Starting Strong Teaching and Learning International Survey: TALIS) The OECD Starting Strong Survey was conducted in 2018 and the first report was published in October 2019. This survey, covering nine countries including Japan, collected data on staff’s pedagogical practices, working conditions, professional development, and so forth. The nine countries were Chile, Denmark, Germany, Iceland, Israel, Japan, Korea, Norway, and Turkey. ISCED level 02 settings are typically for children ages 3–5. Four of the above countries (Denmark, Germany, Israel, and Norway) also surveyed the staff and leaders working with children under the

8 Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher …

127

age of 3 in registered ECEC settings. This section summarizes some implications in relation to their professional development. Through this comparative data set (OECD, 2019), some characteristics of Japanese ECEC teachers were identified. One of the main characteristics is that Japanese ECEC teachers value interactions with children in play, genuinely enjoying these play activities with them. Another trend of the dataset is that a larger percentage of staff reported using practices that facilitate children’s socio-emotional development. While teachers in other countries seem to prioritize literacy and numeracy, Japanese teachers consider socio-emotional development and social interactions are more important. When Japanese ECEC teachers were asked about their teacher education program, they reported that they had not received education regarding more contemporary challenges in the field such as diversity, children’s literacy development, the transition between ECEC and primary schools, as well as mathematics and science learning. According to the survey, 85.3% of Japanese ECEC teachers answered that they participated in some kind of CPDs within the last 12 months. The most popular themes were “support for children with special needs”, “child development”, “support for children’s play”, “observations and records of children’s growth and learning”, “collaboration with parents”, and “facilitation of creativity and problem-solving skills”. However, only 5.9% of Japanese teachers expressed their need of CPDs regarding literacy and spoken language. This number is notably lower than other countries. Japanese teacher education programs must deliver courses on responsive interactions and activities that will support oral languages and literacy in developmentally appropriate practices. Therefore, the results in the survey may be consistent with the values and beliefs in the field; that is, children learn from their interactions with the environment and people around them. Another factor which affected the results might be the terms used in the survey. The terms such as literacy, numeracy, and science could have led to the image of ‘schoolification’, which is against the values and philosophies in the national guidelines and standards. Therefore, further research is essential to examine how Japanese ECEC teachers are actually incorporating literacy experience in their pedagogy compared to other countries. While OECD (2019) recommends to “prepare staff and leaders to adapt practices to children’s diverse backgrounds and needs” (p. 40), 74.4% of Japanese teachers answered that they participated in CPDs related to children with special needs within 12 months of completing the survey. The ratio was the highest among the nine countries in the OECD Starting Strong Survey 2018. On the other hand, only 32.5% of the teachers participated in the CPDs related to cultural, socio-economic, and religious diversity. However, Japanese teachers responded by saying that they needed more training regarding cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity and with families in disadvantaged situations, indicating that there is an insufficient number of such courses. Future research is also needed regarding the professional development curriculum as well as the content and pedagogy of ECEC teacher education in the areas such as support for literacy and cognitive development, equity and diversity

128

C. Uchida

issues, and dual language learners as Japanese society is gradually changing, as are children and families.

Summary and Future Directions Early childhood teachers in Japan have at least a two-year college degree. Although teacher qualifications are split into kindergarten teacher licensures regulated by the MEXT and nursery teacher certificates regulated by the MHLW, many teacher education programs offer both. To meet contemporary challenges such as equity and diversity issues and aspects of learning without schoolification, and to improve the status of ECEC teachers, it will be crucial to bring their qualification levels up to ISCED6 and provide continuing and accessible professional development opportunities. As already noted, the split system and privatization add complexity to the field. The split system unevenly affects professional development opportunities. Public and private sectors have different traditions as well. Younger teachers are more likely to have both licenses than veteran teachers. In addition, integrated early childhood education centers are gradually increasing. It is anticipated that the shared philosophy and framework for professional development programs will be established across different types of licenses, centres, and regions in the country. Additionally, professional development systems need to be integrated since the resources are limited in Japan as in any country. It is also crucial to enrich graduate degree programs and increase the accessibility for ECEC teachers. The reason is that graduate programs can be incorporated with CPDs as resources to train prospective ECEC advisors and directors. Revised national guidelines/standards of ECEC were issued in 2017, the new ECEC teacher education regulations were issued in 2018, and the Free ECEC system for children aged 3–5 commenced in October 1 of 2019. Particularly in this transitional and critical period, new trends and efforts in local communities and the nation must be documented and examined to inform future decisions. Notes 1.

2.

There have been several studies which introduce Japanese ECEC such as Ito, Y., & Izumi-Tailor, S. (2018). Chapter 15 Socio-historical factors and early childhood education in the Japanese cultural context. In Handbook of international perspectives on early childhood education, Routledge., Tobin, J., Hsueh, Y., & Karasawa, M. (2009). Preschool in Three Cultures Revisited: China, Japan, and the United States. University of Chicago Press., Hayashi, A. & Tobin, J. (2015). Teaching Embodied: Cultural Practice in Japanese Preschools, University of Chicago Press. This research center pursues to promote ECEC Research and Survey, to build a research network both nationally and internationally, and to disseminate research findings. https://www.nier.go.jp/English/youji_kyouiku_kenkyuu_cen ter/y_index.html

8 Current Trends and Challenges for Early Childhood Teacher …

129

References Center for Early Childhood Development, Education, and Policy Research (CEDEP). (2019). Investigation Report on the outcome of Early Childhood Education Promotion System Construction Project (in Japanese). https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/youchien/__icsFiles/afield file/2019/07/23/1414283_1.pdf. Hoikukyoyu Yoseikatei Kenkyukai (Study for ECEC teacher education). (2019). Report “Constructing Professional Development Model for Directors/Principals, Early Childhood Education Advisers, and improvement of teachers’ competencies, ” research appointed by MEXT in 2018 (in Japanese), http://youseikatei.com/pdf/20190408_2.pdf. Hoikukyoyu Yoseikatei Kenkyukai (Study for ECEC teacher education) and Nihon Hoikusha Yoseikyoiku Gakkai (Japanese society for the study on Hoikusha Education). (2018). Yochienkyoyuyoseikatei to Hoikushiyoseikatei o heisetsusurusaino tantosha oyobi sirabasuni tsuite (Important points about instructor assignments to courses and syllabus writing when kindergarten and nursery teacher education programs coexists in one program.) http://youseikatei.com/pdf/201 80520.pdf. Ito, Y., & Izumi-Tailor, S. (2018). Socio-historical factors and early childhood education in the Japanese cultural context. In Roopnarine, J. L., Johnson, J. E., Quinn, S. F., & Patte, M.M. (Eds.), Handbook of international perspectives on early childhood education (pp. 200–212). Routledge. Japanese Association of Private Kindergartens’ Research Organization on Early Childhood Education. (2018). Professional Development Handbook and Overview Chart (in Japanese), https:// youchien.com/research/training/. Japanese Association of Private Kindergartens’ Research Organization on Early Childhood Education. (2017). ECEQ (Early Childhood Education Quality System) (in Japanese), https://youchien. com/research/eceq/ (retrieved on 20/12/2019). Lewis, C., Perry, R., & Murata, A. (2006). How should research contribute to instructional improvement? The case of lesson study. Educational Researcher, 35(3), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/ 0013189X035003003 MEXT (2019a) Reiwa Gannendo Gakko Kihon Chosa (School Basic Survey 2019), https://www. mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/chousa01/kihon/kekka/k_detail/1419591_00001.htm. MEXT (2019b). The submission manual of the accreditation for a teacher education program and the materials to submit https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/kyoin/080718_1.htm MEXT (2017). Yochien Kyoiku Yoryo (The National Curriculum Standard for Kindergartens) https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2018/ 04/24/1384661_3_2.pdf (20/12/2019) MHLW (2017) Hoikusyo Hoikushishin (The National Curriculum Guidelines for Nursing Centers) https://www.mhlw.go.jp/web/t_doc?dataId=00010450&dataType=0&pageNo=1 MHLW (2018a). General Results of the Survey 2017 for the Social Welfare Facilities. https://www. mhlw.go.jp/toukei/saikin/hw/fukushi/17/index.html MHLW (2018b). Shiteihoikusi yoseishisetsuno shitei oyobi un’eino kijunni tsuite, originally issued in 2003 (Standards of appointment and management for Appointed nursery teacher education programs), https://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/06-Seisakujouhou-11900000-Koyoukintoujidouka teikyoku/0000108972.pdf. Morozum, A. (2016). Kokosei no shinrosentakukara mita hoikusya yoseino kogakurekika nohaikei (Increase in the number of high school students pursuing higher education to become early childhood teachers) (in Japanese), The Graduate School of Education, University of Tokyo, Departmental Bulletin paper, 56, 263–271. https://doi.org/10.15083/00076380. OECD. (2019). Providing quality early childhood education and care: results from the starting strong survey 2018, Talis., Paris: OECD Publishing.https://doi.org/10.1787/301005d1-en. Oshima, K., Ishii, T., Shibazaki, M., Oba, Y., Takano, Y., Konuma, H., Nishimura, S., Kaneko, E., & Masuda, M. (2007). Hoikushiyosei shisutemu no paradaimu tenkan II- Yoseikatei no siikuennsu no kento (Paradigm Shift of Nursing Teacher Education System II – Examination on

130

C. Uchida

the sequence of teacher education program) (in Japanese), in Zenkoku Hoikuhi yosei kyogikai (Ed.) Hoikushiyosei Shiryosyu, 46. Uchida, C. (2016). Ima Yojikyoikuno ninaiteni motomerarerumono: Tenkankini kangaeru hoikusyano senmonseito yoseikyouiku (The Current Demands on Teachers of Early Childhood Education and Care-Issues of Early Childhood Teacher Education and Professional Development at this Transition Period) (in Japanese). Annual Bulletin of Japanese Association of Teacher Education, 25, 48–55. Zenkoku Hoikushi Yosei Kyogikai (National Conference of Care Worker Education Programs). (2019). List of the members as of December16, 2019, http://www.hoyokyo.or.jp/profile/member list/index.html

Chapter 9

Early Childhood Teacher Education in New Zealand: Facts, Values, and Uncertainties Qilong Zhang

Abstract New Zealand (NZ) is recognized as a world leader in early childhood education (ECE), which leads to wide interest in its initial teacher education (ITE). Drawing on current policy, practice and research, this chapter provides an overview of the NZ way of developing and maintaining a quality ECE teacher workforce. Key factual characteristics of the NZ way are reported in areas such as teacher registration and certification, age/level focus, ITE providers and programs, and approval and accreditation of ITE programs. To help understand the legitimacy, and foresee the future, of these characteristics, sociocultural, political, and historical contexts are considered.

NZ is a Commonwealth country located in the south-western Pacific Ocean, with a population of approximately 4.90 million. The signing of the Treaty of Waitangi between the British Crown and the indigenous M¯aori people in 1840 marked the beginning of organised British colonisation of NZ. As the founding document of NZ, the Treaty of Waitangi provides constitutional protection of the rights and interests of M¯aori including their language, culture, and land, shaping bicultural NZ. The Treaty has a fundamental impact on all areas of social policy and public life, including early childhood teacher education. It is a constitutional obligation for early childhood teacher education to equip teacher candidates with bicultural competence (Jenkin, 2016; Ritchie, 2003). Since the mid-twentieth century, NZ has been welcoming immigrants from Pacific nations (e.g., Samoa, Tonga and Fiji). Due to the cultural and geographical connections, NZ has formal arrangements to prioritise government support for Pasifika people, which also has implications for early childhood teacher education. In recent decades, the population of Asian immigrants has grown rapidly, making NZ a vibrant, multicultural society. Over the past 130 years since the establishment of its first free kindergarten, NZ has developed a “world class” system of ECE, indicated by, for example, the first national, bicultural early childhood curriculum, the earliest state-mandated and guided provision of early learning experiences, and the first country in the world to integrate the whole range Q. Zhang (B) College of Education, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_9

131

132

Q. Zhang

of early childhood education and care (ECEC) services into the education system. These social, political and historical contexts shape and reshape early childhood teacher education in NZ. While an early childhood teacher in NZ typically goes through pre-service training, beginner teacher induction, and in-service professional learning, this chapter focuses on pre-service training which is officially referred to as initial teacher education (ITE) in NZ. According to the current policy, an ITE program must lead to a teaching qualification that is at least a three-year Bachelor’s degree or a Graduate Diploma if the applicant already holds a Bachelor’s degree. The NZ Teaching Council is “committed to making ITE a post-graduate qualification at some stage in the future” (Teaching Council, 2019a, p. 12).

Milestones in the History of Early Childhood Teacher Education in NZ: Values and Tradition ECEC services in NZ can be dated back to 1889 when the first free kindergarten was established (Pollock, 2012). The earliest early childhood teacher training programs were developed and funded by the kindergarten associations through teacher training colleges. Teacher trainees attended training lectures in the afternoon while working in the kindergarten in the morning. Until 1941 the kindergarten associations remained the sole funder of the training costs, and in 1948, the Government started funding kindergarten teacher training (Bushouse, 2008). In 1950, the first cohort of trainees graduated with Diplomas of the NZ Free Kindergarten Union, and the Government substantially increased the funding for the kindergarten associations (NZ Kindergartens, 2017). In 1963, the first childcare training course was developed by the NZ Childcare Association (NZEI Te Riu Roa, 2016). In 1973, the Government took over the financial responsibility for kindergarten training from the kindergarten associations (Alcorn, 2014). From 1975, the state Teachers Colleges (and later Colleges of Education) took over responsibility for early childhood teacher training from the kindergarten colleges, which led to the integration of kindergarten teacher training with primary teacher training (NZ Kindergartens, 2017). Colleges of Education continued to provide two-year Diplomas for kindergarten teachers alongside primary (threeyear) qualifications, signalling a lower status of kindergarten teachers. Along with the two-year qualifications for kindergarten teachers, the Colleges of Education provided one-year government-funded qualifications for teachers working in non-kindergarten childcare centres, marking the integration of responsibility for the whole range of ECEC services within the education system (Kane et al., 2005). In 1985, the Ministry of Education decided to fund the development and delivery of three year Diploma of Teaching ECE programs, and from 1987, three-year integrated training courses were introduced in colleges of education for both kindergartens and childcare centres (Bushouse, 2008; Meade & Podmore, 2002). Meanwhile, it became a requirement that early childhood teachers study for the same length of time

9 Early Childhood Teacher Education in New Zealand …

133

as primary teachers (Bushouse, 2008), and consequently, early childhood teachers started gaining parity with primary school teachers in terms of qualification (Moss, 2000). From 1988, all early childhood ITE providers were funded to offer three-year integrated teacher education qualifications preparing teachers of children from birth to five years working for both kindergartens and childcare centres, which “heralded the end of distinctions between care and education” (Moss, 2000, p. 38). The integration of care and education prompted review and reform of the requirements on ECEC in the late 1980s (Kane et al., 2005). McLachlan (2011) articulated, “The reforms in the late 1980s was the establishment of an identifiable sector, known as ‘early childhood education’” (p. 38). The reform included curriculum development, intervention by the state in ECE, new statutory requirements, and new policy and guiding documents. Some of the documents that have significant implications for current early childhood ITE include, for example: Te Wh¯ariki: Early Childhood Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 1996), Quality in Action: Implementing the Revised Statement of Desirable Objectives and Practices in NZ Early Childhood Services (Ministry of Education, 1998), Pathways to the Future: A 10-year strategic Plan for ECE (Ministry of Education, 2002), Licensing Criteria for ECEC Centres (Ministry of Education, 2008). The reform also led to establishment of a range of regulatory agencies, for example: Education Review Office, New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), and Teacher Registration Board. Duncan (2004) investigated the experiences of early childhood teachers with the reform between 1984 and 1996, and found that “the dominant discourses, which contained key neo-liberal ideas, were so encompassing and the discursive practices so all-consuming that the teachers felt ‘misplaced’ in their service and ‘overtaken’ in their work” (p. 172). The reform by the fifth Labour government (1999–2008) had a positive impact on early childhood ITE, particularly the teacher trainee enrolment, with steady increases in enrolment after 2002 until 2009 when a lower percentage of qualified teachers was required as a result of change of government. In 2002, kindergarten teachers achieved pay parity with primary school teachers (NZEI Te Riu Roa, 2016). In 2007, the Government introduced the policy of 20 hours free ECEC for all three- and four yearolds in services led by a qualified and registered early childhood teacher (Bushouse, 2008; NZEI Te Riu Roa, 2016). Referring to this period, Tarr (2006) commented, “It’s ‘boom time’ for NZ ECE at present. The demand for early childhood provision looks set to continue in the foreseeable future. By virtue of this ITE for ECE is, once again, on a ‘growth trajectory’” (p. 29). Coinciding with a global financial crisis in 2008 and two major seismic events in Christchurch in 2009 and 2010, the fifth National government (2008–2017) implemented historical reductions in the funding for early childhood ITE which had a major impact on the sector (O’Neill, 2012).

134

Q. Zhang

Current Policies and Practices in Early Childhood Teacher Education in NZ: Quality Assurance and Accountability In NZ, ECE refers to education of children from birth to school entry age (0–5). The early childhood ITE programs are predominantly designed to develop qualified early childhood teachers of children in the 0–5 age range. With an attempt to bridge the gap between primary and ECE, three degrees with a birth to eight focus used to be developed and delivered (Kane, et al., 2005) which no longer exist. The government has stricter regulations on education and care of children up to 2 years old, including higher teacher/child ratio and additional licensing requirements, however, there is no ITE qualifications or programs specifically designed for children up to 2 (Ministry of Education, 2008). When placed on practicum, student teachers are expected to work with all age groups in various types of early childhood services although there are no regulation on practicum duration for each age group. Practicum takes place at all phases of the program. In NZ, prospective teachers must complete an early childhood ITE program that is approved by the Teaching Council. There are currently 29 approved early childhood ITE programs in NZ, predominantly Bachelor of Teaching (ECE) or equivalent and Graduate Diploma of Teaching (ECE). The early childhood ITE programs were delivered by 19 providers including seven universities, seven institutes of technology, two wananga (M¯aori tertiary institution), and three private training establishments (Teaching Council, 2019c). The ITE program covers general teaching and learning theories, early childhood specific knowledge and skills, practice experiences, and Te Reo me Ng¯a Tikanga M¯aori (the M¯aori language and protocols). Individual ITE providers design their own courses, for example: Professional Inquiry, Professional Practice, Teacher Identity, Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment in Early Childhood Contexts, Developing a Teacher-Researcher Stance, Social and Cultural Studies, Sustainability and Social Justice, Te Reo me nga Ahuatanga M¯aori. Depending on providers, these courses may be developed and delivered specifically for early childhood teacher candidates or for both early childhood and school teacher candidates. While individual early childhood ITE providers are allowed to implement their own curriculum and offer different courses, all early childhood ITE programs must enable graduates to demonstrate that they meet the Code of Professional Responsibility and Standards for the Teaching Profession (Teaching Council, 2017). Also, there must be a minimum of 120 days of professional experience placements for the 3-year programs, and a minimum of 80 days for the 1 to 2-year programs. Teaching staff (teacher educators) on the ITE programs are required to hold current teacher registration, be appraised against the teacher professional code and standards, and have both research and practitioner expertise (Teaching Council, 2019c). The entry requirements of the early childhood ITE programs include qualification, language, and character. For Bachelor’s degree programs, applicants must hold a university entrance qualification or have the skills and ability to study at a tertiary level. There are requirements for competency in English language, te reo M¯aori,

9 Early Childhood Teacher Education in New Zealand …

135

literacy and numeracy. The applicants must provide character references, attend interview, and undergo police vetting to demonstrate their suitability for working in the early childhood sector. Candidates selected for entry into an English medium program must be assessed on, and be supported to improve, their te reo M¯aori competency (Teaching Council, 2019a). Once teacher candidates complete the early childhood ITE qualification they can apply to the Teaching Council for registration and practising certification as a provisionally certificated teacher (Teaching Council, 2019b). To gain full certification the provisionally certificated teacher needs to complete a program of induction and mentoring over two years (Teaching Council, 2019d). Details of the certification procedure are available on the Teaching Council’s website. There is a robust system of quality assurance for the early childhood ITE programs, including approval, monitoring, and review which are jointly undertaken by the Teaching Council, NZQA, and the Committee on University Academic Programs (CUAP). The Teaching Council focuses on the requirements specific to early childhood ITE. The recently updated ITE program Approval, Monitoring and Review Requirements provides comprehensive and detailed information on the standards that the ITE programs should meet including program outcomes, program development, design and structure, delivery methods, assessment, entry requirement and program monitoring and review (Teaching Council, 2019a). According to the document, teacher candidates are expected to meet the Standards for the Teaching Profession and the Code of Professional Responsibility (Teaching Council, 2017) in a supported environment prior to graduation from an ITE program. The Standards for the Teaching Profession covers standards in six domains which, along with the Code of Professional Responsibility, define the essence of graduate profile of an early childhood ITE program. The first domain concerns Treaty of Waitangi partnership, where teacher candidates are to demonstrate commitment to bicultural protocols and practices, including learning and using the indigenous M¯aori language and culture. The second domain is professional learning, where teacher candidates are expected to improve professional capability to impact on the children’s learning and achievement using inquiry and collaborative problem solving. The third domain is professional relationships, where teacher candidates are required to establish and maintain professional relationships and behaviors for the learning and wellbeing of each child. The fourth domain is learning-focused culture, where teacher candidates are required to develop an environment that encourages learning and promotes respect, inclusion, empathy, collaboration and safety. The fifth domain is design for learning, where teacher candidates are expected to plan on children’s learning in light of professional knowledge, assessment and each child’s strengths, interests, needs, identities, languages and cultures. The sixth domain is teaching, where teacher candidates are expected to teach and respond to children in a knowledgeable and adaptive way (Teaching Council, 2017). The Code of Professional Responsibility upholds commitment to the teaching profession, commitment to learners, commitment to families and Wh¯anau, and commitment to society. First, teacher candidates are expected to provide high-quality and effective teaching, engage in professional, respectful and collaborative relationships with colleagues, and demonstrate a high standard of professional behavior

136

Q. Zhang

and integrity. Second, teacher candidates are expected to promote the wellbeing of children and protect them from harm, engage in ethical and professional relationships with children that respect professional boundaries, respect the language, identity and culture of all children, and promote inclusive practices. Third, teacher candidates are expected to engage in relationships with families and wh¯anau in professional and respectful manners, engage families and wh¯anau in their children’s learning, and respect the heritage, language, identity and culture of families and wh¯anau. Wh¯anau is a M¯aori word commonly translated as “extended families”, but it contains complex meanings including physical, emotional and spiritual dimensions and is based on genealogy (Cunningham et al., 2005). Fourth, teacher candidates are expected to promote and protect the principles of human rights, sustainability and social justice, foster children to be active participants in community activities, and engage in important social issues (Teaching Council, 2017). The sixth Labour government recently proposed a new strategic plan for ECE— Every Child: Strategic Plan for Early Learning 2019–29 (Ministry of Education, 2019). The plan includes five goals. Goal 1 addresses raising regulated standards to improve quality and includes seven sub-goals such as introducing new adult–child ratios for infants and toddlers, developing advice on group size and physical environments, preventing low quality service providers from opening additional services, and reinforcing monitoring of services. Goal 2 focuses on accessibility of resources to all children and contains three sub-goals on equity funding, progress tools, and number of early learning services respectively. Goal 3 concerns investment in the workforce and comprises four sub-goals, namely, improving pay parity, strengthening initial teacher education, improving professional learning and development, and developing a workforce supply strategy. Goal 4 heightens planning of service provision and consists of six sub-goals such as tightening control over opening of new early learning services and developing funding model for K¯ohanga Reo (M¯aori language preschool) and playcentres. Goal 5 stresses innovation of NZ early learning system and consists of three sub-goals, that is, establishing innovation hubs for early learning services, supporting early learning services to collaborate with other education services, and supporting internal evaluation. The plan sets to incentivize for 100% and regulate for 80% qualified teachers in teacher-led centres, leading to regulation for 100% qualified teachers. The plan addresses consistency and levels of teacher salaries and conditions and strengthening initial teacher education, which potentially attracts more teacher candidates. Representing ITE providers offering ITE programs at degree or graduate level, the Teacher Education Forum of Aotearoa NZ (TEFANZ) functions as the national voice for teacher education in NZ. TEFANZ advocates for and supports M¯aori and Pacific Peoples, provides a forum for generating and disseminating teacher education research, and recognizes excellence and outstanding contribution to the teacher education profession (TEFANZ, 2019).

9 Early Childhood Teacher Education in New Zealand …

137

Future Direction of Early Childhood Teacher Education in NZ: Conundrums and Uncertainties There are issues that have long been unresolved and have lasting impact on NZ early childhood ITE, which makes it difficult to predict the future. Some of the unresolved issues include dropping numbers of childhood ITE candidates; uncertain future of the postgraduate option; choice between the field-based and campusbased models; subject content knowledge; inclusive education; and the generic versus specific approach to professional standards. Drop in numbers: A stagnant sector? Over the past 20 years the tertiary education sector in NZ has followed a cyclical trend, where learner numbers boomed during the weakest part of the economic cycle, and then took a dive when the economy improved. However, in recent years, early childhood ITE displayed the opposite effect (Education Counts, 2019). NZ ITE has been characteristic of its vulnerability to exigencies of supply and demand, that is, it has seldom been a policy imperative for government, instead, it has only been a priority in crises of supply and demand (Alcorn, 2014). Owing to the net migration losses coupled with a falling birth rate, there was a drop in demand for teachers during the 1970s, resulting in closure of two teachers’ colleges and staff losses of all teachers colleges (Alcorn, 2014). In the past few years, the drop in early childhood ITE persisted in spite of the consequential acute shortage of early childhood teaching force. Mainly due to the abolishing of the policy of a higher funding rate for centres with 100 per cent qualified staff in 2010, coinciding with the Global Financial Crisis, the number of first-time domestic ITE students in the ECE sector decreased by 58% (from 6760 to 3615) (Education Counts, 2019). Unlike some other programs for which international students account for a significant percentage of the roll, due to the stricter English language requirements (i.e., IELTS 7.0 and above across all four modules), the decline of the domestic enrolments was not compensated for by the influx of international students. The decline was halted in 2017 and 2018 since the Sixth Labour Government came into power, but no meaningful increase, if any, can be expected (Education Counts, 2019). NZ is not on the list of nations that pay higher teacher salaries, provide significant financial support to offset the costs of teachers’ training, and thereby are highly selective in choosing ITE candidates (Darling-Hammond, 2017). The early childhood ITE sector are not optimistic about a drastic improvement of the situation in the near future. Undergraduate or postgraduate? In 2013, with a vision for higher quality of the teaching force, the Minister of Education started to trial Masters-level programs in ITE in the school sector. In the beginning, ECE was not included in the trial since there were fears that such a provision might make it more difficult to recruit M¯aori and Pacific Island students (Alcorn, 2014). Aiming to seek status parity with the school sector, the early childhood ITE sector later successfully lobbied for the opportunity to trial postgraduate programs. In 2015, three ECE postgraduate exemplary programs were opened for application (Ministry of Education, 2015). In early 2016, three

138

Q. Zhang

Ministry of Education contracts to develop postgraduate teaching qualifications in ECE were offered. Two of the three programs were delivered in 2016 and discontinued in 2017 due to limited enrolments. The low enrolment was mainly due to two factors. First, since no government funding was allocated for paying teachers holding the new postgraduate qualification, ECE centres showed little interest in paying higher salary and employing a master’s degree holder. Second, the master’s program had to cram all the theory and practice components in one short year, which was challenging for the Bachelor’s holders who mostly had no background in education and had many family and parental responsibilities. There was not yet published research on the trialed master’s qualifications in early childhood teaching, however, anecdotal evidences from personal communications among staff and students signaled a gloomy prospect of the postgraduate qualifications unless there are major changes to the current social, political and educational parameters. At this stage, motivation to continue the trial remains, as Teaching Council (2018) articulated referring to school sectors, “While there is some research to support making teaching a postgraduate profession, the evidence base is not comprehensive yet. We need more information about the effectiveness of new teachers graduating with postgraduate qualifications in the NZ education system. We support expanding the availability of postgraduate programs to gather that evidence and to provide more advanced ITE options for students seeking study pathways into leadership or specialist roles” (p. 5). Nevertheless, the idea of dispensing with a long tradition of undergraduate ITE and moving toward provision only at postgraduate level is highly controversial (O’Neill, 2012). The theory/practice divide and the field/university-based models The theory/practice divide is a recurring and persistent theme in ITE research (Darling-Hammond, 2017), which is also the case with early childhood ITE in NZ (Ord & Nuttall, 2016). Based on a systematic literature review, Whatman and MacDonald (2017) provided a list of essential ingredients of high quality practice and field experience which included that “every aspect of the ITE program is integrated and there is not a sense of ‘theory’ and ‘practice’ being enacted separately in different institutions” (p. 4). However, there has never been a list for essential ingredients of genuine theory/practice integration. One of the most prominent phenomena that impel us to think about a likely theory/practice divide is the co-existence of the two distinct models of early childhood ITE: field-based (also known as centre-based) and campus-based (also known as university-based or college-based). The early childhood ITE providers choose between the two models based on factors such as needs of potential teacher candidates in the region, availability of teaching and learning resources, and teacher educators’ personal preference or passion. There are no different entry criteria, quality standards, or registration process for the two models. In the field-based model, teacher candidates undertake work experience (voluntary or paid) in ECE centres while they study, and work experience is integral to their program of formal learning. The field-based learning model may help teacher candidates to avoid financial difficulty as a result of full-time study and help to redress the shortage of qualified early childhood teachers (Bell, 2004; Brennan et al., 2010). In the campus-based model, the teacher candidates study full-time or part-time mainly through face to face delivery of theory on campus

9 Early Childhood Teacher Education in New Zealand …

139

with a minimum length of practicum in ECE centres. In the campus-based model, teacher candidates may still hold a part-time job, but the job does not belong to the ITE program even though the employer is an ECE centre. The fundamental difference between the two models lies in the different amount of time allocation for theory learning and for practice experience, hence the different investment into theory and practice. Field-based learners generally wish to improve their practice, find answers to questions arising from own practice, contribute to the breadth of perspectives on important issues in the ITE program, and achieve sustained work experience (Bell, 2004). The field-based model in NZ originated from the free kindergarten movement where student teachers worked in the kindergarten in the morning alongside qualified teachers and attended lectures in the afternoons (May, 1997). McConnell (2011) investigated into tension between theoretical and practical knowledge in the field-based early childhood ITE model, and exemplified, “One was the clash sometimes encountered between theoretical understandings and practical application… Millie expressed frustration in her first year when the team was unwilling to consider new ideas and her developing philosophy became at odds with the centre practices. She resolved this by shifting centres in her second year” (p. 75). Despite its long history, high numbers of students enrolled, and a reasonable amount of research in the area, there are concerns among researchers about the lack of knowledge about the field-based model (Bell, 2004), and in particular, the lack of evaluation on the effectiveness of the model (Brennan et al., 2010). The potential theory/practice divide unsurprisingly led to assessment being a popular topic of research in early childhood ITE, for example, complexity of practicum assessment (Aspden, 2017), intricacies of teaching assessment in field-based model (Murphy & Butcher, 2011), and assessment of practicum in campus-based model (Zhang et al., 2015). There lacks robust research comparing between the two models. Regardless of the models, Gibbons et al. (2018) delineated the silence of the voice of associate teachers and advocated for associate teachers as active participants in early childhood ITE policymaking. Subject content knowledge The issue of subject content knowledge for early childhood teachers has long been debated in NZ (Cullen, 1999). Unlike the secondary and primary school teaching where specific subjects are taught with prescribed syllabus or textbooks, prescribed knowledge for learners do not apply to early childhood teaching in NZ. There are five strands in the national early childhood curriculum for children’s learning development (wellbeing, belonging, contribution, communication, exploration) (Ministry of Education, 1996), but the strands are not necessarily associated with any subject content knowledge of a teacher. Haynes (2000) articulated three stances on the debate. One stance was that taken by Education Review Office (1998) who advocated for a clear nexus between early childhood curriculum and the primary subjects, hence clearly delineated specific knowledge and skills for ECE, as it commented, “In failing to identify a positive relationship between ECE and school education Te Wh¯ariki creates the impression that ECE exists in a vacuum, is complete in itself and has no relationship with further learning” (p. 12). Represented by Carr and May (1996), another stance on the debate accentuated that “one of the underlying thrusts in the need for an early childhood curriculum was to

140

Q. Zhang

prevent the national curriculum for schools starting a downward move into the early childhood years” (pp. 165–166). Carr (1998) reiterated the stance, “The community must decide to what extent the school curriculum should further push down into the early childhood years, and particularly if in doing so there is any trade off against the early childhood curriculum principles and goals” (p. 3). A third stance was taken by Auckland College of Education who made an attempt to develop an early childhood ITE program addressing the curriculum areas in NZ Curriculum Framework (for school) while adhering to the principles and learning outcomes of Te Wh¯ariki, the NZ early childhood curriculum (Haynes, 2000). Two decades passed, although the revised Te Wh¯ariki (Ministry of Education, 2017) has added a separate chapter “Pathways to School” to provide the links of each of the five strands with the school Curriculum, the confusion on the precise meaning of “subject content knowledge” in early childhood teaching remains. In terms of something to be learned by the children (rather than something to be learned by teachers only), what is subject knowledge in early childhood teaching? If there is such a scope of subject content knowledge, can it be delineated as it is for school teachers? In terms of “subject content knowledge”, knowing the child, knowing how to teach the child, and communicating with the child are all irrelevant. Then what is subject knowledge for early childhood teachers? Yes, we develop the child’s dispositions, but is there any specific type of “knowledge” that early childhood teachers must teach the children as it is taught to school students? The questions remain unanswered, which inevitably influences what should be taught in early childhood ITE. Place of Inclusive education NZ has one of the most inclusive education systems in the world, and only less than one percent of children are educated outside regular school settings (Hornby & Sutherland, 2014). In NZ, inclusive ECE is supported by a nationwide special education early intervention program under the Ministry of Education (Ministry of Education, 2018a). In response to referral from families and early childhood services, the national intervention program provides support to children with developmental delay, disability, behaviour and communication difficulties (Ministry of Education, 2018a). It is the staff of the national intervention program, rather than early childhood services, that conduct early identification and intervention (Ministry of Education, 2018b). In practice, a question arises: Whose job is it to initially notice or identify children with special learning needs? Most early childhood ITE programs offer courses touching on the topic of special and/or inclusive education, but the breadth and depth of the teaching content on special and/or inclusive education are full of ambiguity. Early identification within regular early childhood settings is a sensitive and under researched topic (Zhang & Morrison, 2020). In NZ, since almost all children with special needs are included in the regular early childhood settings, it is unrealistic to expect the limited number of Ministry of Education specialists to identify all those children. Merely responding to parents’ report of their concerns is not sufficient (Lagerberg, 2005; Oberklaid et al., 2013), and therefore, the early childhood teachers should assume the responsibility of noticing and reporting children with special needs (Gunn et al., 2004; Oberklaid et al., 2013). There needs

9 Early Childhood Teacher Education in New Zealand …

141

to be a formalized process in place to address early identification in ECE, and this should also be responded to by early childhood ITE programs. Generic or specific Internationally, there exist two disparate and contested approaches to professional standards for early childhood teachers: relying solely on generic professional standards that are shared across early childhood, primary, and secondary school sectors, and introducing standards specifically for early childhood teachers. NZ goes for the generic approach, that is, professional standards for early childhood teachers are exactly same as those for primary and secondary school teachers (Zhang, 2018). The generic approach is grounded on the aphorism “teachers are teachers regardless of the age of the learners”. The NZ early childhood sector has been fighting for pay parity and status parity with school sectors. Zhang’s (2018) study delved into the complex historical, social, and political roots of the generic approach that has long been preferred in NZ. Pay parity and status parity were found to be two major driving forces of the generic approach. Ironically, when asked if there is any fundamental difference between early childhood teaching and school teaching, almost every early childhood teacher answers “yes”. Professional standards should define and reflect the fundamental difference of a profession or sub-profession. In this sense, it is logical to question whether the currently adopted generic professional standards best define the nature of early childhood teaching. There is certainly a dilemma. On one hand, the generic approach to professional standards for early childhood teaching arguably facilitates status and pay parity with school sectors; on the other hand, this approach may have led to the generic professional standards unable to define some of the fundamental facets of early childhood teaching given the potentially “fundamental” difference between early childhood teaching and school teaching. It is possible that the lack of professional standards specifically for early childhood teaching compromises the depth of understanding of early childhood teaching among both early childhood teacher educators and teacher candidates. The recently published Initial Teacher Education 2021: Our Vision stated, “It is critical that ITE programs attract and prepare teachers who can respond to the challenges and opportunities of a rapidly changing world, and shifting educational needs” (Teaching Council, 2018, p. 2). While there is no problem with this statement, it seems more relevant at this stage to state that the NZ early childhood ITE, instead of future teachers, should be prepared in first instance to respond to the challenges. Referring to teacher education in NZ, Alcorn (2014) observed, “Current concerns are the impact of performativity, funding challenges and external compliance. New directions have often been a response to issues of supply or political ideology rather than considered policy. The way forward is uncertain” (p. 447). The observation applies to early childhood ITE in particular. Nuttall (2012) proposes a number of research opportunities and advocates for cross-institutional and cross-national projects for early childhood ITE researchers in NZ, which seems to be a constructive approach to combating the uncertainties.

142

Q. Zhang

References Alcorn, N. (2014). Teacher education in NZ 1974–2014. Journal of Education for Teaching, 40(5), 447–460. Aspden, K. M. (2017). The complexity of practicum assessment in teacher education: An examination of four NZ case studies. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 42(12), 128–143. Bell, N. (2004). Field-based teacher education at multiple sites: A story of possibilities and tensions. Research & Policy Series No. 2. Institute for Early Childhood Studies, Victoria University of Wellington. Brennan, M., Everiss, L., & Mara, D. (2010). An exploration of field-based early childhood teacher education in Aotearoa NZ. Teaching and Learning Research Initiative. Bushouse, B. K. (2008). Early childhood education policy in Aotearoa/NZ: The creation of the 20 hours free program. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://www.fulbright.org.nz/wp-con tent/uploads/2011/12/axford2008_bushouse.pdf Carr, M. (1998). Assessing children’s experiences in early childhood. Final report on the Project for Assessing Children’s Experiences Part One. Ministry of Education. Carr, M., & May, H. (1996). The politics and processes of the implementation of Te Wh¯ariki, the NZ national early childhood curriculum 1993–6. In H. May & M. Carr (Eds.), Implementing Te Wh¯ariki. Paper 2 (pp. 1–13). Institute for Early Childhood Studies. Cullen, J. (1999). Children’s knowledge, teachers’ knowledge: Implications for early childhood teacher education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 24(2), 15–25. Cunningham, C., Stevenson, B., & Tassel, N. (2005). Analysis of the characteristics of wh¯anau in New Zealand. Report commissioned for the Ministry of Education. Massey University. Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Teacher education around the world: What can we learn from international practice? European Journal of Teacher Education, 40(3), 291–309. Duncan, J. (2004). Misplacing the teacher? NZ early childhood teachers and early childhood education policy reforms, 1984–96. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 5(2), 160–177. Education Counts. (2019). Initial teacher education statistics. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/statistics/tertiary-education/initial-teacher-edu cation-statistics Education Review Office. (1998). Use of Te Wh¯ariki. Author. Gibbons, A., Tesar, M., Steiner, S., & Chan, S. (2018). Silent policymakers in Aotearoa NZ: Reflections on research of early childhood teacher views on policy, practicum and partnership. Open Review of Educational Research, 5(1), 43–55. Gunn, A. C., Child, C., Madden, B., Purdue, K., Surtees, N., Thurlow, B., & Todd, P. (2004). Building inclusive communities in early childhood education: Diverse perspectives from Aotearoa/NZ. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 5(3), 293–308. Haynes, M. (2000). Teacher education for early childhood through the NZ curriculum framework. NZ Research in Early Childhood Education, 3, 163–176. Hornby, G., & Sutherland, D. (2014). School principals’ views of teaching standards for inclusive education in NZ. In P. Jones (Ed.), Bringing insider perspectives into inclusive teacher learning: Potentials and challenges for educational professionals (pp. 47–56). Routledge. Jenkin, C. J. (2016). Investigation of teacher education delivery of bicultural education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41(6), 180–196. Kane, R. G., Burke, P., Cullen, J., Davey, R., Jordan, B., McCurchy-Pilkington, C., Mansell, R., MacIntyre, L., Scrivens, C., Simpson, M., & Stephens, C. (2005). Initial teacher education policy and practice. Ministry of Education. Lagerberg, D. (2005). Parental assessment of developmental delay in children: Some limitations and hazards. Acta Paediatrica, 94(8), 1006–1008. May, H. (1997). The discovery of early childhood. Auckland University Press with Bridget Williams Books and NZ Council for Educational Research.

9 Early Childhood Teacher Education in New Zealand …

143

McConnell, C. (2011). Dynamic ways of knowing. Not just in our heads: A study of a continuous practicum in field based teacher education. NZ Research in Early Childhood Education, 14, 67–79. McLachlan, C. (2011). An analysis of NZ’s changing history, policies and approaches to early childhood education. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 36(3), 36–44. Meade, A., & Podmore, V. N. (2002). Early childhood education policy co-ordination under the auspices of the Department/Ministry of Education: A case study of NZ. Early Childhood and Family Policy Series No. 1. UNESCO Ministry of Education. (1996). Te Wh¯ariki, He Wh¯ariki M¯atauranga m¯o ng¯a Mokopuna o Aotearoa: Early childhood curriculum. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (1998). Quality in action: Te Mahi Whai Hua: Implementing the revised statement of desirable objectives and practices in NZ early childhood services. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2002). Pathways to the future. A 10-year strategic plan for early childhood education. Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2008). Licensing criteria for early childhood education and care centres 2008: Early childhood education curriculum framework. Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education. (2015). Provision of exemplary post-graduate initial teacher education programs in Early Childhood Education (ECE) services. Retrieved from https://www.gets.govt. nz/MEDU/ExternalTenderDetails.htm?id=10533660 Ministry of Education. (2017). Te wh¯ariki: He wh¯ariki m¯atauranga m¯o ng¯a mokopuna o Aotearoa: Early childhood curriculum. Author. Ministry of Education. (2018a). Special education early intervention service. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://education.govt.nz/earlychildhood/teaching-and-learning/learning-toolsand-resources/early-intervention/ Ministry of Education. (2018b). Te Kete Ipurangi—The online knowledge basket: Junior oral language screening tool. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from http://seonline.tki.org.nz/Educatortools/Junior-Oral-Language-Screening-Tool Ministry of Education. (2019). He taonga te tamaiti—Every child a taonga strategic plan for early learning 2019–29. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://conversation.education.govt.nz/ assets/ELSP/Early-Learning-Strategic-10-Year-Plan.pdf Moss, P. (2000). Training of early childhood education and care staff. International Journal of Educational Research, 33(1), 31–53. Murphy, C., & Butcher, J. (2011). The intricacies of mentoring and teaching assessment in fieldbased early childhood teacher education. NZ Research in Early Childhood Education, 14, 53–66. NZ Kindergartens. (2017). Teachers and teaching: The kindergarten community. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from http://www.kindergartenhistory.org.nz/teachers-and-teaching/training/ Nuttall, J. (2012). Challenges, opportunities, and capacity building in early childhood teacher education research in Australia and NZ. NZ Journal of Educational Studies, 47(1), 65–78. NZEI Te Riu Roa. (2016). Unions and ECE: A history. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https:// campaigns.nzei.org.nz/every-child/unions-and-ece/ Oberklaid, F., Baird, G., Blair, M., Melhuish, E., & Hall, D. (2013). Children’s health and development: Approaches to early identification and intervention. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 98(12), 1008–1011. O’Neill, J. (2012). Rationality and rationalisation in teacher education policy discourse in NZ. Educational Research, 54(2), 225–237. Ord, K., & Nuttall, J. (2016). Bodies of knowledge: The concept of embodiment as an alternative to theory/practice debates in the preparation of teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 60(8), 355–362. Pollock, K. (2012). Story: Early childhood education and care. In Te Ara—The encyclopedia of NZ. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/early-childhood-educat ion-and-care/sources Ritchie, J. (2003). Bicultural development within an early childhood teacher education program. International Journal of Early Years Education, 11(1), 43–56.

144

Q. Zhang

Tarr, C. (2006). Initial early childhood teacher education: A look at some research, some policy and some practices. NZ Journal of Teachers’ Work, 3(1), 24–32. Teacher Education Forum of Aotearoa NZ (TEFANZ). (2019). Constitution and policy. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://www.tefanz.org.nz/what-is-tefanz/constitution/ Teaching Council. (2017). Our code, our standards: Code of professional responsibility and standards for the teaching profession. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://teachingcouncil. nz/content/our-code-our-standards Teaching Council. (2018). Initial teacher education 2021: Our vision. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://teachingcouncil.nz/sites/default/files/ITE%20detail%20decisions%20and% 20vision.pdf Teaching Council. (2019a). ITE program approval monitoring and review requirements. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://teachingcouncil.nz/sites/default/files/ITE_Requir ements_FINAL_10April2019_0.pdf Teaching Council. (2019b). Studying to be a teacher. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https:// teachingcouncil.nz/content/studying-be-teacher Teaching Council. (2019c). Initial teacher education providers. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://teachingcouncil.nz/content/initial-teacher-education-providers Teaching Council. (2019d). The certification process. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https:// teachingcouncil.nz/content/teacher-registration-process Whatman, J., & MacDonald, J. (2017). High quality practice and the integration of theory and practice in initial teacher education: A literature review prepared for the Education Council. NZCER. Retrieved November 17, 2019, from https://educationcouncil.org.nz/sites/default/files/ Practica_Review_Full_Report.pdf Zhang, Q. (2018). Generic or specific? Deciphering the NZ approach to professional standards for early childhood teachers. NZ International Research in Early Childhood Education, 21(2), 59–70. Zhang, Q., Cown, P., Hayes, J., Werry, S., Barnes, R., France, L., & TeHau-Grant, R. (2015). Scrutinising the final judging role in assessment of practicum in early childhood initial teacher education in NZ. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40(10), 147–166. Zhang, Q., & Morrison, V. (2020). Early identification within inclusive early childhood curriculum: An ethnographic study from New Zealand. Early Child Development and Care, 190(3), 310–321.

Chapter 10

Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in the Republic of the Marshall Islands Kelesi Whippy

Abstract Teacher training policies are mainly designed by governments and/or teacher training institutions and, to some extent, have the inputs of teachers and other stakeholders. Ideally, teacher training policies are expected to generate conditions and establish requirements to enhance teacher performance and, hence, to benefit student learning at the school level (Fullan in The Jossey-Bass readere on educational leadership, Jossey-Bass, 2000). It could be argued that teacher training policies become effective as they produce synergies with the dynamics taking place inside the school and with those relating to its external environment. The aim of this chapter is threefold. The first part looks at the national context of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) in terms of its educational settings. The second focusses on current policies of Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) teacher education offered at the University of the South Pacific (USP) RMI campus in conjunction with curriculum content and pedagogies including information on the age focus policies. In addition, discussions on the current situation on staffing for early childhood teachers and how teacher registration agencies work with other stakeholders at the Ministry of Education, Sports and Training (MOEST) and/or Public Schools Systems (PSS). The third part highlights the Teacher Induction Program (TIP) design and development as a critical teacher development model for ECEC teachers in the RMI.

Introduction In its negotiations with the United States to develop a new Compact of Free Association, the RMI worked to ‘cash out’ several U.S. federal grants into one block grant that provided relief from rules and regulations that were, supposedly, not applicable. The Head Start program, which had provided early childhood education since the 1990s, was one of these grants. In its place, the MOEST has established a nationwide kindergarten program. This has greatly expanded the coverage of the early childhood programs as enrollment is open to all children and classes are available K. Whippy (B) University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_10

145

146

K. Whippy

at all public elementary schools. Previously, the Head Start program was limited by grant regulations to only two-thirds of the schools. Although the new Kindergarten program is not open to four- year olds yet, the MOEST attests that the geographical coverage is greatly improved. Currently, only five schools in the country do not offer a Kindergarten program, but MOEST expects that these will open in due course. The USP is the designated ECEC teacher training provider in the RMI and offers Early Childhood Education certificate, diploma, degree and post-graduate courses and programs for the Kindergarten teachers.

National Context The care and education of young children in the Marshall Islands historically has been largely seen as the responsibility of families with the government momentarily stepping in to provide financial support in terms of national security and social welfare. The significant development of early education had included the Head Start (ECEC) program and as mentioned at the outset, was later revamped to the Kindergarten program. A pre-primary school experience for five-year olds, Kindergartens, eventually joined the formal K-12 school system, bringing a rise in status and professional standards for ECEC teachers. The administration of Kindergartens is aligned with the PSS regulations under the supervision of elementary school principals. Following Independence in 1979, the Marshall Islands embarked on its nation building process but also maintained close ties with the United States by signing a Compact of Free Association in 1986. The first Compact agreement had expired in 2001 and a second Compact with the US was negotiated and signed in May 2003. Under the terms of the Compact the Marshall Islands receives financial assistance,1 compensation for critical health and environmental costs resulting from the extensive atomic testing conducted from 1946 to 1964.2 Marshallese have the right to live, work and receive certain education, health and welfare services and in return for certain strategic geo-political advantages for the US. Furthermore, some US Federal programmes are available, such as the Pell Grants for higher education. Many US Federal grant programs available to the country under the first Compact have ‘cashed out’ under Compact II, this included the Head Start funding, which was used to train over 200 teachers and administrators at the RMI USP campus under a Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) with the MOEST/PSS which was signed in 1999. There are currently a number of educational opportunities or pathways for school leavers to further their studies. These pathways include studying at the College of Marshall Islands (CMI) which prepares students with a two-year AA degree and Associates Degrees in Education and Nursing. In parallel, the RMI USP campus 1

For FY 2005–6 Compact II funds total $65,549,080.00 or approximately 64% of the total national budget. 2 The population has severe health problems. In 2003 there were 53,1999 outpatient encounters in RMI.

10 Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in the Republic …

147

provides certificates, diplomas, bachelors and postgraduate degrees in most disciplines including Early Childhood Education, Primary, Secondary and TVET Teacher Education. Since 2012, a proposal was submitted by a chartered non-government, non-profit organization namely, the Women United Together Marshall Islands (WUTMI) which was adopted by the MOEST to administer the Parent as Teachers (PAT) program in the advancement of the vision that “All parents are the child’s first teacher”. As such, one of the WUTMI priority arears is to introduce upskilling opportunities to trainers who are involved in working with parents on improving parenting skills for children at birth to four years old. Under the New Zealand government funding, these parent educators who work within the PAT project continue to receive training at the RMI USP campus. In 2013, the MOEST was restructured through legislation to create the RMI Public School System (PSS) which came into effect in 2014. The Marshall Islands PSS Act makes schooling compulsory between the ages of five (5) to eighteen (18). Although Primary Education is compulsory in the Marshall Islands, not all children attend school. Hence, in an effort to improve the quality of basic education, in 2015 the government secured a loan from Asian Development Bank (ADB) to Improve the Quality in Basic Education (IQBE). The project design recognizes that teaching and learning behaviors are deeply rooted in cultural contexts of place; behaviors that are capable of improving rather than requiring wholesale change. It has five outputs: (i) better prepared teachers in primary education, (ii) strengthened capacity to use assessment to improve learning, (iii) expanded access and usage of bilingual teaching and learning resources and materials for literacy and numeracy, (iv) strengthened educational leadership and management of schools, including parent/community engagement, and (v) increased capacity of the MOEST. Project institutions, namely the CMI and the USP as well as non-government organizations (Pacific Resources for Education and Learning-PREL) and development partners have been involved in delivering these outputs since its inception in 2017. The IQBE project receives funding for six years at US$5 M. USP’s implementation proposal (2017–2022) is worth US$1.5 M which includes an Implementation Agreement.

Current Status in ECEC Teacher Education As mentioned at the outset, the RMI government and stakeholders expect and entrust the RMI USP campus to provide professional training and skill upgrading in key areas such as Early Childhood Education and Care programs at the certificate, diploma, undergraduate programs. With the recent admissions at postgraduate studies, it is envisioned that overall intake will increase to approximately 300 students in a span of six years, from 2017 to 2022. Specifically, a major national development objective of the RMI Government has been the expansion and improvement of the resources for comprehensive early childhood care and education, including teacher training. This

148

K. Whippy

was a key agenda item at the 2001 Auckland meeting of Ministers of Education3 and a feature of the MOEST’s strategic plans over the past decade. In September 2005, a Cabinet Minute was issued, indicating that Early Childhood Education and Training should, to the extent possible, be continued through USP, and a Memorandum of Understanding describing how this policy is envisioned to be implemented was signed in December 2006. USP’s Continuing Education courses, notably the Certificate in Early Childhood Education has been a regular feature of the RMI USP Campus since its establishment in 1993. The MOEST/PSS recognizes its value as a basic qualification for teachers and it is a proven pathway for entrance into the diploma and degree programs in Early Childhood Education for an average of 30% of each cohort who are able to pass the English Language requirements for progression. • Improving the Quality of Basic Education (IQBE) Project– Asian Development Bank funding The former Campus Director had mentioned in a quarterly report that the ECE programs in the RMI have been strengthened with the appointment of an ECE specialist since November 2018. Output 1.4 of the IQBE is a key element of the Scope of Services undertaken by the University of the South Pacific. This Output involves leading “on-the-ground Lead Teacher /School Mentors in Induction processes for early grades K-3 settings: Output 1.4. An Induction program for new teachers’ states4 : Teaching is a challenging profession and lack of support is a major factor of early career teacher attrition. Induction programs both support new teachers to cope with their new responsibilities and roles as teachers, and help them to learn how to teach in ways that promote the successful engagement and learning of all of their students, thus building their confidence and competence. The Induction program will build on the knowledge and skills that have been developed in program of initial teacher education, especially QPF. Induction is generally a two-year period when teachers are provisionally registered and are part of a continuum of professional learning in the career path of a teacher. They receive sustained support from a certificated mentor who provides professional development, formative assessments involving observation and feedback and feed-forward on their teaching, and supports them to achieve the standards for full teacher registration. An Induction program policy will be developed in year three of the Project, after two years of trials.

In the attempt to support the new initiative, the IQBE project through the USP has begun a five-year initiative based on the following plan: 1. 2. 3.

3

Design and develop a Teacher Induction Program (TIP) for beginning teachers. Develop strategy, including monitoring and evaluation plan for ECE teacher induction in the RMI based on research. Design a Lead Teacher induction training including the adaptation of the Quality Pedagogy Framework (QPF).

Communiqué from the Meeting of the Forum Ministers of Education. Basic Education Action Plan, Auckland, New Zealand, May 2001. Suva. Forum Secretariat. 4 First iteration of IQBE design for RMI MOE September 26, 2016.

10 Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in the Republic …

4.

149

Training of Lead Teachers (LT) and/or School Mentors (SM) comprising of PSS ECE specialists and ECE graduates in grades K-3 contexts who will serve as facilitators for ECE teacher induction.

In July 2018, the USP IQBE project manager and the former campus director had consulted with both PSS staff development manager and education advisor, regarding the training of subject specialists and lead teachers in ECE who would be part of the Teacher Induction component of the IQBE. It was recommended that a combination of seminars and workshops on ‘best methods in ECE’ and a more formal certification in Training and Assessment be offered to PSS subject specialists and PSS appointed school-based mentors in order to build the capacity of a strong cadre of teacher induction mentors. A full description of the Cert IV in Training and Assessment was reviewed and adapted for better context suitability. This verified the need for certification and training of mentors is essential if mentors of teachers in Early Childhood are able to fulfil their role in strengthening ongoing continuous school level support for new (first two years of teaching) professionals, and to ‘create collaborative and reflective learning cultures’. The program included an eight-week training that was offered in conjunction with a series of workshops on ‘Best Practices in Early Childhood Education’. The intention is to build a strong professional cohort of induction specialists who would work with the USP-ECEC specialist to encourage new ECE teachers over the course of the project, and who will sustain this program beyond the project period.

Certificate IV in Training and Assessment for Lead Teachers and/or School Mentors The Pacific Technical & Further Education (Pac TAFE) is a strategically amalgamated and integrated learning and teaching section which offers high quality skills-based qualifications, and Foundation and Preliminary programs through its four (4) colleges, namely, College of Business & Commerce, College of Tourism & Hospitality, College of Arts & Humanities and College of Science, Technology & Environment. The Certificate in ECEC program and the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment programs are managed under the Head of the College of Arts and Humanities. The admissions requirements for the Certificate IV in Training & Assessment includes; i. ii.

Pass a Senate recognized Year 12/Form 6 or equivalent with English and minimum of two-years work experience; or Extensive workplace, TVET or adult training experience with recommendation from the employer. This program comprises of 4 courses: CET41, CET42, CET43 and CET44.

150

K. Whippy

Diploma in ECEC (DECED) Program The School of Education offers the DECED through the blended study mode including weekly face to face tutorials in order to provide student learning support in terms of improved academic and in-depth understanding of content and classroom delivery. There are 12 courses in total in the DECED Program: UU100, UU114, ED152, ED153, ED103, ED204, ED205, ED206, ED250, ED252, ED262, ED302. The distribution of courses includes five ECEC- content specific, two generic or University-wide and six teacher education compulsory courses.

The Quality Pedagogical Framework (QPF) The national framework for teaching and learning or the QPF (see Appendix) is widely used by teachers from kindergarten settings to high school as a guide for teaching and learning. Teachers play a vital role in creating an environment in which the optimum teaching and learning processes occur, and in which the teaching staff and students are stimulated by the interplay of new ideas and the spirit of inquiry. Beginning at ECEC level, learning takes place in an environment of developing and advancing knowledge, problem, solving, critical evaluation, investigation, and an awareness of the limits of inquiry and understanding.5 In designing and developing the QPF, teachers are encouraged to combine theoretical knowledge with practice. For instance, the function and purpose of the QPF is embedded in the course assessment tasks for the ECEC content specific study units, ED103 and ED204 which deal with understanding and managing young children’s behavior and looking at ways to enhance social competence in young children. Hence, a complete set of knowledge and skills is required in the preparation and delivery of the QPF that would highlight ways with which to address undesirable behavior through positive reinforcement in young children. In the long term, work towards strengthening the ECEC (grades K-3) curriculum is to include a culturally relevant and developmentally appropriate curriculum which takes into consideration children’s interests and strategies in order to maximize children’s learning and development ought to be part of the MOEST/PSS plans for teacher professional learning. In addition, it was recommended that the Pacific Small Island Developing States (Pac SIDS) Teacher Competency Framework (UNESCO, 2017) needed to be adopted and adapted as a critical instrument in complementing the TIP in support of the teacher induction process for beginning teachers in the initial years of teaching. In doing so, teachers as well as stakeholders would be placed in a better position to guide development and learning which is based on the child’s abilities and

5

Education Council (2015) Strategic Options for Developing Future oriented Initial teacher Development. Wellington, NZ.

10 Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in the Republic …

151

potential to advance. As mentioned, the introduction of a culturally sensitive playbased curriculum is the desirable way to go in the attempt to improve the quality of programmes for young children.

Bachelor of Arts in Elementary Education (BAEE) Courses That Have QPF Components Under the IQBE project training, is the BAEE training at the College of the Marshall Islands (CMI). The CMI is an autonomous two-year community college, offering Associates Degrees and certificates in the areas of liberal arts, education, nursing and allied health, and business. The college also offers a Continuing Education program in Adult Basic Education, High School Preparation for the GED diploma, Community Continuing Education Courses and a Summer Teacher Training program leading to the attainment of the Bachelor of Education degree. The College is accredited by the junior division of the US Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC). The first BAEE cohort of 17 students had successfully completed the program in 2019. The courses in BAEE program are designed to provide pre-service and in-service teachers with an authentic teaching experience in a local classroom. For instance, the Teaching Practicum course includes a minimum of six hours field experience per day four days a week for 12 weeks in a public or private school, participation in a twoweek workshop prior to placement in a school, two-week post practicum activities, weekly seminars and meeting with a CMI faculty supervisor. Using a rubric, students were assessed via a reflection journal on how to effectively manage instructions at K-6 classrooms in order to facilitate teaching & learning using the QPF. Basically, the courses which have QPF components include students’ choices and skills that extend knowledge of the scope of classroom management experiences within the use of the QPF. Twenty-two (22) students enrolled in the Associate of Science (AS) in Elementary of Education were introduced to QPF during their practicum seminar presentations. The EDU 296 course was part of the Certificate of Completion in Teaching in the AS program. During the pre-practicum orientation week in the Spring semester 2019, the students had displayed and presented their portfolio work to invited guests such as IQBE project team, PSS staff, BAEE cohort 2, Education students and the faculty members. In parallel, teacher training at the USP continues to contribute substantially to the improvement of the RMI Education system beginning from Kindergarten through to Post-Secondary with the recent engagement in the World Bank-funded ECD multisector program in addition to the Asian Development Bank—funded IQBE Project. • Early Childhood Development—World Bank funding The Certificate IV in Early Childhood Education and Care provides basic training to untrained teachers of grades K-3. The sponsorship was provided by the RMI Ministry

152

K. Whippy

of Education, Sports and Training for the RMI USP Campus Incentive Scholarships program per annum for students graduating either at the Preliminary or Foundation level from RMI-USP and who have expressed an interest in a career in teaching. The course content and delivery were structured in a way to support brain stimulation for under three year -olds in and out of preschool settings. The admission requirements includes. i. ii. iii. iv.

Pass a Senate recognized Year 12/Form 6 or equivalent with English; or Completed Certificate in Early Childhood Education (Level 3); or Three years relevant work experience; or Met the mature student admission criteria.

This program comprises 6 courses: CEE41, CEE42, CEE43, CEE44, CEE45, and CEE46. The course content within the CERT. IV in ECEC program have been specifically designed to broaden students’ knowledge in ECEC, in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) context. It addresses key areas in growth, learning and development for children from zero (0) to eight (8) years of age. It prepares students with vital skills and knowledge that relate to health, wellbeing and safety; special needs; supporting young children’s behaviour; framework and philosophies on ECEC; children’s rights; child protection as well as skills in planning developmentally appropriate programs through early stimulation activities and managing an ECEC centre within but not limited to the RMI setting. Demonstration of these skills is clearly and thoroughly scrutinised within each course in terms of enabling students to meet market demands in providing dual services in educating and caring for younger children from ages zero (0) to eight (8) years. The teacher trainees are expected to further enhance these skills through a series of teaching and caring practices at community-based settings which demonstrate good practice.

Staffing for Early Childhood Teachers The MOEST/PSS acknowledges the difficulty in hiring and retaining qualified teachers due to uncompetitive salaries6 amongst other things. Further, there is strong evidence that teacher attrition is most severe among beginning teachers, but the likelihood of a teacher leaving declines significantly after he or she has been in the classroom for four to five years. A number of school organizational factors play a crucial role in teacher turnover, including inadequate support from school administration, student motivation, and discipline problems, and limited teacher input into and influence over school policies. These factors also affect the motivation and commitment of those teachers who wish to stay at the school.

6

Children in the Republic of the Marshall Islands: An Atlas of Social Indicators © UNICEF Pacific 2013.

10 Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in the Republic …

153

Although the ECE teachers’ salary is compatible with Elementary teachers which is based on qualifications, teachers generally report the importance of good working conditions in decisions to stay in teaching, particularly in the outer islands where delays in the provisions of school supplies are often attributed to poor success rates. The MOEST/PSS through project implementations such as the IQBE and Early Childhood Development projects are working towards improving the mobilization of supplies in addition to improving working conditions for ECE teachers around the country. Moreover, there is ongoing Professional Learning Conventions (PLC) to improve content and pedagogy throughout the teaching career.

Teacher Qualifications and Registrations The base qualifications for RMI teachers in grades 1–6 (Professional Certificate I) are an Associate degree in Education or an Associate degree in another field plus 16 credits in Education with a 2.5 GPA and successful completion of a teaching practicum. A Provisional Certificate may be granted for up to three years to those who hold a high school diploma and have earned at least 30 college credits, provided that they are making progress towards Professional Certification. For Kindergarten teachers, the USP certificate, diploma and undergraduate qualifications provides the necessary knowledge, skills and values to engage with children who are five year old. The MOEST/PSS is the only teacher licensing body in the RMI.

Professional Learning It cannot be argued beyond reasonable doubt that the quality of each child’s ECE learning experiences depend greatly on the quality of work by the ECE teachers/practitioners. The ECCE teachers’ competency, capacity and motivation depend much on teacher preparation, support, working conditions, compensation and continued professional development. The USP Marshall Islands Campus proposed a scope of service to support the implementation of the Improved Quality of Basic Education (IQBE) in the North Pacific project for the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) Ministry of Education (MOE) Public School System (PSS). USP was approached by the project development team (PREL—contracted by ABD) because it is a well-respected provider of tertiary education in the Pacific region and because of its recognized high standard for quality in its programs and research. Research commitments highlight teacher education, especially early childhood. The USP in collaboration with PSS, CMI and IQBE consultants across the project had ensured to make collective impact that improve student learning outcomes, especially in literacy and numeracy (in the language of instruction).

154

K. Whippy

Thus, the design and development of the Teacher Induction Program (TIP) which was led by the USP-ECE specialist is part of Improving the Quality of Basic Education (IQBE) in the RMI PSS is one such teacher development support made available through the ADB funding. Its purpose is to provide teacher graduates trained to teach at the Early Childhood and Early Years contexts with a structured program of mentoring, professional development, observation, targeted feedback on their teaching, and regular assessments based on the Pac SIDS teacher competency framework and the RMI teaching standards during the initial year of practice. Basically, the induction program consists of a two-year plan offering new teachers the support necessary for them to meet teacher registration requirements as they gain experience in the workforce and continue to develop. Initial teacher preparation researchers indicate that the nature of such induction exercise plays a significant role in the future success and retention of newly qualified teachers (Chambers & Roper, 2002; Hobson, 2001, 2002, 2003; Malderez & Bodoczky, 1999; Tomlinson, 1995, 1999, 2001, 2003). Consequently, the goals of the RMI Public School System Teacher Induction Program (RMIPSS-TIP) which is enshrined in the document Sailing the seas of educational change in the early years is to provide novices or beginning teachers (BT) with a general orientation of the PSS rules and regulations and to ensure that a proper fit into the school system towards improving teaching skills. The objectives of the TIP are to: a. b. c. d. e.

Familiarize the BT with PSS policies and practices and to integrate these into the school system and community; Provide an opportunity for the BT to analyze and reflect on their teaching with coaching from the inductors; Support the development of professional knowledge and skills; Provide continued assistance to address the challenges faced by BT; Develop a professional attitude toward learning, teaching and working with others such as students, colleagues and members of the community; The general topics covered in our TIP are classified into two categories:

1. 2.

The orientation activities are designed to familiarize the BT with the PSS rules and regulations. The activities designed to develop and monitor the professional knowledge and skills of the BT encapsulated in the teacher competency domains. Specifically, the TIP has been designed and developed to:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

focus on the provision of quality early childhood care and education be aligned to the RMI Public School System (PSS) policies encompass global best practices in ECEC Curriculum Guidelines integrate child protection in accordance with the PSS guidelines and the UNCRC include the local language, Kajin Maje¸ ¸ l as the main language of instruction establish an engaging, participatory and interactive induction exercise between BT and LT/SM

10 Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in the Republic …

7. 8. 9. 10.

155

assist with BT professional growth in the first two years of practice build on BT prior knowledge and experiences, making links with their initial teacher education model and encourage on-going self-assessment and reflection foster collaboration and leadership among teachers and stakeholders

A series of workshops were facilitated during the summer class of 2019 as part of the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment cohort training provided by the PacTAFE. The workshops were to engage with the Lead Teachers/School Mentors (LT/SM) comprising of Early Childhood graduates teaching in the public schools and specialists at the Curriculum Instruction and Assessment (CIA) ECE unit to re-conceptualize their roles and responsibilities in teacher induction and mentoring processes. In addition, the workshops outcomes included the contextual use of the Quality Pedagogical Framework (QPF) instrument as a guide towards developing a Teacher Induction Program (TIP) for beginning teachers (BT). The consecutive workshop outcomes were instrumental in assisting the LT/SM to confidently utilize the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and beliefs to effectively and efficiently use the QPF to develop a TIP for teacher induction and mentoring purposes. More specifically, the engagements during the workshops had provided the LT/SM with increased understanding of best practices in teacher induction through mentorship for BT, better understanding of the alignment of curriculum design, PCK, assessment and evaluation within the QPF specifically purposed for use in K-3 contexts; and had demonstrated the abilities, knowledge and skills required to inform the design and development of the TIP. An essential part of the project focuses on enhancing quality teacher induction processes for novices or beginning teachers to be guided to meet teacher registration requirements as they gain experience in the workforce and continue to develop. Generally, the TIP can be used as a reference for developing, updating and revising training and professional development structures and programs to build competencies and strengthen capacities of pre- and in-service teachers. Existing ECEC teachers can also use the framework as a reference to map and plan their own professional growth and identify competencies that need strengthening, to help them advance their career goals. In the design and development of the TIP, wide consultations were carried out with the personnel at the Ministry of Education Sports and Training (MOEST), school principals and ECEC teachers, academics and instructors at the University of the South Pacific-School of Education and the College of the Marshall Islands, IQBE Technical Committee and Project Team. A needs analysis was also conducted during the initial workshops to provide evidence-based data for the way forward. As previously stated, the PSS CIA-ECE staff and selected teachers who hold ECEC qualifications were identified as LT/SM and were trained under the USP- Pac TAFE Certificate IV in Training and Assessment program. As part of this training, the LT/SM played a proactive role in designing and developing the TIP and accompanying training manual for use during the two-year induction period. Further, the LT/SM would work to monitor the beginning teachers’ or novices’ progress in the

156

K. Whippy

school contexts using the TIP. In their pivotal role, school principals will provide sustained support for beginning teachers by collaborating with the school mentors in the attempt to guide and nurture the beginning teachers’ professional development. The TIP, through the IQBE project has a primary focus on consolidating the quality of content, delivery, assessment and collaboration through active training of ECEC graduates by qualified SM in meeting the PSS teacher standards requirements. As a result, the TIP has been designed and developed in alignment to the country level teacher standards to effectively monitor teacher efficiency and efficacy during the initial years of practice and in turn, to nurture children’s progress within but not necessarily limited to the induction period.

Summary Through an overview of the contextual and educational contexts of the RMI ECEC system and current policies regarding teacher induction, training, and retention, this chapter examined the complexity of EC teacher education and policymaking in the RMI. Demonstrated in the above explanations are the programs and courses which make up the ECEC teacher education platform of the Marshall Islands. The international and local evidence on teacher competence in early childhood points to the importance of improving quality pedagogies for children’s success. As in the school sector, teachers’ knowledge and understanding of learning and development, their interactions with children, and their modelling, scaffolding, and questioning techniques seem to be key factors influencing developmental outcomes. As pedagogic quality is emerging as important in the current Kindergarten settings, this calls for more research highlighting the association between good teaching and student achievement particularly in the Pacific region.

Appendix The Quality Pedagogy Framework (QPF): Planning for Learning and Development Republic of the Marshall Islands For teachers/Practitioners

For students/Learners

Prior knowledge What/How much do I know about my students’ interests/ limitations? Finding out students existing ideas/prior knowledge about their areas of interests

What do I already know that connects to the lesson? What are my strengths/limitations/fears and interests?

(continued)

10 Early Childhood Teacher Education Programs in the Republic …

157

(continued) For teachers/Practitioners

For students/Learners

Outcomes What do my students wish/want to learn/do that might be of interest in their daily lives i.e., to explore and are able to do? Working with students/learners on the intended learning outcomes How will I engage with my students to ensure that a child-centered approach is maintained throughout the lesson for effective PCK delivery? Establishing a culturally responsive pedagogy which is generally based on developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)

What new concept/knowledge am I going to learn in this lesson? How will I connect what I already know with the new knowledge/skill? Is the new knowledge/skill useful in my everyday life experiences?

Success stories In what ways will the leaners demonstrate conceptual understanding as confirmation that learning has occurred, whether individually or collectively constructed? Co-constructing success criteria/stories with the learners through experiential learning. Utilizing limitations as ‘learning moments’ to boost confidence and self-esteem

How am I able to translate what I have learnt/able to do in and out of school context? With the assistance of the teacher/practitioner, I will seek collaboration from my peers/elders/members of the community

A variety of activities What appropriate hands-on activities are learners comfortable with/safe to engage in to promote holistic development? Using a variety of developmentally appropriate learning activities including interactive and inclusive learning resources to maximize learners’ engagement

Would I be able to choose to do the activities which are fun, manageable and interesting? Can I work with my peers/elders/members of my community?

Authentic assessment How can I improve content/delivery/assessment to best suit leaners’ needs for holistic development? Designing and developing child observation checklists and anecdotal records and by giving feedback and feed-forward during and at the end of instructions

Am I enjoying the lesson? Do I need special assistance in carrying out the learning task? Can I ask to do a much simpler/challenging task? Can I talk about/share what I have created with my peers?

Reflection What strategies will I need to adapt/adopt to improve my practice? Utilizing a research-based model to inform current practices and to improve planning for future practice

Did I get the right kind of support to assist with the application of the new knowledge/skill in non-formal or informal settings?

*Page 4 of REVIEW OF BEST PRACTICES IN QUALITY TEACHER EDUCATION (Prepared for ADB as part of the PPTA IQBE design process, 2016) Gillian Tasker, Ph.D. QSO Teacher Preparation Specialist *Revisited by Kelesi Whippy Ph.D. ECEC Specialist and Trainer for IQBE project. The University of the South Pacific, Marshall Islands Campus

158

K. Whippy

References Anderson, L. W. (2004). Increasing teacher effectiveness. UNESCO. Bond, L., Jaeger, R. M., & Hatti, J. A. (2000). Accomplished teaching: A validation of National Board Certification. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Chambers, G. N., & Roper, T. (2002). Why students withdraw from initial teacher training for secondary schools: The Leeds experience. In I. Menter, M. Hutchings, & A. Ross (Eds.), The crisis in teacher supply. Research and strategies for retention. Stoke on Trent: Trentham. Fullan, M. (2000). Leadership for the twenty-first century. In M. Fullan (Ed.), The Jossey-Bass reader on educational leadership (pp. 156–163). Jossey-Bass. Hobson, A. J. (2001). Postgraduate history specialists’ perspectives on their initial teacher preparation: preconceptions, experiences and evaluation’. Ph.D. thesis, School of Education, University of Leeds. Hobson, A. J. (2002). Student teachers’ perceptions of school-based mentoring in initial teacher training (ITT). Mentoring and Tutoring, 10(1), 5–20. Hobson, A. J. (2003). Student teachers’ conceptions and evaluations of ‘theory’ in Initial Teacher Training (ITT). Mentoring and Tutoring, 11, 3. Malderez, A., & Bodoczky, C. (1999). Mentor courses. Cambridge University Press. Tomlinson, C. (1995). Deciding to differentiate instruction in middle school: One school’s journey. Gifted Child Quarterly, 39, 77–87. Tomlinson, C. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed ability classrooms (2nd ed.). Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Youngs, P. (2000). Annotated bibliography on the relationship between teachers’ knowledge/ability at time of licensure and teacher quality. Commissioned by the Committee on Assessment and Teacher Quality, Center for Education, National Research Council.

Chapter 11

Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences as a Way to Increase the ECE Quality Igor Shiyan, Olga Shiyan, Anna Iakshina, and Tatyana Le-van

Abstract The chapter is devoted to the problems and tasks of the development of preschool teachers’ professional education in Russia. The text provides a brief description of the preschool education system in Russia, as well as the results of a national study of the quality of preschool education. In particular, data are provided on some structural characteristics of quality (education of teachers, their experience, adult-to-child ratio, the number of children and adults in groups, the nature of vocational training) and the quality of the process. One of the conclusions of the study is the need for the development of professional competencies of preschool teachers. The article describes the results of approbation of the model for the development of reflection of preschool teachers through the mastering of cultural tools—the model of educational results, positions in the discussion, “navigators,” “professional glasses”. Approbation shows that reflective in-service training helps to increase the competence of teachers.

Introduction This chapter presents the current situation with the quality of preschool education in Russia in the area of teachers’ qualifications and its relation with the process quality (adult–child developmental interaction). The problem of developing teachers’ professional competences is discussed through the enhancing of their key abilities—such as reflection and consciousness in implementing appropriate teaching techniques. In this chapter the model of reflective professional action is described, which helps teachers, assessors and researchers to hold both two focuses—educational goals and current issues of child development. The authors also present the tool “Professional Glasses” for examining teachers’ skills in some important aspects of reflective professional action, such as the ability to focus on tasks of child development, the ability to observe children, and the ability to see a causal relationship between the teacher’s actions and the children’s behavior and emotions. I. Shiyan (B) · O. Shiyan · A. Iakshina · T. Le-van Moscow City University, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_11

159

160

I. Shiyan et al.

Overview on the State of Preschool Education System in Russia Early childhood education (ECE) in Russia today is a great social sector of statefunded public services for young children aged from 0 to 7. It includes two levels: kindergartens for 3–7-year-olds (mostly 12-h programs) and groups in settings for 0–3-year-olds (this sector became almost desolate during previous 20–30 years, but it is developing again now, mainly focusing of short-term programs for 1.5–3 year old children for their adaptation in transition to long-term programs). Official statistical data indicates (Federal State Statistic Service, 2018) that the total number of children enrolled in 2018 into preschool education services is 7,582,400. But the system of services should be expanded, because only 639 children of 0–7-year old per 1000 who require a place in an institution are provided with it. In all federal districts of Russia in recent years the number of children enrolled into the preschool programs for each 100 places was over 100 (in 2018, this means varied on average per 100 places from 102.5 to 116.7 children, and in some regions of Russia reached almost 138.9) (Klyachko, 2019). The ideas of the developmental essence of ECE, leaning pedagogical interaction with children, the role of cultural tools have been elaborated in Russia since 1930s. From 1970–1980s they began to be widely used in the practice of kindergartens and were reflected in the training system for preschool teachers, which has been funded by the government. The conceptual basis of Russian ECE was discussed in details in our previous publications (Veraksa et al., 2016; Shiyan et al., 2018a, b; Sheridan et al., 2018). Since 2012 ECE has become the part of comprehensive education. The requirements have become more demanding; they should generally support long-life learning principles, the system unity, and continuity of education, upbringing and development of each child with the specifics of every age of childhood. This fact has inspired the debates about the new benchmarks for quality of ECE and revealed the need to conduct a complex research of ECE in terms of everyday opportunities that children get from the whole educational environment in kindergartens.

Overview on the State of Preschool Teacher Training System in Russia Preschool teacher training system in Russia includes vocational teacher training (pedagogical colleges), higher teacher’s education (bachelor and master programs), postgraduate program (Ph.D.) and in-service training programs for continuous teacher learning. The Educational Law of Russian Federation requires vocational or higher education for preschool teachers and regular in-service teacher training for working practitioners (at least once in 3 years). During initial teacher’s education

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

161

students have practice in preschools. Currently, the education system is being transformed, and for its renewal it is very important that future teachers can get acquainted with the best preschools. However, this does not always happen, since practice in colleges and Universities sometimes takes place in kindergartens that work according to the old, teacher-centered model. In such cases, students face with old-fashioned techniques (frontal work, directive manner of the teacher); they don’t see the examples of developmental education, extended learning, participation to transfer them in their future practice. Accordingly, there is a need to identify best practices using objective assessment tools, as well as to develop new models of practices for college and university students.

The National Monitoring of ECE Quality: What Are the Benchmarks for Teachers’ Qualification and Process Quality? In 2016 and 2017, at the initiative of the Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science of the Russian Federation, a national study of the ECE quality was conducted. For the first time in Russia, a standardized observation as the main method was implemented in a study of this kind. ECERS-R (Harms et al., 2005), which was approbated in Russia (Shiyan & Vorobyeva, 2015; Shiyan et al., 2016) and officially published in Russian in 2016, was chosen as a tool. The research model was provided in accordance to the required procedure by 155 specially trained assessors. In addition to ECERS-R, teachers were asked to answer questions to investigate the parameters of the structure quality. The research model was tested in Moscow city region in 2016 (Remorenko et al., 2017). 2016 sample included 423 kindergartens from 40 regions of the Russian Federation; in 2017 there were 1301 kindergartens from 74 regions (i.e., 2.6% of all kindergartens in Russia, 87% of all regions). The sample included 2 cohorts: socalled “Best” and “Random”. Kindergartens were referred to the “Best” cohort as they were the leaders of municipal ratings (such systems are usually based on the merits of children and teachers in competitions, enriched material background of the program, municipal ratings which do not have evidence-based criteria, etc.). The cohort “Best” was 1/3 of the sample. The remaining 2/3 of the sample was represented by kindergartens with no specified merits, selected randomly (the cluster is named “Random”). In 2017 there were 367 kindergartens in the sample, which took part in the study for the second time (the observation was carried out in the same preschool groups as in 2016). As to teachers’ qualifications, the sample had the following features. According to Fig. 11.1, the vast majority of teachers were enrolled into professional pedagogical education (42.35% graduated from vocational college, 53.47% had a bachelor degree, 1.33% have a master degree, 1.87% of the teachers are in the process of professional

162

I. Shiyan et al.

Fig. 11.1 Teachers’ distribution in accordance with their qualification

teaching training now). Only 0.89% obtained professional training in some other area (not teaching). Only 0.09% of the sample had no professional training at all. In comparison to the official statistics in 2017 (Federal State Statistic Service), 47.1% of all preschool teachers in Russia had higher teacher training education, and 47.3%—vocational education in college. The working experience of teachers is more or less equally distributed in 2 thirds of samples between the ones with 3–10 years of practice (31.32%) and 11–25 years of practice (30.96%). Approximately ¼ of the sample is formed by teachers with over 25 years of practice (25.80%), and 11.92% more consist of teachers with less than 3 years of experience considered to be “young specialists” (Fig. 11.2). We gained the data how many teachers took in-service training within preceding 3 years (the requirement of the Educational Law of the Russian Federation). Experts evaluated formal documents without the analysis of the training program quality (e.g., certificates of participation). Only 7.30% of teachers in preschool groups did not take any training. The rest (92.70%) did. Teachers were asked to evaluate the degree of their satisfaction of recent in-service training using the 2-points scale (generally satisfied, generally unsatisfied). The majority of those who participated in in-service trainings was generally satisfied (96.61%), and a small amount of them (3.39%) was not (Fig. 11.3). All that means that the staff of the Russian preschool groups is qualified, experienced and is regularly involved into the programs of in-service training that match their professional needs. The professional needs of teachers can generally be illustrated through the results of our analysis of pedagogical orientations which were expressed by the study participants during the survey in 2016 (Le-van et al., 2016). The majority of teachers accept the value of early childhood learning environment quality criteria which are

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

163

Fig. 11.2 Teachers’ distribution according to their working experience

Fig. 11.3 Teachers’ attitude to the in-service training courses they took

established in ECERS-R and Federal State Preschool Standard (2013). The participants consider it necessary and important that the learning environment is organized in accordance with certain positions of ECERS-R. The average amount of positive choices through all the questions which describe these positions is 83.62%. That means that preschool staff adopts the values of high quality: individualization, the paradigm of playful learning, developmentally appropriate practices, the co-constructional principle in the classroom, etc. However, the results of a study of the quality of education show that these values are not implemented in practice so much. Findings of the quality assessment of classrooms in 2016 and 2017 have revealed some important deficiency aspects of preschool education from the perspective of the process quality (adult–child interaction) (Shiyan et al., 2018a, b):

164

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

I. Shiyan et al.

Although the means of subscales in 2016 and in 2017 have significant difference their rates are lower than “good” quality: the subscale “Language-Reasoning” moved from 3.46 to 4.01, the subscale “Interaction”—from 4.35 to 4.85. The subscale “Activities” discover inadequate quality in 2016 (2.88) but moved to minimal level of quality in 2017 (3.41). Low scores on these groups of items contradicts with the pedagogical orientations of teachers to adopt the criteria of good quality. There is no correlation between the process quality and the level of teachers’ qualification: teachers with a bachelor’s degree do not show a better quality of education than educators who graduated from college. It is important to note that these data contradict the results obtained in studies in other countries, where the connection between the teacher’s qualification and the process quality is traced (Phillipsen et al., 1997; Sylva et al., 2004; Pianta et al. 2005; Slot et al., 2018; Hartman et al., 2016; Slot, 2018; Manning et al., 2017). According to experts’ opinion one of possible reasons is discrepancy of the content of vocational education of all kinds to the modern ideas about the ECE quality and the requirements of the Federal State Standard for Preschool Education. Some items of quality have wide standard deviation (for example, “Provisions for children with disabilities” or “Toileting/diapering” have SD >2.25), but some have narrow (e.g. “Dramatic play”—1.22 in the cohort “Best” and 1.10 in the cohort “Random”). Wide SD can be a marker of variety of practices which depends on the setting’s specifics, teaching strategies, group climate and other local characteristics. Narrow SD can mean that the characteristic of quality has some system background: some obstacles in national regulations or any stereotypes of professional behavior The analysis of the data indicates that there are no significant correlations with the teacher’s age, experience, the type of the basic professional training program, the enrollment of the teacher into in-service training programs. 367 kindergartens participated in the study twice—in 2016 and in 2017. Rather stable correlations between positive dynamics of the majority of subscales and the feedback to the teachers about the results of the monitoring were discovered (Rmin = 0.189; Rmax = 0.315). This allowed us to suggest that the in-service training, in which teachers will receive meaningful feedback on the quality of the environment in their groups, will be effective. The items’ scores on the subscale “Language-Reasoning” are decreasing while the child/adult ratio grows. The ambiguity of the data obtained in different studies regarding the significance of different structural quality parameters may be explained by the fact that relations are more complex, mediated. Slot et al. in 2015 conducted a meta-analysis of available data regarding to factors which affect the process quality in five countries: UK, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, and Portugal (Slot et al., 2015). Phenomenon of mediation was highlighted: when a certain factor affect only with some additional conditions. The 2018 OECD review, based on the analysis of videos, indicates that many things depend on the competence of teachers—in particular, whether the teachers with

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

6.

7.

165

many children in groups can organize work in small groups. Thus, the competence of teachers as organizers of the educational process and the interaction of children in groups can compensate for a large number of children in a group. This is also indicated by the results of the study by Swedish colleagues (Sheridan et al., 2014). It turned out that if two adults are engaged, it is more often significantly associated with process quality in the “Best” cluster than in “Random”. It is likely that relationship between number of adults and process quality is mediated by teachers’ competence. In both cohorts the group size has unstable or weak but significant correlations with the scores. In cohort “Best” they are stronger than in the other cohort (for the “Best” Rmax = 0.55; for the “Random” Rmax = 0.25). There is a stereotyped opinion among practitioners that the number of children is a key factor to undermine educational process quality. However our study demonstrated that there was no such a direct connection, and it would be necessary to look for mediating factors.

The Focus of the Study of Professional Development Opportunities Following the obtained data, it can be assumed that the professional competencies of educators are the key point to increase the ECE quality in Russia. The deficiency aspects of quality and the social-economic trends in the system of preschool education reveal the need to search effective models and tools of teachers’ professional development. «The main challenge for preschool teachers’ preparation and in-service training is to provide high-quality education for the large number of students and practicing teachers» (Shiyan et al., 2018a, b, 172). In this situation, it is important to look for new models of professional education for colleges and universities. We have developed one of these models based on culturalhistorical tradition. The key concept of this model is teachers’ reflection, a reflective pedagogical action (Shiyan et al., 2019). We suggest teachers master cultural tools which help them to build a flexible educational process based on observing a child and analyzing their pedagogical actions that lead to particular children’s reactions. In this regard, we will describe the model and the tool we developed for assessing pedagogical qualifications, and the results of examination of teachers’ skills in some important aspects of reflective professional action. The project was developed in 2018–2019 at Moscow City University. It was an in-service training, and the teachers who took part in it were going to become mentors for the students of pedagogical universities and colleges. The idea of the project was that in future—during pedagogical practice in pre-service training—these teachers will be able to apply to students of universities and colleges the same model for the development of professional reflection that was implemented with them.

166

I. Shiyan et al.

In-Service Training Project Reflection as a Key Direction of Changes We regard pedagogical reflection as exploration of one’s experience and detection of the gap, or contradiction between practitioner’s aim and actions on one side, and reactions of the child on another side. Reflection helps to define deficits of one’s own practice (Dewey, 1966; Lampert-Shepel, 1999; Shchedrovitsky, 2001; Peeters & Vandenbroeck, 2011; Pirard, 2013). It is crucial that pedagogical reflection does not represent a separate stage in professional activity but is interwoven with it, and accompanies every step: observation, planning, action, observation. Reflexive professional action is of dialectical nature: reflection helps the practitioner to address child’s needs, interests, and reactions, in professional practice. Moreover, he/she can simultaneously take into account his/her own actions and educational outcome, as well as the zone of proximal development (Shiyan et al., 2019). In the model of reflexive professional action (Fig. 11.4) a practitioner should make the reflexive transition beyond his/her own action, and analyze if educational goals were chosen correctly, how they were met, and what results were or were not obtained. Then practitioner should plan the next step on the basis of this reflexive analysis. In accordance with various studies, development of reflection is one of the core deficits of practitioners, and it’s necessary to build it into the basis of the in-service teacher training (Costa & Kallick, 2008; Raban et al., 2005; Lefebvre, 2013; Pirard, 2013; Snoeyink, 2010; Pirard, 2013; Coffey, 2014; Archer, 2017). This data emphasizes the problem of elaboration of appropriate developmental methods for pedagogical reflection. Following the cultural-historical approach (Vygotsky, 1983) we use the concept of mediation, offered by Vygotsky. We applied the models of reflexive transition (Shchedrovitsky, 1974), educational outcome (Shiyan et al., 2019) and

Fig. 11.4 The model of reflexive professional action

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

167

positions (Veraksa, 1994) as psychological means of development of reflection that supports a teacher in performing a reflexive professional action.

General Outcome of Preschool Education As Vygotsky (1983) pointed out, all means at first are externally provided (by a more competent adult), and gradually they move to the inner level. The model of educational outcome (Shiyan et al., 2019) (Fig. 11.5) illustrates that preschool education should be focused on the child’s general achievements, such as communicative, regulative, cognitive and initiative, instead of academic ones. The problem is that Russian preschool teachers often focus on children’s knowledge and skills, i.e. on their academic performance. We were faced with the task of shifting the emphasis to child development—to the development of general abilities—cognitive and communicative abilities, executive functions and initiative. In other words, when it comes to practice, preschool teachers should first of all take into account child’s level of development of these aspects (including the “zone of proximal development”) and create conditions for their development. In this framework, teachers can use any topic interesting for children. This model helps teachers to be flexible and to reflect on the practice from the developmental perspective.

Fig. 11.5 The model of child’s educational outcomes

168

I. Shiyan et al.

Types of Tasks for Professional Reflection Development The model of reflexive transition (Shchedrovitsky, 1974) illustrates the ability to step out of the concrete situation. It includes three stages: action—stop—step out of the situation and analysis. According to Veraksa’s idea of positional learning (Veraksa, 1994), different positions help to look and reflect on the situation from distinct (even opposite) points of view. We consider 3 positions as means of development of pedagogical reflection: “critic”, “supporter” and “child’s voice”. In practice these positions are very closely related to each other, but as means they are at first acquired separately while working in small groups. The position of the “critic” requires criticizing, asking questions, focusing on the weak points of one’s practice. The position of “supporter” is focused on positive aspects; a supporter encourages the practitioner and helps him/her to realize what he/she is doing right. And the position of the “child’s voice” is focused on children’s feelings and actions in a concrete educational situation. These means were acquired in different task that were completed in small groups at first, and then individually. Different types of tasks were linked to 3 main focuses of professional action: child’s interests and capacities, own action of the practitioner, and educational outcome (Table 11.1). We offer a model of in-service teacher training that includes several consequent steps with different types of tasks that help the teacher to acquire means of reflection and be focused on different parts of professional reflexive action.

Principles of In-Service Teacher Training In our work we distinguished several principles for organizing an in-service teacher training that is consistent with the values of developmental education: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Consistency of form and content of the training. Consistency means that inservice trainings for preschool teachers can’t be organized as frontal lectures and use directive forms of teaching. The role of trainer is facilitator, supporter and “critical friend”. The main focus of the training is reflection instead of just exchange of information. Reflection helps participants to design the educational process, be flexible in choosing techniques in accordance with both children’s interests and their zone of proximal development. Gradual acquisition of means. According to Vygotsky’s theory (Vygotsky, 1983), trainers should complicate the tasks gradually and offer smooth transition from small groups activities to individual ones. Participation. All tasks require active participation. Trainers design each session taking into account strengths, deficits and questions of trainees.

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

169

Table 11.1 Types of the tasks for in-service training Type of the task Focus(es) of professional action

Aims of the task Main activities suggested to teachers

Questions for reflection

“Coming back to childhood”

Child’s interests and capacities

Immergence in child’s activity to look at it and feel it from the inside, to see it with child’s eyes Reflection on own impressions, feelings, past and actual experience

Different activities that children have during their day in preschool (play, drawing, circle-time, discussions, gross motor etc.)

What did you feel while drawing on the big sheet of paper on the floor? What has changed (in your mood, thoughts…) after this activity?

“Navigator” (Fig. 11.6)

Educational outcomes

Reflection on participant’s knowledge about preschool education; Discussion and elimination of deficits Application of the complex approach to learning environment

Discussion of key educational outcomes and features of learning environment in small groups Elaboration of instrument for observation in small groups Whole group discussion and further elaboration

What are the key educational outcomes in preschool age? What changes in environment and teacher’s actions should be done to support development of this outcome?

Analysis of video cases

Child’s interests and capacities + Educational outcomes

Development of observer’s competencies; Focus on both child’s features and teacher’s actions Definition of strengths and weaknesses of the practice

Analysis of the video of another unknown practitioner, using “Navigators” and expert observational lists Small groups discussions; Provision of feedback to an “imaginary colleague”

What do the child experience when teacher asks/offers/does something? What teacher’s actions support development of …(imagination, play, thinking etc.)?

(continued)

170

I. Shiyan et al.

Table 11.1 (continued) Type of the task Focus(es) of professional action

Aims of the task Main activities suggested to teachers

Questions for reflection

Analysis of the teacher’s own video

Reflection on own practice from the two points: child’s interests and educational outcomes; Definition of weaknesses and strengths of practice and elaboration of “the next step” (strategy for development)

What are the strengths of my practice? What strategies are effective? How can it be seen? What changes should I do in me actions and/or environment? And why?

Child’s interests and capacities + Educational outcomes + Own action

Analysis of the video of own participant’s practice using “Navigators” and expert observational lists Provision of feedback, including “the next step for development”

Fig. 11.6 Fragment of the navigator “Reading”

The Model of the In-Service Teacher Training We carried out 12 sessions with 30 preschool teachers from 11 educational organizations. Each session lasted 4 h; the frequency was 2 sessions per month. Between the sessions participants got the supervisors to support changes in their preschool groups. After these 12 sessions the internship for students of teacher training programs was organized in these groups. The model of the in-service teacher training is described in the Table 11.2.

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

171

Table 11.2 The model of the in-service teacher training Main steps of the in-service training

Aims of each step

1. External assessment (ECERS-3)

Definition of actual level of the quality Analysis of main deficits and strengths of the practice Reflection through comparison of external assessment and self-assessment

2. Discussion of the participant’s values and shared meanings

Definition and discussion of the shared values and meanings Formulation of the request for further steps of the training

3. Discussion of ECE outcomes and supervision Acquisition of the model of educational outcomes for discussion and reflection Extra aims may vary in dependence on the deficits and requests revealed during previous steps 4. Video analysis using the tool “Professional Glasses” (see below)

Development of the ability to observe children’s behavior in a “cultural way” using special tools Assessment of contribution of teacher’s actions to children’s development

5. Video recording of own interaction with children and its reflective analysis

Participant’s own trial and the consequent reflection

6. External assessment and formulating the aims of development of the quality

Reflection of all the previous steps and formulating new aims of the development of quality based on the deficits of the practice Involvement of the whole kindergarten team and team discussions

Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Development of Professional Reflection Tools Based on the results of the development seminars, one of the aspects of professional action was evaluated—the ability to correlate the actions of the teacher, the tasks of child development and child observation. It was similar to the expert lists used during the trainings, but we made this tool more structured. We called this assessment tool “Professional Glasses” because it allows you to evaluate how special focusing questions help analytically perceive the educational situation. The task was offered to two contrast groups: those who participated in seminars for future mentors (17 people), and those who did not participate in them (46 people). Participants were asked to watch the video of a teacher’s interaction with children, and to complete two tasks. The first (“open format”): to describe and evaluate what was seen in the video. The second (“standardizes format”): to answer the questions indicated in the structured form.

172

I. Shiyan et al.

The open format allows one to find out how much teachers spontaneously use concepts that are important for understanding children’s development, while evaluating an educational situation. To what extent their perception of the educational situation is mediated by these concepts. Also, the open format shows how concepts are “working”: if the teachers use their observations to confirm their judgments. The standardized format (the tool “Professional Glasses”) contains two symmetrical blocks of questions focusing on the actions of the teacher and the reactions of children. Here is an example of two-block questions: Teacher’s actions

Children’s actions

“Does the teacher create an emotionally comfortable situation? • Yes • No Describe how did you see it”

“Do children feel emotionally comfortable? • Yes • No Describe how did you see it”

The meaning of this symmetry is to separate two focuses of observation—of the teacher and the children—and to help to see the causal relationship between the teacher’s actions and the children’s reactions. The form also allows you to evaluate how much observation is used for argumentation, although the direction of observation itself is already defined by questions and concepts. The experts pre-rated the video using the same tool (“Professional Glasses”). In assessing the success of the assignment completed by the students, we looked at how close their assessment was to the expert evaluation, and whether they used their observations for argumentation. The tool allows you to determine how much teachers, analysing the educational situation, on the one hand, are guided by the development of children, and on the other, are able to see manifestations of development in the observed actions of children. The comparison showed such results. Firstly, when the teachers were describing what they saw in the open format (Figs. 11.7, 11.8 and 11.9), the experimental group respondents used such analysis parameters as the development of thinking, independence and communication between children, significantly more often. For these parameters, comparing the differences with the Mann–Whitney U-test, the following Pvalue were obtained, respectively: 0.026; 2.59e−05 and 0.048. In other words, the teachers who participated in seminars often paid attention if those characteristics belonged to the children in the video. Let’s note that the teachers of both groups paid approximately the same attention to the emotional comfort of children and their involvement to the activities, and equally rarely the development of children’s imagination (for these parameters, Pvalue ≥0.05). In addition, experimental group members were significantly more likely to coincide with experts evaluating such parameters as thinking, independence, and interaction with peers (Pvalues, respectively: 0.040; 1.37e-05 and 0.023). Also, teachers of the experimental group in the open format (Pvalues ≤0.027) used observations as arguments for all parameters except imagination and interaction with peers, significantly more often. These two parameters were equally rarely used by

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

173

Fig. 11.7 Parameters for assessing the educational situation used by teachers in the analysis of the video in the open format (the ordinate axis shows the means of the respondents’ answers coinciding with the expert’s assessment)

Fig. 11.8 Using observations of adult actions as arguments when teachers analyzed videos of the educational situation in the open format (here and below along the ordinate axis is the average number of arguments presented by the respondents)

all teachers in the free description of the educational situation. Moreover, this is true both for observing the actions of children and for observing the actions of teachers. As we see, control group teachers, rarely used observations to support their judgments. This just indicates that the content of concepts that are important for understanding of children’s development does not mediate an understanding of the educational situation.

174

I. Shiyan et al.

Fig. 11.9 Using observations of children’s actions as arguments in the analysis of videos of the educational situation in the open format

In their descriptions of what was happening on the video, respondents often listed those actions of the teacher that corresponded to the teaching methods (the teacher introduced new material, fixed the material, etc.). Such fixations are invaluable, descriptive in nature and did not allow evaluation of the effectiveness of the actions of teachers through comparing them with observations of children. That, in its turn, indicates low reflectivity. When the respondents used standardized format (filled in the questionnaire “Professional Glasses”, Fig. 11.10), it revealed that the coincidences of the teachers from the experimental group with the assessments of experts were a significantly more frequent (in the experimental group, Pvalue ≤0.039 in such parameters as emotional comfort, thinking, imagination, and interaction between children). While comparing the number of observation arguments in standardizes format, significant differences were found. We labelled such arguments “Arguments of observation”. They were based on the fixation of visible manifestations of behaviour (characteristics of posture, facial expressions, gestures, speech command, etc.) Thus, a comparison of the results of the “Professional Glasses” technique supports the conclusion that there are significant differences in the ability to navigate the parameters of child development which are important for reflective professional action and monitor the behaviour and emotions of children. The diagnostic technique “Professional Glasses” does not permit evaluation of the overall reflexivity of teachers’ actions, as far as it focuses only on the ability to analyse other people’s actions. But it allows the evaluation of some important elements of professional reflective actions: in particular, the ability to focus on the tasks of child development, the ability to observe children and the ability see a causal relationship between the actions of the teacher and the behaviour and emotions of children.

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

175

Fig. 11.10 Here the parameters with #1 relate to the children’s reactions block, and with #2—with the teacher’s actions

Since the task was offered only once (at the end of the seminars), and the groups did not complete it before the seminars, it does not seem correct to draw conclusions on the effectiveness of the seminars themselves and of the proposed means of building reflection. However, at the same time, we consider it legitimate to draw a conclusion about the differences between the two groups in their ability to analyse the interaction of a teacher with children. The main conclusion of the study is that the concepts that are significant for child development (thinking, imagination, emotional comfort, involvement, and interaction) are rarely used to analyse the educational situation. And in those rare cases when these concepts are used, they are rarely supported by observations of the teacher’s and children’s actions. This means that the analysis of the educational situation (which is an important part of the teacher’s professional action) is not mediated by the concepts important for child development. The developmental seminars made it possible to analyze the key deficiencies of teachers in building professional actions, and to test the means of constructing reflective actions. Our observations and participants’ reports show that the proposed tools (the model of universal educational results, the teacher-action model of the teacher (“Navigator”), the model of reflective action (development-observation tasks) and the positions of the critic and apologist) are recognized as an efficient tool for planning and introspection, and begin to be applied in their activities. The results of the diagnostic techniques based on the results of a series of developmental seminars suggest that the ability to evaluate the interaction of others in the analysis of video recordings can significantly differ among more or less reflective teachers.

176

I. Shiyan et al.

The study allows us to pose the following questions for future research: – How does the development of the proposed tools affect the effectiveness of professional action and the quality of education? – How is reflective professional vision (diagnosed by using the method of “Professional glasses”) related to the quality of adult-children interaction? Based on the results of the development seminars, we suggested that cognitive skills such as critical thinking and the ability to distinguish between observation and interpretation are key to reflective professional action. This assumption also needs to be verified.

Implications Results of this study shed light on how effective initial teacher education and inservice training based on the values of developmental education should be organised. Professional reflection must become the main focus of continuous teacher education prior to acquisition of specific pedagogical techniques. To find a balance between child’s interests and educational outcomes is a challenge that preschool teachers— especially novice ones—face within their everyday practice (Walsh et al., 2017). Acquisition of different means for development of reflection can help teachers to be flexible in their interaction with children and design their educational process on the basis of observation and evaluation of real situation in their classrooms. Using of observational tools such as “Professionals glasses” and designing own tools (e.g. “Navigators”) can promote observational skills, create shared vision and possibility for discussions in the team. Video analysis is rather new and rare method in Russian initial teacher education and its further development and implementation—especially analysis of low- and high-quality practices—can extend teacher’s understanding about what good quality is and reflect on own practice. Recommendations for the Russian pre-service teacher training system were made on the basis of the results of this study: practice for future teachers should be organized in highquality preschool groups, not in the random ones. Reflexive position of the mentor contributes both to the professional development of student and preschool teacher. Moscow City University carries out such a project based on collaboration between college, University and high-quality preschools.

General Conclusions Our research on the ECE quality showed that the development of professional competencies of teachers is one of the most important areas of change; in particular, their professional reflection. The ability to observe children’s behavior and adult behavior and correlate them, to analyze how the actions of an adult determine the behavior

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

177

of a child, are clearly the prerequisites for professional reflection. The study demonstrated that it is often difficult for teachers to conduct professional observations: the key concepts of developmental psychology are not used for situation analysis and planning, which means they are formally mastered. Perhaps this is precisely the reason for the phenomenon that is discussed in the article: even claiming that they are sharing the values of the new preschool education, teachers do not implement them in their practice. Possible directions for the improving professional competencies is the development of reflection within pre-service and in-service training programs.

References Archer, J. (2017). The power of trained eye. https://www.aft.org/ae/fall2017/archer Coffey, A. M. (2014). Using video to develop skills in reflection in teacher education students. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(9). http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ajte/vol39/iss9/6. Costa, A., & Kallick, B. (2008). Learning and leading with habits of mind. http://www.ascd.org/ publications/books/108008/chapters/Learning-Through-Reflection.aspx. Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. Free Press. Federal State Statistic Service. (2018). Information on organizations engaged in educational activities on educational programs for preschool education, childcare and childcare (since 2014). State statistical service. https://www.gks.ru/storage/mediabank/doshcol.htm Harms, T., Clifford, R. M., & Cryer, D. (2005). Early childhood environment rating scale (Revised edition). Teachers College Press. Hartman, S. C., Warash, B. G., Curtis, R., & Hirst, J. D. (2016). Level of structural quality and process quality in rural preschool classrooms. Early Child Development and Care, 186(12), 1952–1960. Klyachko, T. L. (Ed.). (2019). School performance monitoring. Preschool education: Accessibility and quality, Moscow, RANEPA, 2(11), 21. Lampert Shepel, E. (1999). Reflective thinking in educational praxis: Analysis of multiple perspectives. Educational Foundations, Summer. Lefebvre, J. (2013). In support of the development of reflection. http://aqpc.qc.ca/ Le-van, T., Shiyan, I., & Shiyan, O. (2016).Teaching staff background of reforms in Russian preschool education and the professional development of teachers. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 233, 201–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.200 Manning, M., Garvis, S., Fleming, C., & Wong, T. W. G. (2017). The relationship between teacher qualification and the quality of the early childhood care and learning environment. Campbell Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2017.1 Peeters, J., & Vandenbroeck, M. (2011). Childcare practitioners and the process of professionalization. In L. Miller & C. Cable (Eds.), Professionalization, leadership and management in the early years. Sage Publications Ltd. Phillipsen, L. C., Burchinal, M. R., Howes, C., & Cryer, D. (1997). The prediction of process quality from structural features of child care. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 12, 281–303. Pianta, R., Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Bryant, D., Clifford, R. M., Early, D. M., & Barbarin, O. (2005). Features of pre-kindergarten programs, classrooms, and teachers: Prediction of observed classroom quality and teacher-child interactions. Applied Developmental Science, 9(3), 144–159. Pirard, F. (2013). Knowledge about how to work with young children in ECEC: Constructing practice on evolutionary knowledge in ECEC. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271844600

178

I. Shiyan et al.

Remorenko, I. M., Shiyan, O. A., Shiyan, I. B., Shmis, T. G., Le-van, T. N., Kozmina, Ya. Ya., & Sivak, E. V. (2017). Key problems in the implementation of the Federal Standard on the ground of a research using Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale (ECERS-R): Moscow36. Sovremennoye doshkolnoe obrazovaniye. Teoriya i praktika, 2, 16–31. Raban, B., Nolan, A., Waniganayake, M., Ure, C., Deans, J., & Brown, R. (2005). Empowering practicitoners to critically examine their current practice. Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education, 12(2), 1–16. Shchedrovitsky, G. P. (1974). Reflection (fragment of the work “Communication, activity, reflection”). Research of speech-making activity. Alma-Ata. Shchedrovitsky G. P. (2001). Reflection and its problems. Reflexive Processes and Management, 1 Sheridan, S., Shiyan, O., & Shiyan, I. (2018). Preschool quality and conditions of children’s learning in preschool in Russia and Sweden. In Vygotsky’s theory in early childhood education and research. Russian and Western values (pp. 193–205). Routledge. Sheridan, S., Williams, P., & Samuelsson Pramling, I. (2014). Group size and organizational conditions for children’s learning in preschool: A teacher perspective. Educational Research, 56(4), 379–397. Shiyan, O. A., Iakshina, A. N., Zadayev, S. A., & Le-van, T. N. (2019). Means of developing the professional self-reflection of early childhood education teachers. Preschool Education Today, 4(94), 14–35 (in Russian). https://doi.org/10.24411/1997-9657-2018-10049 Shiyan, I. B., Zadadaev, S. A., Le-van, T. N., & Shiyan, O. A. (2016). Approbation of ECERS-R scales in Moscow preschool institutions. Moscow City Pedagogical University Billetin (Seria “Pedagogy and Psychology”), 2, 77–92. Shiyan, I., Shiyan, O., Veraksa, A., & Veraksa, N. (2018a). Preschool teacher preparation in Russia: Background, system and modern trends. In Teachers’ and families’ perspectives in early childhood education and care. Early childhood education in the 21st century (Vol. II, 1st ed.). Routledge. Shiyan, I., Zadayev, S., Le-van, T., & Shiyan, O. (2018b, July 12). Findings of the national study for the preschool education quality in Russia. In The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioural Sciences, EpSBS (Vol. XLIII, pp. 602–610). https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2018.07.80 Shiyan, O. A., & Vorobyeva, E. V. (2015). New opportunities for the evaluation of preschool education quality: ECERS-R scales approbated in Russia. Sovremennoye Doshkolnoe Obrazovaniye. Teoriya i Praktika, 7, 38–49. Slot, P., Bleses, D., et al. (2018). Structural and process quality of Danish preschools: Direct and indirect associations with children’s growth in language and preliteracy skills. Early Education and Development, 29(4), 581–602. Slot, P., Lerkkanen, M., & Leseman, P. (2015). The relations between structural quality and process quality in European early childhood education and care provisions: Secondary data analysis of large scale studies in five countries, CARE. In Curriculum & quality analysis and impact review of European early childhood education and care, Utrecht University. Slot, P. L. (2018). Structural characteristics and process quality in early childhood education and care: A literature review. OECD Education Working Paper No. 176. Snoeyink, R. (2010). Using video self analysis to improve the “withitness” of student teachers. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 26(3), 101–110. Sylva, K., Melhuish, E. C., Sammons, P., Siraj, I., & Taggart, B. (2004). The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) project: Technical paper 12—The final report: Effective pre-school education. DfES/Institute of Education, University of London. Veraksa, N., Shiyan, O., Shiyan, I., Pramling, N., & Pramling-Samuelsson, I. (2016). Communication between teacher and child in early child education: Vygotskian theory and educational practice. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 39(2), 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/02103702.2015.113 3091

11 Development of Preschool Teacher’s Competences …

179

Veraksa, N. E. (1994). The model of positional teaching of students. Voprosy Psikhologii, 3, 122–129. Vygotsky, L. S. (1983) History of higher mental functions. In Collected works 6(3) (pp. 5–328). Pedagogika Publications. Walsh, G., McMillan, D., & McGuiness, C. (2017). Playful teaching and learning. Sage.

Igor Shiyan is Ph.D. in psychology, Chairperson of the laboratory of Child Development, Deputy Director of the Institute of System Projects of Moscow City University. Head of the masters’ program “Design and Expertise of Pre-school Education (Theory by Lev Vygotsky)” in Moscow City University. A member of Russian Psychological Society. His main interests: cognitive development of children and adults, preschool education quality. Olga Shiyan is an employee of the Laboratory of Child Development of the Institute of System Projects in Moscow City University since September 2010 (Leading Researcher currently). Ph.D. in Pedagogy (1996). ERSI-certified ECERS-3 expert (2017, anchor level). Conduct research programs on the creative abilities of preschool children, assessment and development of preschool education quality, on professional development of teachers. Coordinate municipal and all-Russian research projects. Author of 86 publications, including 7 in English. Associate Professor in masters’ program “Design and Expertise of Pre-school Education (Theory by Lev Vygotsky)”. A member of Russian Psychological Society. Anna Iakshina is an educational and developmental psychologist. She holds position as junior researcher in Laboratory of child development (Moscow City University). Her Ph.D. thesis is on the role of multi-age communication in development of imagination of preschoolers. Previously, she worked as a preschool teacher in “Golden key” program and as a child psychologist. Now she conducts in-service trainings for preschool teachers, her professional interest is development of reflection. Anna Iakshina is a national ECERS expert, she studies development of play in preschool age, play competences of adults and participatory approach in educational practice. Tatyana N. Le-van has been an employee of the Laboratory of Child Development of the Institute of System Projects in Moscow City University since November 2014 (Leading Researcher currently). Ph.D. in Pedagogy (2006). ERSI-certified ECERS-3 expert (2017, anchor level). Conduct research programs on the assessment and development of preschool education quality, on professional development of teachers, on participatory design of public spaces for kids. Coordinate municipal and all-Russian research projects. Author of 172 publications, including 21 in English. Associate Professor in masters’ program “Design and Expertise of Pre-school Education (Theory by Lev Vygotsky)”. A member of Russian Psychological Society.

Chapter 12

A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts and Transformations in Swedish Early Childhood Teacher Education Maelis Karlsson Lohmander

and Susanne Garvis

Abstract Early childhood education and the qualification of the workforce have received considerable attention in the past decades. In a context where international policy drivers have influenced the Swedish education, preschool teacher education has been subject to several reforms. Issues of quality of preschool education and the qualifications needed to work with young children have often come under scrutiny in both public and political debate. This chapter reflects on major characteristics in the history of Swedish preschool and preschool teacher education with a focus on societal/policy shifts and transformations and on the personnel working with young children and their expected competences.

Introduction Early childhood education (ECEC) and the qualifications of the workforce have received considerable attention worldwide. Widespread agreement among researchers suggests that high quality education depends on a highly qualified workforce (Manning et al., 2017; Oberhuemer et al., 2010; Sheridan et al., 2011; Sylva et al., 2010; Urban et al., 2011). Embedded in a context where international policy drivers influence the Swedish education system including early childhood education (e.g. OECD, 2015), the quality of the education and the qualification of the workforce have been and are still high on the political agenda and a recurring topic in public and political debates. Over the years, societal changes have led to shifts in early childhood education (preschool) and early childhood teacher education (preschool teacher education).

M. K. Lohmander University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden S. Garvis (B) Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_12

181

182

M. K. Lohmander and S. Garvis

This chapter reflects on major characteristics in the history of Swedish preschool (förskola) and preschool teacher education (förskollärarutbildning) with a focus on societal/policy shifts and transformations and on the personnel working with young children and their expected competences.

The Origin and Development of Preschool and Preschool Teacher Education Provision for young children has existed since the mid-1800s. The first school for 2–7 year olds (småbarnsskolan) started in 1836 and was expected to provide basic educational activities including moral guidance for children of working parents (Vallberg Roth, 2011). The first crèche focussing on health and care for children up to six years of age mainly from poor families opened in 1854. In the late 1800s and early 1900s in a context of industrialisation and urbanisation a split system developed with full time childcare institutions (barnkrubba) for children from poor families and part-time kindergartens (barnträdgård) focusing on play and educational activities for children from more affluent families. Childcare institutions were staffed with practitioners who often lacked formal education. Kindergartens were developed and run by unmarried progressive middle-class women referred to as kindergarten leaders (barnträdgårdsledarinna). They were expected to think of their work as a vocation, meaning low pay or no pay at all (Tallberg Broman, 1995), thus paving the way for a sector in the public arena exclusively suitable for women.1 Rather than conduct formal teaching, kindergarten leaders were expected to act as role models and ‘intellectual mothers’, ‘leading’ both the child and the mother. Personal qualities including “… a cheerful disposition and love for children…”2 (Kihlström, 1998, p. 16) were key criteria when selecting women for the work in the kindergartens. Kindergarten leaders were initially trained abroad, many at Pestalozzi Fröbel Haus in Germany (Kihlström, 1998). Inspired by the German kindergarten pedagogy four Swedish fee-paying training institutes were established by private charitable associations such as the Fröbel Association. In 1896, Anna Eklund opened the first Fröbel kindergarten. Two years later, she started the first training institute, which offered a four-month course. This course was extended to one year in 1899. The leaders of the institutes had the autonomy to decide about the content and structure of the training and issued the first documents for the developing childcare sector (Johansson, 1998; Martin Korpi, 2006). Friedrich Fröbel’s (1782–1852) pedagogy and play were important components of the training which comprised theory and practice (Johansson, 2018, 2020). In the early 1940s, the term ‘kindergarten’ was replaced by the term ‘play school’ (lekskola) (Johansson, 1994).

1 2

Women gained the right to vote in public elections in 1919. Translations of all Swedish quotations by the author.

12 A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts …

183

In the 1930s, international theories and pedagogies regarding children and childcare influenced the training and the preschool pedagogy (Rubinstein Reich, 2017). The discourse on child/developmental psychology increasingly shaped preschool pedagogy and preschool teacher education, replacing Fröbel’s discourse on the child. These ideas were strongly supported by Alva Myrdal who was a prominent member of the then governing Social Democratic Party and actively involved in the developing Swedish welfare sector. Myrdal advocated scientific knowledge and psychology as the foundation for a state-run high-quality education for children (Kärrby, 2000; Myrdal, 1935). According to Myrdal, the dominance of the authoritarian, somewhat religious childrearing practices in the kindergartens had to be replaced by an education aiming at democracy. Thus, a comprehensive early childhood education could contribute to a spirit of solidarity and other social outcomes important for the Social Democratic Party, such as promoting equity between women and men (Dahlberg et al., 1999). In 1935, Myrdal established a new training institute (Socialpedagogiska seminariet). In contrast to the existing Fröbel-inspired training institutes, in Myrdal’s institute socially-oriented, research-based knowledge like child psychology and child psychiatry were key features of training (Johansson, 1994; Tallberg Broman, 1995). Over time, the state assumed greater responsibility for teacher training. In 1944, the training institutes received state grants. In 1962, governance of the training institutes was transferred to the National Board of Education (Skolöverstyrelsen) and the first national steering documents proposing a two-year post-secondary training programme were issued. The training was in effect 2.5 years since entry requirements included practical experience of approximately six months’ work with young children. These changes effectively curbed the freedom that the training institutes had regarding content. A highly controlled and detailed curriculum was introduced. Even the number of hours spent on various subjects was regulated (Johansson, 1994). Developmental psychology and child observations (Gesell & Ilg, 1971) together with systematic teaching practice became dominant features. In addition to subject knowledge about children’s development, development of student teachers’ ‘personality’ was catered for through drama, arts and crafts, ethics, music and movement (Tellgren, 2008). Concurrently, new qualification requirements, namely a university qualification, was required for the women employed at the training institutes (Förskoleseminarier). Since most of the females did not possess this qualification, they were replaced by male university graduates who had little or no experience of working with young children and consequently the women lost power and influence over the education (Tallberg Broman, 1995).

Labour Market Policy—The 1968 Government Inquiry on Childcare Since late 1960s/early 1970s, preschool has been a national priority in Sweden as women were entering the labour market in large numbers and there was an increased

184

M. K. Lohmander and S. Garvis

need for childcare provision.3 In 1968, the Government commissioned an Inquiry on Childcare (Barnstugeutredningen) to propose new goals and guidelines for the future childcare system. A report (SOU, 1972:26/27) was published suggesting a unified system, preschool, integrating care and education, with daycare centres (daghem) as the dominating form of provision. Day care provision was intended for young children whose parents worked or studied, not for all children. There was a strong focus on socio-emotional development and children’s well-being. Grounded in the theories of Jean Piaget (1896–1980) and Erik Homburger Erikson (1902–1994), the proposed aims of day care were development of self, concept formation and communication and a ‘new’ emancipatory teaching method of negotiation and dialogue (dialogpedagogik) (Schyl-Bjurman, 1976; Strömberg-Lind & Schyl-Bjurman, 1976) was introduced. The focus on dialogue and social skills rather than on specific domains of knowledge was heavily criticised (Kallós, 1978). Kallós argued that the scientific evidence for this supposedly emancipatory pedagogy was missing and difficult to implement in everyday practice in preschool. At the beginning of the 1970s, largescale investment in preschools across the country was launched and the first Preschool Act was passed in 1975. A report on teacher education was published in 1975 (SOU, 1975:67) where the content of education was elaborated in relation to the founding principles of preschool pedagogy. A unified programme focussing on communication, social orientation and pedagogy replaced the previous strictly regulated, detailed teacher education programme (SOU, 1975:67; Karlsson Lohmander, 2004, 2014). Importance was attributed to real problems related to the workplace with teamwork and project work as ways of organising the studies. ‘Child observation’ as a subject was as a link between theory and practice. In addition to subject knowledge, during practicum student teachers were assessed on personal qualities. A good preschool teacher was expected to be empathetic and have the ability to cooperate with others and be “… punctual, mature and responsible//…// and a have a cheerful disposition.” (Tellgren, 2008, p. 180).

Academisation of Preschool Teacher Education 1977 In 1977, preschool teacher education was integrated into the university system and the responsibility was transferred from the National Board of Education (Skolöverstyrelsen) to the National Board of Universities and Colleges (Universitets- och Högskoleämbetet, UHÄ). Consequently, the programme was required to become more academic/scholarly similar to traditional discipline-based university education (Johansson, 2000, 2004). This caused tensions. Merging the two educational traditions—university and professional schools—was a challenge especially regarding the balance between theory and practice (Tellgren, 2008). The change was often 3

Statutory age of admission to school is 7 years. Since 2018, the preschool class for six-year-old children is compulsory.

12 A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts …

185

perceived by teacher educators as a devaluation of the practice-based tacit knowledge gained outside the university that hitherto had been a key feature of the programme (Johansson, 2000). In 1980, the programme was extended from 2 to 2.5 years and the entry requirement of six months’ work practice was abolished. Over the last three decades, educational reforms continued. In 1993, the teacher education programme was extended to three years. Within the context of decentralisation,4 there was a certain degree of freedom for individual universities to interpret the overarching goals and guidelines and to allocate resources between various subjects. In 1996, responsibility for preschool education was transferred from the Ministry of Social Health and Welfare to the Ministry of Education and Research. Preschool for children 1–5 years5 as the first step in a lifelong learning process is since included in the overall education system incorporating 1–19 year olds. Concurrently, the preschool class for six-year-olds was established to facilitate the transition to compulsory school. The ambition was to offer preschool education of high and equal quality to all children across the country where social as well as educational goals are met. This ambition is challenged by both staffing issues and marketisation of public services. In 1998, the first national curriculum for the preschool was issued6 with democracy as the founding value. The theoretical point of departure for the preschool curriculum is a sociocultural (e.g. Vygotskian) and experience-based approach. The curriculum specifies overriding goals and tasks but not the means to reach these goals. Working methods are decided by the teachers. They are expected to have acquired the necessary pedagogical skills during their initial training. The curriculum has been revised four times—2006, 2010, 2016 and 2018. The 2010 revision led to a discursive shift with the introduction of subject knowledge (e.g. literacy, early maths, and technology) and the concept ‘teaching’. Further, preschool teacher´s overall responsibility for the pedagogical work was clarified.7 Historically, a teaching discourse was not used in the preschool context. Rather, there was a nurturing and supporting discourse with a focus on children’s socioemotional development, care and safety. Therefore, the teaching concept was challenging for preschool teachers (Skolinspektionen, 2016; Tallberg Broman, 2017). There was a fear that this would lead to outcomes-driven ‘schoolification’ of the preschool practice (Pramling Samuelsson & Sheridan, 2010). However, according 4

With the decentralisation reform in the early 1990s decision making was to a large extent transferred to local authorities. The intention was that decisions should be made as close as possible to and by people who were directly involved in the decisions. The reform was also intended to further democratise the public sector. 5 Preschool is available for children from the age of one year whose parents work or study or for children in need of special support. From the age of three years, all children are entitled to 3 h preschool education free of charge daily. Some preschools may offer longer hours. 6 Before 1998, there were guidelines for early childhood education, which even though these were not binding regulations functioned as a curriculum e.g. Pedagogical programme for the preschool (Socialstyrelsen, 1987:3). 7 Two main groups of staff make up the work team in preschools; preschool teachers and childcare workers.

186

M. K. Lohmander and S. Garvis

to Pramling et al. (2017) preschool pedagogy does not have to be either about social development or learning. By reconceptualising these concepts and considering them “… as integrated, rather than disparate features…” (p. 205) it is possible to combine them. Vallberg Roth (2015, p. 19) argues that the focus on learning was mainly advocated by politicians to increase goal attainment in school with reference to the results of Swedish pupils in comparative studies such as PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment, OECD, 2015). The new Education Act (2010:800) emphasised the learning dimension and the concept education was introduced to also include preschool. Preschool was established as a school form in its own right. In the revised curriculum of 2018 the learning dimension was further emphasised. Since the early 1990s, neoliberalism as a guiding principle for governance has increasingly influenced the Swedish welfare system including education leading to increased state regulation and a focus on goal achievement, evaluation and quality control with implications for both preschool and teacher education. Even though in the preschool, children’s performances must not be assessed the focus on accountability and performativity has implications for the everyday work in the preschool (Löfdahl & Perez Prieto, 2009; Tallberg Broman, 2017; Lindgren & Söderlind, 2019). The focus on performativity and goal achievement is reflected in the curriculum. Preschool teachers are responsible for each child’s development and learning being continuously and systematically followed, documented and analysed so that it is possible to evaluate how the preschool provides opportunities for children to develop and learn in accordance with the goals of the curriculum.

Moreover, the establishment of independent preschools8 (tax funded but privately run) has contributed to the development of a “… competitive childcare market¨ (Löfdahl & Perez Prieto, 2009, p. 271).

The 2001 Reform: “To Lead and to Learn—A Unified Teacher Education for Cooperation and Development” In the mid-1990s, several national evaluations of teacher education were conducted (Gran, 1995; Högskoleverket, 1996; Utbildningsdepartementet, 1995). According to these evaluations, the education (mainly compulsory teacher education) had become too fragmented and insufficiently grounded in practice (Johansson, 2004). Consequently, a new unified programme was introduced in 2001 (SOU, 1999:63) where all previous eight professional teacher education programmes were integrated into the same programme with content elements common for all students regardless of the age-specialisations. The term ‘preschool teacher’ was replaced by the term ‘teacher 8

The independent preschools can be organised and run by private for profit enterprises, by nonprofit organisations, by parents or staff cooperatives. They receive the same public funding as the municipal preschools and must adhere to the goals in the national curriculum. In 2019, 17.6% of all children were enrolled in independent preschools (Skolverket, 2020).

12 A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts …

187

for the early years’ (lärare för de tidiga åldrarna) indicating that these teachers were qualified to teach children in preschool and the first years of compulsory school. The focus was on students becoming reflective practitioners and enhancing the scientific knowledge base in pedagogy. Students had to complete 20 weeks practicum and a degree project related to their future profession accounting for 15 of the total 180 credits. There was a great flexibility for students to construct their own study path through the programme. Critique was voiced at an early stage about the elements of common content for all students. Beach (2000, p. 278) argued that students of different age specialisations most likely had different knowledge needs. There was also a concern that students would not become sufficiently knowledgeable about preschool and young children’s learning and development (Skolverket, 2007). Moreover, after graduation students seemed to prefer to work with six-to-eight year-olds rather than preschool children under the age of five. There was a concern about the staffing of preschools (Johansson, 2006). Soon after its introduction, national evaluations were conducted on the 2001 teacher education programme (e.g. Högskoleverket, 2005, 2008; Skolverket, 2007). Following a government shift and with reference to the Sweden’s ‘poor’ student performances in PISA, a new teacher education programme was introduced in 2011 (SOU, 2008:109). This reform was criticised even before it was implemented because of the absence of scientific support for the conclusions drawn by the Governmental Inquiry regarding the 2001 programme (Ahlström, 2008).

The 2011 Reform: “A Sustainable Teacher Education” The 2001 programme was criticised for insufficient grounding in both practice and research. The evaluations also indicated that there were distinct requirements on teachers related to the age group taught. Hence, in the 2011 programme (SOU, 2008:109) clearly defined age specialisations were reintroduced meaning a degree in preschool education for work with children aged 1–5 years and with the six-year olds in the preschool class. Based on”…scientific or artistic grounds and on proven experience” (The Higher Education Act, SFS, 1992:1434, §2) the programme includes three interrelated domains of knowledge comprising 210 credits over 3.5 years, 7 semesters, of full-time study with a possibility to extend that to 4 years, 240 credits. The studies are organised over two semesters approximately 40 weeks per academic year. One week equals 1.5 credits full time study. 1. 2. 3.

Educational Sciences (60 credits) Subject Studies (105 credits + a professionally relevant degree project comprising 15 credit, in total 120 credits) Work Placement/Practicum (30 credits, 20 weeks in total)

All higher education is governed by the Higher Education Act (SFS, 1992:1434) and the Higher Education Ordinance (SFS, 1992:100). The Swedish Higher Education Authority (Universitetskanslerämbetet [UKÄ]) and the Swedish Council for

188

M. K. Lohmander and S. Garvis

Higher Education (Universitets- och högskolerådet [UHR]) are responsible for monitoring quality, compliance with laws and regulations and for giving support. Ultimately, the responsibility for all higher education rests with the Swedish Parliament (Riksdag). According to the Higher Education Ordinance, graduates must demonstrate the knowledge and skills required for independent work as preschool teachers in preschool and the preschool class. Education should develop students’ ability to make independent and critical assessments, the ability to independently identify, formulate and solve problems and be prepared to meet changes in working life” (Göteborgs Universitet, 2018, p. 3). Student performances are assessed on Knowledge and understanding, Competence and skills, Judgement and approach. Upon completion of the programme students are awarded a Degree of Bachelor of Arts in Pre-School Education. In order to be employed in preschools since 2011 graduates must apply for qualified teacher status/certification through the National Agency for Education (SFS, 2011:326). During their first year of employment newly-qualified preschool teachers have a personal mentor whose role is to provide support for the professional, personal and social development (SKOLFS, 2014:44). Once employed preschool teachers are required “… to continuously take part in new research, critically relate to it and use research results to evaluate and problematise own activities.” (Rubinstein Reich, 2017, p. 314). The preschool teacher education programme prepares teachers to be grounded in research (The Education Act, 2010:800). In this respect, the degree project is expected to provide a significant learning opportunity. There is a high degree of autonomy for individual universities to organise the structure and content as long as they abide by the overarching aims. There can be a slight variation in the programme across the 20 higher education institutions currently offering preschool teacher education. The following examples of how the overarching knowledge domains have been translated into course modules apply to one Swedish university (Table 12.1). In 2018, the Higher Education Authority conducted quality audits of 19 preschool teacher education programmes across the country focusing on the content and organisation of the programme, results and student feedback. Eleven programmes received high quality ratings; eight were considered unsatisfactory and did not meet some of the quality assessment areas. These universities were given twelve months to make the necessary changes and have since earned a high quality rating (UKÄ, Högskolekollen 2019).

Summary Over the years, through societal and policy shifts a radical transformation of preschool and professional teacher education has taken place. There has been a remarkable growth in the number of students graduating with a preschool teacher qualification, in status of the preschool, the workforce and their professional education. Preschool has been included in the overall education system with a strengthened focus on teaching

Learning development and pedagogy 2 The teaching profession and scientific work

Mathematics in early childhood education 1

Social relations, conflict management and leadership

Play, learning and care 1

Practicum 1

Children’s language Steering, organisation and communication 1 and assessment

Practicum 3

Steering documents, assessment and evaluation

Arts, aesthetics and learning 1

Children’s language and communication 3

Semester 4

Semester 6

Social relations, conflict management and leadership

Mathematics in early childhood education 2

Cont. degree project

Degree project

Science, environments Practicum 4 and technologies

Play, learning and care The teaching 2 profession and scientific work

Semester 5

Continuation Optional module

Optional module

Continuation Sustainable development and global perspectives

Sustainable development and global perspectives

Semester 7

All modules in semester 1–5 and the two first modules in semester 6 are at initial level and comprise 7.5 credits each. The degree project comprises 15 credits. The modules in semester 7 are at advanced level and comprise 15 credits each Göteborgs Universitet (2018, bil. 1)

Collaboration

Practicum 2

Children’s language and communication 2

Learning development and pedagogy 1

Semester 3

Semester 2

Semester 1

Table 12.1 Overview of the programme

12 A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts … 189

190

M. K. Lohmander and S. Garvis

and education and together with the preschool class for six-year-olds established as a school form in its own right. Preschool teacher education has been included in the university system: the balance between theory and practice has shifted in favour of theory and a focus on subject-based knowledge. The number of faculty members with a Ph.D. degree is steadily growing and professorships in early childhood education have been established in many universities. Neoliberal principles of governance have influenced both preschool and preschool teacher education with increasing focus on accountability, performativity, goal-achievement, assessment and quality control. One area were there has not been much change concerns preschool as a gendered profession. Preschool teacher has been and still is a predominantly female profession despite Government initiatives to attract men to the profession (SOU, 2004:115). Today only about four per cent of the professionals are male (Skolverket, 2020). The following bullet points summarise the key changes for both preschool and preschool teacher education. Preschool • Included in the unified education system as the first step in a lifelong learning process. • Although a teaching and learning discourse was introduced and subjects such as early mathematics, natural sciences and technology are included in the preschool curriculum, a holistic perspective on children is at the foreground where care, learning and wellbeing form a coherent whole. • The role of the preschool teacher has been emphasised as crucial for children’s learning and development. • Increased focus on documentation, quality assurance and evaluation in the preschool. • Introduction of qualified teacher status (QTS)/certification. Preschool teacher education • Personal qualities replaced with clearly defined entry requirements related to grades in upper secondary school. • Extended length of the programme from 2 to 3.5 years with a possibility to extend to 4 years. • Professional exam replaced with Bachelor degree. • Increased academisation regarding structure and content of programme. Focus on research-based subject knowledge and international links. • Fröbel’s pedagogy and child psychology replaced with socio-cultural perspectives on development and learning. • Upgrading of faculty members’ qualifications. Requirements on a majority of teaching staff to hold a Ph.D. degree.

12 A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts …

191

Discussion—Professional Competence and Qualification of the ECEC Workforce in Times of Change Preschool teacher education has been characterised by both continuity and change. While the structure, theoretical grounding and content of the programme have changed professional experience, the practicum in preschool settings, has remained an important part of the education albeit in different ways. In the early training courses, practice was the foundation of the programme and constituted a major part of the training. Today the workplace-based courses comprise 30 of 210 credits. In the two most recent programmes, 2001 and 2011, practice was identified as the basis for the theoretical university-based courses (SOU, 1999:63, 2008:109). Still students often find their education insufficiently grounded in practice. Students perceive a so called ‘reality gap’ between the two and often find the ‘theoretical knowledge’ abstract and difficult to apply to a complex practice (Beach et al., 2014; Hegender, 2010; Karlsson Lohmander, 2015). According to Ahrenkil et al. (2013) the knowledge acquired in practice is situated and embedded in everyday work in the preschool “… in routines, experiences and embodied forms of knowledge and therefore often ‘unnoticed´ and under pressure from the performativity culture and the increasing demands on documentation.” (p. 79). Connected to the theory–practice debate is the compulsory professionally relevant degree project. According to Erixon Arreman and Erixon (2015) the introduction of the degree project is related to the academisation and marketisation of the education. With the focus on performativity, the degree project becomes a visible sign of high quality. They question the value for professional programmes to have a degree project similar to traditional academic disciplines and suggest that other and “… more creative ways of dealing with the final project need to be developed which recognise professional values and knowledge …” (p. 326). In contrast, findings from Råde’s (2019) study on preschool teachers’ views on the degree project indicate that students found the degree project to be valuable both regarding professional and scientific competence. Beach and Bagley (2013) discuss professional knowledge and the changing professional discourses, the performative turn, in terms of the emphasis on ´knowhow’ knowledge over ‘know-why’ knowledge and “… a return to a teacher training paradigm” (p. 388). They argue that the focus on how to teach may be conflicting with critical thinking. In the light of the focus on critical assessment and reflection in the Higher Education Act (SFS, 1992:1434) and Higher Education Ordinance (SFS, 1992:100) this may create a dilemma for teacher educators. In their study on competence requirements in ECEC Urban et al. (2011) points to importance of looking at competence not as an individual quality but an entire system where support is given to practitioners to develop their practice. They

192

M. K. Lohmander and S. Garvis

further underline the importance of a close relationship between theory and practice. Collaboration between university lectures and practicum supervisors during initial studies would contribute to student teachers developing reflective practitioner competence. In an attempt to ‘bridge the gap’ between theory and practice the Swedish Government initiated a five-year trial period 2014–2019 with special practicum preschools (SFS, 2014:2). A new collaborative organisation of the workplace-based learning periods was implemented where university lecturers and representatives from the workplaces together planned the courses and assessed students’ performances (Karlsson Lohmander, 2015, 2017). According to evaluations, this seems to have been successful and progress is being made to narrow the gap between theory and practice (Berlin, 2018). The conceptualisation of desirable professional competences has changed over time. While personal qualities such as ‘a cheerful disposition’ and love for children were important in the early teacher education programmes today the focus is on reflection, critical assessment and problem solving. This raises questions about the desirable skills and competences needed for working with young children. Is love for children important? Many preschool teachers claim that love for children is a strong motive for choosing to work in early childhood education. Peeters (2008) points to the advantage of providing an interpretation of ‘love and care’ as a relational not a personal competence (p. 39). A relational competence is manifested in a pedagogy where care, learning and development form a coherent whole (Aspelin & Persson, 2010). Findings from a study on Swedish preschool teachers’ views on competence identified three intertwined, mutually interdependent domains of teacher competence (1) Competence knowing what and why, (2) Competence of ‘know-how’ and (3) Interactive, relational and transactional competence (Sheridan et al., 2011, 2015). According to the authors, these competences cover important and fundamental areas of what it means to be a competent professional preschool teacher. The competence of ‘know what and why’ includes subject and content knowledge as well as a reflective competence. The ‘know how’ competence is intertwined with the ‘know what and why’ competence and encompasses dimensions of leadership and organisation. The relational and transactional competence has to do with communicative and social competences. In a context where all students have to be individually assessed, it may be a challenge to assess the relational competence. The practicum-based courses where a professional relational competence can be nurtured and developed are allocated 30 of 210 credits. Moreover, up until the 1993 programme with the intention to support students teachers’ personal development there were course units on drama, arts and crafts, ethics, music and movements (Tellgren, 2008). In the current programme these knowledge domains are limited to content elements in various university-based courses. This suggests that the current programme could be reviewed regarding how desirable competences and knowledge domains align with the course modules’ content and structure and how they are assessed.

12 A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts …

193

Conclusion Education proves to be a very political domain attracting policymaker’s attention. Over the years, preschool has been the focus of social policy, labour market policy and educational policy measures and several reforms have taken place. Looking back, it seems that reforms and investments in preschool may mainly have focussed on the benefits for society, not primarily in the best interest of the child (see for example Vallberg Roth, 2015). Further, according to Beach et al. (2014) the frequent teacher education reforms in the past three decades seem to be “… ideologically founded reactions to earlier policy formulations…” (p. 165) rather than scientifically grounded analyses. Reforms of preschool and teacher education need to be grounded in both research and practice, not only a manifestation of political ambitions. Due consideration needs to be given to those who are responsible for implementing reforms, the preschool teachers and teacher educators. ECEC is universally perceived as significant for children’s development, later school achievement and for society at large. With the Swedish ambition to offer preschool education of high and equal quality to all children across the country, a qualified workforce is a key factor. In this respect, Sweden is facing a huge challenge: 31.3% of the staff working in preschools are unqualified; 39.7% are qualified preschool teachers, while the remaining staff have a variety of qualifications not necessarily in preschool education (Skolverket, 2020). However, having staff with an initial qualification is not a sufficient guarantee that high quality services will be maintained. Regular professional development is necessary for a highly qualified, competent and professional workforce supported by good working conditions (Eurofound, 2015; Siraj et al., 2019; Nasiopoulou, 2020). Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank sincerely professor emerita Lena Rubinstein Reich, Malmö university, Sweden, professor emeritus Jan-Erik Johansson, Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway and professor Valerie Sollars, University of Malta for valuable comments and suggestions to this chapter. Disclosure Statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

References Ahrenkiel, A., Schmidt, C., Nielsen, B. S., Sommer, F., & Warring, N. (2013). Unnoticed professional competence in day care work. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies, 3(2), 79–96. https:// doi.org/10.19154/njwls.v3i2.2551 Ahlström, K.-G. (2008). HUT! Något fattas [Something is missing]. Pedagogisk Forskning i Sverige, Årg, 13(4), 296–301. Aspelin, J., & Persson, S. (2010). Om relationell pedaogik. Gleerups. Beach, D. (2000). Continuing problems of teacher education reform. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 44(3), 275–291.

194

M. K. Lohmander and S. Garvis

Beach, D., & Bagley, C. (2013). Changing professional discourses in teacher education policy back towards a training paradigm: A comparative study. European Journal of Teacher Education, 36(4), 379–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2013.815162 Beach, D., Bagley, C., Eriksson, A., & Player-Koro, C. (2014). Changing teacher education in Sweden: Using meta-ethnographic analysis to understand and describe policy making and educational changes. Teaching and Teacher Education, 44, 160–167. Berlin, D. (2018). ÖFSO håller kursen. Resultat från utvecklingsomgång 3. Rapport från Enheten for utredning och lärarutbildning, Göteborgs universitet. https://medarbetarportalen.gu.se/digita lAssets/1703/1703755_ofso_haller_kursen_rapport_omgang_3.pdf Dahlberg, G., Moss, P., & Pence, A. (1999). Beyond quality in early childhood education and care: Postmodern perspectives. Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis. Erixon Arreman, I., & Erixon, P.-O. (2015). The degree project in Swedish early childhood education and care: What is at stake? Education Inquiry, 6(3), 309–332. Eurofound. (2015). Working conditions, training of early childhood care workers and quality of services—A systematic review. Publications Office of the European Union. Gesell, A., & Ilg, F. (1971). Barnens Värld Och Vår: En Vägledning Vid Uppfostran I Hem Och Lekskolor [The world of the child: A guide to upbringing in homes and kindergartens). 4. Uppl. Natur & Kultur. Gran, B. (1995). Professionella lärare? Lärarförbundets utvärdering av grundskollärarutbildningen [Professional teachers? Evaluation of compulsory education by the teachers’ union]. Lärarförbundet. Göteborgs Universitet. (2018). Förskollärarprogrammet,210 högskolepoäng. Utbildningsplan DNR G 2018 752 [The preschool teacher education programme, 210 credits]. Göteborgs universitet. Utbildningsvetenskapliga fakulteten. Hegender, H. (2010). Mellan akademi och profession. Hur lärarkunskap formuleras och bedöms i verksamhetsförlagd [Between academy and profession. How teacher knowledge is formulated and assessed in school-based teacher education]. Linköping Studies in Pedagogic Practices No 12. Linköping University. Högskoleverket. (1996). Grundskollärarutbildningen 1995 – En utvärdering [Compulsory comprehensive teacher education 1995—An evaluation]. Högskoleverkets rapportserie 1996:1R. Högskoleverket. Högskoleverket. (2005). Utvärdering av den nya lärarutbildningen del 1, 2 och 3 [Evaluation of the new teacher education part 1, 2 and 3]. Högskoleverkets rapportserie 2005:17R. Högskoleverket. Högskoleverket. (2008). Uppföljande utvärdering av lärarutbildningen. Rapport 2008:8 R. Stockholm [National agency for higher education. Evaluation of teacher education. A follow up]. Högskoleverkets rapportserie 2008:8R. Högskoleverket. Johansson, J.-E. (1994). Svensk förskolepedagogik under 1900-talet [Swedish pre-school pedagogy during the 1900s]. Studentlitteratur. Johansson, J.-E. (1998). Barnomsorgen och lärarutbildningen. En analys av metodikämnet i utbildningen av förskollärare och fritidspedagoger [Childcare and teacher education], Rapporter från institutionen för metodik I lärarutbildningen Göteborgs universitet, Nr 13. Johansson, J.-E. (2000). Utbildning av förskollärare och fritidspedagoger i ett samtidsperspektiv [Education of preschool and leisure time teachers]. In I. Johansson & I. Holmbäck Rolander (Eds.), Vägar till pedagogiken i förskola och fritidshem. Liber. Johansson, J.-E. (2004). Lärare för yngre åldrar: konstnär, forskare eller praktiker? Utvärdering av två inriktningar vid nya lärarutbildningen i Göteborg [Teachers for the early years: Artist, researcher or practitioner? An evaluation of the new teacher education in Göteborg]. UFL-rapport 2004.01. Utbildnings- och forskningsnämnden för lärarutbildning, Göteborgs universitet. Johansson, J.-E. (2006). Is the kindergarten pedagogy reaching its end? Comments on gender and the present development in the Nordic countries. Australian Research in Early Childhood Education, 13(1), 64–75. Johansson, J.-E. (2018). F. A. W. Fröbel 1782–1852. In M. Fleer & B. van Oers (Eds.), International handbook of early childhood education (pp. 1323–1346). Springer.

12 A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts …

195

Johansson, J.-E. (2020). Barnehagens opprinnelse. Styring og praksis. En introduktion till barnehagenpedagogikkens kraftfelt [The origin, management and practice of kindergarten. An introduction to the kindergarten pedagogy]. Fagboksforlaget. Kallós, D. (1978). Den nya pedagogiken. En analys av den s.k. dialogpedagogiken som svenskt samhällsfenomen [The new pedagogy: An analysis of the so-called dialogic education as a Swedish phenomenon in society]. Wahlström och Widstrand. Karlsson Lohmander, M. (2004). The fading of a teaching profession. Early Years, 24(1), 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/0957514032000179034 Karlsson Lohmander, M. (2014). Entwicklung der frühpädagogischen Ausbildung in Schweden. Von einer sozialpolitischen zur bildungspolitischen Herausforderung [The development of early childhood teacher education in Sweden. From a socio-political to an educational challenge]. In W. E. Fthenakis (Ed.), Frühpädagogische Ausbildungen international (pp. 169–192). Bildungsverlag EINS GmbH. Karlsson Lohmander, M. (2015). Bridging ‘the gap’—Linking workplace-based and universitybased learning in preschool teacher education in Sweden. Early Years: An International Research Journal 168–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2015.1025712 Karlsson Lohmander, M. (2017). Sweden—ECEC workforce profile. In P. Oberhuemer & I. Schreyer (Eds.), Workforce profiles in systems of early childhood education and care in Europe. www.seepro.eu/English/Country_Reports.htm Kärrby, G. (2000). Svensk förskola – Pedagogisk kvalitet med socialpolitiska rötter [Swedish preschool—Pedagogical quality rooted in social policy]. Rapport från institutionen för pedagogik, Högskolan i Borås. Nr 6:2000. Kihlström, S. (1998). Förskollärare – om yrkets pedagogiska innehåll. [Preschool teacher – on the pedagogical content of the profession]. Lund: Studentlitteratur. Lindgren, A.-L., & Söderlind, I. (2019). Förskolans historia. Förskolepolitik, barn och barndom [The history of the preschool. Preschool politics, children and childhood]. Gleerups. Löfdahl, A., & Perez Prieto, H. (2009). Institutional narratives within the performative preschool in Sweden: ‘if we write that we’re no good, that’s not good publicity!’ Early Years, 29(3), 261–270. Manning, M., Garvis, S., Fleming, C., & Wong, T. W. G. (2017). The relationship between teacher qualification and the quality of the early childhood care and learning environment. Campbell Systematic Review, 13.https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2017.1s Martin Korpi, B. (2006). Förskolan i politiken – om intentioner och beslut bakom den svenska förskolans framväxt. [Preschool in politics – on intentions and decisions behind the development of the preschool]. Stockholm: Regeringskansliet, Utbildnings- och kulturdepartementet. Myrdal, A. (1935). Stadsbarn. En bok om deras fostran i storbarnkammare [City children. A book about their upbringing in the big nursery]. Kooperativa förbundet. Nasiopoulou, P. (2020). The preschool teacher under conditions of change. Competence and intentions in pedagogical practices. Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. Oberhuemer, P., Schreyer, I., & Neuman, M. J. (2010). Professionals in early childhood education and care systems. European profiles and perspectives. Barbara Budrich Publishers. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2015). The Pisa test. http:// www.oecd.org/pisa/test/ Peeters, J. (2008). The construction of a new profession. A European perspective on professionalism in Early Childhood Education and Care. SWP Publishers. Pramling Samuelsson, I., & Sheridan, S. (2010). A turning-point or a backward slide: The challenge facing the Swedish preschool today. Early Years, 30(3), 219–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/095 75146.2010.513328 Pramling, N., Doverborg, E., & Pramling Samuelsson, I. (2017). Re-metaphorizing teaching and learning in early childhood education beyond the instruction—Social fostering divide. In C. Ringsmose & G. Kragh-Müller (Eds.), Nordic social pedagogical approach to early years. International perspectives on early childhood education and development (Vol. 15, pp. 205–218). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42557-3_12

196

M. K. Lohmander and S. Garvis

Rubinstein, R. (2017). Utvecklingsarbete – en historisk tillbakablick [Development work—Looking back]. In L. Rubinstein Reich, I. Tallberg Broman, & A.-C. Vallberg Roth (red), Professionell yrkesutövning i förskola. Kontinuitet och förändring (pp. 262–277). Studentlitteratur. Råde, A. (2019). Vilka kompetenser beskriver förskollärarstudenter att de erhåller genom examensarbetet? [Preschool teachers’ views on the competences they acquire through the degree project]. Nordisk Barnehageforskning, 18(1), 1–15 (26 Feb 2019). Schyl-Bjurman, G. (1976). Förskolan. En teoretisk bakgrund [Preschool. A theoretical background]. Liber Läromedel. Siraj, I., Kingston, D., & Neilsen-Hewett, C. (2019). The role of professional development in improving quality and supporting child outcomes in early education and care. Asia-Pacific Journal of Research, 13(2), 49–68. Sheridan, S., Williams, P., Sandberg, A., & Vuorinen, T. (2011). Preschool teaching in Sweden—A profession in change. Educational Research, 53(4), 415–437. Sheridan, S., Sandberg, A., & Williams, P. (2015). Förskollärarkompetens i förändring [Preschool teacher competence in change]. Studentlitteratur. SFS. (1992:1434). Högskolelagen [The Higher Education Act]. https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dok ument-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/hogskolelag-19921434_sfs-1992-1434 SFS. (2011:326). Förordning om behörighet och legitimation för lärare och förskollärare och utnämning till lektor [Ordinance on qualified teacher status and senior teachers in schools and preschools]. Utbildningsdepartementet. SKOLFS. (2014:44). Skolverkets föreskrifter om introduktionsperiod för lärare och förskollärare [Regulations on induction of newly qualified teachers]. http://www.skolverket.se/skolfs?id=2908 Skolinspektionen. (2016). Förskolans pedagogiska uppdrag - Om undervisning, lärande och förskollärares ansvar.[The pedagogical mission of the preschool. On teaching, learning and the responsibility of the preschool teacher]. https://www.skolinspektionen.se/globalassets/publikati onssok/granskningsrapporter/kvalitetsgranskningar/2016/forskolan-ped-uppdrag/rapport-forsko lans-pedagogiska-uppdrag.pdf Skolverket. (2007). Avrapportering av regeringsuppdrag U2006/5721/S. Den verksamhetsförlagda delen av utbildningen. Förläggning till olika verksamhetsformer och betydelse för kompetensutveckling och rekrytering av personal [The workplace-based part of teacher education different locations and the implications for development of competence and staff recruitment]. http://www. skolverket.se/publikationer?id=1743 Skolverket. (2020). Barn och personal i förskola 2019. Beskrivande statistik. Dnr 2020:320 [Children and staff in preschool 2019. Descriptive statistics. 2020:320]. https://www.skolverket.se/ publikationer?id=6542 Socialstyrelsen. (1987:3). Pedagogiskt program for förskolan [Pedagogical programme for the preschool]. Socialstyrelsen. SOU. (1972/26-27). Förskolan Del 1 och 2. Betänkande utgivet av 1968 års barnstugeutredning [Pre-school. Volume 1 and 2]. Socialdepartementet. SOU. (1975/67). Utbildning i samspel, Betänkande utgivet av 1968 års barnstugeutredning [Education in co-operation]. Socialdepartementet. SOU. (1999:63). Att lära och leda. En lärarutbildning för samverkan och utveckling. Slutbetänkande av lärarutbildningskommittén [To lead and to learn. A teacher education for cooperation and development]. Utbildningsdepartementet. SOU. (2004:115). Den könade förskolan - om betydelsen av jämställdhet och genus i förskolans pedagogiska arbete [The gendered pre-school—On the importance of equity and gender in preschool]. Utbildningsdepartementet. SOU. (2008:109). En hållbar lärarutbildning [A sustainable teacher education]. Fritzes. Strömberg-Lind, K., & Schyl-Bjurman, G. (1976). Dialogpedagogik [Dialogue pedagogy]. Studentlitteratur. Sylva, K., Melhuish, T., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggert, B. (2010). Early childhood matters: Evidence from the effective preschool and primary education project. Routledge.

12 A Competent Workforce. Reflections on Shifts …

197

Tallberg Broman, I. (1995). Perspektiv på förskolans historia [Perspectives on the history of the preschool]. Studentlitteratur. Tallberg Broman, I. (2017). Förskola och förskollärarutbildning i kontinuitet och förändring [Preschool and preschool teacher education. Continuity and change]. In L. Rubinstein Reich, I. Tallberg Broman, & A.-C. Vallberg Roth (red), Professionell yrkesutövning i förskola. Kontinuitet och förändring (pp. 23–55). Studentlitteratur. Tellgren, B. (2008). Från samhällsmoder till forskarbehörig lärare. Kontinuitet och förändringi en lokal förskollärarutbildning [From mother of society to a teacher qualified for post-graduate studies—Continuity and change in a local pre-school education]. Örebro Studies in Education 24. Universitetskanslersämbetet, UKÄ. (2019). Högskolekollen. https://www.uka.se/kvalitet--examen stillstand/resultat-fran-granskningarna-hogskolekollen/hogskolekollen.html?url=427238778% 2F%2Futvardering%2F1883354&sv.url=12.794d1f901621e65b329c27f Urban, M., Vandenbroeck, M., Lazzarri, A., Peeters, J., & Van Laare, K. (2011). Competence requirements for early childhood education and care. Uel and Ugent. Utbildningsdepartementet. (1995). Lärarutbildning i förändring [Teacher education in change]. DsU 1996:16. Utbildningsdepartementet. Vallberg Roth, A.-C. (2011). De yngre barnens läroplanshistoria [Early childhood curricula in Sweden. A historical perspective]. Studentlitteratur. Vallberg Roth, A.-C. (2015). Quality, assessment and documentation in Swedish preschools. Regulations, practices, and concepts. German Youth Institute.

Maelis Karlsson Lohmander is a Senior Lecturer in Education and Psychology at the Department of Education, Communication and Learning, University of Gothenburg, Sweden. Her research interest is oriented towards Early Childhood Education with a special focus on policy and practice regarding professionalism and professional development including CPD both at a national and international level as well as on steering documents for ECEC. Susanne Garvis is a Professor of Education and Chair of Department at Swinburne University of Technology. Her research includes policy and quality development within early childhood education. Her most recent contribution was a large scale meta-analysis on teacher qualifications.

Chapter 13

Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey: Description, Research and Problems Senil Unlu Cetin

Abstract This chapter introduces the early childhood teacher education system in Turkey. After a brief history of teacher education in general and of the early childhood teacher education in particular; chapter provides detail information on the registration structure to early childhood teacher education programs, process of Bachelor’s degree for early childhood education, i.e. courses taken by pre-service early childhood educators (PECEs), evaluation of PECEs during university education, teaching practices, nomination of PECEs to preschools after their graduation. Also, the chapter critically evaluate Turkish early childhood teacher education programs by pointing out main problems highlighted by research and governmental reports.

Introduction In Turkey, since 1973, with the enactment of the Basic Law of National Education (Number 1739), teaching has been accepted as a “specialized profession” (Bulut, 2009; Eret-Orhan et al., 2018). However, the history of teacher education goes back to 1848. The first teacher education institutes, known as Darulmüallimin-i Rü¸sdi, were established in Istanbul on 16 March 1848 to educate teachers who would be teaching soldiers at the military schools (Akyüz, 1989, cited in Gürkan, 2012). Later, at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, the first teacher education institute, termed Darulmuallimin-i Aliye, was established. These institutions provided four years of teacher education to children who had graduated from secondary school. During the very early stages of the republic period, the Darulmuallimin-i Aliye was officially renamed as the “Ö˘gretmen Enstitütü (Teacher Education Institute)”. Later, between the years of 1924–1940 a variety of educators, such as John Dewey, were invited to Turkey to analyze and give suggestions to improve the education system (Abazo˘glu et al., 2016). Simultaneously, many people were sent abroad to be educated as teachers and academics. Later in 1940, some of the most successful teacher education institutes in Turkish history, the Village Institutes, S. U. Cetin (B) Kırıkkale University, Kırıkkale, Turkey © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_13

199

200

S. U. Cetin

were established under the leadership of ˙Ismail Hakkı Tonguç, the General Director of Elementary Education at that time, and Hasan Ali Yücel, the Minister of Education. These Village Institutes are still perceived as a social transformation project since instead of only preparing teachers for their profession, their main goal was “to modernize social relations, bring an end to poverty and ignorance among the peasants, increase agricultural productivity, and help spread the Kemalist revolution in the countryside” (Karaömerlio˘glu, 1998, p. 47). The program of the Village Institutes was based on the philosophy of “education at work” (Karaömerlio˘glu, 1998). According to Tonguç, “work” refers to the “all activities done to ‘create value’ or ‘procure value’” (1952, pp. 222–223 in Altunya, 2002, p. 31). The teacher education programs in these institutes were divided into three major areas: (1) “general culture and vocational courses,” (2) “agricultural courses,” and (3) “technical (work) courses” (Altunya, 1998). In total, 29 practice-based and theoretical courses were provided for the students in each teacher education program. In addition to compulsory courses, the Village Institutes gave importance to teacher candidates’ social and intellectual development. These institutes were established in agricultural areas in seven districts throughout the country. Students from neighboring districts were accepted into these institutes based on many different criteria. After graduation, the students were sent back to their own villages as teachers. This means that education in each Village Institute had unique characteristics specific to their location. Unfortunately, these institutes did not last long and were officially closed down in 1954. In the Village Institutes’ fourteen-year period, 17,346 teachers; 8,675 teacher educators, and 1,599 health workers graduated and became successful in domains of art, science, and politics. Some of the graduates became mayors, parliament deputies, and even government ministers. In other words, with the help of the Village Institutes, villagers had a say in the governing of the Republic (Gazalcı, 2018). This teacher education system is still a hot topic in Turkish education and the teacher education system. From students’ enrolment through to the construction of the program and teacher induction, these institutes tried to meet the needs of the country and social structure. After their closure in 1954, the institutes were run under the name “Ö˘gretmen Okulu (Teachers College) and continued to train teachers with a different program. In this new teacher collages, the number of practical courses and general culture courses diminished and some major characteristics of Village institutes such as reading time were removed from the teacher education program. Later, in 1965 the first education faculty was established at Ankara University and in 1974, “Education Institutes” provided a two-year education for individuals who wanted to be primary school teachers were opened. They later became two-year graduate schools in 1982 and in 1990 they became primary education departments in education faculties and provided a four-year Bachelor’s Degree (Abazo˘glu et al., 2016). All two-year graduate schools for educating teachers were added to the universities in 1982 by a decree with force of law (Number 41) and education faculties began to be established. From that date, YÖK (Higher Education Council) and universities were responsible for providing teacher education programs. Later, in 1997, 2006, and 2018, three important changes were made to the teacher education programs.

13 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey …

201

First, in 1997, YÖK and the World Bank conducted a project called the “Preservice Teacher Education Project” and through this project with the support of the MEB (Ministry of National Education) and representatives of education faculties, the education faculties were restructured to eliminate problems such as the “lack of a healthy partnership with the Ministry of National Education; the training of many redundant teachers with certificate programs; inconsistencies in teacher training programs within and between faculties and with subject content at the corresponding school level; and an inadequate number of elective courses in contrast to the high number of compulsory courses (Abazo˘glu et al., 2016; YÖK, 1998; as cited in Yücel-Toy, 2015, p. 27). Second, under the European Union (EU) adaptation process and the renewal of primary school curricula in 2006 a new revision was undertaken in teacher training programs. Three-domain integrated teacher education curricula began to be applied (Yücel-Toy, 2015). Last, teacher education programs were updated recently by YÖK in 2018. According to Eret-Orhan et al. (2018) it has become impossible to observe their effectiveness owing to the frequent changes. Although there is a lack of continuity and large-scale data on the quality of teacher education programs, many studies have indicated that “insufficient school experience and practice teaching, lack of collaboration between faculty and practice schools, disregard for the real needs of schools and society, incompetence on the part of the faculty, and an ineffective strategy for student admission to colleges of education” are the main problems in the Turkish teacher education system (Eret Orhan et al., 2018, p. 185). According to a Eret Orhan et al. (2018)’s recent and relatively large scale study, preservice teachers consider none of the characteristics of teacher education program to be adequate; among provided skills 1,856 participated preservice teachers ranked their faculty’s education as inadequate for “teaching in different countries, participating in European Union projects with students, planning extra-curricular activities for teaching, planning courses considering individual differences, communicating/collaborating with parents, determining students’ individual learning needs, carrying out administrative tasks/duties, evaluating appropriateness of instructional programs, working with students who need special education, and cooperating with other experts in the school” (p. 188). In the same study, teacher education was evaluated through four different components, namely, (1) faculty environment, (2) curricula and courses, (3) teaching practice, and (4) teaching staff. The teaching practice component was perceived as the least adequate component by preservice teachers. Although this study provides an overall picture of the problems in the teacher education system, as a part of that general system, the early childhood teacher education system has similar problems. In the following section, detailed information on the Turkish early childhood teacher education (ECTE) system will be provided.

202

S. U. Cetin

A Brief History of Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey In the 1923–1924 academic year, the newly established Turkish Republic had 80 early childhood education centers around the country with 136 teachers and 5,880 children (Eurydice, 2019). Later “Ana Muallim Mektebi”—a school for training early childhood teachers—was established in the 1927–1928 academic year and was relocated to Istanbul as the Kız Muallim Mektebi (Istanbul Teachers School for Girls) in 1932–1933 academic year. The first “Early Childhood Teacher Program” was developed at Gazi University in 1979 and began to be applied in the 1980–1981 academic year as a two-year program at Konya Selçuk University (Taner-Derman & Ba¸sal, 2010). The first Early Childhood Education Bachelors’ Degree program was provided by the Education Faculty at Marmara University in 1987 and after the 1991–1992 academic year, teacher education programs were changed to become four-year Bachelors’ Degree programs provided by universities’ education faculties (Ba¸sal, 2005 as cited in Taner-Derman & Ba¸sal, 2010). Now, 82 universities provide early childhood teacher education programs in their education faculties.

Main Characteristics of Teacher Education Programs in Turkey As mentioned before, in Turkey since 1982, teacher education has been the responsibility of universities’ education faculties. The main model in the teacher education system is the “concurrent model” and the main institutions that provide teacher education are education faculties (EURYDICE, 2019). YÖK is the main government agency that has the right to approve the ECTE programs at university level. However, as mentioned before, for the teacher education process, YÖK works together with the MEB (EURYDICE, 2019). According to the Basic Law of National Education Number 1739, all teacher education programs in Turkey should cover three different domains: (1) general culture, (2) field education and (3) pedagogical formation. The courses under these three domains are provided to the students through an integrated program. These three domains have different weights in the program. That is, in a teacher education program, 15–20% of the courses should be general culture courses; 30–35% of the courses should belong to the pedagogical formation domain and the remaining 55– 60% of the courses should belong to the field education domain. Teacher education programs in all universities all around the country have almost the same structure (75% of the courses provided to the students are the same in all universities), while each university has the right to choose 25% of its ECTE courses from a list of elective courses provided by YÖK. The three-domain integrated teacher education program is still the sole program used in Turkey; however, the content of the program has been renewed according to need.

13 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey …

203

Being Selected as Pre-service Teachers to Education Faculties Identifying the qualifications that an effective teacher should have and evaluating teacher candidates based on these characteristics while recruiting them into the teacher education program is crucial for quality teacher education programs (Eskicumalı, 2002; Eret Orhan, & Ok, 2018). In general, two different models are used for recruiting or selecting candidate teachers: Selection of candidates based on criteria, and selection of candidates based on general criteria from an exam (Hacettepe University Faculty of Education, 2017). In the first model, selection is done according to on a variety of pre-determined criteria. This strategy leads to selecting students who have better teaching dispositions and results in better quality teachers in the case of graduation. In this model, after the teacher education program, there is no need to add another criterion to be nominated as a teacher. However, in the second model, selection is based on general criteria without considering the need for teachers and hence after graduation, there should be one more elimination process to be nominated as teachers (Hacettepe University Faculty of Education, 2017). Although the first selection strategy for teacher candidates was used in some periods in Turkish history (Uygun, 2010, p. 709), unfortunately, today, placement by exam is the only way to select candidate teachers. In Turkey, after highschool graduation, each student enters an exam to be placed at a university. The government agency known as the Measuring, Selection, and Placement Center (ÖSYM) prepares and applies this exam. This is a three-step exam. In the first step all students enter a common exam which measures their knowledge on Turkish Language, Social Sciences (history, geography, religious, philosophy), Mathematics and Science (physics, chemistry and biology). In this first step, students who gather required minimum score, gain a right to enter the second exam which includes Turkish Language and Literacy Test, Social Sciences-I Test, Social Sciences-II Test, Math and Science Test. In the third part of the exam students enters Foreign Language Test. All of these tests includes multiple choice questions. Based on their correct and wrong answers, student gets a cumulative score and based on this score they prepare a list for the profession they want to engage in. Later, depending on these scores and the order of the list, ÖSYM nominate students to departments. That is, in this exam there is not any specific part that geared to the profession that students would choose. As a very problematic issue, this system neither allows the selection of candidate teachers who are willing to be a teacher and who really enjoy being with children nor does it take into account the qualifications that a teacher should have. Previous studies indicated that a wish to be with children and perceiving teaching as a respectful profession are the least mentioned reasons by candidate teachers for selecting the teaching profession (Hacettepe University Faculty of Education, 2017,

204

S. U. Cetin

p. 22; Ubuz & Sarı, 2008). Among candidate teachers, the main reasons for selecting the teaching profession are a higher chance to be nominated after graduation; the flexible working hours and the amount of holiday time; and not being placed in the departments they actually wish to be (Hacettepe University Faculty of Education, 2017).

The ECTE Program As mentioned before, a three-domain integrated program is provided for ECTE students in Turkey. These domains are (1) general culture, (2) field education and (3) pedagogical formation. The field education domain has the highest weight in the program. That is, almost half the program courses during the four-year ECTE program are specifically related to the early childhood education field (Fig. 13.1). There is a national ECTE program in Turkey. This program is prepared by YÖK. The content and the courses of the program are updated according to need. For instance, to conform to the Bologna Process, all teacher education programs, including the ECTE, were renewed in 2018 by YÖK. This new program began to be applied in the 2018–2019 academic year. This renewal preserves an integrated

Shared Sha Education of 0-24 months of age children

Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Family and Social Policy

Education of 36-69 months of age children

Elementary education Ministry of Education Secondary education

High school education

University Education

Institute

Teacher Education

Fig. 13.1 The structure of Turkish educational system

Higher Education Institute

Ministry of Education + Higher Education Institute

13 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey …

205

three-domain (subject knowledge and skills domain, world knowledge domain and professional knowledge and skills domain) program structure; however, the weight of the domains has changed. 50% of the courses included in the 2006 program were from subject knowledge and skills domain. While 20%, of all courses were from world knowledge domain and remaining 30% of the courses were from professional knowledge and skills domain (HEC, 2006 as cited in Tekmen, 2017). With the change in 2018, in the new program the percentages of the courses changed as 46%, 35%, and 19% for each domain respectively (Bartan, 2019). Table 13.1 provides the names of the compulsory and elective courses for each domain. During the program, students have to take all compulsory courses and they are responsible for successfully completing the elective courses provided at their own university. During their four-year education, prospective early childhood educators have to complete six elective courses out of 25 courses from the field courses domain, four elective courses out of 12 courses from the general culture domain and six elective courses out of 22 courses from the pedagogical formation domain In total before graduation preservice early childhood educators should complete 59 courses and only 16 of them elective while remaining courses are compulsory in all universities across the country. In the ECTE Program guidebook provided by Higher Education Council (2018), the predetermined content of each compulsory and elective course is presented, and the academic staff member is expected to provide the highlighted content during the course. Having such a structured ECTE program has both positive and negative implications. In Turkey, there are 206 universities in total, of which 129 are state universities and remaining are private universities. A total of 82 universities provide early childhood teacher education programs (18 of them foundation universities, seven out of 18 provide this education in Cyprus and one in Azerbaijan). Having a national and common early childhood teacher education program is a good practice to produce graduates who have study similar courses and to provide quality education for children, which is one of the main aims of national early childhood education (MEB, 2013). That is, there is no risk of having prospective teachers graduating without having studied certain topics in their four-year education. Since all prospective students followed the same program during ECTE, when they enter the field in which they have to implement a national curriculum, they are expected to provide a similar education to children, as well. However, as cited by Birbili and Tsitouridou (2020), Altbach (2011) mentioned that departments’ autonomy leads to academic freedom in higher education. In this way, the academic staff members in the departments are able to provide courses based on their own research interest and their own expertise. This leads to departmental identity in the field (Tourtouras, 2018; as cited Birbili & Tsitouridou, 2020). In Turkey, predetermined compulsory and elective courses with predetermined content seriously limited the academic staff members’ contributions both to the course and the field. The application of a structured common national program is also problematic since the background of the academic staff in each university is very different. Across the Turkey, there are 82 universities with early childhood teacher education departments with approximately 345 academic staff. According to a study conducted by Akda˘g

206

S. U. Cetin

Table 13.1 The courses provided for ECE students Domain

Compulsory

Elective

Field courses

Character and Values Education School adaptation and Early Literacy Early Childhood Education Policies Early Childhood Literature Child Mental Health Early Childhood Environmental Education Learning approaches in early Childhood Understanding and evaluating the child Art Education in Early Childhood Creative Drama in Early Childhood Education Play development and education in Early childhood Music Education in Early Childhood Early Childhood Education Programs Mathematics Education in Early Childhood Science Education in Early Childhood Development and learning in infancy and toddlerhood Child Development Child health and First Aid Introduction to Early childhood education

Family education and involvement Child and Media Behaviour management of the Child Motor development and education of the child Social Ability Development of the Child Traditional child games in ECE Language and Concept Development in Early childhood Sensorial teaching in early childhood Rhythm, Dance and Orff Education in Early childhood Creativity and creative child activities in Early childhood Early childhood education in different countries Education of hospitalized children Disadvantaged children and Education Assessment of in class learning Family and Child in Turkish Family

Pedagogical formation

Introduction to Education Philosophy of Education Sociology of Education Psychology of Education History of Turkish Education Research in Education Instructional Technologies Teaching Methods Assessment and Evaluation in Education Turkish education system and school management Moral and Ethic in Education Classroom Management Practicum 1 Guidance Practicum 2 Special education and inclusion

Open and distance education Child Psychology Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity Law of Education Anthropology of Education History of Education Creative drama in Education Out of program learning activities Curriculum Development in education Project writing in education Critical and Analytical Thinking Inclusive education Comparative Education Micro teaching Museum Education Out-of-school learning environments Learning Disability Individualization of teaching and adaptation Sustainable development and education Adult education and life-long learning (continued)

and Haser (2010), the number of academic staff in more than sixty universities early childhood education department is insufficient. Also, since there are not enough academic staff members that have specialized and completed a Ph.D. in early childhood education, in ECTE programs there are a lot of academic staff members with very different educational backgrounds. In spite of a common and national ECTE program, what is taught during a course is still limited to the academic staff member’s background, knowledge, and his/her interpretations of the topic. That is, the ECTE program depends greatly on the academic staff member’s quality and background

13 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey …

207

Table 13.1 (continued) Domain

Compulsory

Elective

General culture

Ataturk’s principles and history of Turkish revolution 1/2 Foreign Language 1/2 Turkish I/2 Information Technologies Community Service

Turkish Art History Turkish Music Turkish Culture Turkish Sign Language Turkish folk games Art and aesthetic Occupational English Media literacy Culture and Language Carrier Planning and Development Human relations and communication Human rights and Democracy Education Traditional Turkish handicrafts Economy and entrepreneurship Science and research Ethics History and philosophy of science Health and nutrition Addiction and Fight against addiction

while at the same time ignoring his/her research interests and their own expertise. A study conducted by Sahin ¸ et al. (2013) indicated that the perceived quality of the academic staff member influences how the pre-service early childhood educators (PECEs) perceive the effectiveness of the course. That is, courses considered to be the most effective like creative drama or music can be evaluated as the least effective if the PECEs perceive the academic staff member as inadequate. The majority of the courses in the ECTE program depend greatly on theoretical knowledge and there is a lack of practical opportunities. To successfully graduate from the ECTE program, a PECE should complete 148 h of courses, equivalent to 240 AKTS (European Credit Transfer System). Of these 148 h, 134 are made up of theoretical courses while only 14 h of practical courses are provided to the students. Of these 14 h of practical courses, 12 h are for teaching practice and the remaining two hours are for the Community Service course. This is the most highlighted problem in related research. A recent study conducted by Bartan (2019) indicated that prospective early childhood educators (PECE) need more practical opportunities during the courses and they prefer learning by doing. Very similar findings were revealed by Sahin ¸ et al. (2013), in their study with prospective early childhood educators ranked the practical courses in all domains as the most effective while they ranked the theoretical courses of all domains as the least effective. That is, courses that depend on the active involvement of PECEs such as creative drama, music, art, play, and teaching experience, as well as courses that provide practical information for PECEs such as mother–child health and first aid, child development, creativity, and material development were ranked as the most effective. In addition to a lack of practical courses, limited field experience opportunities are another important problem in the ECTE program. Previous studies clearly indicated that PECEs need more opportunities to apply their knowledge (Bartan, 2019; Sahin ¸ et al., 2013). According to Baran et al. (2015), the quality of teaching experience

208

S. U. Cetin

courses is very influential on the quality of PECEs. These courses function as a workshop for the ECTE programs since during these courses PECEs get a chance to apply their theoretical knowledge to teaching practice (Akpınar, et al., 2012). These courses provide insight for PECEs (Porlou, 2017; Acheson & Gall, 1980 as cited by Karasu-Avcı & Ünal-˙Ibret, 2016). During field experience, PECEs are able to understand whether or not they are suitable for this profession and whether or not they like the field and working with children. Particularly, in countries like Turkey where the main criterion for the selection of teacher candidates is exam scores, field experience courses gain more importance for PECEs to evaluate the appropriateness of the field for themselves. In the study by Karasu-Avcı and Ünal-˙Ibret (2016), “providing opportunity to practice, increasing the level of teaching experience, providing opportunity to understand children, improving skills of communicating with children, improving classroom management ability” are reported by PECEs as the main benefits of teaching-practice courses (p. 2524). Unfortunately, in Turkey courses providing field experience for PECEs decreased following teacher education reform. For instance, in 2002, PECEs took four different field experience courses in the second, sixth, seventh, and eighth semesters. Later in the 2006 program, the field observation course taken in the second semester was removed from the program. However, the field experience course provided in the sixth semester was a good chance to observe the field and get familiar with the field and be prepared for further teaching-experience courses. For instance, in their study, De˘girmençay and Kasap (2013) found a moderate correlation between the quality of field experience and teaching-practices courses. This result could be interpreted like this: quality and positive experiences gained during the field experience course lead to better benefits from teaching-experiences courses and therefore, field experience courses are important requirements of teaching-experience courses. Unfortunately, the field experience course taken in the sixth grade was initially moved to the fourth semester and later it was removed from the program entirely with the 2018 renewal. Now, PECEs only have two field experience courses in the seventh and eighth semesters, totally they engage in 24-days (6 h in a day) practicum during their four year education. In other words, a PECE does not see any classroom environment or work with a group of children until his/her fourth grade. This resulted in unqualified practical experiences for student teachers. For instance, in their study Küçükturan and Tekmen (2015) examined pre-service early childhood educators’ daily plans that they prepared for practice and they found that among PECEs there is a misunderstanding about what the child-centered activity means; they are not able to effectively support creativity, they have problems about how to teach concepts and to balancing small group, whole group and individual learning processes. In addition to these PECEs daily plans were found so weak regarding to assessing children and involving parents. This finding is important since this study was conducted in Ankara, the central city of Turkey, and written daily plans of students from the biggest and well-known universities of the country were used as the data in this study. This situation rise a big question about the quality of limited teaching practices courses. The problems with field experience courses have been studied by many researchers (De˘girmençay & Kasap, 2013; Karasu-Avcı & Ünal-˙Ibret, 2016; Kasapo˘glu, 2015;

13 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey …

209

Yıldırım et al., 2019). For instance, in the study by De˘girmençay and Kasap (2013), the participating PECEs reported that the support provided by the faculty, the duration of the practicum, the feedback from the academic staff member, and the level of willingness of the academic staff member to support PECEs during field experiences were insufficient. Similarly, in 2016, Karasu-Avcı and Ünal-˙Ibret studied the same topic and “insufficient support from practice teachers, communication problems with children, insufficient guidance from faculty members, insufficient duration (one day a week)” were found to be the main problems experienced by PECEs during their teaching experiences (p. 2526). Later in 2019, Yıldırım, Özyılmaz-Akamca, Ellez, Karabekmez, and Bulut Üner studied the same issue and “insufficient support from academic staff, academic staff being from a different field, insufficient support from the classroom teacher, and the location of practicum schools” were revealed as the main problems (pp. 308–309). As can be seen, the problems experienced in the field experiences have remained unchanged during the past nine years. As an academic staff member who has provided teaching-experience courses for a long time, I have had the chance to observe many other problems. Here, I have tried to summarize them. • Excessive workload: Since the number of academic staff (three) is limited, in many universities, academic staff have too many theoretical courses to provide. Amid these courses and the effort to conduct academic research, reading PECEs’ teaching-experience reports and visiting practicum classes regularly become drudgery work for academic staff. Before the 2018 renewal, the academic staffto-student ratio for teaching practices courses was about 15:1, which makes it impossible to provide regular feedback, conduct regular observations, or organize visits to practicum classes. After 2018, MEB and YÖK worked together on the teaching-experience processes. To decrease the workload, they fixed the maximum number of students per academic staff member to eight. Although it seems logical, this leads to new problems. For instance, since the number of academic staff in a department is not matched with the need, academic staff members from different departments (in some cases from different faculties) are charged with the teaching-practice courses and eight students have been assigned to those out-off-field staff. Since these academic staff members do not know the process and the requirements of the course, they are unable to provide their students with effective feedback. • Unbalanced adult–child ratio in practicum days: The MEB also limited the number of teachers responsible for the teaching-practice courses in the school. In the past, one teacher in the school was the coordinator teacher and was responsible for all students, yet all the teachers in the practicum school were providing support for the teaching-practice process. That is, in each class of the school, a practicum student was doing their teaching experience. For this process, universities paid a small amount of money to the coordinator teacher and this payment was shared by all the other teachers whose classes had a practicum student. However, with the new regulations, only one teacher becomes responsible for all students and all students have to complete their practicum in this one teacher’s classroom. This application

210

S. U. Cetin

has several disadvantages. First, the education program of the responsible teacher is interrupted since almost every day of the week there is a student–teacher in the class. On some days, particularly in small cities with a limited number of preschools, the number of adults in the class reaches three or four and this adult– child ratio creates problems since the physical conditions of the classrooms are not sufficient for at least 20 children and four or five adults. Second, when the number of practicum students in the class increases the practicum process of the PECEs is interrupted because they are not able to apply their activity plans with children in an effective way. Third, this application decreases the possibility of obtaining sufficient feedback from academic staff members. In the previous version, all PECEs conducted their practicum on the same day in different classes. This made for coherent timing and gave the academic staff member the chance to organize his/her schedule for visit or observation based on the practicum day. However, now, based on PECEs’ and coordinator teacher’s schedules, each PECE conducts his/her practicum on a different day. Although this is the best solution for having a lot of adults in the classroom, this solution makes it impossible for an academic staff member to organize his/her schedule since almost every day there is a student in the practicum preschools. • Inconsistent course requirements: Although YÖK and MEB try to strengthen the structure, no effort has been made to fix the content of the course or the requirements for success. YÖK (2018) explained the expected requirements of the course as follows: Observing field-related teaching methods and techniques, conducting individual or group micro-teaching activities via field-related teaching methods, developing field-related materials and activities; preparing learning environments; managing the class, making assessment, evaluation, and reflection. (YÖK, 2018, p. 11)

As can be seen, this explanation is very open-ended. Each department is able to interpret these requirements in different ways. For instance, the duration of the observation, the number of micro-teaching activities, the structure of the micro-teaching activities, the criteria for evaluating the micro-teaching process are all unclear. Therefore, even in the same department different academic staff members evaluate PECEs based on different criteria and this then leads to unfair and inconsistent evaluations. This situation is valid for almost all courses since there are no standardized or common evaluation strategies used consistently by all academic staff members in the field. Recently, YÖK declared that teacher education programs have a chance to create their own unique teacher education programs. Nowadays, early childhood education programs are working on planning their own unique programs all over the country. To date it is known that only one university begin to apply its own program while some universities complete their draft programs and some of them still in the process of preparing. A group was established through digital communication devices and it includes academic staff of each university in Turkey. In the group, it was decided to share draft programs to decide minimum qualifications which enable candidate

13 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey …

211

teachers to graduate with similar but not identical abilities. Throughout the discussions it is clearly observed that increasing the opportunity for practice in the field is given priority among academic staff; however, since this process is still in progress so there is no information about the effect of this independent program approach.

Evaluation of Prospective Early Childhood Educators in Teacher Education Programs To graduate, prospective early childhood educators (PECEs) have to complete all compulsory and provided elective courses successfully. For the ECTE program, a PECE should complete at least 240 AKTS during their four-year education (YÖK, 2018) and should have at least a 2.00 Grade Point Average out of 4.00. Although these very general rules and requirements are defined by YÖK, there are no specific requirements for the evaluation of PECE in a consistent way in courses. As a result of the lack of standardized evaluations, for the compulsory and elective courses, the candidate teachers are evaluated by the academic staff member who provides the course. For the practicum course, PECEs are evaluated by both the academic staff member and the practicum teacher (Eurydice, 2019). Although faculty members are flexible in choosing their method of evaluation, the most commonly used ways are midterm and final exams and in-class assignments given during the course. This flexibility resulted in subjectivity instead of objectivity in the evaluation of PECEs. That is, the same course given by different academic staff members is evaluated using different criteria. This is the case even for the courses provided in the same department by different members of the academic staff. On the part of academic staff, this freedom is a must; however, on the part of PECEs, this freedom resulted in an unfair effort to complete the same course successfully even in the same department.

Working Opportunities and Conditions of ECTE Graduates There are various working opportunities for graduates of early childhood education departments just as in other countries all around the world. However, in Turkey, the majority of prospective early childhood educators choose this profession because the MEB is still working on compulsory early childhood education and therefore, graduate students have a higher chance of being recruited as teachers in public preschools. Each PECE must take the KPSS exam (public employee selection exam) to be recruited as teachers in public preschools (Tekmen, 2017; Yüce-Toy, 2015). In the first part of the exam, participants answer general culture question and in the second part, which has existed since 2016, they answer field-related questions. Based on a calculated score, these teacher candidates are then interviewed. Teacher candidates who

212

S. U. Cetin

successfully complete the interviews have a chance to be recruited as early childhood educators in public preschools (ECE centers provide services for children between the ages of 36–69 months) or kindergarten classes (ECE classes provided services for five-year-old children one year before compulsory education in elementary school buildings). In the 2017–2018 academic year, 25,688 out of 45,135 early childhood educators worked in the public early childhood education centers (E˘gitim Reformu Giri¸simi, 2018). This means 56% of early childhood educators work in public early childhood education centers as civil servants, while remaining early childhood educators are working in private ECEC centers. However, since there is a high need for early childhood teachers, in August 2019, very few early childhood educators were recruited in public preschools by the government (n = 1,599; MEB, 2019). From 2020, early childhood education for five-year-olds becomes compulsory; therefore, the number of teachers who will be nominated is expected to increase and this is still one of the most important reasons why young people choose the early childhood profession. Whether the KPSS exam is an appropriate, reliable, and adequate way of measuring teaching competencies and qualifications and how it influences the teacher education program are hot topics that are under discussion but there are not any empirical research results about these discussions (Yıldırım, 2013; Yüce Toy, 2015). After early childhood educators are recruited in public preschools, they are known as “candidate teachers” in their first year. At the end of the first year, they enter an interview exam and if they pass, they get the chance to become a teacher. If they fail this exam, they are given a second chance after their second year as a candidate teacher. In Turkey, the competent authorities for identifying the working conditions for teachers are the MEB and YÖK. The MEB is responsible for job definition, in-service education, working conditions, nomination, etc. while YÖK is responsible for planning and coordination (Eurydice, 2019). In Turkey, there are different laws and regulations that determine teachers’ working conditions. Initially, all teachers are subject to general laws (The Law of Civil Servants and The Law of Social Security Institution) relating to their occupational status, working times and holidays, salary and retirement conditions. In addition to these, there are some specific laws and regulations that determine teachers’ job definitions, occupational development, working times, holidays, and in-service training, etc. for teachers. This specific law is called the Basic Law of National Education (Eurydice, 2019). Based on these laws, early childhood educators have to work 180 working days in a year. Early childhood teachers are responsible for working 30 h a week; 18 h/week to get their salary and 12 h for overtime (Eurydice, 2019). During summer, early childhood teachers have the right to two months’ uninterrupted holiday. This is in addition to weekends and public holidays (Eurydice, 2019). However, all these conditions are valid only for early childhood educators working in the public sector. Unfortunately, working conditions are very different for early childhood educators working in the private sector. Although there are no available reports or research findings concerning their working conditions, it is known that there is a huge gap in working hours, salary, working conditions, employee personal rights, etc. between public and private sector ECE teachers.

13 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey …

213

Summary The early childhood teacher education program applied in Turkey is the focus of this paper. In this chapter, the history of teacher education in Turkey, the current early childhood teacher education program and general information about being selected as a prospective early childhood educator, evaluation of PECEs in the program, information on academic staff and working conditions after graduation are briefly explained in different sections. In each section, the problems experienced in the related issue were explained based on the research. The following section provides a summary: • Teacher education was considered an important issue throughout history. Many different teacher education programs have been applied effectively. The Village Institutes project was one of them and it is still a hot topic in the education and teacher education fields. • In Turkey, YÖK is the main government agency responsible for teacher education. However, the MEB is one of the main stakeholders for YÖK during the educating of teachers. The MEB is the government agency that determines teacher qualifications while YÖK organizes teacher education programs based on these expected teacher qualifications; teaching-practice courses are the shared responsibility of education faculty members and teachers in the preschools, i.e. the MEB and YÖK. Therefore, the responsibility for teacher education in Turkey is shared by the MEB and YÖK. • There is a national, common early childhood teacher education program applied in Turkey. That is, all early childhood teacher education programs should follow the same common teacher education program. They have to provide the same compulsory courses and choose among elective courses that are provided and defined by YÖK in the program. • To graduate successfully from an early childhood teacher education program, PECEs should have at least 240 AKTS, should have at least a 2.00 GPA out of 4.00, and they have to complete their teaching-experience courses successfully. • After graduation through entering a three-step exam (a General culture test, a field-knowledge exam, and an interview), PECEs can be nominated as “candidate teachers” in public preschools and kindergarten classes. These teachers can become tenured on successful completion of written and oral exams at the end of a one-year probationary period • In Turkey, 82 out of 206 universities provide an early childhood teacher education program. According to the 2019 statistics, throughout the country, there are 47 professors, 50 associate professors, and 249 assistant professors in the field. In 2019 alone, 5,153 freshmen registered in early childhood teacher education departments. There are 20,612 prospective early childhood educators in total and in August 2019, only 1,599 graduated early childhood educators were assigned to public preschools (either independent preschools or kindergarten classes). Main problems of the Turkish early childhood teacher education system:

214

S. U. Cetin

• Although teacher effectiveness is influenced by having a Bachelor’s degree, the main issue that guarantees teacher competence is the quality of the early childhood teacher program from which the teacher graduated (Hyson et al., 2009). Therefore, it is necessary to know about the quality level of ECTE programs. However, in Turkey, there is neither data on the quality of the early childhood teacher education programs, nor a consensus on the quality indicators. Despite the teacher qualifications identified by the MEB and the quality standards of NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children) for ECTE, there are no available studies or reports indicating to what extent early childhood teacher education programs qualified their graduates with those teacher qualifications or met the standards of NAEYC. • In countries like South Korea or Finland, high standards are set for preservice teachers’ entrance to the teacher education programs and this increases the quality of teacher education programs and the graduated teachers (Wang & Huang, 2016). However, in Turkey, there are no criteria for entrance to ECTE programs. Students enter the program based on the scores in the university entrance exam. Teacher dispositions are not taken into account during selection. This may result in low quality among students. • Opportunities for teaching experiences are one of the main issues highlighted by almost all previous research. Those studies have indicated that there are serious problems relating to support from the faculty staff, support from the teachers in the preschools, guidance provided during field experiences, attitudes of teachers in the preschools, duration of field experiences, etc. Unfortunately, instead of increasing the quality, reforms to the program have reduced the number of field experience courses, reduced early childhood educators’ individual opportunities to apply their plans in the practicum classes, and reduced the possibility of gathering sufficient and effective feedback from academic staff members. • In addition to teaching practices, previous studies consistently indicated that prospective early childhood educators wish to have courses that are more practical. However, the new program still includes more theoretical courses and even diminished or removed the practical parts of some courses • Even though there is a national and common program applied in all ECTE programs, there is a lack of standardization on how students should be evaluated in this program. Midterm and final exams are widely used to evaluate PECEs, yet each course can include a variety of evaluation techniques based on the academic staff member’s experience and preferences. However, this might create unfairness among students.

References Abazo˘glu, ˙I, Yıldırım, O., & Yıldızhan, Y. (2016). Teacher training in Turkish educational system from past to present. International Journal of Turkish Education Sciences, 4(6), 144–160.

13 Early Childhood Teacher Education in Turkey …

215

Akdag, Z., & Haser, C. (2010). Beginning early childhood education teachers’ problems in Turkey. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 884–889. Akpinar, M., Çolak, K., & Yi˘git, Ö. (2012). Ö˘gretmenlik uygulaması dersi kapsamında sosyal bilgiler ö˘gretmen adaylarının yeterliliklerine yönelik uygulama ö˘gretmenlerinin görü¸sleri. Marmara Üniversitesi Atatürk E˘gitim Fakültesi E˘gitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 36, 41–67. Altunya, N. (1998). Türkiye’de ö˘gretmen örgütlenmesi (1908–1998). Ürün Yayınları. Altunya N. (2002). Köy Enstitüsü: Dü¸sünsel temelleri. Uygun Basım. Baran, M., Ya¸sar, S, ¸ & Maskan, A. (2015). Fizik ö˘gretmen adaylarının ö˘gretmenlik uygulaması dersine yönelik görü¸slerinin de˘gerlendirilmesi. Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp E˘gitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 26, 230–248. Bartan, M. (2019). Okul Öncesi Ö˘gretmen ve Ö˘gretmen Adaylarının Okul Öncesi Ö˘gretmen Yeti¸stirme Lisans Programı Hakkında Görü¸s ve Önerileri. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi E˘gitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 3(1), 24–36. Birbili, M., & Tsitouridou, M. (2020). Early childhood teacher education in Greece. In S. Garvis & S. Phillipson (Eds.), Policification of early childhood education: Early childhood education in the 21st century Vol: III (pp. 101–117). Routledge. Bulut, ˙I. (2009). Ö˘gretmen adaylarının ö˘gretmenlik mesle˘gine ili¸skin tutumlarının de˘gerlendirilmesi (Dicle ve Fırat Üniversitesi örne˘gi). Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp E˘gitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 14, 13–24. De˘girmençay, S, ¸ & Kasap, G. (2013). Okul Deneyimi ve Ö˘gretmenlik Uygulaması Derslerine ˙Ili¸skin Ö˘gretmen Adaylarının Görü¸sleri. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi E˘gitim Fakültesi E˘gitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(2), 47–57. ˙ E˘gitim Reformu Giri¸simi. (2018). E˘gitim Izleme Raporu 2017/18: Ö˘gretmenler. http://www.egitim reformugirisimi.org/wpcontent/uploads/2017/03/Ogretmenler.22.11.18.df Eret-Orhan, E., Ok, A., & Capa-Aydin, Y. (2018). We train, but what do they think? Preservice teachers’ perceptions of the adequacy of their teacher education in Turkey. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 46(2), 183–198. Eskicumalı, A. (2002). E˘gitim, ö˘gretim ve ö˘gretmenlik mesle˘gi. In Y. Özden (Ed.), Ö˘gretmenlik Mesle˘gine Giri¸s. Pegem Yayıncılık. Eurydice. (2019). Teachers and education staff . https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eur ydice/content/teachers-and-educationstaff-99_en Gazalcı, M. (2018). Köy enstitülerinin kapatılması, Atatürkçü Dü¸sünce Derne˘gi. https://add.org.tr/ koy-enstitulerinin-kapatilmasi/ Gürkan, S. (2012). A historical overview of foreign language teacher education in Turkey. http://aka demikpersonel.kocaeli.edu.tr/serkan.gurkan/bildiri/serkan.gurkan17.01.2017_13.3.49bildiri.pdf Hacettepe Üniversitesi E˘gitim Fakültesi. (2017). Türkiye’de Ö˘gretmen e˘gitimi ve istihdamı: Mevcut durum ve öneriler. http://www.egitim.hacettepe.edu.tr/belge/OgretmenEgitimi-istihdam_Rap oru.pdf Hyson, M., Tomlinson, H., & Morris, C. (2009). Quality improvement in early childhood teacher education: Faculty perspectives and recommendations for the future. NAEYC. Karaömerlioglu, M. A. (1998). The village institutes experience in Turkey. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 25(1), 47–73. Karasu-Avcı, E., & Ünal-˙Ibret, B. (2016). Evaluation of teacher candidates’ views regarding to teaching practice-II. Kastamonu E˘gitim Dergisi, 24(5), 2519–2536. Kasapo˘glu, K. (2015). Review of studies on school experience and practice teaching in Turkey. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 30(1), 147–162. Küçükturan, G., & Tekmen, B. (2015). The bridge between theory and practice. In M. Carmo (Ed.), Education applications and developments (pp. 83–92). inScience Press. Milli E˘gitim Bakanlı˘gı [MEB]. (2017). Ogretmen yeterlilikleri kitabı [Teacher competencies booklet]. https://oygm.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2017_12/11115355_YYRETMENLYK_ MESLEYY_GENEL_YETERLYKLERY.pdf Milli E˘gitim Bakanlı˘gı [MEB]. (2013). Okul öncesi e˘gitim programı. Ankara. http://tegm.meb.gov. tr/dosya/okuloncesi/ooproram.pdf adresinden

216

S. U. Cetin

Milli E˘gitim Bakanlı˘gı [MEB]. (2019). 20 bin ö˘gretmen daha e˘gitim ailesine katıldı. https://www. meb.gov.tr/20-bin-ogretmen-daha-egitim-ailesine-katildi/haber/19148/tr Measuring, Selection, and Placement Center [ÖSYM]. (2019). Yüksekö˘gretim Kurumları Sınavı, Yüksekö˘gretim Programları ve Kontenjanları Klavuzu. https://dokuman.osym.gov.tr/pdfdok uman/2019/YKS/kontkilavuz_18072019.pdf Sahin, ¸ Ç., Kartal, O. Y., & ˙Imamo˘glu, A. (2013). Okul öncesi ö˘gretmen yeti¸stirme programı hakkında okul öncesi ö˘gretmen adaylarının görü¸sleri. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kır¸sehir E˘gitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), 14(1), 101–118. Taner-Derman, M., & Ba¸sal, H. A. (2010). Qualitative and quantitative developments and evaluations in preschool between the foundation of the republic and today. The Journal of International Social Research, 3(11), 560–569. Tekmen, B. (2017). Preschool teacher education as an example of an open social system. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 12(2), 81–90. Ubuz, B., & Sarı, S. (2008). Sınıf ö˘gretmeni adaylarının ö˘gretmenlik mesle˘gini seçme nedenleri. Pamukkale Üniversitesi E˘gitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24, 113–119. Uygun, S. (2010). Historical analysis of some applications relevant to the selection of teacher candidates in Turkey. Gazi E˘gitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 30(3), 707–730. Wang, H. H., & Huang, C. C. (2016). Those who can, teach: The academic quality of preservice students in teacher education programmes in Taiwan. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 44(1), 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2014.987722 Yıldırım, A. (2013). Teacher education research in Turkey: Trends, ıssues and priority areas. Education and Science, 38(169), 175–191. Yıldırım, R. G., Özyılmaz, A. G., Ellez, A. M., Karabekmez, S., & Bulut Üner, A. N. (2019). Okul öncesi ö˘gretmen adaylarının okul deneyimi ve ö˘gretmenlik uygulaması derslerine ili¸skin görü¸slerinin incelenmesi. Yüksekö˘gretim Ve Bilim Dergisi/journal of Higher Education and Science, 9(2), 306–316. https://doi.org/10.5961/jhes.2019.332 Yücel-Toy, B. (2015). Thematic review of preservice teacher education in Turkey and reflection of teacher education policies. Education and Science, 40(178), 23–60. Yüksek Ö˘gretim Kurumu [Higher Education Council, YÖK]. (2018). ECTE program guidebook. https://www.yok.gov.tr/Documents/Kurumsal/egitim_ogretim_dairesi/Yeni-Ogretm enYetistirme-Lisans-Programlari/Okul_Oncesi_Ogretmenligi_Lisans_Programi.pdf

Senil ¸ Ünlü Çetin, graduated from the Department of Early Childhood Education at METU and completed her M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in the same university on father involvement, now works at Kırıkkale University as an Assistant Professor. Her research interest includes parent involvement, particularly father involvement, along with music in early years, outdoor education and infant– toddler education.

Chapter 14

Early Childhood Teachers and Teaching in the UK Catherine Carroll-Meehan

Abstract The United Kingdom is comprised of four countries, each country has its own approach to training teachers. The chapter will outline the policy landscape for teacher training, professional organisations and the challenges faced in the recruitment and retention of teachers. One of the main challenges is around the status of teachers of very young children and the variation that exists between the four countries. England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales each have their own curriculum for children in the first 8 years of life and this will be explored in setting the scene for the teacher training and retention context. The role of Ofsted will also be discussed in the England and Wales context and in particular the framework used to judge not only the quality of provision in schools and settings, but also Universities and other teacher training providers. Teacher training now happens in private and co-operative, school based settings as well as Universities in the UK, which brings in a new set of challenges in the continued marketisation of higher education and education in general.

Introduction Teacher education in the United Kingdom is complex. Part of this complexity is due to the nature of the Union. One of the misconceptions internationally is the use of the words English, British and UK simultaneously. All of these terms are used but homogeneity is not possible when describing public policy in the UK. It is within this backdrop that the current policies for early childhood teacher education outlined in this chapter. The variety of stakeholders explored, alongside current research and foci of teacher education programmes. This chapter will provide critical contextual information about the United Kingdom as well as useful links for readers enabling further exploration of policy and practice in teacher education in the UK. Education as a function of society is inherently political. This is particularly the case in the United Kingdom. Devolved governments in Northern Ireland, Scotland C. Carroll-Meehan (B) University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_14

217

218

C. Carroll-Meehan

and Wales have been a mechanism for each nation to ask the question: what education is for in our country and how our education system will meet the needs of our people and context. This questioning has been most noticeable in Scotland with an attempt at Independence with an unsuccessful referendum in Scotland in 2014. The rise of nationalism in Wales and Northern Ireland has increased recently. The General Election in December 2019, saw this pattern reinforced in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland all seeing a rise in votes for national parties rather than the Conservatives or Labour. The education of the youngest children is also contentious. There is a gap between the rhetoric of ‘investing in children’ and the quality of education and the value placed on those who work with the youngest children. This chapter will highlight the continued gap between care and education and in each country. There is a clear demarcation in the working conditions for those who work with children from birth to three are treated in comparison with those who work with children in ‘formal’ schooling years.

A Snapshot of the United Kingdom: The Context The United Kingdom has a long history in the world because of the past and the legacy of the British Empire. Two small islands in the north sea has produced a language, traditions, bureaucracy, form of government, political system and democracy, and culture that was spread to the ‘four corners’ of the world. The might of the British Empire has decreased over the twentieth and twenty-first centuries as conquered states sought independence but in many countries around the world, formerly British colonies the legacy remains. Currently, the United Kingdom comprises of four nations and a collection of territories around the world. This chapter will focus on the four nations with regard to contemporary British teacher education context. The United Kingdom consists of four nations: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There is significant tensions in Norther Ireland, Scotland and increasingly in Wales about the Westminster and London based governance of the four nations. There has been significant devolution of powers to assemblies in Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland over the past 50 years, with education being one area that each country has developed its own approach to the curriculum and consequently the training of teachers. The recent ‘Brexit’ debates have the potential to end the union with the Britain becoming the “United Kingdom”; rather than a united kingdom. Scotland is leading the way with calls for a referendum for independence to remain in Europe and recent rise of nationalism in Northern Ireland and Wales who are likely to move in the same direction. Teacher training in each constituent country, overseen by a department of education or relevant agency named differently in each country. The next section explains the current policy related to teacher education.

14 Early Childhood Teachers and Teaching in the UK

219

Current Policies for Early Childhood Education and Care Teacher Education in the United Kingdom The current policy and practice context for each of the four countries presented below. Although there are some similarities, the section highlights the national policy divergences.

England This section will outline the current state of play in England with regard to the education system, stages, curriculum, age focus of the teacher training, teacher training options, registration agencies/bodies and how they work with other stakeholders including the monitoring of quality and school effectiveness. There are separate training courses for teachers that differ depending on the age or phase they will work with. For example, the Early Years Initial Teacher Training is for specialists working with children from birth to five years. There is a separate Initial Teacher Training path for Primary, Secondary and post 16 year provision. The Department for Education administers education in England and relies on the other agencies such as Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted) and the Teacher Regulation Agency to monitor quality of education and teachers. The curriculum and qualification type varies for children under 5 years and from 5 to 7 years in England. For children from birth to 5 years, the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) curriculum details the statutory requirements for children’s learning and development during this period. The EYFS is delivered by childminders (home based care settings), childcare settings (private and community run settings) and in nurseries and reception classes attached to schools. The highest qualification for a teacher delivering the EYFS is the Early Years Teacher Status awarded to a person with a 3-year Bachelor’s degree, usually with Honours. For children from 5 years, the National Curriculum and Key Stage 1 provides the framework for learning in the core curriculum subjects. The qualification for teaching in schools is a 3-year Bachelor’s degree with Honours or a Post Graduate Certificate in education (PGCE) with Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). The qualification and qualified status vary for the under and over 5 year olds in England. For example, Early Years teachers who will specialise in delivering the Early Years Foundation Stage curriculum. Early Years teachers are qualified to teach in any phase of education and can teach up, however teachers with QTS or QTLS cannot teach in the Early Years because they do not have the birth to five specialist knowledge. Table 14.1 below highlights the subtle differences between QTS (Department for Education, 2019a, b, c) and EYTS (Department for Education, 2019a, b, c) that unfortunately lead to the perpetuation of poor status and lower

220

C. Carroll-Meehan

Table 14.1 Teachers’ standards: QTS versus EYTS Qualified Teacher Status—teachers standards

Early Years Teacher Status—teachers standards (early years)

Part 1: Teaching All teachers must

All Early Years Teachers must

Set high expectations which inspire, motivate and challenge pupils

Set high expectations which inspire, motivate and challenge all children

Promote good progress and outcomes by pupils Promote good progress and outcomes by children Demonstrate good subject and curriculum knowledge

Demonstrate good knowledge of early learning and EYFS

Plan and teach well-structured lessons

Plan education and care taking account of the needs of all children

Adapt teaching to respond to the strengths and Adapt education and care to respond to the needs of all pupils strengths and needs of all children Make accurate and productive use of assessment

Make accurate and productive use of assessment

Manage behaviour effectively to ensure a good Safeguard and promote the welfare of children, and safe learning environment and provide a safe learning environment Fulfil wider professional responsibilities

Fulfil wider professional responsibilities

Part 2: Personal and Professional Conduct A statement of expected acceptable behaviours expected of a teacher

income for Early Years teachers, presenting a continued challenge to the recruitment of the best teachers to work with the youngest children. The differences between the two sets of standards are subtly different. The historical context of schooling and childcare provision that leads to separate employment conditions. The perceptions about value aligned with the education and care debates internationally exemplified in the different statuses for teachers of children under and over five years. In 2013, the government attempted to rectify this by formally changing the Early Years Professional Status to Early Years Teacher Status, but no material changes made to the pay and conditions. Teachers with EYTS can be paid £5000 per annum less than teachers with QTS. There are no national payscales for teachers with EYTS as employers determine how much to pay, by contrast teachers with QTS have national payscales agreed with Unions. In an effort to raise attainment in schools across the UK, Teach First based on Teach for America established to train top graduates from universities who would train as teachers from a range of disciplinary backgrounds. The trainees work in inner city schools in London and other urban areas to try to improve the standards of teaching and outcomes for children from the most deprived backgrounds. One of the aims from the programme that these teachers would work in schools for a few years with some stating in education and in leadership positions whilst others would go back to their original career paths in finance, banking, civil service or engineering

14 Early Childhood Teachers and Teaching in the UK

221

and IT (Teach First, 2019). In 2013, Teach First extended their programme to include Early Years and they work with the EYFS in Reception classes in school. The aims of Teach First are to improve schools through better teachers and school leaders. As the programme has evolved, and the impact realised, Teach First in partnership with selected University providers, trains teachers across all regions in England and now includes Primary and Early Years in addition to the original secondary training programme. Following a rigorous Assessment Centre style selection process, the TF trainees commence their two-year training programme with a Summer School in their region that is intensive and prepares them for their first teaching position in a school. Initially, the trainee assigned to an experienced school based mentor and undertakes a 60% workload, building up to an 80% teaching workload during the first half of the year. The trainees attend training days alongside their work in schools and by the end of the first year, they have achieved Qualified Teacher Status By the end of the second year, trainees will have achieved their Newly Qualified Teacher (NQT) programme alongside a Post-Graduate Diploma in Education and Leadership (Teach First, 2019). School Centred Initial Teacher Training (SCITT) hubs can award Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). If they wish to confer an academic award such as a Bachelor’s degree or a PGCE, they must work in collaboration with a Higher Education (HE) provider (such as a University) (Department for Education, 2019a, b, c). Teaching School Alliances aim to lead school improvement, by the expertise of schools, school leaders and teachers training and delivering CPD for trainees and newly qualified teachers. Teaching School alliances can award QTS but like SCITTs to confer any other type of academic award, must collaborate with a HE provider (Department for Education, 2019a, b, c). In 2018, a government policy change saw the introduction of Postgraduate Teaching Apprenticeships. Employers have led the Teacher Standards and design of the course. This model of teacher training uses both school-based learning alongside academic studies where trainees learn how to be a teacher ‘on the job’ and are paid a salary during their training programme (20% time allowance) to achieve QTS and undertake ‘end-point assessment’ (Department for Education, 2019a, b, c). School Direct, the salaried route, provides an alternative route to ‘earn and learn’ to become a qualified teacher. Trainees employed directly by their school, and subject to a role, maybe employed beyond their training period (Department for Education, 2019a, b, c). This a recognised teacher training route for early childhood teachers. There is no current requirement in England for teachers to be registered. Teaching qualification conferred with the Qualified Teacher status awarded by the Department for Education (DfE) on the completion of a process by which the trainee demonstrated through their practice, that they have met the standards outlined above. Previously in England, the General Teaching Council kept a register of all teachers. This council disbanded in 2012 and replaced by the Teaching Agency. The Teaching Agency subsequently replaced by the Teacher Regulation Agency (England) (2019). The Teacher Regulation Agency monitors and manages the database of qualified teachers (confirmed by the DfE) and undertakes misconduct hearings. The Chartered College of Teaching, recently renamed replacing the College of Teachers has had a Royal

222

C. Carroll-Meehan

Charter since the 1800s. This is a recently revived professional association for teacher professional development and advocacy. For more information about the Chartered College: https://chartered.college/. Ofsted (2019) inspects and regulates all educational settings from early childhood settings including home based childminders and PVI settings, to schools, colleges for further education, training institutions such as the Armed Forces and Universities delivering apprenticeships and teacher training. Some independent schools are inspected, but not all. Ofsted also inspects and regulates social care settings for children and young people, including residential and non-residential care homes and youth services. Ofsted has three main aims in England; these include inspection, regulation and reporting. The reporting function is published and widely by parents/families and the community to make judgements about the quality of the provision. A new education inspection framework introduced in 2019, which changed the nature and focus of future inspections. Settings are rated Outstanding, Good, Requires Improvement or Inadequate following an inspection.

Northern Ireland This section will outline the current state of play in Northern Ireland with regard to the education system, stages, curriculum, age focus of the teacher training, teacher training options, registration agencies/bodies and how they work with other stakeholders including the monitoring of quality and school effectiveness. Schooling stages in Northern Ireland differ from England. The Department of Education, Northern Ireland administers the education systems through the Education Authority. The Curriculum for children under four in Northern Ireland is Curricula Guidance for Preschool Education and is relevant for all early childhood settings including home based services with funded settings (Council for Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment, 2019). Generally, the qualifications accepted for working with children of this age group include: NVQ level four in Early Years Care and Education, BA (Hons) Early Childhood Studies, HND in Early Childhood Studies and a Foundation Degree in Early Years. None of these qualifications considered a ‘teaching qualification’. By contrast, the Foundation Stage for children from 4–5 through to 6 years are taught with the Northern Ireland Curriculum Primary by a teacher with a Four year Bachelor’s degree or one year PGCE and registration with General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland (GTCNI). On completion of studies, trainee teachers apply to the General Teaching Council Northern Ireland (GTCNI) for registration (2019). The GTCNI maintains a list of all registered teachers in Northern Ireland. It is a requirement that all teachers working in the state system are registered with approved qualification, The GTCNI provide a regulatory function and oversee the standards of conduct required for teachers.

14 Early Childhood Teachers and Teaching in the UK

223

The Ofsted equivalent in Northern Ireland is the Education and Training Inspectorate (ETINI, 2019). In addition to inspection and reporting functions, the Inspectorate are keen to advocate good practice and the tone and content of the website is very different from their English counterparts with a focus on improving practice rather than inspection.

Scotland This section will outline the current state of play in Scotland with regard to the education system, stages, age focus of the teacher training, curriculum, teacher training options, registration agencies/bodies and how they work with other stakeholders including the monitoring of quality and school effectiveness. The training of teachers in Scotland differs again from both England and Northern Ireland. Scotland’s education system (3–18 years) administered by Education Scotland and Pre-birth to three year provision is overseen by the Scottish Social Care Council. The Scottish government is the most progressive of the four nations in terms of its legislation and policy related to early childhood. “Early Learning and Childcare” forms part of the Children and Young People (Scotland) Act 2014 with 600 h free care and education for 3–5 years old children with some eligible two year olds accessing the same level of free provision. There will be a further increase in 2020 to 1140 h free childcare. “Pre-birth to 3: Positive outcomes for Scotland’s Children and Families” is the curriculum guidance for those teachers working with children from birth to three years. This curriculum delivered in playgroups, childcare settings and home based care. The person delivering and leading the curriculum holds a three-year Bachelor’s degree, typically in Childhood Practice. The Scottish national curriculum, “Curriculum for Excellence” covers children from three to six years in Nursery and Primary. A qualified teacher with a four-year undergraduate course in education, or Undergraduate course and then a one-year Post Graduate Diploma in Education delivers the curriculum for three to six year olds in nurseries, state funded and independent schools (Education Scotland 2019a, b, c, d). Alongside teacher training opportunities, at most Scotland’s universities there are an increasing number of more flexible options available to those wishing to train as a teacher. For example, the University of Aberdeen offers a distance PGDE for graduates and local authorities (LA) have a programme for staff to train to be primary teachers for those already in employment with the LA. Like all other countries in the UK, the University based teacher training curriculum includes professional practice with placements in nurseries and schools, modules of study related to core curriculum and academic studies about teaching and learning and professionalism. For those planning to work within Early Years, a focus on contextualised child development and play based and child centred pedagogies is part of the core curriculum and professional development.

224

C. Carroll-Meehan

Once trainees complete their studies, they are required to seek registration. For those training to work with children from birth to three, the Scottish Social Services Council (2019) is the regulatory body for early childhood practitioner qualifications. Practitioners need to maintain a fitness to practice with a clear process outlined for situations that may mean the practitioner considered no longer fit to work with young children due to safeguarding or criminal behaviour. The General Teaching Council for Scotland (2019) requires the registration of all teachers in Scotland in order to teach. This is a legal and statutory requirement to teach in a state school. The GTC in Scotland is a mechanism for employers and parents to have a level of confidence in the teacher’s qualification, and fitness to teach in schools having met the national standards required for teaching. An assessment process post-qualification ensures that suitably qualified individuals are registered. Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Education (Education Scotland) (2019) is the Scottish equivalent of Ofsted. They carry out the same function of counterparts in the other nations to review and inspect in an effort to pursue school improvement and improve educational outcomes. The Inspectorate cover all phases of education and care and this includes all early years’ provision in home based and centre based settings.

Wales Of all the education systems in the UK, Wales is the most similar to England. There are a number of reasons for this, primarily; Wales was the last of the other nations to gain devolved responsibility for Education in comparison to Scotland and Northern Ireland. For 2022, the Welsh Government (2019a, b) has recently announced some radical curriculum reforms for Wales that see them take a further step away from England and the history. The future oriented curriculum and education system took its first steps in 2019 with the introduction of new Welsh Teacher Standards that look and feel very different from England’s approach. There are two distinct phases in early childhood education and care provision in Wales. For children from birth to three, there is no compulsory require a curriculum to be delivered. The “Flying Start initiative” is relevant to playgroups, childcare settings and home based carers. This initiative is distinctive in Wales for children from birth to three care and education provision and 3+ education. Flying Start initiative provides targeted support for children and their families. These services include: • part-time childcare for 2–3 year olds • an enhanced Health Visiting service • access to parenting programmes (Welsh Government, 2019a, b). Professionals with an NVQ3 qualification deliver the Flying Start initiative. The foundation phase covers children from for 3–7 year old children is the beginning of compulsory schooling for 4–5 years olds in Wales. A teacher holding Welsh QTS is responsible for the delivery of the curriculum and monitoring the learning

14 Early Childhood Teachers and Teaching in the UK

225

and progress of children for 3–5 year olds. A bilingual curriculum (Welsh/English) is introduced from year one by a teacher holding Welsh QTS, a Bachelor’s degree with Honours or PGCE. The Higher Education Funding Council for Wales (HEFCW) (2019) oversees the funding of teachers in Wales. There is a recruitment drive currently in Wales to attract trainee teachers to meet shortages and to deal with some of the social and economically challenged communities in Wales. Wales unlike the other three nations has some specific challenges in their bilingual nation, with Welsh and English being taught in Schools and particular challenges related to unemployment (highest of the four nations) and poverty in the mostly rural population. Poverty in Wales is higher than any other part of the UK, with 1 in 3 children living in households at or below 60% of median income and 14% living in severe poverty (Poverty & Social Exclusion, 2014). The Education Workforce Council is the regulatory body that oversees teachers in Wales. The Council outlines the requirements for Universities training teachers, including the programme structure, roles and responsibilities of Universities and Schools and ensures that the programme learning outcomes aligned to the Welsh Government professional standards for teaching and leadership and the achievement of the award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). These requirements apply to early childhood teachers in the compulsory years of schooling. Those professionals working with children from birth to four excluded from these requirements. Six values and dispositions underpin the Welsh Teachers Standards, including Welsh Language and Culture, Rights of Learners, Literacy, Numeracy and Digital Competence, Professional Learner, Professional Entitlement, and System Role. There are five standards pedagogy, collaboration, professional learning, leadership and innovation. The pedagogy (learning and teaching) is the most important standard as it underpins the framework. The other standards viewed as enablers to pedagogy. Teachers are encouraged through the standards to continue to engage in professional learning, collaborate with others, innovate and lead in order to maximise learning and teaching practices that make a difference for children’s life chances (Education Workforce Council, 2019). Estyn is the Welsh name for Ofsted, Her Majesty’s Schools Inspectorate. It has the same functions as counterparts in all other countries of the UK (ESTYN, 2019).

Research on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the UK Research undertaken in the UK (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) about teacher education, teachers and their work is varied and widespread. The key themes from a systematic review of the literature since 2015 related to teacher education, teachers and specifically related to the training of Early Childhood/Early Years. Politics and comparative policy feature significantly in the recent research about teacher education. Namely, the impact of devolution. For example, Beauchamp et al

226

C. Carroll-Meehan

(2015) consider the policy convergences and divergences post-devolution. They highlighted the four countries approaches to teacher education policy in general, drawing comparisons between the way in which teacher standards and competencies described and the underpinning discourses. They comment specifically about the way in which most of the countries vary to the extent that research used to underpin policy and ultimately practice in schools. Similarly, Furlong and Lunt (2016) consider the aftermath of Scotland’s attempt to become independent following a referendum and the way in which Scottish approaches to education will continue to diverge further from the rest of the UK. Menter (2017) considered the impact of devolution in terms of the diversity of approaches to teacher education and professional development for teachers, in particular the differing timescales of devolution means that some countries have had longer conversations about what education policy and what this means for the training of teachers for longer than others. Subject specific research also features heavily in the systematic review. A significant focus in the research include the debates about the teaching of synthetic phonics to improve children’s performance in school through to early numeracy. An focus in the review is around what constitutes a high quality affective and physical environment for learning. This was also evident in the trainee teacher curriculum in University courses. For example, consideration about learning environments and specifically the opportunity for children to learn in the outdoors. Bilton and Walters (2016) advocate for learning outside champion the importance of outdoor learning environments that have not been a traditional part of early childhood education and care in the UK, due to the limitations the ‘weather’ has placed on teachers’ decisionmaking about children’s safety and wellbeing. There has been a considerable shift in recent years with a resurgence of outdoor learning, not seen since the McMillan sisters in the early 1900s of Forest School thanks to northern European neighbours and the ECEC practice in Scandinavian countries. Page (2017) challenges the ‘care’ notions in early childhood by describing and challenging approaches to learning and teaching for children under three years of age, exploring the notion of professional love. In an era of what some may describe as ‘sterile care’ in an effort to ‘safeguard’ children from inappropriate adult behaviour, Page challenges the notion that a form of professional love is paramount to high quality learning and pedagogy in the early years. Linked to this issue is the development of the professionals and teachers working with young children. CampbellBarr (2017) considers the attitudes and dispositions of early childhood professionals towards professional development. The early childhood workforce across the UK is synonymous with lower pay and working conditions when compared with teachers of other phases of education. This continued state of affairs reinforces the female dominated workforce and the ‘care’ narrative. Further research in this area is welcome to make a link between the professionalization of the early years and pedagogical leadership. The New Leaders in Early Years pilot project, attempted to develop a sustainable model of leadership that would enable early childhood education and care professionals to appreciate their value and begin to advocate and lobby for improved status and conditions. The Sustainable Early Childhood Leadership model included

14 Early Childhood Teachers and Teaching in the UK

227

four domains. These include specialist knowledge (specific skills, attributes, qualities and experience), professional knowledge, recognition and status, and qualifications. When combined, these four elements create leaders who can provide quality opportunities and outcomes for children (Carroll-Meehan et al., 2017). The biggest challenge across all four countries of the UK is poverty and the increasing numbers of children living in poverty, between 30 and 40%, depending on where children live. The early years of life is a critical period in reducing the long-term impacts of poverty. Intergenerational poverty in the UK is at its highest rate in modern times and education is a means for reducing lifelong impact on life chances, poor health and wellbeing. Education is a social, political and economic tool that creates an opportunity to transform individuals and to enable social mobility. One of the challenges identified in the research is engaging parents and families in early childhood education and care. For many parents living in poverty, their own experience of education and the social care system was not positive and this prevents a barrier for their engagement. Many programmes that exist seek to improve parent and teacher relationships in order to support children learning (Welsh Government, 2019a, b). The curriculum for the training of teachers includes the trainees understanding the complexity of family and society and the key challenges faced in their professional roles. Meehan and Meehan (2017) surveyed trainee teachers about their perceptions about parents. This research indicated that trainee teachers had fixed attitudes about what constitutes a ‘good’ and ‘bad’ parent and the barriers that the trainees perceived to impact on future practice. This research highlighted some implications for the training of teachers. Namely, that a genuine attempt to improve children’s education is predicated on high quality home and school partnerships. Therefore, early childhood teacher education programmes needed to create a space for students to be able to recognise their own values and attitudes towards parents and the barriers that they create between themselves and prospective parents and families of the children they will teach.

Summary This chapter has presented a comprehensive overview of the training and education of early childhood teachers and issues related to the specific context of the United Kingdom and the four constituent countries of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. It highlights the political nature of education and how education policy and the training of teachers. The biggest challenge for the training of early childhood teachers in the UK is to take a lead from what is happening in Wales for example. The Welsh Teachers’ Standards are broad and seek to challenge the status quo and encourage teachers to develop professionally by innovating and collaborating in order to meet the challenges in their local context to provide the best learning and teaching for all children.

228

C. Carroll-Meehan

References Beauchamp, G., Clarke, L., Hulme, M., & Murray, J. (2015). Teacher education in the United Kingdom post devolution: Convergences and divergences. Oxford Review of Education, 41(2), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2015.1017403 Bilton, H., & Waters, J. (2016). Why take young children outside? A critical consideration of the professed aims for outdoor learning in the early years by teachers from England and Wales. Social Science, 6(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6010001 Campbell-Barr, V. (2017). Quality early childhood education and care—The role of attitudes and dispositions in professional development. Early Child Development and Care, 187(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1150273 Carroll-Meehan, C., Bolshaw, P., & Hadfield, E. (2017). New leaders in early years: Making a difference for children in England. Early Child Development and Care, 189(3), 416–429. https:// doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1324436 Chartered College of Teaching. (2019). Chartered College of Teaching website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://chartered.college/ Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment. (2019). Preschool curriculum: Northern Ireland. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from http://ccea.org.uk/curriculum/pre_school Department for Education. (2019a). Qualified teacher status: Teachers’ standards. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/teachers-standards Department for Education. (2019b). Teachers’ standards (early years). Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attach ment_data/file/211646/Early_Years_Teachers__Standards.pdf Department for Education. (2019c). Get into teaching UK website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://getintoteaching.education.gov.uk/ Education Scotland. (2019a). Education Scotland website: Scottish education system. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://education.gov.scot/education-scotland/scottish-education-sys tem/policy-for-scottish-education/ Education Scotland. (2019b). Early learning and childcare. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://education.gov.scot/education-scotland/scottish-education-system/early-lea rning-and-childcare-elc/ Education Scotland. (2019c). Broad general education. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https:// education.gov.scot/education-scotland/scottish-education-system/broad-general-education/ Education Scotland. (2019d). Curriculum for excellence. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://education.gov.scot/education-scotland/scottish-education-system/policy-for-scottisheducation/policy-drivers/cfe-building-from-the-statement-appendix-incl-btc1-5/what-is-curric ulum-for-excellence Education Workforce Council (Wales). (2019). Education Workforce Council website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://www.ewc.wales/site/index.php/en/14-english/about.html Education and Training Inspectorate Northern Ireland (ETINI). (2019). ETINI website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://www.etini.gov.uk/ Estyn. (2019). Estyn website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://www.estyn.gov.wales/lan guage Furlong, J., & Lunt, I. (2016). Education in a federal UK. Oxford Review of Education, 42(3), 249–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2016.1184867 General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland (GTCNI). (2019). GTCNI website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://www.gtcni.org.uk/ General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS). (2019). GTCS website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://www.gtcs.org.uk/ Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Education (Education Scotland). (2019). HMI Education website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://education.gov.scot/education-scotland/what-we-do/ inspection-and-review/

14 Early Childhood Teachers and Teaching in the UK

229

Higher Education Funding Council for Wales (HEFCW). (2019). Teacher training in Wales website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://www.hefcw.ac.uk/about_he_in_wales/studying_in_ he/teacher_training.aspx Meehan, C., & Meehan, P. (2017). Trainee teachers’ perceptions about parent partnerships: Are parents partners? Early Child Development and Care. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10. 1080/03004430.2017.1286334 Menter, I. (2017). Diversity, development, devolution: The three Ds of UK teacher education and professional development in the twenty-first century. In L. Florian & N. Panti´c (Eds.), Teacher education for the changing demographics of schooling. Inclusive learning and educational equity (Vol. 2). Springer. Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted). (2019). Ofsted website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/education-ins pection-framework Page, J. (2017). Reframing infant-toddler pedagogy through a lens of professional love: Exploring narratives of professional practice in early childhood settings in England. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463949117742780 Poverty and Social Exclusion. (2014). Wales Child Poverty Report. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from http://www.poverty.ac.uk/report-wales-child-poverty/wales-has-worst-child-poverty-uk Scottish Government. (2014). Children and Young People (Scotland) Act. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2014/8/contents/enacted Scottish Social Services Council. (2019). SSSC website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https:// www.sssc.uk.com/ Teach First. (2019). Teach First website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from www.teachfirst.org.uk Teacher Regulation Agency. (2019). Teacher Regulation Agency website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/teaching-regulation-agency Welsh Government. (2019a). Flying Start initiative website. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://gov.wales/get-help-flying-start Welsh Government. (2019b). Welsh teachers’ standards. Retrieved December 31, 2019, from https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2018-09/criteria-for-the-accreditation-ofinitial-teacher-education-programmes-in-wales.pdf

Catherine Carroll-Meehan has worked as an early childhood teacher, leader/manager and academic for the past 30 years. Catherine worked as a Lecturer at Queensland University of Technology prior to moving to the UK in 2006 at Canterbury Christ Church University. Catherine is currently at the University of Portsmouth as Head of School of Education and Sociology.

Chapter 15

Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam: From Confucianism to 21st Century Reforms in Curriculum and Training Gerardine Neylon and Xuyen Le Abstract Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) in Vietnam is transiting from a traditional teacher-centred curriculum to a child-centred approach. Over the past three decades, four changes to the ECEC curriculum have supported the transition: the 1990 Old Curriculum, the 1994 reformed curriculum, the 2009 Sprout Curriculum and the latest 2021 Sprout Curriculum. The reforms introduced a gradual pedagogical and philosophical shift and challenged the embedded Confucian values in ECEC teachers’ thinking and practice. The process of adopting the new ECEC approaches to teaching has been slow and challenging. The revised ECEC approach has presented new demands on ECEC teacher education and revealed integral problems in ECEC teacher education such as (i) top-down management, (ii) the out-dated, unbalanced, theory-oriented curriculums and (iii) a one-way teacher-centred transmissive pedagogy. Transformation of ECEC is part of a broader fundamental reform across the entire education system in Vietnam initiated in 2013. The reforms involve many institutions; for example, the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) approved autonomy for Universities in pre-service teacher preparation. Furthermore, the implementing of a credit system (Ministry of Education and Training, 2014) showed commitment to modernise and regularise training. The move to regularise and internationalise qualifications was enriched in 2016 when the first Vietnam National Qualification Framework was issued (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2016). MoET mandated continuous professional training to support existing teachers to meet the requirements of the new ECEC curriculum. Reforms in ECEC teacher education are underway as part of a Seven-year vision (2018–2025). Two linked projects Developing the ECEC sector in 2018–2025 (Vietnam Prime Minister, 2018) and Training ECEC teachers and management staff in the ECEC sector 2018–2025 (Vietnam Prime Minister, 2019) were established to support the implementation of ECEC reform. One example is the mandated increase in qualifications for ECEC teachers from a two-year Diploma to a three-year Diploma in the new Education Law (Vietnamese Congress, 2019). Vietnamese teacher-registration process is quite different than in other countries, rather than having a teacher-registration board, G. Neylon (B) · X. Le University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_15

231

232

G. Neylon and X. Le

there is a complex registration system in keeping with communist principles. At the district level, the Bureau of Education and Training and the Bureau of Home Affairs offer newly qualified teachers an exam. The exam outcome decides if the teacher is employable by the state or not. The need to increase the supply of suitably qualified ECEC teachers is a pressing matter due to shortages in qualified teachers to implement the 2009 Sprout Curriculum. Keywords Curriculum of Sprout (2009) · Fundamental educational reform (2013) · Vietnamese Qualifications Framework (2016) · Seven-year vision (2018–2025) · New Education Law (2019). Linked to a mandated increase in qualifications level for ECEC teachers (2019)

Abbreviations ECEC ECECTE MoET MoHA DoET DoHA BoET BoHA

Early Childhood Education and Care Early Childhood Education and Care Teacher Education Ministry of Education and Training Ministry of Home Affairs Department of Education and training Department of Home Affairs Bureau of Education and Training Bureau of Home Affairs

Introduction In Vietnam, Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) is understood as the period where nurturing, caring and educating children aged three months to six years occurs. ECEC aims to help children develop their fundamental psychophysiological functions, competencies and qualities, necessary age-appropriate life skills, arousing and maximising their potentials, form their initial elements of personality, prepare them for the first grade and lay the foundation for learning at subsequent levels of study and for lifelong learning (Ministry of Education and Training, 2009). ECEC is offered in both public and non-public (community-based and private) settings. There are three types of ECEC settings: Nurseries for infants from three-month-old to three-years-old, Kindergarten for children from three-years-old to six-years-old and Pre-primary schools (named as Schools of Sprout) combining nurseries and kindergartens (Vietnamese Congress, 2019). In the past, Early Childhood Education and Care Teacher Education (ECECTE) in Vietnam was offered in a split system separating training institutions with a focus either on Nursery or Kindergarten. In 1963, the first Central Kindergarten Pedagogy

15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam …

233

College was established to train pre-service teachers for the age focus of 3–6 years old. In 1972, the first Central Childcare College was established to train teachers for the age focus from three months old to three years old. From 1988, the split systems have merged and trained pre-service ECEC teachers graduates are now qualified to teach any groups of children from three months to six years (Ministry of Education and Training, 2006). There are no different qualifications required to work with different age groups. There usually are two teachers for each class in public ECEC settings, and the two teachers share the same responsibilities and roles (Ministry of Education and Training, 2015b). One day one teacher is the teaching teacher, the other is the teaching assistant, and the next day, they exchange their roles. Initially, pre-service training was completed in as short a time over a period of two months. In the 1960s, training extended to a two-year course. In the 1970s, a threeyear diploma course was offered. The four-year Bachelor degree was first offered in 1985. At present, Masters’ degrees and Doctor’s qualifications in ECECTE are available (Hanoi National University of Education, 2020). A key issue in transforming ECEC is the legacy of Confucius values that underpinned the philosophy of the entire education system for thousands of years (Nguyen, 2016). The Confucian traditions have been deeply embedded in the ECEC and ECECTE thinking and practice placed the teacher at the centre of the learning process (Phan, 2012b). ECEC governance, curriculums, pedagogy, pre-service teacher preparation, professional development, registration and qualification frameworks incorporating international standards have been advanced to move ECEC provision towards the 21st Century child-centred approach. Confucius ideals are now being revised as part of major reforms to ECEC in Vietnam.

Governance of Early Childhood Care and Education in Vietnam Boyd and Dang’s work (2017) on the history of ECEC in Vietnam sets 1946 as a seminal year as it was one year after President Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of Vietnam from France, and saw the start of ECEC provision in some demilitarised areas. In 1975, Vietnam gained independence from the United States, and since then, ECEC has expanded across the country. Initially, the ECEC sector was under the governance of the Committee for the Protection of Mothers and Children. In 1987, this Committee was merged with the Ministry of Education and renamed the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) in 1990 (Fig. 15.1). From 1990 responsibility for policy development in ECEC was governed by MoET. Within MoET, the Department of ECEC has responsibility for disseminating curriculum, implementation and evaluation (Ministry of Education and Training, 2019a). While the Department of Higher Education oversees ECEC teacher education (Ministry of Education and Training, 2016a), the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) takes the primary responsibility for registration and administration for civil servants,

234

G. Neylon and X. Le

Changes to Qualifications for EC Pre-service Preparation Teacher System 2015 VQF Framework 2016 level II (four years bachelor degree) Level 6 (Bachelor degree) level III (three years college diploma) level IV (two years college diploma) System 2021 level I (four years bachelor degree) level II (four years bachelor degree) level III (three years college diploma)

Level 5 Level 4 VQF Framework 2016 Level 6 (Bachelor degree) Level 6 Level 5

Fig. 15.1 Mapping of the ECEC qualifications

public employees, including public ECEC teachers (Ministry of Home Affairs, 2017). MoHA works collaboratively with the MoET to agree on the number of teachers that can be registered annually. At the same time, the People’s Committee at Provincial and District levels serves as the backbone of its implementation through assessment and recruitment of qualified teachers into state employment (Ministry of Education and Training & Ministry of Home Affairs, 2015a). This complex system is further elucidated later in Fig. 15.2: ECEC Teacher and School stakeholder registration process.

Government

MoET

MoHA

Provincial People’s CommiƩee

Provincial DoET

Provincial DoHA

District-Level People’s CommiƩee

District-level BoHA

District-level BoET

School registraƟon process

Teacher registraƟon process

Fig. 15.2 ECEC teacher and school stakeholder registration process

15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam …

235

Early Childhood Education and Care Curriculum Reform Vietnam is moving from a teacher-centred, subject-based curriculum to a childcentred and child-led approach. Over the past three decades, there have been four significant changes to the ECEC curriculum: the 1990 Old Curriculum, the 1994 reformed curriculum, the 2009 Sprout Curriculum and the latest 2021 Sprout Curriculum. The reforms showed a pedagogical and philosophical shift. Through the examination of these government policy documents, the authors are able to trace the changes. The 1990 old curriculum (Ministry of Education and Training, 1990) reflected the most prominent characteristics of Vietnamese conventional ECEC practice. Chu (2014) found such practices to be uniform and rigid. The old curriculum paid overwhelming attention to children’s cognitive development with a heavy focus on the quantity of knowledge and skills rather than nurturing children’s critical thinking. The entire content of the curriculum was strictly regulated; for example, the number of lessons, their content and didactics with detailed tutorial guidelines was predetermined on a day-to-day basis. The pedagogy was not child-centred, and teachers were not allowed to change any pedagogical content (Chu, 2014). Phan’s research (2005) found that teachers controlled children’s behaviours, so children appeared passive, docile and subdued. Teachers explained, showed examples while the children executed the tasks. The old curriculum did not focus on the individual development of each child and did not use constructivist principles teachers and children had little room for flexibility, initiative, and decision making (Nguyen, 2009). The curriculum reforms have been gradual. The 1994 reformed curriculum (Ministry of Education and Training, 1994) moved away from the unitary, rigid and top-down approach, towards a child-led pedagogy and provided ECEC teachers with a higher degree of autonomy in their teaching practices. In the past, children were treated as passive learners sitting and following the instructions. The 1994 reformed curriculum began to encourage children to participate in their learning actively. This curriculum was the first attempt to give children opportunities to learn through firsthand experience. Teachers were encouraged to respect children’s interests, and they were permitted to design their own learning activities depending on local context so that they were now able to construct teaching and learning around topics (Phan, 2005, 2012b). However, the length and schedules for implementation for each topic were prefixed for all ECEC settings. The 1994 reformed curriculum gave a certain amount of autonomy to teachers and is seen as a transition to a child-centred and integrated approach to active teaching and learning (Ministry of Education and Training, 2002; Phan, 2012a), further curriculum reforms were introduced in 2009. In 2009, MoET officially implemented the 2009 Sprout curriculum (Ministry of Education and Training, 2009). Sprout 2009 addressed the split system offering a unified curriculum across Nursery and Kindergarten. Building on the change of philosophy of its predecessor the 1994 reformed curriculum, Sprout 2009 promoted children’s active role in their learning. Sprout 2009 had been found to be a flexible curriculum in keeping with western ECEC philosophy where teachers follow

236

G. Neylon and X. Le

student’s interests. Sprout 2009 allowed teachers a chance to be more flexible and creative in planning and teaching and highlights the central role of the child in his/her learning (Le, 2009). However, MoET assessed Sprout 2009 as still having several shortcomings, such as some overly detailed pedagogical contents which does not encourage teachers’ creativity and autonomy (Ministry of Education and Training, 2019b). The latest ECEC Sprout Curriculum was issued on 31/12/2020 and taken effect from 31/03/2021 (Ministry of Education and Training, 2020a). The 2021 Sprout Curriculum was designed in the form of an open Framework. The design process of Sprout 2021 involves many stakeholders, such as MoET, Provincial Department of Education and training, ECEC teacher education universities, and ECEC settings. Sprout 2021 expresses the ECEC objectives, requirements for contents, pedagogies, and assessment of children’s development as a basis for the management, direction, and organisation of children’s nurturing, care, and education in all ECEC settings nationwide. At the same time, Sprout 2021 caters for local initiatives and autonomy in ECEC settings. Teachers can supplement content to local contexts and offer extracurricular subjects such as foreign language and Information and Communication Technologies. Sprout 2021 affirms that ECEC settings “have the mission of forming and developing personality comprehensively for children; have autonomy as prescribed by law” (Ministry of Education and Training, 2020a, p. 4). Sprout 2021 demonstrates the philosophy of a comprehensive, integrated, child-centred education with the educational motto “playing is learning, learning through playing” (Ministry of Education and Training, 2020a, p. 3). While curriculums have experienced considerable changes, the transformation in teachers’ daily practices with children was slow and challenging (Phan, 2012a). Phan (2005) revealed that ECEC teachers were enthusiastic about the ECEC reforms and most believed the new approach gave them and children a higher degree of initiative and more choices. However, they encountered difficulties in understanding and translating the new principles into their daily practice. The research found two main reasons that led to these obstacles (Cao, 2009; Le, 2009; Nguyen, 2009; Phan, 2012b). (i) (ii)

The new ECEC philosophy borrowed from Western constructivist approaches and as such were unfamiliar to ECEC teacher’s cultural context. ECEC pre-service teachers received inadequate training to help them prepare for the new curriculum.

There is a central conflict between Confucianism and Constructivism, ECEC teachers found it difficult to thoroughly comprehend the child-centred premises because of their deeply inherited Confucian values (Phan, 2012a). It was very challenging for teachers to apply the principles of the Constructivist ECEC philosophy given that it sharply conflicted with the Vietnamese traditional Confucian cultural values in which they had been raised and trained. In Vietnam, children were expected to be absolutely obedient and compliant to parents and teachers. However, the new curriculum required teachers to respect the children, take their lead from them, and to promote children’s critical thinking. Adult superiority in Confucian culture

15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam …

237

conflicts the notion of children’s agency in child-centred approaches. Also, Vietnamese conventional education emphasis learning outcomes and the new approach focus on the learning process (Phan, 2012b). The Ministry of Education and Training found that many teachers felt overloaded when they first implemented the new curriculum due to inadequate preservice education and professional development. In daily teaching practice, their pedagogy was born out of sensitive observation and interaction with children rather than grounded on Constructivist theoretical principles (Ministry of Education and Training, 2005). Until 2010, after almost fifteen years of implementing the 1994 reformed curriculum, in many early childhood settings, teaching strategies were still generally adult-led (Dang & Boyd, 2014; Lam Dong Bureau of Early Childhood Education and Care, 2010). Phan (2012b) revealed that the reasons for such enormous struggles for ECEC teachers came from the gap between what the ECECTE preparation offered pre-service teachers and what the new practices required. The traditional approach of ECECTE failed to prepare ECEC teachers to implement radical changes to the curriculum. To change the long-established curriculum, pedagogy, and management problems within the profession would take a broader policy reform for the entire education system in Vietnam. Such reform emerged from the 8th Conference session of the 11th Central Committee of Communist Party of Vietnam in 2013. The conference proceedings have led to a significant transformation of the Vietnamese education system with the agreement of a Resolution 29-NQ 2013 titled Fundamental and inclusive reform in education, serving industrialisation and modernisation in a socialist-oriented market economy during international integration (Communist Party of Vietnam, 2013). The objective of the 2013 fundamental reform is to make the education system more responsive to current and future labour demands of the needs of industrialisation and modernisation in the context of marketoriented socialist economy and international integration in Vietnam. The Resolution set out two requirements for all teacher education and training (i) actively reform the objectives, contents of curriculum and pedagogy for pre-service teachers; (ii) develop the programmes for the continuous professional training for existing teachers. As a crucial part of this reform, there is a strong emphasis on developing ECEC teaching staff. The 2013 fundamental reform can be marked as another critical juncture in the gradual move from ECECTE from a traditional approach to more contemporary pedagogy.

The Traditional Approach to Early Childhood Education and Care Teacher Education ECEC curriculum reforms presented new demands for ECEC teacher education and revealed long-established problems of management, curriculum, and pedagogy within the profession. The Vietnamese traditional ECEC teacher preparation failed to enable graduates to be long-life learners and self-directed teachers to deal with the

238

G. Neylon and X. Le

fast-changing ECEC practice and the increasing diversity in ECEC models (Phan, 2012b). A systematic approach to reforming institutions involved in pre-service teacher preparation was necessary.

Issues in ECECTE’s Curriculum Before 1986, MoET oversaw higher education curriculums in a top-down manner. From 1986, MoET allowed universities and colleges to decide up to 40% of their curriculums (Hayden & Lam, 2010). The low degree of autonomy strongly limited the Vietnamese higher education’s flexibility to effectively reform to address the new demands of the real world (Haylen & Nguyen, 2010). The ECEC curriculum reform was initiated by the Department of ECEC, while ECECTE oversight was in the realm of the Department of Higher Education. Research found that there was a lack of integration and collaboration between these two departments though they are all working within MoET. An additional problem identified was the lack of proper consultation with other stakeholders in the sector that had a contribution to offer to policy development (Phan, 2012b). Before the 2013 fundamental reform, and during the transition from the old curriculum to the two revised new versions Phan (2012b) identified practical issues such as ECECTE’s curriculums and pedagogy textbooks in training institutions had not been updated. ECECTE’s curriculums were criticised as out-dated, overloaded, unbalanced and theory-oriented (Hayden & Lam, 2010; Phan, 2012b). MoET’s Framework for ECECTE curriculums placed a heavy focus on general studies with compulsory subjects such as Foreign Languages, Physical Education and Military Education. Moreover, as the nature of Vietnam as a Communist country, the Framework is ideologically oriented towards modules such as Marxism, Leninist theory and the History of Vietnam Communist Party which are compulsory for all post-secondary education students in Vietnam regardless of majors (Hayden & Nguyen, 2010). On 25/01/2017, MoET issued Plan 56/KH-BGDÐT, directing all 58 provinces and five municipalities (centrally-controlled cities) to implement the Plan titled Building child-centred ECEC schools in the period of 2016 and 2020 (Ministry of Education and Training, 2020b). The Plan aims to ensure that all children are given opportunities to learn through play and various ways that suit children’s needs, interests, and abilities. However, ECECTE curriculum frameworks do not include any subjects relevant to the child-centred approach. Up to date, preservice ECEC teachers do not learn about constructivist theories. For example, when looking at ECECTE frameworks in the three leading training colleges and universities in Vietnam, there are no subjects involving constructivist theories (Hanoi National University of Education, 2021; Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, 2018; National College for Education, 2019). Furthermore, Phan (2012b) compared the four-year Vietnamese ECECTE degree with international ECEC degrees and found it to be overloaded. The degree requires high levels of credit points, resulting in

15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam …

239

students attending lectures six hours per day, five days per week along with the mandated two practical placements of three weeks and six weeks.

Issues in ECECTE’s Training The practice of one-way teacher-centred transmissive pedagogy associated with traditional Vietnamese ECECTE has been hard to leave behind. The sharp changes to educational philosophy and the traditional cultural philosophy created not only difficulties for ECEC teachers but also for their lecturers. The Confucian values deeply embedded in lecturers’ thinking and practice was difficult to implement in pre-service teacher preparation. It was a challenge in ECECTE to provide training that would move from the old practice to the new ECEC practice allowing teachers and children to be more self-initiated. The ECECTE’s teaching style failed to equip the pre-service teacher with skills to implement a child-centred approach. And it also was the reasons why ECEC teachers experienced a huge struggle to self-direct their own curriculum. Also, the number of lecturers in ECEC teacher education institutions with doctoral degrees are small. Therefore the capacity of developing training programs and teaching pedagogy based on modern techniques, and practical experience of some lecturers are still limited (Linh, 2019). Recruitment to ECEC pre-service teaching did not keep up with demand. Entry requirements for a college and/or university place involved a National entrance exam. Those who did not achieve high marks are accepted into a two-year ECEC diploma. This two-year training model had been critiqued as too short training time and only offering pre-service ECEC teachers time to study theories without including the professional practice placement. Graduates had been found to lack skills to handle situations, and make mistakes in the process of caring for and educating children (Ministry of Education and Training, 2018a).

Reforms of Early Childhood Education and Care Teacher Education and Professional Training The 2013 fundamental reform, aims to address the gap between ECECTE and the changing ECEC practice and is now the central topic in the Vietnamese ECECTE professional landscape (Ministry of Education and Training, 2018a). The policy changes have been supported by increased funding. Between 2013 and 2018, the Vietnamese Government allocated twenty per cent of the total budget for education and training. The budget for ECEC development accounted for from 13 to 19% of the education budget from 2013 to 2018 (Hanh, 2018). The ECEC sector reform is now actively addressing the challenges in pre-service teacher preparation and professional development for those teachers already working to deliver the 2009 Curriculum

240

G. Neylon and X. Le

of Sprout. Using up-to-date Vietnamese policy documents, the authors are able to trace these policy developments in both ECEC teacher education and ECEC teacher professional training. Furthermore, the authors explore how the internationalisation of qualifications has been addressed.

Reforms in ECEC Teacher Education The reforms have been targeted to address the persistent problems in ECECTE in management, curriculum and pedagogy as mentioned above. In terms of curriculum, MoET approved autonomy for Universities. Before the 2013 fundamental reform, the higher education curriculum was based on the framework program issued by MoET. After the reform, curriculums and textbooks dealing with pedagogy are now issued by Universities while MoET only develops modules on political theory and National defence (Ministry of Education and Training, 2018b). The University issue curriculums in their institutions, with the amount of each curriculum not less than 120 credits for a 4-year university course; 90 credits for a 3-year college course (Ministry of Education and Training, 2014).

Vietnam Qualifications Framework 2016 The implementing of the credit system in training in 2014 (Ministry of Education and Training, 2014) was further advanced when the first Vietnam National Qualification Framework was issued (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2016). The Framework was designed with the fundamental education reform that incorporates international integration with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Qualifications Reference Framework (The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 2016). The qualifications framework has eight levels including three elementary levels of certificates, Diploma- level four, Advanced Diploma—level five, Bachelor degreelevel six, Master degree—level seven and Ph.D. degree—level eight. The Framework also defines a specification for credit, amount of learning and learning outcomes for each level. The University’s curriculum must now include objectives, the volume of knowledge, structure, content, methods and forms of assessment for subjects, disciplines, training levels and output standards consistent with the Vietnam National Qualification Framework. Furthermore, the curriculum must be developed according to the National Qualification Framework credit system (Ministry of Education and Training, 2018b). Credits are used to calculate student learning; one credit is weighted as 15 h face to face with 30 h of independent learning. There are two types of modules: compulsory and elective. ECEC teacher preparation reform is linked to the broader education reform, and the move towards three-year training will ensure that graduates are awarded a level five qualification, to increase their competence and professionalism.

15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam …

241

Seven-Year Vision for ECEC in Vietnam 2018–2025 Reforms to ECEC teacher education are also underway as part of a Seven-year vision (2018–2025) with two linked specific ECEC projects. In 2018, the Government approved a seven-year project titled Developing the ECEC sector in 2018 and 2025 (Vietnam Prime Minister, 2018). In 2019, the Government issued another seven-year project named Training ECEC teachers and management staff in the ECEC sector in 2018 and 2025 (Vietnam Prime Minister, 2019). The vision divided into two periods: 2018–2020 and 2021–2025 and set out the targets. The target by 2025 as follows (i) (ii)

(iii)

(iv)

ECEC teachers and staff in ECEC settings: striving for at least 90% of ECEC teachers hold a three-year Diploma; ECEC lectures and staff in ECEC teacher education institutions: 100% lecturers meet the requirement on qualification, striving for 30% university lectures hold Doctoral degree and 8% of College lecturers hold Doctor Degree. Review and evaluate the 2009 ECEC curriculum, to gradually build and promulgate a new ECEC curriculum after 2020, which is suitable to Vietnam and meet the requirements of international integration. Develop guidelines for ECEC teachers to implement post-2020 ECEC curriculum.

In 2020, the target of building a new ECEC curriculum framework has achieved successfully. Sprout 2021 emphasises the vital roles of ‘socialisation of education’ in participating in educational activities, providing funding support, school facilities, and building a safe, healthy and friendly educational environment for children. The ‘socialisation of education’ means educational development is the cause of the Party, the State and the entire people. Party committees and local authorities are responsible for leading and directing the effective implementation of the ECEC curriculum, strictly implementing the Party and State policies towards administrators, teachers, and staff in ECEC settings. ECEC settings actively collaborate with the Party Committees while families and communities are responsible for coordinating with ECEC settings to ensure good conditions for implementing living regimes for children and working regimes for teachers, improving the quality of ECEC service (Ministry of Education and Training, 2020a). Changes to ECEC teacher education institutions are now in progress as part of this seven-year vision (Vietnam Prime Minister, 2018) to professionalise the sector whereby the minimum teaching qualification will be a three-year diploma. ECEC teacher education institutions that have in the past graduated two-year qualified teachers known as Two-year Colleges, will now move to Faculty status with the capacity to graduate three-year diploma teachers (Ministry of Education and Training, 2018a). Universities will continue to graduate Bachelor qualified (fouryear) teachers. From May 2020, there is no longer admission for a two-year Diploma in ECEC and MoET will regulate the standards for entry requirements for training pre-service ECEC teachers (Ministry of Education and Training, 2020c).

242

G. Neylon and X. Le

New Education Law 2019 All the changes in the aspirational Seven-year vision (2018–2025) mentioned above are now firmly advanced by the New Education Law 2019 (Vietnamese Congress, 2019). For example, a legally mandated increase in qualifications for ECEC teachers from two-year Diploma to three-year Diploma. The higher and more relevant qualifications are expected to support ECEC teachers to be well-prepared to enact the shifts in curriculum and pedagogy.

Reforms in ECEC Teacher’ Continuous Professional Development In 2015, Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) cooperated with the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) to promulgate the roles, duties and titles of all teachers of public schools in the whole education system in Vietnam. Specifically, ECEC teachers qualifications are classified into level II, level III, and level IV (Ministry of Education and Training & Ministry of Home Affairs, 2015b). The variety of training levels ensure that teachers work and deliver pedagogy with various levels of responsibility with the highest level (II) charged with leadership and training of fellow teachers. From 2021, level IV has been discontinued due to the mandated increase in qualifications for ECEC teachers from a two-year Diploma to a three-year Diploma in the new Education Law (Ministry of Education and Training, 2021). Currently, there are three levels of ECEC teachers: level III, level II and level I, with the leading role of level I. (i) (ii) (iii)

Level III (at least a three-year College Diploma) Level II (at least a four-year undergraduate degree) Level I (at least a four-year undergraduate degree and holding at least six years of level II)

Continuous professional training to support existing teachers to meet the requirements of new ECEC curriculum was mandated by MoET (2011). The first type of professional development training for existing teachers annually is titled Regular Professional Training for ECEC teachers (Ministry of Education and Training, 2011). The 2019 Regular Professional Training for ECEC teachers aligns with the movements on building Child-centred ECEC settings nationwide by revised the 2011 Program with a focus on a child-centred approach. Six new modules on child-centred philosophy are available demonstrating the shift in pedagogical paradigm (Ministry of Education and Training, 2019a). The second type of training programme is called Professional training programme in line with ECEC teacher level was tailored for each of the three levels of teachers (see above) for progression in their qualification with an emphasis on advancing the new curriculum. The training is mandated as a

15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam …

243

six-week certificate which is used as evidence to upgrade their teacher level (Ministry of Education and Training, 2016b).

Vietnamese Registration for Early Childhood Education and Care Teachers and Settings in the Public System of Education Given the communist nature of governance, all decisions concerning education at national, provincial and district levels are influenced by the Communist party, operating through the People’s Committees with oversight on registration, assessment and appointment of teachers (Vietnamese Congress, 2019). Registration for teachers and registration of schools are governed by two different agencies, one at the provincial level and district level (Ministry of Education and Training & Ministry of Home Affairs, 2015a). The diagram below shows the stakeholders involved in the teacher and school registration process and its complexity elucidated thereafter.

Vietnamese ECEC Teacher Registration Process Due to the socialist regime in Vietnam registration process are quite different than in other countries, rather than having a registration board, there is a complex registration system (see Fig. 15.2). Once qualified with recognised teaching qualification/degree, a graduate has two options: (i)

(ii)

To apply to work on ECEC schools independently. If the Board of that school approves the application, then they can become a teacher in that school on a temporary contract basis. However, their salary is lower than registered teachers (usually earn 80% of the registered teacher’s salary) without increments or social benefits (Vietnam National Assembly, 2019) To take the Public Employee Exam to become State payroll system employee first, and then the District level Chairman of People’s Committee will assign a working place for that teacher within that district.

The advantages of being a registered ECEC teacher means you can work on the public schools’ system and enjoy all State payroll system staff’s benefits under the law such as salary increase, maternity leave, increments and other social benefits. ECEC teacher registration process in Vietnam as follows: A registration exam is organised by the Bureau of Education and Training (BoET) and the Bureau of Home Affairs (BoHA) and Chairman of the People’s Committee at the district level under the direction of DoET, DoHA at the provincial level (Ministry of Education and Training & Ministry of Home Affairs, 2015a). There are three steps in the teacher registration process

244

G. Neylon and X. Le

Step 1: Pre-service ECEC teachers register for the exam via BoET and BoHA at the district level; Step 2: The candidates must take three standard exams (General knowledge, Foreign language and Information Technology), and professional exam subject for ECEC. Step 3: On successful completion, the candidates must sign probationary contracts for one year. Then, if satisfactory, the Chairman of the district People’s Committee will sign an indefinite contract with that ECEC teacher to officially register.

Vietnamese ECEC Settings Registration Process At the district level, the People’s Committee governs ECEC school establishment, school registration, teacher registration, staffing and the distribution of financial resources. The district-level BoET is the registration agency for the establishment and operation of ECEC schools (Ministry of Education and Training, 2015a). The ECEC school establishment registration process is as follows: Step 1: Commune-level People’s Committee for public ECEC schools compile dossiers to the district-level People’s Committee (private schools compile their own dossier to the district-level People’s Committee). Step 2: The district-level People’s Committee directs the district-level BoET and the relevant specialised Bureaus to evaluate the dossier (Public and Private). Step 3: The Chairman of the district-level People’s Committee issues decisions to establish the ECEC School (public and private).

Vietnamese ECEC Teacher’s Workforce Issues After implementing the fundamental education reform 2013 (Communist Party of Vietnam, 2013), all ECEC teachers are now entitled to be governed by the same policy regimes as teachers at other school levels (curriculum improvements, improved pay scales, direct funding for school requirements, e.g. funding towards school lunches). The current ECEC staffing situation has been experiencing a significant shortage. For example, in the 2018–2019 school year, there was a shortage of 49.177 ECEC teachers nationwide (Ministry of Education and Training, 2019a, b). The Government has implemented some short-term and long-term measures to address the issue. In 2018, the ECEC sector in many provinces in Vietnam had employed redundant primary and secondary teachers as a short term solution to the staffing problem (Lai, 2019). MoET worked cooperatively with MoHA to propose the Prime Minister to assign 20,300 additional recruitment for registered staffing of ECEC teachers nationwide (Ministry of Education and Training, 2019a, b). At the same time, ECEC pre-service teacher training is offered without a fee; however, in the latest Education Law amended in 2019, to ensure graduates work in the ECEC sector in the event

15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam …

245

of a graduate taking work in another sector, the graduates must repay their training fee (Vietnamese Congress, 2019). Perhaps the most significant change in policy for ECEC teachers that has a direct impact on staffing is the amended 2019 Education law that mandates teachers to hold a three-year diploma. The increased qualifications requirement is based on the fact that over 20% of total EC teachers across Vietnam do not hold a three-year qualification (Ministry of Education and Training, 2019). The ECEC sector is slowly moving toward professionalism, and it is a slow process.

Conclusion Government commitment to the ECEC reform (Education Law in 2019) has mandated changes and agreed on a seven-year vision (2018–2025) as a vehicle by which they can be delivered. Vietnam has benefitted from looking outward in addressing challenges in increasing and standardising qualifications through adjustment of training levels and the development of the VQF in keeping with international practices. Vietnam, like many OECD countries over the past decade, is addressing the implementation of new ECEC curriculums for similar aged children in childcare and school settings. Like most countries involved in ECEC improvement, Vietnam’s birth to six services are delivered across public and non-public (community-based and private) schools. Unlike most countries, the complex registration system will be interesting to see how it adjusts to the changes in qualifications and how it strives to meet the supply of teachers. The registration system’s response will play a key part in the extent to which fundamental changes succeed. The complex system may be a pinchpoint restricting or promoting change. In Australia, for example, a single agency is tasked with overseeing mandated ECEC reforms. Several positive moves towards quality are commendable in particular the move to a three-year qualification along with the implementation of a revised curriculum are progressive components of the fundamental change process. Moreover, the aim to develop guidelines for ECEC teachers to implement post-2020 ECEC curriculum shows that there is an openness to dialogue and change. The yet to be developed guidelines may benefit from borrowing from curriculum frameworks used in other countries where Constructivist principles have been in vogue for some time. The challenge of moving away from the long-held Confusions philosophy to a more contemporary Western philosophy requires profound and fundamental changes. The challenge now is to ensure that pre-service teachers training offers them both theory and skills to implement the new and often challenging approaches to ensure the success of the Sprout curriculum. The professionalisation of the ECEC sector is well underway in Vietnam the authors suggest that the last ten years will be regarded as a golden age in ECEC fundamental reform. However, there has been little academic analysis of the reforms over this period, to date with just one Ph.D. research from 2012 (Phan, 2012b). Issues of child staff ratio, increases in children attending ECEC,

246

G. Neylon and X. Le

undersupply of qualified teaching staff continue to pose a challenge and will need further investigation. Moreover, no academic research on ECEC teacher education reform since 2013 when the Fundamental educational reform was introduced has been found. Further research is required to measure the extent to which the reforms in ECEC have impacted on how teachers implement the new curriculum in ECEC settings and to explore how the registration system is adapting to the reforms.

References Boyd, W., & Dang, P. T. (2017). Early childhood education in Vietnam: History and evaluation of its policies. In H. Li, E. Park, & J. J.-L. Chen (Eds.), Education in the Asia-Pacific region: Issues, concerns and prospects (Vol. 35). Springer. ´ Cao, T. T. (2009). Suggestions for innovating early childhood teacher education (Mô.t sô´ d-ê` xuât - ij i mo´,i trong dào - tao giáo viên mâm ` dô ` non). Paper Presented at the Training Teachers to Meet cân . the Demands of the New Early Childhood Education and Care Curriculum, Ho Chi Minh City. - ij i mo´,i Chu, T. H. N. (2014). Early childhool education and care reforms in Vietnam (Tình hình dô ` non ta.i Viê.t Nam qua các giai doa.n) Ho Chi Minh University of Education Journal. Giáo du.c mâm Communist Party of Vietnam. (2013). Resolution 29-NQ/TW dated 4 November 2013 on “Fundamental and comprehensive innovation in education, serving industrialization and modernization ´ sô´ 29in a socialist-oriented market economy during international integration” (Nghi. quyêt - ij i mo´,i c˘an baij n, toàn diên giáo duc NQ/TW ngày 4/11/2013 Hô.i nghi. Trung u,o,ng 8 khóa XI vê` dô . . - tao dáp - u´,ng yêu câu - i hóa trong di - êu ` công nghiê.p hóa, hiê.n da ` kiê.n kinh tê´ thi. tru,o`,ng, và dào . . - nh hu,o´,ng XHCN và hôi nhâp quôc ´ tê). ´ https://moet.gov.vn/tintuc/Pages/doi-moi-can-ban-toandi . . . dien-gd-va-dt.aspx?ItemID=3928 Dang, P. T., & Boyd, W. (2014). Renovating early childhood education pedagogy: A case study in Vietnam. International Journal of Early Years Education, 22(2), 184–196. https://doi.org/10. 1080/09669760.2014.909306 Hanh, H. (2018). In 2017: Budget spending on education is VND 248,118 billion (N˘am 2017: Chi ` ngân sách cho giáo du.c là 248.118 tyij d-ông). Dantri. https://dantri.com.vn/giao-duc-khuyen-hoc/ chi-ngan-sach-cho-giao-duc-la-248118-ty-dong-20180930163940791.htm Hanoi National University of Education. (2020). Enrolment plan for Ph.D. students. https://hnue. edu.vn/Daotao/DaotaoSaudaihoc/DaotaoTiensi/TuyensinhNCS/tabid/558/Category/35/News/ 8262/Thongbaoveviecxettuyennghiencuusinhkhoa40nam2020.aspx Hanoi National University of Education. (2021). ECEC teacher education curriculum framework - tao ngành Su, pham Giáo duc mâm ` non). http://hnue.edu.vn/Daotao/ (Khung Chu,o,ng trình dào . . . Khungchuongtrinh/tabid/426/frame/17/Default.aspx Hayden, M., & Lam, Q. T. (2010). Reforming higher education in Vietnam: Challenges and priorities. In G. Harman, M. Hayden, & N. T. Pham (Eds.), Vietnam’s higher education system. Springer. Hayden, M., & Nguyen, T. B. N. (2010). Reforming teaching and learning in Vietnam’s higher education system. In G. Harman, M. Hayden, & N. T. Pham (Eds.), Vietnam’s higher education system. Springer. Ho Chi Minh City University of Education. (2018). ECEC teacher education curriculum framework - tao ngành Su, pham Giáo duc mâm ` non). https://drive.google.com/file/ (Khung Chu,o,ng trình dào . . . d/1qb3KdpJq6aJY2YP4i-lqCCuGScj10r2c/view Lam Dong Bureau of Early Childhood Education and Care. (2010). A ten year review of educational reform. Lam Dong

15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam …

247

ij - êu ` chuyêij n Lai, H. (2019). Rotation and transfer teachers is without an overall plan (Luân chuyên, di , , ˜ ´ ´ ` giáo viên: Vân “liê.u com ga˘ p ma˘ m”). Giáo du.c thoi da.i. Retrieved from https://giaoducthoidai. vn/giao-duc/luan-chuyen-dieu-chuyen-giao-vien-van-lieu-com-gap-mam-4028381-b.html Le, T. H. (2009). Evaluation results of experimental early childhood education program and its - ijm - ij m và thu,c hiên thí diê ´ quaij dánh ` non thí diê implementation (Kêt giá chu,o,ng trình giáo du.c mâm . . ,, ` chuong trình giáo du.c mâm non). Paper Presented at the Training Teachers to Meet Demands of the New Early Childhood Education and Care Curriculum, Ho Chi Minh City. Linh, T. (2019). Ministry of Education and Training suggested to assign 20,300 additional recruit´ bôij sung 20.300 biên chê´ ment for registered ECEC teachers nationwide (Bô. Giáo du.c d-ê` xuât ` giáo viên mâm non). Education in Vietnam. https://giaoduc.net.vn/giao-duc-24h/bo-giao-duc-dexuat-bo-sung-20300-bien-che-giao-vien-mam-non-post201252.gd - nh 55 cuij a ´ di Ministry of Education and Training. (1990). The 1990 old curriculum (Quyêt . ij ij - nh muc tiêu, kê´ hoach dào ˜ Bô. Giáo du.c qui di ta o cu a nhà tre và m âu giáo n˘am . . . . 1990). https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/giao-duc/Quyet-dinh-55-QD-nam-1990-muc-tieu-kehoach-dao-tao-nha-tre-truong-mau-giao-178115.aspx Ministry of Education and Training. (1994). The 1994 reformed curriculum (Chu,o,ng trình caij i cách 1994) Ministry of Education and Training. (2002). Guidance for teachers in piloting innovative forms of - ij m dô - ij i mo´,i hình ` du,o˜,ng giáo viên thí diê organising activities for preschool children (Tài liê.u bôi , ij , ij ˜ ´ ´ thuc tô chuc hoa.t dô.ng giáo du.c tre mâu giáo). Educational Publishing House. Ministry of Education and Training. (2005). A case study of implementing new pedagogy in early childhood education and care. Ministry of Education and Training. Ministry of Education and Training. (2006). The report summarises 60 years of building and develij ´ 60 n˘am xây du. ,ng và phát triêij n ngành giáo du.c mâm ` oping the ECEC sector (Báo cáo tông kêt non). Ministry of Education and Training. (2009). Curriculum of Sprout. http://chinhphu.vn/portal/page/ portal/chinhphu/hethongvanban?class_id=1&_page=334&mode=detail&document_id=89927 Ministry of Education and Training. (2011). Government circular on the curriculum for annual ` du,o˜,ng thu,o`,ng xuyên giáo viên professional training 2011 (Thông tu, ban hành chu,o,ng trình bôi ` non 2011). mâm Ministry of Education and Training. (2014). Regulations on university and college training - tao da - i hoc và cao d˘ -aij ng hê chính quy theo hê according to the credit system (Quy chê´ dào . . . . . ij ´ thông tín chi). , , ` lê. truo` ng mâm ` Ministry of Education and Training. (2015a). Charter for ECEC school (Ðiêu non). https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/giao-duc/Van-ban-hop-nhat-04-VBHN-BGDDT-Dieule-truong-mam-non-2015-299424.aspx Ministry of Education and Training. (2015b). Joint Circular providing for the list of job placement frameworks and the number of staffs working in public ECEC settings (Thông tu, liên ti.ch Quy - nh mu´,c sô´ lu,o,ng ngu,o`,i làm viêc trong các co, soij, giáo di.nh vê` danh mu.c khung vi. trí viê.c làm và di . . . ` non công lâ.p). Retrieved from http://pgddtbaolam.edu.vn/tra-cuu/tra-cuu-van-ban/tho du.c mâm quy-dinh-ve-danh-muc-khung-vi-tri-viec-lam-va-dinh-muc-so.html Ministry of Education and Training. (2016a). Functions and duties of the Department of Higher - i hoc). https://moet.gov.vn/giaoducquocdan/ Education (Chu´,c n˘ang, nhiê.m vu. cuij a Vu. giáo du.c da . . giao-duc-dai-hoc/Pages/chuc-nang-nhiem-vu.aspx?ItemID=2074 Ministry of Education and Training. (2016b). Professional training programme in line with ECEC ` du,o˜,ng theo tiêu chuâij n chu´,c danh nghê` nghiê.p giáo viên teacher level II, III, IV (Chu,o,ng trình bôi ` mâm non ha.ng II, ha.ng III và ha.ng IV). Ministry of Education and Training. (2018a). ECEC 5 years after implementing Resolution 29` non 5 n˘am triêij n khai Nghi. quyêt ´ 29-NQ/TW: NQ/TW: A significant transformation (Giáo du.c mâm ij ,, buo´ c chuyên mình quan tro.ng). https://moet.gov.vn/tintuc/Pages/doi-moi-can-ban-toan-dien-gdva-dt.aspx?ItemID=5638 - i hoc). Ministry of Education and Training. (2018b). Law on Higher Education (Luâ.t giáo du.c da . .

248

G. Neylon and X. Le

Ministry of Education and Training. (2019). Focus on addressing the shortage of ECEC teachers ´ tình tra.ng thiêu ´ giáo viên mâm ` non). (Tâ.p trung giaij i quyêt Ministry of Education and Training. (2019a). Regular professional training for ECEC teachers ` du,o˜,ng thu,o`,ng xuyên giáo viên mâm ` non). Retrieved from https://thuvienph (Chu,o,ng trình bôi apluat.vn/van-ban/giao-duc/Thong-tu-12-2019-TT-BGDDT-chuong-trinh-boi-duong-thuongxuyen-giao-vien-mam-non-423846.aspx Ministry of Education and Training. (2019b). To renovate the ECEC curriculum towards an ij ` non theo hu,o´,ng tiên tiên, ´ advanced and modern direction (Ðôi mo´,i chu,o,ng trình giáo du.c mâm hiê.n da.i). https://moet.gov.vn/giaoducquocdan/giao-duc-mam-non/Pages/Default.aspx?ItemID= 6409 Ministry of Education and Training. (2020a). The 2021 ECEC curriculum framework. https://lua tvietnam.vn/giao-duc/thong-tu-51-2020-tt-bgddt-sua-doi-chuong-trinh-giao-duc-mam-non-200 250-d1.html Ministry of Education and Training. (2020b). Child-centred approach has changed the face of the - ij i diên mao giáo duc mâm ´ treij làm trung tâm thay dô ` non). https://moet.gov.vn/ ECEC sector (Lây . . . tintuc/Pages/tin-tong-hop.aspx?ItemID=7088 Ministry of Education and Training. (2020c). Circular promulgating the Regulation on university enrollment; college level enrollment program in early childhood education and care (Thông tu, ij ij - da -ij ` Ban hành Quy chê´ tuyên sinh trình dô . . i ho.c; tuyên sinh trình dô. cao d˘ang ngành giáo du.c mâm non). Ministry of Education and Training. (2021). Circular prescribing codes, standards, professional titles and appointment and rating of teaching staffs in public ECEC - nh mã sô, ´ tiêu chuâij n, chu´,c danh nghê` nghiê.p và bôij settings (Thông tu, quy di . ´ lu,o,ng viên chu´,c giaij ng dâ.y trong các co, soij, giáo du.c mâm ` non công nhiê.m, xêp lâ.p). https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Lao-dong-Tien-luong/Thong-tu-01-2021-TT-BGDDTma-so-va-bo-nhiem-xep-luong-vien-chuc-giang-day-giao-duc-mam-non-464396.aspx Ministry of Education and Training & Ministry of Home Affairs. (2015a). Joint Circular on guiding the functions, tasks, powers and organisational structure of the provincial Department of Education and Training under the People’s Committee of the province or under city directly under the Central Government, the Bureau of Education and Training under the People’s Committee of districts, urban districts and towns communes and cities under the province ˜ vê` chu´,c n˘ang, nhiê.m vu., quyên ` ha.n và co, câu ´ tôij chu´,c cuij a Soij, Giáo (Thông tu, liên ti.ch Hu,o´,ng dân ij , ´ du.c và Ðào ta.o thuô.c UNND tinh, thành phô tru. c thuô.c TW, Phòng Giáo du.c và Ðào ta.o thuô.c ij UBND huyê.n, quâ.n, thi. xã, thành phô´ thuô.c tinh). https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/bo-mayhanh-chinh/Thong-tu-lien-tich-11-2015-TTLT-BGDDT-BNV-huong-dan-nhiem-vu-co-cau-tochuc-So-Giao-duc-Dao-tao-275981.aspx Ministry of Education and Training & Ministry of Home Affairs. (2015b). The Joint Circular - nh prescribes codes, standards and professional titles of ECEC teachers (Thông tu,liên ti.ch quy di . ´ tiêu chuâij n, chu´,c danh nghê` nghiê.p Giáo viên mâm ` non). Mã sô, Ministry of Home Affairs. (2017). Functions, duties and organisational structure of the Ministry ´ tôij chu´,c cuij a Bô. Nô.i vu.). https://www.moha.gov. of Home Affairs (Chu´,c n˘ang, nhiê.m vu. và co, câu vn/baucu/tin-tuc-su-kien/chuc-nang-nhiem-vu-va-co-cau-to-chuc-cua-bo-noi-vu-30776.html National College for Education. (2019). ECEC teacher education curriculum framework (Khung - tao ngành Su, pham Giáo duc mâm ` non). http://cdsptw.edu.vn/articledetail. Chu,o,ng trình dào . . . aspx?articleid=450&sitepageid=579 Nguyen, T. K. N. (2009). Thoughts for implementation of the new early childhood education and ` non mo´,i). Paper care curriculum (Mô.t vài suy ngh˜ı tu`, viê.c thu. ,c hiê.n chu,o,ng trình giáo du.c mâm Presented at the Training Teachers to Meet Demands of the New Early Childhood Education Curriculum, Ho Chi Minh City. Nguyen, T. N. Q. (2016). The Vietnamese values system: A blend of orient, western and Socialist values. International Education Studies. Phan, T. T. H. (2005). An investigation into the implementation of the new preschool programme in Vietnam. Masters’ degree, University of Leeds, Leeds.

15 Early Childhood Education and Care in Vietnam …

249

Phan, T. T. H. (2012a). Current curriculum and pedagogy reform in Vietnamese early childhood education: A socio-historical interpretation. In P. W. K. Chan (Ed.), Asia Pacific education diversity, challenges and changes (pp. 87–103). Monash University Publishing. Phan, T. T. H. (2012b). Vietnamese early childhood teacher education and new early childhood education practice: A cultural-historical analysis. Monash University, Melbourne. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations. (2016). ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework. Vietnam National Assembly. (2019). The revised law on public servants and officials (Luâ.t công ij - ij i). https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/bo-may-hanh-chinh/Luat-can-bochu´,c, viên chu´,c su,a dô cong-chuc-va-luat-vien-chuc-sua-doi-2019-405729.aspx - nh phê ´ di Vietnamese Prime Minister. (2016). Vietnam National Qualifications Framework (Quyêt . - quôc ´ duyê.t Khung trình dô gia Viê t Nam). Retrieved from https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/ . . giao-duc/Quyet-dinh-1982-QD-TTg-phe-duyet-khung-trinh-do-quoc-gia-Viet-Nam-2016-327 841.aspx Vietnam Prime Minister. (2018). Project on early childhood education and care development ij - n 2018–2025). https://thuvienph ` non giai doa in 2018–2025 (Ðê` án Phát triên Giáo du.c mâm . apluat.vn/van-ban/giao-duc/Quyet-dinh-1677-QD-TTg-2018-De-an-Phat-trien-Giao-duc-mamnon-2018-2025-401806.aspx Vietnam Prime Minister. (2019). Project on training ECEC teachers and ECEC management - tao, bôi ` du,o˜,ng nhà giáo và cán bô. quaij n lý giáo du.c mâm ` staff in 2018–2025 (Ðê` án dào . non giai doa.n 2018–2025). https://luatvietnam.vn/giao-duc/quyet-dinh-33-qd-ttg-2019-de-andao-tao-nha-giao-can-bo-quan-ly-giao-duc-mam-non-170101-d1.html Vietnamese Congress. (2019). Education Law 2019. Hanoi, Vietnam. https://luatvietnam.vn/giaoduc/luat-giao-duc-2019-175003-d1.html#taive

Chapter 16

Early Childhood Education and Care in Zambia: ECE Provision and Teacher Education Ronald L. Kaunda and Joanne Ailwood

Abstract A focus on early childhood education in Zambia is a recent development, being the focus of various government policies since 2013. Prior to this early childhood education was privately provided (e.g. through private schools), but there was no country-wide framework or guidelines. In 2014, the Teaching Council of Zambia was created to provide professional accreditation and regulation of teacher education and the teaching profession across Zambia. Since the creation of TCZ, a minimum early childhood teacher education qualification at Diploma level as been required and enforced. Given its short history, it is unsurprising to find that there is currently an undersupply of qualified early childhood teachers across Zambia. This chapter explores these recent developments in the Zambian early childhood education sector and considers ongoing potentials and tensions.

Introduction Early childhood care, development and education (ECCDE) is an emerging sector in Zambian education. Until recently, the educational focus in Zambia has been primary, or basic, education catering for grades 1–9 (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013). This is largely due to the wider Zambian history of colonisation and post-independence politics, and the country’s current position as a low income country. Zambia’s government education system is widely under-resourced, especially in the rural areas. While there are policy moves towards increasing formal ECCDE provision in Zambia, including the recent introduction of Bachelor and Diploma level teacher education, in some quarters there is resistance to sharing already scarce government resources into this new sector (Thomas & Thomas, 2009). This is despite international research arguing that completing preschool education is a strong indicator that a child, especially girls, will continue to year one and continue to stay in school and be a successful learner (Dickinson & Smith, 1994; Mwanza-Kabaghe et al., 2015). Early childhood teacher education, R. L. Kaunda · J. Ailwood (B) The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9_16

251

252

R. L. Kaunda and J. Ailwood

while provided at a tertiary level in Zambia, is undervalued in the educational field; a situation shared with many other countries on an international scale. This undervaluing of ECCDE and teacher education for ECCDE, also leads to a relatively low level of research specific to Zambia about teacher education (Zuilkowski et al., 2012). Like other governments in the region, the Government of Zambia commits itself to several international treaties. For example, Zambia is signatory to the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child in Africa, UNESCO’s Education For All agenda, the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. All of these international agreements include an emphasis on general or basic education, with the SDGs including specific goals directed at improving the provision of early childhood education and teacher education by 2030 (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013). Zambia’s government policies of Educating Our Future (Ministry of Education, 1996), the 6th National Development Plan (Ministry of Finance and National Planning, 2011), and the Zambia Education Curriculum Framework (Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training, and Early Education, 2013) all reflect Zambia’s policy commitment to children’s educational rights, including ECCDE. However, while this commitment exists in policy, it seems to be mostly symbolic with the provision and uptake of formal early childhood education remaining low across Zambia, at 29.4% (Ministry of General Education, 2019). In this chapter we explore some of the historical and contemporary background of ECCDE teacher education and the provision of ECCDE in Zambia. This provides the context for us to then focus on recent reforms and challenges for teacher education in Zambia’s ECCDE sector.

ECCDE and Zambia’s Education System Zambia, officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country located in Central, Southern Africa in the Sub-Saharan African (SSA) region. It is surrounded by eight neighbouring countries. Namely, Angola to the west, Democratic Republic of Congo to the north, Tanzania to the north east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the south (Central Statistical Office, 2006). Zambia’s economy is primarily driven by copper mining, agriculture, construction, transport and communication sectors (Central Statistical Office, 2012). Zambia’s education system consists of ECCDE, primary, secondary, and tertiary education. ECCDE is divided into day-care (0–2 year olds) and preschool (3–6 year olds). According to the Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education (2013, p. 26), ‘Early Childhood Care, Development and Education refers to both non-formal and formal service provision, which prepares children for entry into Primary School Education (PSE).’ It further defines Early Childhood Education (ECE) as ‘Education provided to young children of 3–6 years which prepares them for formal schooling.’ The early years field in Zambia is thus divided between daycare for 0–2 year olds, and preschool for 3–6 year olds, reflecting international tensions between care and education in the early years. The definition of ECE for 3–6 year olds as preparation

16 Early Childhood Education and Care in Zambia …

253

for formal schooling also reflects international debates over the purpose of early childhood education (Mumba, 2018). Like most other African nations, Zambia was under colonial rule for much of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Zambia was formerly known as Northern Rhodesia. It was a “protectorate formed by the amalgamation of the protectorates of North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia” (Chishiba & Manchishi, 2016, p. 54). In 1964 Northern Rhodesia became independent from Britain’s colonial rule and was later named Zambia. Prior to independence, ECCDE was incorporated within the mainstream education system and was aligned with the English education system. Preschool was known as Sub-Standard A and B, corresponding to England’s nursery and reception years. Children began their formal schooling with these two preschool years before going on to primary school. During the period of colonisation, the work of teaching was mostly undertaken by missionaries, Zambians were not eligible to become teachers. Mwanza (2016, p. 117) points out that ‘even after independence, the emergent leaders were still dependent on mission societies and British agencies to provide the expertise, manpower, and training skills required for effective teaching, as well as the production of learning materials’ (Mwanza, 2016, p. 117). This is because the interest of missionaries was to spread the gospel, not to educate the population with the advanced skills necessary for development. While at the same time, British settlers were reliant on mission schools to provide Africans who could work as artisans and general labourers in homes and farms, or as administrative staff such as clerks and support staff (Banda & Mwanza, 2017). In 1967, following independence, the education system was restructured and ECCDE became the responsibility of local governments. It was removed from primary schools and instead provided through local community welfare centres. This localised approach to ECCDE provision led to the curriculum becoming highly decentralised as each local government was required to design its own curriculum for their preschools (Muyangali, 2018). The decentralization of ECCDE revealed the lack of support by the central government for the early childhood sector. This system remained in place for several decades, and with time, the decentralisation of the ECCDE curriculum ‘resulted in uncoordinated, fragmented and sub-standard early childhood education’ (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013, p. 5). In 2004, ECCDE was moved from the portfolio of the Ministry of Local Government and Housing, to the Ministry of Education signalling a shift in the Zambian Government’s priorities. At this time, ‘the Ministry of Education was expected to provide as well as coordinate all ECCDE activities’ (UNESCO International Bureau of Education, 2006, p. 4). Later in 2008, ECCDE ‘was incorporated in the education sector chapter of the Fifth National Development Plan (FNDP)’ (Matafwali, 2014; Policy Monitoring and Research Centre, 2017a, p. 1). In 2011, the Government of the Republic of Zambia adopted and incorporated ECCDE into mainstream education and in 2014 it became an integral part of basic educational provision. Until this time most ECCDE teachers had been trained by the Lusaka Preschool Association, formed in 1970 through the Ministry of Local Government and Housing.

254

R. L. Kaunda and J. Ailwood

In 1972 the Association became the Zambia Preschool Association (ZPA). The ZPA played the role of affiliating all pre-schools in order to give technical advice on how to run such institutions. In terms of teacher training, ZPA trained pre-school teachers and organized professional development workshops (Matafwali, 2014; Policy Monitoring and Research Centre, 2017a). Further, ZPA worked with its affiliated training institutions to offer the ‘Peschool Teacher’s Certificate’. Most of these institutions were run by NGOs like Young Women Christian Association (YWCA) and Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation. The core courses were language and literacy, teaching methods, pre-mathematics, and integrated science. ZPA trained both unqualified inservice teachers (practising teachers who held a grade 12 certificate) and preservice teachers (Ministry of Education, 2010).

Teacher Education in the SADC Region Adhering to the UN and other African development goals, Sub-Saharan African countries have worked to increase pre-primary enrolment levels, this has required a concomitant increase in the qualification of early childhood teachers. For instance, beginning in 2011, Tanzania had an increasing trend for preschool attendance, with total enrolment then standing at 41%. This is despite the challenges facing Tanzania, and most other SSA countries, including lack of infrastructure, lack of qualified teachers, and poor learning and teaching materials including furniture and play grounds (Mghasse & William, 2016). Such challenges are also experienced in Botswana where only 17% of eligible children enter into preschool (Maundeni, 2013). However, in many SSA countries, attending pre-primary or ECCDE services does not necessarily lead to an improvement in children’s outcomes. In some SubSaharan countries, reading levels are so poor that up 90% of children who complete the first three years of schooling cannot read (Gove, 2017). These poor outcomes have been linked to inadequate teacher education and qualification. Tambulukani (2015) argues that inappropriate teacher training in literacy instruction in the local language results in learners failing to acquire the necessary skills needed for further education. Further, Kalindi et al. (2018) suggest that early learners’ low literacy rates are due to the absence of a clear emphasis on scientifically valid instructional methods and effective teacher preparation programs in the SSA region. The issue of teacher qualification and education is prominent among the challenges that Sub-Saharan Countries face in their efforts to achieve quality in education in general, and in ECCDE in particular (Kalindi et al., 2018). Teacher education is very important for any country to achieve their educational goals. With qualified teachers, ECCDE has the potential to prepare children for early learning in grade one (Gove, 2017; Jukes et al., 2016). International studies have shown that teachers are important adults in preschools who mediate children’s learning of early skills and knowledge (Bowman et al., 2001; Cunningham, 2010; Lynch, 2009). The choice of core skills and subskills to focus on in the classroom is largely dependent on the teacher (Lynch, 2010; Sandvik et al., 2014). This is because preschool teachers

16 Early Childhood Education and Care in Zambia …

255

who understand content and pedagogy are intentional and strategic in their teaching (Schachter et al., 2016). Preschool teachers who have deep knowledge and understanding of pedagogy understand that the physical learning environment in itself is not sufficient to allow children to gain knowledge and skills. Instead they must intentionally mediate all the learning activities and allow children to participate in the activities that they plan (Marti-Bucknall, 2007; Vernar, 2005). In particular, preschool teachers who have a combination of content and pedagogical knowledge, coupled with their beliefs and attitudes, are able to use a range of effective strategies to support learning (Epstein, 2009). In Zambia and other Sub-Saharan African countries, many ECCDE teachers lack this knowledge due to the history of underqualification in the field.

Teacher Education and Qualification in Zambia Specific early childhood teacher education was historically not available in Zambia’s public teacher training colleges. This changed in 1970 when the Lusaka Preschool Association formed and provided teacher education. As previously noted, the Lusaka Preschool Association later become the Zambia Preschool Association which delivered a one year ‘Preschool Teacher’s Certificate’ (Ministry of Education, 2010). While Zambia acknowledged the international efforts of the UN and other organisations to recognise early childhood education as a child right, this was mostly symbolic. For example, despite the first Education for All goal being the provision of early childhood education, ECCDE remained marginalised in the educational agenda of the Zambian Government. Providing education to all, including school children, was interpreted as building an education system for learners who would acquire skills to bring about social and economic emancipation. To achieve this, teacher education was reframed for building technical and professional competencies in teachers who would later transfer those skills to the learners (Musonda, 1999). As the Zambian Government was acting on the need for early childhood teacher education, from the early 1980s there was a mushrooming of private preschools in urban areas, mostly dotted along the line of the railway, that is, from Livingstone in the Southern Province, through Lusaka to the Copperbelt. Most of these private preschools put emphasis on academic education rather than the holistic development of children. As these preschools were fees based, only parents with the capacity to pay could enrol their children. Children from poor families, therefore, lacked access to formal preschool education. Preschool teacher training was provided by the Zambia Preschool Association, with a gradual increase in private providers offering early childhood teacher training. By 1990 there were approximately 473 qualified preschool teachers in Zambia, increasing to about 1200 by 1997 (UNESCO International Bureau of Education, 2006). Graduates from these institutions acquired a ‘Preschool Teacher’s Certificate’. This certificate remained the qualification to teach in Zambian preschools until 2013, when the government mandated that a diploma should be the minimum qualification (Ministry of Education Science Vocational

256

R. L. Kaunda and J. Ailwood

Training and Early Education, 2013). At the same time, a diploma for children with disabilities was introduced at the Zambia Institute for Special Education (UNESCO International Bureau of Education, 2006). The aim of this course was to train teachers who would teach preschool children with disabilities (UNESCO International Bureau of Education, 2006). It should be noted that during this period of time there were no government ECCDE centres to employ qualified teachers upon their graduation. Instead, new teachers hoped to be employed by the private owners of ECCDE centres or preschools. As a result, teachers who could not be employed by private preschools often decided to move into either primary or secondary teaching (Muyangali, 2018). Like other nations, educational provision in Zambia is a complex and messy matrix of relationships between history, economy, culture, government policy, infrastructure and resourcing, teacher education, and a multitude of other factors (Marten & Kula, 2007; Matafwali & Munsaka, 2011; Thomas & Thomas, 2009). This complexity is intensified by significant levels of poverty and the disparity that exists between rural and urban life experiences and chances. McCoy et al., (2017) found that only 1 in 3 children in Zambia had access to any form of formal pre-primary education. In a context where the scramble for scarce resources makes for difficult decisions, ECCDE provision and teacher education has regularly lost out. McCoy et al., (2017) argue that while the Zambian Government takes formal responsibility for early childhood, teacher education, teacher registration, and curriculum development, the actual delivery of services is fractured and unstable remaining dependent on churches, philanthropic individuals, local governments and a small percentage of preschools annexed in primary schools. In this context, large disparities in access have prompted government officials to weigh the costs and benefits of ECE enrolment expansion vis-à-vis meagre resources available (Evans-Palmer & Shen, 2017). In Zambia, there has been an acute short shortage of teachers at all levels. This situation can be attributed to a number of reasons, including ‘low capacity of teacher training institutions, high attrition rates, and the impact of HIV/AIDS’ (UNESCO (Education Policy Review), 2016, p. 21). This shortage of qualified teachers has led to high pupil-teacher ratios, employment of unqualified or underqualified teachers, and use of primary trained teachers to teach in ECCDE classes. This situation is common to other Sub-Saharan African countries, as many are struggling to qualify and employ early childhood teachers to satisfy the growing number of children enrolling in schools (Kalindi et al., 2018). As a result of challenges arising from the shortage of qualified teachers, national and international early childhood education initiatives to improve the quality of ECCDE are not attained (Association for the Development of Education in Africa, 2014). This situation sometimes results in the engagement of less qualified teachers, and paying them lower salaries, rather than engaging fully qualified, and more expensive, teachers (Evans-Palmer & Shen, 2017).

16 Early Childhood Education and Care in Zambia …

257

Recent Developments in Early Childhood Teacher Education in Zambia Beginning in 2014, the status of ECE teacher education and ECE provision have seen positive changes. Since the creation of the new Zambia Education Curriculum Framework (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013) there has been a recognition of the importance of ECE throughout the education system. Following the inclusion of preschool education in this national curriculum, there has been an ongoing process of annexing preschools to existing primary schools and making it a compulsory part of education; although this has been very slow due to lack of resources (Mumba, 2018). It is envisaged that the focus of preschool on academic learning will prepare learners for later learning in primary school (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013). In addition, this new national curriculum framework is mandated for use by both private and Government preschools. The Zambian Government also inspects the provision and implementation of early childhood programmes in both private and public preschools (Ministry of General Education, 2018; Morgan, 2013). The introduction of early childhood education in public institutions was followed with employment of 1000 qualified early childhood teachers in 2013, who started working in 2014 when the ECE programme was implemented (Policy Monitoring and Research Centre, 2017a). The Zambia National Education Coalition (2016, p. 15) states that by the end of 2015, ‘there were 1526 ECE centres annexed to primary schools serving 70, 000 children of which 52.4% were girls’. The Ministry of General Education noted that by 2017, 65 404 boys and 67 915 girls had preschool experience before entering grade one. This gives a total number of 133,319 grade 1 entrants with preschool experience (Ministry of General Education, 2018). In terms of percentage, by 2017, 27% of children in Zambia had an opportunity to enrol in either private or government run preschools (Matafwali & Chansa-Kabali, 2017). This number increased to 29.4% by 2018 (Ministry of General Education, 2019). However, this number is small compared to other Sub-Saharan African countries, such as South Africa where children’s enrolment in preschool is above 50% (Kotze, 2015). One milestone achieved in these recent policies is that the Government allocates funding for all public ECE centres in the country. An advantage of having public ECCDE is its inclusiveness of children growing up in poverty, who cannot pay the large fees charged by private operators of ECCDE centres in the country. However, while preschools receive allocated funds, these funds only assist the school in acquiring learning and teaching resources. Primary schools that have annexed ECE centres still have to find their own furniture, classrooms and other infrastructure for providing these ECE classrooms (Policy Monitoring and Research Centre, 2017b).

258

R. L. Kaunda and J. Ailwood

Teacher Training for ECCDE In the context of the 2013 Zambian Education Curriculum Framework, and in order to move towards a qualified ECE workforce, all ECE teachers in Zambia are now officially required to hold a minimum of a diploma or a bachelor’s degree. To be admitted for enrolment in a preschool teacher education institution, students are required to hold a school certificate with 5 O-levels, including mathematics and English (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013; Mumba, 2018). Colleges and universities involved in teacher training offer both in-service and preservice training for ECE teachers. These colleges and universities offer diplomas and degrees respectively. The aspiration of the Ministry of Education is to have a bachelor’s degree as minimum qualification for all ECE teachers. The degree programme for preservice programmes is 4 years or more while the diploma course is not to be less than 3 years (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013). These programs are relatively flexible, with teacher education institutions empowered to determine their courses depending on whether students are in-service or preservice, or require short courses for professional development (Mumba, 2018). As is the case in other countries, such as Australia, early childhood teachers who wish to upgrade their certificate or diploma degrees may be exempted from some subjects. Students in the diploma programmes complete two professional teaching experiences in two 13 week school terms, the first one being in term one of their second year, and the second in the first term of their third year (Muyangali, 2018). ECE preservice teachers in universities studying for a bachelor degree are required to attend school-based professional experience for one full 13 week school term. During the school-based professional experience, ECE teachers are assigned tasks whereby they ‘demonstrate progressive proficiency in a variety of learning areas, teaching and professional skills’ (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013, p. 48). Further, short courses intended for teacher professional development can be offered by universities and teacher training colleges, varying in form from one week to twelve weeks (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013). The current ECE teacher education diploma or degree programs are envisaged to prepare teachers to teach preschool children aged between 2 and 6 years old within ECE centres. This means that in Zambia there is no teacher education qualification to work with 0–2 year olds. Key competences to be taught at all teacher training colleges and universities are prescribed in the 2013 Zambian Education Curriculum Framework. In addition, teacher education programmes aim to graduate teachers with high levels of competences in ‘material that is to be taught, skills in different teaching methodologies, understanding educational foundations, creativity, constructiveness and innovation (skill acquired) and providing competent leadership’ (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013, p. 49). In addition, ICT is included in all training colleges in order to equip preschool teachers with ICT skills needed for new learning areas which require the use and teaching of ICT.

16 Early Childhood Education and Care in Zambia …

259

All ECE teacher educational programmes include education foundation courses and teaching courses, as follows: Education Foundations: Under the current ECE teacher education curriculum, foundation courses include: child psychology, history and philosophy of early childhood education, production of aids (teaching/learning aids), sociology of early childhood education, guidance and counselling, research methods, health, nutrition and first aid, organisation and management of early childhood education, early childhood special education and entrepreneurship education. Teaching Courses: Teaching courses in the current ECE teacher education curriculum include pre-literacy and language, music, games and dances, expressive arts, pre-mathematics, information and communications technology, environmental science, social studies, and home economics (Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013, pp. 50–51). These study areas are the core areas around which a diploma or degree programme must be based. The Ministry of Education has devised mechanisms through which colleges are regulated to ensure they are following these core curriculum areas. This is done by imposing teacher education curriculum on teacher training institutions, describing core content areas and key competences to be covered and the duration of the course both at diploma and degree levels, linking the school curriculum to teacher education and finally, establishing the Teaching Council of Zambia that ensures that colleges are adhering to the standards outlined by the ministry of education through the enactment of the Teaching Profession Act No. 5 of 2013 (Government of Zambia, 2013; Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education, 2013; Simuyaba & Chibwe, 2016).

Other Developments for the ECE Profession in Zambia To improve the teaching profession at all levels, the Government of the Republic of Zambia enacted the Teaching Profession Act No. 5 of 2013. Simuyaba and Chibwe (2016) explain that ‘this Act, among other things, provides for the establishment of the Teaching Council of Zambia (TCZ). The Act is primarily intended to provide for the regulation of teachers, their practice and professional conduct. It also provides for the accreditation and regulation of Colleges of Education through approval of teacher training programmes’ (p. 17). To achieve its goals, the Teaching Profession Act No. 5 of 2013 mandates that the TCZ manages teacher registration and accreditation. Teacher registration was launched on 3rd February 2016 by the Minister of General Education. The emphasis from the TCZ was that only qualified teachers would be allowed to teach in Zambian schools. According to this Act, a teacher is a: person who is qualifies, registered and teachers or instructs, a head of school, a principal or lecturer of a college of education, a technical education instructor, head of department of education or an education unit at any other educational institution, other than a university (Government of Zambia, 2013).

260

R. L. Kaunda and J. Ailwood

Once teachers complete an accredited qualification, they then apply for registration and teaching certification with the TCZ. Teacher registration also caters for students in teacher training institutions. Student teacher registration allows students to do their teaching practice in Zambian schools while they are still studying. The formation of TCZ is an important landmark for teacher education in Zambia, attempting to ensure that across all sectors only qualified teachers can be registered and employed as practicing teachers.

Challenges in ECCDE ECCDE has always been integral to the development of children in Zambia. However, formal provision has historically been left in the hands of ‘local authorities, local communities, NGOs and private individuals’ (Thomas & Thomas, 2009, p. 7). Teacher education and the provision of formal early childhood education remains fraught with challenges. Given the current conditions of under-resourcing for primary schools, there are suggestions from some scholars that the Government of the Republic of Zambia have rushed to implement ECCDE programmes. Reasons given for this position are that there is scarcity of materials such as playgrounds, classrooms, books and other teaching aids that are necessary for teaching children in preschool centres. In the context of this scarcity of existing resources, introducing ECE classes into already under-resourced primary schools has meant displacing some of the primary children in order to accommodate early childhood learners (Thomas & Thomas, 2009; Zuilkowski et al., 2012). Although the Teaching Profession Act No. 5 of 2013 sets out that only teachers who are qualified and registered can teach in Zambian schools and early childhood centres, there remain many practicing teachers who do not meet these qualifications and are unregistered. This is an historical artefact of ‘the post-independence education policies which provided that anyone who had basic qualifications at secondary school level could attend in-service teacher training and…that person was allowed to practice as a teacher’ (Simuyaba & Chibwe, 2016, p. 19). Educational policies also contributed to the numbers of unqualified teachers who still work in some preschools, especially in community schools. Further some teachers in community schools are graduates of private colleges. Historically, many private colleges enrolled students in their Preschool Teacher Certificates who did not meet the minimum entry requirements for the Government colleges. Given the lowered standards in these private colleges, these teachers were regarded as unqualified by the TCZ (The Teaching Council of Zambia, 2016). Despite this, they continue to teach in some community preschools (Thomas & Thomas, 2009). A further challenge concerning quality is that training as an ECE teacher is relatively affordable for students in terms of university or college fees. This has attracted many students who can afford to pay, but it has also been argued that this has compromised the quality of training in institutions whose academic excellence is perceived

16 Early Childhood Education and Care in Zambia …

261

to be diminished due to the ease of entry (Tambulukani, 2015). This has been exacerbated by a shortage of staff in colleges, leading to large class sizes for teacher education students (Simuyaba & Chibwe, 2016). The relative affordability of an ECE teaching degree has also led to an over-supply of ECE teachers, with many qualified teachers remaining unemployed for 2 or more years after graduation. This is despite the Government employing approximately 1000 ECE teachers and the ongoing issue of unqualified or underqualified teachers working in the field. This lag between qualification and employment leads to reduced professional knowledge and less commitment to ongoing professional development (Mumba, 2018). The employment lag time also intersects with issues such as teachers having to walk very long distances to schools, very large teacher–child ratios of about 1–40, and a lack of materials and resources for planning and implementing lessons (Gove, 2017). Taken together these workplace conditions are not ideal. As is the case in so many countries, ECE teachers in Zambia struggle to be perceived as professional, and many leave the sector due to its low social status.

Conclusion The early childhood care, development and education sector in Zambia faces many challenges. Following a long period of neglect by the Zambian Government, it is now a focus of reforms and the ongoing building of the education system including improving the qualifications of teachers. However, despite the presence of the TCZ and the requirement for a bachelor or diploma qualification, ECCDE teachers continue to face similar biases as those in other nations; those of perceived inferiority, lack of professionalism and knowledge, and sub-par working conditions. In Zambia this is exacerbated by the high levels of poverty, the continual struggle for adequate resourcing, the complex system of over 20 local languages, and broader under-resourcing for public systems, for example transport, which makes travel to and from school difficult. The patchy history of early childhood teacher education in Zambia reflects the historical patchiness of early childhood teacher education in other Sub-Saharan African countries where the focus has been on basic (or primary) education. This has resulted in lack of status and lack of policy attention and funding for ECCDE and early childhood teacher education. While the Zambian Government’s recent reforms and developments are a positive sign, there is much still be done before an equitable and just system of ECCDE is provided for all Zambian children and their teachers.

262

R. L. Kaunda and J. Ailwood

References Association for the Development of Education in Africa. (2014). Southern African Development Community (SADC) region: Reviewing the region’s progress in reaching the goals of the second decade of education for Africa. Retrieved from Harare, Zimbabwe: www.adeanet.org Banda, F., & Mwanza, D. S. (2017). Language-in-education policy and linguistic diversity in Zambia: An alternative explanation to low reading levels among primary school pupils. In M. K. Banja (Ed.), Selected readings in education. University of Zambia Press. Bowman, B. T., Donovan, M. S., & Burns, M. S. (Eds.). (2001). Eager to learn: Educating our preschoolers. National Academy Press. Central Statistical Office. (2006). Living conditions monitoring survey report 2006. Lusaka. Central Statistical Office. (2012). 2010 census of population and housing-national analytical report. Central Statistical Office, Lusaka. Chishiba, G. M., & Manchishi, P. C. (2016). The language strategy in the Zambian educational system from 1924 to 2014. International Journal of Language and Literature, 4(1), 54–59. Cunningham, D. D. (2010). Relating preschool quality to children’s literacy development. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37, 501–507. Dickinson, K. D., & Smith, W. M. (1994). Long-term effects of preschool teachers’ book readings on low-income children’s vocabulary and story comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 29(10), 104–122. Epstein, A. S. (2009). The intentional teacher. Exchange 45–53. Evans-Palmer, T. E., & Shen, M. (2017). Embers to bonfires: An analysis of early childhood teacher training in Zambia. Africa Education Review, 14(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627. 2016.1224555 Gove, A. (2017). What we are learning about early education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(3), 530–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2017. 1335091 Government of Zambia. (2013). The Teaching Profession Act No. 5 of 2013. Lusaka, Zambia. Jukes, M. C. H., Turner, E. L., Dubeck, M. M., Halliday, K. E., Inyega, H. N., Wolf, S., Zuilkowski, S. S., & Brooker, S. J. (2016). Improving literacy instruction in Kenya through teacher professional development and text messages support: A cluster randomized trial. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(3), 449–481. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2016.1221487 Kalindi, S. C., McBride, C., & Dan, L. (2018). Early literacy among Zambian second graders: The role of adult mediation of word writing in Bemba. Reading Research Quarterly, 53(1), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.180 Kotze, J. (2015). The readiness of the South African education system for the pre-Grade R year. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 5(2), 1–27. Lynch, J. (2009). Preschool teachers’ beliefs about children’s print literacy development. Early Years, 29(2), 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575140802628743 Lynch, J. (2010). Kindergarten teachers’ beliefs about students’ knowledge of print literacy and parental involvement in children’s print literacy development. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 56(2), 157–171. Marten, L., & Kula, N. C. (2007). Zambia: ‘One Zambia, one nation, many languages’. In Simpson (Ed.), Language and national identity in Africa (pp. 291–313). Oxford University Press. Marti-Bucknall, W. (2007). The home-school connection: Immigrant family literacy practices and use of technology in home/first language learning. Ph.D. thesis, University of Canberra, Canberra. Matafwali, B. (2014). Evaluation of the interactive radio instruction (IRI) pilot programme in early childhood education in the Eastern Province of Zambia. Ministry of Education, Science Vocational Training and Early Education. Matafwali, B., & Chansa-Kabali, T. (2017). Towards sustainable access to early childhood development in Zambia: Re-envisioning the role of community based early childhood programs in promoting school readiness. Creative Education, 8(6), 901–911.

16 Early Childhood Education and Care in Zambia …

263

Matafwali, B., & Munsaka, E. (2011). A situation analysis of early childhood education in Zambia. UNICEF. Maundeni, T. (2013). Early childhood care and education in Botswana: A necessity that is accessible to few children. Creative Education, 4(7A1), 54–59. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2013.47A1008 McCoy, D. C., Zuilkowski, S. S., Yoshikawa, H., & Fink, G. (2017). Early childhood care and education and school readiness in Zambia. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(3), 482–506. Mghasse, N. E., & William, F. (2016). Practices and challenges in the provision of pre-primary education in Tanzania. African Research Review, 10(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v10 i1.1 Ministry of Education. (1996). Educating our future. ZEPH. Ministry of Education. (2010). National implementation framework III 2011–2015. Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education Science Vocational Training and Early Education. (2013). Zambia education curriculum framework 2013. Curriculum Development Centre. Ministry of Finance and National Planning. (2011). Sixth national development plan 2011–2015. Ministry of Finance and Planning. Ministry of General Education. (2018). Educational statistical bulletin 2017. Ministry of General Education. Ministry of General Education. (2019). Educational statistical bulletin 2018. Ministry of General Education. Morgan, J. (2013). International recognition of children’s rights and its influence on early childhood education and care: The case of Zambia. In J. Georgeson & J. Payler (Eds.), International perspectives on early childhood education and care. McGraw-Hill Education. Mumba, B. (2018). A comparative study between turkey and Zambia teacher education system. Ph.D. thesis, Mersin University, Mersin. Musonda, L. W. (1999). Teacher education reform in Zambia...is it a case of a square peg in a round hole? Teaching and Teacher Education, 15, 157–168. Muyangali, M. (2018). Beyong the ordinary pedagogy: Focus on the development of love, care, and belief in the early childhood teacher training in Zambia. Paper Presented at the eNSPIRED Learning Week, Kitwe, Zambia. Mwanza-Kabaghe, S., Mubanga, E., Matafwali, B., Kasonde-Ngandu, S., & Bus, G. A. (2015). Zambian preschools: A boost for early literacy? English Linguistics Research, 4(4), 1–10. https:// doi.org/10.5430/elr.v4n4p1 Mwanza, S. D. (2016). A citical reflection on eclecticism in the teaching of English grammar at selected Zambian secondary schools. Ph.D. thesis, University of the Western Cape, Western Cape. Policy Monitoring and Research Centre. (2017a). Early childhood care, development and education in Zambia. PMRC Research and Analysis Division. Policy Monitoring and Research Centre. (2017b). The status of early childhood care, development and education in Zambia. PMRC Research and Analysis Division. Sandvik, J. M., Daal, V. H. P. V., & Ader, J. H. (2014). Emergent literacy: Preschool teachers’ beliefs and practices. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 14(1), 28–52. Schachter, R. E., Spear, C. F., Piasta, S. B., Justice, L. M., & Logan, J. A. R. (2016). Early childhood educators’ knowledge, beliefs, education, experiences, and children’s language- and literacylearning opportunities: What is the connection? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36, 281– 294. Simuyaba, E., & Chibwe, P. (2016). Teacher professionalism in Zambia: Practices, challenges and prospects in the post-2015 era. Paper Presented at the The IIER International Conference, Sweden, Stockholm. Tambulukani, G. K. (2015). Fisrt language teaching of initial reading: Blessing or curse for the Zambian children under Primary Reading Programme? Ph.D. thesis, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia.

264

R. L. Kaunda and J. Ailwood

The Teaching Council of Zambia. (2016). Code of ethics for the teaching profession in Zambia. TCZ. Thomas, C. M., & Thomas, M. A. M. (2009). Early childhood care and education in Zambia: An integral part of educational provision? Current Issues in Comparative Education, 11, 6–14. UNESCO (Education Policy Review). (2016). Zambia education policy review: Paving the way for SDG 4—Education 2030. UNESCO. UNESCO International Bureau of Education. (2006). Zambia Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) programmes. UNESCO. Vernar, D. (2005). What factors influence world literacy? Is Africa different? In Policy Research Working Paper 3496. World Bank. Zambia National Education Coalition. (2016). The link between health, nutrition, child development and education: A situational analysis on early childhood care, development and education in Zambia. Children Sentinel Trust Zambia. Zuilkowski, S. S., Fink, G., Moucheraud, C., & Matafwali, B. (2012). Early childhood education, child development and school readiness: Evidence from Zambia. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 2(2), 117–136.

Ronald L. Kaunda is a Zambian scholar currently studying for Ph.D. at the University of Newcastle, Australia. His work focuses on early childhood literacy. Particularly, he is interested in researching into school and home environment literacies and the impact of the cultural environment on them. Joanne Ailwood is Associate Professor at the University of Newcastle, Australia. Her research focuses on early childhood and primary education, policy, and children and families making use of poststructural theoretical perspectives. She has published in the fields of history and policies of education, early childhood education, and teacher education. Joanne’s research is qualitative and is underpinned by the theoretical perspectives of Michel Foucault and Rosi Braidotti, making use of document analyses, case studies, and ethnographies.

Conclusion

Early childhood teacher education has had significant growth around the world in the last 40 years. Growth has been dependent on early childhood education policy across countries including implementation of access equality, universal access and high quality learning programs and highly skilled teachers. An overall focus has been supporting the learning and development of young children. Across the countries who contributed to this book there is difference in how this is actually achieved at a professional as well as a practical level. Countries are bound by contextual and cultural differences that directly influences design and implementation of early childhood teacher education. There is strong variation around duration of teacher education, content of teacher education, age of young children that courses train students to work with, and also different curricula to be implemented. For some countries, early childhood teacher education has a long tradition, while for some countries early childhood teacher education is relatively new. Some countries appear to have external regulators of teacher education programs, while other countries may not. Based on the contents of the book, we have run a word cloud to determine the major terms used across the chapters to help create a brief summary (Fig. A.1) to bring the book to an end. The purpose is to provide a brief qualitative summation and draw out brief key reflections. From Fig. A.1 we can reflect that: • ‘Teacher’ was the preferred term for a graduate from early childhood teacher education • While early childhood teacher education was delivered within many universities, in many countries it was referred to as ‘training’. • Programs was a highly used word to summarise the learning journeys for early childhood teachers. • Experience was an important component of teacher education in many countries to gain valuable skills and knowledge in authentic contexts. • Early childhood education and early childhood teacher education were governed by many policies to achieve quality.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 W. Boyd and S. Garvis (eds.), International Perspectives on Early Childhood Teacher Education in the 21st Century, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5739-9

265

266

Conclusion

Fig. A.1 Word cloud of book contents

• Registration was a dominant word for some countries, with early childhood teachers being registered as a professional teacher. • A strong focus was placed on learning ‘education’ within the teacher education programs besides a focus on the rhetoric of ‘care’. • Preschool was a common term across early childhood teacher education, with the programs focusing on the education of children 3 years and up. Some acknowledgement was given to birth to 2 years, however this was dependent on parental leave policies within each of the countries into how much focus was on children under two years in teacher education. • The history of early childhood teacher education varies greatly across the countries in the book, however all early childhood teacher education programs aimed to be ‘contemporary’ and ‘current’ in their approach. • The concept of ‘work’ dominated many of the chapters in regards to the tasks of the early childhood teacher.

Conclusion

267

• Engagement with ‘stakeholders’ also appeared an important role of early childhood teacher education in many countries. As editors, we realise the book only represents a handful of countries. We advocate that this volume is a work in progress for early childhood teacher education and hope to build the representation of countries to truly contribute to a worldly understanding of early childhood teacher education. This will allow greater sharing of practices, understandings, knowledges and skills to enable and sustain high quality early childhood teachers. By coming together, we can strengthen the field of early childhood teacher education and provide the best possible learning environments for all children to reach their potential.