Fourth-Century Coin Finds from Roman Britain: A Computer Analysis 9780860545224, 9781407318011

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Fourth-Century Coin Finds from Roman Britain· A Computer Analysis

N. S. Ryan

BAR British Series 183 1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR 183,1988 'Fourth-Century Coin Finds from Roman Britain' @ N.S.Ryan,1988 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545224 paperback ISBN 9781407318011 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545224 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C on ten t s

1 1

1 1 . 1 1 .2 1 . 3 1 . 4

I n troduc t ion a nd B ackground I n t roduc t ion : t he p l ace o f c o in s i na r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch A im s o f t he r e sea rch B ackg round t ot he r e search T he d eve lopmen t o f t he emp ir ica l s t udy o f Roman c o in f i nd s

2 2 . 1 2 .2 2 .3 2 .4 2 .4 .1 2 .4 .2

T he D a ta I n t roduc t ion R eco rd ing c a ta logue r e fe rence s D a ta c olec t ion T he n a tu re o f t he d a ta S ou rce s o f ' b ia s ' i nt he p roduc t ion o fd a ta C o in f i nd s a nd c o in l o s s

2 4 2 4 2 5 2 7 2 9 3 0 3 2

3 3 . 1 3 .2 3 .3 3 .4 3 .4 .1 3 .4 .2 3 .4 .3 3 .4 .4 3 .4 .5 3 .4 .6 3 .5 3 .6 3 .6 .1 3 .7 3 .7 .1 3 .7 .2 3 .7 .3 3 .8 3 .9

T he C o inf ind D a taba se I n t roduc t ion R equ i remen t s o f t he c ompu te r s y s tem D a ta Ana ly s i s C od ing t he d a ta T he COINLIST e n t i ty T he COINTYPE e n t i ty T he CO 1NREFS e n t i ty T he CO INF IND e n t i ty T he M E e n t i ty T he r ema in ing e n t i t ie s M ic ro -compu te r p rog ram s P rog ram l im i ta t ion s a nd t he d a taba se a pp roach T he r e la t iona l d a ta mode l P roce s s ing t he d a ta D a ta e n try COLNL IST p ro ce s s ing I n forma t ion r e t r ieva l I mp lemen ta t ion o f t he d a taba se F u tu re d eve lopmen t o f t he C o in l i s t d a taba se

3 8 3 8

4 4 . 1 4 .2 4 .3 4 .4 4 .5 4 .6 4 .6 .1 4 .6 .2 4 .6 .3 4 .7

D e scr ip t ion a nd A na ly s i s o ft h e D a ta Ou t l ine d e scr ip t ion o f t he c ole c ted d a ta A im s o f t he a na ly s i s C hrono log ica l v ar ia t ion a nd t he b ackg round p opu la t ion o fc o in f i nd s P r inc ipa l C omponen t s a na ly s i s o f i n t ra s i te v ar ia t ion S pa t ia l v ar ia t ion i nc h rono log ica l g roup ing s o fc o in s T he s ou rce s o f t he c o in s d epo s i ted i nB r i ta in 2 94 t o3 26AD : L ondon a nd T r ie r 3 26 t o3 53AD : T r ie r , L yon s a nd A r le s 3 53 o nwa rd s : A r le s a nd L yon s w i th R ome , Aqu i le ia o r S i sc ia T he B r i t i sh p a t te rn i nt he c on tex t o f t he We s te rn Emp i re

3

5 6

3 8 4 0 4 3 4 3 4 6 4 7 4 7 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 2 5 3 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 0 6 3 6 4 7 2 8 8 9 4 1 01 1 05 1 06 1 08

5 5 . 1 5 .2 5 .3 5 .4

T he A ge o fC o in s a tD epo s i t ion I n t roduc t ion : C o in s a nd D at ing T he C h rono log ica l D i s t r ibu t ion s o f C o in s a nd C on tex t s D e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f t he f our th c en tu ry ma te r ia l T he Ave rage Age o f C o in s a tD epo s i t ion

10 10 15 1 29 1 34

6 6 . 1 6 .2 6 .3 6 .4 6 .5 6 .6

C onc lus ion s T he i n teg ra t ion o fc ompu t ing me thod s i n to t he r e sea rch p roce s s T he p re sen ta t ion o fc o in f i nd d a ta T he s upp ly o f c o in s i nt he f ou r th c en tury T he u se o f c o in s i nt he f our th c en tur y C o in s a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a t ing

1 43 1 43 1 43 1 46 1 48 1 51 1 55

B ibl iog raphy

1 57

A ppend ice s S i te s E xam ined i nt he S urvey No te s f o r Gu idance i nC omp le t ing R eco rd F orm s A cce s s t ot he Re co rded C o in D a ta O the r a pp roache s t or e co rd ing c o in d a ta E xac t ly i den t if ied f our th c en tury c o in s I dent i f ied f i nd s b y d a te a nd m in t F our th c en tury c o in f i nd s : s i te s ummary d iag ram s

1 77 1 77 1 82 1 89 1 90 1 93 1 96 2 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

A cknow ledgemen t s

T he r e sea rch p ro je c t r epor ted i n t h i s v o lume h a s b ene f i ted d i re c t ly a nd i nd ire c t ly f r om t he a s s is tance , e ncou ragemen t a nd c r i t ic i sm o f many p eop le . T he p re sen t t e x t h a s i t s o r ig in s i na d oc to ra l t he s i s b a sed o n w o rk d one i n t he C ompu t ing D epar tmen t o f No r th S t a f fo rd sh ire P o ly te chn ic . I ti st he re fo re a pp ropr ia te t ha t Ib eg in w i th t hank s t o m y s uperv i so r s , J ohn W i l c ock a t Nor th S ta f fo rd sh ire P o ly te chn ic a nd R icha rd R ee ce a t t he I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , L ondon , w ho h ave b o th ma in ta ined t he i r c on f idence i n t h i s p ro je c t a nd p rov ided n e ce s sary c r i t ic i sm a nd e ncouragemen t t h roughou t . I n a dd i t ion , I an Hodde r p rov ided v a luab le a nd c on s t ruc t ive c r i t ic i sm i n h i s r o le a se x te rna l e xam ine r . Iam a l so i ndeb ted t o f o rme r c oleague s a t Nor th S ta f fo rd sh ire P o ly te chn ic w ho c on tr ibu ted t o ap roduc t ive a nd c r i t ica l e nv i ronmen t f o r a r chaeo log ica l c ompu t ing r e sea r ch ; i n p ar t icu lar , D an Sm i th a nd J u l ian R ichard s , w ho se r ap id r e spon se s t o e l ec t ron ic ma i l h ave s o lved a n umbe r o f b ib l iog raph ic p rob lem s . T he c ompu te r o pe ra t ion s s t a f f a nd managemen t a t b o th No r th S ta f fo rd sh i re P o ly te chn ic a nd t he Un ive r s i ty o f K en t h ave p rov ided v a luab le p rac t ica l s uppor t . T hank s mu s t a l so g o t o t he DEC VAX 1/750 c a l led Hawk a nd t he 1 /780 c a l led E ag le , o n w h ich t he g rea t ma jo r i ty o f t he t e x t a nd i lu s t ra t ion s w e re p roduced . F inaly , Imu s t t hank my c oleague s i nt he C omput ing L abo ra to ry a nd t he F acu l ty o f S oc ia l S c ience s a t t he Un ive r s i ty o f K en t , many o f w hom h ave p rov ided e ncouragemen t a nd a dv ice t owa rd s t he c omp le t ion o f t h i s t he s i s . P ar t icu la r t hank s g o t o Mar t in B room w ho h a s s t o i c a l ly e ndured s eve ra l y ear s o f s har ing a n o ff ice w i th a n a r chaeo log i s t , a nd t oJ ane t B agg w ho h a s r ead a nd c ommen ted o n many p ar t s o f t h i s w o rk a s w e l l a s p rov id ing c on t inuou s e ncouragemen t t owa rd s i t s c omp le t ion . A l though many h ave s ugge s ted i mp rovemen t s t o t he me thod s o f r e search a nd t o t he f i na l t e x t , f i na l r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r a ny e r ro r s a nd om i s s ion s mu s t , o f c our se , l i e w i th t he a u tho r .

1 :I n troduc t ion a nd B ackground

1 . 1 I n troduc t ion : t h e p l ace o fc o in s i na rchaeo log ica l r e search T he a va i lab i l i ty o f l a rge n umbe r s o f Roman c o in s f r om c olec t ion s , o f ten o fc ons ide rab le a n t i q u i ty , a s w e l l a s f r om h oa rd s a nd o the r f i nd s , h a s l e d t o t he ir i n ten s ive s t udy q u i te i ndepen d en t o f a ny a r chaeo log ica l o r f o rme r s oc ia l c on tex t . Th i s c an b e s een a s t he r e su l t o f t wo o ve r lapp ing s phe re s o f i n te re s t ; o ne t ha t w e m igh t c l as s ify a s a cadem ic , t he o the r a s p ar t o f a w ide sp read l a y i n te re s t i n c olec t ing r a re o r o the rw i se i n te re s t ing o b jec t s . I n b o th c a se s , t he a ppa ren t ly d i rec t c onne c t ion s , t h rough i n sc r ip t ion s , p or t ra i t s a nd r eve r se d e s ign s , w i th r e co rded h i s tor ica l e ven t s a nd p eop le h ave p rov ided a f o cu s ; e i the r f o r ad e ta i led s t udy o f t ha t h i s tor ica l c on tex t , o r t o e s tab l i sh r e la t ive v a lue s o f r a re o b jec t s w ho se modern w ea l th s t o rage p o tent ia l i sq u i te i ndependen t o f a ny f o rme r s i gn i f icance a s money o b jec t s . T he a cadem ic c oncern i sg ene raly s een a s t he p r inc ipa l o b je c t o f n um i sma t ic s , a l though s t rong l i nk s r ema in t h rough mu seum s , s pec ia l i s t p ubl ica t ion s a nd s a le room s w i th t he c o l le c t o r s . T oday , t he ma in t h ru s t o f n um i sma t ic s t udy i sd i rec ted t oward s , o n t he o ne h and , a d e ta i led u nde r s tand ing o f t he d eve lopmen t o f t he c o in s i s sued f o r s ucce s s ive r u le r s f r om t he v a r iou s m in t s , a nd , o n t he o the r , p lac ing t he se i s sue s w i th in ah i s tor ica l a nd p o l i t ica l c on tex t . T he p r inc ipa l g a in t o a r chaeo logy f r om t h i s w o rk h a s b een t he e s tab l i shmen t o f a n i nc rea s i ng ly r el iab le c hrono log ica l s equence o fi s sue s . O f o the r c l as se s o f a r te fac t f ound o n Roman s i te s , o n ly i n scr ip t ion s r egu lar ly c on ta in i n te r n a l l i nk s w i th h i s to r icaly a t te s ted e ven t s . T hey a re , h oweve r , f a r l e s s n ume rou s a s s i te f i nd s , a nd a re u sua l ly a s soc ia ted o n ly w i th u rban a nd m i l i tary s i te s . T he c ommon f e a tu re o f c o in s a nd i n sc r ip t ion s w h ich a l low s t he i r d a te o f manu fac ture t o b e d e term ined , o f ten w i th g rea t p rec i s ion , h a s b een s e ized u pon b y a r chaeo log i s t s t o t he e x ten t t ha t much d a t ing o f a r te fac t s , a nd h ence o f e xcava ted s i te s , o f t he Roman p e r iod i so f ten u l t ima te ly r e l ian t u pon o ne o r o the r o f t he se a r te fac t t ype s . I n c on t ra s t d a t ing b y h i s to r ica l a s soc ia t ion s a nd t he c oncep t o f t he ' d a ted s i te ' , o nce t he p r imary s ou rce s o f a r te fac t d a te s , a re n ow l e s s w ide ly u sed [ K ing , 1 981 , 5 5 -7 ] . T he d a t ing o f N ew F o re s t p o t te ry [ Fu l fo rd , 1 975 , 3 9 ] , t o n ame b u t o ne e xamp le , d epend s p r imar i ly o n t he e v idence f r om e xcavat ion s a tP or t che s te r [ Cun l i f fe , 1 975 ] w he re t he p r imary d a t ing o f t he r e levan t l a ye r s i si nvar iab ly t aken f r om t he c o in s . I n o the r c a se s , t h i s r e l iance i s n o t a lway s s o r ead i ly a ppa ren t , f o r t he c ha in o f a s soc ia t ion may p a s s t h rough s eve ra l s e r ie s o f ' d a ted ' a r te fac t s , b e fo re a r r iv ing a t t he o r ig ina l l i nk w i th c o in s o r i n scr ip t ion s . F u l fo rd w a s c l ea r ly a wa re o f many o f t he l im i ta t ion s o f h i s d a t ing . B u t t he g rea te s t d anger s a r i se w hen s uch a s equence b ecome s e n shr ined a s a n a ccep ted a r chaeo log ica l ' f ac t ' a nd o the r s b eg in t o u se i tt od a te s t ruc tu re s a nd o the r a r te fac t s f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th t he p o t tery . Un l ike i n sc r ip t ion s , wh ich may b e f ound i n t he i r o r ig ina l c on tex t s , c o in s a re e s sen t ia l ly p o r tab le a r te fac t s t ha t a re f ound a t c on s ide rab le d i s tance s f r om t he m in t s a tw h ich t hey w e re s t ruck . An i n sc r ip t ion f ound i n ap r imary c on tex t a nd d a ted b y , f o r e xamp le , a n i mpe r ia l r eg n a l o r c on su la r y ea r r ep re sen t s p r imary d a t ing e v idence f o r i t s ' d epo s i t ion ' , a l though t he re may o f ten b e p rob lem s i n t r an s fer r ing s uch a d a te d i rec t ly t o a ny s t ruc ture o r ma te r ia l r ema in s r e la ted t o t he e ven t wh ich i tc ommemo ra te s . A s w i th i n scr ip t ion s t ha t h ave b een r e u sed a s b u i ld ing ma te r ia l , c o in s c an d o n o mo re t han p rov ide a n e ar l ie s t p o s s ib le d a te , at e r m inu sp o s tq uem , f o r ma te r ia l s t ra t i f ied a bove t hem . A l though many a r chaeo log i s t s e xe rc ise c ommendab le c au t ion i nt he i r a pp roach t o d a t ing , i t i s u n fo r tuna te t ha t much d a t ing b y c o in s r el ie s u pon s ome h igh ly d ub iou s a nd u n te s ted a s sump t ion s a bou t b o th t he l i fe t ime o f c o in s i n c i rcu la t ion , a nd t he p roce s se s b y wh ich t hey a re i n corpo ra ted i n to a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s . S uch a s sump t ion s , w h ich a re r a re ly e xp l ic i t ly s t a ted a nd a lmo s t n eve r a rgued o r d e fended , t ake n o a c coun t o f t he e v idence f r om h oa rd s wh ich s ugge st s t ha t many c o in s may b e a va i lab le f o r ' l o s s ' , e ven i fn o t n ece s sar i ly s t il i n c i r c u la t ion , h a l f ac en tury o r mo re a f te r t he ir d a te o f s t r ik ing [ Reece , 1 972a , 2 76 ] . S im i la r ly ,

1

the possibility of coins finding their way into layers as residual material is rarely considered. Despite frequent warnings from the specialists, many archaeologists display an undiminished faith in the precision attainable in dating from coins. Dating, however, is only one of the purposes to which coin evidence is applied by archaeol­ ogists. Relative quantities of coin of different dates have been pressed into service to recon­ struct the 'history' of a site in terms of fluctuations in the owner's prosperity. Thus the inten­ sity or duration of occupation, and even of 'economic activity', .has often been determined from the spread of dates given by the coins and the relative abundance of the different issues. More recently, it has been recognised that there is an identifiable, but far from regular, back­ ground population of coin issues against which the variation on any particular site must be measured [Ravetz, 1963a; Reece, 1972a; Reece, 1981a, 51]. In the case of fourth century Britain, for example, few would now make the mistake of interpreting an increase in coins minted in the 330's, relative to those of earlier periods, as a reflection of growing economic activity. Such an increase is now known to be common to the great majority of British sites and in the immediately neighbouring areas of Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany [Kent, 1981]. Given an increasing understanding of the form of this background distribution and of the range of variation shown by individual sites, is it now possible to ask similar 'economic' ques­ tions on the basis of a site coin list? Can we now assume that an increase in coin finds in a particular period, relative to that of the majority of other sites, reflects a relative increase in prosperity, or at least, in coin circulation? For such an approach to be tenable we must assume a high degree of uniformity in the relationships between site occupation, coin circula­ tion and use, and coin deposition. It is important to realise that our interpretive and explanatory models have a basis in theory, whether explicitly through the conscious adoption of a particular approach, or impli­ citly through a set of perhaps unquestioned assumptions. Explanation must go beyond the mere description of a distribution and seek to provide answers to questions of how and why the material came to be where we find it. Here, Roman archaeologists have been con�picu­ ously less active than in their empirical enquiries. Much of what has been done has been anecdotal in character, and has relied heavily on unsupported assumptions about the univer­ sality of modern economic 'laws' and practices. When concessions are made to the historical context of past societies they are often minimal and simplistic. Basic terms such as money, trade, circulation and economy are all too frequently employed with their meanings implicitly defined by idealised models of modern popular practice. Failure to question the wider applicability of such terms stems partly from a lack of familiar­ ity with their technical use as abstract analytical constructs and, perhaps more importantly, from an extensive familiarity with their popular use, and perceived relevance, in our everyday lives. It is understandable that in a modern western European society, where we receive con­ stant reinforcement of the ideological importance of political economy and are everywhere encouraged to view our own and other's actions from an economic perspective, that we should seek to understand those aspects of the activities of other cultures which, by analogy with our own practice, we classify as economic. In such circumstances, however, it is espe­ cially important that we do not permit our familiarity to lead us to assume a universality for our values. This is not to claim that the formal laws of economics are automatically limited solely to the specific actions of that culture which they were originally intended to justify and explain, rather that we should be constantly aware of their culturally specific aspects when discussing a society founded on different social and economic relations. Coin finds, other than in hoards, have invariably been seen as resulting from the casual loss of the small change carried by individuals in the course of their day to day activities. From this point of view they are merely an archaeological manifestation of the outcome of a large number of essentially random events of a type which we sometimes have the misfortune to experience in our own lives. Few ever seem to have stopped to consider why it might be that Roman coin finds from excavated sites are, in many cases, observably far more prolific than those of other more recent periods. That coins are found on many sites, occasionally in very large numbers, has been taken to imply that coinage was used by most if not all of the

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population, and this in tum implicitly to support a view of Romano-British coin use as essen­ tially similar to our own. Such an explanation, which contains many assumptions about the nature of Romano-British society in general and about their use of coinage in particular, is unfortunately typical of a large proportion of archaeological thought which often reveals more about modem practices than those of the society being studied. 1.2 Aims of the research Against this background there appeared a clear need to re-examine the value of coinage in archaeological studies of the material remains of Romano-British society. Much of the previ­ ous work on the chronological and geographical distributions of coin finds has been hampered by the magnitude of the available data. Few have attempted to examine in detail more than a small fraction of what is available. Wide ranging surveys have been proposed (see below, Sec­ tion 1.3), but have not come to fruition. Indeed, it is unlikely that justice could have been done to such a large body of material in the absence of modem computer methods for the storage and retrieval of information. Despite these limitations much has been achieved using small samples of the available data, and a major task of any modem survey must be to examine and as necessary refute or refine existing models of coin distributions, both in space and in time. Such refinements can be ex­ pected to contribute to the comparative processes involved in the examination of excavated material. As past work has shown, much can be achieved through this type of basic empirical research. Briefly stated, the main aims of the research described here have been as follows: 1. To establish a computer database containing information on the coin finds from a large number of excavated sites, initially for immediate research needs but later as a research resource available to other interested parties. The database to be used for information retrieval and to provide data for statistical analyses and the generation of reports. 2. To describe the chronological and spatial distributions of coinage found on Romano­ British sites, and to identify and describe any recurrent patterns within these distribu­ tions. 3. To develop explanations for why these patterns occur in their particular contexts, and to examine the possible range and limitations of inference from the coins to explanations of Romano-British material life and archaeological deposition processes. 4. To assess the suitability of computer based information systems to this type of research and to examine the ways in which computers may be integrated into the research pro­ cess. The first aim provides a medium through which to undertake the other three. Computers have been employed in archaeological research for a number of years and the development of techniques has broadly followed that in other disciplines within the social sciences and humanities with a large degree of independence between such areas as information retrieval, statistical analysis and simulation (for a brief survey of the archaeological position, see Richards & Ryan, 1985, Chapter 1). The increasing application of interactive computing and microcomputers present opportunities for a more integrated use of computers in the research process. Thus text processing and the preparation of illustrative material may now be added to the above list, and the full integration of computing into the research process through such methods as the use of interactive 'thinking tools' is now beginning to be demonstrated [Ryan, 1985; Ryan, 1986]. However, an adequate discussion of this use of computers to store and manipulate data, and in the production of text and illustrations, is beyond the scope of this volume. Thus treatment of the fourth aim in the present context is confined to the description of the database in Chapter 3, and a relatively brief account in the final chapter of how developments in computer hardware and software have affected the progress of this project. Establishing the database has involved the collection of a large body of data from excavation reports and other sources. Limitations of time have meant that it has been necessary to restrict the research mainly to rural sites over a large part of southern Britain and to concen­ trate on the examination of the more ·abundant fourth century coinage. Nevertheless, the

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database currently holds details of over 35,000 individual Roman coins of all periods from more than 250 sites. The nature of the available data and the means adopted in its collection are described in Chapter 2. This is followed in Chapter 3 by a detailed discussion of the methods employed in establishing a computer database appropriate to the demands of the project. It is intended that the database will be available to interested parties, but it must be remembered that any collection of data necessarily involves a transformation of the original observations. In certain senses, the data is a creation of the researcher and of the research project. Changing views of what should be recorded may seriously affect the utility of any collection of data for future research (Richards & Ryan, 1985, 4-6]. Whilst ruling out the possibilities of 'general-purpose' databases these problems need not severely limit the use of a 'specialist' database, particularly in those cases where there is reasonable stability in opinions of what should be recorded. In the present example care has been taken to ensure that the content and form of the recorded data is only minimally transformed from that of the original printed coin lists. However it will become clear in the discussion of the nature of these sources in Chapter 2 and in the subsequent analyses that the stability of recording methods is the cause of a number of limitations in the questions that can be addressed with this data. The second aim is an essentially empirical task which has relied heavily on computer methods for the descriptive summary and analysis of large volumes of data. Coin find data readily lends itself to quantification and, for this reason together with that of the quantity of data involved, extensive use has been made of statistical techniques. However, on the basic methodological questions of the suitability and reliability of these techniques, it should be stressed that their use has been restricted to exploratory applications in order to provide descriptions of distributions and variation rather than to generate predictive models for explanation. The analytical methods employed and the results of an examination of the major sources of variation in coin finds between sites are presented in Chapter 4. It is shown that ·a large part of this variation derives from differences in the range of activities that were practiced at the sites. These differences are most apparent in the second half of the fourth century when coin circulation and use appears to have undergone significant changes in the rural areas. Other than these limited differences the pattern of coin finds is remarkably even over most of south­ ern Britain and it is argued that this is consistent with a view of state supply policy as the principal determinant of the coin circulating in the province. Chapter 5 addresses the problems of the use of coin finds in archaeological dating. Less than 10% of the finds have a recorded provenance, and many of these are unstratified or sin­ gle stratified coins. Despite the reduced size of the sample of mutually stratified material it is possible to provide quantitative descriptions of the relative survival of coins and of the typical contents of stratified contexts of different dates. The importance of this investigation is not, however, limited to the questions of dating. It has succeeded in identifying at least two, pos­ sibly three, distinct phases of coin deposition in the fourth century and further strengthening the importance of votive deposition, rubbish disposal and the non-recovery of hoards in shap­ ing the lists of excavated coin finds. Finally, Chapter 6 contains discussions of the development of the computing environment and of the analytical results. It is argued that an understanding of the pattern of coin finds is best achieved through an examination of the relationships between money usage and the material patterning of money objects found on archaeological sites. Further, it will be argued that the idea of 'casual losses' of coins so frequently encountered in the archaeological litera­ ture, although widespread, accounts for only a very small proportion of the coins recovered from sites. The incorporation into archaeological deposits of many coins is better understood in terms of deliberate disposal and residuality. In short, primary deposition of coins results mainly from 'votive' acts, non-recovery of hoards and from rubbish disposal. Once deposited, scattering and subsequent redeposition must be considered as important factors affecting the observed patterns of distribution of coins within archaeological sites. For this reason, the use of the term Loss is used here only to refer to the 'accidental' loss of single or small quantities of coins, or in discussion of the use of this term by others. The distinction between finds and 4

losses is fundamental to an understanding of the archaeological material and is discussed in Chapter 2. 1.3 Background to the research The remainder of this introductory chapter is devoted to a survey of previous research in areas that have a bearing on the place of coinage in the archaeological study of Roman Bri­ tain, and on the uses of money in Romano-British society. Much of this work, in particular the empirical study of the recovered artefacts, has of course been in the fields of numismatics and archaeology. However, there is much of both direct importance and of general theoretical relevance to be gained from work in other disciplines, particularly from ancient history and, to a lesser extent, social anthropology. The development during the course of the present century of the empirical study of the spa­ tial and chronological distributions of the recovered material will be outlined. As with most surveys of this kind the choice of a starting point is somewhat arbitrary but, in this case, that choice is eased by Sir George MacDonald's concise summary of contemporary methodology published at the tum of the century. The central theme of this section is the increasing separation of, and clarification of the distinction between, numismatic and archaeological objectives in the study of finds from excavations. This distinction has been characterised by Reece as one between the study of "... the coins as struck... " and "...the coins as used" (Reece, 1982c, 495]. The former, the numismatic approach, has received considerably more attention than the latter which was more correctly the domain of archaeology and ancient history. Numismatists have long been concerned with the examination of hoards, particularly for the light that they can help shed on the duration and extent of the circulation of distinct coin types. They have been less concerned with lists of individual finds. This disinterest is, of course, understandable given the often poor quality of the available information on associa­ tions between individual finds, and the high proportion of single unassociated finds. Archaeologists, in contrast, have become increasingly interested in the information that can be derived from the complete list of these individual finds from a site with the result that 'archaeological numismatics' can be recognised as a distinct and accepted specialisation within the discipline. The study of lists of individual finds is central to the work described in subse­ quent chapters. Despite this difference of aims at the level of detailed empirical study, the emergence of archaeological coin specialists has involved considerable overlap with the concerns of other numismatists. The archaeological interpretation of site finds contributes to, and is informed by, models of coin supply and circulation. This is an area of study to which both numisma­ tists and archaeologists have contributed, as also have many ancient historians. Yet these models can only be given a full meaning when they are established within a broader context. As previously stated, many aspects of this context have often been implicitly assumed. Cer­ tainly, numismatic studies are invariably well grounded in political history and hence in a context of coin production, but many of the related questions that are of interest to archaeol­ ogists must be related to an understanding of the social contexts of the 'consumers' and users of coins who were ultimately responsible for their deposition. For this reason it is also impor­ tant to consider perspectives on money and the ancient economy that are derived from studies in economic history and anthropology.

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1 . 4 T he d eve lopmen t o ft h e e mp ir ica l s t udy o fR oman c o in f i nds Much o f t he b a s ic m e thodo logy f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f c o in f i nd s h a s l o ng b een e s ta b l i shed . I n 1 903 , S i r G eo rge MacDona ld s ummar i sed t h e c on tempo rary s t a te o fk now ledge i n a n a dd re s s t o t he R oya l P h i lo soph ica l S oc ie ty o f G la sgow . H e a t temp ted t o p rov ide a n swe r s t ot h e q ue s t ion s Wha t a r e t h e k i nd s o fi n fo rma t ion t h a t w e c a n g l ean f r om c o in f i nd s? A nd w ha t a r e t h e b r oad r u le sb yw h ich w em u s tb eg u ided i no u ri n te rp re ta t ion s ? [ Ma cdona ld , 1 903 1 . A l though f e el ing i tn ece s sary t oj u s t i fy t oh i s a ud ience t h a t n um i sma t ic s w a s a" . .p rog re s s ive s c ience . . ." w h ich n o l onge r " . .l inge red . . . in t he l a p o f d i le t tan t i sm . ." , h e l a id d own a n umbe r o fp r inc ip le s wh ich h ave r ema ined l a rge ly u nchanged t ot h e p re sen t d ay . I nf luenced b y t he w o rk o f S i r J ohn E van s [ Evan s , 1 864 ] o n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e B r i t i sh c o inage o f t h e p re -Roman I r on Age , MacDona ld r e ga rded t he e s tab l i shmen t o ft h e g eog raph i c a l l im i t s o f c i rcu la t ion o f d i f fe ren t c o in t ype s a s ap rom i s ing a rea o f s t udy . H e n o ted t h a t wh i l s t s ome c o inage s s howed a r e s t r ic ted t e r r i to r ia l d i s t r ibu t ion , o the r s w e re f ound a t g rea t d i s tance s f r om t he i r o r ig ina l s ou rce . Among s t t he l a t te r h e i n c luded C or in th ian s i lve r d i s t r i b u ted t h roughou t t he Med i te r ranean , a nd l a te r A rab ic i s sue s f ound o ve r t h e e n t ire a rea o f e a r ly med ieva l S cand inav ian i nf luence . T he se e xamp le s w e re s e en a s i nd ica t ing t h e e x ten t o f t r ad ing a c t iv i t ie s w he re in . the m one y o f ag r ea t c omme rc ia l s t a te w a s a c cep ted t h roughou t t h e w ho le r e g ion w ho se m a rke t si tc ommanded [ Ma cdona ld , 1 9 03 ] . T he d e ta i l s o f t he p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic e xp lana t ion s o f fe red b y MacDona ld a nd h i s c on t empo rar ie s m ay d i f fe r f r om s ome o f t ho se e mp loyed i n mo re r e cen t t ime s , b u t t h e ir b a s i s i n p a t tern s o f g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion i sw holy f am i l ia r . S im i la r ly , c hange s t h rough t ime i n t he se d i s t r ibu t ion p a t tern s w e re s een a s a mean s o f e l uc ida t ing h i s tor ica l q ue s t ion s . H e re , MacDona ld u sed t he e xamp le o f Have r f ie ld 's w o rk o n t h e R oman m il i tary c ampa ign s i nS co t l a nd a nd t he d at ing o f t he An ton ine Wal . I n t h i s d i s cu s s ion h e s howed a n a wa rene s s o f m any o f t he p rob lem s i nvo lved i n i n te rp re t ing i nd iv idua l c o in f i nd s w h ich a re w e l l k nown t o mode rn n um i sma t i s t s , i fs t i l l n o t f uly a pp re c ia ted b y a l a r chaeo log i s t s . T he s t udy o fc o in h oard s w a s a l so w e l l a dvanced b y MacDona ld 's t ime a nd h ad d eve loped a l ong l i ne s l a id d own e ar l ie r b y Mom ra sen . T he ir i mpor tance w a s s e en a s b o th n um i sma t ic a nd h i s to r ica l . T o t he n um i sma t i s t , h oa rd s p rov ided t h e o ppor tun i ty t o s t udy o f ten l a rge n umbe r s o f n ear c on tempo rary c o in s a nd t h i s f o rmed t h e b a s i s f r om w h ich c o in s e r ie s w e re t o b e e s tabl i shed a nd r e f ined . F rom t he h i s to r ica l v i ewpo in t t h e d a t ing a nd r e la t ive a bundance o f h oa rd s h a s o f ten b een u sed t o a dvance t heo r ie s o f i n va s ion a nd c i v i l u nre s t . MacDona ld c i ted t he n ow w e l l k nown p as sage f r om t he D ige s t [ 4 1 .1 .31 .1 ] w he re t he t h ree mot ive s f o r b ur ia l a re s t a ted a s v e l l u cr i c au sa v e l m e tu s v e l c u s tod iae , i n var iab ly t r an s la ted a s g a in , f e a r a nd s a fe -keep ing . F olow ing a d i scu s s ion o f s ome o f t h e a nc ien t d o cumen tary e v idence f o r h oa rd ing , t o ge the r w i th t he w el k nown mo re r e cen te xamp le f r om t h e d i ary o fS amue l P epy s , h e c onc lude s m e tu s t o b e t he ma in c au se o f b ur ia l o f t ho se h oa rd s r e cove red i n l a te r t ime s . L ucr i i sc omp le te ly i g no red , p e rhap s t h rough u nce r ta in ty o ve r p rec i se ly w ha t i sm ean t , a nd i t i sa s sumed t ha t mo s t h oard s b ur ied c u s tod iae c au sa w ou ld h ave b een r e cove red b y t he ir o wn e r s . MacDona ld a dded t he v o t ive d epo s i t , a si lu s t ra ted b y t ha t f r om C ovent ina 's We l l wh ich , h e s ugge s ted , m igh t b e r e cogn i sed a s s uch b y t he w ide v ar ie ty o f m e ta l a nd d a te o f i t s c on t e n t s . When i n 1 930 R .G .Col ingwood p ubl i shed h i sA r chaeo logy o fR oman B r i ta in , t h e re h ad b een l i t t le c hange i nt he b a s ic r u le s c over ing t h e u se o fc o inage a sa r chaeo log ica l e v idence . P e rhap s t he mo s t s i gn if i can t d eve lopmen t h ad b een a c l ar if i ca t ion o f t he d i s t inc t ion b e tween t he i s o l a ted f i nd a nd t he s i te ' c o in l i s t ' . T h i s h ad a r isen t h rough a n i n c rea s ing i n te re s t i nt he u se o f a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l t o a n swe r a r chaeo log ica l q ue s t ion s . T h i s i sn o t t o s ay t h a t t he re h ad b een n o a dvance s i n n um i sma t ic s , r a the r t h e re w a s n ow a c l ea re r s epara t ion b e twe en t h e d i f fe r ing v a lue s a nd u se s o f c o inage t o n um i sma t i s t s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s . F o r t h e s t uden t a nd p rac t ic ing a r chaeo log i s t a l ike , t he s e c t ion o f t h i s w o rk d evo ted t o c o inage a nd i t s s ub sequen t r e v i s ion b y S i r I an R ichmond [ Co l l ingwood , 1 969 ] h a s r ema ined t h e ma jo r b a s ic s umma ry a lmo s t u n t i l t he p re sen t d ay .

6

I n a n e s say w h ich f ormed p ar t o f as event ie th b i r thday t r ibu te t o MacDona ld , Haro ld Ma t t i ng ly a dded a n umbe r o f p o in t s t o C o l l ingwood 's d i scu s s ion a nd c a l led f o r as urvey t o b e u nde r taken o f t he c o in f i nd s f r om Roman B r i ta in [ Ma t t ing ly , 1 932 ] . Wo rk o f t h i s n a tu re h ad a l ready b een p er fo rmed f o r b o th Gau l [ B lanche t , 1 900 ] a nd G ermany [ Bo l in , 1 926 ] , a nd Ma t t ing ly s aw a B r i t i sh s urvey a s a ma t te r o f s ome u rgency . He r e a l i sed t ha t t he s ource s o f s uch e v idence w e re w ide ly d i s tr ibu ted among s t t he p age s o f n ume rou s j ourna ls a nd t he u npubl i shed r e co rd s o f mu seum s , i nd iv idua l n um i sma t i s t s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s . T he p ropo sed t a sk w ou ld r equ i re c on s ide rab le e f fo r t a nd t ime . Ma t t ing ly 's p ropo sa l s w e re e n thu s ia s t ica l ly s uppor ted b y B r ian O 'Ne i l i n a n a r t ic le w r i t ten af ew y ear s l a te r : T he v a lue o f s u ch as u r ve y i ss e l f -e v iden t . A n e nqu i ry i n to t h e f r equency o f o c cu r rence , w he the r a sc hance f i nd s , i nh o a rd s , o ri ne x cava t ion s . i sc e r ta in t os h ed af l ood o fl i gh t , n o t o n ly o n n um i sma t ic p rob lem s , b u t a l so o n t h e h i s to ry o f R oman r u le i n B r i ta in . [ O 'Ne i l , 1 936 , 7 8 ] . I n h i s v i ew , t he s urvey s hou ld b e a r ranged b o th c hrono log ica l ly w i th in g eog raph ica l u n i t s a nd i ns e c t ion s a cco rd ing t ot he t ype o f f i nd . F rom o ur p re sen t p e r spec t ive Ma t t ing ly 's o p t im i sm t ha t . . some th ing l i ke c omp le tene s s s hou ld b ef i na l ly a t ta inab le [ Ma t t ing ly , 1 932 , 8 9 ] . may s eem t o h ave b een s omewha t m i sp laced , b u t t h i s i sp e rhap s n o t t he m a jo r r e a son w hy t h i s t a sk s eem s n eve r t oh ave b een s e r iou s ly a t temp ted . T rue , t he ma jo r mu seum s h ave e x ten s i ve l i s t s a nd m any i nd iv idua l s h ave c omp i led t he ir o wn f o r p r iva te r e sear ch , b u t as urvey , a s e nv i saged b y Ma t t ing ly , h a s n o t a ppea red . Th i s f a i lure i sn o t s u rpr i s ing , f o r Ma t t ing ly p ro p o sed t ha t a l l c o in f i nd s , i nd iv idua l , h oa rd a nd s i te g roup s , s hou ld b e i n c luded . D e sp i te t he p r imary i n te re s t o f a rchaeo log i s t s o f t ha t t ime i n t he u se o f c o ins f o r d a t ing , h e s t re s sed t he n e ce s s i ty f o r c omp le te a nd c on s i s ten t r e co rd ing o f a l l s i te f i nd s : . .e conomy i nd e s c r ip t ion s hou ld n e ve r b e c a r r ied b e yond t h e p o in t o fr e co rd ing b r ief ly b y r e f e rence t o as t anda rd w o rk e v e ry c o in t h a t c an b e e x a c t ly i d en t if ied . . . [ Ma t t ing ly , 1 932 , 8 9 ] . O 'Ne i l , w hose a r t ic le w a s a imed mo re d i rec t ly a t a n a r chaeo log ica l a ud ience , made t he p o in t mo re f o rce fuly : I ti sq u i te u s e le s s j u s t t og i ve al i s t o fe mp e ro r s w ho se c o in s h ave o c cu r red . T h i s w a s t h e m e thod o f ac e n tu ry a go a nd i st h e c u r s e o fa l w ho s e a r ch p e r iod ica l s f o r r e co rd s o ff i nd s [ O 'Ne i l , 1 936 , 7 ] . D e sp i te t he se a ppea l s i tw a s a no the r t h ir ty y ear s b e fo re t he p rac t ice o f r e co rd ing b y f u l l c a ta logue r e fe rence s c ame t o b e w ide ly a ccep ted i n B r i t i sh a r chaeo logy , a nd e ven t oday a n umbe r o f w ho l ly i nadequa te c o in l i s t s s t i l l r e ach p ub l ica t ion . T he ma jo r o b s tac le s t o t he p roduc t ion o f c omp rehen s ive c o in r epor t s w e re t wo fo ld . F ir s t ly t he c a ta logue s c ove r ing t he t hen b ew i lde r ing a r ray o f f our th c en tury c o in s w e re q u i te i nade q ua te f o r t he t a sk . O f t he mo s t w ide ly u sed , ( Cohen , 1 886 ; C ohen , 1 888 ) , S u the r land h a s s a id H i s a l te rna t ion s , m i s read ing s , a nd ( f o ra e s ) o m i s s ion s o fm in t m a rk s m ak e s h i s c omp i la t ion q u i te i n a ccu ra te a s ab a s ic r e co rd o ft h em a te r ia l [ S u the r land , 1 967 , x i ] . S econd ly , t he re a ppear s t o h ave b een a n i n su f f ic ien t n umbe r o f p eop le w i th t he n ece s sary e xper ience t o d o t he w o rk o f i den t if ica t ion . A f a i lure b y many e xcava tor s t o a pp rec ia te t he s pec ial i s t s k i l l s i nvo lved l e d t o ag rea t n umbe r o f d ef ic ien t c o in l i s t s . I ndeed , t o ac e r ta in e x ten t , t h i s p rob lem s t i l l p e r s i s t s t oday . Un for tuna te ly , many o f t ho se l i s t s p repa red b y c om p e ten t n um i sma t i s t s a re n ow a l so r egarded a s o f l im i ted u se ow ing t o t he ir e n fo rced r el iance o n l ong o u tda ted c a ta logue s . O 'Ne i l c l ea r ly a pp rec ia ted t he n eed t o r e co rd d e ta i l s o f t he p rovenance o f t he c o in s f ound d ur ing e xcava t ion a nd o f a ny a s soc ia ted ma te r ia l . A l though n ow w ide ly r ega rded a s s t anda rd p rac t ice , i ti sd i s tu rb ing t o n o te h ow f ew e xcava to r s h ave u nder s tood t he v a lue o f p ubl i sh ing s uch i n forma t ion , e ven b e fo re t he r e cen t p rob lem s o f i n c rea s ing p ubl i sh ing c o s t s a nd t he m in imal i s t p h i lo sophy o f t he ` Cun l i f fe R epor t ' [ Cunl i f fe , 1 982 ] . One r e cen t e xamp le c ome s f r om t he e xcava t ion s a t C a t sgo re [ Leech , 1 983 ] w he re p rovenance d a ta , t hough a ppa ren t ly a va i lab le i n t he s i te a rch ive , w a s n o t c on s ide red s u f f ic ien t ly r e levan t t o b e i n c luded i n t he 7

c o in r epo r t . Al t oo o f ten t h e c o in l i s t h a s b een r e garded a s at o ta l ly s epa ra te e n t i ty f r om t he m a in r epo r t , a ppended t oc onform w i th e s tabl i shed c onven t ion a nd r a re ly c ro s s -re fe renced t o o the r s e c t ion s . I ndeed , t h i s i s a n e xp re s s ion o f a mo re g ene ra l p rob lem o f t h e s pec ia l i s t r epo r t s t h a t a ccompany t h e a ccoun t s o f e xcava t ion s . R a re ly i si ta pp re c ia ted t h a t t h ey m igh t , o r e ven s hou ld , c on ta in g ene ra l a r chaeo log ica l i n fo rma t ion o f i n te re s t t o mo re t h an j u s t a m inor i ty a ud ience o fs pe c ia l i s t s . I n t h e p ub l ica t ion s o f t h e 1 930 's w e b eg in t o s e e a n a pp re c ia t ion o f t h e c omp lex i ty o f t h e p a t te rn o f c o in f i nd s . S t re s s ing t h e v a lue o f u n s t ra t if ied f i nd s , O 'Ne i l p o in ted t ot h e v a lue o f t h e e n t i re c o in l i s t i ni t s p o ten t ia l t o . ind ica te t h ep ro spe r i ty a nd s t a tu s o f as i te a td i f fe ren t p er iod s [ O 'Ne i l , 1 936 , 6 5 ] . A l though t h i s t ype o fs t a temen t b y al e ad ing a r chaeo log ica l n um i sma t i s t h a s o f ten b een t aken a tf a ce v a lue , h e w a s c l ea r ly a wa re o f t he n eed t os e t t he v ar ia t ion a ga in s t t h e b ackg round o f at o ta l p a t te rn . On ly o nce t h i s b ackg round w a s u nder s tood c ou ld q ue s t ion s o f p ro sper i ty a nd s t a tu s b e a ddre s sed . O 'Ne i l 's c once rn w i th e xp lana t ion o ft he d e ta i l s o ft h e b ackg round p opu la t ion o fc o inage i n t e rm s o f t h e s upp ly a nd c i rcu la t ion o fc o in c an b e s e en i n h i s a pp roach t ot h e p a t te rn o ff i nd s o ft h i rd -cen tury i s sue s . T he r e la t ive s ho r tage o ff i nd s o ft h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e c en tury w a s s e en a s ar e ac t ion , f o l low ing G re sham 's l aw , t ot h e h i gh q ua l i ty o f t h e ir m e ta l c on ten t . S uch c o in s w ou ld h ave b een r emoved r ap id ly f r om c i rcu la t ion , p re sumab ly i n to s av ing s h oard s , l e av ing a s hor tage i nc i rcu lat ion . S uch as ho r tage w a s p re sumab ly f i l led b y t h e c on t inued c i rcu la t ion o f e arl ie r i s sue s . T he a l terna t ive e xp lana t ion t ha t t he e a r ly t h i rd -cen tury i s sue s s imp ly d id n o t r e ach B r i ta in i n q uan t i ty w a s d i scoun ted o n t he g round s t ha t w e m igh t e xpe c t t o f i nd a l a rge n umbe r o f c on tempo rary i m i ta t ion s s t ruck i nr e spon se t os uch as hor tage . T he ' b a rba rou s r ad ia te s ' o f t h e l a te r p a r t o f t h e s ame c en tu ry w e re c i ted a s a n e xamp le o f t h i s l a t te r p ro ce s s . T he p a t te rn o f t he f ou r th -cen tury m a te r ia l w a s l e s s c l ea r ly u nde r s tood . I n t h e a b sence o f s a t is fac to ry c a ta lo g ue s i ti sh ard ly s u rpr i s ing t ha t t he m idd le t h i rd o f t he c en tury a ppeared a s ap er iod o f c on t i nuou s a nd e ven c o in s upp ly , a nd t ha t t he i n t r ica te v ar ia t ion i n f r equency o f m any o f t h e se i s sue sw a sy e t t ob e come a pparen t : T he C on s tan t in ian a nd l a te r i s sue s d own t o a bou t t he t ime o f t he P i c t i sh i n va s ion o f A .D . 3 67 a re n o rma l ly q u i te w e l l a nd c on s i s ten t ly r ep re sen ted . T hey s how ap rov ince p ro ceed ing o n t he e ven t e no r o fi t s w ay , e n joy ing w ha t wa sp robab ly i t s mo s t p ro spe rou s e ra s o f a r , a nd a b le t oe xpo r t c o rn i n c on s ide rab le q uan t it ie s t o t he Rh ine land i n t he t ime o fJ u l ian ( A .D . 3 61 -3 ) [ O 'N e i l , 1 936 , 6 8 ] .

Howeve r , t h e w ide v ar ia t ion b e tween s i te s i n t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f m a te r ia l i s sued d ur ing t h e f i na l t h ird o f t he c en tury h ad b een r e cogn ised , e ven i fi th ad n o t b een s t ud ied i n d e ta i l . A s c an b e g l imp sed i n t h e a bove q uo ta t ion , t h i s a cco rded w el w i th av i ew o f t h i s p e r iod c harac t er i sed b y t h e d ec l in ing R oman i nf luence a nd i n c rea s ing p o l i t ica l , s o c ia l a nd e conom ic i n s ta b i l i ty . T h i s mode l h a s h ad al ong c ur rency . Ma tt ing ly a nd O 'Ne i l f o l lowed e a r l ie r w r i te r s i n b e l iev ing t ha t f e ar i n t ime s o f u n re s t w a s t h e m a jo r r e ason f o r t he d epo s i t ion o f h oard s r e cove red i nl a te r t ime s . Howeve r , b o th a g reed t ha t t h e re w a s af u r the r r e a son f o r t h e n on -recove ry o f h oa rd s b y t he i r o wne r s w h ich h ad n o t a lway s b een a pp re c ia ted b y t he i r p redece s sor s . When ac o inage w a s d emone t i sed , p rev iou s ly h oa rded c o in s o f l ow i n t r in s ic v a lue m igh t b e a bandoned a s w or th le s s . S uch a n e xp lana t ion w a s s e en t oa pp ly t or e gu la r a nd i r regu la r c o in s a l ike a si nt he c a se o f t h e f r equen t h oa rd s o f t h ird c en tury ' r ad ia te s ' w h ich w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave b een m ade w or th le s s b y t he i n t roduc t ion o f n ew c o inage b y Aurel ian . W i th t he a ppearance o f ar e formed c o inage a nd p e rhap s , a ccom p any ing l e g i s la t ion o u t law ing t he o l d i s sue s , t h ey w ou ld c ea se t o h ave a ny v a lue b eyond t ha t o ft h e i r m e ta l c on ten t . B y t h e l a te r 1 950 's , n um i sma t i s t s h ad m ade s i gn i f ican t a dvance s i n u nrave ll ing t h e d e ta i l s o f f our th c en tury c o in i s sue s . W i th t he p ubl i ca t ion o f t wo a r t ic le s i n Num i smat ic C hron ic le [ Car son , 1 956 ; K en t , 1 957 ] , s oon t o b e f olowed b y L a t e R o t tm an B ron ze C o inage [ Car son , 1 960 ] , i tb e came p o s s ib le t o r e co rd i n a n u namb iguou s f a sh ion t he m a jor i ty o f c o in f i nd s f r om a n e xcava t ion o r h oard . Now t h e i n fo rma t ion w a s a va i lab le w i th w h ich i tw ou ld b e p o s s i b le t om ake d e ta i led c ompar i son s b e tween t he c o in l i s t sp roduced f r om d i f fe ren t s i te s .

8

An e a r ly a nd s i gn if ican t a t temp t t o d o t h i s u s ing t he n ew ly a va i lab le c a ta logue s w a s made b y A l i son R ave t z [ Rave tz , 1 963a ; R ave tz , 1 964 ] . S he o b se rved t ha t . . i t i sq u i te c l ea r t h a t t h e re a r e r e cu r ren t ' p a t te rn s ' o f c o inag e c r ea ted b y t h e a lmo s t p r ed ic tab le i n c idence o ft h ev a r iou s i sue s [ 1 964 , 2 01 ] . B y g roup ing c o in s t oge the ri n ' i s sue p e r iod s ' , R ave tz w a s a b le t o d e tec t t h ree d i s t inc t p a t te rn s i n t he f ou r th c en tury c o inage r e cove red f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . T he u se o f p e r iod g roup i ng s h a s s ub sequen t ly b ecome w ide sp read among s t a r chaeo log ica l c o in s pec ia l i s t s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , R ee ce , 1 972a ; C a sey , 1 974 ) . A l though t he re a re m ino r d i f fe rence s i n t he n o ta t ion u sed t o d i s t ingu i sh t he i s sue p e r iod s , t he re i sb road a g reemen t o ve r w h ich i s sue s s hou ld b e g rouped t oge the r . T he g roup ing i sh oweve r b a sed o n n um i sma t ic a nd h i s tor ica l c r i te r ia , c om b in ing s e r ie s o f i s sue s a cco rd ing t o s t y l i s t ic c r i te r ia o r t he r u l ing ' hou se s ' u nde r w h ich t hey w e re m in ted . D e sp i te n eve r h av ing b een i n tended t o b e o f d i re c t a r chaeo log ica l s i gn i f icance , t he se g roup ing s a re w ide ly a ccep ted a nd t he re h a s b een l i t t le q ue s t ion ing o f t he ir a na ly t ica l a pp l icab i l i ty . R ave tz d iv ided t he f our th c entu ry i s sue s b e tween s even g roup s a s f o l low s ; G roup

I I I I V V V I V I I

D a te s f r om 2 94 3 17 3 30 3 46 3 64 3 78 3 88

AD

t o 3 17 3 30 3 46 3 64 3 78 3 88 4 02

B e cau se o f t he v ary ing l e ng th s o f t he se p e r iod s a nd t he w ide v ar ia t ion i n n umbe r s o f c o ins f ound a t d i f fe ren t s i te s , i tw a s d e s irab le t o s t anda rd i se t he d a ta i n t e rm s o f c o ins p e r y ea r w i th in e ach g roup a nd t o e xp re s s t h i s a s ap ropor t ion o f t he t o ta l f r om t he s i te . T he e f fe c t w a s t o make f i gu re s f r om d i f fe ren t s i te s mo re d i rec t ly c ompa rab le t han w ou ld b e p o s s ib le u s ing t he r aw d a ta o f n umbe r s o f c o in s f ound . Th i s w a s d one b y a pp ly ing t he f o rmu la : K=N / (13 xT) w he re : Ni sn umbe r o f c o in s i ng roup Pl eng th o fp e r iod i ny ear s Tt o ta l n umbe r o f f our th c en tury c o in s o n s i te A s i n much s ub sequen t w o rk , t h i s s t anda rd i sa t ion w a s u sed s imp ly t o e nab le R ave tz t o p ro d uce d iag ram s wh ich c ou ld b e c ompared v i sualy . No a t temp t w a s made t o t e s t t he s t a t i s t ica l v al id i ty o f a ny c ompar i son s , o r t op re sen t a ny f o rmaly s pe c if ied d e scr ip t ion o f t he c hrono log i c a l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he ma te r ia l . R ave tz w a s a b le t o s how t ha t o f t he s even i s sue g roup s , o n ly t h ree ( I I I , V a nd V I I ) made s i gn if i can t c on t r ibu t ion s t o t he c o in s r e cove red f r om B r i t i sh a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . O f t he r ema inde r , Ia nd I w e re u sualy p re sen t i n i n c rea s ing p ropor t ion , b u t b o th much s ma l le r t han I I , wh i l s t t he c on t r ibu t ion o f I V w a s i nvar iab ly s ma l l a nd t ha t o f V I s ma l le r s t i l l . S i te s w e re a s c r ibed t oo ne o f t h ree p a t tern s wh ich s he d e s igna ted A , Ba nd C a cco rd ing t o whe the r g roup I I , Vo r V I I w a s d om inan t . Wi th in e ach p a t te rn t he re c ou ld b e v ar ia t ion d epend ing o n t he r e la t ive c on tr ibu t ion s o f t he t wo l e s se r g roup s , a nd i ti st h i s w h ich d emon s t ra te s t he s ome w ha t a rb i t rary n ature o f h e r c l a s s if ica t ion . R ave tz w a s a ware o f t h i s c r i t ic i sm a nd a dm i t ted t ha t t he re w a s n o c l ea r d i s t inc t ion b e tween p a t te rn s A a nd B , f o r s i te s c ou ld b e f ound w i th e qualy h igh p ropor t ion s i nb o th I I a nd V . D e sp i te t he l im i ta t ion s o f t h i s a t temp t t o p roduce a s imp le c l a s s if ica t ion o f f i nds , R ave tz made an umbe r o fp er t inen t o b serva t ion s o n t he r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t he a pparen t n a ture s o f

9

the sites, their geographical locations and their patterns of coin finds. Within pattern A she observed that large cities and smaller towns tended to show a prominent group V, with or without a significant group VII. At certain eastern towns, including Canterbury and Caister­ by-Norwich, and a number of the Saxon shore forts group VII was as large if not larger than group V. On the other hand, group VII was either small or non-existent at many 'villa' sites. In general, pattern A was ... typical of old established sites, in full occupation throughout the fourth century [Ravetz, 1964, 207].

Pattern B might in a number of cases be a reflection of the period of activity on a site: the absence, or relative shortage, of group III issues resulting simply from a late foundation as, perhaps, in the case of the Yorkshire coast signal stations. However, Ravetz was convinced that, in general, the occurrence of this pattern was quite independent of the structural history of the individual site. Instead she preferred to point out its apparent spatial significance: In distribution it appears with particular strength around Bath, on the Cotswolds, and in the upper Thames region. Its occurrence on more than half a dozen sites of rural temples in those districts is noteworthy [Ravetz, 1964, 212).

Of pattern C, Ravetz was unable to make any clear statements beyond, once more, its apparent independence of a site's structural history. This was the extent of Ravetz's concern with the variations in coin finds between sites. Instead, she turned her attention to a con­ sideration of the overall trends of which her three patterns represented differing local man­ ifestations. Ravetz attempted to relate the peaks and troughs of her three patterns to variation in the assumed relative values of the coins (based on the silver content of the bronze coinage) within what she termed an "inflationary theory of coin loss": Assuming that the number of pieces dropped and lost was always roughly constant in rela­ tion to the numbers in which they circulated, we can then use the pieces lost on Rpmano­ British sites as a rough index, not so much of the rising and falling intensity of trade, but of the copper inflation [Ravetz, 1964, 213].

The relative volumes of coins lost, and subsequently found, was regarded as a measure of the volume of coins of each issue in circulation. Changes in the velocity of such circulation, a reflection of the "...intensity of trade... ", was discounted as a significant source of variation. Nevertheless, it is clear from her discussion of the Theodosian issues (ibid, 226-7], that Ravetz assumed a close relationship between exchange activities involving coin, and loss. Following Jones (Jones, 1952], Ravetz rejected the view that the inflation resulted from increased prosperity, preferring a purely monetary explanation in which continued issue, with no regular mechanism for withdrawal, resulted in an increasing quantity of money in circula­ tion and a decline in the unit value of the copper coinage. The inflation was caused, there­ fore, by the effects of state supply policy. Peaks in the coin distribution were seen as representing the increasing quantity of circulating coin in periods of intense inflation. Period­ ically, this would be checked by the issue of a reformed coinage tariffed at a higher unit value. Reforms led to a decrease in the amount of new coin entering circulation, and hence to a trough in the coin loss curves. As the quantity of new coin in circulation increased the same inflationary pressures would cause the cycle to continue. Jones had suggested that, following a reform, the existing coinage may have been officially recognised at some fraction of the value of a new issue, whereas Ravetz felt that a differential rate of exchange would result simply from the operation of Gresham's Law, rather than from any official policy. In this way, the ' ...larger and better coins...' would have been removed from circulation (Ravetz, 1964, 218]. The effect was to be seen in the preferential selection in hoards of the newer coinage. Gresham's law is normally applied only to those money items which are commonly recognised by their users as possessing intrinsic values which do not correspond to the officially promoted values, and can thus be seen as relatively 'good' or 'bad' money. To Ravetz, this was possible because of the maintenance of "...the fiction that it was a true metallic currency", despite behaving as if it were fiduciary (ibid, 218]. If, as Jones believed, the new coin was preferentially tariffed, then its higher official exchange value would have made it more attractive as a means of storing wealth than the

10

o lde r c o in w h ich n ow w ou ld c on s t i tu te al owe r d enom ina t ion . We c anno t , h oweve r , d i scoun t t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f mo t ive s b a sed o n p re fe rence s o f an on -mone tary n a ture d e term in ing w ha t m ake s a' b e t te r ' c o in a nd t hu s l e ad ing t o t he p re fe ren t ia l h oa rd ing o f t he n ew ma te r ia l . We c anno t a s sume t ha tw e s ha re a nc ien t p e rcep t ion s o f t he g oodne s s o f ac o in . T he r e su l t s o f a n e a rl ie r e xam ina t ion o f t he me ta l l ic c ompo s i t ion o f as amp le o f t he f our th -cen tury ma te r ia l [ Rave tz , 1 963b ] l e n t s ome s uppo r t t oR ave tz ' mode l . B o th w e igh t a nd s i lve r c on ten t s how i n i t ialy h igh v a lue s s oon f olowed b y ad e c l ine a f te r b o th D io c le t ian 's r e fo rm a nd t he i n t roduc t ion o f t he F EL T EMP R EPARAT IO s e r ie s [ Rave tz , 1 964 , F igure 4 ] . Howeve r , i ti sd i ff i cu l t t o s ee a ny f u r the r c onnec t ion b e tween t he se q uan t i t ie s a nd t he t h ree m a jo r p eak s o f R ave tz ' p a t tern s , o r t he mo re d e ta i led b ackg round d i s t r ibu t ion t ha t i sn ow a pparen t . I n h e r 1 964 p ape r , R ave tz l a rge ly i gno red t he q ue s t ion o f d emone t i sa t ion wh ich h ad b een r a i sed e a r l ie r b y b o th Ma t t ing ley a nd O 'Ne i l . Howeve r , i n h e r d oc to ra l t he s i s s he h ad a dd re s sed t h i s q ue s t ion mo re f u l ly . T he re s he h ad a rgued t ha t t he v e ry e x i s tence o f e d ic t s d i s t i ngu i sh ing b e tween c o in i nu su p ub l ico c on s t i tu tae a nd y e t i ta p ecun ia [ Cod . T heo . ! X .23 1 . . can b e r e ad a se v idence f o r t h e c on t inued c i rcu la t ion o fa l k i nd s o fc o in s , f o r t h e f r e q uen t i n te rven t ion s o f t h e g o ve rnmen t s how u p t h e c ommon a bu se s o ft h e c o inag e . . the e v idence o f h oa rd s a nd s i t e f i nd s c on f i rm s t h i s d i so rde r i n t h e c u r rency [ Rave tz , 1 963a , 4 2 ] . T he e x i s tence o f al aw w a s t aken t o i nd ica te n o t s imp ly t ha t a bu se s t ook p lace , r a the r t ha t s uch a bu se s w e re t he n orm . I t mu s t b e e mpha s ised t ha t w e d o n o t h ave a ny d i rec t i nd ica t ion o f t he c on tex t o f t he se e d ic t s o r t o w h ich p ar t icu la r i s sue s t hey r e fe r . N eve r the le s s , i ts eem s r e a sonab le t o b e l ieve t h a t t hey r e fe r t o o ne o r mo re o f t he p e r iod s i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing r e forms o f t he c o inage a nd a re i n tended t oo u t law p rev iou s i s sue s . P e rhap s s i gn i f ican t ly C od . T heo D C .23 ,1 i sd a ted t o 3 56 a nd may t hu s b e a s soc ia ted w i th t he r e fo rm s i nt he a f terma th o f t he Magnent ian r evo l t . I ti sh a rd ly c red ib le t ha t t he r u le o f l aw w a s s o i ne f fe c tua l t ha t t he e d ic t s w ou ld h ave h ad l i t t le o r n o i n f luence o n c on tempo rary h oard ing b ehav iour a nd money u se . I f t he n ew ly o u t lawed c o in c on t inued t oc i rcu la te , i ti su n l ike ly t ha t i tr ema ined a ccep tab le i n o f f ic ia l t r an s a c t ion s o r t ho se i nvo lv ing t he money c hange r s . T hu s p re fe ren t ia l h oa rd ing may h ave r e su l ted u pon i n i t ia l r e cep t ion o f t he e d ic t a s p eop le a t temp ted t o d i spo se o f o ld c o in a nd t o r ep lace i t w i th t he n ewe r i s sue s . T ha t s ome o f t h i s ma te r ia l r ema ined , e i the r a l ready i n e x i s t ing h oa rd s t ha t w e re n eve r t o b e r e cove red b y t he i r o wne r s , o r e ven s t i l l i n c i rcu la t ion many y ear s a f te r s uch a r e fo rm , may b e a n i nd ica t ion t ha t i mpe r ia l mone tary l e g i s la t ion w a s n o t w ho l ly s uc c e s s fu l i n o u t law ing o lde r i s sue s . Howeve r , i n t he a b sence o f a n e f fe c t ive mean s o f w i th d rawa l , o r i ndeed a ny a ppa ren t i n ten t ion o r p e rcep t ion o f an eed t ow i thd raw c oppe r , i tn eed n o t i mp ly e i the r t ha t t he l aw w a s g ene ra l ly i gno red , o r t ha t s uch c o in w a s w ide ly a ccep ted i n o ff i c ia l t r an sact ion s . I ndeed , t he p re sence o f c o in s i n ah oa rd c anno t b e t aken t o i mp ly t ha t t hey w e re c ur ren t a tt he t ime t ha t t he h oard w a s c l o sed . I n s ome c a se s , i t may e ven i mp ly t he c omp le te o ppo s i te : t ha t t he c o in s h ad r ema ined i n h oard s b e cau se t hey w e re n o l onge r o f a ny u se i n mone tary t r an sac t ion s .. T he s t udy o f f l uc tua t ion s i nt he b ackg round p opu la t ion o f c o inage h a s b een p ur sued f u r the r b y R ee ce . H i s i nve s t igat ion s made i tc l ear t ha t R ave tz ' p ar t icu la r f l uc tua t ion s i n c o in f i nd s a re a B r i t i sh p henomenon [ Ree ce , 1 973 ] . Many o f t he s i te s w h ich h e h a s i nve s t iga ted i n t he F rance , I t a ly a nd , mo re r e cen t ly , t he w ide r Med i te r ranean a rea s how q u i te d i f fe ren t a nd o f ten s moo the r c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s o f c o in f i nd s w hen p lo t ted o ve r t he s ame i s sue p e r iod s [ Reece , 1 967 ; R eece , 1 972b ; R eece , 1 979b ; R ee ce , 1 982a ] . T h is c a s t d oub t o n R ave tz ' i nf la t ionary mode l f o r i tw a s u n rea sonab le t o s uppo se t ha t B r i ta in a lone among s t t he n o r th -we s te rn p rov ince s o f t he emp ire r ef le c ted t ho se ' e conom ic p re s su re s ' w h ich d i c ta ted I mpe r ia l p o l icy o n m in t o u tpu t a nd t he r e la t ive me ta l l ic c on ten t s o f t he d i f fe ren t i s sue s . N ever the le s s , R ee ce 's w o rk s ugge s t s t ha t wh i l s t R ave tz ' p a t tern s may n o t b e u n iver sa l , t hey a re a n i nd ica t ion o f ad i s t inc t r eg iona l , t hough n o t n ece s sar i ly p rov inc ia l , p a t te r n s o f c o in f i nd s . L a te r w o rk b y R ee ce w i th Hodde r , t o b e d i scu s sed b e low , h a s i nd ica ted h ow t he a pparen t c ompo s i t ion o f t he money s upp ly i n t he f i r s t t o m idth ird c en tur ie s AD s how s b o th a g eog raph ica l a nd c hrono log ica l r e la t ion sh ip w i th m i l i ta ry a c t iv i ty . S im i la r f a c to r s may h ave

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c on t r ibu ted t ot he b a s ic p a t tern d e sc r ibed b y R ave tz . T he p ubl ica t ion , i n 1 974 , o f av o lume e n t i t led C o in s a nd t h e A r chaeo log i s t [ Ree ce , 1 974 ] p rov ided a n o ppo r tun i ty t o s ummar i se much o f t he c on tempo rary t hough t o n t he u se a nd v a lue o f c o in s i n a rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch . Mo re t han h a l f o f t he v o lume c on s i s ted o f p ape r s d i rec t ly c oncerned w i th p rob lem s o f Roman , p ar t icu la r ly Romano -Br i t i sh , c o in f i nd s . S eve ra l c on t r ibu tor s h ad b egun t of ocu s o n q ue s t ion s a r i s ing f r om t he r e cogn i t ion o f r epea ted p a t tern i ng i nc o in f i nd s w h ich w a s s een a s t he p roduc t o f a . . comp lex c omb ina t ion o ff a c to r s , p rov inc ia l a sw e l l a se mp i re w ide . S om e o ft h e se f a c to r s a r e p o l i t ica l , o t he r s e conom ic a nd s omewhe re b u r ied i nt h e o ve ra l l p a t te rn a r e t h o se e l e m en t s s p e c i f ic t oi n d iv idua l s i t e s [ Ca sey , 1 974 , 4 6 ] W i th t h i s w ide r a pp re c ia t ion o f al a rge s ca le ' b ackg round ' p a t tern o f c o in f i nd s , a t ten t ion w a s n ow d i re c ted i n c rea s ing ly t owa rd s w ay s i n wh ich i n te r s i te v ar ia t ion m igh t b e e xam ined . T h i s b rough t w i th i tt he p o s s ib i l i ty o f u s ing c o in f i nd s n o t t o a n swe r b road h i s to r ica l q ue s t i on s o f i mpe r ia l p o l ic ie s , b u t t o a dd re s s t ho se o f as oc ia l o r e conom ic n a tu re w h ich w e re i n c rea s ing ly s een a s t he l e g i t ima te c once rn s o f a r chaeo logy . T hu s C u mow s ugge s ted t ha t i t w ou ld b e p o s s ib le t oi den t i fy g roup s o f s i te s w i th s im i la r o r c omp lemen tary . .pa t te rn s o fc o inag ep e rhap s r ef l e c t ing t y p e s o fo c cup a t ion . . I t m ay w e l l b e t h a t f u r the r l i gh t c an a l so b e t h rown o n t h e r e la t ion sh ip o fv a r iou s s i t e s w h ich m ay b e l i nked b y v i r tue o fe conom i c o ra dm in i s t ra t ive f u nc t ion [ Cu rnow , 1 974 , 6 2 ] . T he r e cogn i t ion , b y many o f t he c on t r ibu to r s t o t h i s v o lume , o f aw ide r ange o f f a c tor s wh ich c ou ld d e term ine t he p a t tern o f c o in f i nd s w a s s ummar i sed i n a' S e le c t ion P roce s s Mode l ' p ropo sed b y J ohn C o l l i s [ Co l l i s , 1 974a , 1 73 ] . C o l l i s ' p ape r w a s p r imar i ly c once r ned w i th t he p o s s ib le u se o f s e r ia t ion t e chn ique s , i n o rde r t ha t s t a temen t s o f p robab i l i ty m igh t b e m ade c oncern ing t he r e la t ive p ropo r t ion s o fc o in s o f d i f fe ren t i s sue s w h ich w e re i n c i r cu la t ion a t a ny o ne t ime , a nd h ence t o p rov ide a n a n swe r t o q ue s t ion s o f t he mo s t l i ke ly d a te r ange f o r t he d epo s i t i n wh ich ac o in o r g roup o f c o in s i sf ound . Un for tuna te ly , h i s c a l l f o r s u i tab le d a ta w i th wh ich t o p er form s uch w o rk r e ce ived l i t t le r e spon se a nd h e h a s n o t d e ve loped t h i s l i ne o f r e sea rch ( pe r s . c omm , 1 984 ) . D e sp i te i t s c on s ide rab le p o ten t ia l t o a id t he p roce s s o f t he i n terp re ta t ion o f c hrono log ica l r e la t ion sh ip s i n t he e xcava t ion o f R oman s i te s , t h i s t op ic h a s h ad l i t t le a t ten t ion . T he l i te ra t u re a bound s w i th q ual i ta t ive s t a temen t s a bou t s urv iva l o f c o in s i n h oa rd s , b u t t h e se h ave u sua l ly b een l im i ted t o w arn ing s t ha t t he d a te o f as i ng le c o in s hou ld n o t b e g i ven t oo much e mpha s i s . S urv iva l i n h oa rd s may o f c our se s ay n o th ing a bou t s urv iva l i n u se o r c i r cu la t ion . I tm igh t i nd ica te t he o ppo s i te . A c o in c ou ld r ema in i n ah oa rd s imp ly b e cau se i tw as o f n o o the r u se ; i tc anno t b e a s sumed t ha t o wne r s o f h oa rd s w ou ld n e ce s sar i ly h ave r emoved o b so le te ma ter ia l . T he p rob lem o f t he mo s t l i ke ly d a te o f d epo s i t ion o f i s o la ted f i nd s a nd s ma l l g roup s o f c o in s c an o n ly b e a ddre s sed s a t i s fac to r i ly b y as t udy o f i s o la ted f i nd s a nd s ma l l g roup s . S ome b ackg round t heory o f c i rcu la t ion l i fe t ime s i sd e scr ibed w i th modern e xamp le s b y C o le [ Co le , 1 976 ] . O r ton d e sc r ibed a n e xpe r imen t w i th ma te r ia l f r om t he L e fev re R oad e xcava t i ons i n B ow , E a s t L ondon . [Or ton , 1 980 1 01-3 & 2 20 -4 ] . H e re , h e e xam ined b o th t he c o inage a nd t he s am ian w are i n a n a t temp t t o d e te rm ine t he a ve rage a ge o f a r te fact s o f b o th c l a s se s a t t he t ime o f t he i r d epo s i t ion . He d e term ined v a lue s o f 2 9 y ear s f o r t he p o t tery a nd 4 7 y ear s f o r t he c o in s . T he med ian a ge f o r c o in s w a s 2 8 y ear s , w i th t he p robab i l i ty a pp roach i ng z e ro f o r a ge s g rea te r t han 1 20 y ea r s [ i b id , f i g 3 .28a ] . W i th t he l im i ted n umbe r o f c o in s f r om a s i ng le s i te i tw ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le t o i nve s t iga te h ow t he a ge a t d epo s i t ion m igh t v ary w i th t ime . R e form s o f t he c o inage a nd t he d emone t i sa t ion o f p rev iou s i s sue s m igh t b e e xpe c ted t o a f fe c t t he l i ke ly a ge o f c o in s , a s h a s b een s ugge s ted b y R ee ce i n as t udy o f ma ter ia l f r om Rome . C ompar i son o f f i nd s f r om g en e ra l a nd l a te d epo s i t s s ugge s ted a d i f fer ing r ep re sen ta t ion o f c o in s i s sued i n t he p er iod s 3 48 -64 a nd 3 64 -78 . T he g ene ra l d epo s i t s t e nded t o p eak i n t he e a r l ie r p e r iod , w he rea s t he l a te d epo s i t s t e nded t op eak i nt he l a te r p e r iod . Whe the r t h i s d i s c r im ina t ion i sc l ea rcu t e nough t os ugg e s t ad emone t i sa t ion o fe a r l ie r i sue s i su nce r ta in , b u t i ti sq u i te c l ea r t h a t t h e n umb e r o fc o in s i nc i r cu la t ion a r ound t h e y e a r s 4 00 -10 i nt h ec en t re o fR ome w a s a r t i f ic ia l ly l ow i nc o in s s t ruck b e fo re a bou t 3 53 c omp a red

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w i th t he g ene ra l r un o fl o s se s i nt he s ame a rea [ Ree ce , 1 982b , 1 3 9 ] .

D a ta c ole c ted f o r t he r e search r epor ted h e re h a s p erm i t ted s ome o ft he se i d ea s t ob e e xp lo red f u r the r w i th r e su l t s t ha t s uppor t b o th O r ton 's q uan t i ta t ive a nd R e ,ece 's q ua l i tat ive c onc lu s i on s . C ol i s ' mode l o f c o in l o s s b a sed o n s e lec t ion p roce s se s p rov ided ab road f r amewo rk f o r t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o f v ar ia t ion i np a t tern s o f c o in l o s s . A t a ny g i ven l e ve l , c ommon f e a ture s o ft h e c o in d i s t r ibu t ion s f r om e ach u n i t a re r e ga rded a sr e su l t ing f r om s e le c t ion p ro ce s se s a t ah i ghe r l e ve l , a nd t he v ar ia t ion w i th in t he s amp le a s ar e su l t o f t h e c omb ined e f fe c t s o f p roce s se s a t t ha t l e ve l a nd b e low . I n o rde r t o i n ve s t iga te t h e v ar ia t ion i n c o in l o s s b e tween p rov ince s , i t w ou ld b e n e ce s sa ry f i r s t t oc olec t s amp le s o f c o in s r e p re sen ta t ive o f t ho se l o s t i ne ach o f t h e p rov ince s i n q ue s t ion . C ommon f e a ture s o f t he ir f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion s w ou ld t h en b e c on s i de red t o r ef lec t t he s e le c t ion p ro ce s se s r e su l t ing f r om t h e e f fec t s o f i mpe r ia l p ol i cy e t c . , w h i l s t t h e i n te rna l v ar iance o f t he s amp le w ou ld b e s e en t ob e c au sed b y s e lec t ion a tt h e p ro v i nc ia l l e ve l a nd b e low . We m ay r egard C o l l i s ' mode l a s ah i e rarch ica l s t ruc ture w h ich m igh t b e e n te red a t a ny g i ven l e ve l , i n o rde r t op er form a na ly se s a tt ha t l e ve l o r b e low , h o ld ing t h e e f fe c t s o f h i ghe r l e ve l s c on s tan t . A s s uch , i ti sr em in i scen t o f C la rke 's d e sc r ip t ion o f " Leve l s o f r e so lu t ion i n a r chaeo log ica l s pa t ia l s y s tem s " [ C larke , 1 977 , 1 ] . T h i s s ugge s t s t he s u i tab i l i ty o f a mu l t i var ia te s t a t i s t ica l a pp roach d e s igned t oi s o la te a nd d e sc r ibe t h e e f fec t s o f t h e d i f fe ren t l e ve l s o f s e lec t ion , a nd h ence t o p rov ide a b a s i s o n w h ich t heory m ay b e d eve loped a nd mode l s r ef ined . T he se s e le c t ion p roce s se s a r e o ne p o s s ib le s t ar t ing p o in t f o r i n ve s t iga t ion s ; t h e e x ten t o f t he i r e f fe c t , a nd o f o the r s a s y e t u nknown , t o ge the r w i th t h e ir e xp lana t ion i n t e rm s o f s oc io -econom ic a c t iv i ty , a re t he o b jec t ive s . D e sp i te t he a t t rac t ive s imp l ic i ty o f t h i s mode l i ts u f fe r s f r om a n umbe r o f p rob lem s a r i s ing f r om t h e v i ew o f t he i nd iv idua l l e ve l s a ss epa rab le s y s tem sw i th in w h ich s pe c i f ic , a nd p e rhap s i ndependen t , p roce s se s a re s e en t o o pe ra te . I n p rac t ice , s i te s , r eg ion s a nd p rov ince s c an n o t a nd c ou ld n o t h ave b een s o e a s i ly i s o la ted f r om e ach o the r . C ol i s o b served t ha t t ho se l e ve l s ' h ighe r ' t h an t he e xcava t ion a nd r e cove ry a re u nob se rvab le i n ad i re c t s en se , a nd t h i s c al s i n to q ue s t ion t he s epa rat ion o f p roce s se s a c t ing a tt h e se a na ly t ica l ly c onven ien t l e ve l s . T he re i sn o ap r ior i r e a son t o b el ieve t ha t c on tempo rary money u s ing p rac t ice r e spe c ted s uch d i v i s i on s . B oundar ie s b e tween r e g ion s w h ich m ay t hem se lve s h ave b een s ub je c t t oq u i te d i f fe ren t p a t tern s o f c o in s upp ly n eed n o t h ave b een r e spe c ted b y s ub sequen t c i rcu la t ion a nd d epo s i t i on . T he o p t im i sm o f many c on t r ibu to r s t o C o in s a nd t h e A r chaeo log i s t w a s n o t s ha red b y a l l , a l though f ew w en t a s f a r a s C raw fo rd i n d i sm i s s ing s ome o f t h e i n c rea s ing ly q uan t i ta t ive a pp roache s a s . .advanced n ume ro logy wh ich f o r t he mo s t p a r t o b fu sca te s t he o bv iou s o r d re s se s u p t he i mp lau s ib le [ C raw fo rd , 1 978 ] .

N ever the le s s , t he re r ema ined a n umbe r o f s c ep t ic s w ho o ppo sed t h i s a pparen t n ew d i re c t ion a nd w e re u nconv inced o f t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f d i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween c hance v ar ia t ion a nd r e a l p henomena : We may w i thou t d i f f icu l ty i den t i fy b road t r end s o f c o in a va i lab i l i ty a nd d e s i rab i l i ty , b u t t he i nd iv idua l c ha rac te r o f e ach h oa rd a nd s i te i sa ppa ren t . T he r ea sons f o r t h i s i nd iv idua l i ty may b e r ead i ly d educed . F i r s t ly , w e a re d ea l ing w i th a v e ry s ma l l s amp le o f t he o r ig ina l ma te r ia l ; s e cond ly , i ti sp robab ly m i s taken t oa s sume t ha t e ven w i th in al im i ted g eog raph ica l a r ea s uch a s B r i ta in t he c u r rency w a s e ve r u n i fo rm , o r t ha t w e c ou ld e ve r r e cogn ise w ha t m igh t h ave me re ly r andom v a r ia t ion s b e tween o ne s i te a nd a no the r ; t h i rd ly , t he f a c to r s i nvo lved i na s semb l ing al ow v a lue ' c u r rency ' h oa rd a re u nknowab le . [ Ken t , 1 981 , 7 8 ] .

S uch r emark s s t emmed i np ar t f r om al a ck o f f am i l ia r i ty w i th t h e m e thod s e mp loyed a nd a f a i lure t o u nder s tand w ha t w a s b e ing a t temp ted . T hey a r e t h e f am i l ia r r e spon se o f a n e s sen t i a l ly p o s i t iv i s t s choo l w h ich b el ieve s t h a t i fi ti sn o t p o s s ib le t oe s tab l i sh h i s tor ica l ' f ac t ' t h en s uch q ue s t ion s s hou ld n o t b e a sked . T ha t a ny a spe c t o f p a s t a c t ion i su nkowab le , a s i ndeed a l l p a s t a c t ion u l t ima te ly i s , i sn o r e a son t o r e je c t a t temp t s t oe xp la in o ur o b ser va t ion s o f t h e a ppa ren t r e su l t s o f t ho se a c t ions . I ti si ndeed d i ff i cu l t t o r e conc i le t h e e x t reme n um i sma t ic r e la t iv i sm o f t h i s s t a temen t w i th K en t 's o wn d e s cr ip t ion s o f r eg iona l a nd t empo ra l t r end s i n

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the same volume [ibid, 72-111]. Such an argument depends on the elastic interpretation of phrases like 'broad trends' and 'uniform currency'. Indeed, it is not so much an argument as a means of avoiding the issue. It matters little that we may be dealing with a small sample if it is possible to demonstrate the existence of repeatable patterning. It is this very repeatability which would allow us to suggest that we might not be dealing with random variation, but with phenomena that demand explanation. Of course, the isolation of a statistically significant phenomenon is no proof that the observed pattern is not a chance occurrence. Equally, a lack of statistical signi­ ficance need not mean that a pattern does not result from meaningful past action. The fre­ quent error in the application of statistical techniques to the description of such patterns does not lie here. Instead it is to be found in the attempt to link such patterns directly to supposed hidden processes that determine and control the actions of individuals and groups, rather than recognising that they are the result of innumerable individual actions. It is these actions and their possible links to our modem observations that must form the basis of our explana­ tions. It is perhaps surprising that the quantitative study of lists of coin finds arose relatively late and did not follow the rapid growth seen in some other areas of archaeology (see, for exam­ ple, Clark & Stafford, 1982). More so in view of the existence of an established system of classification and the widespread occurrence of coins, both in hoards and as site finds. This might appear to make coins an ideal subject for the application of quantitative methods. Con­ versely, much of the effort in the use of such techniques has been towards establishing more 'objective' classifications of artefacts and it may be that the prior existence of an adequate classification scheme has obviated the need for some aspects of this approach. Nevertheless, other forms of quantitative study such as techniques of spatial analysis have not been as widely used as might once have been expected. The apparent lack of interest in the more complex analytical techniques is not peculiar to the study of coins. Romanists, indeed histori­ cal archaeologists in general, have found less need for such methods than have their prehis­ toric collea�es. What interest there has been in this type of approach has come largely from archaeologists rather than from numismatists; from those who wish to use coins as part of some wider study, rather than those whose primary intention is to classify and establish chronological order. Such techniques, although often not clearly appreciated by numismatists, have invariably been seen as offering greater promise by the archaeologists. Nevertheless, quantification in the study of coin finds, particularly those of the Roman period, has rarely extended far beyond the visual comparison of standardised histograms. In contrast, studies in the more exclusively numismatic area of the metallic composition of the coins themselves have been based for many years in quantitative and statistical methods. This, of course, is to be expected in an area which is strictly the preserve of the analytical chemist and physicist. An exception to this generally simple level of quantification in the archaeological study of coin finds was the application by Hodder and Reece of the techniques of spatial autocorrela­ tion and trend surface analysis [Hodder & Reece, 1980), and temporal autocorrelation [Hodder & Reece, 1977], to the distribution of sestertii and middle bronze issues of the period 27:ac to 259AD in the western part of the Roman Empire. The data used was drawn from Reece's earlier survey of coin finds from a number of sites over this wide area [Reece, 1973]. In the 1980 paper, which despite publication dates was the earlier work, it was shown that the level of spatial autocorrelation (the extent to which the finds from a site may be predicted from, or are correlated with, those from spatially adjacent sites) was closely related to the apparent fluctuations in the composition of the money supply as reflected by the finds. Specifically, variation in the autocorrelation coefficient reflected variation in the ratio of silver denarii to bronze sestertii. The trend surface analysis in the same paper presented a clear impression of the spatial pat­ terning hinted at by the former analysis. This technique fits a three-dimensional surface to data which may be presented in terms of values of a single variable measured at points on a plane. A trend surface may then be presented, for example, as a contour map showing the expected value of the variable over the area of the plane [Hodder & Orton, 1976; Mather, 14

1976]. The resulting surface is not a contour map of the original data, but represents the best fit of a polynomial function to the data. The technique is thus analogous to regression methods with an additional dimension to suit the spatial application. In this study the surfaces were produced from the values of the percentage of sestertii amongst all sestertii and middle bronze in successive periods of the first to third centuries. These showed a spatial and temporal pattern where the higher proportions of sestertii moved from northern Italy in the first century, through the upper Rhineland in the second, reaching Britain by the early third. By this time, the proportion had increased throughout the western Empire, but the highest values were to be found in Britain. It was suggested that greater pro­ portions of the higher valued coins might be a reflection of inflation and that the area of greatest inflation gradually diffused outwards from the centre of the Empire towards the fron­ tiers. The possible existence of inflation, of whatever form, is however neither central nor neces­ sary to the argument advanced here. Instead it was possible to explain the apparent variation in the composition of coin assemblages solely in terms of a mechanism of money supply. Examination of the residuals, the difference between observed values and those of the trend surfaces, combined with empirical study of the material, allowed suspect coin collections to be discounted, and pointed to a number of sites which had consistent runs of deviation from the expected values. Here, Hodder and Reece were able to suggest that sites with a military character tended to have higher proportions of high value coin, whilst established civil sites frequently produced a greater proportion of the lower value issues. This corresponds well with a model of coin supply and circulation outlined elsewhere [Reece, 1978a). In this, the higher value sestertii were supplied originally as military pay and expenses and that lower value coin was normally only injected into general circulation via the nummularii or money changers, The distinction between the coin finds from these different types of site reflected this differ­ ence in supply and suggested that the higher value coin did not move very far in circulation before it was changed for the lower valued pieces. In their second paper [Hodder & Reece, 1977), they sought to take account of the temporal variation in their autocorrelation analysis. Thus the model used included components representing the percentage of sestertii on a site and its' neighbours in the previous period or phase. This new model therefore included both a spatial and a temporal component. The results of this analysis allowed them to suggest the possibility that certain groups of sites appeared to react differently to others as a result of changes in the pattern of supply following a debasement of the coinage. Debasements appear to have coincided with the shifts in the area of highest proportions of sestertii noted in the 1980 paper, and it was suggested that the decisions to revalue the coinage might have been in response to problems of supply in the military areas rather than to more general financial crises within the Empire as a whole. A differential distribution of coins by denomination between different parts of the empire could also be seen at a later period. Reece has noted a clear difference between the mediter­ ranean area and the north-western provinces in the relative proportions of Diocletianic folles and radiate fractions [Reece, 1982b]. As he has noted elsewhere [Reece, 1982c], such a difference would not be apparent during most of the fourth century where the coinage was more uniform than in earlier times. Perhaps a similar difference might be expected between distributions of gold and bronze, but gold coinage is so rare amongst site finds that it is unlikely that any difference could be observed. The model of coin supply and circulation that Reece had proposed [Reece, 1978a] owed much to a widely held view of state intentions in coin production. Both Jones [Jones, 1952; Jones, 1964] and Crawford [Crawford, 1970] had seen the fundamental purposes of coin pro­ duction in the need to pay the military and civil services. In the fourth century, according to Reece's model, supplies of precious metal coins from the Comitatensian mints, under the con­ trol of the Comes Sacrarum Largitionum, were used for these payments. Bronze, produced by diocesan mints under the control of the Praetorian Prefect, was supplied primarily to the num­ mularii. Thus soldiers and other state employees would have needed to change their gold and silver for bronze in order to use it in market transactions. Through these transactions, the civilian population would acquire bronze coinage which would then circulate through

15

s ub sequen t t r an sac t ion s . Howeve r , w hen i tc ame t o p ay ing t a xe s , t he c i v i l ian p opu la t ion w ou ld h ave n eeded t o b uy g o ld i n o rde r t o mee t s t a te d emand s . He re , a ga in , t he money c hange r s p layed a c ruc ia l r o le . T hey c ou ld s e l l g o ld i n r e turn f o r b ronze . T hus , f r om t he p o in t o f v i ew o f t he s t a te , t he ma jo r r o le o f b ronze w a s a s am ean s b y w h ich g o ld m igh t b e r e cove red f r om c i rcu la t ion . T ha t i tc i rcu la ted i n c omme rc ia l t r an sac t ion s , o r i ndeed b y o the r m ean s , w a s a n i n c iden ta l n ece s s i ty o f t h i s r o le . T h i s mode l s uppor t s R e ,e ce 's i mp re s s ion t ha t c o in b e came c oncen t ra ted i n t he a rea s o f h i gh m il i tary e xpend i tu re , s uch a s t he f r on t ie r s , a t t he e xpen se o f t he c en t ra l r e g ion o f t he e mp i re d ur ing t he f our th a nd f i f th c en tur ie s . Alow ing f o r d i f fe rence s i n t he s t ruc tu re a nd s upp ly me chan i sm o f t he m in t s , i ta l so p rov ide s s ome e xp lana t ion f o r t he d i f fe ren t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f b ronze a nd s i lve r i ne a r l ie r c en tur ie s . B owman 's e xam ina t ion o f f ou r th c en tury d ocumen tary s ource s f r om E gyp t s ugge s t s t ha t t he s epa rab i l i ty o f f unc t ion b e tween g o ld a nd b ronze w a s n o t a lway s a s a b so lu te a s R ee ce a nd , e a r l ie r , J one s h ad i mp l ied [ Bowman , 1 980 ] . Many r equ i s i t ion s a nd o f f ic ia l p aymen t s f o r b u l l i on a nd p roduce w e re made i n b ronze [ i b id , 2 7 ] , b u t B owman p rov ided e xamp le s f r om a n umbe r o f s ou rce s t o s how t ha t m i l i tary s t ipend ia , a tl e a s t i n t he e a r ly p ar t o f t he f our th c en t u ry , w e re a l so p a id i n b ronze [ i b id , 3 2 ] . S im i la r ly , t a x p aymen t s i n money w e re n o t a lway s l im i ted t o g o ld , a nd a n umbe r o f t he m ino r t a xe s s uch a s t ho se o n t r an spo r ta t ion w e re l e v ied i n b ronze . N eve r the le s s , t h i s b i -d ire ct iona l f l ow o f b ronze a ppear s t o h ave b een r e s tr ic ted t o l o ca l t a xe s a nd d oe s n o t r ep re sen t a mean s b y wh ich t he s t a te w i thdrew b ronze f r om c i rcu la t i on . O f c our se , w e s hou ld n o t a s sume u nc r i t icaly t ha t t he i mp l ica t ion s o f t he E gyp t ian s ou rce s c an b e e x tended t o o the r a rea s , b u t B owman a rgue s t ha t a ma jo r e f fe c t o f D ioc le t ian 's r e fo rm s w a s t o b r ing E gyp t i n to l i ne w i th t he r e s t o f t he emp ire . I n ac a se s uch a s t h is i t s eem s r ea sonab le t o e xpec t c r i t ic s t o s how w hy w e s hou ld r egard E gyp t a s d i f fe ren t . E ven i f d oub t r ema in s o ve r t he d i re c t a ppl icab il i ty o f B owman 's e xamp le s t o t he s i tua t ion i n t he n o r th -we s te rn p rov ince s , i ti sn e ce s sary t o e x tend R ee ce 's mode l t o a l low f o r as l igh t ly w ide r p rov inc ia l a nd s t a te i n te re s t i nt he b ronze c o inage . E a rl ie r , C raw fo rd h ad a l so n o t iced t he t endency f o r h ighe r v a lue c o in s t o p redom ina te i n t he n or the rn p rov ince s . Howeve r , h e h ad a dop ted a s omewha t d i f fe ren t e xp lana t ion t ha t r e la ted mo re c l o se ly t o amode l o f h ow c o in w a s u sed t han t oh ow i tw a s i n jec ted i n to c i rcu la t i on . On t he b a s i s o f ma te r ia l f r om P ompeü wh ich i n c luded a h igh p ropor t ion o fb ronze f r ac t i ona l p iece s , h e h ad s ugge s ted t ha t t he p re sence o f s uch c o in s i nd ica ted t ha t t hey w e re h eav i ly u sed a s a med ium o f e xchange [ C raw fo rd , 1 970 , 4 2 ] . T he e xchange u se o f c o in a ppea red t o h ave b een al a rge ly u rban p henomenon a nd h e c onc luded t ha t t he p ropor t ion s o f d i f fe ren t v a lue p ie ce s i n t he n o r thern p rov ince s w e re a n i nd icat ion o f t he l im i ted u se o f c o in f o r s uch p urpo se s [ i b id , 4 5 ] . D i f fe ren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s o f p rec iou s a nd b a se me ta l c o in f i nd s a re a l so t o b e s e en i n t he p re -Roman I r on Age . He re , ad i f fe ren t e xp lana t ion h a s b een s ugge s ted [ Co l l i s , 1 971 ; C o l l i s , 1 974b ] . C o l l i s s ough t t o e xp la in t he o b served d i s t r ibu t ion o f c o in f i nd s , p ar t icu la r ly t he b ia se s i n f avou r o f b ronze i n t he o pp ida a nd g o ld i nt he c oun t ry s ide , i n t e rm s o f a n i n c rea s ing c en t ra l i sa t ion o f p o l i t ica l p owe r . C hange i n t he c o in d i s t r ibu t ion t h rough t ime w a s s een a s a r ef lec t ion o f ap ol i t ica l c hange f r om a ' d ecen t ral i sed ' s oc ie ty , i n w h ich c o inage h ad l i t t le p o l i t ica l s i gn if icance a nd h ence w a s n o t s ub jec t t o s t rong c en t ra l c on t ro l , t o o ne i n w h ich a g rea te r d eg ree o f c en t ral i sa t ion o f p ol i t ica l p owe r c oncen t ra ted c on t ro l o f c o in p roduc t ion i n t he h and s o f t he c en t ra l a u tho r i ty . T he b ronze c o inage w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t he d eve lopmen t o f p ro to -urban ma rke t s w i th in t he o pp ida , w he rea s t he r ura l g o ld f i nds r ef le c t a n a l toge the r d i f fe ren t , b u t u n spe c if ied , u se o fc o in embedded i ns oc ia l r e lat ion s . T h i s ' i n terna l ' mode l , e xp re s sed i n t e rm s o f at heo ry o f s oc io -po l i t ica l s y s tem s , w a s d i re c t ly o ppo sed t o e arl ie r v i ew s w h ich h e ld t ha t t he ma jo r i n f luence s o n t he i n t roduc t ion o f c o inage w e re e x te rna l . A l though t he re h ad b een a g ene ra l s h i f t o f o p in ion a way f r om s imp le ' i nva s i on ' mode l s [ Ha rd ing , 1 974 ] , C ol i s ' a pp roach t o e xp lana t ion h a s n o t g one u ncha l lenged . T he re w a s al ong a nd i nconc lu s ive d eba te b e tween C ol i s , a s ap roponen t o f t he h ypo the t ico d educ t ive a pp roach , a nd t he i nduc t ive h i s to r ic i s t s choo l , p r inc ipa l ly r ep re sen ted b y Warw ick Rodwe l l w ho a rgued t ha t t he e xp lana t ion o f d i f fe ren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s o f c o in f i nds

1 6

. .doe s n o t l i e i n o b scu re s oc ia l o r e conom ic s t ructure s i n t he I r on Age , b u t s imp ly i n t he c o l lec t ing a nd e xcava t ing h ab i t s o f a n t iquar ie s a nd a rchaeo log is ts [ Rodwel , 1 981b , 5 2 ] . ( s ee a l so , Rodwe l l , 1 981a a nd C o l l is , 1 981a ; C o l l is , 1 981b ) .

Rodwe l l 's a rgumen t t ha t w e s hou ld l ook mo re c l o se ly a tt he mean s b y w h ich ' s t ray ' c o in f i nd s a re c o l le c ted h a s b een s t reng thened b y ar e cen t s t udy o f f our th c en tury R oman ma ter ia l f ound i n S co t land [ Ca sey , 1 985 ] . C a sey d emon s t ra ted a c on s ide rab le d i f fe rence b e tween t he c h rono log ica l p a t tern s o f s t ray a nd e xcava t ion f i nd s , t hu s c a s t ing d oub t o n t he s ou rce s , a nd h ence u t i l ity , o f t he s t ray s . Much o f t h i s d eba te c en t red o n f undamen ta l me thodo log ica l d i f fe rence s b e tween t he p ar t i c i pan t s , w i th C o l l i s a rgu ing t ha t , i n c on t ra s t t o t he p ar t icu lar i s t a pp roach o f Rodwe l l , h i s mode l s w e re c apab le o f b e ing t e s ted , a nd h ence r e fu ted . N ever the le s s , i tr ema in s t r ue t ha t i t i so n ly h i s d e scr ip t ion o f t he o b served p henomena w h ich may b e ' t e s ted ' , n o t h i s e xp lana t ion i n t e rm s o f t he s oc ia l p roce s se s w h ich l e d t o t he f o rma t ion o f t he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . S uch e xp lana t ion i sn o t amenab le e i the r t os c ien t i f ic ' p roo f ' o r t or e fu ta t ion . P o l i t ica l c hange s o f t he e x ten t s ugge s ted b y C o l l i s f o r t he I r on Age a re n o t t ob e s e en i nt he Roman emp ire w he re c en t ra l i sed p owe r a nd c on t ro l o f t he c o in s upp ly w e re f i rm ly e s ta b l i shed . I n t he e a s t l o ca l c o in s upp l ie s p e r s i s ted f o r ac on s ide rab le p e r iod u nde r R oman p o l i t i c a l c on t ro l , b u t i n t he w e s t r epub l ican , a nd l a te r i mper ia l , c o in s a ppea r t o h ave q u ick ly s up p lan ted e ar l ie r l o ca l i s sue s . N ever the le s s , p ar t icu lar ly i nt h e l e s s c en t ra l p rov ince s s uch a s B r i t a in , i th a s b een s ugge s ted t ha t t he u se o f c o in a nd e xchange p rac t ice s i n g ene ra l m ay h ave u nde rgone c on s ide rab le c hange . S uch c hange w a s n o t l im i ted t o t he i mmed ia te ly p o s t c onque s t p e r iod , b u t r a the r w a s p ro t rac ted o ve r much o f t he e n t i re p er iod o f R oman d om ina t i on . A s i n I r on Age s t ud ie s t he i dea o f s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l c hange a s c on t inuou s p ro ce s se s h as s upp lan ted e a r l ie r v i ew s i n w h ich s oc ie t ie s w e re e s sen t ia l ly s t a t ic u n le s s c ompe l led t o c hange b y t he i mpo s i t ion o f e x te rna l f o rce . A move t owa rd s e xp lana tory mode l s o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f R oman c o in f i nd s i n w h ich s oc ia l a spec t s o f t he u se o f c o in s w e re g i ven g rea te r p rom inence w a s f u r the r e ncou raged b y Hodde r w hen h e o u t l ined t he i mp l ica t ion s o f t he s ub s tan t iv i s t a pp roach t o a nc ien t e conom ie s [ Hodde r , 1 979 ] . Th i s v i ew w a s d e r ived p r inc ipa l ly f r om t he w o rk o f K ar l P o lany i [ Po lany i , 1 977 ; P o lany i , 1 978 ] a nd h ad r e ce ived s ome a t ten t ion among s t a nc ien t h i s tor ian s ( e .g . F in l e y , 1 973 ) . I th ad g a ined g round among s t p reh i s tor ian s , p r imar i ly t h rough t he w o rk o f S ah l i n s [ Sahl in s , 1 974 ] . S ub s tan t iv i s t s empha s i sed t he r o le s o f r ed i s t r ibu t ive a c t iv it ie s a nd r e c ip roc i ty i n m any f o rm s o f e xchange a s d i s t inc t f r om ma rke t e xchange . A s s uch t he se p rac t ice s o wed mo re t o s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l r e la t ion sh ip s t han t o a ny th ing t ha t c ou ld b e c aled e conom ic i n af o rma l s en se . P o lany i a nd h i s f olowe r s a rgued t ha t t he d e scr ip t ive a nd a na ly t ic t e chn ique s o f t he mode rn e conom i s t w e re n o t a ppl icab le t os uch ' e conom ie s ' , b e cau se e conom ic a c t ion w a s e mbedded i n s oc ia l r e la t ion s a nd d id n o t f o rm p ar t o f as epa rab le s phe re o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty . S uch a c t iv i t i e s w e re s ub je c t t o q u i te d i f fe ren t i nf luence s a nd c on s t ra in t s f r om t ho se b e l ieved t o i n form d ec i s ion s t aken i n ap r ice -f ix ing ma rke t p l ace . T hu s t hey o ppo sed t ho se ' f o rma l i s t s ' w ho h e ld t ha t e conom ic l aw s h ad a w ide a ppl icab i l i ty . A l though s t rong ly o ppo sed t o Marx i s t f o rma l i sm , t hey h e ld t o as im i la r d iv i s ion b e tween c ap i tal i s t a nd ' p re -cap i ta l i s t ' e conom ie s . I n t he l a t te r , h oweve r , t hey d i s t ingu i shed f o rm s o f e xchange p rac t ice r a the r t han mode s o f p roduc t i on . T he v i go rou s b u t u l t ima te ly i n conc lu s ive d eba te b e tween f o rma l i s t s a nd s ub s tan t iv is t s h ad b een a bandoned b y a l l b u t af ew s cho lar s , n o tab ly Geo rge D a l ton a nd P au l B ohannon , i n e conom ic a n th ropo logy l ong b e fo re i tw a s t aken u p b y a r chaeo log i s t s . C anc ian h ad c onc luded t ha t t he d i s t inc t ion b e tween t he e conomy a s ' aloca t ion o f s c arce r e sou rce s ' a nd a s ' i n s t i tu ted p roce s s ' w a s n o t n ece s sar i ly c on t rad ic tory , r a the r i td e r ived f r om t he d i f fe ren t c once rn s a nd l im i ta t ion s o f b o th a pp roache s [ Canc ian , 1 966 ] . N eve r the le s s , t he a wa rene s s o f t he p o s s ib le mu tua l c o -ex i s tence o f d i f fer ing e conom ic f o rm s h a s h ad a c on s ide rab le i mpac t o n a rchaeo l og ica l a pp roache s t oe conom ic q ue s t ion s . C o ll i s ' a pp roach t o t he e xp lana t ion o f I r on Age d i s t r ibu t ion s o wed much t o t he s ub s tan t i v i s t s epara t ion o f money u se s f r om e conom ic r a t iona l i ty . S im i la r ly , R icha rd Hodge s a ck n ow ledged a d eb t t o t h i s s choo l o f t hough t i n h i s e xam ina t ion s o f e a r ly med ieva l e conom ic s

1 7

[ Hodge s , 1 978 ; Hodge s , 1 982 ] . I n p ar t icu lar , Hodge s h a s p ur sued t he t op ic o f ' por t s o f t r ade ' w h ich a c t a s a n i n ter face b e tween d i f fe ren t e conom ie s , as ub jec t t ha t P o lany i p a id p ar t i cu la r a t ten t ion t o , i n i t ia l ly i n h i s e xam ina t ion o f t he d eve lopmen t o f a nc ien t A then s a nd P i raeu s , a nd l a te r i n s t ud ie s o f A f r ican a nd e a r ly med ieva l E uropean e conom ie s [ Po lany i , 1 963 ; P o lany i , 1 964 ; P o lany i , 1 977 ; P o lany i , 1 978 ] . P o lany i 's t heme o f t he d i s t inc t ion b e tween ' s pe c ia l p urpo se ' a nd ' g ene ra l p u rpo se ' money a nd t he ir c o r re spondence w i th n on -ma rke t a nd ma rke t e conom ie s f o rmed ab a s i s f o r much o f t he w o rk o f h i s f o l lowe r s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , D a l ton , 1 962 ; D a l ton , 1 965 ; D a l ton , 1 967 ) . H i s o b serva t ion t ha t money c ou ld b e r egarded a s as eman t ic s y s tem r e ce ived s omewha t l e s s a t ten t i on [ Po lany i , 1 968 ; P o lany i , 1 977 , C hap te r 9 ] . One w ho d id p ur sue t h i s p a th w as He len C ode re w ho o ppo sed D a l ton 's r e je c t ion o f f u r the r t heor i s ing o n t he r o le o f money , a rgu ing t ha t t he s pe c ia l /gene ra l p urpo se d i s t inc t ion w a s a na ly t ica l ly i nadequa te [ Code re , 1 968 ] . I n p ar t icu la r , s he w a s c once rned t ha t t he s pe c ia l p urpo se g roup ing . . i s f a r t o og r o s s t oc on t r ibu te m u ch t ot h ea na ly s i s o ft h eh i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t o fm one y i na ny p a r t icu la r s o c ie ty o ri ng ene ra l , . . . [ i b id 58 ] , i t s m a jo r f a i lu re b e ing t ha t i ti sn o mo re t han ad i s t inc t ion b e tween ' mode rn c ap i ta l is t ' money a nd ' o the r ' money . Mo re r e cen t ly , D a l ton h a s d eve loped a mo re d e ta i led d e scr ip t ion o f t he ' s pe c ia l p urpo se ' c a tegory [ Da l ton , 1 977 ] . H i s s epa ra t ion o f ' p r im i t ive v a luab le s ' , ' p r im i t ive money ' a nd ' e a r ly c a sh ' w a s t aken u p b y Hodge s i n h i s s t udy o f e a r ly med ieva l e conom ie s [ Hodge s , 1 982 ] , w he re h e a t temp ted t o f i t t he se c a tegor ie s i n to a n e xp l ic i t ly e vo lu t ionary v i ew o f t he d eve lop m en t o f t he Ang lo -Saxon , S cand inav ian , Me rov ing ian a nd C a ro l ing ian c o inage s . Hodge s c l a imed t ha t c o inage i n i t ia l ly . . e vo l v ed a sa n i n dex f o r t h e p aymen t o fb l oo d f eud p r ice s . . . [and ] . . .a l so e v o l v ed f r om t h e t r ad ing o fb u l l ion . . . [ i b id 1 0 5 , m y e mpha s i s ] . H e a t temp ted t oi n corpo ra te t he se i dea s i n to ap roce s sua l mode l o f i n c rea s ing s oc ia l s t ra t i f ica t i on a nd c omp lex i ty , a nd s aw ' e vo lu t ion ' b eyond p r im i t ive v a luab le s a s ar e spon se , o n t he o ne h and , t oi n c rea s ing i n te rac t ion o fs epa ra te s oc io -po l i t ica l s y s tem s , a nd o n t he o the r , . .a s ar e qu i remen t o f s t rong l e ade r sh ip i t s e l f i n ten t o n r e gu la t ing c omme r ce f o r i t s o wn e nd s [ i b id 17 ] . Howeve r , h i s s urvey o f t he c u r renc ie s c ompr i se s l i t t le mo re t han as e r ie s o f s epa ra te i n s tance s o fb o th p r im i t ive v a luab le s a nd p r im i t ive money . Un le s s , l i ke Hodge s , o ne i sc omm i t ted t oa n e vo lu t ionary f r amewo rk i ti sd i f f icu l t t oi den t i fy a ny s uch p roce s s i n h i s d e scr ip t ion s . I ndeed , h e i sf o rced t o a dm i t t ha t b eyond p r im i t ive money t he e vo lu t ion w a s u nce r ta in [ i b id 17 ] . A s w i th o the r e vo lu t ionary s chema t he l im i ta t ion o f t h i s a pp roach l i e s i n t he i n s is tence o n s equen t ia l s t age s a nd t he f a i lure t o r e cogn i se t ha t s epa ra te f o rm s may s imu l taneou s ly c o -ex i s t . T he s ub s tan t iv i s t a pp roach h a s n o t b een s o f i rm ly a dop ted b y Roman a r chaeo log i st s , p e rhap s b ecau se , c ompared w i th t ho se o f t he I r on Age a nd e ar ly med ieva l p er iod s , t he mone t a r y s y s tem h a s b een r egarded a s r e la t ive ly s t at ic . N eve r the le s s , i th a s n o t b een w i thou t i nf lu e nce . T h i s i nf luence , a nd t ha t o f a nc ien t h i s to r ian s o ppo sed t o ' modern i s ing ' o f t he a nc ien t e conomy , i ss een i n t he i n c rea s ing a ccep tance b o th t ha t e x ten s ive e xchange n eed n o t i nvo lve money a nd , p e rhap s t o al e s se r e x ten t , t ha t s t ray c o in f i nd s n eed n o t c or re spond d i re c t ly w i th ma rke t a c t iv i t ie s . R eece w e lcomed Hodde r 's b r ie f e xpo s i t ion o f t he se i dea s f o r t he l i gh t t ha t t hey m igh t s hed o n a n u nde r s tand ing o f t he s ub s tan t ia l i n c rea se i n r e co rded B r i t ish c o in f i nd s b e twe en t he m id th ird a nd f our th c en tur ie s [ Hodde r , 1 979 ; R ee ce , 1 979a ] . T he s l ow a dop t ion o f marke t s b a sed i n t he e xchange r o le o f money a nd t he ma in tenance o f e xchange p rac t ice s t ha t d id n o t p r imar i ly i nvo lve money , a tl e a s t i nt he f o rm o fi mper ia l c o in , h e lped t o e xp la in t he l ow l e ve l o f c o in f i nd s , a nd b y i n fe rence c o in u se , d ur ing t he f i r s t t wo h undred y ear s o f Roman r u le . I f . . .B r i ta in h ad ap e r fe c t ly g ood e c onom ic s y s tem o fi t so wn , a n e mb edded s y s tem , w h ich i n n o w ay c on t ravened t h e s t a te e conom ic d i c ta te s , t h en i tw ou ld p r e sumab ly h ave t a ken a c on s ide rab le t i me t oc hang e[ Re e ce , 1 982 c , 5 0 1 ] . R eece e nv isaged a o u twa rd s p read o f money u se f r om t he Med i ter ranean t owa rd s t he n o r th e rn a nd w e s tern p rov ince s :

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I t a ly t h e S ou th o fF rance , a nd t h e E a s t c o a s t o f S pa in s e em t ob e f u l ly m one t ized i nt h e f i r s t c e n tu ry AD, b u t t h e D anub e p rov ince s , P o r tuga l , a nd B r i ta in a r e n o t . T he h ab i t s o f c o in u s ing , o re l se t h ee s tab l i shmen t o f am a rke t e conomy a so ppo sed t oa n e x chang e s y s tem m o re d ep enden t o n s o c ia l s t ruc tu re , t r ave l led o n ly s l ow ly s ot h a t i tw a s n o t u n t i l t h e t h i rd c e n tu ry t h a t c e n t re a nd p e r iphe ry s e em t ou s ec o in si nt h es ame w ay [ Re e ce , 1 982a , 3 43 ] . T h i s p roce s s c an b e c ompa red w i th t he c onc lu s ion s o f R ee ce a nd Hodde r 's e ar l ie r a na ly s i s o f c h rono log ica l t r end s i n t he r e la t ive p ropor t ion s o f s e s t er t i i a nd d enar i i i n t he se a rea s . I n b o th c a se s t he re i sa n o u twa rd movemen t f r om c en t ra l t o p e r iphe ra l r eg ion s . T h i s c ou ld b e t aken t o s uppor t t he l ong s t and ing v i ew o f t he R oman m i l i tary a s a gen t s o f ` r oman i sa t ion ' , i n t h i s c a se i n s p read ing t he p rac t ice o f c o in u se i n marke t e xchange . A l terna t ive ly , i tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t i tw a s o n ly t h rough ah igh l e ve l o f m i l i tary p re sence , a nd t hu s e xpend i tu re , t ha t a s u f f ic ien t v o lume o f c o in m igh t b e a va i lab le f o r i t s u se t o b e come g ene ra l a nd s ub sequen t ly f o r i t s r a te o f d epo s i t ion t o r i se . T he se t wo v i ew s a re n o t d iame t r ica l ly o ppo sed , r a the r t hey d i f fe r i n e mpha s i s a nd i n t he ir a s se s smen t o f t he e x ten t t o w h ich t he s p read o f a mone tary e conomy i s t o b e r ega rded a s a n i n ten t iona l p ar t o f s t a te p o l icy o r a n i n c iden ta l , e ven i f n e ce s sary , e f fe c t o fs t a te e xpend itu re a nd t he r equ i remen t s t ol e vy t a xe s . A f u r the r a spe c t o f t he a r chaeo log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f f i nd s c oncer n s t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t he s ou rce s o f t he m a te r ia l a nd c i rcu la t ion . T he g ene ra l v i ew t ha t t he c ompo s i t ion o f t he s upp ly o f c o inage t o ap rov ince r e su l ted f r om t he s t a te 's d e c i s ion s o n h ow much c o in w a s n eeded f o r o ff ic ia l p urpo se s a nd f r om wh ich m in t s i ts hou ld b e s upp l ied c an b e e x tended t o s ugge s t t ha t t h i s p a t tern i se s sen t ia l ly r e ta ined i n t he r e cove red d i s t r ibu t ion s . T hu s t he e f fe c t s o f a ny s ub sequen t c i rcu la t ion o n t he c ompo s i t ion o f t he c o inage w e re i n su f f ic ien t t o d i s tu rb t h i s p a t te rn o the r t han i n m ino r w ay s . F u l fo rd p re sen ted a c on t ra s t ing v i ew , w h ich r ega rded t he c omme rc ia l r o le o f money a nd t he a t tendan t c i rcu la t ion o f c o in a s t he p r inc ipa l d e term inan t o f o u r o b se rved d i s t r ibu t ions o f f ou r th c en tury f i nd s [ Fu l fo rd , 1 978a ] . H e s ough t t o e xp la in t he m ix o f c o in i n ap rov ince i n t e rm s o f t he e xchange t h rough t r ade o f money a nd g ood s w i th t he r e g ion s i n w h ich m in t s w e re l o ca ted . Whe rea s R ee ce 's mode l h ad e xp la ined t he t endency f o r o ne o r t wo m in t s t o p rov ide t he m a jo r i ty o f t he c o in f ound i n ap rov ince a s a n a r te fac t o f i mper ia l s upp ly p o l icy , F u l fo rd a rgued t ha t t h i s w a s a n i nd ica t ion o f ma jo r t r ad ing c on tac t s a nd t hu s o f t he i mpor t s a nd e xpo r t s b e tween t he p rov ince a nd t he h in te r land s o f t he m in t c i t ie s . T he c on t inued e x i s tence o f am in t a nd i t s l e ve l s o f o u tpu t , h e a rgued , w e re i nd ica t ion s o f t he l e ve l o f s uch t r ade a nd o f t he p ub l ic d emand f o r c o in , n o t o f t he s t a te 's f i sca l r equ i remen t s . I n e f fe c t , h i s c l a im w a s t ha t t he ma rke t d i c ta ted t he l e ve l o f d emand a nd h ence t he s upp ly a nd c i rcu la t ion o f c o in . T he v o lume a nd r ange o f c i rcu la t ion t h rough t r ade w a s f a r g rea te r t han t ha t a l lowed b y R ee ce a nd o the r s , a nd t he v o lume a nd d i re c t ion o f c i rcu la t ion w e re t he mo s t s i gn i f ican t f ac to r s i ns hap ing t he m ix o f c o in i n a ny a rea : P o l i t ica l a nd m il i ta ry c on s ide ra t ion s m ay h ave b e en i mpo r tan t c on s t ra in t s o n t r ea su ry p o l icy b u tt h ey s e em o n ly t oh ave i n f luenced m a jo rc hang e si ne x cep t iona l c i rcum s tance s [ i b id , 6 7 ] . . .bu t , o ve ra l l , i tm ay b e m o re r e a sonab le t o c on s ide r t h e f l uc tua t ion s w h ich h a ve b e en o b se r ved a sr e f l ec t ing u nde r ly ing c hang e s i nt h e f o r tune s o ft h e m in t c i t ie s a nd t h e i r h i n te r l a nd a sw e l l a so ft h e i rm a jo r t r ad ing p a r tne r s [ i b id . 8 9 ] . I n af u r the r p ape r , F u l fo rd a t temp ted t o l i nk t he d ec rea s ing c on t r ibu t ion t o t he B r i t i sh p a t t e rn o f f i r s t L ondon , a nd t hen T r ie r , a nd t he r i s ing p ropor t ion s f r om t he s ou the rn G a l l ic a nd I t a l ian m in t s , w i th c hange s i nt he s ou rce s o fi mpo r ted p o t te ry [ Fu lfo rd , 1 978b ] . T he c i rcu la t ion a spe c t o f F u l fo rd 's w o rk d e se rve s c a re fu l a t ten t ion , f o r i fi ti sa ccep ted t ha t b ronze c i rcu la ted e x ten s ive ly t h rough mone tary t r an sac t ion s , t hen t he p o s s ib i l i ty t ha t t he e f fe c t s o f t ha t c i rcu la t ion m igh t b e o b se rved i n t he m ix o f c o in r e cove red f r om e xcavat ion s mu s t a l so b e a ccep ted . H i s a rgumen t t ha t m in t l o ca t ion a nd o u tpu t l e ve l s w e re d e te rm ined b y t he n eed s o f t r ade i s , h oweve r , much l e s s c onv inc ing a nd f a i l s t ou nderm ine t he a rgumen t s a dvanced e arl ie r b y Hendy [ Hendy , 1 972a ; Hendy , 1 972b ] t ha t t he se w e re w ho l ly d ependen t o n i mpe r ia l f i sca l p o l icy . A m a jo r d e fe c t o f F u l fo rd 's mode l l i e s i n i t s f a i lure t o p rov ide a ny c onv inc ing e xp lana t ion o f h ow c o ins m igh t b e i n je c ted i n to c i rcu la t ion . C er ta in ly , h i s s ugge s t ion t ha tb ronze m igh t b e g i ven a s c hange w hen p ay ing t a xe s i n g o ld i s ap l au s ib le , t hough s ure ly o n ly p ar t ia l ,

1 9

m echan i sm f o r i s sue , b u t t oc l a im t ha t . .o the rw i se i tc ou ld b e r e lea sed i n to c i r cu la t ion w hen i tw a s n eeded a sc hang e i nm a rke t t r an sa c t ion s [ Fu l fo rd , 1 978a , 7 1 ] . i st oa vo id t h i s i mpor tan t q ue s t ion . P urcha se s o f b ronze i n q uan t i ty f r om t he money c hange r s o r o the r o f f ic ia l s ou rce s [ i b id , 7 1 ] m igh t a l so p rov ide af u r the rp a r t ia l me chan i sm , b u t t he s i g n i f ican t c on t r ibu t ion t o t he c i rcu la t ion i n t he f o rm o f s a lar ie s a nd o the r p aymen t s , whe the r d i re c t ly i n b ronze o r i nd i re c t ly i n p rec iou s me ta l c o inage , c anno t b e s o e a s i ly d i sm i s sed . I t c an n o t b e a s sumed t ha t s uch am echan i sm c ou ld i ni t se l f r e su l t i n a n e ven s upp ly t oa l a rea s o r a n a dequa te v o lume o f c o in f o r a l l o ca l n eed s . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween Reece 's mode l a nd t ha t p ropo sed b y F u l fo rd c or re spond s w i th a n i mpo r tan t a rea o f d eba te among s t e conom ic h i s to r ian s . T he n a ture o f t he Roman e conomy — the p re sence o r a b sence a nd r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f d i f fe ren t e conom ic f orm s , t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he s t a te , i n s t i tu t ion s o r i nd iv idua l s a c ted t o c on t ro l t he e conomy , a nd t he e x ten t o f t he i r u nde r s tand ing o f e conom ic p roce s s —have l ong b een d eba ted . S ince Ro s t o v tze f f [ Ro s tov tze f f , 1 957 ] many h ave t aken t he v i ew t ha t . . the d i f f e rence b e twe en a nc ien t a nd m ode rn e conom ie s w a s q uan t i ta t ive r a the r t h an q ua l i t a t ive [ P leke t , 1 983 , 1 3 1 ] . T h i s v i ew h a s p romo ted t he i mpor tance o ft r ade . O the r s h ave a rgued t ha t n o t o n ly w a s t r ade l e s s i mpo r tan t t han i n l a te r p e r iod s , b u t t ha t t he e n t ire p e rcep t ion a nd o rgan i sa t ion o f t he a nc ien t e conomy w a s n ece s sar i ly q u i te d i f fe ren t . . the y l a cked t h e c oncep t o fa n ' e conomy ' , a nd , af o r t i o r i , t h a t t h e y l a cked t h e c oncep tua l e l emen t sw h ich t o ge the rc on s t i tu te w ha t w ec a l l ' t he e c onomy ' [ F in le y , 1 973 , 2 1 ] . No t o n ly d id t hey l a ck t he c oncep t s , t hey a l so l a cked t he v ocabu lary : . . the b a s ic t e rm s , s u ch a s l a bou r , p roduc t ion , c ap i ta l , i n ve s tmen t , i n come , c i r cu la t ion , d emand , e n t rep reneu r , u t i l i ty . . . [ i b id ] . c anno t e a s i ly b e t r an s la ted i n to e i the r G reek o r L a t in . I t f o l low s t ha t w e mu s t e xe rc i se e x t reme c au t ion i n t r ans la t ing c l a s s ica l s ource s t o a vo id i mpo s ing modern e conom ic c oncep t s , a nd a l o f t he c on tex tualy s pec if ic b aggage t ha t t hey e n ta i l , w he re n o s uch t h ing c an o r ig i n a l ly h ave b een i n tended . T ho se ma t te r s w h ich w e c an s o e a s i ly c l a s s i fy a s e conom ic , p re c i se ly b e cau se w e d o h ave t he a pp ropr ia te c oncep t s t o d e scr ibe o u r o wn e xpe r ience , w e re n o t s epa rab le f r om a l l o the r a spe c t s o f t he ir s oc ie ty . S uch c au t ion i sn o t , a nd h a s n o t b een , a lway s a ppa ren t among s t e conom ic h i s tor ian s , a nd t h i s f a i l ing i sn o t l im i ted t ot ho se s pe c ia l i s ing i nt he a nc ien t w o r ld . T he e r ro r o f . . a t t r ibu t ing t om oney a nd c omme rce t h e r o le , m ean ing a nd i mpo r tance t h ey h ave n ow , b u t d i d n o t h ave t h en [ Dub y , 1 98 1 , 5 8 ] h a s b een e qua l ly p reva len t among s t med ieva l i s t s . N eve r the le s s , a s F in ley h a s s t re s sed [ F in ley , 1 973 , 2 6 ] , t he a pp re c ia t ion o f ma jo r d i f fe rence s , n o t j u s t i n s c a le , b e tween a nc ien t a nd mode rn e conom ie s i sn o t n ew . A l though mo s t o f h i s b a s ic w o rk i n t h i s a rea w a s n o t w ide ly p ub l i shed i n h i s l i fe t ime , Marx h ad d e sc r ibed t he A s ia t ic , a nc ien t a nd f euda l mode s o f p ro d uc t ion a s w ho l ly d i s t inc t e conom ic f o rmat ion s w h ich s t ood a s e vo lu t ionary p rede ce s sor s o f mode rn b ou rgeo i s c ap i ta l i sm . D e sp i te t he e x i s tence o f l a nded p rop er ty a nd mone tary w ea l th , t he n e ce s sary p recond i t ion s f o r t he d eve lopmen t o f c ap i ta l d id n o t a r i se i n t he a nc ien t Roman e conomy [ Hob sbawm , 1 964 , 1 08f ] . S im i la r ly , Webe r w a s q u i te c l ea r t ha t w ha t h e c a l led ' a nc ien t c ap i ta l i sm ' w a s t he p roduc t o f p o l i t ica l f o rce s a nd . .wa so n ly i n d i re c t ly e c onom ic i nc ha ra c te r [ Web e r , 1 9 76 , 3 58 ] . A cco rd ing t o Webe r , t r ace s o f c ap i ta l i s t ic a c t iv i ty c ou ld b e d e te c ted t h roughou t h i s tory , b u t t he re w e re p a r t icu la r f e a ture s w h ich d i s t ingu i shed t he mode rn e conomy , a nd h ad d one s o o n ly s i nce t he m id -n ine teen th c en tu ry . Among s t t he se w e re t he s a t i s fac t ion o f t he o verwhe lm i ng ma jor i ty o f e very d ay n eed s b y c ap i ta l i s t ic me thod s . I n e a r l ie r t ime s s uch p rov is ion w a s f a r l e s s e x ten s ive . T he e x is tence o f c ap i ta l i s t ic f e a tu re s d id n o t mean t ha t as oc ie ty c ou ld b e c l a s s if ied a s ' c ap i ta l i s t ' . I n Webe r 's v i ew , c ap i ta l i s t ic f o rms w h ich h ad b egun t oe me rge u nde r t he R epubl ic n eve r b e came d om inan t . A nc ien t c ap i ta l i sm w a s b a sed o n p o l i t ic s , o n t h e e xp lo i ta t ion f o r p r iva te p ro f i t o ft h e p o l i t i c a l c onque s t s o f t h e i mp e r ia l i s t c i ty s t a te s , a nd w hen t h i s s o u r ce o f p ro f i t d i sapp ea red 2 0

c ap i ta l f o rma t ion c e a s ed [ Web e r , 1 976 , 3 64 ] . T he n e two rk o f s oc ia l a nd p ol i t ica l o bl iga t ion s o f t he p r iv i leged c l a s s t oge the r w i th t he d eve lopmen t o f ab u reauc racy d e s t royed t h i s f o rm o f c ap i ta l i sm w h ich h ad b een s u i ted o n ly t ot he c i ty s t a te . N eve r the le s s , t he money e conomy e xpanded , . .bu t am oney e c onomy i sn o t t h es ame a sc ap i ta l i sm [ i b id . 3 63 ] . T o P o lany i , t he u se o f t he t e rm ' c ap i tal i sm ' w a s m i s lead ing ly v ague f o r i t amoun ted t o n o th ing mo re t han t he e x i s tence o f o rgan i sed ma rke t s . E conom ic a c t iv i t ie s i n t he a nc ien t w o r ld w e re c ar r ied o n t h rough o ne o f t wo i n te r lock ing f o rm s o f r ed i s t r ibu t ion . On t he o ne h and , t he c en t ra l a dm in i s t ra t ion a c t ing t h rough i t s b u reauc racy , a nd o n t he o the r , p owe r fu l p r iva te i nd iv idua l s w ho g a ined f r om h o ld ing p ubl ic o f f ice a c ted t o r ed i s t r ibu te t he w ea l th s o g a ined among s t t he ir c l ien t s . I n h i s ' L ive l ihood o f Man ' , h e c onc luded I n e i the r c a se , m a rke t m e thod s a r e n o t i ne v idence . E conom ic a c t iv i ty -t r ade a nd m one y u se s -i sn o t c hanne led t h rough o r gan i sed m a rke t s t oa ny c on s ide rab le e x ten t i nt h e a nc ien t w o r ld [ Po lany i , 1 977 , 2 76 ] . An a ppa ren t ly c on t rad ic to ry v i ew h a s r e cen t ly b een a dvanced b y M i l la r i n as t udy o f Apu le iu s ' G o ld en A s s [ M i l lar , 1 981 ] . M ilar p re sen t s ap i c tu re o f e conom ic l i fe i n t he Med i t e r ranean a rea i n wh ich c a sh t r an sac t ion s a re w ide sp read . F ic t iona l a nd a l legor ica l w o rk s h ave c on s ide rab le p o ten t ia l f o r t he u nde r s tand ing a nd g ene ra t ion o f h i s tor ica l c on tex t , b u t M i l la r 's a pp roach w a s h igh ly s e lec t ive . He d i sm i ssed many e xamp le s o f n on -mone tary e xchange a nd s ub s i s tence p roduc t ion a s c ha rac te r i s t ic o f w ea l th ie r h ou seho ld s , a nd a ppear s s urp r i sed b y t he h igh l e ve l o f money u se i n t he s ma l le s t s c a le a g r icu l tura l a nd d ome s t ic p ro d uc t ion a nd s e rv ice s [ i b id . 7 3 ] . Th i s w ide sp read u se o f c o in i n s ma l l sca le t r an sac t ion s c an b e c ompa red w i th R e ,e ce 's e xam ina t ion o f P e t ron iu s ' S a ty r i con a nd t he N ew T e s tamen t whe re h e o b se rved t ha t S um s o fm oney a r e i nt h e c onve r sa t ion o f t h e w el -of . . .bu t c o in s o n ly c once rn t h e l owe r e nd o fs o c ie ty [ Re e ce , 1 98 1b ] . None o f t h i s n eed b e i n compat ib le w i th Hopk in s ' p i c tu re o f w ide sp read s ub s i s tence p roduc t i on [ Hopk in s , 1 980 ] . I ndeed Apu le iu s l e ave s much u n sa id a bou t t he s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s o f h i s c harac te r s a nd c oncen t ra te s o n t he s e rv ice s a nd s pe c ia l i sed p roduc t ion i n w h ich L uc iu s i s o f ten d i rec t ly i nvo lved . I ti sc l ea r t ha t , u n l ike h i s w ea l thy n e ighbou r , Apu le iu s ' marke t g ar d ene r [ i x , 3 2 ] w a s c ompe l led t o u se c a sh s imp ly b ecau se h e h ad n o o the r mean s o f d emon s t ra t ing h i s g ood f a i th . I n B ou rd ieu 's t e rm s [ Bou rd ieu , 1 977 ] , h e l a cked s ymbo l ic c ap i ta l . I n c on t ra s t , t he w ea l th ie r c ha rac te r s i n t he b ook t r ade e x ten s ive ly o n s ymbo l ic c ap i ta l a nd a ppea r t o h ave l i t t le t od o w i th c a sh t r an sac t ion s . A s o f ten s eem s i nev i tab le , s uch d eba te s h ave a t endency t o b e come p o lar i sed a nd r ep re sen ted a s as imp le d i s t inc t ion b e tween s t a te a nd ma rke t . I n ar e cen t a nd o therw ise c om p e ten t s urvey K ev in G re ene b r ie f ly r e cogn i se s t he e x i s tence o f n on -comme rc ia l e xchange b e fo re a ccep t ing t ha t . . the p endu lum o f o p in ion h as s wung . . .

i n f a vou r o f M i l la r 's p i c tu re o f t he u n ive r sa l i ty o f c a sh i n t he R oman w o r ld [ Greene , 1 986 , 4 6 -50 ] . D e sp i te r e cogn i s ing t he n eed f o r p lura l i sm i n e conom ic mode l s [ i b id , 4 8 ] , G reene f a i l s t oa pp re c ia te t he e x ten t t o w h ich c omme rc ia l a nd n on -comme rc ia l e xchange may c o -ex i s t i n a ny s oc ie ty ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , D av i s , 1 972 ) . T he re i s much t ob e r e commended i n b o th v i ew s a nd t hey a re n o t w ho l ly i n compa t ib le . T he re i sc on s ide rab le e v idence t o s ugge s t t ha t i n te r -reg iona l a s w el a s l o ca l t r ade t ook p l ace o n al a rge s c a le , b u t l i t t le t o s ugge s t t ha t i te ve r c ame t o d om ina te t he e conom ic l i fe a nd t hough t o f t he Emp ire . T ha t p o s i t ion w a s r e served f o r a gr icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion a nd s t a te f i sca l p o l icy . F i sca l p o l icy a nd t r ade w e re n o t h oweve r u n re la ted i n t he i r e f fe c t s . I n t h is r e spe c t , i ti s i n te re s t ing t o c ompa re t he a ppa ren t s p read f r om c en t ra l t o p er iphe ra l n o r thern a nd w e s tern p rov ince s i n p ropo r t ion s o f h igh v a lue c o in s w i th Hopk in s ' a rgumen t f o r ac l o se c onne c t ion b e tween t a xe s a nd t r ade [ Hopk in s , 1 980 ] . Hopk in s a rgued t ha t , a t l e a s t d ur ing t he f i r s t t wo c en tur ie s AD , t r ade w a s s t imu la ted b y a n i mba lance b e tween ' t ax i mpor t ing ' a nd l ax e xpo r t i ng ' a rea s . T he t a x i mpor te r s , o r c on sumer s , w e re t ho se f r on t ie r r eg ion s i n w h ich t he re w a s a s t rong m i l i tary p re sence , a nd I t a ly a nd t he c i ty o f R ome w i th t he i mper ia l c our t t he c en t ra l

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g overnmen t . A l l t he se w e re ma in ta ined a t ac o s t g rea t ly e xceed ing l o ca l ly r a i sed t a x r eve n ue s . B e tween t he c en t re a nd f r on t ie r s w e re t he e s tab l i shed w ea l thy p rov ince s w h ich a c ted a s t a x e xpor te r s , r a i s ing c on s ide rab ly mo re t a x r evenue t han w a s r equ ired f o r l o ca l s t a te e xpen d i tu re . T ax c on sum ing a rea s d emanded a h ighe r v o lume o f g ood s , f r om s t ap le s t o l uxu r ie s , t han c ou ld b e s a t i sf ied b y l o ca l p roduc t ion . Hence a n e t f l ow o f g ood s w ou ld h ave f o l lowed t he t a xe s , w i th a r e ve r se f l ow o f money i n p aymen t f o r t he i mpor ted g ood s . T ha t t he re a ppear s t o h ave b een a c h rono log ica l t r end t owa rd s h i ghe r v o lume s o f c o in c i rcu la t ing i n t he p e r i p he ra l t a x c on sum ing p rov ince s s ugge s t s a nd i n c rea s ing i mba lance b e tween t a x a nd c ommo d i ty i mpor t s i n to t he se a rea s . A s Hopk in s n o ted [ i b id , 1 03 ] t a xe s l e v ied i n k ind w ou ld a c t a ga in s t t he p romo t ion o f t r ade b y mone ta ry t a xa t ion . T he i n c rea s ing c ommu ta t ion o f t a xe s f r om t he t h i rd c en tury o nwa rd s may h ave c on t r ibu ted t o a nd a cce le ra ted t h i s i mba lance . S im i lar ly , t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s urp lu s b etween p r iva te e s ta te s , i n c lud ing t ho se o wned b y t he e mpe ro r a nd t he c hurch , wh ich p l ayed a n i n c rea s ing ly i mpor tan t p ar t i n t he movemen t o f c ommod i t ie s d ur ing t he f our th c en tury [Wh i t take r , 1 980 , 1, f olow ing R ugg in i , 1 961 ] , w ou ld h ave f ur the red t he i mba lance b y r educ ing t he mean s b y w h ich money p aymen t s w e re r e turned f r om t he t a x c on sum ing a rea s . A l though c r i t ica l o f F u l fo rd 's f a i lure t o e xp la in h ow c o in c ame i n to c i rcu la t ion , R ee ce h a s b een a b le t o i n co rpo ra te t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f t r ade o r o the r mean s o f c i r cu la t ion i n to h i s mode l [ Reece , 1 982c , 4 98 ; R eece , 1 984a ] . He s ugge st s t ha t t he re a re t wo ma in c omponen t s o f t he r e cove red d i s tr ibu t ion s , as upp ly f o r s pe c if ic s t a te p aymen t s , p e rhap s f r om as i ng le m in t , a nd a' poo l ' o f c i rcu la t ing ma te r ia l t ha t . .ha s e s cap ed f r om t h e o rb i t o fs t a te s u r ve i l lance , o re v en s t a te i n te re s t , t om o ve u nde r a c omp le te ly d i f fe ren t s e t o fc on s t ra in t s . [ Re e ce , 1 982a , 3 44 ] . P eak s i n ad i s t r ibu t ion r e su lt ing f r om l a rge s t a te p aymen t s m igh t b e r e cogn i sab le , b u t w he re t h i s d oe s n o t s eem l i ke ly , a s Ree ce s ugge s t s i nt he c a se o f Ma l ta , t h i s may p rov ide . .a f a i r ly d i re c t i n s igh ti n to t h ea nc ien tm o vemen t o fg ood s a nd m oney [ i b id . 3 4 5 ] . T hu s t he d i f fe rence b e tween t he se t wo a pp roache s n ow l i e s i n t he r e la t ive e x ten t s t o wh ich i mpe r ia l s upp ly p ol icy a nd c i rcu la t ion t h rough t r ade a nd o the r me chan i sm s c an b e r e garded a s ma jo r d e term inan t s o f t he o b served d i s t r ibu t ion o f f i nd s . T h i s d oe s n o t r equ ire ma jo r c hange s t o R ee ce 's mode l wh ich h ad a l lowed f o r c o in t oc i rcu la te , i ndeed a l though t he mode l w a s i n tended t o e xp la in h ow c o in w a s r e lea sed f r om t he m in t s , s ome c i rcu la t ion w a s n e ce s s a ry i n o rde r t ha t t he p opu la t ion m igh t h ave a s upp ly o f b ronze w i th w h ich t op u rcha se g o ld a nd s o p ay t he ir t a xe s . E qualy , t hey w ou ld h ave b een a b le t o p ay a ny t a xe s o r d u t ie s l e v ied i n b ronze c o in . T he c on t r ibu t ion s t o t h i s d eba te b y M i l la r a nd F u l fo rd h e lp t o i lu s t ra te a nd e xp la in w ha t h appened t o t he b ronze o nce i n c i rcu la t ion , b u t t ha t o f Hopk in s s how s t he i mpor tance o f f i sca l p o l icy i n s hap ing t he o ve ra l l p a t te rn o f d i s t r ibu t ion . O f f ic ia l p aymen t s mu s t r ema in a s t he ma jo r e xp lana t ion o f h ow c o in w a s t r an s fe r red f r om m in t t o p ub l ic c i r cu l a t ion u n le s s i tc an b e d emon s t ra ted c onv inc ing ly t ha t t he s c a le o f p r iva te p urcha se , o r o the r s uch me chan i sm s , w a s s u ff ic ien t t o make as ub s tan t ia l c on t r ibu t ion t ot h i s t r an s fe r . T h roughou t t he d eve lopmen t o f t he a r chaeo log ica l s t udy o fc o in f i nd s many o f t he e xp lana t o ry mode l s emp loyed h ave o wed s ome d eb t t o t he h i s tor ica l s t udy o f t he R oman e conomy . F o r many y ear s t h i s l i nk w a s t enuou s , w i th t he e xp lana t ion o f e mp ir ica l o b se rva t ions b a sed i n i mp l ic i t a s sump t ion s o f t he u n ive r sa l i ty o f mone tary b ehav iour , l oo se ly s e t a ga in s t ab ack g round o f t he p ol i t ica l a nd e conom ic h i s to ry o f t he c o in i s su ing a u tho r i t ie s . A s mo re d a ta a nd , mo re c ruc ia l ly , b e t te r c a ta logue s h ave b ecome a va i lab le , a r chaeo log ica l c o in s t ud ie s h ave moved a way f r om c on s ide ra t ion s o f t he i nd iv idua l s i te i n i s o la t ion , t owa rd s c ompara t ive s t ud ie s o n ar eg iona l o r e mp ire -w ide b a s i s . I n d i scu s s ing t he se mo re r e cen t w o rk s a bove , i t h a s b een i n c rea s ing ly a pp ropr ia te t o c on s ide r t he c on t r ibu t ion o f r e sea rch i n o the r f i e ld s , i n c lud ing e conom ic h i s tory a nd a n th ropo logy . I ndeed , w e re i tn o t f o r a n e mp ir ica l b a s i s i n a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s , mo s t r e cen t mode l s c ou ld b e s een a s c on t r ibu t ion s t o e conom ic h i s tory a s much a s t o a r chaeo logy . I ti sp e rhap s s i gn if ican t t ha t t he ' p ure ' a r chaeo log ica l q ue s t ion s o f t he r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween c i rcu la t ion a nd d epo s i t ion a nd b e tween d epo s i t ion a nd r e cove ry h ave r e ce ived c ompara t ive ly l i t t le a t ten t ion . B o th t he r e g iona l mac ro scop ic v i ew a nd t he i n terp re ta t ion o f s i te c o in f i nd s a r e a ddre s sed i n t he i n ve s t iga t ion s r epor ted i n t he f o l low ing

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c hap te r s . I tw i l l b e c l ea r t ha t c on s ide rab ly mo re w o rk i sr equ ired a t t he r eg iona l l e ve l , b o th i n t e rm s o f ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f t he c o in s f r om B r i t i sh u rban s i te s a nd o f t ho se f r om o the r p rov ince s . Howeve r i n e x tend ing a nd d eve lop ing p rev iou s w o rk i ti sh oped t ha t t h i s r e sea rch w i l l p rov ide a f i rm b a s i s o n wh ich t o b u i ld mo re d e ta i led s t ud ie s o f t he f i nd s f r om i nd iv idua l s i te s .

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2: The Data

2.1 Introduction Whenever information is to be gathered for a research project a number of decisions must be taken as to what does and what does not constitute relevant data. Such decisions are con­ strained by the aims of the research and by the nature of the available data, and are informed by current academic opinions and fashion. All of these are subject to change through time. Once made, they provide a framework within which the data is to be collected. In tum this framework acts to constrain the future development of the research and places limitations on any subsequent re-use of the data in other research. It is possible thereafter only to ask ques­ tions to which the data is capable of suggesting solutions. In what is sometimes called a 'primary' investigation, the researcher controls the initial gathering of data. In archaeology this implies control of the production of data through exca­ vation, in which necessary steps can be taken to ensure consistency in the manner in which the data is produced. In practice the great majority of research that concentrates on a single artefact class, or limited range of classes, falls into the category of 'secondary' investigation in which the specialist investigator invariably can exercise little or no control over the initial data collection. An individual coin specialist, for example, can be expected to act consistently in the identification of the material from a single excavation, but is normally constrained by the data collection strategies applied in the excavation. The aims of this research project made it necessary to collect data on the coins found on a large number of Romano-British sites. With the writer's limited experience in coin identifica­ tion it would not have been possible to both acquire the necessary expertise and inspect so many individual coins in the time that was available. Indeed, the detailed examination of such a body of material by an experienced identifier could only be undertaken as a longer term project. It is also doubtful whether, particularly with less recent excavations, many of the original archives of excavated material remain separable and intact within museum or private collections. Consequently it was decided to use published lists and reports as the main sources of data. This project is then entirely concerned with the secondary analysis of material. Indeed, although the term is not widely used, it could be said to be a 'tertiary' analysis for the data has previously been subject to two distinct selection strategies; one in the course of excavation, and the second in the preparation of the final coin list. As in any secondary data analysis, the selection of entities and attributes to be recorded is limited to those considered worth recording by the original authors of the lists and reports. Not only do these vary between individual authors, but they are also subject to variation through time. For example, it could be suggested that the weight, diameter or surface condi­ tion of the coins might prove to be useful attributes in an investigation of the nature of coin use and deposition. This information is sometimes available in the published lists, particularly those of the 1950's and 1960's, but it was not recorded with any regularity or consistency. Little secondary use was made of these attributes in contemporary analyses and many doubted their value. At a time of increasing quantification, when many were seeking a greater scientific respectability for their craft, such clearly subjective judgements became less acceptable than hitherto and the practice eventually declined. Information on weight and size would have been of particular value in distinguishing fractional pieces and imitations in those earlier reports which were produced without the aid of modern catalogues. Unfortunately, it was invariably not recorded. Any project that wished to use such attributes would be severely restricted if it depended solely on existing coin reports as its source. The number of reports from recently excavated sites that provide this type of information is minimal and it would almost certainly become necessary to re-examine the original coins. As already stated, this was not considered possible in the present research project.

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As discussed in Chapter 1, the existence of a coin list in an excavation report owes more to a numismatic tradition, and to an often vague equation between coins and dates, than to any clear perception of the role of coins in providing material for any broader debate in archaeol­ ogy or social and economic history. The coin report, like those of other specialists, is often treated as little more than a highly formalised adjunct to the excavation report. Beyond archaeological dating, Roman coins have more usually been seen as contributing to the understanding of the political history of the Empire than to the explanation of more localised economic and social activity. The concern has been with the producers, not with the users of coin. These uses of coin finds have been influential in determining the form of recording and reporting, and hence that of the material available for study. Many of the better coin lists produced in this century and, to a lesser extent, the latter part of the last century provide sufficient information to assign the coins to a 'type' as defined in a standard catalogue; information that is sufficient to identify when and where it was struck. This has meant that although many attributes which could prove valuable in the type of study described here have been neglected, there has at least been a reasonable degree of consistency in the recording of the presence of coins and their types. Unfortunately, the very factors which have led to this consistency in recording details of the coins themselves have militated against the direction of attention to the recording of their archaeological provenance and associations. All too often such information is presented selectively, if at all, and then only .in order to justify the dating of a site. Less than 10% of the total recorded material used here has provenance information of better resolution than large scale areas of a site. 2.2 Recording catalogue references The identification of Roman coinage from the time of the emperor Augustus (i.e. from 27BC) is now conventionally made by reference to the major catalogue Roman Imperial Coinage [Mat­ tingly, 1923ff). For coins issued prior to the reforms of Diocletian in 2940AD, this catalogue classifies coins by the individual emperor or other authority in whose name they were minted. In a catalogue that has been produced in separate volumes by different authors over a period of more than half a century it is not surprising that the method of classification is not entirely consistent. In some volumes, all coins produced during the reign of a single emperor are list­ ed together under the name of that emperor, irrespective of whose name and portrait appear on the obverse. In addition to the reigning emperor, these may include deified predecessors and the current ruler's family. Such information is included in the descriptions of the obverse design and legend. In other volumes of the catalogue coins are listed separately according to the person or persons named on the obverse. Thus the basis of classification can vary between the reigning emperor and the person, living or dead, named on the obverse. In recording such information care must be taken to avoid possible confusion of issue dates between con­ temporary and commemorative issues if coins are to be reliably listed by reigning emperor. Following the inception of the Tetrarchy and the change to simultaneous production of coin from many different mints, this system becomes inappropriate. These later coins show a much greater variation in reverse design. Similar or identical reverses were regularly minted on behalf of one or more co-reigning rulers or other members of the Imperial house. The designs employed at each mint, although apparently based on centrally defined prototypes, frequently show signs of independent development during their periods of issue. In addition, the pro­ ducts of each mint are distinguished by often rapidly changing mint marks. To minimise com­ plications caused by the duplication of reverse types the catalogue authors classified these later coins according to the mints at which they were struck. Further complications are introduced by the fact that RIC has yet to be completed; vol.8, the most recently published, appeared as recently as September 1981 and vol.1O has yet to appear. Thus the great majority of published coin lists have necessarily been produced with the supplementary aid of other catalogues. Before the publication of Late Roman Bronze Coinage [Carson, 1960), much use was made of outdated and inadeq uate catalogues. Num­ ismatics is not a static discipline and few would now regard the earliest volumes of RIC as definitive statements of current numismatic opinion on the coins they describe. Several of the earlier volumes are now in urgent need of revision in the light of the discovery of new types, and changes in the understanding of the relationships between issues. For much the same 25

r ea son s , t he b ronze i s sue s o f t he h ou se s o f V a len t in ian a nd T heodo s iu s a r e i nvar iab ly r e fe r red t o L RBC v o l .2 r a the r t han R IG v o l . 9[ Pea rce , 1 933 ] , a l though r e cour se mu s t n o r ma l ly b e m ade t ot he l a t te r f o r t he g o ld a nd s i lve r c o inage . O cca s iona l ly , o the r c a ta logue s h ave b een u sed e i the r t o o ve rcome om i s s ion s o r e r ro r s i n R IC , o r b e cau se o f t he i nd iv idua l p re fe rence o f an um i sma t i s t . T hu s r e fe rence s t ot he c a ta lo g ue s o f ma jo r i n s t i tut ion s s uch a s t he B r i t i sh Mu seum o r t he Hun ter ian Mu seum i n G la sgow m ay b e e ncoun te red . E ach c a ta logue d i f fe r s i n s ome w ay f r om t he o the r s b o th i ni t s p u rpo se a nd m e thod s o f c l a s s i f ica t ion . Mu seum c a ta logue s a re n orma l ly i n tended t o d e sc r ibe t h e mu seum 's h o ld ing s , r a the r t han t o a c t a s ad e f in i t ive l i s t o f k nown t ype s . I ti se s sen t ia l t h a t a ny r e co rd ing s y s tem u sed i n ac ompara t ive s t udy o f a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l mu s t b e a b le t o a ccommoda te a l l t ho se v a r ia t ion s w h ich h ave b een u sed . A ma jo r c oncern o f n um i sma t i s t s i n t he p repa rat ion o f c a ta logue s h a s b een t o r e co rd t h e w ide v ar ie ty o f c o inage b y i den t i fy ing e ach u n ique t ype , a nd h ence t os e t a l l o ft he i s sue s i n to c hrono log ica l o rde r . Un fo r tuna te ly t h i s h a s b een a ch ieved w i th l i t t le c on s i s tency o ve r w ha t e xac t ly i su nde r s tood b y au n ique t ype . A t t he h ighe s t p o s s ib le r e so lu t ion a t ype m igh t b e c on s ide red t o c ove r a l l c o in s s t ruck f r om au n ique p a i r o f d ie s . A mo re p rac t ica l d e f in i t ion , w h ich t he c a ta logue s t end t o a pp roach , m igh t c ove r a l l c o in s s t ruck f r om p a ir s o f d ie s w h ich w e re o r ig ina l ly i n tended t o b e i den t ica l . I n p rac t ice , h oweve r , t he r e so lu t ion m ay b e f i ne r t han t h i s d ef in i t ion w ou ld a low . I n s ome c a se s n um i sma t i s t s h ave d i s t ingu i shed t ype s b y t h e e vo lu t ion o f d i f fe ren t a spec t s o f d e s ign d ur ing t he c ur rency o f i s sue o f s uch a t ype ; s e e , f o r e xamp le , t he d i scus s ion o f t he w o l f a nd t w in s d e s ign o n T r ie r U RBS ROMA i s sue s o f t he 3 30 s i nC ar son , 1 979 . A l though t he re i sg ene ra l a g reemen t t ha t at ype may b e d i s t ingu i shed b y ac omb ina t ion o f s i ze , w e igh t , me ta l , o bve r se a nd r eve r se d e s ign s a nd l e gend s , a nd m in tma rk , t h e c hang ing r equ i remen t s o f n um i smat i s t s a nd p e rhap s a l so o f t he ir p ubl i she r s h a s mean t t ha t o ne o r mo re o f t he se f e a tu re s i so f ten d i s rega rded i n d e te rm in ing w ha t w i l l r e ce ive a u n ique r e fe rence n umbe r . T hu s , f o r e xamp le , i nR IG v o lume s 6a nd 7 , s im i la r c o in s w i th m in t ma rk s d i f fe r ing o n ly i n t he i r o f f i c ina l e t te r s a re g rouped t oge the r u nde r as i ng le r e fe rence n umbe r . I n v o lume 8 , K en t h a s t aken a n a l toge the r d i f fe ren t a pp roach p r imar i ly b ased o n r e ve r se t ype s [ Ken t , 1 981 ] . T hu s h e g roup s s im i la r c o in s w i th q u i te d i f fe ren t o bve r se b u st s a nd l e gend s i s sued f o r c on tempo rary r u le r s u nde r as i ng le r e fe rence n umbe r . Th i s r ef le c t s t he g ene ra l n um i sma t ic c oncern w i th t he r e ve r se t ype a s t he ma jo r s ource o fv ar ia t ion i nt he d e s ign o fc o in s p roduced a f te r D io c le t ian 's r e form s . B o th o f t he se a pp roache s a ch ieve t he a im o f c h rono log ica l o rde r i ng a t t he e xpense o f s ome i n forma t ion l o s s . I n e f fe c t , b o th s y s tems c r ea te h ighe r leve l c a tego r ie s o f t he t ype s . R e fe rence n umbe r s f r om d i f fe ren t c a ta logue s d o n o t n ece s sar i ly r ep re sen t e xac t ly e qu iva len t d a ta e n t i t ie s . T ha t t he l o s s o f i n forma t ion i mp l ic i t i n at ype n umbe r i st o le ra ted b y t ho se w ho se m a jo r c oncern s i n c lude q ue s t ion s o f t he r e la t ive o u tpu t o f d i f fe ren t w o rk shop s o r t he p ropor t ion s s t ruck f o r c o -ru le r s c an o n ly b e u nde r s tood w hen i ti sr eal i sed t ha t mo s t n um i sma t i s t s u se c a ta logue s o n ly a s g ene ra l r e fe rence w o rk s , a nd n o t d i rec t ly a s a mean s o f f o rma l c l a s s if i ca t i on . T he g rea t ma jo r i ty o f n um i sma t ic w o rk i sp e r formed u s ing t he p r ima ry d a ta s ou r ce o f t he c o in s t hem se lve s . T h i s i sn o t t os ugge s t t ha t n um i sma t i s t s a re e i the r u nc r i t ica l o ru nawa re o f t he p rob lem s o f d i f fe ren t a pp roache s t o c a ta logu ing ; f o r ab r ie f r ev iew o f t he h i s to ry , t heo ry a nd p rac t ice o f n um i sma t ic c a ta logu ing , s ee B urne t t , 1 978 . Howeve r , t he p o s i t ion i s q u i te d i f fe ren t f o r t ho se w ho w i sh t o a ddre s s q ue s t ion s o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f c o inage b e twe en a r cha e o log ica l s i te s . T he a na ly s i s o f l a rge s amp le s o f f i nd s mu s t r e ly h eav i ly o n t he o b serva t i on s a nd i den t if ica t ion s o f o the r s , a nd t h i s r equ ire s a n a g reed c l a s s if ica t ion . I ti sp e rhap s m i s taken f o r t he a r chaeo log i s t t oe xpec t o the r d i sc ip l ine s t o a dop t w ha t m igh t b e s een a sw holy ' r a t iona l ' mean s o f f o rma l c l a s s i f ica t ion , p ar t icu la r ly i n t he l i gh t o fo u r o wn r e co rd i ns uch v en tu re s . T he re i sn ow amuch w ide r a warene s s o f t he c on tex tua l s pe c i f ic i ty o f c l a s s if ica t ion s y s tem s a nd i ti sc l ear t ha t a ny s y s tem u sed b y n um i sma t i s t s i sn o t n e ces sar i ly a pp rop r ia te t o a rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s . I tw ou ld b e ag rea te r e r ro r t o a ccep t t he c a ta logue s a s s uch a nd t o a s sume t ha t c a ta logue n umbe r a l one i s au n ique i den t i f ie r b a sed o n ac ohe ren t c oncep t o f t ype , i na n a r chaeo log ica l s ense , w h ich m igh t b e u sed d i rec t ly i n a n a r chaeo log ica l s t udy . Any a t temp t t o r e co rd c o in f i nd s b y t ype mu s t a l so a l low f o r t he r e co rd ing o f t ho se

2 6

d a ta i t em s w h ich a re n o t i mpl ic i t i n p ar t icu la r c a ta logue r e fe rence s . I n p rac t ice w e a re f o r t una te t ha t i n t he ma jo r i ty o f p ubl i shed c o in l i s t s t he i nd iv idua l c o in s a re l i s ted b y c a ta logue r e fe rence u nde r e ach o f t he r u le r s r ep re sen ted . Th is o ve r come s t he p rob lem s i nhe ren t i n K en t 's a pp roach i n R IC v o l . 8 . On t he o the r h and , f ew n um i sma t i s t s h ave d i s t ingu i shed of i c i na ma rk s w hen r epor t ing a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s . Whe re t h i s h a s b een d one t he re h a s b een l i t t l e c on s i s tency a nd s ome h ave a dded c onfu s ion b y a ppend ing s u ff ix l e t te r s t o t he c a ta logue n umbe r . I n f a irne s s t o t ho se r e spon s ib le f o r t he c o in l i s t s i t mu s t b e n o ted t ha t o f f i c ina a nd m in t ma rk s a re f r equen t ly t he l e a s t e a s i ly r ead p ar t s o f aw orn o r c or roded c o in . A s y s tem o f r e co rd ing c o in f i nd s b a sed o n d a ta d e r ived f r om t he c o in l i s t s o f e xcava ted a r chaeo log ica l s i te s mu s t b e s u ff ic ien t ly f l ex ib le t o t ake a ccoun t o f t he se v a r ia t ion s i n t he i n fo rma t ion c on ten t o f c a ta logue r e fe rence s . T o b e a b le t o g ua ran tee c on s i s ten t r e tr ieva l o f d i re c t ly c omparab le i n fo rma t ion f r om a c ompu te r -ba sed i n forma t ion s y s tem i ti se s sen t ia l t o e n sure t ha t e ach i n s tance o f ad a ta v a lue h a s ac on s i s ten t mean ing . T he se c on s ide rat ion s m ean t ha t t he r e co rd ing o f ac a ta logue r e fe rence c an o n ly b e t aken t oi mp ly t he m in imum s e t o f i n forma t ion wh ich i sc ommon t o a l s uch r e fe rence s . O the r d a ta , w h ich i si mp l ied i n s ome c a ta logue s b u t n o t i n o the r s , mu s t b e r e co rded s epa ra te ly f o r e ach c o in f i nd . S pe c i f ica l ly , t he r u le r a nd p roduc ing m in t o f e ach f i nd n eed t o b e r e co rded a s d i s t inc t d a ta i t em s i r re spe c t ive o f w he the r t hey a re i mpl ic i t i n t he c a ta logue r e fe rence . D e ta i l s o f t he p roduc ing of i c ina a re u n fo r tuna te ly n o t a va i lab le i n t he ma jor i ty o f c a se s a nd i ti st he re fo re d oub t fu l w he the r a ny p urpo se w ou ld b e s e rved b y i n co rpo ra t ing t hem i n to t he r e co rd ing s y s tem . T he r e co rd ing s y s tem emp loyed h e re h a s b een d e s igned t o t ake a ccoun t o f t he p rob lem s o u t l ined a bove a nd u se s ah ie ra rch ica l d e f in i t ion o f t ype . T h i s d e f in i t ion a l low s f o r aw ide v ar ia t ion i n t he amoun t o f d e ta i l wh ich may b e a va i lab le f o r e ach c o in f i nd . A t t he l owe s t r e so lu t ion i tp e rm i t s a n o the rw i se u n iden t i f ied p i ece t o b e a s s igned t o ap robab le d a te r ange , w h i l s t p e rm i t t ing e x ten s ive d e ta i l s o f f u l ly i den t if ied e xamp le s t o b e r e co rded . A l though t he p r imary c oncern o f t h i s w o rk h a s b een w i th t he f our th c en tury i s sue s , t he d e s ign o f t he r e co rd ing s y s tem h a s e n su red t ha t e a rl ie r ma te r ia l c an a l so b e a ccommoda ted . T he r e co rd ing s y s tem i sd e sc r ibed i nd e ta i l i nt he f o l low ing c hap te r , a nd b r ie f n o te s o n f our o the r e xe rc i se s i n c ompu te r -ba sed s y s tem s f o r t he r e co rd ing o f c o in s i n b o th mu seum a nd a r chaeo log ica l /num i sma t ic a ppl ica t ion s c an b e f ound i n Append ix 3 . B e fo re t ha t , t he d e c i s i on s t aken i n s e le c t ing t he s ource ma te r ia l a nd s ome a spe c t s o f t he n a ture a nd mean ing o f t he d a ta s o p roduced a re d i scus sed . 2 . 3 D a ta c o l lec t ion D a ta f o r t h i s p ro je c t h a s b een d e r ived p r inc ipaly f r om p ub l i shed e xcava t ion r epor t s a ppear ing i nt he n a t iona l a nd c oun ty j ourna l s , a nd i n monog raph s . Unpub l i shed ma te r ia l h a s b een u sed w he re a va i lab le , a l though s ome n um i sma t i s t s h ave , p e rhap s u nde r s tandab ly , p roved u nw i l l ing t o r e lea se i n forma t ion . A n umbe r o f l i s t s h ave b een s upp l ied b y t he ir a u tho r s i n a dvance o f p ubl ica t ion . I n p ar t icu la r , Iam i ndeb ted t o D r R ichard R eece f o r t he p rov i s ion o f al a rge b ody o f m a te r ia l , a nd t o Mr Kur t Hun te r - Mann f o r t he B edd ing ton c o in l i s t . T he ma in c oncern o f t h i s r e sear ch p ro jec t h a s b een w i th c o in s f ound o n r u ra l a nd ' l e s se r u rban ' s i te s . I s o la ted h oa rd s h ave b een e xc luded whe re t hey c an b e i den t i f ied a s s uch , a s h ave f i nd s f r om s i te s w i thou t i den t if iab le c on tempo rary f e a tu re s . I n g ene ra l , al oo se d e f in i t i on o f as i te a s a n a pparen t ly c ohe ren t g roup o f c on tempo rary f e a ture s o r s t ruc ture s , w he the r c omp le te ly o r i n comp le te ly e xcava ted , h a s b een a pp l ied i n d e te rm in ing w he the r al i s t s hou ld b e i n c luded . Th i s p erm i t s t he i n c lu s ion o f n on -hab i ta t ion s i te s s uch a s c eme te r ie s , b u t e x c l ude s l e s s c ohe ren t g roup s o f f ea tu re s l i ke i s o la ted f i e ld d i t che s a nd m idden ma ter ia l . I tw a s d ec ided n o t t o a t temp t c olec t ion o f as ub s tan t ia l s amp le o f t he o f ten l a rge n umbe r s o fc o in s f ound i n t ho se . .l i t t le t own sw h ich w ed i gn i f y w i th t h ep roud l a b e l o fc i t ie s [ F in ley , 1 973 , 3 0 ] . t h e ' ma jo r ' u rban s i te s . A l l t oo o f ten t he se h ave b een a s semb led f r om d ive r se c ole c t ion s a nd a r e r a re ly a dequa te ly p rovenanced . Wi th in t he c on s t ra in t s o f t ime a nd r e source s a va i lab le t o t h i s p ro je c t i t wou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le t o s t udy t h i s ma te r ia l i n s u f f ic ien t d e ta i l . A s t udy o f t he u rban f i nd s w ou ld h ave t o a dd re s s t he p rob lem o f t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he m a te r ia l f r om many s epara te a nd o f ten m ino r e xcava t ion s m igh t l e g i t ima te ly b e c omb ined 2 7

a nd v i ewed a s at he p roduc t o f as i ng le ' s i te ' T h i s q ue s t ion a r ise s i n an umbe r o f r u ra l c a se s w he re t he re h ave b een s epara te p a r t ia l e xcava t ion s a t d i f fe ren t t ime s , b u t i so f ten much mo re p rob lema t ic i n t he u rban c ase . He re , p ar t icu lar ly i n t ho se t own s wh ich h ave c on t inued t o t he p re sen t d ay , t he r e su l t ing p i c tu re i si nvar iab ly f a r l e s s e ncompa s s ing t han a l l b u t t h e l e a s t e x tens ive o f r u ra l e xcavat ion s . Howeve r , an umbe r o f c o in l i s t s f r om e xcava ted s i te s w i th in t he ma jo r u rban c en t re s h ave b een i n c luded , a nd i n an umbe r o f t he s ub sequen t a na ly se s h ave p roved t o b e c l ea r ly d i s t in g u i shab le f r om t he b u lk o f t he r ura l s i te s . Th i s l e nd s s uppor t t o t he v i ew e xp re s sed b y R ee ce [ 1980a ] , a nd t o s ome e x tend r e cogn i sed e a rl ie r b y R ave tz , t ha t t he re a re s ub s tan t ive d i f fe r e nce s b e tween t he c o in l i s t s f r om r ura l a nd u rban s i te s a nd j u s t if ie s t he d ec i s ion n o t t o i n c lude t he l a t te r i n t he p re sen t s t udy . I nde ed a s t udy o f u rban c o in d epo s i t ion o n t h e s ca le a nd i n t he manne r o f t he r e sea r ch p re sen te d h e re i s n ow s een a s a n i mpor tan t t op ic f o r f ur the r r e sea rch . K nown R omano -Br i t i sh s i te s a ppear t o b e r e a sonab ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted o ve r much o f s ou the rn E ng land , a lbe i t w i th s i gn i f ican t l o ca l v ar ia t ion s i n t he ir c oncen t ra t ion . T he se v ar ia t i on s s uch a s t he a ppa ren t ly h igh d en s i ty o f s i te s i n t he C ot swo ld a nd C h i l te rn a rea s , a nd t he a b sence o f s i te s f r om t he Wea ld a re c l ear ly t he r e su l t o f a nc ien t d i f fe rence s a sw e l l a so ft ho se modern e xcava t ion b ia se s d i scu s sed e a r l ie r . N eve r the le s s , t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f e xcava ted s i te s w i th a dequa te c o in l i s t s i sb o th b i a sed t owa rd s , a nd a ppear s t ob e mo re e ven i n t h e s ou the rn p a r t o f t he c oun t ry . I tw a s , t he re fo re , d e c ided t oc oncen t ra te t he ma in p ar t o f t he r e sea rch i n t h i s a rea . T o t h i s e nd , t he ma in s urvey a rea w a s i n i t ia l ly d e f ined a s as quare o f 4 0 ,000 S q . Km . d el im i ted b y t he Na t iona l G r id c oo rd ina te s SY250750 a nd TL250750 . C o in l i s t s w e re c o l le c ted f r om al a rge p ropor t ion o f k nown e xcava ted s i te s i nt h i s a rea . T he r ea son s f o r t he c ho ice o f t h i s s urvey a rea w e re n o t e n t i re ly a r chaeo log ica l . T he ma jo r c on s ide ra t ion w a s t o d e f ine a n a rea wh ich w ou ld p rov ide a l a rge s amp le o f r e la t ive ly e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted s i te s wh ich w e re r ead i ly a cce s s ib le i n t he l i te ra tu re . T h i s a rea w a s t ob e a s l a rge a p ar t o f B r i ta in a s w a s p rac t icab le w i th in t he c on s t ra in t s o f t he p ro je c t . T he s ou the rn b oundary i se f fec t ive ly d e term ined b y t he s ou th c oa s t . T he w e s te rn , a nd , t o a much l e s se r e x ten t , t he n o r thern b oundar ie s r ep re sen t t he e x ten t o f t he a rea w i th in w h ich t he r u ra l s i te s c an b e s a id t o s how a h igh l e ve l o f ` r oman i sed ' ma te r ia l c u l tu re . T he d en s i ty o f s i te s o n w h ich c o ins a re f ound w i th a ny r egu lar i ty d e cl ine s r ap id ly t o t he w e s t i n Wa le s a nd t he s ou th -we s t o f E ng l and . N ever the le s s , w i th in t he se c on s t ra in t s t he e xac t p l ac ing o f b oundar ie s r ema in s q u i te a rb i t rary . T he s i ze o f t he s amp le w a s l im i ted b y t he e x ten t o f a va i lab le ma te r ia l a nd t he t ime a va i l a b le f o r i t s c ole c t ion . An i n i t ia l e s t ima te o f t he l a t te r , mo re t han a ny o the r f a c to r , d e te r m ined t he o the rw i se a rb i t rary l o ca t ion o f t he n or the rn a nd e a s te rn b oundar ie s . A f u r the r , b u t much l e s s i mpo r tan t , c on s ide rat ion w a s t o p roduce a n a rea w h ich w ou ld b e s u i ted t o t he u se o f an umbe r o f t e chn ique s o f s pa t ia l a na ly s i s , s uch a s t r end s ur face a na ly s i s [ Hodde r , 1 976 ; Ma the r , 1 976 ] . I tw a s e nv isaged t ha t t he se w ou ld b e emp loyed i n a t temp t s t o d i scove r a nd d e sc r ibe a ny g eog raph ica l v ar ia t ion i n t he d a ta . T h i s c on s ide ra t ion a rgued f o r a n a r ea w h ich w a s c l o se t o as qua re i n o rde r t o m in im i se d i s tort ion s a r i s ing f r om ' e dge e f fec t s ' t h a t c ou ld b e p rob lemat ic w i th s hape s e xh ib i t ing h igh a spec t r a t io s . T he c ho ice o f s hape i n formed a nd i nf luenced t he f i na l d e ta i l s o f t he a rea b u t i n t he c our se o f t he r e sea rch h a s n o t p roved a n u nwe lcome c on s t ra in t . D a ta c ole c t ion b egan w i th G louce s te r sh ire a nd a d jacen t c oun t ie s a nd a p i lo t s t udy i n tended t o t e s t t he f e a s ib il i ty o f t he p ro je c t w a s c omp le ted d ur ing t he f i r s t y ea r o f r e search . S ub sequen t ly , a s d a ta c olec t ion p rog re s sed , i tb ecame c l ea r t ha t t he n umbe r o f s u i tab ly r e co rded s i te s w i th in t he c ho sen a rea w a s s omewha t l e s s t han h ad b een a n t ic ipa ted . T he g en e raly l owe r d en s i ty o f r e co rded s i te s i n o the r a rea s w a s w e l l k nown , b u t e ar l ie r p ro je c t ion s o f t he f i na l s amp le s i ze w e re s oon r e a l i sed t oh ave b een o ve r -op t im is t ic . A s ar e su l t t h e a r ea w a s e x tended , p r inc ipaly t ot he n o r th a nd e a s t . T he n ew a rea w a s d e f ined b y t he N a t iona l G r id c oo rd ina te s SX750750 a nd TG250250 , g i v i ng a n e nc lo sed a rea o f 8 7 ,500 S q .Km . Th i s e x ten s ion a l lowed t he o r ig ina l a im o f as amp le o f a bou t 2 00 s i te s t o b e a ch ieved , a l though t he re r ema in s an umbe r o f s i te s w i th in t h i s e x tended a rea f r om w h ich d a ta , a l though p ubl i shed , h a s n o t b een c o l le c ted . T he d a ta f r om

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t he o r ig ina l s ma l le r a rea i st he re fo re as omewha t mo re c omp le te p i c ture o f k nown a r chaeo log i c a l a c t iv i ty t han t ha t f r om s i te s i n t ho se r eg ion s s uch a s E a s t Angl ia a nd t he n or th M id land s w h ich b e came i n c luded a s ar e su l t o f t he e x ten s ion o f t he s urvey a rea . T he r e su l t ing a rea n ow c ove r s mo s t o f s ou thern E ng land . I n a dd i t ion t o t he d a ta f r om w i th in t he se a rb i t rary b oundar ie s , c o in l i s t s f r om a n umbe r o f s i te s o u t s ide t h i s a rea h ave b een c ole c ted w hen s uch i n fo rma t ion h a s c ome t oh and . Th i s h a s b een d one p ar t ly i n o rde r t oa t temp t t oa s ce r ta in w he the r t he r e search f i nd ing s h ave ag ene ra l v a l id i ty o u t s ide t he s urvey a rea , a nd p a r t ly a s ac on t r ibu t ion t o t he l ong t e rm d eve lopmen t o f t he r e sea rch d a taba se . D a ta f r om t he se s i te s h ave b een e xc luded f r om t he ma jor i ty o f a na l y se s . I tw a s o r ig inaly i n tended t ha t i n o rde r t o m in im i se t he p rob lem s a r i s ing f r om t he u se o f i nadequa te c a ta logue s , t he s urvey w ou ld b e r e s t r ic ted t os i te s e xcava te d d ur ing t he l a s t t wen ty t o t h i r ty y ear s . I ts oon b ecame a ppa ren t , h oweve r , t ha t i tw ou ld b e n e ce s sary t o s upp lemen t t he se w i th e a rl ie r w o rk . Many o f t he c o in l i s t s p ubl i shed i n t he n ine teen th a nd e a rl ie r y ea r s o f t he c ur ren t c en tury c on s i s t o f d e scr ip t ion s o f c o in s r a the r t han c a ta logue r e fe rence s . T he se r equ i re e x ten s ive r ewo rk ing b u t i n an umbe r o f c a se s t he l e ve l o f d e ta i l p rov ided make s t hem s omewha t mo re r el iab le a s s ource s t han many o f t ho se w h ich o n ly p rov ide r e fe rence s t o c on t empo ra ry c a ta logue s . A s d a ta c o l lec t ion p rog re s sed i tw a s f ound i n c rea s ing ly n e ce s sary t o m ake u se o f t he se e a r l ie r l i s t s i n o rde r t o a ch ieve a s u ff ic ien t s amp le s i ze a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f s i te s . T he e xpe r ience g a ined i n t r an s la t ing t he e ar l ie r d e scr ip t ive l i s t s i n to a f o rm c ompa t ib le w i th modern c o in l i s t s h a s p roved a v a luab le e xper ience , a nd h a s made a s t rong c on t r ibu t ion t owa rd s i n c rea s ing t he w r i te r 's emp ir ica l u nde r s tand ing o f t he c o inage . 2 . 4 T he n a ture o ft he d a ta Any i nve s t iga t ion mu s t a ddre s s t he b a s ic q ue s t ion s o f t he n a ture a nd mean ing o f t he d a ta t ha t i t emp loy s . I n as t udy o f a rchaeo log ica l ma te r ia l t he p rob lem i st wo fo ld ; f i r s t ly , t he re i s t he q ue s t ion o f h ow c l o se ly t he r e cove red f i nd s r ep re sen t t he s t ruc ture o f o r ig ina l d epo s i t ion a nd , s e cond ly , h ow t he d epo s i ted ma ter ia l i sr e la ted t oc on tempo rary u se o f t he a r te fac t s . T he q ue s t ion o f t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween r e cove red f i nd s a nd o r ig ina l d epo s i t ion i s , i n p ar t , o ne o f t he n a ture o f a r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty a nd , i n p a r t icu la r , t he e xcava t ion p ro ce s s . S ome a spe c t s o f t he se p rob lem s w i l l b e c on s ide red b e low a s s ou rce s o f b i a s i n t he r e cove ry o f d epo s i ted ma te r ia l t ha t a re s pec i f ic t o t he e xcava t ion p ro ce s s . Howeve r , e xcava t ion i sf r equen t ly o n ly t he l a te s t i n as e r ie s o f d i s tu rbance s wh ich t he ma te r ia l h a s u nde rgone s i nce i t s o r ig ina l d epo s i t ion . T he se r e su l t f r om a n ima l , p lan t a nd g eo log ica l a s w e l l a s h uman a c t iv i t ie s , a l though i ti st he l a t te r wh ich mu s t b e o f p r imary c oncern h e re . D epo s i ted ma te r ia l i sr a re ly , i fe ve r , i n af r ozen o r ' f o s s i l ised ' s t a te ; r a the r i ti si nvar iab ly t he s ub je c t o f an umbe r o f d ynam ic p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s . Many d i s turbance s wh ich l e ad t o ar e s t r ic ted l o ca l movemen t o r r e -depo s i t ion o f ma ter ia l a re e a s i ly r e cogn i sed i n t he c our se o f e xcava t ion , b u t t he e x ten t o f a ny r emova l o f e x i s t ing m a te r ia l i si nvar iab ly l e s s o bv iou s a nd o f ten c anno t b e d i re c t ly q uant if ied . T he r emova l o f a r te fac t s may b e s imp ly a s i de e f fe c t o f s ub sequen t a gr icu l tura l o r b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ie s s uch a s t r ench d igg ing o rl e vel ing . On t he o the r h and , i tm ay b e mo re d i re c t a s i nt he c a se o f a nc ien t o r modern l oo t ing , a n t iquar ian o r a r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty . A r te fac t s may b e r emoved a l ong w i th o the r ma te r ia l , o r t hey may b e i nd iv idua l ly s e le c ted i ft hey a re p e rce ived a s ' v a luab le ' o r o therw i se i n te re s t ing . S uch p e rcep t ion s c an v ary c on s ide rab ly b e tween d i f fe ren t r emova l c on t e x t s . T h i s r emova l may t ake p lace a t a ny t ime a f te r t he i r i n i t ia l d epo s i t ion . H e re , t hen , i sa l i nk w i th t ha t s e cond g roup o f q ue s t ion s c once rn ing t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween u se o f a r te fac t s a nd t he ir d epo s i t ion , f o r r e covery a nd p o s s ib le r e -u se may s eve re ly d i s tor t p rev iou s p a t te rn s o f d epo s i t ion . T he se p rob lem s , a nd t he i r p ar t icu la r r e levance t o t he n a tu re o f c o in f i nd s w i l l b e d i scu s sed f u r the r i n S e c t ion 2 .4 .2 . F i r s t , h oweve r , t ho se p rob lem s a r i s ing f r om t he p roce s s o f r e covery o f t he ma te r ia l b y mode rn e xcava t ion mu s t b e o u t l ined .

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2 . 4 .1 S ource s o f' b ia s ' i nt h e p roduc t ion o fd a ta T he ma in s ource s o f b ia s a nd i n con s i s tency i n t he d a ta s ou rce s may b e d iv ided i n to t h ree g roup s r ep re sen t ing t h ree d i st inc t l e ve l s o f t he c on s truc t ion o f t he d a ta : 1 .T he e n t ire s amp le o f s i te s ; 2 . t he s epara te a s semb lage s o f c o in s r e cove red f r om t ho se s i te s ; 3 . t he i nd iv idua l c o in s . A t t he f i r s t l e ve l a re t ho se c ommon a nd u navo idab le a r chaeo log ica l p rob lem s o f t he e x ten t t o w h ich r e co rded d i scove ry a nd e xcavat ion r ep re sen t s a n o r ig ina l d i s t r ibu t ion o f o ccup ied s i te s . He re , t he re may b e r eg iona l b i a se s a r i s ing f r om v ar ia t ion i n s urv iva l a nd i n t he r e la t ive e a se o f d e tec t ion o f s i te s o n d i f fe ren t u nde r ly ing s o i l a nd r o ck f orma t ion s , i n t he o ve ral l e ve l o f a r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty i n a n a rea , a nd i n t he p e r iod p re fe rence s o f l o ca l e xcava to r s . A mo re s ub t le b ia s c ome s f r om l o ca l i n te re s t i n p ar t icu lar t ype s o f s i te w i th in a p e r iod . S uch p re fe rence s o f c our se c hange t h rough t ime ; f o r e xamp le , t he s h i f t a way f r om m i l i tary a nd w ha t , b y a na logy w i th l a te r a r ch i te c tura l s t ud ie s , m igh t b e t e rmed t he ' po l i te ' s i te s , t oward s t he r ura l a nd ' v e rnacu la r ' s i te s t ha t t ook p lace d u r ing t he l a te r 1 960 's a nd 1 970 's . T he u se o f e a rl ie r c o in l i s t s r e fer red t o a bove g oe s s ome w ay t o o f f se t al a ck o f modern e xcava t ion i n s ome a rea s , b u t may i t se l f i n t roduce f u r the r b i a se s p ar t icu lar ly a t t he l e ve l o f i den t if ica t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l c o in s . Un t i l r e cen t ly , e xcava t ion o f Romano -Br i t i sh s i te s i n t he a rea s t ud ied h e re h a s c oncen t ra ted o n t he mo s t e a s i ly i den t if ied s i te s , t ho se w i th s ub s tan t i a l s t one -bu i l t s t ruc tu re s . T he re a re many r e a son s f o r b e l iev ing t ha t t he mo re e pheme ra l s i te s a re g ro s s ly u nde r -rep re sen ted , p ar t icu la r ly among s t t he e a rl ie r e xcava t ion s . I n r e cen t y ear s m any e xcava to r s , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se w o rk ing o n t he ma jo r r i ve r g rave l t e r race s , h ave t urned t he ir a t ten t ion t oward s s i te s w i th l e s s s ub s tan t ia l b u i ld ing r ema ins . S o f a r , o ne ma jo r e f fe c t o f t h i s w o rk h a s b een t op o in t o u t t he s hor tcom ing s o f p rev iou s a s sump t ion s a bou t s i te d i s t r ibu t i on A n umbe r o f s ource s o f b i a s o ccu r a tt he l e ve l o f t he s epara te c o in l i s t s . T he ke d e r ive f r om t he p hy s ica l a nd c hem ica l c ond i t ion s o f p re se rva t ion w i th in t he s o i l , t he me thod s o f e xcava t i on a nd f r om t he p o s t -excava t ion p roce s se s l e ad ing t o t he p repa ra t ion o f t he c o in l i s t . S o i l c ond i t ion s m ay s e r iou s ly a f fe c t t he p o s s ib i l i t ie s o f i den t i f ica t ion o r e ven s urv iva l , p ar t icu la r ly i n t he c a se o f t he s ma l le r b ronze i s sue s . On s ome s o i l s t h i s m igh t l e ad t o a n u nde r r ep re sen tat ion o f l a te r f ou r th c en tury i s sue s . E qua l ly , v ar ia t ion i nt he s k i l l o f i nd iv idua l e xca v a tor s a nd t he d eg ree o f c a re t aken i ne xcava t ion c an b e e xpe c ted t oa f fe c t s uch ab a lance . G iven t he w ide v ar ie ty o f m e thod s e mp loyed i ne xcava t ion a nd t he d i f fe rence s i n t he e x ten t t o w h ich a s i te may b e r egarded a s ' t o taly ' e xcava ted , i ti sn e ce s sary t o a sk t o w ha t e x ten t t he c o in s r e cove red may b e r ega rded a s ar ep re sen ta t ive s amp le o f t he c o in s d epo s i ted b y R omano -Br i t i sh i nhab i tan t s . J u s t a s e xcava to r s h ave t e nded t o s e le c t p o ten t ia l ly ' p roduc t ive ' s i te s , t hey h ave o f ten l im i ted t he i r i nve s t iga t ion s o n t ho se s i te s t o t he mo s t s ub s tan t ia l s t ruc t u re s . I n many c a se s i tw ou ld n o t b e p o s s ib le t o d e te rm ine t he e x ten t o f e xcava t ion w i thou t f u r the r e xcava t ion o r , a tt he v ery l e a s t , f i e ld s urvey . Any s t a temen t s a bou t t he r e la t ive l e ve l s o f c o in d epo s i t ion b e tween o r w i th in s i te s mu s t b e t empe red b y ac on s ide ra t ion o f e xcava t ion me thod s a nd t he e x ten t o fe xcava t ion . J u s t a s t he re w i l l b e d i f fe rence s i n t he me thod s a nd c ompe tence o f t he e xcava to r s , s o w e s hou ld e xpe c t s im i la r v a r ia t ion among s t t ho se r e spon s ib le f o r t he i den t i f ica t ion o f c o in s . I n b o th c a se s i ti st o b e e xpe c ted t ha t t he re w i l l a l so b e at e ndency f o r c hange t h rough t ime , b o th a s t e chn ique s i mp rove a nd a s f a sh ion s i n p re sen tat ion c hange . A t t he l e ve l o fi den t i f ica t i on , i nd iv idua l s c an b e e xpec ted t oi n t roduce s y s tema t ic b i a se s r e la ted t o t he i r o wn e xpe r t i se a nd e xpe r ience , t oge the r w i th a r andom e r ro r c omponen t r e su l t ing f r om b o th m i s taken i den t i f icat ion a nd t r an sc r ip t ion e r ro r s i nt he p repa ra t ion a nd p ub l ica t ion o f t he r epo r t s . S ys tema t ic v ar ia t ion s among s t t he i den t if ie r s s hou ld , i n p r inc ip le , b e v i s ib le i n t he c on ten t o f t he l i s t s w h ich t hey p roduce . F o r e xamp le , t he re i s aw ide v ar ia t ion i n t he p ropo r t ion s o f i r regu la r c o in s i den t if ied b y d i f fe ren t n um i sma t i s t s . A l though t he l e ve l o f r e cogn i t ion h a s i mp roved t h rough t ime , t ho se w ho h ave m ade as pe c ia l i s t s t udy o f t he i r regu la r i s sue s mu s t b e e xpec ted t o i den t ify g rea te r n umbe r s t han t he i r c on tempo rar ie s . C lea r ly i tw ou ld b e u nw i se t o d raw c onc lu s ion s b a sed o n t he r a t io o f r egu la r t o i r regu la r i s sue s w i thou t t a k ing b o th t he

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c hrono log ica l a nd i nd iv idua l s ou rce s o fv ar ia t ion i n to a ccoun t . B eyond t he q ue s t ion o f c ompe tence o r e xpe r ience o f t he c o in i den t if ie r s , w e mu s t a l so c on s i de r h ow i n t r in s ic f a c tor s o f t he c o in s t hem se lve s may a f fec t t he e a se a nd c er ta in ty w i th w h ich t hey c an b e i den t i f ied . T ype s wh ich w e re s t ruck a t as i ng le m in t ( eg C on s tan t inop le POP ROMANUS o f 3 30 ) a nd t ho se w he re t he m in t ma rk i n c lude s ac harac te r i s t ic s ymbo l i n t he f i e ld ( eg t he l e a f o r D o n t he T r ie r V ICTOR IAE i s sue s o f 3 45 -8 ) a re r e la t ive ly e a s ie r t o i den t i fy t han t ho se w he re t he m in t mark i s wholy i n t he e xe rgue , a nd t hu s mo re l i ke ly t o s u f fe r d eg rada t ion [ Ree ce , 1 978 4 A s c an b e s een i n Append ix 4 , t he se t wo e xamp le s a re r e spe c t ive ly t he mo s t c ommon s i ng le t ype f r om a ny o f t he e a s tern m in t s , a nd t he mo s t c om mon o f a l t ype s among s t t he f uly i den t if ied B r i t i sh f i nd s . I n t he l i gh t o f t he i r a pparen t e a se o fi den t if ica t ion , w ha t w e igh t c an b e a t tached t os uch f i nd ing s? D i st ingu i sh ing a mu l t ip l ic i ty o f s im i la r t ype s f r om d i f fe ren t m in t s may d epend a lmo s t e n t ire ly o n t he s ur v iva l o f t he m in t mark . S uch f a c to r s c an b e e xpe c ted t o i n t roduce s eve re b i a se s i n to a ny s amp le o f c o in s . T he a b i l i ty t o d i s t ingu i sh i nd iv idua l t ype s w i th c onf idence m igh t b e t hough t t o b e o f g rea te r c oncern i n p ure ly n um i sma t ic s t ud ie s , b u t t he i mp l ica t ion s f o r a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s a re e qua l ly i mpor tan t . I n p a r t icu lar , t he b a lance o f c o ins b e tween m in t s , e s sen t ia l t o ac on s ide ra t ion o f t he me chan i sm s o f d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c i rcu la t ion o f c o in s , i sl i ke ly t ob e a f fec ted b y t h i s d i f fe ren t ia l e a se o fi den t i f ica t ion . I n a dd i t ion t o e r ro r a nd b i a s i n t he s ource d a ta , s im i lar p rob lem s w i l l a r i se f r om t he p ro c e s s o f e n te r ing t he d a ta i n to t he c ompu te r d a ta f i le s . A l though t h i s h a s b een d e s igned a s a n e s sen t ialy t r an scr ip t ive p roce s s i nw h ich a r andom e r ro r c omponen t may b e e xpec ted t o d om i n a te , v ar ia t ion s i n t he s t y le o f t he s ource s mean t ha t a n e l emen t o f i n te rp re ta t ion i sa lway s p re sen t , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c a se o f e ar l ie r c o in l i s t s . A s w i l l b e s hown i n C hap te r 3 , s t ep s h ave b een t aken t o m in im i se t he se p rob lem s , i n c lud ing t ho rough c he ck ing a t t he d a ta e n t ry s t age , b u t Iam a cu te ly a ware o f t he d eve lopmen t o f m y own e xper t i se i n t he c our se o f t h i s r e sea rch a nd o f t he p o ten t ia l e f fe c t s o n s uch i n te rp re ta t ion . Howeve r , r andom s amp l ing o f t he s t o red d a ta s ugge s t s t ha t t r an sc r ip t ion e r ro r s r ema in u nco r rec ted i n f ewe r t han 0 .2 % o f r e co rd s . E r ro r s d e te c ted b o th i n t h i s s ampl ing a nd i n t he c our se o f p roce s s ing h ave b een c o r rec ted , b u t i ti sc on s ide red t ha t a ny f ur the r s y s tema t ic a t temp t s t od e te c t a nd c o r re c t e r ro r s w ou ld n o t j u s t ify t he r equ ired e f fo r t , a tl e a s t i nt e rm s o f t he p re sen t o b je c t ive s . A s w il b e s hown i n t he d i scu s s ion f r om C hap te r 4o nwa rd s , t he ma jor s ou rce o f e r ro r a nd b i a s e ncoun te red i n a t temp t ing t o a s semb le a l a rge b ody o f d a ta f r om d i spa ra te s ource s h a s n o t b een i ns imp le t r an scr ip t ion e r ro r s , b u t i n d e c id ing u pon t he l e ve l o f c e r ta in ty t ha t c an b e a t tached t o t he o r ig ina l i den t if ica t ion s . Whe rea s s ome a u tho r s d i sc r im ina te c a re fu l ly b e tween e xac t ly i den t i f ied c o in s , s im i la r i s sue s f r om t he s ame m in t , a nd s im i la r i s sue s f r om o the r m in t s , o the r s p rov ide l i t t le o r n o i nd ica t ion o f t he r e la t ive f i rmne s s o f t he ir i d en t if ica t ion s . G iven t he o verwhe lm ing c oncern o f many e xcava to r s w i th t he u se o f c o ins a s d a t ing e v idence , i ti su nde r s tandab le t ha t s uch c o in r epor t s h ave g ene ra l ly b een c on s ide red a s a dequa te f o r t he i r o r ig ina l p urpo se , b u t i n many c a se s t he ir f ur the r u t i l i ty i s c on s t ra ined . D i s t inc t ion s b e tween s im i la r i s sue s o f t he s ame o r d i f fe ren t m in t s o f ten h ave o n ly m ino r i mp l ica t ion s f o r t he i r i s sue d a te s . Un for tuna te ly , t h i s p rac t ice s eve re ly l im i t s t he c onc lu s ion s t ha t c an b e d rawn f r om t he a pparen t s ource s o f much o f t he e xcava ted ma ter ia l . T h i s , h oweve r , i sn o mo re t han t he a n t ic ipa ted p rob lem o f a ny s e conda ry i nve s t iga t ion .

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2 . 4 .2 C o in f i nd s a nd c o in l o s s H av ing e xam ined t he p r inc ipa l s ou rce s o f e r ro r a nd b i a s i n t h e p ro ce s se s o f r e covery a nd r e co rd ing o f t he c o ins , a t ten t ion mu s t n ow b e t u rned t o a n e xam inat ion o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t he d epo s i ted ma te r ia l a nd i t s i mmed ia te ly a n te ceden t u se . H e re i tw i l l b e n e ce s sa ry t o q ue s t ion s e ve ra l o f t he b a s ic a s sump t ion s u nde r ly ing much o f t h e p rev iou s w o rk i n t h i s a r ea . I ti s , o f c our se , n o t p o s s ib le t o i d en t i fy d i r ec t c or re spondence s b e tween p ar t icu la r a n c i en t money -u s ing a c t ion s a nd modern e xcava ted p a t tern s o f c o in f i nd s . T he v i r tua l ly u nb ro k en t r ad i t ion o f c o inage i n much o f E u rope f r om H elen ic t ime s t o t he p re sen t d ay i sa n o b s e rved c on t inu i ty i n many a spe c t s o f a r te fac t f o rm a nd i ns t a te p roduc t ion ; i ti sn o t ag uaran t e e o fc on t inu i ty i na l l a spe c t s o f money u s ing p rac t ice . E qualy , s impl i s t ic f o rma l a na log ie s t h a t a s sume a g ene ra l s im i lar i ty b e tween a nc ien t a nd mode rn c o in u se o n t he b a s i s o f s ome a cknow ledged , b u t l im i ted , c or re spondence s b e tween h i s tor ica l ly a t te s ted u se s o f R oman c o in s a nd mode rn p rac t ice s a r e , i n t h em se lve s , i n ade q ua te . T ha t c o in m igh t b e u sed b y m any p eop le , t h en a s n ow , f o r t h e p urcha se o fs ub s i s tence r equ iremen t s a l low s s ome i n s igh t i n to a nc ien t u se , b u t i td oe s n o t a l low u s t o i n te rp re t s uch a nc ien t t r an sac t ion s w i th in a c on tex tua l f r amewo rk l a den w i th mode rn c u l tura l a s sump t ion s . R a the r , w e mu s t a t temp t a n u nder s tand ing o f t he p l au s ib le r ange o f p a s t a c t iv i t ie s w h ich c ou ld h ave l e d t o t he d epo s i t ion o f c o in s , a nd t h e p a t tern s o f d epo s i t ion t h a t c ou ld h ave r e su l ted f r om s uch a c t ion s . T h i s , t o ge the r w i th a n a pp re c ia t ion o f h ow p o s t -depo s it iona l e ven t s a nd p roce s se s c ou ld h ave t r an s formed t h e o r ig ina l d epo s i t s i n to t he f o rm s o b ser ved i n e xcava t ion mu s t p rov ide t he b a s i s f o r a ny a t temp t s t oe xp la in o ur mode rn o b se rva t ion s i n t h e c on tex to f a nc ien t a c t ion s . T h i s d oe s n o t m ean t ha t c ompar i son s w i th modern p rac t ice c anno t b e e mp loyed , o r t h a t i t i sn e ce s sary t o s e ek o u t ac on tempo rary s oc ie ty w ho se money u s ing p ract ice s a r e r e ga rded a s s im i la r t ot ho se o f t h e R oman w o r ld o n w h ich t ob a se a na log ie s . I ndeed , t h e i mp l ic i t c i r cu la r i t y o f t he l a t te r a pp roach mu s t r u le i to u t o f s e r iou s c on ten t ion . I fw e a re t o m ake u se o f mode rn o r r e cen t o b se rva t ion s , h oweve r , w e mu s t a t temp t t o s t r ip t he se o f t h e u n spoken a spec t s o f mode rn p rac t ice , t h e s phe re o f B ourd ieu 's d oxa ; t ho se a spec t s w h ich , b e cau se t h ey a re t a ken f o r g ran ted a nd a r e u nd i spu ted i n t he n orma l u n ive r se o f d i scour se , n eed n o t b e d i scu s sed [ Bourd ieu , 1 977 ] . S im i la r ly , i fw e a re t o d eve lop a na log ie s f r om t e x tua l s ource s , w he the r t he se b e t h e w r i t ing s o f o u r c on tempo rar ie s , o f e arl ie r g ene ra t ion s o f s c ho lar s , o r a nc ien t h i s to r ica l a ccoun t s , t hen t he se a l so mu s tb e r e ad w i th a n e ye f o r w ha ti sl e f tu n s ta ted . A s d i scu s sed i n t he f i r s t c hap te r , a n i d ea l i sed c oncep t ion o f mode rn ' r a t iona l ' money u se h a s l ong p e rvaded a r chaeo log ica l t h ink ing o n c o in f i nd s , p ar t icu lar ly t ho se o f t h e R oman p er iod . I ti si deal i sed b e cau se a l though w e s hare a s e t o f v a lue s t h a t a re e mp loyed i n c on s t an t ly r e -s ta t ing a nd r e -shap ing t he r a t iona l i ty o f money u se , a nd o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty i n g ene ra l , e ven a c ur sory e xam ina t ion o f m any o f o u r a c t ion s a f f irms t ha t s uch n ar row ly d ef ined e conom ic a dvan tage i so f o n ly l im i ted e xp lana tory p owe r . I ft h is i ss o i n a modern s o c ie ty i nw h ich e conom i sm l oom s l a rge i n m any o f o ur b e l ie f s , t h en i ti sc l ea r t h a t c on s ide r a b le c a re mu s t b e t aken i n d i scu s s ing o the r s oc ia l c on tex t s e xh ib i t ing t he ir o wn , o f ten r ad i c a l ly d i f fe ren t , s t ruc tu ra l p r inc ip le s . T o a rgue t hu s i sn o t t o l a y o ne se l f o pen t o a ccu sa t ion s o f ar oman t ic i sed v i ew o f t h e p a s t , n o r i si tt o a t temp t t o s ub s t i tu te i mp rec i se c oncep t s o f p re -comme rc ia l b ar te r i n t h e p l ace o f mone tary t r ansac t ion s , a s s o o f ten h a s b een d one i n t h e p a s t . R a the r , w e mu s t a ccep t , a s B ou rd ieu h a s a rgued , t ha t o ur mode rn e conom i sm i so n ly a c on tex tua l ly -spe c i f ic s pe c ia l c a se o f amuch w ide r a spe c t o f h uman b ehav iour t h a t t a ke s a ccoun t o f b o th m a te r ia l a nd s ymbo l ic c ap i ta l [ Bourd ieu , 1 977 , 1 77 ] . G iven t h e i n te rchangeab i l i ty b e twe en money a nd g ood s t h a ti s s o o f ten s e en , f o r e xamp le , i n t h e l a te -Roman s y s tem s o f t a xa t ion , i ti sq u i te c l ear t h a t t h e ir n ear t o ta l s eparab i l i ty t ow h ich w e a re n ow a ccu s tomed w a s n o t t h en s o f i rm ly e s tab l ished . T he l i te ra ture o n c o in f i nd s i sg ene rou s ly s p r ink led w i th a s ser t ion s t ha t a l though t h e m a jo r i t y o f a r chaeo log ica l m a ter ia l i sr ubb i sh , c a s t o f f w hen n o l o nge r o f u se , c o in s b y t h e ir v ery n a tu re a s money o b jec t s a r e d i f fe ren t . T h i s a rgumen t h a s c on s ide rab le c r ed ib i l i ty w hen a pp l ied t o p rec iou s m e ta l c o inage s w he re ag ene ra l c ont inu i ty i nv a lue c an b e a t te s ted . H en . t h e v a lue i si nt h e m e ta l w h ich m ay b e t r ea ted a s b u l l ion i r re spe c t ive o f i t s p ar t icu la r p hy s ica l

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f o rm . A s im i la r v i ew c anno t s o e a s i ly b e s u s ta ined i n t he c a se o f t he l a te -Roman o r i ndeed a ny o the r b ronze c o inage s . Whe rea s t he s i lve r c on ten t o f many e ar l ie r i s sue s c an b e e xpe c ted t o h ave ma in ta ined a c er ta in i n t r in s ic v a lue b eyond t he l im i t s o f t he p ure ly mone tary c ur rency o f t he se i s sue s , b y t he e nd o f t he f i r s t q uar te r o f t he f ou r th c en tury i th ad d e c l ined t o a n i n s ign i f ican t p ropo r t ion . I ti sn o c o inc idence t ha t p rec iou s me ta l c o inage , a l though mo re a bundan t i n h oa rd s , i sa lmo s t e n t i re ly a b sen t f r om t he l ong l i s t s o fs i te f i nd s . T he v i ew e xp re s sed , f o r e xamp le b y C a sey , t ha t . . co in s a r em o s t e mpha t ica l ly n o t r ubb i sh [ C a se y , 1 9 74 , 3 8 ] i sb eh ind t he w ide sp read b el ie f t ha t , o the r t han v o t ive d epo s i t ion , w h ich i ti sa s sumed c an q u i te r ead i ly b e d iagno sed , c o in s a re n eve r d el ibe ra te ly d i sca rded b u t a re o n ly a cc iden ta l ly l o s t . I nd iv idua l c o in s f al t h rough h o le s i n p o cke t s o r p ur se s o r a re d ropped i r re t r ievab ly i n to t he mud . Hoa rd s a re r e cove red i n mode rn t ime s s imp ly b ecau se t he ir o r ig ina l o wne r s f o r s ome r ea son o r o the r , o f ten a s sumed t o h ave b een c a ta s t roph ic , f a i led t od o s o t hem se lve s . A s im i lar d i s t inc t ion i s o f ten a ppl ied t o o the r a r te fac t s , p ar t icu la r ly t ho se made o f p rec iou s m e ta l s , a nd h e re t he p i c ture c an b e c ompl ica ted b y t he u ncer ta in s t a tu s o f d amaged o r ' s c rap ' m a te r ia l . D iscu s s ion o f t he s t a tu s o fs uch ma te r ia l h a s n o t b een w ide sp read among s t a rchaeo l o g i s t s o f t he R oman p e r iod , a l though i th a s a t t rac ted t he a t ten t ion o f p reh i s to r ian s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , t he d i scu s s ion o f t he n a tu re o f B ronze Age me ta l h oa rd s b y B rad ley , 1 984 a nd o th e r s ) . F o r mo s t modern s cho lar s d i rec t e xpe r ience o f mone tary s y s tem s , d e sp i te c er ta in c are fu l ly m anaged e ven t s s uch a s t he B r i t i sh d e c ima l i sa t ion i n 1 971 , i sa lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly o f s y s tems w h ich h ave b een c on s ide rab ly mo re s t ab le t han t ha t s ugge s ted b y t he f r equen t ly c hang ing i s sue s o f t he f our th c en tury . We c anno t u nc r i t icaly a s sume t ha t t he p ro ce s se s o fu se a nd l o s s t ha t w e c ommon ly b e l ieve t o f o rm o u r mode rn e xpe r ience a re s u ff ic ien t i n t hem se lve s t o e xp la in a l a nc ien t d epo s i t ion . A l though i ti s u nw i se t o a s sume t ha t a l n on -vo t ive d epo s i t ion m igh t b e t he r e su l t o f a cc iden ta l l o s s , i ti sn one the le s s r e a sonab le t os ugge s t t ha t s uch ac au se i ss u f f ic ien t t oe xp la in a tl e a s t s ome p ropo r t ion o f modern f i nd s . L o s s , a s o ppo sed t o d e l ibe ra te d i spo sa l , i s ap ro c e s s wh ich c an a pp ly t o m any o the r c l a s se s o f a r te fac t a nd h a s b een t he s ub je c t o f t heo re t ica l d i scu s s ion . I ti so ne o f t he r ange o f a c t iv i t ie s w h ich S ch i f fe r h a s c a l led S -A p roce s se s , t ho se . .whe reb y m a te r ia l s a r e t r an s fo rmed f r om s y s tem ic c on tex t t o a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t [ S ch if e r , 1 976 , 2 8 ] . I n o the r w o rd s , f r om n o rma l s oc ia l u se i n to p o ten t ia l a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s . I ndeed h i s s ugge s t ion t ha t . . lo s sp rob ab i l i ty v a r ie si n ve r s e ly w i th a n o b je c t ' s ma s s [ i b id . 3 2 ] i so ne o f an umbe r o f s im i la r , s ome t ime s e xp l ic i t ly s t a ted , a s sump t ion s t ha t a r chaeo log i s t s a nd n um i sma t i s t s h ave u sed f o r many y ear s . T he re a re o the r s . I n t he s hor t t e rm , e f for t e xpended b y t he l o se r i n a n a t temp t t o r e cove r al o s t o b je c t may b e d i rec t ly r e la ted t o i t s p e r c e ived ' v a lue ' . I n t he l ong t e rm , t he p robab il i ty o f r e cove ry b y o the r s , w he the r Romano B r i ton s o r modern a r chaeo log i s t s , may a l so b e r e la ted t o ma s s o r , a t l e a s t , t o s i ze a nd s uch c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f p hy s ica l a ppea rance t ha t w ou ld c on t r ibu te t o t he r e la t ive e ase w i th w h ich t h e o b jec t m igh t b e s po t ted . T he se l a t te r s t a temen t s r e fe r t o S ch i f fe r 's c a tegory o f A -S p roce s se s ; t ho se i n w h ich p rev iou s ly d epo s i ted ma ter ia l i sr e in t roduced t o t he ' s y s tem ic ' , o r s oc ia l , c on tex t . I fw e ma in ta in , a s many h ave d one , t ha t t he c o in s l o s t o n as i te a re a r ef le c t i on o f t he l e ve l o f e conom ic a c t iv i ty , b y wh ich i su sualy mean t s ome i mp re c i se i dea o f ' ma rke t ' e xchange , t hen w e a re s t a t ing t ha t l o s s p robab i l i ty h a s s ome d i re c t r e la t ion sh ip t ot he f r equency o f e xchange , a n S -S p roce s s . I t mu s t b e e mpha s i sed t ha t t h i s h a s n o t b e en d emon s t ra ted e i the r f o r a nc ien t o r modern l o s s . I ndeed , i t may w el b e i nhe ren t ly u n l ike ly f o r w e m igh t a l so r e a sonab ly s ugge s t t ha t t he r a te o f s c aveng ing c an b e e xpec ted t o b e s im i lar ly r e la ted t o t he f r equency o f e xchange . Howeve r , s uch l aw s , o r l aw l ike s t a temen t s , c anno t h e lp t o d eve lop a g ene ra l l aw o f c o in d epo s i t ion f o r , a s w i th a l s uch s t a temen t s , t hey mu s t s ha re o ne p ro found c avea t . A s w i th a l l s t a temen t s o f t h i s t ype , e ach n eed s t o b e p re faced b y ap h ra se t o t he e f fec t o f ' A l l o th c, t h ing s b e ing e qua l . . . ' . Th is i n i t se l f i sa n a s sump t ion a nd a d ub iou s o ne a t t ha t . I n t he c a se

3 3

o f c o in s , i ti mp l ie s t ha t c o in s a re , a nd h ave b een , u sed b y a l l p eop le a t a l l t ime s a nd i n a l l p lace s i n as im i lar manne r . E ven i ft h i s w e re s o i ti si mp robab le t ha t w e w ou ld b e j u s t if ied i n e xp la in ing i n te r -s i te v ar ia t ion s o le ly i n t e rm s o f c hange s i n t he l o ca l l e ve l s o f m a rke t a c t iv i ty t h rough t ime . T o make s uch b l anke t a s sump t ion s , e ven w i th in t he l im i ted s phe re o f f our th c en tury B r i ta in , i s mo s t p recar iou s . S uch s t a temen t s a re e xamp le s o f F lannery 's c a tegory o f ' M ickey Mou se L aw s ' [ F lanne ry , 1 967 ] . D e sp i te t he se r e se rva t ion s , i tw ou ld s eem t ha t s uch s t a temen t s a re a ccep tab le a s g ene ra l g u id ing p r inc ip le s p rov ided t ha t t he s ub je c t o f d i scu s s ion i sl im i ted t o t he a cc iden ta l l o s s o f c ur ren t money i t em s . I ti s , h oweve r , h igh ly q ue s t ionab le w he the r s uch l o s s r ep re sen t s ar e a s onab le e xp lana t ion o f t he c au se o f d epo s i t ion o f t he ma jor i ty o f l a te -Roman b ronze c o inage . A re t he a s ser t ion s t ha t mo s t o f o u r mode rn f i nd s r ep re sen t a cc iden ta l l o s se s a nd , b y i n fe r e nce , t ha t t ho se c o in s w e re c ur ren t a t t he i r t ime o f d epo s i t ion j u s t i f ied , o r a r e t hey me re ly u nque s t ioned a s sump t ion s? Many R omano -B r i t i sh s i te s h ave p roduced q uan t i t ie s o f c o in t ha t a re q u i te i n compa t ib le w i th c once ivab le r a te s o f a cc id en ta l l o s s . Hypo the t ica l c a lcu la t ion s w h ich p urpo r t t o s how t ha t t he v o lume o f c o in r e cove red i so n ly a m inu te f r ac t ion o f t he t o ta l amoun t o f money w h ich m ay h ave p a s sed t h rough t he s i te ( e .g . C a sey , 1 974 ) c anno t d i sgu i se t he f a c t t ha t s ome s i te s h ave p roduced v ery l a rge n umbe r s o f c o in s w he rea s o the r s , o u twa rd ly o f s im i la r a r chaeo log ica l a ppea rance , h ave y i e lded o n ly a h andfu l . C ompa rab le c i rcu la t ing v o lume s o f b ronze o r c oppe r c o inage w e re n o t a ga in r e ached u n t i l a t l e a s t t he e a r ly mode rn p e r iod i n n or th -we s te rn E urope . N ever the les s , s ur face c l ear ing o f r e cen t l e ve l s o r e ven t he d e ta i led e xcava t ion o f mo re r e cen t s i te s r a re ly , i fe ve r , l e ad s t o t he r e covery o f c ompa rab le q uan t i t ie s o f c o in t ot ho se p roduced o n s ome l a te r Romano -Br i t i sh s i te s . T he se mo re r e cen t s i te s i nvar i a b ly p roduce c omparab ly s mal n umbe r s o f c o in s t o t he ma jo r i ty o f m ino r r u ra l s i te s o f t he R omano -Br i t i sh p e r iod . F o r t h i s r e a son w e mu s t r e jec t a l a t temp t s t o e xp la in h i gh l e ve l s o f c o in d epo s it ion w h ich r e sor t t o s uch i mp robab le f a c to r s a s t he d i ff icu l ty o f f i nd ing a nd r e t r iev ing c o in s a cc iden taly d ropped i n muddy s t ree t s o r ma rke t p l ace s . D i f fe rence s i n e xca v a t ion e x ten t a nd me thod a l so a re s ure ly n o mo re t han a p a r t ia l e xp lana t ion o f s uch d i sc repanc ie s . D epo s i ted ma te r ia l , p ar t icu la r ly t ha t i n s ur face a nd n ea r sur face l a yer s , c an b e a nd f r e q uen t ly h a s b een s ub jec t t o c on s ide rab le d i s tu rbance a nd s c a t te r ing . D e sp i te t h i s , t he i dea o f t he s c a t te red h oa rd i sl e s s c ommon ly u sed t han m igh t b e e xpec ted i n a t temp t s t o e xp la in w ide sp read s c a t te r s o f r ough ly c on tempo rary ma te r ia l . A l though l a ck ing c ohe rence a s p a r t o f as i ng le a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t , s uch s c a t te r s may o f ten b e r e cogn i sed w hen t he s pa t ia l d i s t r i b ut ion o f f i nd s i sr e co rded . Many n um i sma t i s t s , h oweve r , s eem t op re fe r t o r e ly u pon i n fo r m a t ion d e r ived f r om t he e xam ina t ion o f t he c o in s t hem se lve s , r a the r t han o f t he ir a rchaeo log i c a l c on tex t . Hence t he p re sence o f as c a t te red h oa rd i so f ten o n ly s ugge s ted w hen ag roup o f c o in s d i sp lay s im i la r s ur face c or ro s ion , p ar t icu la r ly w he re t he c or ro s ion p roduc t s a re s uch a s w ou ld s ugge s t t ha t t he c o in s l a y i nc on tac t w i th e ach o the r f o r ac on s ide rab le p e r iod o f t ime . S uch c au t ion i ni n te rp re ta t ion mu s t n o t b e c ondemned , b u t i ti sc l ea r t ha t r el iance o n t he s ur f a ce f e a tu re s o f c o in s l im i t s t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f r e cogn i t ion o f s c a t te red h oa rd s t o t ho se wh ich h ave e i the r r e cen t ly b een d i spe r sed o r , s i nce t he i r d i spe r sa l , h ave n o t b een s ub je c t t oc hem ica l c ond i t ion s t ha t m igh t r emoved o r a l te red p rev iou s c or ro s ion p roduc t s . C lea r ly , t he s pa t ia l p a t tern ing o f f i nd s mu s t b e c on s ide red i n a t temp t ing t o d i s t ingu i sh s c a t te red h oards f r om o the r f o rm s o f d epo s i t ion . D i scu s s ion o f s c a t te red h oard s h a s s l igh t ly i n c rea sed i n r e cen t y ear s , p a r t icu la r ly i n a n umbe r o f p ape r s b y R icha rd R ee ce . I n h i s d e s cr ip t ion o f t he f i nd s f r om R ichbo rough [ Ree ce , 1 981a ] , w he re t he re i sa n u nu sualy l a rge p eak i n t he c o in s o f t he f i na l y ea r s o f t he f our th c en tury , h e c on s ide red t he q ue s t ion o f w he the r t h i s p eak m igh t b e t he p roduc t o f n o r ma l l o s s o r o f s c a t te red h oard s . He a rgued f o r n orma l l o s s o n t he b a s i s o f t h e s im i lar i ty b e tween t he s ur face c l ear ing f i nd s f r om t he 1 920 's e xcavat ion s a nd t he f i nd s f r om t he s t ra t i f i ed d epo s i t s . T he f i na l p eak , h e s ugge s ted , m igh t n o t b e c au sed b y a n u nu sua l s upp ly t o t he s i te , r a the r t he . . s t rang ene s s o fR ichbo rough p e rhap s b e ing t h a t a l t h e c o inag e w h ich w a s i nc i rcu la t ion w a s d epo s i ted , w he the r a c c iden ta l ly o ri n ten t iona l ly [ i b id . 5 3 ]

3 4

G iven t he u nu sua l c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f ma ter ia l , i ti sn o t e n t ire ly c l ear w hy R ichbo r o ugh h oa rd s n e ce s sar i ly s hou ld b e e xpe c ted t od i f fe r ma rked ly f r om o the r f o rm s o fd epo s i t ; i t i sp o s s ib le t ha t s ome o f t he s t ra t i f ied ma ter ia l m igh t i t se l fb e d er ived f r om t he a nc ien t s c a t te r i ng o f h oa rd s . Howeve r , p e rhap s t he mo s t s i gn if ican t p ar t o f t h i s d i scu s s ion l i e s i n t he s ug g e s ted p o s s ib i l i ty o f i n t en t iona l d epo s it ion . T he i mp l ica t ion w ou ld a ppear t o b e t ha t ' no rma l l o s s ' s hou ld b e t aken t oi n c lude d e l ibe ra te d epo s i t ion . T h i s i si nd i re c t c on t ra s t t o mo s t p rev i o u s w o rk w he re a cc iden ta l l o s s h a s a lway s b een a s sumed t ob e t he n o rm . I n v i ew o f t he h igh v o lume s o f c o in r e cove red f r om s ome s i te s , h oweve r , t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f d e l ibe ra te d epo s i t ion , e ven o f d el ibe ra te d i spo sa l , mu s t b e g i ven s e r iou s c on s ide ra t ion . T he a s sump t ion t ha t a l l d epo s i t ion o ccur red d ur ing t he c ur rency o f t he c o in s i sa no the r a spec t o f t he a s sump t ion o f ' A l l o the r t h ing s b e ing e qua l . . . ' . I f ac o in i sf ound i n ac on tex t o f ap ar t icu la r d a te , w he the r a n e xcava ted l a ye r o r ah oa rd , i ti sf r equen t ly a s sumed t o h ave b een c ur ren t a t t ha t d a te . P u t a no the r w ay , l o s s a nd w i thd rawa l o f c o in mu s t h ave o ccur red a ts u ff ic ien t ly h igh r a te s t ha t o n ly am in ima l q uan t i ty o f a n e ar l ie r i s sue r ema ined i n c i rcu la t i on o n t ho se o cca s ion s w hen e i the r as eve re r e form r ende red i ta lmo s t w or th le s s , o r i tw a s d emone t i sed . Th i s p o s i t ion d oe s n o t a l low f o r r e s idua l i ty e i the r i n t he s t r ic t a r chaeo log ica l s en se o r i n t he p o s s ib il i ty o f s urv iva l o f q uan t i t ie s o f c o in , w he the r i n h oa rd s o r o the r p r iva te o r i n s t i tu t iona l h o ld ing s , t ha t w e re e s sen t ia l ly w or th le s s a s money . Wi th t h e a pparen t a b sence o f a ny r egu lar me chan i sm t o r emove c i rcu la t ing b ronze c o in s , w e mus t a s sume t ha t , i n t he e ven t o f r e fo rm s a nd i mper ia l e d ic t s wh ich m igh t h ave s eve re ly r educed t h e v a lue o f e a r l ie r i s sue s , c on s ide rab le q uan t i t ie s o f s uch c o in s w ou ld h ave b een r ema ined i n p r iva te h and s . Wha t t hen w a s t he f a te o f s uch ma te r ia l? T he re a re r e a son s t o b el ieve t ha t s ome t ime s t he s t a te m igh t h ave a t temp ted t o a l lev ia te w ide sp read p r iva te e conom ic p rob lem s b y t he d el ibe ra te man ipu la t ion o f t he money s upp ly , b u t t he se mu s t b e w e ighed a ga in s t t he much mo re a bundan t i nd ica t ions o f ma jo r mone ta ry r e form s , a nd t he o cca s iona l i nd ica t ion s o f c omp le te d emone t i sat ion . A rgumen t s , s uch a s t ho se p u t f o rwa rd i n l oC asc io , 1 981 f o r t he l a te R epub l ic a nd e a r ly Emp i re p er iod , n eed n o t l e ad u s t o a s sume t ha t ma in ta in ing t he s t ab i l i ty o f c i rcu lat ing c o in w a s e ve r mo re t han a m ino r c on s ide ra t ion o f t he s t a te , e i the r t hen o r i n t he l a te Emp ire . I ndeed , t he n ece s sary w i l l a nd e ven a b i l i ty t o r e spond t o s uch c r i se s i s mo re a pp ropr ia te t o t he mo re c en t ra l i sed s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l s t ruc ture s o f Rome i n t ha t e a r l ie r p e r iod t han i ti st o t he mo re d i spe r sed s t ruc t u re s o fb o th t he t h i rd c en tury a nd t he p o s t -D io c le t ian ic e ra . I ft he p o s s ib i l i ty o f l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f ma ter ia l s urv iv ing f r om e a r l ie r i s sue s i st o b e e n te r t a ined , s ome a ccoun t mu s t b e t aken o f t he h i gh v o lume s o f i r regu lar ma te r ia l f ound o n many B r i t i sh s i te s . I t i s g ene ra l ly a g reed t ha t t he ma jo r o u tb reaks o f c oun ter fe i t ing i n B r i ta in a ppea r t o h ave b een i n r e spon se t o s hor tage s i ns upp ly f r om t he o f f ic ia l m in t s . C e r ta in ly , t he s ugge s t ion t ha t t hey s hou ld b e d a ted t ot r ough s i n t he c hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion f o l low ing t he i s sue o f t he i r r egu la r p ro to type s i sa t t rac t ive i ni t s s imp l ic i ty . A l so t he w ide sp read o ccur rence o f t he c ommon t ype s o f i m i tat ion s w ou ld s ugge s t t ha t a ny s hor tage s w e re o f mo re t han l o ca l s i gn if icance . Wh i l s t t he n eed f o r i m i ta t ion s m igh t s eem t o s ugge s t t ha t l i t t le ma te r ia l s ur v i ved f r om e a rl ie r i s sue s , t h i s i sn o t t he o n ly c onc lu s ion t ha t c an b e d rawn . F ir s t ly , i ti sp o s s i b le t ha t i tw a s as ho r t fal o f s u i tab le c o inage i n c er ta in , p o s s ib ly o f f ic ia l , h and s wh ich c r ea ted t he n eed f o r al o caly p roduced s upp lemen t , r a the r t han a ny s ho r tage o f c i rcu la t ing o r p r iva te ly h e ld c o in . S econd ly , i fi ti sc or rec t t ha t t he i m i tat ion s d a te f r om s oon a f te r t he p ro d uc t ion o f t he ir p ro to type s , s ho r tage s c ou ld a r i se f r om t he d emone t i sa t ion o f i s sue s p r io r t o t ho se p ro to type s , p e rhap s e xace rba ted b y d e lay s i ni mpo r t ing n ew o f f ic ia l s upp l ie s . T he se t wo e xp lana t ion s a re n o t mu tua l ly i n compa t ib le . T he d el ibe ra te d epo s i t ion o f c o inage a l so i n c lude s t he l ong -re cogn ised c a tego ry o f v o t ive d epo s i t ion . I t i s c l ear , h oweve r , t ha t t h i s i s av e ry b road c a tegory e ncompa s s ing a w ide v ar ie ty o f a c t ion s . Hodde r h a s d rawn a r chaeo log ica l a t ten t ion t o t he a b i l i ty o f ma te r ia l o b je c t s t o h ave d i f fe ren t mean ing s i n d i f fe ren t s oc ia l c on tex t s [ Hodde r , 1 982 ] . Mean ing s a re n eve r f i xed i n t he o b jec t s o r i n t he ir i n te r -re la t ion sh ip s , b u t a re c on s tan t ly r e -nego t ia ted b y i n te re s ted a c to r s . T hu s a t a ny o ne t ime a mu lt ip l ic i ty o f i n te rp re ta t ion s o f mean ing c o -ex i s t w h ich t h rough t he ir s im i lar i t ie s c on t r ibu te t ot he a ppea rance o f s hared i deo log ie s , wh i l s t t he i r d i f fe rence s e n sure t ha t mean ing s a re n eve r s t a t ic .

3 5

Money i n t he s en se o f w ea l th s t o rage o r o f e xchange v a lue i sa n i mpor tan t b u t r e s t r ic ted a spe c t o f t he s ymbo l ic mean ing s t ha t c an b e a t tached t o c o inage . C o in s n eed n o t n ece s sa r i ly s i gn i fy money i n a ma te r ia l i s t s en se , b u t t h i s c anno t b e a s sumed s imp ly b e cau se a n a c t c on t r avene s a ccep ted c anon s o f c on tempo rary e conom ic r a t iona l i ty . An a c t o f v o t ive d epo s i t ion i n , f o r e xamp le , aw e l l c ou ld b e i n te rp re ted a s p ar t o f ap roce s s o f e xchange b e tween h uman a nd g od , p e rhap s a s a' mean s o fp aymen t ' f o r t he d e i ty 's f u ture o r p a s t p ro tec t ion , b u t i td oe s n o t s i gn ify a ny th ing wh ich w e c ou ld c al e conom ic i n a modern ' r a t iona l i s t ' s en se . Un le s s t he p aymen t i s made t o ar e l ig iou s b ody r a the r t han d i re c t ly d epo s i ted i ti s mo s t u n l ike ly t ha t t he ' g od ' w i l l u se t he a ccumu la ted w ea l th t o make p u rcha se s i n t he marke t a nd t hu s c on t r ibu te t o t he e conom ic c i rcu la t ion . I n s tead , i tw ou ld h ave a q u i te o ppo s i te e conom ic e f fec t , t he w i th d rawa l o f t he c o in s f r om c i rcu la t ion . D e sp i te t he q u i te d i f fe ren t e conom ic e f fe c t s o f s uch a n a c t f r om mo re c onven t iona l e xchange s b e tween h uman a c to r s , i ti sp o s s ib le t o s e e i n b o th a n e xamp le o f w ha t B ourd ieu h a s t e rmed t he . . in te r conve r t ib i l i ty o fe conom ic c ap i ta l ( i n t h e n a r row s e n se ) a nd s ymbo l i c c ap i ta l [ Bou r d i eu , 1 977 1 77 ] T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween l o s s , h oa rd ing a nd v o t ive d epo s i t s , t ha t i s , b e tween mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive c a tegor ie s o f a cc iden ta l a nd d el ibe ra te d epo s i t ion , i nvar iab ly d epends o n t he a r chaeo log i s t 's p e rcep t ion o f h ow a' r a t iona l ' p e r son w ou ld b e e xpec ted t ob ehave i n ap ar t ic u la r c on tex t . I n a rchaeo logy , h oweve r , c on tex t i t se l f i sa lway s t he p roduc t o f i n te rp re ta t ion . Ma jo r r i tua l s i te s s uch a s t emp le s a re o f ten q u i te e a s i ly i den t if ied o n t he b a s i s o f an umbe r o f w ide ly a g reed a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a ture s , b u t t he a b i l i ty t o c l a s s i fy a s i te a s s uch d oe s n o t l e ad t o a n e qualy c er ta in u nde r s tand ing o f t he r ange o f a c t iv i t ie s p rac t ised o n t ha t s i te . Wh i ls t w e m igh t i den t ify a s v o t ive a ny c o in d epo s i t i n w ha t a ppea r s t o f a l l w i th in o ur u nde r s tand ing o f r i tua l c on tex t , a l l o the r s b y d e fau l t a re a s sumed t o b e t he r e su l t o f ' e conom ic ' a c t iv i t ie s ; e i the r h oard ing o f w ea l th o r l o s s t h rough a cc iden t o r i n t h e c our se o f t r an sac t ion s . T he t r ad i t iona l v i ew t ha t w e c an d i f fe ren t ia te c l ea r ly b e tween t he ma te r ia l r ema in s o f d i s t inc t r i tua l a nd ma rke t u se s o f money d oe s n o t s t and u p i n t he f a ce _o f e xamp le s d rawn f r om l e s s f r equen t ly d i scu s sed modern p rac t ice s . A t Gougane B a r ra , C oun ty C o rk , i n t he R epub l ic o f I r e land , ar i tua l s i te , s a id t o h ave b een f ounded b y S t F inba r t he f i r s t B i shop o f C o rk , i n c lude s ac ro s s i n to w h ich c o in s a re t r ad i t iona l ly i n se r ted . A lso w i th in t he e nc lo sure f ormed b y t he c hu rchyard w a l l s i s a n e nc lo sed s p r ing i n wh ich much c o in i sd epo s i ted . B o th o f t he se p rac t ice s c on t inued u naba ted i nt he s umme r o f 1 984 d e sp i te s eve ra l n o t ice s e xhor t ing v i s i to r s t op u t t he ir o f fe r ing s i n to t he c olec t ing b ox p rov ided . F rom a n a r chaeo log ica l v i ewpo in t e ach r ep re sen t s af o rm o f v o t ive d epo s i t ion , b u t t he re i sa n a pparen t d i f fe ren t ia t ion b y t he a c to r s b e tween t he i r i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t he d epo s i t iona l a c t s i nvo lv ing t he c ro s s , s p r ing a nd c olec t ing b ox . T he p re sen t c ro s s r ep lace s a t l e a s t o ne p rede ce s so r a nd b e fo re t ha t , at r ee . T he c o in s a re s a id t o h ave k i l led t he t r ee a nd c on t r ibu ted t o t he d e cay o f t he e a r l ie r c ro s s . T he f a te o f t he t r ee i su nknown , b u t ap rede ce s so r may s t i l l b e s een o u t s ide t he e nc lo s ing w a l l o f t he c en t ra l r i tua l a rea . A n umbe r o f c o in s w e re s t i l l v i s ib le embedded d eep ly i n t he d e cay ing wood , s ug g e s t ing t ha t n o a t temp t s w e re made t o r emove a t l e a s t t he se mo s t d eep ly e mbedded c o in s w hen t h i s c ro s s w a s r ep laced . Wh i l s t t he r i tua l n a ture o f s uch ad epo s i t m igh t b e i den t if iab le a r chaeo log ica l ly i ff ound i ns i tu , r emova l a nd d epo s i t o u t s ide t he r i t ua l e nc lo sure c ou ld w e l l m i s lead o u r i n te rp re ta t ion o f s uch r ema in s . I n ap ubl ic h ouse n ear C an te rbury a s uper f ic ia l ly s im i la r p rac t ice h a s d eve loped i n v ery r e cen t y ear s , a l though i n t h i s c a se t he re i sn o r el ig iou s mo t ive . He re , c o in s a re i n ser ted i n to c r ack s i n many p ar t s o f t he s ub s tan t ia l t imbe r f r ame o f t he b u i ld ing , af i f teen th c en tury h ouse o f t he ` Wea lden ' p a t te rn . No r at iona l e xp lana t ion h a s b een s ugge s ted l o ca l ly f o r t he o r ig in o f t h i s a c t iv i ty , i ndeed , i ts e em s t ha t o nce s t ar ted i tr ap id ly b e came a n a ccep ted ' t rad i t ion ' w i th wh ich b o th l o ca l p eop le a nd v i s i to r s c ou ld i den t i fy . I ts eem s p robab le t ha t t he c on t inua t ion o f t h i s p rac t ice i sr e la ted t o t he n eed t o d i sp lay g ene ro s i ty a nd t o t he l im i ted p ub l ic d i spo sa l o f w ea l th w h ich a re s o c harac te r i s t ic o f t he s oc ia l l i fe o f t he E ng l i sh p ub . T he r e ad i ly o b served p re sence o f c o in s i n t he b u i ld ing t imber s a ppear s t o b e s u ff ic ien t p re ceden t f o r t he c on t inua t i on o f t h i s p rac t ice . T he c onve r s ion b e tween e conom ic a nd s ymbo l ic c ap i ta l i n t h i s i n s tancr a ppear s i n amo re g ene ral i sed f o rm t han t ha t a t Gougane B ar ra , b u t i ti sn ever the le s s e qua l ly

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i n af o rm c on s i s ten t w i th i t s q u i te d i f fe ren t c on tex t . B o th t h i s a nd t he p rev iou s e xamp le a ppear t oi nvo lve c ur ren t c o in o f a l l d enom ina t ions ; n o f o re ign o r n on -cur ren t e xamp le s w e re v i s ib le i n e i the r c a se . T h i s may s imp ly r e f le c t t he c on t e n t o f d epo s i to r 's p ocke t s , b u t i tm igh t a l so b e r e la ted t o mo re d eep ly h e ld c oncep t s o f w ha t c on s t i tu te s a mean ing fu l a c t o f d epo s i t ion . N e i the r ma te r ia l s ac r i f ice n o r p ub l ic d i spo sa l o f w ea l th c an h ave mean ing i ft he d i spo sed o b je c t i sw i thou t ap e rce ived v a lue . T h i s v a lue n eed n o t b e d i re c t ly r e la ted t o t he mone tary v a lue o f t he d epo s i ted c o in , a l though c on s i s ten t b ehav iour c anno t b e e xpe c ted i n t h i s r e spe c t . I n e ach c a se i ti st he s ymbo l ic v a lue o f t he c o in i n t he p ar t icu lar c on tex t o f s pe c i f ic a c t ion s t ha t i si mpor tan t ; mone tary v a lue i so n ly o ne w ay b y w h ich s uch s ymbo l ic v a lue m igh t b e mea su red . I n b o th o f t he se c a se s t he re a ppear s t o b e ad i s t inc t t r an s fo rma t ion o f mean ing a s soc ia ted w i th t he a c t o f d epo s i t ion o f t he c o in s . T hey h ave b ecome ' f ixed ' i nt he w ood a nd f ew a ppear w i l l ing t o r emove t hem . E ven i n s oc ie t ie s i n wh ich t he re i su sua l ly b e l ieved t o b e ac l ea r d i s t i nc t ion b e tween t he s e cu la r a nd t he s p ir i tua l t he re a re a spe ct s o f h uman a c t iv i ty w h ich s how t ha t t h i s d i s t inc t ion i sn o t m ir ro red b y as imp le d i s t inc t ion b e tween a ' r a t iona l ' a nd a ' non r a t iona l ' u se o f c o in . I n I nd ia ac oppe r c o in c a l led ap i e w a s s t i l l i nc i rcu la t ion i n r e cen t y ear s , a lbe i t i n r e s t r ic ted a rea s , d e sp i te b e ing v a lued a t o n ly 1 / 192 o f ar upee [ Ko samb i , 1 966 ] . A t t h i s v a lue i tw a s a lmo s t w or th le s s f o r e xchange o r w ea l th s t o rage p urpo se s , r a the r i tw a s u sed i n V arana s i ( f o rme r ly B ena re s ) b y p i lg r im s w ho d i s t r ibu ted t hem t o b eggar s i n o rde r t o g a in mer i t . T he b eggar s c ou ld c o l le c t s u ff ic ien t o f t hem t oe xchange f o r c ommod i t ie s i nt he ma rke t , b u t i n t he f i r s t i n s tance t he i r s ymbo l ic v a lue w a s i n t he s p ir i tua l a nd t empo ra l p re s t ige w h ich t he a c t o f d ona t ion b rough t t he g i ve r r a the r t han i n t he mone tary v a lue o f t he g i f t . I ndeed , i tc an b e n o ted t ha t mo re t han i n t he t wo p re ced ing e xamp le s t h i s s ymbo l ic v a lue i sa ch ieved a tn o r i s k t ot he e conom ic c ap i ta l o f t he d ono r . O f c our se , n one o f t he se e xamp le s f r om r e cen t p rac t ice p rov ide a ny d i re c t i n fo rma t ion a bou t R omano -B r i t i sh c o in u sage , a nd i tw ou ld b e as eve re a bu se o f t he e thnog raph ic s ource s t oa t temp t t o t r an sp lan t c o in u se o r i ndeed a ny p rac t ice f r om o ne c u l tu ra l c on tex t t o a no the r . N eve r the le s s , t hey d o i nd ica te s ome o f t he p rob lem s w h ich a wa i t t ho se w ho a re c on ten t t o e xp la in mo s t c o in d epo s i t ion i n t e rm s o f ' e conom ic ' a c t iv i ty , p ar t icu la r ly mode rn r a t iona l e conom ic a c t iv i ty . A l though i n f requen t ly r e cogn i sed a s s uch , t he a s sump t ion o f a n i dea l i sed e conom ic r a t ional i ty a nd u se o f c o in i n e ar l ie r t ime s i sj u s t s uch a n a bu se f o r i ti mp l ie s t ha t c on tempo rary b el ie f , i n i t se l f a mo s t i nadequa te d e sc r ip t ion o f c on tempo rary p rac t ice , i s s omehow a n a pp rop r ia te d e sc r ip t ion o f p rac t ice i n a n a l toge the r d i f fe ren t a nd t empo ra l ly r emo te c u l tura l c on tex t . T he se e xamp le s , a nd o ther s l i ke t hem , c an s e rve a s mo re t han me re c au t iona ry t a le s f o r i ti so n ly t h rough a n e xam ina t ion o f o b served b ehav iour a nd t he d e con s t ruc t ion o f t he c u l turaly s pe c if i c i dea s a pp l ied i n t he i r d i scu s s ion t ha t w e c an h ope t o a ch ieve a n u nde r s tand ing o f t he p l au s ib le r ange o f a nc ien t p rac t ice s .

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3 : T he C o inf ind D a taba se

3 . II n troduc t ion T h is c hap ter d e scr ibe s t he d eve lopmen t o f t he c ompu te r s y s tem u sed t o c o l lec t , man ipu la te a nd r e tr ieve t he d a ta . T he s y s tem , r e fe r red t o a s t he ' Co inf ind d a tabase ' , c ompr ise s t he d a ta t oge ther w i th a c o l lec t ion o f s o f tware a nd t e chn ique s w h ich h ave b een d e s igned t o b e e as i ly i mp lemen ted o n aw ide r ange o f c ompu te r h ardware . Many o f t he s t a t is t ica l a na ly se s u sed i n c ompar ing c o in d i s tr ibu t ions h ave b een p er fo rmed u s ing w e l l k nown s o f tware p ackage s a va i l a b le a t many c ompu ter i n s ta l la t ions , a l though i th as b een n ece s sary t o d eve lop a n umbe r o f p rog rams f o r s pe c ia l ised r equ irement s . T he a pp l ica t ion o f t he se a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s a nd t he ir r e su lt s w i l l b e d i scus sed i n C hap te r 4 , b u t w he re a pp ropr ia te , t ho se p rog rams w h ich f o rm a n i n teg ra l p ar t o f t he C o inf ind d a tabase a re men t ioned h e re . T he a r rangemen t o f t h is c hap ter p ar t ia l ly f o l low s t he h i s tor ica l d eve lopmen t o f t he c om p u te r t e chn ique s o ve r t he t h ree y ea r s o f t he r e search . T h is p er iod h as b een o ne o f r ap id i mp rovemen t i n t he p roce s s ing a nd s t o rage c apac i t ie s o f m ic rocompu ter s , w h ich h as b een r e f lec ted i n t he n eed f o r c ons tan t r eas se s smen t o f t he r o le o f s uch mach ine s i n t h is t ype o f w o rk . S e c t ions 3 .2 a nd 3 .3 c on ta in a d e scr ip t ion o f t he b a s ic r equ irement s o f t he c ompu te r s y s tem a s p e rce ived a t t he o u t se t o f t he p ro jec t a nd a n i n t roduc t ion t o t he d a ta mode l a dop ted t o f u l f i l t hem . The d eve lopmen t o f t he d a ta c od ing s y s tem i sc overed i n S e c t ion 3 .4 . T hen f o l low s ad i scus s ion i n S e c t ion 3 .5 o f ap ackage o f m ic rocompu te r p rograms u sed e x tens ive ly d ur ing t he c o l lec t ion o f t he p i lo t s amp le o f d a ta t o a s se s s t he f e a s ib i l ity o f t he p ro jec t . A l though t he se p rogram s r ema in a dequa te f o r d ea l ing w i th s ma l l d a ta s e t s o n mach ine s w i th l im i ted s t o rage c apac i ty , t hey d o n o t p rov ide t he d egree o f f l ex ib i l i ty w h ich w as c ons ide red n ece s sary t o t he l onger t e rm a ims o f t he r e search . No r d o t hey t ake f u l l a dvan tage o f c ur ren t a nd f u ture m icrocompu ter h ardware a nd s o f tware d eve lopment s . T he s hor tcom ing s o f t he se p rog rams a re d i scus sed i n S ec t ion 3 .6 , w he re t he r ea son ing b eh ind t he d e c is ion t o a dop t a' da taba se ' a pp roach i si n t roduced . A b r ie f d i scus s ion o f t he ' r e la t iona l ' d a taba se mode l [ Codd , 1 970 ; D a te , 1 975 ] f o l low s a s a n i n t roduc t ion t o t he d e scr ip t ion , i n S e c t ion 3 .7 , o f an umbe r o f t e chn ique s w h ich h ave b een u sed t o man ipu la te t he d a ta a nd t o e x t rac t i n forma t ion . S e c t ion 3 .8 s u mmar ise s t he v ar ious i mp lemen ta t ions o f t he d a tabase o n d i f fe ren t c ompu te r s y s tems , a nd t he c hap ter c onc lude s w i th a b r ie f s ummary o f t he p ro je c ted d eve lopmen t o f t he d a taba se . 3 .2 R equ iremen t s o ft he c ompu ter s y s tem T he b as ic c ompu t ing r equ iremen t s f o r t h i s p ro jec t w e re t wo fo ld : f i r s t ly t o e s tab l ish a nd ma in t a in a d a ta b ank o f c o ins r e covered f r om a l a rge n umbe r o f a rchaeo log ica l s i te s , a nd s e cond l y , t o p rov ide t he means w he reby i n forma t ion c ou ld b e e x t rac ted f r om t ha t d a ta b ank . Th is i n forma t ion w ou ld f r equen t ly b e i n t he f o rm o f p r in ted c o in l i s t s a nd s ummary s t a t i s t ic s f o r s e le c ted s i te s , b u t i ts hou ld a l so b e p o s s ib le t o a nswer a ny a d h oc q uer ie s a s t hey a r ise . I n a d d i t ion , i t mu s t b e p o s s ib le t o r e cove r d a ta i n af o rm s u i tab le f o r s ubm is s ion t o t he s t andard s t a t i s t ica l p ackage s s uch a s S PSS . T he p r imary p urpo se o f t he d a ta b ank w as t o p rov ide a b a s is f o r t he a na ly se s d e scr ibed e l sewhe re i n t h i s t he s is . Howeve r , i th ad b een r ea l ised f r om t he o u tse t t ha t t he d a ta c o l le c ted f o r t he p ro je c t c ou ld p rov ide a n e x t reme ly u se fu l s ource f o r f uture r e search , a nd t he d e c is ion t o w ork t oward s t he e s tab l ishmen t o f as pe c ia l ised d a ta b ank o f c o in f i nd s w a s i nc luded i n t he r e search d e s ign . F requen t ly , t he i nd iv idua l r e searche r i sf r ee t o s e le c t a pp ropr ia te d a ta i t ems f r om a w ide v ar ie ty o f p o s s ib le a t tr ibu te s . F o r e xamp le , i n ap o t tery s t udy , t he r equ ired a t tr ibu te s m igh t b e s e lec ted f r om a r ange o f p o s s ib i l i t ie s c over ing s hape , s i ze , s ur face f i n ish a nd t he t ype a n t i q uan t i ty o f a ny d e cora t ion .

T he f r eedom t o make a d e l ibe ra te s e le c t ion o f as ub se t o f

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a t t r ibu te s a low s t h e d a ta t o b e c l o se ly m a t ched t o t h e r e sea rch d e s ign , b u t t h i s i nvar iab ly m ean s t ha t t he d a ta i so fl im i ted u ti l i ty b eyond t he p ro jec t f o rw h ich i th a s b een c o l le c ted . I n t h e p re sen t c a se t h e s i tua t ion i ss omewha td i f fe ren t . H e re , t h e s ource o f d a ta i st he s um m ary l i s t s o f c o in s f r om e xcava t ion s a nd t he re i s , i n g ene ra l , w ide sp read a g reemen t o ve r w h ich a t t r ibu te s a r e t o b e r e co rded i n s uch l i s t s . A l though i nd iv idua l e xcava to r s a nd n um i sma t i s t s d i f fe r i n t he i mpor tance a s cr ibed t o , f o r e xamp le , s t ra t ig raph ic p rovenance o r t he s t a te o fw ea ro ft h ec o in s , t he b a s ic s t anda rd i st or e co rd t h e n umbe r o f c o in s o fe ach t ype b y r e fe rence t o t he r e levan t c a ta logue s . Th i s t h en i st he e x ten t o f t h e d a ta a va i lab le t o a nyone w o rk ing i n t h i s f i e ld . O f c our se , f u r the r d a ta c ou ld b e o b ta ined f r om a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e c o in s , b u t f o r as amp le o f t he s i ze c on s ide red h e re , t h i s w ou ld b e f a r t oo t ime c on sum ing f o r a ny s hor t t e rm p ro jec t . T he r e s t r ic ted n a tu re o f t he d a ta t hu s m ake s i ta n i d ea l b a s i s f o r a d a ta b ank w h ich c an b e made a va i lab le t oi n te re s ted s pe c ial i s t s . T he d ec i s ion t od eve lop as y s tem wh ich m igh tb e o fu se b eyond t he i mmed ia te n eed s o f t he p re sen t r e sea rch p ro je c t i n t roduce s af u r the r r equ iremen t . F o r t h e d a taba se t o b e s e en a s a u se fu l s ou rce o f i n forma t ion i ti se s sen t ia l t h a t t he s t o red d a ta b e af a i thfu l t r anscr ipt ion o f t h e o r ig ina l s ou rce s , o r t ha t i ti sp o s s ib le t o r e con s truc t t ho se s ource s f r om t he d a ta . Any i n te rp re ta t ion b e fo re t h e d a ta i se n te red c ou ld s e ve re ly l im i t t h e u t i l i ty o f t he d a taba se t o o the rs cho lar s . T he re e x i s t an umbe r o f a l ternat ive m ean s w h ich m igh t b e e mp loyed t o p rov ide a cce s s t o s uch ad a ta b ank f o r o the r u se r s . I n t he l onge r t e rm , a n i n c rea s ing n umbe ro fr e sea rcher s c an b e e xpe c ted t oh ave a cce s s t oc ompu te rs y s tem s a nd t oh ave a cqu i red s ome e xpe r ience i n t he ir u se . Howeve r , i ti sl i ke ly t ha t t h e m a jo r i ty o f e nqu i r ie s d i rec ted a tt he d a ta w i l l b e o f a n a d h oc n a ture , o f ten p o sed i nt e rm s o f r eque s t s f o r i n forma t ion o n s i te s w h ich s how s im i lar p a t t e rn s o f c o in d epo s i t ion . I n mo s t c as e s , t h e i n forma t ion r equ iremen t s w i l l n o t b e s u ff ic ien t t o j u s t i fy i n ve s tmen t o f t ime i n a cqu i r ing f am i l iar i ty w i th t he o pe ra t ion o f t he d a ta b ank . I ti s t he re fo re e nv isaged t ha t s ome d emand w i l l e x i s t f o r as e rv ice w h ich p rov ide s s uch i n forma t i on . E xpe r ience t o d a te s ugge s t s t ha t t h i s a pp roach c an p rov ide r e c ip roca l a dvan tage s , w i th t h e d a ta b ank a cqu i r ing n ew d a ta i ne xchange f o ri n forma t ion o n p rev iou s ly r e co rded s i te s . A n umbe r o f s pe c ia l is t s may , h oweve r , b e i nvo lved i n w o rk w h ich c an g a in s ub s tan t ialy f r om amo re a c t ive u se o f t he d a ta b ank . I dea l ly , s uch u se r s w ou ld b e c a te red f o r b y o f fer ing a cce s s v i a o ne o ft h ep ubl i c o r a cadem ic n e two rk s , b u t t h i s w ou ld r equ i re s ome d eg ree o fo ff i c i a l s anc t ion a nd f i nanc ia l s uppor t t o r e so lve t he c ruc ia l p rob lem o f w ho p ay s f o r t he t ime u sed o n t he h o s t c ompu te r . Wh i l s t t h i s m igh t b e r e ta ined a s al o ng t e rm g oa l , i ts eem s mo s t u n l ike ly t h a t t he f i nance w ou ld b e a va i lab le i n t he f o re seeab le f u ture f o r s uch a s pe c ia l i sed a ppl i ca t ion . A mo re g ene ra l s o lu t ion m igh t b e f ound t h rough t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f ac en t ra l a r ch ive o f a r chaeo log i ca l d a ta , s im i lar t o , b u t l e s s a mb it iou s t h an , t he E SRC D a ta A rch ive m a in ta ined a t t he Un ive r s i ty o f E s sex . Aga in t h i s s o lu t ion p re suppo se s t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f f i nance , b u t i t s mo re g ene ra l a ppl i cab i l i ty c ou ld p rove a s t rong p o in t i n i t s f a vour . T he re w ou ld t hen o n ly r ema in t he p ol i t ica l p rob lem o fw he re s uch a n a r ch ive m igh tb e h ou sed l. B o th o f t he se s o lu t ion s r ep re sen t i d ea l s t owa rd s w h ich p roponent s o f c ompu te r a pp l ica t ion s i na r chaeo logy m igh t s t r ive , y e t t h ey r e ly h eav i ly o n f a c to r s b eyond i nd iv idua l c on t ro l . I n t he m ean t ime i tw i l l b e n ece s sary t op rov ide f o rl e s s s oph i s t ica ted m ean s o fa cce s s t ot he d a ta .

1 . S eba s t ian R ah tz h a s r e cen t ly p ropo sed a n " A rchaeo log ica l I n fo rma t ion E xchange " t o b e h o s ted o n a m ach ine a t S ou thamp ton Un ive r s i ty a nd a p i lo t s t udy a nd e va lua t ion o f t he s y s tem i si n p rog re s s ( Rah tz , 1 986 ) . Ac ce s s t o t h i s m ach ine i sp o s s ib le f r om r emo te s i te s u s ing t he J o in t A cadem ic N e two rk ( JANET ) . T he re i sh oweve r l i t t le i nd ica t ion t ha t a r chaeo log ica l c ompu te r u sage i ss u f f ic ien t ly w e l l d eve loped t o make f u l l u se o ft he f a c i l i t ie s p rov ided b y t he n e two rk .

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3 . 3 D a ta A na ly s i s T he t r ad i t iona l a pp roach t o t he u se o f q uan t i ta t ive a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s i n a r chaeo logy a nd , i ndeed , i n many o the r d i sc ipl ine s , h a s i nvo lved t he s t o rage o f d a ta i n as i ng le c ompu te r f i le i n ma t r ix f o rm . Th i s ma t r ix u sua l ly h a s a s i t s r ow s t he s epa ra te o ccu r rence s o f t he e n t i t ie s w h ich a re t o b e c ompared , a nd t he c o lumn s a re u sed t o r ep re sen t an umbe r o f s e le c ted a t t r i b u te s o f t ho se e n t i t ie s . E ach e l emen t o f t he ma t r ix c on ta in s a n a t t r ibu te s t a te ( o r v a lue ) c o r re spond ing t o ap ar t icu la r a t t r ibu te ( o r v a r iab le ) o f as i ng le e n t i ty o ccu r rence ( o r c a se ) . Th i s p rob lem o r ien ted a pp roach w o rk s w el i n c ase s w he re as imp le d a ta s e t may b e e xpec ted t o r ema in s t a t ic a f te r i n i t ia l c o l le c t ion . I ti sb e s t s u i ted t ot he c ompara t ive s t udy o f ag roup o f s im i la r a r te fac t s , s uch a sf i bu lae o r p o t te ry , w he re an umbe r o f a t t r ibu te s a pp l icab le t o a l l o r mo s t c a se s i n t he g roup may b e s e le c ted . A w el k nown e xamp le o f t h i s t ype i sP ro fe s so r Hod son 's w o rk o n t he f i bu lae f r om t he Mün s ingen -Ra in c eme te ry ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , Do ran , 1 975) . T he re , i tw a s p o s s ib le t o s e lec t an umbe r o f p hy s ica l a t t r ibu te s o f t he f i bu lae a nd t o c on s truc t af ul d a ta ma t r ix . I n t he p re sen t p ro je c t t he b a s ic r aw d a ta c on s i s t s o f o ccur rence s o f i nd iv idua l c o in t ype s a nd much o f t he a na ly s i s w a s d i rec ted t owa rd s t he c ompar i son o f a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . F o r a n a t t r ibu te s t a te ma t r ix t ob e c on s truc ted f o r t h i s d a ta i tw ou ld b e n ece s sary t o r egard e ach p o s s i b le c o in t ype a s a n a t t r ibu te o f t he s i te , a nd t o r e co rd s ome mea su re o f a bundance a s t he a t t r ibu te s t a te . C lear ly , t h i s a pp roach w ou ld b e e x t reme ly w a s te fu l o f s t o rage a s f ew s i te s p ro d uce mo re t han as mal f r ac t ion o f t he many t hou sand s o f c o in t ype s w h ich c ou ld o ccu r . T he r e su l t w ou ld b e as par se ma t r ix , t ha t i s , o ne i n wh ich many e l emen t s w ou ld c on ta in z e ro . Th i s p rob lem c ou ld b e l a rge ly o ve rcome b y g roup ing c o in t ype s t oge the r t o f o rm l a rge r c om p o s i te t ype s . D a ta r educ t ion o f t h i s n a tu re i sf r equen t ly u sed b y n um i sma t i s t s w hen c o in s a re g rouped a cco rd ing t o , s ay , r eve r se t ype s , m in t s , o ri s sue p e r iod s . I n i t ia l d a ta r educ t ion w a s r e je c ted f o r t wo r ea son s . F ir s t ly , as i gn i f ican t e l emen t o f t he r e sea rch w a s d i rec ted t owa rd s d e te rm in ing wh ich , i fa ny , o f s eve ra l d i f fe rent c r i te r ia f o r g roup ing c o in t ype s a re j u s t if iab le o n a r cha e o log ica l g round s . P rel im inary g roup ing c ou ld p rove p re jud ic ia l t o t h i s a im . S e cond ly , i tw ou ld u nne ce s sa r i ly c on t ravene t he r equ iremen t t ha t t he s t o red d a ta b e a s f a i th fu l at r an scr ip t ion o f t he o r ig ina l s ou rce s a s p o s s ib le . Any u nnece s sar i ly i n t roduced i n te rp re ta t ion c ou ld s eve re ly l im i t t he u t i l i ty o f t he d a ta t o f u ture p ro jec t s . G rouped d a ta ma t r ice s h ave b een u sed f o r t he a na lyse s d e scr ibed b e low i n C hap te r 4 , b u t i n e ach c ase t hey h ave b een d e r ived f r om t he o r ig ina l r aw d a ta . T h i s a pp roach p erm i t s max imum f l ex ib i l i ty i n t he c ho ice o f g roup s t o b e a na ly sed a nd make s n o i n i t ia l a s sump t ion s a bou t f u ture u se o f t he d a ta . I n t he c ou r se o f a na ly s i s c o in s c ou ld b e g rouped a cco rd ing t o an umbe r o f d i f fe ren t c r i te r ia . T he se m igh t i n c lude g roup ing b y d a te o f i s sue , b y m in t o r b y r u le r . A t f i r s t s i gh t , i tm igh t a ppea r n e ce s sa ry t o r e co rd a l l o f t h i s d a ta f o r e ach i nd iv idua l f i nd s o a s t o e nab le t he c om p u te r t o s e le c t a l l c o in s wh ich c on fo rm t o t he s e lec t ion c r i te r ia . I f , a ts ome l a te r d a te , i tw a s r equ ired t o s e lec t c o in s a cco rd ing t o , s ay , r eve r se t ype , t h i s c ou ld n o t b e d one w i thou t f i r s t a dd ing t h i s d a ta t o e ach r e co rd . C lea r ly , t h i s w ou ld b e mo s t u n sa t i s fac to ry , f o r i tw ou ld r equ ire t ha t a l l p o s s ib le s e le c t ion c r i te r ia b e k nown i na dvance i fe x ten s ive a nd r epe t i t ive e d i t i ng w e re t ob e a vo ided . T h i s w ou ld l e ad t o ah igh l e ve l o fd a ta r edundancy i n wh ich t he s ame i n forma t ion w ou ld b e r epea ted many t ime s t h roughou t t he d a ta b ank . E ach o f t he c r i te r ia l i s ted a bove r e fe r s t o a n a t t r ibu te o f t he c o in t ype , t ha t i st o s ay , i ti s d ependen t o n ly o n t he c o in t ype , n o t o n t he i nd iv idua l f i nd . T he s o lu t ion t ot h i s p rob lem l i e s i n t he s epa ra t ion o f d i s t inc t e n t i t ie s . He re , t he re a re t wo : COINF IND

o ne o r mo re i nd i st ingu i shab le c o in s a bou t wh ich d a ta i sr e co rded .

COINTYPE

au n ique c o in t ype .

T he se a re s t o red i n s epa ra te c ompu te r f i le s wh ich a re n amed t o r ef le c t t he e n t i ty t ype c on t a ined . Data wh ich r e la te s s o le ly t ot he CO INF IND2 e n t i ty , s uch a sw he the r i ti s ar egu lar o r a n 2 . T he f o l low ing t y pog raph ic c onven t ion s a r e u s ed i nt h is c hap te r t od i s t ingu ish b e tw een t h e n ame s o fd i f f e ren t t y pe s o f d a ta a nd p rog ram s i nt h e d a tab a se s y s tem . S ma l l c ap i ta ls—CO INF IND -re fe r t oa n e n t i ty i n t h e d a ta mode l , a nd i t ' s e qu iva len t f i le i nt h e p hy s ica l s t o rage mode l . I t a l ic s—Ru ler — re fe rt oa n a t t r ibu te i n

4 0

i r regu la r i s sue , a re s t o red i n t he COINF IND f i le . O the r d a ta , s uch a s t he r e ve r se t ype a nd d a te o f i s sue , w h ich d i re c t ly r e la te t ot he COINTYPE e n t i ty , a re s t o red i n t he COINTYPE f i le . I fe ach r e co rd i n t he COINTYPE f i le i sg i ven a u n ique n umbe r , o r k ey , t hen t h i s n umbe r may b e i n c luded i n t he CO INF IND r e co rd t o r e fe rence t he c o in t ot he t ype . I n t h i s w ay , t he t ype d a ta c an b e m ade a va i lab le t oa ny p rog ram w h ich p roce s se s t he COINF IND f i le . I n a dd i t ion t o m in im i s ing r edundancy a nd h ence o p t im i s ing t he u se o f s t o rage s pace , t h i s a pp roach b r ing s a no the r a dvan tage . B y s epa ra t ing t he d a ta i n to t wo e n t i t ie s a nd t he ir a s soc i a ted a t t r ibu te s , i n te rdependenc ie s b e tween d a ta i t em s a re m in im i sed . I fa l l o f t he d a ta w e re t o b e s t ored i n as i ng le f i le , w i th o ne r e co rd f o r e ach o ccu r rence o f ' one o r mo re i nd i s t in g u i shab le c o in s ' , t hen i tw ou ld b e n e ce s sary f o r ac o in t o h ave b een r e co rded b e fo re a ny d a ta o n i t s t ype c ou ld e x i s t i n t he d a ta b ank . I f , a ta ny t ime , t he l a s t e x i s t ing r e co rd r e fe r r ing t oa c o in o f ap ar t icu la r t ype w e re t ob e d e le ted , t hen a l l k now ledge o f t ha t t ype w ou ld d i sappear f r om t he f i le . I n t he s y s tem d e sc r ibed h e re , at ype h a s ad i s t inc t e x i s tence o f i t s o wn i r re spe c t i ve o f w he the r o r n o t a n e xamp le h a s b een f ound . I tw i l l b e a ppa ren t t ha t t h i s d a ta s t ruc ture c l o se ly r e semb le s t he f o rm o f t he s ource s . T he f i le i se qu iva len t t o ac o inl i s t i n w h ich t he i nd iv idua l c o in s a re l i s ted b y r e fe rence t o o ne o f t he s t andard c a ta logue s , a nd t he f unc t ion o f t he c a ta logue i sp e r fo rmed b y t he CO INTYPE f i le . T he re i s , h oweve r , o ne f undamen ta l d i f fe rence . T he re i so ne COINTYPE f i le c on ta in ing a s i ng le r e co rd f o r e ach u n ique c o in t ype , w he rea s i n p rac t ice , s eve ra l d i f fe ren t c a ta logue s c ou ld b e , a nd f r equen t ly a re , u sed t o r e fe rence c o in s . A s i ng le c o in t ype m igh t b e r e fe renced b y a n e n try i n a ny o ne o f s eve ra l c a ta logue s .

CO INF IND

No d i ff icu l t ie s w i l l a r i se s o l ong a s t he se c a ta logue s a re u sed i n ac on s i s ten t manne r , a s i s n o rmaly t he c a se w hen a s i ng le n um i sma t i s t p repare s ac o in r epor t f o r as i te . Howeve r , i n a d a ta b ank o f t he t ype d e sc r ibed h e re , t he re w i l l b e al a rge n umbe r o fc o in l i s t s w h ich w e re o r i g i naly p repared o ve r ap e r iod o f t ime d ur ing wh ich n ew c a ta logue s h ave b een p ub l i shed a t i r regu la r i n te rva l s . T o t h i s c ou ld a l so b e a dded t he d i f fe ren t p re fe rence s o f i nd iv idua l n um i sma t i s t s f o r o ne c a ta logue o ve r a no the r . S ince e ach COINTYPE r e co rd c an c o r re spond t os eve ra l c a ta logue e n t r ie s , i tw i l l b e n e ce s sary t o p re -p roce s s e ach n ew c o in l i s t b e fo re i ti sa dded t o t he CO INF IND f i le t o e n sure t ha t t he u se o f c a ta logue r e fe rence s i sc on s i s ten t t h roughou t t he d a ta b ank . Th i s c ou ld b e d one manua l ly b e fo re t he d a ta i se n te red i n to t he mach ine , b u t f o r an umbe r o f r e a son s i ti sp re fe rab le t ha t t h i s p roce s s b e a u toma ted . F ir s t ly , manua l t r an s la t ion w ou ld b e v e ry t ime -con sum ing a nd w ou ld i n t roduce a f u r the r s ource o f p o tent ia l e r ro r s i n t he s t o red d a ta . S e cond ly , i tw ou ld n o t b e p o s s ib le t o c he ck t he v al id i ty o f t he s t o red d a ta b y d i rec t c ompar i son w i th t he o r ig ina l s ource s . D a ta v a l ida t ion w ou ld b e c ompl i ca ted b y t he n eed t oc heck t he manua l t r an s la t ion a ga in s t t he s ource , a nd t he s t o red d a ta a ga in s t t he t r an s la t ion . F inaly , i tw ou ld o f fend a ga in s t t he p r inc ipa l o f m in im i s i ng i n te rp re ta t ion b e tween t he s our ce s a nd t he d a ta b ank . A l though n o t i mpor tan t t ot h i s p ro j e c t , an umbe r o f c i rcum s tance s c an b e e nv i saged i n wh ich i tw ou ld b e e s sen t ia l t o k now wh ich c a ta logue r e fe rence w a s u sed i n t he o r ig ina l c o in l i s t . S uch i n forma t ion c ou ld b e o f v a lue i na s se s s ing t he r el iab i l i ty o f ac o in l i s t . I tc ou ld a l so p rove u se fu l i n a n h i s to r ica l s urvey o f t he d i sc ipl ine . T o e nab le t h i s a u toma ted t r an s la t ion b e tween c a ta logue r e fe rence s a nd u n ique c o in t ype s , i t i s n ece s sary t o i n t roduce t wo f ur the r e n t i t ie s : CO INL IST a nd COINREFS . CO INL IST i s e qu iva len t t o CO INF IND w i th t he e xcep t ion t ha t ac a ta logue r e fe rence i sr e co rded , r a the r t han at ype n umbe r . T he CO INREFS e n t i ty c on s i s t s o f ac a ta logue r e fe rence a s u sed i n COINLIST t oge the r w i th t he e qu iva len t t ype n umbe r wh ich a c t s a s ak ey t o COINTYPE . T he se e n t it ie s m ay b e d ef ined a s f olow s : CO INL IST

o ne o r mo re i nd i s t ingu i shab le c o in s a s s pec i f ied i n ac o in l i s t

CO INREFS

t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween ac a ta logue r e fe rence a nd aCOINTYPE

t he d a ta mode l , a nd i t ' s e qu iva len t f i e ld i n t he p hy s ica l s t o rage mode l . B o ld t ot he n ame o f a n e xecu tab le p rog ram .

4 1

c a p i t a l s— CO INH IST -r e f e r

T he d e ta i l s o f h ow t he v ar ie ty o f c a ta logu ing s y s tem s a re a ccommoda ted w i l l b e c on s ide red i n S ec t ion 3 .4 , w hen a n umbe r o f o the r e n t i t ie s w il b e i n t roduced . F o r t he momen t , t he re r ema in s o ne mo re e n t i ty wh ich i sn e ce s sary t ot he b a s ic d a ta mode l . T he d a ta mode l d i scus sed s o f a r a low s f o r mo s t o f t he i n fo rma t ion r equ iremen t s o f t h i s p ro jec t . I n p ar t icu la r , i tw i l l p erm i t t he r e t r ieva l o f s ummary s t a t i s t ic s f o r e ach s i te a nd t he c on s truc t ion o f d a ta ma t r ice s f o r mu l t iva r ia te a na ly s i s o f i n te r s i te v ar ia t ion s i n c o in d epo s i t i on . A s i te n umbe r i si n c luded i ne ach r e co rd i nt he c on s ru s ra nd CO INF IND f i le s , t hu s a low i ng a ny c o in t o b e a sc r ibed t o t he s i te o n wh ich i tw a s f ound . F o r c e r ta in a na ly se s i ti s a pp rop r ia te t o s e lec t as ub se t o f s i te s o n , f o r i n s tance , g eog raph ica l c r i te r ia . I n o rde r t o make c ompar i son s b e tween s i te s i ti s n ece s sary t o p rov ide d a ta wh ich may b e u sed t o s e lec t t he c o in s f r om t ho se s i te s wh ich f u l f i l t he c ho sen c r i t e r ia . S ince t h i s d a ta r e la te s d i re c t ly t o t he s i te , r a the r t han t ot he c o in s , i ti sn e ce s sary t oi n t roduce aS ITE e n t i ty c on s i s t ing o f s uch a t t r i b u te s a s s i te n umbe r , s i te n ame , a nd n a t iona l g r id r e fe rence : S ITE

a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te a bou t wh ich d a ta i sr e co rded

T he s epara te e x i s tence o f aS ITE e n t i ty a l low s d a ta t o b e r e co rded f o r s i te s w h ich h ave n o t p roduced c o in s . T he se a re t hen a va i lab le t o b e i n c luded i na ny a na ly s i s . S im i la r ly , w hen c on s i de r ing a s ub se t o f t he c o in s , s uch a s t ho se o f c e r ta in r e ve r se t ype s o r o f ap ar t icu lar i s sue p e r iod , i t may b e e qualy i mpor tan t t o k now w h ich s i te s h ave n o t p roduced t ho se t ype s . T hu s t he m in im i sa t ion o f i n te rdependenc ie s i n t he d a ta c on t r ibu te s t of l ex ib i l i ty o ft he s y s tem .

S ITE

C OINLIST

F INDNOTE

C OINFIND

C OINREFS

C OINTYPE

F igu re 3 . 1 :

Ou t l ine d a ta mode l f o r t he C o inf ind d a ta se .

T he d a ta mode l d e sc r ibed h e re , a nd s ummar i sed i n F igure 3 . 1 , i sc on s ide rab ly mo re c om p l ex t han t he s imp le r e c tangu la r ma t r ix d a ta f i le s o o f ten e ncoun te red i n a r chaeo log ica l c om p u t ing a pp l ica t ion s . N eve r the le s s , i tc an b e r ep re sen ted b o th c oncep tua l ly a nd i n c ompu te r d a ta f i le s u s ing v e ry s imp le t e chn ique s . D a ta p e r ta in ing t oe ach e n t i ty may b e e nv i saged a s a t ab le o r ma t r ix i n wh ich e ach r ow r ep re sen t s a n o ccur rence o f t he e n t i ty , a nd e ach c o lumn c on ta in s av a lue o f as i ng le a t tr ibu te o f t ha t e nt i ty . R e la t ion sh ip s b e tween e n t i t ie s a re

4 2

r ep re sen ted b y a r rang ing f o r t he r e la t ing a t t r ibu te t o o ccu r a s ac o lumn i n b o th o f t he r e la ted e n t i ty t ab le s . Thu s t he r e la t ion sh ip s ` CO INF IND i sf ound o n S ITE ' a nd s r rE c on ta in s CO INF IND ' a re i mpl ied b y t he i n c lu s ion o f as i te n umbe ri nb o th t ab le s . T h i s ' r e la t iona l ' d a ta mode l may b e i mp lemen ted b y s t o rage i n c ompu te r f i le s c on s i s t ing o f f i xed l e ng th r e co rd s wh ich may t hen b e p ro ce s sed b y r e la t ive ly s imp le p rog ram s . L a te r s e c t i on s o f t h i s c hap te rw i l l s how h ow t h i s mode l c an a l so f o rm ab a s i s f o r mo re a dvanced i n fo r m a t ion r e t r ieva l a ppl ica t ion s u s ing an umbe r o fp rop r ie tary d a taba se managemen t s y s tem s . 3 . 4 C od ing t he d a ta B e fo re c on s ide r ing t he d e ta i led p roce s s ing o f c o in f i nd i n forma t ion i ti sa pp rop r ia te h e re t o d i scu s s h ow t he d a ta d e sc r ibed i n t he p rev iou s c hap te r i si n co rpo ra ted i n to t he d a ta mode l o u tl ined a bove . Th i s s e c t ion c ove r s t he a t t r ibu te s r e co rded f o r e ach e n t i ty a nd t he c od ing m e thod s e mp loyed i n t he i r s t o rage . A l though t h i s s e c t ion i ss t ruc tured a cco rd ing t o t he e n t i t i e s d e sc r ibed s o f a r , s eve ra l f ur the r e n t i t ie s a re n ece s sary t oc omp le te t he mode l emp loyed i n t he C o in f ind d a tabase . T he se w i l l b e i n t roduced a t t he a pp rop r ia te p o in t s i n t he d i scu s s ion . A s i n t he f o rma l p roce s s o f d a ta a na ly s i s , t he g ene ra t ion o f t he o ve ra l l d a ta mode l i sp re sen t e d h e re a s ad ynam ic p roce s s i n wh ich t he n eed f o r f u r the r e n t i t ie s a r i se s a s t he mode l t ake s s hape . T he c ons i s ten t u se o f c a ta logue r e fe rence s i n p ub l i shed c o in r epo r t s l e nd s i t se l f w e l l t o a n e ncoded s y s tem o f d a ta s t o rage a nd man ipu la t ion b y c ompu te r , a nd a vo id s t he n eed t o r e co rd s uch d e ta i l s a s t he o bve r se a nd r eve r se i n s c r ip t ion s f o r e ach c o in a s t h i s i n forma t ion i si mp l i c i t i n t he c a ta logue r e fe rence . Howeve r , t he c od ing s y s tem u sed mu s t b e a b le t oa ccommoda te t he f ul r ange o fp o s s ib le c a ta logue s a nd t he i r d i f fe r ing r e fe rence s y s tem s . 3 . 4 .1 T he CO INL IST e n t i ty T he t a sk o f d e s ign ing a c od ing s y s tem f o r i n i t ia l r e co rd ing o f t he c o rNus r e n t i t y w a s made e a s ie r b y e a r l ie r w o rk i n t h i s d i rec t ion b y D r . R icha rd R eece . T he s y s tem wh ich h e d ev i sed , a l though c on s i s t ing o f as i ng le e n t i ty , p rov ided t he b as i s f r om wh ich t he c od ing u sed i n t h i s p ro je c t w a s d eve loped . R ee ce 's c od ing , wh ich w a s w holy n umer ic , u sed t wen ty d ig i t s t o r e co rd e ach c o in f i nd a ss hown i nT ab le 3 . 1 . F i e ld

T ype L eng th

S i te P er iod Ru le r R e fe rence

3 2 2 1

M in t R e fe rence n o

2 4

S t a tu s

1

D enom ina t ion No o f C o in s

1 4

N o t e :

C on ten t s T he s i te o n w h ich t he c o in w a s f ound T he ' i s sue p e r iod ' o f t he c o in T he r u le r o r i s su ing a u tho r i ty T he c a ta logue i n wh ich t he c o in i s d e ta i led T he i s su ing m in t T he r e fe rence n umbe r u sed i n t he c a ta logue An i nd ica t ion o f t he c e r ta in ty o f t he r e fe rence , a nd w he the r t he c o in i s r egu lar o r ac opy T he d enom ina t ion o f t he c o in T he n umbe r o fc o in s o f t h is t ype

T ype = N -n ume r ic . I n t h i s c a se a l l c od ing i sn ume r ic a nd t he t ype d e s igna to r i si n c luded s o le ly f o r c ompa t i b i l i ty w i th s ub sequen t t ab le s . L eng th i nd ica te s n o o f c ha rac te r s o r d ig i t s . T ab le 3 . 1 : R eece 's o r ig ina l r e co rd ing s y s tem

4 3

F requen t ly , an umbe r o f c o in s w i th i d en t ica l a t t r ibu te s m ay b e f ound , h ence t h e N o o f C o in s f i e ld i si n c luded t o a vo id u nne cce s sary r epe t i t ion o f d a ta . T h i s m ean s t ha t t h e f unda m en ta l e n t i ty wh ich i sr e co rded i sn o t as i ng le c o in , b u t o ne o r mo re c o in s w h ich , i nt e rm s o f t he r e co rded d a ta , a re i nd i s t ingu i shab le . T he re i s , h oweve r , n o n eed t oe n sure t h a t a l i nd is t i ngu i shab le c o in s a re g rouped t oge the r b e fo re r e co rd ing , a s c omb in ing r epea t ing o ccur rence s i s at a sk wh ich i sb e s tl e f t t ot he c ompu te r . R u le r s w e re n umbe red f r om o ne u pwa rd s w i th in e ach p e r iod . T h i s m ean t t h a t t h e u n ique c ode f o r e ach r u le r c on s i s ted o f t h e c omb ina t ion o f t h e p e r iod a nd r u le r n umbe r s . A s D r R ee ce h ad s ugge s ted t ha t o ne v a luab le b y -p roduc t o f t h i s r e sea r ch m igh t b e a n a s se s smen t o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l , r a the r t h an n um i smat ic , v al id i ty o f s epa ra t ing c o in s i n to i s sue p e r iod s i t w a s c l ea r ly i napp ropr ia te t oi n co rpo ra te a d iv i s ion b y p e r iod i n to t he b a s ic d a ta . O ne o f t he e a rl ie s t mod if ia t ion s t ot h ec od ing s y s tem w a s , t h e re fo re , t or e p lace t h e t wo p ar tP e r iod+ R u l er e n t ry b y as i ng le u n ique c ode f o r e ach r u le r . S ub sequen t ly , an umbe r o f o the r c hange s h ave b een i n co rpo ra ted a s e xpe r ience r e qu i red . T he se h ave i nvar iab ly s e rved t o a l low e x t ra i n fo rma t ion t o b e i n c luded , n o tab ly i n t h e f o rm o f f r ee - t e x t n o te s a nd d e ta i l s o f t h e c o in 's p rovenance . Many p ub l i shed c o in l i s t s i n c lude n o te s o n t ho se c o in s w h ich d i f fe r s l igh t ly f r om t h e c a ta logue e n t r ie s , o r a r e c on s ide red t ob e o fp ar t icu la r n um i sma t ic o ra r chae o log ica l s i gn if i cance . No te s m ay a l so b e u sed , f o r e xamp le , t od e scr ibe ar e ve r se t ype o n ac o in w h ich c anno t o therw i se b e a s c r ibed t o ap ar t icu lar c a ta lo g ue e n t ry , a s i so f ten t h e c a se w i th ' b a rba rou s r ad ia te s ' . I tw a s c on s ide red t h a t t h i s i n forma t i on , a l though n o t n ece s sar i ly o f i mmed ia te u se i n t h i s p ro jec t , s hou ld b e i n c luded i n o rde r t ha t t h e r e co rded d a ta c ou ld f o rm a n a ccura te r e co rd o f t h e o r ig ina l c o in l i s t . P rovenance i n forma t ion , w he re a va i lab le , w a s c on s ide red t o b e o f r e levance t o t h i s p ro je c t a nd t o a ny f u tu re s t ud ie s o fi n t ra -s i te v ar ia t ion s i nc o in d epo s i t ion . I n p rac t ice , t he re h a s s o f a r b een n o o ppo r tun i ty t om ake mo re t h an c ur so ry u se o f t h i s d a ta , b u ti ti st h e re f o r f u ture s t udy . A f i ve c ha rac te r f i e ld i s p rov ided f o r t he r e co rd ing o f t h i s p rovenance d a ta . T h i s h a s p roved a dequa te f o r ac on tex t n umbe r o r a ny o f t he mo re e l abo ra te a rea a nd f e a ture c ode s wh ich w e re f a sh ionab le b e fo re t he mo re g ene ra l a dop t ion o f c on tex t n umbe r s . I n o the r c a se s w he re p rovenance d a ta i sp rov ided i n a n u ncoded f o rm i th a s b een n e ce s sary t o i mpo se a n a rb i t rary c ode . When r e co rded t h i s f i e ld a l low s f i nd s t o b e s o r ted b y c on tex t w i th in a s i te , a nd h a s b een e s sen t ia l f o r t h es t udy o fs t ra t if ied m a te r ia l t ob ed i scu s sed i nC hap te r 5 . No te s r equ i re ad i f fe ren t s o lu t ion . C lea r ly i tw ou ld b e w a s te fu l t oa low s u ff ic ien t s pace i n e ach r e co rd f o r t he f u l l t e x t o f a ny p o s s ib le n o te . F ewe r t han o ne r e co rd i nt e n h a s a n a s soc i a t ed n o te , a nd w h i l s t s ome n o te s c on ta in mo re t h an o ne h und red c ha rac te r s , mo s t h ave f ewe r t han t wen ty . T o s o lve t h i s p rob lem a n e n t i ty c aled F INDNOTE w a s i n t roduced i n w h ich e ach r e co rd c on s i s t s o f an o te n umbe r a nd t h e t e x t o f t h e n o te . N ow i ti so n ly n e ce s sary t or e co rd t he n o te n umbe ri nt he CO INL IST r e co rd . O the r t han t he se a dd i t ion s , R ecee 's b a s ic c od ing s y s tem h a s n eeded l i t t le mod if ica t ion . T he c od ing o f r e fe rence v o lume s h a s b een i mp roved b y p erm i t t ing t h e e n t ry o f ac ode f o r t he c a ta logue i n o ne f i e ld , a nd t he r e levan t v o lume n umbe r i n a no the r . T he n ece s s i ty f o r t h is a ro se w i th t he p ub l icat ion o fR IC v o lume V I I I [ Ken t , 1 981 ] . R a the r t han a s s ign a no the r a rb i t r ary c ode t o t h i s n ew c a ta logue , am e thod w a s d ev i sed w he reby a ny c a ta logue , w he the r s i n g l e o r mu l t i -vo lume , c ou ld b e c oded i n ac on s i s ten t m anne r . T he p re sen t s y s tem c an a ccommoda te r e fe rence n umbe r s w i th a n a l phabe t ic s u ff ix . P rev i o us ly , ac o in l i s ted i n ac a ta logue a s , f o r i n s tance , n umbe r 4 4A h ad t ob e r e co rded a sn umbe r 4 4 b e cau se a l phabe t ic c ha rac te r s w e re n o t p erm i t ted . N ow , as i ng le c ha rac te r f i e ld h a s b een a dded i n wh ich a ny s u f f ix m ay b e e n te red . I ti s at r iv ia l t a sk t oc onve r t a ny c o in l i s t r e co rded u nde r t he e arl ie r s y s tem t o t h e n ew f o rma t , a l though t he r e su l t ing d a ta w ou ld n o t c on ta in n o te s o r d e ta i l s o fp rovenance . T he b a s ic a t t r ibu te s r e co rded f o r e ach c o in t ype a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 3 .2 . T he c od ing f o rm d e s igned f o r t h e c o l le c t ion o f t h i s d a ta i ss hown i n F igure 3 .2 . T he n o te s f o r u se r s o f t h i s f o rm w h ich i n c lude af u l l e xp lana t ion o fa l c ode s i sr e p roduced a s Append ix 2 .

4 4

F ie ld

T ype

L eng th

S i te Ru le r C a ta logue

N N N

3 3 1

Vo lume M in t R e f -no

N N N

2 2 4

R e f -su f

C

1

S ta tu s

N

1

D enom ina t ion No -o f -Co ins P rovenance

N N C

2 4 5

No te -No

N

4

N o t e :

C on t en t s T he s i te o n w h ich t he c o in w a s f ound T he r u le r o r i s su ing a u tho r i ty T he c a ta logue i nw h ich t he c o in i s d e ta i led T he c a ta logue v o lume n umbe r T he i s su ing m in t T he r e fe rence n umbe r u sed i n t he c a ta logue Any a l phabe t ic s u f f ix t o t he r e fe r e nce n umbe r An i nd ica t ion o f t he c e r ta in ty o f t he r e fe rence , a nd w he the r t he c o in i s r egu la r o r ac opy T he d enom ina t ion o f t he c o in T he n umbe r o f c o in s o f t h i s t ype T he l o ca t ion o n t he s i te a tw h ich t he c o in w a s f ound P o in te r t o F 1NDNOTE r e co rd c on ta in i ng a ny e x t ra i n forma t ion

T ype = N -n ume r ic , C -a l phanume r ic .

C OINFIND d atabase :

c o in f ind r ecord ing f orm . s ubm itted b y : N ame : A ddr :

r eturn t o :

N ick R yan C omputing L aboratory, T he U nivers ity, C anterbury, K ent, C T2 7 N2 . ( Tel. 0 227-66822 E xt 7 690 )

S ite N o : S ite N ame : C ounty : R uler

P hone : S heet o f D ate : / / I n itials :

N CR : C at V ol M int R ef_No S tat N o

2 7

F igu re 3 .2 :

( r2 .1)

T he C o inf ind r e co rd ing f o rm .

4 5

P rov

N ote

3 . 4 .2 T he CO INTYPE e n t i ty T he COINTYPE e n t i ty ( Tab le 3 .3 ) i su sed t o c on ta in b a s ic i n fo rma t ion a bou t c o in t ype s s im i l a r t o t ha t f ound i n a ny o f t he s t anda rd r e fe rence w o rk s . T h i s i n c lude s t he r u le r , t he m in t , t he d a te s b e tween wh ich t he t ype w a s i s sued , a nd d e ta i l s o f t he o bver se a nd r e ve r se d e s ign s a nd l e gend s . T he d a te f i e ld s a re l im i ted t o t h ree d ig i t s a s a l l o f t he c o ins u sed i nt h i s s urvey m ay b e a ccommoda ted w i th in t he r ange 99 ( BC ) t o9 99 ( AD ) . I tw ou ld b e at r iv ia l t a sk t o e x t e nd t h i s t o f our d ig i t s t o a low f o r e a r l ie r R epubl ican i s sue s b u t t h i s h a s s o f a r p roved u n n ece s sa ry . E ach o f t he se i sc oded n ume r icaly , t he d a te f i e ld s g i v ing t he f i r s t a nd l a s t y ear s o f i s sue . E ach r e co rd , a nd h ence e ach c o in t ype , i sp rov ided w i th a u n ique n umbe r w h ich i s u sed b y t he s y s tem t o i den t i fy t he t ype . I n a dd it ion , d e ta i l s o f t he ' p re fer red ' c a ta logue r e fe r e nce , u sua l ly t o av o lume o f R IC o r LRBC , a re g i ven . Th i s l a t te r i n fo rma t ion i ss t r ic t ly r edundan t a s i tc ou ld b e r e cove red b y r e fe rence t o t he f i le ( s ee b e low ) . I ti si n c luded h e re i n o rde r t oi mp rove t he o ve ra l l p e r fo rmance o f t he s y s tem a nd c an b e a ch ieved u s ing n o e x t ra s t o rage s pace .

CO INREFS

F i e ld

T ype

L eng th

T ype -no Ru le r C a ta logue

N N N

4 3 1

Vo lume M in t R e f -no

N N N

2 2 4

R e f -su f

C

1

D a te -1

N

3

D a te -2 Obv leg Obv type R ev leg R ev type

N N N N N

3 3 3 3 3

C on ten t s Au n ique r e co rd i den t i f ie r T he r u le r o r i s su ing a u tho r i ty T he c a ta logue i nw h ich t he c o in i sd e ta i led T he c a ta logue v o lume n umbe r T he i s su ing m in t T he r e fe rence n umbe r u sed i n t he c a ta logue Any a lphabe t ic s u ff ix t o t he r e fe rence n umbe r T he d a te i n y ear s AD o r BC o f f i r s t i s sue o f t he t ype T he d a te o fl a s t i s sue o f t he t ype T he o bve r se l e gend T he t ype o f h ead o r b u s t T he r eve r se l e gend T he t ype o f r eve r se d e s ign

T ab le 3 .3 : T he COLNTYPE e n t i ty

F i e ld

T ype

L eng th

Ru le r C a ta logue

N N

3 1

Vo lume M in t R e f -no

N N N

2 2 4

R e f su f

C

1

T ype -no

N

4

C on ten t s T he r u le r o r i s su ing a u tho r i ty T he c a ta logue i n wh ich t he c o in i sd e ta i led T he c a ta logue v o lume n umbe r T he i s su ing m in t T he r e fe rence n umbe r u sed i n t he c a ta logue Any a lphabe t ic s u ff ix t o t he r e fe rence n umbe r A p o in te r t o a COINTYPE r e co rd

T ab le 3 .4 : T he CO INREFS e n t i ty

4 6

3 .4 .3 T he COINREFS e n t i ty T he CO INREFS e n t i ty ( Tab le 3 .4 ) c on s i s t s s imp ly o f ac ro s s -re fe rence b e tween t he c a ta logue e n t ry a s e n te red i n t he COINLIST f i le a nd i t s e qu iva len t i n t he mach ine s t o red c a ta logue h e ld i n t he COINTYPE f i le . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween COINREFS a nd COINTYPE i sr ep re sen ted b y t he T ype -no f i e ld w h ich i sc ommon t o b o th r e co rd s , a nd t ha t b e tween CO INREFS a nd COLNLIST b y t he c ommon g roup o f f i e ld sR u le r . . .Ref -suf . 3 . 4 .4 T he COINF IND e n t i ty T he p urpo se o f t he COINREFS e n t i ty ( Tab le 3 .5) i st o a low t r an s la t ion f r om t he o r ig ina l l i s t s w i th t he ir v ar ie ty o f c a ta logue r e fe rence s i n to a s y s tem w i th i n terna l ly c on s i s ten t r e fe rence s . T he r e su l t ing CO INF IND e n t i ty , w h ich f o rm s t he b a s i s f o r mo s t a na ly t ica l p roce s s ing , c on ta in s am in imum o f r edundan t d a ta . D a ta s uch a s t he r u le r o r m in t , w h ich p er ta in s mo re d i re c t ly t o t he c o in t ype t han t he i nd iv idua l f i nd , i so b ta ined b y r e fe rence t o CO INTYPE . I n p rac t ice i t i sn ece s sary t o r e ta in a f i e ld f o r t he r u le r a s , p ar t icu la r ly w i th f our th c en tury i s sue s , ac o in m ay b e r e ferenced a s s im i la r t oo ne o f ad i f fe ren t r u le r .

F i e ld

T ype

L eng th

S i te Ru le r T ype -no S ta tu s

3 3 4 1

No -o f -Co in s P rovenance

4 5

No te -No

4

C on ten t s T he s i te o n w h ich t he c o in w a s f ound T he r u le r o r i s su ing a u thor i ty Ap o in te r t o aCOINTYPE r e co rd An i nd ica t ion o f t he c e r ta in ty o f t he r e fe rence , a nd w he the r t he c o in i s r egu lar o r ac opy T he n umbe r o f c o in s o f t h i s t ype T he l o ca t ion o n t he s i te a tw h ich t he c o in w a s f ound ( i f k nown ) P o in te r t o F INDNOTE r e co rd c on ta in i ng a ny e x t ra i n fo rma t ion

T ab le 3 .5 : T he CO INF IND e n t i ty

3 . 4 .5 T he S ITE e n t i ty T he S ITE e n t i ty h a s b een d ef ined a s ' a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te a bou t wh ich d a ta i sr e co rded ' . Th i s b road d ef in i t ion t ake s n o a ccoun t o f w he the r o r n o t c o in s h ave b een r e co rded f r om t he s i te . A t t he t ime o f w r i t ing t he re a re s ome 8 40 Romano -B r i t i sh s i te s i n t h i s f i le . O f t he se , c o in d a ta h a s b een r e co rded f o r a bou t 2 50 , n ea r ly 5 0 a re k nown t oh ave p roduced n o c o in s a t a l , a nd f o r t he r ema inde r n o i n forma t ion h a s b een c olec ted o n c o in s . Th i s f i le h a s b een u sed b y t he a u tho r a nd o ther s f o r s eve ra l p urpo se s o the r t han t he s t udy o fc o in f i nd s b u t t he r e co rd s t ruc ture d e sc r ibed h e re w i l l b e l im i ted t o t ho se f i e ld s wh ich a re o f r e levance t o t he p re sen t s t udy . T h i s e n t i ty i su sed t o p rov ide d a ta o n t he s pa t ia l l o ca t ion o f t he s i te t oge the r w i th s uch a nc il iary i n format ion a s i t s n ame a nd p re sumed p r inc ipa l f unc t ion . Th i s l a t te r d a ta i sn o t i n tended t o b e t aken a s ad ef in i t ive s t a temen t o f a c t iv i t ie s p rac t i sed o n t he s i te , r a the r i t r ep re sen t s ac rude c a tegor i sa t ion o n t he p ar t o f e i the r t he e xcava to r o r t he p e r son r e co rd ing t he c o in s u s ing s uch g roup s a s ' v i l la ' , ' t emp le ' , ' smal u rban ' e t c . N eve r the le s s , a sw il b e s een i n t he f olow ing c hap te r , t h i s c l a s s if ica t ion d oe s c or re la te w i th s ome a spec t s o f t he o b se rved v ar ia t ion i n c o in d i s t r ibu t ion s .

4 7

T he r e co rd s t ruc ture c or re spond ing t ot he

F i e ld

T ype

L eng th 3 3 2 4

S i te -no S i te -name C oun ty

2

NGR le t te r s NGR -ea s t ing

N

6

NGR -ea s t ing

N

6

T o ta l -co in s

5

C oded

1

F unc t ion

1

s nE e n t i ty i ss hown i nT ab le 3 .6 .

C on ten t s Au n ique r e co rd i den t ify ing n umbe r T he u sua l n ame g i ven t ot he s i te A f ou r c ha rac te r a bb rev ia t ion o f t he modern c oun ty i nw h ich t he s i te i s l o ca ted T he t wo c ha rac te r i den t i f ie r o f t he 1 00Km n a t iona l g r id s quare T he g r id r e fe rence c a s t ing ( i nc lud i ng t he 1 00Km s qua re n umbe r ) T he g r id r e fe rence n or th ing ( i nc lud i ng t he 1 00Km s qua re n umbe r ) T he t o ta l n umbe r o f c o in s f ound o n t he s i te ' Y ' i f c o in d a ta h a s b een c oded , o therw i se ' N ' A c ode l e t te r f o r t he p re sumed f unc t ion

T ab le 3 .6 : T he S ITE e n t i ty

No te t ha t t he g r id r e fe rence may b e r e t r ieved e i the r i n w ho l ly n ume r ic o r t he mo re c ommon t wo l e t ter s p lu s n umbe r f o rm . A l though i tw ou ld b e as t ra igh t forwa rd t a sk f o r t he c ompu te r t o t r an s la te b e tween t he se r ep re sen ta t ion s , t h i s f o rma t w a s c ho sen f o r s imp l ic i ty . The T o ta l c o in s f i e ld c an b e u pda ted a u toma t ica l ly f olow ing e n t ry o f c o in d a ta f o r t he s i te , h oweve r s i te s w h ich a re k nown t o h ave p roduced n o c o in s mu s t a t p re sen t h ave t h is r e co rded manu a l ly . T h i s a low s ad i f fe ren t c od ing t ob e u sed f o r a n a b sence o f c o in s t o t ha t f o r ` no i n forma t i on ' . 3 . 4 .6 T he r ema in ing e n t i t ie s . A n umbe r o f o the r e n t i ty t ype s h ave b een d ef ined w h ich c ove r t he r ange o f c oded d a ta t ype s i nt he e n t i t ie s d e scr ibed a bove . T he se a re : RULERS CATALOGS MINTS S TATUS OLEG OTYPE RLEG RTYPE

n ame o f r u le r ( s ee b e low ) f ul n ame o f r e fe rence w o rk n ame o f m in t mean ing o f s t a tu s c ode s o bve r se l e gend b u s t /head d e scr ip t ion r e ve r se l e gend r e ve r se t ype d e scr ip t ion

B a s ica l ly , t he se a re a mach ine r eadab le e qu iva len t o f ac od ing b ook , u sua l ly c ons i s t ing o f n o mo re t han a n i t em n ame a nd i t s e qu iva len t c ode . Howeve r , e ach o f t he i t em s r ep re sen ted c an b e c on s ide red a s a n e n t i ty i n i t s o wn r i gh t . F ur thermo re , i ti sc once ivab le t ha t i t may p rove u se fu l t or e co rd f u r the r i n forma t ion f o r e ach o ccu r rence . D u r ing t he d eve lopmen t o f t he d a taba se i tw a s f ound t ha t a l though f u l ly i den t if ied c o in s c ou ld b e d a ted u s ing t he i n forma t ion i n COINTYPE, t he re w a s n o w ay o f i n co rpo ra t ing p a r t i aly i den t i f ied c o in s i n a ny c h rono log ica l a na ly s i s . T he s o lu t ion w a s t o a dd d a te s o f r e ign t o t he RULERS r e co rd s , t hu s a low ing a ny c o in o f k nown r u le r t ob e r ough ly d a ted .

4 8

S im i la r ly , i tm igh t p rove d e s i rab le t o a dd s uch i n fo rma t ion a s p e r iod s o f a c t iv i ty o r g eo g raph ica l l o ca t ion t ot he k iwis r e co rd s . 3 . 5 M icrocompu ter p rogram s Du r ing t he i n i t ia l s t age s o f t he p ro je c t d a ta w a s s t o red a nd r e t r ieved u s ing p urpo se w r i t ten p rog ram s o n a n RML 3 80Z m ic rocompu te r . T h i s mach ine p e r fo rmed a l l o f t he r equ ired t a sk s q u i te a dequa te ly , b u t t he l im i ted s t o rage s pace p rov ided o n f l oppy d i sc s s e ve re ly c on s t ra ined t he q uan t i ty o f d a ta w h ich c ou ld b e a cce s sed a t a ny o ne t ime . Ap ar t ia l s o lu t ion w a s p rov ided b y w r i t ing a p rog ram w h ich a l lowed t he m ic rocompu te r t o c ommun ica te w i th a n I CL 2 960 ma in f rame c ompu te r . T h i s e nab led d a ta t r an s fe r t o t he m a in f rame f o r t he mo re c omp lex s t a t i s t ica l a na ly se s wh ich w e re b eyond t he c apab i l i t ie s o f t he m ic rocompu te r , b u t h ad t he a dded a dvan tage t ha t t he ma in d a ta f i le s c ou ld b e s t o red o n t he m a in f rame a nd s ub se t s r e t r ieved o n ly w hen n eeded . A p ackage o f m ic rocompu te r p rog ram s i n tended t o b e o f g ene ra l u se i n t he p repa ra t ion o f c o in l i s t s f o r a na ly s i s a nd p ub l ica t ion w a s w r i t ten . T h i s h a s b een u sed t op roduce b a s ic s um mary s t a t i s t ic s f r om c o in l i s t s a nd t o p repa re d a ta f o r s ub sequen t , mo re d e ta i led a na ly s i s . T he se p rog ram s w e re o r ig inaly w r i t ten i nt he ALGOL 6 0 l a nguage w i th l a te r v e r s ion s mo s t ly i n PASCAL , al anguage w h ich i sn ow w ide ly a va i lab le , t hu s h e lp ing t oe n su re t ha t t he p ack a ge i sp or tab le b e tween d i f fe ren t mach ine s . T he d a ta s t ruc tu re e mp loyed b y t he se p rog ram s i s as impl if ied f orm o f t ha t d e sc r ibed i n t h i s c hap te r . I n p ar t icu la r , n o a t temp t w a s made t o c omb ine r e fe rence s f r om d i f fe ren t c a ta logue s t o as i ng le c o in t ype . T he p ackage c on s i s ted o f f i ve ma in p rog ram s : CO IN INP , CO INSORT , DECODE , CO IN TYPE a nd CO INH IST . T he se p rog ram s a re b r ief ly d e sc r ibed b e low , a nd F igure 3 . 3 s how s t he ir i n ter re la t ion i n t he p roce s s ing s equence . CO IN INP i st he ma in d a ta i npu t p rog ram . D e ta i ls o f e ach c o in f ound o n as i te i si npu t i n te rac t ive ly v i a t he c ompu te r c on so le . F o r e ach r e co rd , t he u se r i sp romp ted w i th t he n ame o f t he f i e ld s t o b e e n te red . S ome r ud imen tary c he ck ing o f t he v a l id i ty o f t he d a ta i sp e r f o rmed b e fo re s t or ing t he r e co rd o n d i sc . CO INSORT p roduce s af i le o fc o in d a ta s or ted b y r e fe rence c a ta logue f o r u se b y o the r p ro g ram s . Th i s f i le i se qu iva len t t o COINL IST . T he d a ta may a l so b e s or ted o n o the r k ey s , s uch a s r u le r o r m in t , a nd t he r e su l t s p r in ted o r s t o red o n d i sc 3. T he p r in ted l i s t s p roduced b y CO INSORT a re i n c oded f o rm , a nd t he i r r equ i re s f am i l iar i ty w i th t he c od ing s y s tem . T he DECODE p rog ram i su sed p rob lem . T h i s p rog ram t ake s a ny c oded l i s t a s i npu t a nd r ep lace s t he r u le r , s t a tu s c ode s w i th t e x t d e r ived f r om f i le s s im i la r t o t ho se d e sc r ibed a bove i n E ach r e co rd i st hen r e -fo rma t ted a nd p r in ted . T he r e su l t s a re s im i la r i n f o rm l i shed c o in l i s t s . Th i s e a se s t he t a sk o f c heck ing s t o red d a ta a ga in s t t he o r ig ina l

u nde r s tand ing t o r e c t ify t h i s c a ta logue a nd S e c t ion 3 .4 .6 . t o many p ub c o in l i s t .

T he CO INTYPE p rog ram u se s t he s o r ted f i le p roduced b y CO INSORT t o u pda te a ma s te r f i le o f c o in t ype s a nd t he q uan t i ty o f e ach p e r s i te . A l i s t o f c o in type s w h ich h ave n o t p rev i o u s ly o ccur red i sp roduced , a nd t he u se r i sr eque s ted t o i npu t i n forma t ion o n t he d a te o f m int ing , o bve r se a nd r e ver se i n sc r ip t ion s e t c . I n t h i s w ay , ac a ta logue o f o b served c o in t ype s i sb u i l t u p a s t hey o ccu r . Th i s f i le i st he e qu iva len t o f COINTYPE , b u t w i th a r e co rd f o r e ach c a ta logue r e fe rence r a the r t han e ach u n ique c o in t ype . CO INH IST p roduce s s ummary s t a t i s t ic s o f t he n umbe r o f c o in s o f e ach s t a tu s ( i .e . r egu la r ,copy , ileg ib le e t c .) a nd w i l l d i sp lay o r p r in t h i s tog ram s a nd o the r g raph ica l o u tpu t . H i s tog ram s o f c o in l o s s p e r y ea r o f i s sue c an b e p roduced f o r e ach s t a tu s a nd f o r a ny o f t he ma jo r p roduc ing m in t s . 3 . T he p rog ram i se s sen t ia l ly a g ene ra l p u rpo se s o r t ing u t i l i ty a nd w a s nm e -s i ta ted b y t h e l a ck o f as u i t a b le p rog ram o n t he RML 3 80Z m ic ro compu te r . T h i s t ype o f p rog ram w h ich i so f ten t a ken f o r g r an ted b y u se r s o fl a rge r c ompu te r s t e nded o n ly t ob e a va i lab le t om ic rocompu te r u se r s a sp a r t o f ar e la t ive ly e xpen s ive d a ta m anagemen t p ackage . S ub sequen t ly , s u ch e s sen t ia l u t il i ty p rog ram s h ave b ecome mo re w ide ly a va i lab le f o r m ic rocompu te r s .

4 9

e L C OI NINP

C OINSORT

r

2d

—9 .1C OI NTYPE 4 -4 1

m as t y pte e l f ,l e

D ECODE

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I

I nteract ' ye I np ut / Outp ut

F igure 3 .3 :

P rue,.

D Isk Fat

P rInted O utput

M ic ro compu te r p rog ram p roce s s ing s equence .

T he p rog ram u se s t he f i le o f c o in t ype s p roduced b y CO INTYPE t oa s s ign c o in s l o s t t o t he ir y ea r o f i s sue o r t o o ne o f an umbe r o f ' i s sue p e r iod s ' p rov ided b y t he u se r . I n a dd i t ion t o t h i s g raph ica l o u tpu t , CO INH IST p roduce s f i le s o f a nnua l c o in ' l o s s ' d a ta w h ich c an b e u sed i n mo re d e ta i led a na ly s i s o n e i the r ma in f rame o r m ic rocompu te r . 3 . 6 P rogram l i m i ta t ion s a nd t he d a taba se a pproach T he se p rog ram s w e re d eve loped a t a n e ar ly s t age o f t he r e sea rch a nd w e re f ound t o p er fo rm s a t i s fac tor i ly d ur ing t he p e r iod o f i n i t ia l t e s t ing o f t he r e sea rch d e s ign . A s s uch , t hey f u l f i l led t he i r i n tended p urpo se i n t ha t t hey made i tp o s s ib le t o c ap ture a nd man ipu la te d a ta a nd t o p roduce s ummary s t a t i s t ic s . CO INTYPE h a s b een u sed t o p rov ide i n fo rma t ion o n t he r ange a nd f r equenc ie s o f o ccur rence o f i nd iv idua l c o in t ype s o n an umbe r o f s i te s . F i le s g ene ra ted b y CO INH IST h ave b een s ub je c ted t ov ar iou s f o rm s o f mu l t iva r ia te a na ly s i s i no rde r t oi nve s t i ga te t he e f fec t s o f i s sue p er iod g roup ing [ Ryan , 1 982 ] , a nd t oq uan t i fy t he v a r ia t ion i n c o in f i nd s b e tween s i te s . T he p r in ted r e su l t s f r om CO INSORT a nd DECODE , a nd t he h i s tog rams f r om CO INH IST a re f e a tu re s wh ich w ou ld make t h i s s imp le p ackage u se fu l t o a ny n um i sma t i s t o r a rchaeo log i s t w o rk ing w i th c o in s f r om a R oman s i te . C lear ly s uch p rog ram s c ou ld b e u sed i n t he p reparat ion o f c o in r epor t s a sw el a si na na ly t ica l r e sea rch . T he ma jo r d i sadvan tage o f p urpo se w r i t ten p rog ram s i n a ny d a ta managemen t a pp l ica t ion l i e s i n t he ir i nf lex ib i l i ty t o c hange s i n t he d a ta s t ruc ture . Wheneve r , a s o f ten h appen s d ur ing t he d eve lopmen t o f ac omp lex a ppl ica t ion , i tb ecome s n e ce s sary t o a dd , d e le te o r c hange t he s i ze o f ad a ta f i e ld , a l p rog ram s w h ich u se t ha t d a ta w i l l n eed t o b e mod i f ied , r e -comp i led a nd t e s ted . Mo re c omp lex c hange s t ot he d a ta s t ruc ture w i l l r equ ire mo re d ra s t ic a c t ion , o f ten i n c lud ing t he t o taly r e -wr i t ing o f o ne o r mo re p rog ram s . C lear ly , t h i s w i l l b e ar e cur r ing 5 0

p rob lem i n a ny a ppl ica t ion u n le s s d a ta s t ruc ture s a nd p ro ce s se s a re r i g id ly f i xed . T he mo s t s e r iou s i mpl ica t ion i n a ny r e sea r ch e nv i ronmen t i st ha t ac on s ide rab le amoun t o f t ime w i l l b e s pen t i n ma in ta in ing t he a pp l ica t ion s , a nd c on sequen t ly l e s s t ime w i l l b e a va i lab le t o d evo te t o t he ma in o b je c t o f t he r e sea rch . Wh i l s t t h i s may b e a ccep tab le w he re t he r e search d e s ign i n c lude s a n e l emen t o f a s se s smen t o f t he r o le o f c ompu te r d a ta p roce s s ing i n s uch t a sk s , i t w i l l mo re u sualy b e s een a s as e ve re d i sadvan tage . F or tuna te ly t he a l terna t ive a pp roach o f u s ing a d a tabase managemen t s y s tem ( DB MS ) manage s t o o ve rcome many o f t he se p rob lem s . 3 . 6 .1 T he r e la t iona l d a ta mode l T he d a ta mode l d e s c r ibed h e re c on s i s t s e n t i re ly o f ' r e lat iona l f i le s ' . T h i s s t ruc ture i se qua l ly s u i ted t o p roce s s ing b y p urpo se w r i t ten p rog ram s o r b y u se o f ar e la t iona l DB MS . I n ar e la t i ona l mode l a l d a ta may b e t hough t o f a sb e ing h e ld i n ' t ab le s ' j u s t a si tm igh t b e p r in ted o n ap i ece o f p ape r . I n t he c a se o f s imp le r e lat iona l f i le s , t he d a ta r ep re sen ta t ion o n t he mach ine i si n ad i rec t ly e qu iva len t f o rm . T ha t i s , i n af i le c on s i s t ing e n t ire ly o f f i xed l e ng th r e co rd s e ach c on ta in ing t he s ame f i xed l e ng th f i e ld s . When u s ing a r e la t iona l DBMS t he u se r may v i ew t he d a ta a s i fs t o red i n t h i s f o rm w i thou t a ny c oncern f o r t he d e ta i l s o f t he p hy s ica l s t o rage . Many DB MS w i l l e mp loy a q u i te d i f fe ren t s t o rage me thod b u t t h i s w i l l b e h idden f r om t he u se r . A s ar e su l t o f t h i s t ab le f o rma t , t he r e la t iona l mode l i sr e la t ive ly e a sy t o u nde r s tand w hen c ompa red t o t he a l te rna t ive h i e ra r ch ica l a nd n e two rk d a ta mode l s . I t i s t hu s p ar t icu lar ly s u i ted t ou se b y n on -spec ial i s t c ompu te r u se r s i n t he s oc ia l s c ience s a nd h uman i t ie s . T he s im p l ic i ty o f t he mode l l i e s i n t he f a c t t ha t b o th t he e n t i t ie s a nd t he r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t hem a re s t o red i n t ab le s . T h i s s impl ic i ty o fs t ruc ture l e ad s t o au n i form s e t o f o pe ra to r s w h ich may b e a ppl ied t oe n t i t ie s a nd r e la t ion sh ip s a l ike . A d e ta i led d i s cus s ion o f t he r e la t iona l d a ta mode l w ou ld b e i napp rop r ia te h e re ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , D a te , 1 975 ; E lb ra , 1 982 ) , h oweve r i ti sp e rhap s n ece s sary t o s ummar ise t he b a s ic h igh l e ve l o pe ra t ion s wh ich may b e p er formed o n r e la t iona l t ab le s . E ach o pe ra to r t ake s a s i t s i npu t o ne o r t wo t ab le s a nd p roduce s an ew t ab le a s o u tpu t . T he t h ree ma in o pe ra tor s a re ' S e le c t ' , ' P ro je c t ' a nd ' J o in ' . ' S e lec t ' t ake s as i ng le t ab le a nd o u tpu t s o n ly t ho se r e co rd s w h ich f u lf i l t he r equ ired s earch c r i te r ion . T he c r i ter ion may b e s imp le a si n u s ing C ,O INF IND s e lec t f o rS i t e -no

2 5

o r i tm ay b e t he r e su l t o fs ome l og ica l c omb ina t ion o f an umbe r o f f i e ld s s uch a s u s ing CO INF IND s e lec t f o rS i t e -no = 2 5 a nd ( Ru l er = 8 04 o rRu l e r =8 10 ) . T he f i r s t e xamp le w ou ld r e t r ieve a l l r e co rd s av a lue o f 2 5 i n t he S i t e -no f i e ld . T he s e cond t ake s t h i s as t age f ur the r b y o n ly r e t r iev ing t ho se wh ich s a t i s fy t h i s c r i te r ion a nd h ave v a lue s i n t he R u le r f i e ld o f e i the r 8 04 o r 8 10 . ( No te t ha t t he s yn tax o f t he se c ommand s i s ag ene ra l o ne f o r i lu s t rat ive p urpo se s , a nd d oe s n o t n ece s sar i ly r ef le c t t ha t u sed b y i nd iv idua l DB MS q uery l anguage s ) . Whe rea s ' s e le c t ' p roduce s ah o r izon ta l s ub se t o f t he i npu t t ab le , ' p ro jec t ' d e r ive s av er t ica l s ub se t . T ha t i s , i te x t rac t s s pec if ied c o lumn s o r f i e ld s f r om e ach r e co rd a nd t hen r emove s a ny d upl ica te r ow s s o f o rmed . S ome s y s tem s w i l l a l low a s im i lar f unc t ion i n wh ich a ny s pec if ied f i e ld may b e c oun ted , t o ta l led o r s ub to ta l led . A s a n e xamp le , t he CO INREFS f i le w a s i n i t ialy c r ea ted u s ing t h i s o pe ra t ion o n CO INL IST . F ir s t o n ly t ho se r e co rd s w i th c omp le te r e fe rence s w e re e x t rac ted a nd t hen t he p ro je c t w a s p e r formed t oo b ta in at ab le o f u n ique r e fe rence s : u s ing CO INL IST s e lec t f o r C a ta logue > 0 p ro je c t TE MP o ve rR u l er ,Ca ta logue ,Vo lume ,M in t ,Ref -no ,Ref suf F inaly t he ' j o in ' f unc t ion t ake s t wo i npu t t ab le s , wh ich mu s t h ave a c ommon f i e ld , a nd p roduce s o ne o u tpu t t ab le . A s i ng le o u tpu t r e co rd i sp roduced f o r e ach p a ir o f i npu t r e co rd s

5 1

w h ich h ave m a tch ing v a lue s i n t he c ommon f i e ld . T h i s i st he ' n a tu ra l j o in ' ; i n p rac t ice t he ' j o in ' n eed n o t b e b a sed o n e qua l i ty a nd o the r l o g ica l r e la t ion sh ip s s uch a s ' g rea te r t han ' , ' l e s s t han ' o r i nequal i ty may s ome t ime s b e u sed . A s d e scr ibed , t he ' j o in ' o u tpu t s t he f u l l ma tch ing r e co rd s f r om b o th f i le s a s as i ng le r e co rd , h oweve r s ome s y s tem s a l low t he u se r t o s pec i fy w h ich f i e ld s a re t o o ccur i n t he o u tpu t . Th i s e f fe c t ive ly c omb ine s a' j o in ' a nd a ' p ro j e c t ' i n o ne c ommand . A n umbe r o f e xamp le s o f " ow t h i s f unc t ion i su sed i np roce s s ing c o in f i nd d a ta w i l l b e p re sen ted b e low , a nd as imp le e xamp le w i l l s u f f ice h e re . C on s ide r t he p rob lem o f p roduc ing ap r in ted c o in l i s t f r om c oded d a ta . T h i s i st he o pe ra t i on p e r formed b y t he DECODE p rog ram d e s cr ibed a bove i n S e c t ion 3 .5 . T he r e co rd s o f t he c on s ius rf i le c on ta in f i e ld s w i th n umer ic v a lue s e ach o f w h ich c o r re spond s t o ar e co rd i n t he c od ing f i le s RULERS , CATALOGS , t i aN "r s a nd S TATUS . T he r equ ired p r in ted l i s t s hou ld c on ta in a pp rop r ia te t e x tua l d e scr ip t ion s r a the r t han n ume r ic c ode s i fi ti st o b e i n te l l ig ib le . T h is m ay b e a ch ieved b y a' j o in ' o ve r t he r e levan t c ommon c od ing f i e ld , r ep lac ing t he c od ing b y t he t e x tua l d e scr ipt ion : j o in CO INL IST t o RULERS o ve rR u l e r T he r e su l t i sw r i t ten t o at empo rary f i le w h ich i si t se l f j o ined t o CATALOGS o ve r t he c ommon C a ta logue f i e ld . Th i s p roce s s i sr epea ted f o r e ach r equ i red f i e ld u n t i l t he f u l l l i s t i so b ta ined . T he se t h ree b a s ic f unc t ion s , t oge the r w i th t he l e s s c ommon ' r e la t iona l d iv ide ' , may b e s e en a s as e t o f b u i ld ing b lock s f r om w h ich a ny r equ i red o pe ra t ion may b e d er ived . When c om b ined w i th u t i l it ie s f o r f orma t t ing p r in ted o u tpu t a nd p er form ing t he b a s ic a r i thme t ic o pe ra t i on s n eeded t o c a lcu la te t o ta l s , a ve rage s a nd p e rcen tage s , t hey p rov ide a l l t h e t oo ls n eeded f o r t he s t o rage o f d a ta a nd t he r e t r ieva l o fi n forma t ion . 3 . 7 P ro ce s s ing t he d a ta H av ing d e scr ibed t he b a s ic d a ta mode l a nd t he t oo l s a va i lab le f o r i t s man ipu la t ion , a t ten t ion mu s t n ow b e t urned t o t he d e ta i l s o f t he o pe ra t ion o f t he d a taba se . T he f unc t iona l r equ ire men t s o f e n te r ing d a ta , ma in ta in ing t he d a taba se a nd i n fo rma t ion r e t r ieva l w e re i n t roduced i n S ec t ion 3 .2 , a nd t he se a re a pp rop r ia te h ead ing s u nde r wh ich t o c on s ide r t he v ar iou s s t age s o fp roce s s ing . 3 . 7 .1 D a ta e n try C o in l i s t d a ta i su sualy a dded t o t he d a taba se o ne s i te a t at ime . T he f i r s t a c t ion i n a ny s e s s i on i st o e n te r t he s i te c ode . Th i s i sc he cked a ga in s t t he S ITE f i le , a nd i fn o t f ound , t hen t he u se r i sp romp ted t oe i the r r e type t he c ode o r e n te r t he a pp ropr ia te s i te d e ta i l s . Once t h i s h a s b een d one , e n t ry o f c o in l i s t d a ta may p roceed . I ti se n te red i n as im i la r f o rm t o t ha t s t o red i n t he c o rNus r f i le , w i th t he ma in e xcept ion t ha t t he u se r i sn o t c once rned w i th a l loca t ing n o te n umbe r s . I fa n i npu t r e co rd c on ta in s an o te t hen t he d a ta c ap tu re p rog ram e n su re s t ha t t h i s i sr e co rded s epara te ly a nd t ha t t he n ex t s equen t ia l n o te n umbe r i si n se r ted i n t he ma in r e co rd . T he p rog ram g ene ra te s t wo t empo rary f i le s : NE WCO INS a nd NE WNOTE . A t t he e nd o f a n i npu t s e s s ion t he se a re a ppended t ot he m a in CO INL IST a nd F INDNOTE a r ch ive f i le s . An o n -l ine h e lp s y s tem h a s b een p rov ided i n o ne v e r s ion o f t he i npu t p rog ram . T h is p ro v ide s as umma ry o f t he c od ing f o r t he C a ta logue , M in t a nd S t a tu s f i e lds i n t h e u ppe r p ar t o f t he t e rm ina l s c reen ( f ig 3 .4 ) . D isp lay ing i n forma t ion o n t he R u l e r f i e ld c od ing i s mo re d i f f i c u l t . T he l a rge n umbe r o fp o s s ib le r u ler s w i l l n o t f i t o n t he s c reen t oge the r , a nd i tw ou ld t ake s ome t ime t os c rol b ack a nd f o r th t h rough t he l i s t i n s ea rch o f t he r equ ired n ame . Two a l te r n at ive s a re t hu s p rov ided : e i the r t he u se r r e fe r s t o ap r in ted l i s t a nd e n te r s t he c ode d i rec t ly , o r t he n ame o f t he r u le r i se n te red . I ft he l a t te r c our se i sc ho sen , t hen t he p rog ram s ea rche s f o r t he n ame i n t he RULERS f i le a nd h av ing f ound a ma tch , r eque s t s c on f irma t ion b e fo re i n se r t ing t he a pp rop r ia te c ode . A f te r e ach r e co rd h a s b een e n te red , t he c on ten t s o f e very f i e ld e xcep t f o r t he n o te s r ema in s o n t he s c reen r eady f o r t he n ex t r e co rd . I n t h i s w ay i ti so n ly n e ce s sary t o f i l l i n af i e ld i fi t d i f fe r s i n t he n ex t r e co rd . F o r e xamp le , t o e n te r as e r ie s o f c o in s o f t he s ame r u le r i ti so n ly n ece s sary t o t ype t he r u le r n ame o r c ode o nce . T he n o te f i e ld i sd e le ted e ach t ime s imp ly b e cau se o f t he v e ry l ow p robab i l i ty t ha t t wo a d jacen t r e co rd s w i l l r equ ire t he s ame n o te t e x t .

5 2

D ATA I NPUT

C OINLIST C atalogues: 1S ydenham . 7 M aurice M ints: 1L ondon 6 T icinum 1 1 C arthage 1 8 H eraclea Z O A ntioch

2 R IC . 8 C ohen 2 7 1 2 1 7 2 1

3 L RBC . 9 O ther

1 S:08 :83

4 B MC . S N C1. ( deta il i n n ote)

A m iens 3 T rier 4 L yons S M ilan 8 A quilea 9 R ome 1 0 S iscia 1 3 S irm ium 1 4 S erd ica 1 5 C onstantinople 1 8 N icomedia 1 9 A lexandria 2 2 R avenna

N CZ .

A rles O stia T hessalonika C yz icus

S tatus : int) 3 A s ( other m int) 4 C opy 1E xact 2 A s ( same m 6 S pecial 7 I lleg ible C opy S I lleg ible R egular 9 U nidentif ied C opy 8 U nidentified R egular S ite : 201: R uler : 801: C atalogue :3 : V olume : 1 : S tatus : : N o o f C oins : N ote :

F igu re 3 .4 :

M int

:3 : R ef .No.: 11 P rovenance :

D a ta i npu t a nd h e lp s c reen , w i th d a ta e n t ry i np rog re s s i nl owe r p ar t o f s c reen .

3 . 7 .2 CO INL IST p rocess ing Unde r t h i s h ead ing may b e c on s ide red t he v ar ie ty o f o pe ra t ion s w h ich a re n e ce s sary f o r t he ma in tenance o f t he d a taba se . T he se c ove r t he u pda t ing o f a pp rop r ia te f i le s f r om n ew ly e n t e red d a ta a nd t he p roce s se s b y wh ich t he d a taba se may b e r e -e s tab l i shed i n t he e ven t o f a ny f a i lu re . T he CO INL IST f i le may b e u sed t op roduce v ar iou s s ummary r epo r t s . T he se c an b e o b ta ined b y s o r t ing o n t he r equ i red f i e ld . T hu s c o in s m igh t b e l i s ted b y r u le r , m in t o r s t a tu s . Wi th in a s i ng le s i te , l i s t ing b y p rovenance m ay a l so b e r equ ired . R epor t l i s t ing s c an b e p roduced i n f u l l o r i n s ummary f o rm , g i v ing f o r e xamp le , t he s ub to ta l s f o r e ach r u le r o r m in t . Howeve r , e x c ep t w he re t he r epo r t mu s t make u se o f t he o r ig ina l c a ta logu ing d a ta , i ti su sua l ly mo re c on v en ien t t op roduce t he se l i s t s a t al a te r s t age f r om t he COINF IND f i le . T he g ene ra t ion o f t he CO INF IND f i le c on s i s t s o f r ep lac ing t he c a ta logue d a ta i n t he NE WCO INS r e co rd b y aT ype -no w h ich s e rve s a s ap o in te r t oa n e n t ry i n CO INTYPE . T h i s i sp e r -

f o rmed b y a' j o in ' o ve r t he c a ta logue d a ta wh ich i sc ommon t ob o th NE WCO INS a nd CO INREFS . T he e xac t d e ta i l s o f h ow t h i s i sa ch ieved v ary a cco rd ing t o w he the r o r n o t t he j o in f unc t ion u sed p erm i t s t he c onca tena ted f i e ld s .

5 3

NE WCO INS r e co rd s w h ich a re n o t ma tched d ur ing t h i s p roce s s c an b e r egarded a s ' unre cog n i sed ' t ype s . T he se f al i n to t h ree g roup s : t ho se w h ich a re c or re c t ly c a ta logued b u t d o n o t c o r re spond t o COINREFS e n t r ie s , t ho se w i th i n comp le te c a ta logue d a ta , a nd e r roneous d a ta . I t i se s sen t ia l t ob e a b le t os epara te t he f i r s t g roup f r om t he r e s t i no rde r t ha t t he COINREFS a nd CO INTYPE f i le s may b e u pda ted a cco rd ing ly . C lea r ly i tw ou ld b e t e d iou s t o h ave t o s ea rch t h rough a l l t he ' unrecogn ised ' r e co rd s i no rde r t oe x t rac t t he se manua l ly .

A s e cond c omp l ica t ion a r ise s f r om t he f undamen ta l d i f fe rence s i n c a ta logu ing o f c o in s i s sued b e fo re a nd a f te r D io c le t ian 's r e form . F o r t he e a r l ie r c o in s , t he R u l er f i e ld i s ac on s t i t uen t p ar t o f c a ta logue d a ta , w he rea s f o r t he l a te r i s sue s i ti sn o t . T h i s m ake s i tn ece s sary t o p roce s s t he e a rl ie r a nd l a te r c o in s s epara te ly . F ir s t ly , NE WCO INS i ss p l i t i n to f ou r s epa ra te f i le s : NC 1 Nc 2 NO NO 1

p re -294 f uly i dent if ied c o in s . p o s t -294 f u l ly i den t if ied c o in s . a l n o t f uly i d en t if ied c o in s . a l n on -Roman c o in s .

T h i s may b e a ch ieved b y s imp le ' s e le c t ' o pe ra t ion s . F u l ly i den t if ied c o in s , t ho se w i th a f u l l c a ta logue r e fe rence , a re d eno ted b y S t a tu s v a lue s f r om o ne t o f ou r . H ighe r v a lue s i nd ica te t ha t s ome p a r t o f t h i s d a ta i sm i s s ing . P re - a nd p o s t -294 c o inage i si den t if ied f r om t he R u l er c ode s , t he l a te r g roup h av ing v a lue s b e tween 8 00 a nd 8 99 . A r u le r c od ing b e tween 9 00 a nd 9 99 i nd ica te s t ha t t he c o in i s Roman b u t c an o n ly b e a s s igned t o ab road d a te r ange , w he rea s av a lue o f z e ro i sr e se rved f o r n on -Roman c o in s . T h i s l a t te r i sa n o p t iona l f e a ture w h ich h a s b een u sed o n ly t o r e co rd t he p re sence p re -Roman c o inage f ound o n an umbe r o f s i te s . NCI a nd N c 2 n ow c on ta in a l l t ho se c o in s w h ich i ts hou ld b e p o s s ib le t oa s s ign t ok nown t ype s . T he r e co rd s t ruc ture o f NO a nd N C A i s i d en t ica l t o t ha t o f CO WL IST a nd NE WCOINS , w he rea s t ha t o f NC1 a nd NC2 h ave t he ir c a ta logu ing d a ta c onca tena ted i n to a s i ng le f i e ld . Ma tch ing t he se a re t wo d i s t inc t CO INREFS f i le s , CO INREF 1 f o r p re -294 i s sue s a nd COINREF2 f o r t he l a te r o ne s . I n t he r ema inde r o f t h i s c hap te r t he se r e fe rence f i le s w i l l o n ly b e d i s t i ngu i shed w he re n e ce s sary .

F i e ld

T ype

L eng th

S i te R l r -re f

3 1 3

S ta tu s

1

No -o f -Co in s P rovenance

4 5

No te -No

4

C on ten t s T he s i te o n w h ich t he c o in w a s f ound T he c onca tena t ion o f t he R u l er , C a t a logue , V o lume , M in t , R ef -no a nd R ef -suf f i e ld s An i nd ica t ion o f t he c e r ta in ty o f t he r e fe rence , a nd w he the r t he c o in i s r e gu lar o r ac opy T he n umbe r o f c o in s o f t h i s t ype T he l o ca t ion o n t he s i te a t w h ich t he c o in w a s f ound ( i f k nown ) P o in te r t o F INDNOTE r e co rd c on ta in i ng a ny e x t ra i n fo rma t ion

T ab le 3 .7 : T he NC1 e n t i ty

5 4

F i e ld

T ype

L eng th

S i te Ru le r R e f

3 3 1 0

S ta tu s

1

No -o f -Co in s P rovenance

4 5

No te -No

4

C on ten t s T he s i te o n wh ich t he c o in w a s f ound T he r u le r o ri s su ing a u tho r i ty T he c onca tena t ion o f t he C a ta logue , V o lume , M in t , R ef -no a nd R ef suf f i e ld s An i nd ica t ion o f t he c e r ta in ty o f t he r e fe rence , a nd w he the r t he c o in i s r egu la r o r ac opy T he n umbe r o fc o in s o ft h i s t ype T he l o cat ion o n t he s i te a t wh ich t he c o in w a s f ound ( i f k nown ) P o in te r t o F INDNOTE r e co rd c on ta in i ng a ny e x t ra i n fo rma t ion

T ab le 3 .8 : T he NC2 e n t i ty

F i e ld

T ype

L eng th

R 1r -re f

1 3

T ype -no

4

R e f

1 0

T ype -no

4

C on ten t s T he c onca tena t ion o f t he R u l er , C a ta logue , V o lume , M in t , R ef -no a nd R ef suf f i e ld s P o in te r t o aCO INTYPE r e co rd

T he c onca tena t ion o f t he C a t a logue , V o lume , M in t , R ef -no a nd R ef suf f i e ld s P o in te r t o aCOINTYPE r e co rd

T ab le 3 .9 : T he CO INREF 1 a nd CO 1NREF 2 e n t i t ie s

T he u nma tched r e co rd s i n NC1 a nd NC2 may b e e x t rac ted b y a' no t - e qua l j o in ' w i th t he i r r e spec t ive r e fe rence f i le s . A s h a s b een s hown , t he se may i n c lude r e co rd s w i th c od ing e r ro r s a s w e l l a s u nre cogn i sed b u t o therw i se c or re c t r e fe rence . I ti st he re fo re n e ce s sary t o c he ck a l l o f t he u nma tched r e co rd s a ga in s t t he o r ig ina l s ou rce s a nd , i fn e ce s sary t o e d i t t h e NE WCO INS f i le t or emove a ny r ema in ing e r ro r s . I n p rac t ice , t h i s i su sua l ly as imp le t a sk a s f ew s i te s p ro d uce mo re t han a f ew p rev iou s ly u nre co rded t ype s , a nd mo s t e r ro r s w i l l h ave b een c augh t d ur ing t he i n i t ia l c he ck ing o f t he NE WCOINS f i le . Once a l l e r ro r s h ave b een c or re c ted , NE WCO INS a nd NE WNOTES may b e a ppended t o t he ma in a r ch ive f i le s COINL IST a nd F IND NOTE .

A f te r c heck ing a nd , i f n ece s sary , e d i t ing , t he r ema in ing u nma tched r e co rd s r ep re sen t c a ta logue r e fe rence s wh ich h ave n o t p rev iou s ly b een e ncoun te red d ur ing d a ta c o l le c t ion . I f t he se r e fe rence s u se ap re fe r red c a ta logue , t hen t hey mu s t a l so r ep re sen t t ype s w h ich d o n o t o ccur i n t he COINTYPE f i le . I fh oweve r t hey r e fe r t oa no the r c a ta logue , t h en i ti sp o s s ib le t ha t t hey a re a l terna t ive r e fe rence s t o ap rev iou s ly r e co rded t ype . T he u pda t ing o f t he c o r t s TREF s a nd COINTYPE f i le s i sp er fo rmed i n te rac t ive ly . F o r e ach u nre cogn i sed r e co rd , t he u se r i sa sked w he the r t he r e fe rence g i ven i st o t he p re fe r red c a ta lo g ue . I fi ti sn o t t hen t he p re fer red r e fe rence i se n te red a nd t he COINREFS f i le s e a rched f o r a ma tch ing r e co rd . I ft he re i s a ma tch t hen t he n ew r e fe rence i sa dded t ot he f i le w i th t he s ame T ype -no a s i n t he p re fe r red r e fe rence . Whe re n o m a tch i sf ound , b o th t he n ew a nd p re fe r red r e fe rence s a re a dded t o f i le . Wheneve r an ew p re fe r red r e fe rence i s e ncoun te red i ti s o f

5 5

c our se n ece s sary t o u pda te t he COINTYPE f i le a s w e l l . T he p rog ram a loca te s an ew T ype -no wh ich i si n ser ted i n t h e n ew CO INREFS r e co rd s , a nd t h e u se r i sp romp ted t oe n te r t h e d a ta f o r t h e n ew COINTYPE r e co rd . A t t h i s p o in t , t he r e fe rence a nd t y pe d a ta i su p t o d a te a nd a ny d e te c tab le e r ror s i n t he f i le h ave b een e l im ina ted . NCI a nd NC2 a r e n ow ' j o ined ' w i th t h e r e fe rence t ab le s i n o rde r t op roduce d a ta i n COINF IND f o rma t w h ich c an t h en b e a ppended t ot he m a in CO IN F IND f i le . T he i n comp le te ly i d en t i f ied c o in s i n NC3 a r e a l so a dded t o t h i s f i le h av ing f i r s t r e p laced t h e i r c a ta logue r e fe rence f i e ld s b y T ype -no o f z e ro . T h i s r e su l t s i ns ome l o s s o f d a ta a s t h e c on ten t s o f t he M in t f i e ld i sn o l onge r i mpl ied b y t he T ype -no . I n p rac t ice , t h i s h a s n o t c au sed a ny p rob lem s a st h e p ropor t ion o fc o in s o fk nown m in t a mong s t t ho se w i th i n comp le te r e fe rence s i ss ma l l , a nd i ft h i s i n fo rma t ion i sr equ ired t h en i ti sa va i lab le f r om t h e a r ch ived CO INL IST f i le . NE WCO INS

T h i s l a t te r p rob lem p o in t s t o as hor tcom ing o f t h e p re sen t d a ta s t ruc ture . T he l i s t o f p o s s i b l e c ode s f o r t h e S t a tu s f i e ld c on ta in s t h e a l te rna t ive s ' A s -s ame m in t ' a nd ' A s -d i f fe ren t m in t ' . I n t he s e cond c a se i ti st he m in t i nt he r e fe rence c a ta logue w h ich mu s t b e s pe c i f ied f o r t h e f ul c a ta logue r e fe rence t o b e c or rec t a nd t h e re i sn o p rov i s ion f o r c od ing t h e m in t o f i s sue . One s o lu t ion w ou ld b e t op rov ide s epa ra te f i e ld s f o r t h e ' r e fe rence m in t ' a nd t he ' m in t o f i s sue ' . T h i s p rob lem o n ly a r ise s i n t h e c a se o f f our th c en tury c o in s w he re t he m in t f o rm s a n i n teg ra l p ar t o f t he c a ta logue r e fe rence . S im i la r ly , i n t he c a se o f e ar l ie r c o in s , i ti sp o s s i b l e , t hough e x t reme ly r a re , f o r t he re t ob e ad i f fe rence b e tween t h e a c tua l r u le r o n t he c o in a nd t h a t o f t h e r e fe rence . I n t h e p re sen t s y s tem t he se d i sc repanc ie s a r e p ar t ia l ly o ve rcome b y r e qu ir ing t ha t t h e ' m in t o f i s sue ' o r ' a c tua l r u le r ' i sr e co rded i n t h e n o te f i e ld . T he i n forma t i on i s t h e re a nd m ay b e r e t r ieved i f n ece s sary , a l though i ti s n o t u sed i n a ny o f t he a u toma ted p roce s se s d e s c r ibed h e re . I tw ou ld h oweve r b e as imp le , i fs omewha t t e d iou s , t a sk t o mod i fy t h e d a ta s t ruc ture t oi n co rpo ra te t h i s d a ta i n c oded f o rm s hou ld t h i s b e c on s idered n e ce s sary . S o f a r , t he r u le r p rob lem h a s b een i n s ign i f ican t a nd a ny a na ly s is b a sed o n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fc o in s b y m in t h a s b een p er formed u s ing o n ly t ho se c o in s w h ich a r e e xac t ly i den t i f i ed . T he r e la t ive e ase w i th w h ich c hange s t o d a ta s t ruc tu re m ay b e m ade i so ne o f t h e m a jo r a dvan tage s o f t he d a taba se a pp roach . O the r c hange s w h ich m igh t b e come n e ce s sary i n c lude a d e c i s ion t o c hange t he p re fer red c a ta logue f o r c e r ta in t ype s , o r t h e r e cogn i t ion t h a t t wo o r mo re t ype s a r e n o t r e aly d i s t ingu i shab le . I tw il t h e re fo re b e p o s s ib le f o r t h e c on ten t o f t he d a tabase t ok eep p ace w i th c hange s i nn um i sma t ic k now ledge . I ts hou ld p e rhap s b e s t re s sed t h a t t h ep ro ce s s ing s equence d e ta i led h e re i sf a r mo re c omp lex t od e scr ibe t h an i ti st op e r form . A s t h e s ame o pe ra t ion s a re t ob e c ar r ied o u t o n e ach n ew s e t o f d a ta , t he s equence o f i n s t ruc t ion s d e f in ing t h e v ar iou s r e la t iona l o pe ra t ion s m ay b e c om b ined i n to t wo m ac ro c ommand s w h ich c ove r c he ck ing a nd u pda t ing r e spe c t ive ly . T he f i r s t i n i t ia te s t ho se p ro ce s se s w h ich s pl i t t h e NE WCO INS d a ta a nd c heck w he the r a l l r e fe renced c o in s a re o f k nown t ype . T h i s o pe ra t ion c onc lude s w i th a ny n e ce s sary u pda t ing o f t h e COINTYPE a nd COINREFS t a b le s . T he s e cond c ommand p e r form s t he m a in ' j o in s ' a nd r e su l t s i nt he u pda t ing o f COINF IND . When u s ing a DBMS , t h e a pp roach t a ken t o m a in ta in ing t h e i n tegr i ty o f t h e d a taba se i s d ependen t o n t h e f a c i l i t ie s p rov ided b y t h e s pec if ic s y s tem . When e i the r as imp le r e la t iona l f i l e m anagemen t s y s tem o r as e t o f u t i l i ty p rog ram s w h ich p er fo rm r e la t iona l o pe ra t ion s i s b e ing e mp loyed , t hen i ti se s sen t ia l t oa dop t ac on s i s ten t a r ch iv ing s t a tegy . I ti sn o t n e ce s sary t o m ake a r ch ive c op ie s a tf r equen t i n terva l s o f e ve ry f i le u sed i n t he d a taba se . Many o f t h e f i le s , s uch a s RULERS, MINTS a nd t h e o the r s w h ich h o ld b a s ic c od ing d a ta a re e s sen t ia l ly s t a t ic , o n ly r a re ly i fe ve r n eed ing t ob e u pda ted . O the r s s uch a s NCI t o NO t h ave o n ly at em p o rary l i fe d ur ing p roce s s ing a nd n eed n o t b e r e ta ined t h e rea f te r . B ack -up c op ie s o f COIN L IST , F INDNOTE , S ITE , COINREFS a nd CO INTYPE a r e m ade e ach t ime t hey a r e u pda ted . F o r t he f i r s t t h ree o f t he se , t h i s o ccur s e ach t ime a n ew s i te c o in l i s t i sa dded t o t h e d a taba se . CO IN REFS a nd COINTYPE w il n o t a lway s n eed u pda t ing a tt h i s t ime . T he CO I NF IND f i le , h oweve r , n eed n o t b e a r ch ived r e gu la r ly a s i tc an b e r ebu i l t s imp ly b y s ubm i t t ing t h e e n t ire c o rNus r f i l e t ot h e p ro ce s s ing s equence d e sc r ibed a bove i np l ace o ft h eN Ewco ir is f i le .

5 6

3 . 7 .3 I nf orma t ion r e tr ieva l I n S e c t ion 3 .2 t h ree ma in a rea s o f i n forma t ion r e t r ieva l w e re i den t i f ied : t he p roduc t ion o f l i s t s a nd s ummary r epor t s , t he c r ea t ion o f d a ta ma t r ice s f o r s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s , a nd a d h oc q ue r ie s . Mo s t DB MS p rov ide as y s tem f o r p roduc ing r epor t s f r om a ny g i ven t ab le . Th i s u sualy c on s i s t s o f ac omb ina t ion o f ' s e lec t ' a nd ' p ro je c t ' o pe ra t ion s , o f ten mak ing u se o f t o ta l l ing a nd s ub - t o ta ll ing f a c i l it ie s . T he r e su l t s c an t hen b e p r in ted a cco rd ing t o au se r -def ined f orma t w i th a pp ropr ia te p age a nd s e c t ion h ead ing s . I n s ome c a se s i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t o d i sp lay s uch i n forma t ion i n g raph ica l f o rm u s ing g raph s , h i s tog ram s o r p i e c ha r t s . D a ta j na t r ice s a re s imp ly a f o rm o f t ab le s o may e a s i ly b e g ene ra ted u s ing a r e la t iona l DB MS . F o r e xamp le , g i ven at ab le c on ta in ing s i te n umbe r , r ever se t ype a nd n umbe r o f c o in s , t h i s m ay b e r e -w r i t ten i n af orm s uch t ha t r ow s r ep re sen t s i te s a nd o ne c o lumn i sp rov ided f o r e ach r eve r se t ype . S im i la r ly ma t r ice s may b e g ene ra ted w i th c o in s g rouped b y d a te , r u le r , m in t , o r a ny c omb ina t ion o f t he se . T he t ab le u sed t o g ene ra te t he ma t r ix i s , i n mo s t c a se s , f o rmed f r om t he ' j o in ' o f COINFIND w i th COIN-TYPE, s e lec t ing t he r equ ired f i e ld f r om t he l a t te r f i le . One s uch e xamp le i st he c r ea t i on o f at ab le c aled F INDDATE . T h i s c on s i s t s o f as i te n umbe r , e a rl ie s t a nd l a te s t d a te s , a nd t he n umbe r o f c o in s . A s imp le p rog ram c aled I SPD h a s b een w r i t ten wh ich t ake s t h i s f i le , t oge the r w i th o ne c on ta in ing a l i s t o f i s sue p e r iod d a te s , a nd p roduce s a ma t r ix g i v ing t he n umbe r o f c o in s i n e ach p e r iod o n e ach s i te . I n t h i s w ay , ma t r ice s may b e p roduced wh ich p erm i t t he c ompar ison o f t he e f fe c t s o f d i f fe ren ti s sue p e r iod g roup ing s . F ina l ly , a d h oc q ue r ie s may b e p e r formed u s ing s imp le c omb ina t ion s o f t he s t andard h igh l e ve l r e la t iona l o pe ra tor s . T o e x t rac t , f o r e xamp le , a l o cur rence s o f c o in s m in ted a t T r ie r b e tween 3 17 a nd 3 30AD , t he s equence w ou ld b e a s f olow s : 1 .

u s ing COINTYPE s e le c t f o rM in t= 3a nd D a t e -1> =3 17 a nd D a te -2 =317 a nd D a t e -2 1 0 0 0

c o in s h ave n o t b een u sed i n a ny o f t he a na ly se s . I tw ou ld , o f c our se , b e q u i te w rong t o a s sume t ha t c o in s w e re n o t u sed s imp ly b e cau se n o c o ins a re f ound . I ndeed , w e c anno t a s sume t ha t n one w e re l o s t o r o the rw i se d epo s i ted ; t he a b sence o f f i nd s may b e a s much a p roduc t o f e xcavat ion s t anda rd s a nd t e chn ique s a s o f a nc ien t p ract ice . T he b ia s t oward s l ow n umbe r s a f fe c t s t he s i ze o f t he s amp le s u i tab le f o r a ny p ar t icu la r a na ly s i s b y r educ ing t he n umbe r o f s i te s s u i tab le f o r i n c lu s ion . I n s ome c a se s c o in s w e re l i s ted s imp ly a s , f o r e xamp le , ' i l leg ib le —Hou se o f C on s tan t ine ' , i n o the r s t he c o in l i s t t e r m ina ted a ta n e a r l ie r d a te a nd n o i den t i f ied c o in s o f f our th c en tury d a te a re r e co rded . T ab le 4 .2 s how s t he n umbe r o f s i te s p roduc ing t wo o r mo re f our th c en tury c o in s w i th in t he f our ' i den t i f ied ' s t a tu s g roup s . T h i s i st he ma te r ia l w i th w h ich t h i s c hap te r i sc oncerned a nd wh ich i sd e ta i led i n t he t ab le s a nd d iag ram s i n Append ice s 5a nd 6 . A f ur the r f i f teen s i te s w i th o n ly o ne i d en t i f ied c o in h ave n o t b een c on s ide red .

T ab le 4 .2 :

S ta tus

N o o fC o in s

N o o fS i te s

1E xac t 2A s —Same m in t 3A s —o the r m in t 4C opy

5 984 2 062 3 307 3 320

1 21 1 27 1 25 11

a l i den t if ied

1 4673

1 51

Numbe r o f s i te s p roduc ing t wo o r mo re i den t if ied f our th c en tu ry c o in s ( by s t a tu s ) .

A s w a s men t ioned i n c hap te r 2 , i nd iv idua l c o in t ype s a s w el a s t ho se o f d i f fe ren t i s sue p e r iod s v ary g rea t ly i n t he e a se w i th wh ich t hey may b e p rec i se ly i den t i f ied . H ence n o t o n ly i st he s i ze o f t he s amp le r educed b y s uch n ece s sa ry s e le c t iv i ty , i t s i n terna l s t ruc ture i sa l so s ub je c t t o d i s tor t ion . Th i s a ppl ie s n o t o n ly i n s e lec t ing t he i den t i f iab le ma te r ia l i n t ab le 4 .2 , b u t a l so t o t he s ub sequen t s e le c t ion o f s ub se t s o f t ha t ma te r ia l . I n t he l a t te r c a se , t he e f fe c t i so f ten c l ear ly v i s ib le a nd a ppear s , a tl e a s t i n aq ua l i tat ive s en se , t o b e q u i te s y s tema t ic . A s w il b e s een b e low , t he p re sence o f t he se b ia se s mu s t b e c on s ide red when e xam in ing a ny a spe c t o f t he d a ta . 4 . 2 A im s o ft he a na ly s i s T he d a ta u sed i n t h i s r e sea rch a re s u i ted t ob o th c h rono log ica l a nd s pa t ia l a na ly s i s . T he a im s o f t he a na ly se s d i scu s sed b e low h ave b een t o d e sc r ibe t he b a s ic p opu la t ion o f f our th c en tu ry c o in s r e cove red f r om Romano -Br i t i sh a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , a nd t o i den t i fy a ny r egu lar v ar ia t i on a mong s t t he s amp le o fs i te s . T he se a na ly se s a re n o t i n t hem se lve s i n tended t o r ep re sen t a ny e xp lana t ion o f t he s pa t ia l a nd c hrono log ica l v ar ia t ion i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion s o f f our th c en tu ry c o in t ype s . S ome i n fe rence s a re m ade c once rn ing t he p rope r t ie s o f t he o r ig ina l p opu la t ion o f c o in i n c i rcu la t ion , b u t t he u se o f i nduc t ive o r i n fe ren t ia l s t a t i st ica l me thod s h a s b een k ep t t o am in imum a nd n o a t temp t h a s b een made t o f o rmu la te g ene ra l l aw s f r om t he d a t a . D e sc r ip t ive t e chn ique s h ave b een u sed p r imar i ly t o r educe c omp lex i ty a nd a s a mean s o f s ea rch ing f o r r egu lar p a t tern s i n t he d a ta . Mu lt ivar ia te s t a t i s t ica l t e chn ique s h ave f r equen t ly b een u sed t oa id t he p roce s s o f c l a s s i f ica t i on i n a r chaeo logy , b u t t h i s p roce s s c anno t b e r ega rded a s a n e nd i n i t se l f . I tc an b e o f l i t t le v a lue u n le s s i ti ss een a s me re ly o ne p o s s ib le f i r s t s t ep i nt he g ene rat ion o fe xp lana t ion s o f t he h uman a c t iv i t ie s wh ich h ave c on t r ibu ted t o t he o b served p a t te rn . A s C la rk a nd S ta f fo rd h ave n o ted , I ts hou ld b e k ep t i nm ind t h a t m any m u l t iva r ia te p r o cedu r e s a r e l i t t le m o re t h an s oph i s t i c a ted p a t te rn s e a r ch t e chn ique s mo s t f r equen t ly u sed t os u gg e s t r e la t ion sh ip s a mong s u i te s o fv a r iab le s [ C la rk , 1 982 , 9 , o r ig ina l e mpha s i s ] .

6 3

T he b ackg round p opu la t ion o f r e cove red ma ter ia l , wh ich may b e v i ewed a s r epre sen t ing a s amp le o f a l l c o in s r e cove red f r om t ha t p ar t o f t he p rov ince u nde r e xam ina t ion , i sd e sc r ibed i n s e c t ion 4 .3 . I n s e c t ion 4 .4 t he s ou rce s o f v ar ia t ion i n t he c hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f c o in s b e tween s i te s a re e xam ined , a nd s ome p a t tern s r e la t ing t o d i f fe rence s i n t he a c t iv i t ie s p ract ised o n d i f fe ren t g roup s o f s i te s a re d i scus sed . S ec t ion 4 .5 c over s t he e xam ina t ion o f s pa t i a l v ar ia t ion b e tween s i te s s e t a ga in s t t h i s b ackg round . The rea f te r t he v i ewpo in t i sc hanged f r om o ne o f c on sump t ion a nd u se o f c o in t o o ne o f p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . S ec t ion 4 .6 d ea l s w i th t he s ource s o f c o in f i nd s o n B r i t i sh s i te s a nd e xam ine s t he v ar ia t ion i n t he r ep re sen ta t ion o f t he d i f fe ren t m in t s , a nd i n s e c t ion 4 .7 t h i s r ep re sen ta t ion i s d i scu s sed a ga in s t t he b ackg round o f t he c o in f i nd s f r om o the rp rov ince s i nt he w e s te rn Emp i re . I n terp re t ing t he mean ing o f a ny c h rono log ica l v ar ia t ion w i th in t he d a ta i sc omp l ica ted b y t he l a ck o f a ny k nown a nd s t ra igh t forward r e la t ion sh ip b e tween d a te o f i s sue a nd t he r ange o f p o s s ib le d a te s o f d epo s i t ion . On ly a s ma l l p ropor t ion o f t he c o in s s t ud ied h ere h a s a ny s u i tab le p rovenance i n forma t ion t ha t c an b e u sed t o h e lp o ve rcome s uch p rob lem s . Th i s s ub s e t o f t he ma te r ia l i su sed i n c hap te r 5t o a dd re s s q ue s t ion s o f t he c i rcu la t ion l i fe o f c o in s a nd , a s ar e su l t , t he i r v a lue i n d a t ing t he a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s f r om w h ich t hey a re r e cove red . 4 . 3 C hrono log ica l v ar ia t ion a nd t h e b ackground p opu la t ion o fc o in f i nds T he b as ic c harac ter is t ic s o f t he c hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion , i n t he s en se o f d a te o f s t r ik ing , o f R omano -Br i t i sh c o in f i nd s i sa l ready w el k nown ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , Reece , 1 972a ; R ave tz , 1 964 ) . T he c o l le c t ion o f al a rge b ody o f d a ta f o r t h i s r e search h a s p erm i t ted c on s ide rab le r e f i nemen t o f t he d e ta i l s o f t h i s d i s t r ibu t ion i nt he a rea c ove red b y t he s urvey . A m a jo r c once rn i n t hu s i n c rea s ing t he r ef inemen t h a s b een t o d e term ine w he the r e x i s t ing c onven t iona l me thod s o f d e sc r ib ing t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f e xcava ted ma ter ia l , b a sed o n n um i sma t ica l ly d ef ined ' i s sue p e r iod s ' , p rov ide a dequa te , o r i ndeed m ean ing fu l , r e so lu t ion f o r a r c haeo log ica l p urpo se s . T h i s i s n o t t o s ugge s t t ha t s uch n um i sma t ic c r i te r ia a re i nva l id i n t hem se lve s , r a the r t ha t b e ing b a sed o n s t y l i st ic a nd h i s tor ica l f a c to r s a s so c ia ted w i th t he p ro d uc t ion o f c o in , t he re i sn o r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t s uch g roup ing s a re s u i ted t o e xa m in ing a r c haeo log ica l q ue s t ion s r e la t ing t o t he c on sump t ion o r u se o f c o in s o n , a nd b e tween , s i te s . F o r e xamp le , a l though i ti sk nown t ha t c o in s o f t he ma in i s sue p e r iod s a re f ound i n s im i la r r e la t i ve p ropor t ion s o n s i te s t h roughou t s ou the rn B r i ta in , i th a s n o t b een c l ear w he the r p ar t icu lar i s sue s w i th in t ho se p e r iod s d i f fe r s i gn i f ican t ly i n a bundance e i the r b e tween i nd iv idua l s i te s o r i n t he ir w ide r s pa t ia l d i s t r ibut ion . Know ledge o f t he p re sence o r a b sence o f s uch v ar ia t ion m igh t c on t r ibu te t o a n u nde r s tand ing b o th o f p o s s ib le means b y wh ich c o in w a s i n je c ted i n to c i rcu la t ion , a nd o f t he p hy s ica l e x ten t o f t ha t c i rcu la t ion . I ft hen , a s m igh t r e a sonab ly b e s u spe c ted , t he i s sue p e r iod g roup ing s l e ad t o al o s s o f i n fo r m a t ion t ha t m igh t o therw i se a l low d i scr im ina t ion b e tween s i te s o r b e tween p a t tern s o f c o in c i rcu la t ion a nd u se , i si tp o s s ib le t od e te rm ine mo re s en s i t ive g roup ing c r i te r ia? A l terna t ive ly , i si tn e ce s sary t o g roup t ype s a t a l l ; m igh t t he re n o t b e c e r ta in i nd iv idua l c o in t ype s wh ich c ou ld a c t a s d i scr im ina tory i nd ica to r s? Num i sma t i s t s h ave a s cr ibed d a te s o f i s sue t ob o th g roup s a nd i nd iv idua l c o in s w i th v a ry ing d eg ree s o f p rec i s ion . S ome i s sue s may b e d a ted t o ap ar t icu lar y ear o r r ange o f y ear s , wh i l s t many o the r s h ave t he ir i n i t ia l , i fn o t f i na l , d a te o f m in t ing a s s igned t o ap a r t icu lar mon th o r e ven p ar t icu lar d ay . T he se d a te s a re n o t f i xed a nd t he re i sa lway s s ome d eba te o ve r t he d a t i ng o f c er ta in t ype s . Howeve r t he d a te s p rov ided i nc ur ren t c a ta logue s may b e t aken a s ag en e ra l ly r e l iab le g u ide a nd much o f t he d i f fe rence s b e tween c a ta logue s a re c onf ined t o m ino r a d ju s tmen t s t o t he s t ar t o r f i n i sh d a te s o f p roduc t ion a nd t o i n terna l s equence s o f d ie s w i th in t he p roduc t ion l i fe o f as i ng le t ype . T he CO INTYPE f i le w h ich p rov ide s t he d a t ing i n forma t ion i n t he d a taba se i sl e s s p re c i se t han t he c a ta logue s , g i v ing o n ly a n i n i t ia l a nd f i na l y ear o f m in t ing . Th i s i st he h ighe s t l e ve l o f p re c i s ion c ommon t o a l i s sue s i n t he ma jo r c a ta logue s . T h i s c an l e ad t o p rob lem s u n le s s s u f f ic ien t c a re i st aken w hen d e s ign ing t he c ompu te r p rog ram s t ha t a s s ign d a te s t o t he i nd iv i d ua l f i nd s o n ay ea r b y y ea r b a s i s . F o r e xamp le , i fc o in s a re d iv ided e qualy b e tween a l l p o s s i b le y ear s o f i s sue t he e f fe c t i st o i nf la te t he n umbe r a s s igned t o y ear s i n wh ich o ne i s sue

6 4

e nd s a nd a no the rb eg in s . A rguab ly , t h i s n eed n o t b e ac au se f o r c once rn i ft he s o le p urpo se i st o c ompare d i s t r ibu t i on s u s ing s t a t i s t ica l p rocedure s w he re i ts hou ld o n ly b e n e ce s sary t oe n su re t ha t l i ke i sc om p ared w i th l i ke . Howeve r , t o b e j udged w o r thwh i le , t he r e su l t s o f a ny c ompar i son , whe the r a u toma ted o r s imp ly v i sua l , mu s t e ven tualy b e p re sen ted i n af o rm t ha t c l ea r ly c ommun ica te s u sefu l i n forma t ion t o ah uman o b se rve r . I n many o f t he mo re u se fu l f o rm s o f g raph ica l p re sen ta t ion o f t he c hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f c o in s , i n c lud ing h i s tog ram s a nd c umu la t ive f r equency p lo t s , t he p re sence o f a r t i f ic ia l ly i nf la ted v a lue s i nc e r ta in y ear s h ave b een f ound t o h inde r u nder s tand ing . I ti sn o t s imp ly aq ue s t ion o f a e s the t ic s . S eve ra l s o lu t ion s a re p o s s ib le . C o in s m igh t b e a s s igned o n ly t o ap ar t icu lar y ear ; f o r e xam p l e , t he f i r s t o r c en t ra l y ea r o f t he i r p o s s ib le r ange . A l te rna t ive ly , a nd t h i s i st he me thod a dop ted h e re , c o in s w i th a n m in t ing l i fe o f t wo o r mo re y ea r s c an b e t r ea ted a s i ft he ir p ro d uc t ion b egan h a l f w ay t h rough t he f i r s t y ea r o f i s sue a nd e nded h a l f w ay t h rough t he f i na l y ea r . T ho se i s sued i n as i ng le y ea r o n ly a re , o f c ou r se , a s s igned e n t i re ly t o t ha t y ea r . I n p ar t , t he c ho ice b e tween s uch me thod s i se s sen t ia l ly a rb i t rary f o r t he re a re i sn o c e r ta in ty t ha t c o ins w e re p roduced a nd , mo re i mpor tan t ly , d i s t r ibu ted e ven ly t h roughou t t he ir a ppa ren t p e r iod o f i s sue . I ndeed i th a s b een s ugge s ted , q u i te p l au s ib ly , t ha t c o in s w e re s imp ly s t ockp i led a t t he m in t s u n t i l s uch t ime a s t hey w e re n eeded . E qua l ly , h oweve r , i tw ou ld b e u n sa fe t o a s sume t ha t a l l t he c o in s o f as i ng le t ype w e re s en t o u t f r om t he m in t a to ne t ime . T he re i ss imp ly n o c l ear r e la t ion sh ip , b eyond o rde r o f o ccur rence , b e tween t he d a te s o f m in t ing , i n i t ia l i n je c t ion i n to w ha teve r f orm o f c i r cu la t ion , a nd f i na l d epo s i t ion . S im i la r me thod s c an b e e mp loyed w hen a s s ign ing c o in s t o t he r e ign s o f i nd iv idua l r u le r s o r t o i s sue p er iod s . R e ign s a re d ea l t w i th e xac t ly a s ap e r iod o f p roduc t ion ; t ho se l a s t ing mo re t han o ne y ea r a re t r ea ted a s i ft hey b eg in h a l f -way t h rough t he f i r s t y ear a nd e nd h a l f -way t h rough t he f i na l y ear . I n t he c a se o f i s sue p er iod s i ti s ac harac te r i s t ic o f t he d a te s c ho sen t o d e l im i t t he p er iod s t ha t mo s t c o in s f a l l a u toma t ica l ly w i th in a s i ng le p e r iod . T hu s i ti so n ly n e ce s sary t o c he ck t ha t t he f i r s t y ear o f i s sue i se qua l t o o r l a te r t han t he f i r s t y ea r o f t he p e r iod , a nd t ha t t he f i na l y ea r o f i s sue i sn o l a te r t han t he f i r s t y ea r o f t he n ex t p e r iod . Whe re t he i s sue d a te s s pan p ar t s o f t wo p e r iod s , t he c o in i sa s s igned t o wh icheve r p er iod c on t a in s t he g rea te r p ar t o f i t s p roduc t ion l i fe . I f ac o in s hou ld f al e qualy b e tween t wo p e r iod s , t hen i ti sa s s igned t o t he f i r s t p e r iod . T h i s m e thod f o l low s c l o se ly t ha t emp loyed , p e rhap s n o t a lway s s o me chan ica l ly , when a s s ign ing c o in s manualy t o ap e r iod . T urn ing n ow f r om q ue s t ion s o f t he me thod t o t he e xam ina t ion o f t he c h rono log ica l d i s t r i b u t ion o f ma te r ia l , f i g . 4 .3 s how s t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f i den t i f ied f our th c en tu ry c o in s s epara ted i n to t he ir d i f fe ren t s t a tu s g roup s . I tm igh t b e e xpe c ted t ha t t he e xac t ly i den t i f ied ma te r ia l ( f ig . 4 .3a ) w ou ld c l o se ly r ef le c t t he o ve ra l l c hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fi den t i f ied c o in s . Th i s h oweve r i sn o t t he c a se . A l though e ach s t a tu s g roup s how s t he ma jo r p eak s o f c o in p roduc t i on , o r a t l e a s t d epo s i t ion , t ha t a pp ly t o a l B r i t i sh s i te s , t he r e la t ive s i ze s o f t he se p eak s a re n o t a ta l c on s i s ten t b e tween t he d i ag ram s . I ti sa l ready w el k nown t ha t t he i r regu lar ma te r ia l i sd om ina ted b y c o in s mode l led o n t he p ro to type i s sue s o f t he 3 30 's a nd o n t he F EL T EMP R EPARAT IO i s sue s o f t he 3 50 's ( f ig . 4 .3d ) , b u t c on s ide rab le , t hough l e s s p ronounced , v ar ia t i on i sa l so v i s ib le i n t he o the r c a tegor ie s i lu s t ra ted h e re . I n p ar t icu lar , t he ma te r ia l o f t he t wo l a te r p eaks , 3 64 -75 a nd 3 88 -92 , e n joy s a much s t ronge r r ep re sen ta t ion i n t he t wo ' A s ' g roup s t han i n t he e xac t ly i den t i f ied c a tegory . T he se d i f fe rence s a re l a rge ly a r te fac t s o f t he i den t if ica t ion p roce s s a nd t he r e la t ive s u rv iva l o f s ome o f t he d e ta i l s o f t he s ur face d e s ign s o f d i f fe ren t i s sue s . T he a ppea rance o f t he d i ag rams f o r b o th ' A s ' c a tego r ie s a nd f o r t he i r regu la r g roup r ef le c t s t he w ay i n wh ich i n com p le te ly i den t i f ied a nd i r regu lar ma te r ia l i su sualy r e co rded i n t he c o in l i s t s . T he se c o in s a re n orma l ly a s s igned t o t he f i r s t p ro to type t o b e f ound i n t he c a ta logue . T hey t hu s r e f lec t t he o rde r ing b o th c h rono log ica l a nd b y m in t o f t he c a ta logue s . F o r e xamp le , a s w il b e s een b e low , a ny i n comp le te ly i den t i f ied c o in s w i th a G LOR IA ROMANORVM r e ve r se w ou ld b e a s s igned t o t he y ear s o f i s sue o f t he f i r s t p ro to type b ear ing t h i s r e ve r se ( 364 -7 ) , d e sp i te t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f p roduc t ion a t a ny t ime b e tween 3 64 a nd 3 75 . I ts hou ld b e s t re s sed t ha t t h i s i s a n e f fe c t o f t he c onven t iona l p rac t ice o f c o in i den t if ica t ion t ha t i sn o t s een w hen c o in s a re d iv ided i n to t he c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod s . I ti s n o t i n t roduced b y t he a u toma ted d a t ing

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C hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f d a te o f s t r ik ing o f i den t if ied f our th c en tury c o ins : ( a ) E xac t ly i den t if ied , ( b ) A s— same m in t , ( c ) A s —o the r m in t , a nd ( d ) c op ie s ( by d a te o f p ro to type ) .

m e thod e mp loyed h e re , b u t o n ly b e come s a ppa ren t w hen c o in s a re d iv ided b e tween s hor te r i s sue p e r iod s . I n p r inc ip le i tw ou ld b e p o s s ib le t o s p read a l s uch i n comp le te ly i den t i f ied c o ins o ve r t he f u l l r ange o f p o s s ib le i s sue d a te s . Mo s t o f t he i n format ion n ece ssary t o d o t h i s , i n c lud ing r e ve r se a nd o bve r se l e gend s e t c , i sa l ready i n t he d a taba se . S ome e x t ra i n fo rma t ion w ou ld b e n eeded t o p rov ide a n i nd ica t ion o f w h ich t ype s c an b e g rouped o n n um i sma t ic c r i te r ia i n to c ohe ren t s e r ie s o f i s sue s . I ndeed i tm igh t p rove p o s s ib le t o g ene ra te a p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he d a te o f m in t ing f o r a ny p ar t icu la r c omb ina t ion o f l e gend s a nd d e s ign s o b served o n a c o in . S uch a n a pp roach m igh t f o rm t he b a s i s o f a k now ledge b a sed c ompu te r s y s tem d e s igned t o a ch ieve t he max imum u se o f t he a va i lab le d a ta b y mak ing i n fe rence s f r om b o th t he d a ta a nd t he c a ta logue i n forma t ion . A l though t h i s i s a n e xcelen t a ppl icat ion f o r t he e xam ina t ion o f t he p e r formance o f a r chaeo log ica l k now ledge b a sed s y s tem s i th a s n o t b een p ur sued h e re b e cau se i tm igh t s ugge s t ad eg ree o f p rec i s ion t ha t i s n o t a pp rop r ia te t o t he m a jo r i ty o f t he d a ta . S u ff ic ien t w o rk i n t h i s d i rec t ion h a s b een u nder taken t os how t ha t s uch as y s tem s hou ld b e r egarded a s e xpe r imen ta l a nd s hou ld n o t b e emp loyed i n s i tua t ion s w he re

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t h ei n fe rence me chan i sm i sn o t f uly u nde r s tood . T he s pec i f ica t ion o f i n comp le te i d en t i f icat ion i n t he c o in l i s t s , a nd t he t wo ' A s ' c a tego r ie s e mp loyed h e re a re s imp ly i n adequa te t o c ap ture t he e n t i re r ange o fu nce r ta in ty i ni d en t i f ica t i on . I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t od i s t ingu i sh c o in s f o r wh ich o n ly t h e g ene r ic f o rm s o f t h e r e ve r se a nd o bve r se d e s ign s h ave b een r e cogn i sed a s t ho se o f ap ar t icu lar m in t , f r om t ho se w he re t he u nce r ta in ty i so ve r n o mo re t han a s ma l l d e ta i l o f t he m in t ma rk . I n t he f o rme r c ase , t he r e su l t ing u nce r ta in ty i n d a t ing m igh t c ove r t e n o r mo re y ear s , w he rea s t he l a t te r d i s t inc t ion m igh ti mp ly ad i f fe rence n o g rea te r t han as i ng le y ear , i ns ome i n s tance s o n ly af ew mon th s . T he r equ iremen t s f o rb rev i ty a nd c onc i se p re sen ta t ion o fc o in l i s t s , t o ge the r w i th ap o s s ib ly j u s t if iab le f e el ing t ha t t h e re i sl i t t le n eed t o d wel o n o therw ise u nrema rkab le i n comp le te ly i d en t i f ied c o in s , e n su re t h a t f ew n um i smat i s t s p rov ide s u f f ic ien t i n forma t ion w i th in t he ir c o in l i s t s t o m ake t he d i f fe rence s b e tween t he se c a tego r ie s c l ea r . A l though s ome s t i l l a dvoca te c omp le te r e co rd ing o f o b served d e ta i l s w he re p o s s ib le i ti sn owaday s a n e xcep t iona l p rac t ice a nd i si n var iab ly l im i ted t o c o in s e r ie s wh ich l a ck a dequa te c a ta logue s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , C a sey , 1 986 , 1 52 -3) . I n f i g . 4 .4 t h e v ar iou s s t a tu s g roup s h ave b een c omb ined i nd i f fe ren t w ay s i no rde r t oi lu s t r a te t he e x ten t o f t he b i a s i n t roduced i n t he i d en t i f ica t ion a nd r e co rd ing p roce s se s , a nd t o a t temp t t og i ve ac l ea re r o ve ral p i c ture . When t h e ` A s— same m in t ' m a te r ia l i sa dded t o t h e ' Exac t ' g roup ( f ig . 4 .4b ) t he e f fe c t i st o s t reng then t he r ep re sen ta t ion o f e ach o f t he m a jo r p eak s , w i th i n c rea s ing e f fec t t owa rd s t he l a te r p a r t o f t he c en tury . T he a s s ignmen t o f c o in s t o t h e f i r s t a pp rop r ia te c a ta logue e n t ry i s c l ea r ly v i s ib le i n t he i s sue s o f 3 64 -75 . H e re , a ny i n comp le te ly i d en t i f ied m a te r ia l w i th G LOR IA ROMANORVM o r S ECVR ITAS R E IPVBL ICAE r e ve r se i si n var iab ly a s s igned t ot he e ar ly i s sue s o f t he y ear s 3 64 -7 r a the r t han 3 67 -75 . Add i t i on o f t he ' A s —o the r m in t ' c a tegory e xace rba te s t h i s p rob lem ( f ig . 4 .4c ) . C ompar i son w i th t h e ' Exac t ' m a te r ia l , w he re t he e a rl ie r i s sue s a r e s l igh t ly l e s s a bundan t t han t ho se o f t he r ema inde r o f t h e p er iod , c onf i rm s t ha t t h is i sa n a r te fac t o f t he i den t if i ca t ion p roce s s . I ft he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he e xac t ly i d en t i f ied c o in s c an b e c on s ide red a s ar e l iab le g u ide t öt he r e la t ive v o lume s o f t h e se s ucce s s ive i s sue s t he i n comp le te ly i den t if ied m a te r ia l i ss e en t o g i ve a f a l se i mp re s s ion o ft h e i r r e la t ive p ropor t ion s . T h i s e f fec t i sn o t s e en i n t he f i na l p eak w he re t he V ICTOR IA AVGGG i s sue s o f V a len t in ian I , T heodo s iu s Ia nd A rcad iu s b e tween 3 88 a nd 3 92 s t rong ly o u tnumbe r i mmed ia te ly p re ced i n g a nd s ucceed ing i s sue s . A g l ance a tt he c a ta logue s s how s t ha t t he re i sl i t t le o ppo r tun i ty f o r s u ch c onfu s ion t oa r i se w i th t he se i s sue s . B o th o f t he ' A s ' c a tegor ie s s how as im i la r i n i t ia l i n c rea se a te ach o f t he m a jo r p eak s i n t he f i r s t h a l f o f t he c en tury ; i n t he e ar ly a nd m id -330 's a nd l a te r 3 40 's . Howeve r , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e l a te r p er iod s , t he i n i t ia l i n c rea se i n t he f i r s t o f t he se p eak s c an a l so b e d e te c ted i n t he e xac t ly i den t if ied m a te r ia l . Aga in i t i s n e ce s sary t o c on s ide r w he the r t h is i s ag enu ine p henomenon o ft h e d a ta o rs imp ly t he r e su l t o ft h e i d en t i f ica t ion a nd r e co rd ing p roce s se s . T he i s sue s o f 3 30 -335 a ppea r t ob e b i a sed t oward s t he e a rl ie r t ype s . A m a jo r s ou rce o f t h is b i a s m ay b e i n t he c omb ina t ion o f t h e d a t ing s c heme u sed b y B ruun i n R IC v o l . V I I a nd a s im i la r u se o f t h e f i r s t a pp rop r ia te t ype t ob e f ound i nt he c a ta logue i nt h ep repara t ion o fc o in l i s t s . P e rhap s t h i s i nd ica te s at e ndency t owa rd s o ve r -con f iden t i den t if i ca t ions o n t he p a r t o f s ome n um i sma t i s t s . S ub sequen t n um i sma t ic w o rk h a s q ue s t ioned a nd r e v i sed B ruun 's d at ing , a nd m any p re fe r t he a ppa ren t ly l e s s p rec ise s cheme o f LRBC wh ich p rov ide s a n o rde r ing o f i s sue s w i thou t d i sc r im ina t ion b y d a te . S eve ra l d e ta i l s o f t h i s o rde r ing a re s uppo r ted b y mo re r e cen t w o rk ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , C ar son , 1 979 , 7 2 -94 ) . S im i la r ly , t he s cheme u sed b y K en t i n R IC v o l . V I I I i n c lude s an umbe r o f c hange s t o t h e d a t ing g i ven i n LRBC , e spec ia l ly f o r t he c o in s o ft he l a te 3 30 's a nd 3 40 's . Howeve r , d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f t he p re sen t m a te r ia l s ugge s t s t ha t c o in s w i th t he T r ie r w rea th a nd b ranch m in t m ark s a re s ub s tan t ialy l e s s c ommon t han t ho se w i th o the r m ark s f r om t h i s m in t b e tween 3 30 a nd 3 35 . T he se m a rk s a re a s soc ia ted w i th t he G LOR IA E XER C ITVS ( two s t anda rd s ) i s sue s f o r C on s tan s a nd s hou ld t h e re fo re d a te t o t h e l a te r p ar t o f t h i s p e r iod [ i b id : 7 2 ] , e ven i fn o t a l t ype s b ear ing t h em a re t h emse lve s l a te r t han h i s n om ina t ion a s C ae sar i n D e cembe r 3 33 . I ft h e r ema in ing t ype s c an a l l b e a s s igned t o 3 30 -3 , t hen t he

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C hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f d a te o f s t r ik ing o f i d en t i f ied f our th c en tury c o in s : ( a ) A s— same m in t p lu s A s —o the r m in t , ( b ) E xac t p lu s A s— same m in t , ( c ) E x a c tp lu s b o th A s c a tego r ie s , a nd ( d ) a l i d en t if ied c o in si n c lud ing c op ie s .

a pparen t i n i t ia l p eak i n t h i s p e r iod may i ndeed b e ar e a l f e a ture o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion r e la t ing e i the r t om in tp roduc t ion o r t ot h e s upp ly t ot he p rov ince . O the r s im i lar p a t te rn s , w he re a p ar t icu la r s e r ie s o f t ype s a ppear s t o b eg in w i th a l a rge i s sue , f o l lowed b y l owe r l e ve l s i n s ub sequen t y ear s c an b e s e en i nt he L ondon S OL II NV ICTO COM IT I i s sue s f r om 3 10 o nward s , a nd t he T r ie r B EATA T RA 1VQV ILL ITAS -V OT IS X X a nd C AESARVM NOSTRORVM -V OT X i s sue s o f3 21-3 . T he se a ppear t ob e r e a l f e a tu re so ft h e c o in s upp ly t ot he p rov ince a s w il b e a rgued i n t he d i scu s s ion o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion b y m in t s b e low . F o r t h e momen t , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he c on t r ibu t ion o f t he ' A s ' c a tego r ie s i sa lmo s t i n s ign if i can t i n t he se c a se s a nd t he p a t tern i sc l ea r ly v i s ib le o n ly i n t he e xac t ly i d en t i f ied m a te r ia l . T he a dd i t ion o f t h e i r regu la r m a te r ia l i n f i g . 4 .4d d oe s l i t t le t o e a se t he i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e d i ag ram . T he m a jo r e f fec t i st oc omp re s s a l i s sue s o the r t han t ho se f ew t h a t w e re c op ied mo s t r e gu lar ly . I ndeed , i ft he s i ng le p eak r ep re sen t ing t h eF EL T EMP R EPARAT IO c op ie s w e re t ob e d i sp layed t oi t s t r ue h e igh t -o ve r t w ice t ha t i nd ica ted o n t h e p re sen td i ag ram -much o f t he v ar ia t ion i n o the r i s sue s w ou ld b e h ope le s s ly l o s t . T h i s c ou ld b e o ve rcome b y t h e u se o f ,

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f o r e xamp le , al o gar i thm ic s c a l ing o f t he n umbe r o f c o in s , b u t s uch a n a rb i t rary a b s t rac t ion f r om t he o r ig ina l d a ta w ou ld b e e qualy l i ke ly t oo b scure t he b a s ic f o rm o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion . T he re i so f c our se l i t t le j u s t i f ica t ion f o r c omb in ing t he r egu la r a nd i r regu lar i s sue s i n t h i s w ay . I ti sw ide ly b el ieved ( f o r e xamp le , s ee Reece , 1 978b : 1 30 ) t ha t t he l a t te rb e long t ot ho se y ear s o f l ow r egu la r m in t s upp ly ( i n t he 3 40 's a nd l a te -350 's t o e ar ly -360 's ) f olow ing t he i s sue o f t he ir mo s t c ommon r egu lar p ro to type s . I ft he se t wo g roup s w e re t o b e a ve raged o ve r t he se t wo p er iod s o f m in ima l r egu lar s upp ly t he r e su l t w ou ld b e ar ema rkab ly e ven d i s t r ibu t i on , i n t e rm s o f c o in s p e r y ear , b e tween 3 30 a nd 3 75 . Howeve r a t t ract ive t h i s p ropo s i t ion a ppear s , t od o s o w ou ld b e t oi n t roduce af u r the r l a ye r o f i n te rp re ta t ion wh ich t he se d iag ram s a re n o t i n tended t op rov ide . A l though t he p rob lem r ema ins t ha t many o f t he mo re p ro to typ ica l c op ie s a re d i f f icu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh f r om t he r egu la r ma te r ia l , s epara te d i sp lay o f r egu la r a nd i r regu lar c o in s w ou ld a ppear t o b e t he p re fe rab le c our se o f a c t ion . Whe re t he p re c i se d a te o f i s sue o r t he m in t o f o r ig in a re i mpor tan t f a c tor s o n ly t he e xac t ly i den t i f ied c o in s s hou ld b e u sed . T he se a re p rob a b ly l e s s l i ke ly t o i n c lude u n re cogn i sed c op ie s t han t ho se o f t he t wo ' A s ' c a tego r ie s . I ft he e xac t d a te i sl e s s i mpo r tan t t he i n comp le te ly i den t i f ied ma ter ia l c an b e i n c luded . B o th v i ew s o f t he d a ta h ave t he ir own l im i ta t ion s . I n t he f o rme r c a se c o in s o f t he Va len t ianan ic a nd T he ,odo s ian p e r iod s w i l l t end t o b e u nde r -rep re sen ted , whe rea s i fa l a ppa ren t ly r egu la r i den t i f ied c o in s a re g rouped t oge the r t he c hance s o fi nc lu s ion o fu n recogn i sed c op ie s i n c rea se s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion b y d a te o f m in t ing o f t he f our th c en tury b ronze i n B r i ta in i sc l ear ly mo re c omp lex t han i sr e vea led b y t he c onven t iona l p rac t ice o fi s sue p e r iod g roup ing s . A t t he h ighe r l e ve l o f r e so lu t ion p rov ided b y t he a nnua l f i gure s t he f i r s t i s sue p e r iod , f r om 2 94 t o 3 17 , a ppear s t o b e d iv i s ib le i n to t wo d i s t inc t p ha se s . B e fo re 3 10 t he q uan t i ty o f c o in i s l ow , a ve rag ing 8 .4 c o in s p e r y ea r o r 0 .74 c o in s p e r y ea r p e r t hou sand . Wi th in t h i s f i r s t p ha se i ti s p o s s ib le t o d e te c t as l igh t u pward t r end , b u t i n 3 10 t he a nnua l f i gure j ump s b r ief ly t o 5 .6 c o in s p e r t hou sand . Th is l e ve l i sn o t s u s ta ined , w i th t he r ema inde r o f t he p er iod a ve rag ing s ome 3 .2 c o in s p e r t hou sand . N eve r the le s s , t h i s i ss t i l l s ome f our t ime s t he p re -31 0a ve rage . W i th in t he s e cond i s sue p e r iod , f r om 3 17 t o 3 30 , t he g ene ra l ly l ow l e ve l o f ma te r ia l f r om 3 24 t o t he e nd o f t he p e r iod i sw e l l k nown . T he a nnua l f i gu re s s hcw w hy t h i s e f fec t ive ly s ho r tened p er iod m anage s a n o ve ral l e ve l o f 4 .9 c o in s p e r t hou sand , s l igh t ly mo re t han t h ree t ime s t ha t o f i t s p redece s so r . F rom a l ow l e ve l o f 1 . 9 i n 3 17 , t he a nnua l f i gure r i se s s harp ly t o am ax imum o f o ve r 1 2 c o in s p e r t hou sand i n 3 21 , a nd s u s ta in s al e ve l a round 8 u n t i l 3 24 . T hen f o l low s ar ap id d ecl ine . S ome a spe c t s o f t he v ar ia t ion w i th in t he t h ird i s sue p e r iod h ave a l ready b een d i scu s sed a bove . F rom t he a ppearance o f t he a nnua l f i gu re s t h ree d i s t inc t p ha se s a nd t he b eg inn ing o f a f our th c an b e i den t if ied . The f i r s t , f r om 3 30 t o 3 35 , a s a l ready s ugge s ted h a s a n a r t i f ic ia l i n i t i a l p eak , b u t may s how a r ea l d e cl ine i n t he l a s t t wo y ear s . O ve ral , i ta ve rage s j u s t o ve r 3 2 c o in s p e r y ear p e r t hou sand . T he s e cond p ha se e x tend s t o 3 40 a nd a ve rage s al owe r f i gure o f a bou t 2 4 , s im i lar t o t ha t f o r t he i s sue p e r iod a s aw ho le . Mo s t o f t he r ema inde r o f t he p e r iod i so ne o fv i r tualy n o n ew s upp ly , b u t i n t he f i na l t wo y ear s t he a nnua l f i gure , a t5 2 c o in s p e r t hou sand , i st he h ighe s t o f a ny y ear i n t he f our th c en tury a nd , i ndeed , o f a ny c en tury . I t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he d a t ing emp loyed h e re i st ha t o f K en t i n R IC v o l V I I I . Un l ike t he e a rl ie r d a t ing o f LRBC , K en t a rgue s t ha t t he V ICTOR IAE DD AVGG Q NN i s sue s s hou ld b e a s s igned t o ad a te a t t he v e ry e nd o f t he i s sue p e r iod [ Ken t , 1 981 , 1 31 ] . T he e f fec t i s t o c r ea te t he h ia tu s b e fo re t he f i na l t wo y ear s o f t h i s p e r iod a nd t o o b scure t he t r an s i t ion b e tween t h i s p e r iod a nd t he n ex t . T he f olow ing p e r iod , f r om 3 48 t o 3 64 i sa ga in o ne o f l ow f i gure s : 5 .2 c o in s p e r y ea r p e r t hou sand o ve ral . Aga in t he re i si n te rna l v ar ia t ion . I n i t ialy , ar ap id d ecl ine f o l low s t he p eak o f 3 47 /8 , t e rm ina t ing i n 3 52 . T he a ve rage f i gure f o r t h i s p er iod i s8 . T he h ighe r v a lue , 1 9 , i n 3 53 i sn o t r ef le c ted i n t he e xac t ly i den t if ied ma te r ia l wh ich s how s t h i s y ear a s ac on t inua t ion o f t he p rev iou s d e cl ine . Th i s w ou ld s eem t o r e su l t f r om a c omb ina t ion o f t he i n i t ia l p eak e f fe c t d i scu s sed a bove i n r e la t ion t o t he ' A s ' c a tego r ie s a nd p e rhap s an umbe r o f i r regu lar c o in s modeled o n p ro to type s o f t h i s p e r iod t ha t h ave n o t b een c or rec t ly i den t if ied a s c op ie s . T he r ema inde r o f t h i s p er iod d iv ide s i n to t wo p ha se s . T he f i r s t , u p t o 3 60 w i th j u s t o ve r 2 c o in s p e r t hou sand i ne ach y ea r , a nd t he s e cond c ove r ing t he l a s t f ou r y ear s a ta bou t 0 .3 .

6 9

T he f o rm o f t h e n ex t t wo i s sue p e r iod s i sc l ea r ly r ef lec ted i n t h e a nnua l f i gure s . I n b o th c a se s , f r om 3 64 t o 3 75 a nd f r om 3 75 t o 3 88 , t h e a nnua l d a ta s how s aq u i te c on s i s ten t v a lue a c ro s s t he w ho le p er iod , a l though i n b o th c a se s t h e re i sa n i nd icat ion o f d i s t inc t p ha se s . T he i n i t ia l p eak o f 3 64 -7 h a s a l ready b een d i scu s sed , a nd t h e i mp re s s ion g i ven b y t h e e xac t ly i d en t if ied ma ter ia l i st ha t as l igh t ly l owe r n umbe r o f c o in s o f t h e se y ear s w a s d epo s i ted t h an t ho se o f t he r ema inde r o f t h e p er iod w he re t h e a nnua l f i gu re i sj u s t o ve r 2 0 c o in s p e r t hou sand . T he c ons i s tency b e tween 3 67 a nd 3 75 r e su l t s f r om t h e l a ck o f d i f fe ren t ia t ion o f i s sue d a te s o f t h e n ume rou s d i f fe ren t m in t m arks o f t h i s p e r iod . A f te r 3 75 t h e re i s as l igh t t r ace o f ad ownward t r end w i th in a n o ve ral a ve rage f i gure o f a bou t 1 . 6 c o in s p e r y ear p e r t hou sand . T h i s i s ap er iod o f ac on s is ten t ly l ow v o lume o f c o in w i th in w h ich t h ree p o s s ib ly s epara te p ha se s , 3 76 -8 , 3 79 -83 a nd 3 84 -8 , c an b e g l imp sed . T he m a ter ia l o f t he f i na l c onven t iona l p er iod i sl a rge ly c oncen t ra ted i n to t h e f i r s t f ou r y ear s 3 88 -92 . H e re , a n a ve rage a nnua l f i gure o f 2 2 c o in s p e r t hou sand i st e n t ime s t h a t o f 3 94 /5 . T he r ema inde r o ft he p er iod a ccoun t s f o r am e re h andfu l o fc o in s . F rom t h is v i sua l i n spe c t ion o f t he a nnua l f i gu re s i ti sa pparen t t h a t t he m e thod o f d i v id ing t h e m a ter ia l b e tween i s sue p er iod s h a s s ome m er i t . Howeve r , i n terna l v ar ia t ion w i th in t h e c onven t iona l p e r iod s , p ar t icu lar ly t ho se o f t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e f our th c en tury , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e re i s ac ase f o r i n c rea s ing t h e r e so lu t ion o f t he p e r iod s e mp loyed . Aga in s t t h i s i tc an b e a rgued t ha t b ecau se o f t he l a ck o f p re c i s ion i n i d en t if ica t ion o f av e ry h i gh p ropor t ion o f f i nd s t he m a ter ia l d oe s n o t w ar ran t t h i s f i ne r r e so lu t ion . I f t h e l im i ta t ion s a nd p o ten t ia l s ource s o f b i a s a re c l ear ly u nde r s tood , t h en t he u se o f s hor te r p er iod s t h a t r e f lec t t h e o f ten c on s iderab le i n te rna l d i f fe rence s w i th in t h e c onven t iona l p er iod s r e su l t s i n as i gn if i can t i mp rovemen ti nt h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f t he v ar ia t ion s b e tween i s sue s . On t he b a s i s o f t h e a bove d e scr ip t ion t h e f o l low ing s e t o f ' m in imum i s sue p e r iod s ' c an b e p ropo sed a s t ho se t ha t mo s t c l ear ly r ef lec t t h e s hape o f t h e c h rono log ica l d i s tr ibu t ion b y d a te o f m int ing o fc o in s r e cove red f r om B r i t i sh s i te s :

p er iod

f r om

t o

p er iod

f r om

t o

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

2 94 3 10 3 18 3 25 3 30 3 36 3 41 3 47 3 50 3 54

3 09 3 17 3 24 3 29 3 35 3 40 3 46 3 49 3 53 3 60

1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

3 61 3 64 3 68 3 76 3 79 3 84 3 88 3 93 3 96

3 63 3 67 3 75 3 78 3 83 3 87 3 92 3 95 o nward s

C e r ta in o f t he se p er iod s r ep re sen t s p e r iods i n w h ich v e ry f ew c o in s f ound o n B r i t i sh s i te s w e re m in ted . A l though t h e se s hou ld b e i n c luded i n d i ag ram s s uch a s b ar c har t s s how ing t he s t r ik ing d a te s o f c o in s f r om a s i te s o a s t o ma in ta in c hrono log ica l c omp le tene s s a nd c on t i nu i ty , t he a b sence o f c o in s mean s t ha t t hey a re o f l i t t le u se f o r c ompara t ive p urpo se s . P e r iod 7 , 3 41-6 , r e p re sen t s t h e h i a tu s i n n ew b ronze i s sue s d i scus sed a bove . S im i lar ly , c o in s o f p e r iod 1 a re v i r tualy a b sen t f r om B r it i sh s i te s . Ac a re fu l e xam ina t ion o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he se f ew c o in s s how s t ha t t hey h ave l i t t le i fa ny v a lue i n d i sc r im ina t ing b e tween p a t tern s o f c o in d epo s i t ion . C onsequen t ly t hey h ave n o t b een u sed i n a ny o f t h e a na ly se s d e s c r ibed i n t h i s a nd t he f olow ing c hap te r . I n s tead , t he f ew c o in s o f t he se s hor t p e r iod s h ave b een g rouped w i th t ho se o f t he i r r e spec t ive s ub sequen t p e r iod s . T he c o in s o f 3 76 -87 ( pe r iod s 1 4 1 6 ) a r e o n ly s l igh t ly mo re a bundan t a nd p e rhap s s hou ld a l so b e c omb ined i n to a s i ng le l ow v o lume p er iod . T h i s h a s n o t b een d one , a l though n one o n t h e i n ve s t iga t ion s r epor ted h e re h ave g i ven a ny r e a son t o b el ieve t ha t t he i r s epara t ion i n c rea se s d i sc r im ina t ion b e tween d i f f e ren t d epo s i t iona l p a t te rn s .

7 0

Mo s t o f t he p er iod s c an b e i den t i f ied w i th a s i ng le t ype o r w i th a g roup o f t ype s t ha t , o n n um i sma t ic c r i ter ia , c an b e c on s ide red t oge the r a s ac oheren t s e r ie s o f i s sue s . I n t h is r e spe c t , t he m in imum i s sue p e r iod s c or re spond c l o se ly w i th t he i n ten t ion o f t he c onven t iona l i s sue p er iod s . Howeve r , o ne p rob lem c an a r i se i n a s s ign ing ma te r ia l t o t he se s ho r te r p e r iod s . I n a n umbe r o f c a se s s im i lar t ype s a re i s sued f r om d i f fe ren t m in t s a t s l igh t ly d i f fe ren t , u sualy o ve r lapp ing , d a te s . T he p e r iod d iv i s ion s s ugge s ted h e re a re d e r ived emp ir ica l ly f r om t he B r i t i s h d a ta a nd c an t hu s b e e xpe c ted t o r ef le c t t he d a t ing o f t he i s sue s o f t he d om inan t m in t s . G iven t he o f ten q u i te d i f fe ren t d a t ing o f i s sue s f r om mo re d i s t an t m in t s i ti su n l ike ly t ha t t he se m in imum i s sue p e r iod s w ou ld b e a s a pp rop r ia te i n a n e xam ina t ion o f f i nd s f r om p ro v i nce s b eyond t he n o r th -we s te rn p ar t o f t he Emp ire .

15%

1 0

5

2 9 4

F igure 4 .5 :

3 0 9

3 1 7

3 2 4

3 2 9

3 3 5

3 4 0

3 4 9

3 5 3

3 6 0

3 6 7

3 7 5

3 7 8

3 8 3

3 8 7

3 9 2

3 9 5

4 0 0

C hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f d a te o f s t r ik ing o f i den t if ied f our th c en tury c o in s i n ' m in imum i s sue p e r iod s ' .

T he i n c rea sed r e so lu t ion p rov ided b y b o th t he a nnua l d iag ram s a nd t ho se u s ing t he m in imum i s sue p e r iod s ( f ig . 4 .5) p rov ide s a much mo re d e ta i led a ccoun t o f t he v ar ia t ion i n t he o ve ral p a t tern o f t he ma ter ia l d epo s i ted o n B r i t i sh s i te s t han t ha t o b ta ined b y t he mo re c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod g roup ing s . A l so a ppa ren t f r om t h i s i n i t ia l e xam ina t ion o f t he c hro n o log ica l d i s tr ibu t ion a re t he c on s ide rab le d i f fe rence s i n t he s hape s o f t he d iagram s t ha t c an b e p roduced a cco rd ing t o h ow t he ma te r ia l i ss e le c ted . Th i s mu s t b e r emembe red w hen e xa m in ing p ubl i shed d iag ram s . An i n s i s tence t ha t o n ly e xac t ly i dent if ied ma te r ia l i si n c luded r e su l t s i n s i gn if ican t u nde r -rep re sen ta t ion o f t he l a te r ma te r ia l s imp ly b ecau se t h i s t end s t ob e l e s s p rec ise ly i den t i f ied . T h i s e f fec t may p e rhap s b e f ur the r ampl if ied b y s ome o ve r -conf iden t i d en t i f ica t ion o f t he e arl ie r i s sue s . N ever the le s s , d iag ram s b ased o n a nnua l q uan t i t ie s s how f e a ture s , s uch a s t he i n i t ia l p eak s , wh ich c an d e t rac t f r om a nd c ompl ica te t he p re sen ta t ion o f i n te l l ig ib le i n forma t ion . V i sua l c ompa r i son s may b e h inde red b y t he ir p re sence . The se c anno t a lway s b e d i sm i s sed a s ap roduc t o f t he i den t i f ica t ion p roce s s . T he p r inc ipa l a dvan tage s s een h e re o f b o th o f t he se f orm s o f mo re d e ta i led d iag ram l i e s i n t he i r a b il i ty t o d emon s t ra te t he o f ten c on s ide rab le v ar ia t ion s w i th in i s sue p e r iods . Many o f t he se a re w el k nown w i th in n um i sma t ic c i rc le s b u t a re much l e s s w ide ly a pp re c ia ted among s t a r chaeo log i s t s . E ven i fi tw e re t o a ch ieve l i t t le e l se , a move t oward s mo re d e ta i led p re sen ta t i on m igh t p romo te a w ide r r e cogn i t ion o f t he i nhe ren t c omp lex i ty o f t he c hrono log ica l 7 1

d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he ma ter ia l . T he m in imum i s sue p e r iod d iv i s ions d er ived a bove a re u sed f o r a l l o f t he d i ag rams s how ing t he c hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f s t r ik ing d a te s o f c o in s f r om e ach s i te i n Append ix 6 . F o r e ach s i te a c onven t iona l b ar c har t s how s t he n umbe r o f f i nd s i s sued i n e ach p e r iod s , a nd a s e cond d iag ram s how s t he d ev ia t ion o f t h i s d i s t r ibut ion f r om t ha t o f t he o ve ra l l s amp le . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f f i nd s i sa l so e xp re s sed a s ac umu la t ive p e rcen tage d iag ram , am e thod t ha t h a s b een f ound u se fu l i n t ha t i tp erm i t s ar ap id , b u t o n ly v e ry g ene ra l , c ompar i son b e twe en s i te s . Aga in , t he se a re a ccompan ied b y af ur the r d iag ram s how ing t he d i f fe rence b e tween t he c umu la t ive p e rcen tage f r om t he p ar t icu la r s i te a nd t ha t o f t he o ve ra l l s amp le d i s t r ibu t ion . Among s t t he s t a t i s t ica l t e chn ique s a va i lab le f o r t he c ompar i son o f t he se s e r ia l d i s t r ibu t ion s i st he K o lmogo rov -Sm irnov t e s t [ Darl ing , 1 957 ] . Th i s i s ame thod f o r c ompar ing d i s t r ibut ion s o n t he b a s i s o f t he max imum d i f fe rence b e tween t wo c umu la t ive p e rcen tage c ur ve s . Un l ike mo s t o the r t e chn ique s t ha t m igh t b e u sed f o r c ompar ing c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s , t he Ko lmogo rov -Sm irnov t e s t h a s t he a dvan tage t ha t i t ma in ta in s t he i mpor tance o f t he o rder ing o f t he r e co rded mea suremen t s . I n a dd i t ion t o t h i s f o rma l t e s t , t he p o s i t ion o f t he p o in t o f max imum d i f fe rence c an a l so p rov ide u se fu l i n format ion w hen c ompar ing d i s t r ibu t ion s . Th i s t e chn ique w a s a ppl ied t o t he c ompar i son o f t he c umu la t ive p e rcen tage c ur ve s d e r ived f r om s i te c o in l i s t s a nd i tw a s c l ea r t ha t i td id p rov ide s ome mea sure o f s im i la r i ty o r d i f fe r e nce b e tween t he c o in d i s t r ibu t ion s . An e x ten s ion t o t he t e s t , o r ig ina l ly s ugge s ted t o me b y M . F le t che r , w a s a l so u sed . I n t h i s , t he Ko lmogo rov -Sm irnov t e s t s t a t i s t ic w a s e mp loyed t o g i ve a mea sure o f s im i lar i ty b e tween s i te s a nd a s im i lar i ty ma t r ix w a s b u i l t u p f o r c ompar i s o n s b e tween a l p a ir s o f s i te s . Howeve r , n e i the r t h i s a pp roach n o r t ha t u s ing a mo re c onven t i ona l ma t r ix d e r ived f r om t he n umbe r s o r p ropor t ion s o f c o in s w i th in e ach p e r iod c ou ld b e s hown t o c on ta in c onv inc ing ly d i s t inc t c l u s te r s o f s i te s . A l though t he Ko lmogo rov -Sm irnov t e s t c ou ld c l ear ly d i s t ingu i sh s i te s t ha t w ou ld b e a s s igned t o R ave tz ' t h ree p a t tern s f r om e ach o the r , i tp rov ided n o f ur the r r e f inemen t . Th is w a s n o t s o much a f a i l ing o f t he me thod , r a the r i tw a s r e su l ted f r om t he o ve ra l l h omogene i ty o f t he s amp le . A s R ave tz -h ad i ndeed r e cogn i sed , h e r t h ree p a t tern s w e re n o t d i s t inc t t ype s b u t w e re me re ly c ha rac te r i s t ic p o in t s w i th in ac on t inuum . D e sp i te f a i l ing t o s epara te d i s t inc t c l u s te r s o f s i te s w i th s im i la r p a t tern s o f c o in f i nds , b o th me thod s p rov ided s t rong i nd ica t ion s t ha t c e r ta in g roup s o f s i te s w h ich a ppea red t oh ave f unc t i ona l s im i lar i t ie s d id t end t o s ha re s im i la r p a t tern s . T h i s a ppl ied i n p ar t icu la r t o many o f t he t emp le s , a nd t o al e s se r e x ten t s ome o f t he m ino r u rban c en t re s . T h is i mp re s s ion w a s c on f i rmed i n t he c our se o f a mo re d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f t he s ource s o f v ar ia t ion b e tween s i te s u s ing t he t e chn ique o fp r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na ly s i s . 4 .4 P r inc ipa l C omponen t s a na ly s i s o fi n tra s i te v ar ia t ion Du r ing t he e a r ly s t age s o f t h i s p ro je c t a n i n i t ia l i nve s t iga t ion w a s u nder taken o f t he v ar ia t ion b e tween t he c hrono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s o f d a te s o f i s sue o f r egu lar c o in s f r om a p i lo t s amp le o f 2 6 s i te s i n t he a rea c ove red b y t he mode rn c oun t ie s o f G louce s te r sh ire , Avon a nd n o r th S ome r se t [ Ryan , 1 982 ] . P r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na ly s i s w a s u sed t o e xam ine t he i n te r c or re la t ion s b e tween g roup ing s o f c o in s b a sed o n b o th t he c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod s a nd i n d iv idua l d a te s o f i s sue . The r e su l t s o f t he a na ly s i s o f i s sue p e r iod d a ta s uppo r ted t he v a r ia t i on s i n t yp ica l f orm s o f t he c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion r epor ted b y b o th R ave tz a nd R eece , b u t s t rong ly s ugge s ted t ha t t he re w e re a n umbe r o f s our ce s o f v ar ia t ion ma sked b y t he i s sue p e r iod g roup ing s . F o r e xamp le , t he i s sue s o f 3 30 -5 AD , G LOR IA E XERC ITVS ( 2 s t anda rd s ) , CONSTANT INOPOL IS , V RBS ROMA e t c , a nd t he G LOR IA E XERC ITVS ( 1 s t andard ) i s sue s o f 3 35 -7 w e re s een t o v ary s ub s tan t ialy i n t he i r r e la t ive a bundance . T h is v ar ia t ion i s ma sked w hen t he se c o in s a re g rouped t oge the r i n to as i ng le i s sue p er iod . P r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na ly s i s i s ar e la t ive ly r obu s t t oo l f o r e x t rac t ing o rde r f r om c omp lex d a ta ma tr ice s . I t s ma in v a lue l i e s i n r educ ing t he n umbe r o f v ar iab le s u nde r s t udy w i th m in ima l l o s s o f i n fo rma t ion . T he r e su l t i s an ew s e t o f v ar iab le s o r c omponen t s w h ich a re mu tua l ly o r thogona l , t ha t i st os ay , t hey a re u nco r re la ted w i th e ach o the r . T yp ica l ly , t h i s t e chn ique h a s b een a pp l ied t o d a ta m a tr ice s i n w h ich t he r ow s r ep re sen t o b serva t ion s o r c a se s , a nd t he c o lumn s a re mea su re s o n an umbe r o f i n i t ia l v ar iab le s ' . T he 1 . f o r a n a r chaeo log ica l e xamp le , s e e A lvey , 1 974 ; A lvey , 1 977 , w he re t he c a se s r ep re sen t i nd iv idua l c l ay

7 2

m e thod e mp loyed h e re i ss omewha t d i f fe ren t f r om t h i s n orma l p rac t ice . T he r ow s o f t he d a ta m a t r ix s t il r ep re sent s o b serva t ion s o n t he e n t i t ie s u nde r s t udy , i n t h i s c a se t he i nd iv idua l s i te s , b u t t he c o lumn s r ep re sen t as e r ie s o f c h rono log ica l ly s epa ra te mea suremen t s o n as i ng le v ar iab le , t he n umbe r o f c o in s o r p ropor t ion o f t he s i te t o ta l m in ted i n ap ar t icu lar t ime i n te r v a l . A l though u nu sua l i n a r chaeo logy , t he a ppl ica t ion o f p r inc ipa l c omponent s a na ly s i s t o t ime s e r ie s d a ta h a s b een q u i te w ide sp read e l sewhe re , f o r e xamp le i n t he f i e ld s o f me teo ro l o gy ( e .g . P er ry , 1 970 ) , a nd i ne conom ic g eog raphy ( e .g . J e f f rey , 1 974 ) . P r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na ly s i s i so f ten f olowed b y s ome f o rm o f c l u s te r a na ly s is u s ing t he v a lue s o n e ach o f t he n ew v ar iab le s , t he p r inc ipa l c omponen t s co re s , a s d a ta . T h is a pp roach c an b e j u s t if ied o n ly w hen t he mean ing o f t he n ew v ar iab le s i sc l ea r ly u nde r s tood . Howeve r , t h e n a ture a nd mean ing o f t he c omponen t s t hem se lve s h a s a l l t oo o f ten r e ce ived l i t t le a t ten t i on . T he r eg roup ing o f v ar iab le s i n to c omponen t s may r e su l t i n c omb ina t ion s w h ich a re e xceed ing ly d i ff icu l t , i fn o t i mpo s s ib le , t o i n te rp re t mean ing fu l ly i n r e la t ion t o t he e n t i t ie s u nde r s t udy . N eve r the le s s , t h i s d i f f icu l ty i si nvar iab ly much l e s s a cu te t han i n t he r e la ted t e chn ique o f f a c to r a na ly s i s i n w h ich c omponen t s a re r o ta ted t o p roduce ' f ac to r s ' w h ich may f i t t he d a ta mo re c l o se ly , b u t n eed n o t r ema in o r thogona l . T he a dd i t iona l r o ta t ion may s e ve re ly c ompound t he p rob lem s o f i n te rp re ta t ion o f t he n ew v ar iab le s . T h i s p rob lem a nd t he o f ten i nd i sc r im ina te u se o f g roup ing s b a sed o n s uch u n in te rp re tab le c omponen t s o r f a c tor s h a s b rough t t he se t e chn ique s i n to d i s repu te . T h i s i sp ar t icu lar ly t r ue among s t g eog raphe r s w ho made c on s ide rab le u se o f p r inc ipa l c omponen t s a nd f a c to r a na ly s i s u n t i l t he m id -1970 's , s i nce w hen i th a s a l b u t b een a bandoned . D e sp i te t he p oo r r epu ta t ion t ha t p r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na ly s i s h a s a cqu ired f r om i t s a l l t oo f r equen t m i s -app l ica t ion a nd i t s c l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th t he mo re p rob lema t ic f a c to r a na ly s i s , i t r ema in s u se fu l w he re t he d e r ived c omponen t s c an b e s hown t o b e b o th i n te rp re tab le a nd t o c on t r ibu te t o a n i n c rea sed u nde r s tand ing o f t he s ou rce s o f v a r ia t ion i n t he d a ta . T he r e su l t s o f t he p i lo t s t udy w e re s u ff ic ien t ly e ncourag ing t o s ugge s t t ha t t h i s a pp roach s hou ld b e c on t i nued w i th t he f ul s e t o fd a ta . P r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na ly s i s w a s u sed o n t he a nnua l d a ta a s a n e xp lo ra to ry t oo l t o d e te r m ine t he e x ten t t o wh ich d i f fe ren t c o in i s sue s m igh tb e g rouped t oge the r a cco rd ing t os im i lar i t ie s i n t he ir i n t ra s i te d i s t r ibu t ion s . E s sen t ialy , t h i s i nvo lve s e xam in ing t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he i s sue s f o rm ' n a tu ra l ' g roup ing s w i th in t he d a ta , a nd c ompar ing t he se g roup ing s w i th t he c onven t iona l i s sue p er iod s . T he a na ly s i s o f t he p i lo t s amp le c l ea r ly d emon s t ra ted t he e x ten t o f v ar ia t ion b e tween t he i s sue s o f wha t a re h e re t e rmed m in imum i s sue p er iod s . I n t he a na ly s i s d e sc r ibed h e re c o in s w e re a lo ca ted t o t he se p e r iod s r a the r t han t o t he ir p ar t icu lar y ea r s o f i s sue . S im i lar ly , t he t e chn ique h a s b een a ppl ied t o t he l onge r c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod g roup ing s t o d e term ine t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he se a ccoun t i nd iv idua l ly f o r t he v a r iance i nt he d a ta . A l l i den t if ied f our th -cen tury c o in s w e re s e lec ted f o r t h i s a na ly s i s . Th i s g roup c ompr i se s a l c o in s f o r wh ich a r ange o f i s sue d a te s c an b e d e f ined , t ha t i s , t ho se w i th a r e co rded s t a tu s v a lue o f 1 ,2 ,3 o r 4( `Exac t ' , ' A s ' , o r ' Copy o f ') . I n t he e ar l ie r a na ly s i s o n ly t he i den t i f ied r egu la r c o in s h ad b een u sed , b u t h e re t he i r regu la r c o in s a re i n c luded . T he ir d a te s o f m anu fac ture c anno t b e s o r e ad i ly d e te rm ined , b u t t he e x ten t o f t he ir r e cogn i t ion h a s v ar ied c on s ide rab ly b e tween d i f fe ren ti den t if ie r s a nd t h rough t ime . A l though t he i n c lu s ion o f c op ie s e l im ina te s t he p rob lem o f t he e x ten t o f t he i r r e cogn i t ion , i td oe s a dd i t s o wn d i f f icu l t ie s . Many c o in l i s t s r e co rd l a rge n umbe r s o f i r regu lar c o in s w i th o n ly a m in ima l i nd ica t ion o f t he ir p ro to type s . F o r e xamp le , whe re s ome w ou ld l i s t c o in s a s c op ie s o f LRBC P ar t I , n o . 2 5 , o the r s , mo re g ua rded ly , m igh t l i s t t he se o n ly a s Hou se o f C on tan t ine o r C on s tan t iu s Ic op ie s . Obv iou s e xamp le s w e re c onve r ted t o t he f o rme r s t y le o f i den t if ica t ion w hen t hey w e re e n te red i n to t he d a taba se , b u t many o the r s c anno t b e s o r e ad i ly c onve r ted . C op ie s w i thou t r e co rded p ro to type s c anno t b e i n c luded i n t he s amp le o f i den t i f ied c o in s . I n i t ialy , a l l s i te s w i th t wo o r mo re i den t if ied f our th c en tury c o in s w e re s e lec ted f o r a na ly s i s . R emov ing t ho se w i th o n ly o ne o r z e ro i den t i f ied c o in s r e su l ted i n as amp le o f 1 51 s i te s . Howeve r , i tw a s f ound , n o t u nexpe c ted ly , t ha t al a rge p ropor t ion o f t he v ar ia t ion i n p i pe s a nd t he i n i t ia l v a r iab le s a r e as e t o fm easu remen t s o n t h ep i pe b ow ls .

7 3

t h i s s amp le w a s d ue t o s i te s w i th s ma l l n umbe r s o f c o in s . When t he s co re s o n p a ir s o f c om p onen t s w e re p lo t ted a s s ca t te rg ram s t he ma jor i ty o f o u t l ie r s w e re f ound t o b e s i te s w i th l e s s t han t en c o in s . I n v i ew o f t h i s d i s tu rbance t he a na ly s i s w a s r epea ted u s ing o n ly s i te s w i th t en o r mo re i den t if ied c o in s . Th i s r educed t he s amp le s i ze t o 1 03 s i te s . F ir s t ly , t he d a ta w a s e xam ined i n t e rm s o f t he s even c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod s 2 94 -317 , 3 17 -30 , 3 30 -48 , 3 48 -64 , 3 64 -78 , 3 78 -88 a nd 3 88 o nwa rd s . C o in s w e re a loca ted t o p e r iod s a cco rd ing t o t he c en t ra l y ea r o f t he ir r ange o fi s sue d a te s ; i r regu la r c o in s w e re g i ven t he s ame d a te s a s t he ir p ro to type s . F ig . 4 .6a s how s ag raph ica l r ep re sen ta t ion o f t he p r inc ipa l c om p onen t s l oad ing ma t r ix d e r ived f r om a n a na ly s i s b a sed o n t he c ovar iance o f t he p ropor t ion s o f e ach i s sue p e r iod o n e ach s i te . P ropor t ion s w e re u sed i n p re fe rence t o r aw n umbe r s b e cau se t he ma s s ive v ar ia t ion b e tween s i te s i n t he n umbe r s o f r e co rded f i nd s a ccoun t s t yp i c aly f o r mo re t han t wo th i rd s o f t he v ar iance i n t he r aw n umber s . U s ing p ropo r t ions r emove s t h i s s ou rce o f v ar iance a nd a l low s t he a na ly s i s t o c oncen t ra te o n t ha t d ue t o c h rono log ica l v ar ia t ion s b e tween i s sue p e r iod s . Howeve r , t he u se o fp ropo r t ion s b r ing s w i th i tt he n ece s s i ty d i scus sed a bove t o r emove t ho se s i te s w i th f ew c o in s a s t he d i s tu rbance d ue t o t he se i s much mo re p ronounced t han when r aw n umbe r s a re u sed . E ach r ow o f t he d iag ram r ep re sen t s o ne p r inc ipa l c omponen t , a nd e ach c o lumn s how s t he l oad ing o f as i ng le p er iod o n t ha t c omponen t . T he l o ad ing s c an b e e i the r p o s i t ive o r n ega t ive a nd i ti so f ten f ound t ha t t he c omponen t s c or re spond t o ar a t io b e tween t wo o r mo re o f t he o r ig ina l v ar iab le s . T he s e cond d iag ram , f i g . 4 .6b , s how s t he s qua red l o ad ing s . T h i s l o se s t he s i gn o f t he l oad ing b u t p rov ide s ab e t te r i nd ica t ion o f t he i mpo r tance o f a ny o r ig ina l v ar iab le s t o t he n ew c omponen t .

a )

b )

P C 1

P C 2

p c 3

p c 4

P C 5

f le esp c 6 3

3 1 0

3 4

8

3

3 7

3 1 4 1

4 2 3

7

3 1 0

4

3 6 4

F igure 4 .6 : a ) p r inc ipa l c omponen t s l o ad ing ma t r ix , a nd b ) s quared l o ad ing s f o r s i x p r inc i p a l c omponen t s o f t he i s sue p er iod d a ta f r om s i te s p roduc ing 1 0 o r mo re i d en t i f iab le f our th c en tury c o in s .

7 4

S i x c omponen t s a re s hown wh ich b e tween t hem a ccoun t f o r 9 9 .995 % o f t he v a r iance i n t he d a ta . T he f i r s t , a ccoun t ing f o r 4 2 .8 % o f t he v ar iance , a ppear s a s ar a t io b e tween t he p ropo r t i on i nt he 3 30 -48 p e r iod a nd t ha t i n3 64 -78 a nd , t o al e s se r e x ten t , 3 88 o nwa rd s . T he se a re R ave tz ' p e r iod s I I , Va nd V I I , t he p e r iod si n wh ich l a rge v o lume so ff i nd sw e re m in ted . T he r ema in ing l ow v o lume p e r iod s a nd t ha t o f 3 48 -64 wh ich i sd om ina ted b y i r regu la r ma te r ia l m ake o n ly n eg l ig ib le c on t r ibu t ion s t o t h i s c omponen t . T he l o ad ing s o f t he t wo l a te r h igh v o lume p e r iod s a re c on s ide rab ly l e s s t han t ha t o f3 30 -48 , s ugge s t ing t ha t i n i t se l f t he p ropo r t i on o f c o in s o f t h i s p e r iod a ccoun t f o r as ub s tan t ia l p ar t o f t he v a r iance . E s sen t ialy , t h i s c omponen tc an b ei n te rpre ted a s amea sure o f t he e x ten t t ow h ich t he C on s tan t in ian i s sue s o f 3 30 -48 d om ina te o ve r t ho se o f t he h ou se s o f V a lent in ian a nd T heodo s iu s . I ti st he re fo re d i rec t ly c omparab le w i th R ave tz ' p a t te rn A ( s ee a bove , s e c t ion 1 . 4 a nd R ave tz , 1 964 ) . T h i s c omponen t i sd i re c t ly c omparab le b o th i n f o rm a nd i n t he p ropo r t ion o f v a r iance e xp la ined w i th t ha t o b ta ined f r om t he e arl ie ra na ly s i s o f t he p i lo t s amp le [ Ryan , 1 982 , 2 8 -9 ] . T he ma in d i f fe rence b e tween t h i s c omponen t a nd t ha tp rev iou s ly r epor ted i st h a t w i th t he l a rge rs amp le t h e c omponen ti s mo re c l o se ly f o cu s sed o n t he h i gh v o lume p e r iods . T he s e cond c omponen t , wh ich a ccoun t s f o r2 5 .1 % o ft he t o ta l v a r iance , r e la te s t ot he c o in s o f t he t wo p e r iod s 3 48 -64 a nd 3 64 -78 , w i th m ino r l o ad ing s o n t he p e r iod s 3 30 -48 a nd 3 88 o nward s . T h i s c omponen t i sb e s t d e sc r ibed a s t he r a t io b e tween t he p ropor t ion s o f c o in s i n t h e t wo p e r iod s s pann ing t he t h i rd q uar te r o f t he c en tury . T he l o ad ing s o n t he o the r t wo p e r iod s m ake o n ly m ino r c on t r ibu t ion s . T he c o in s o f t he f i r s t o f t he se t wo p e r iod s a re d om i n a ted b y F EL T EMP R EPARAT IO r e ve r se s , p ar t icu lar ly t he i r regu la r i s sue s , h ence t h i s c om p onen t m ay b e v i ewed a s a n e xp re s s ion o f t he r e la t ive p ropor t ion o f t h ese c o in s among s t a l c o in s o f 3 48 -78 . Howeve r , t h i s i n te rpre ta t ion r e l ie s o n a n a pp rec ia t ion o ft he i n te rna l c ompo s i t ion o f t he d i f fe ren t i s sue p e r iod s t ha t i sn o t d i rec t ly a ppa ren t w hen t he d a ta i sd iv ided i n to i s sue p e r iod s . Un l ike t he f i r s t c omponen t , t h i s o ne i sq u i te d i f fe ren t f r om t ha t r epor ted i nt he e a rl ie r a na ly s i s . T he d i f fe rence c an b e e n t i re ly e xp la ined b y t he i n c lu s ion o f t he i r regu lar i s sue s i n t he p re sen t s amp le , a nd t he p ar t icu la r i mpor tance o f t he f alen h o r seman a nd c on t empora ry r e ve r se s among s t t h i s a dd i t iona l ma te r ia l . A f te r t he se t wo r e la t ive ly s t ra igh t forwa rd c omponen t s t he t h i rd p re sen t s a mo re c omp lex p i c tu re i n wh ich a l l p e r iod s , p ar t icu lar ly t ho se f r om 3 48 o nwa rd s a re i nvo lved . A t f i r s t s i gh t t h i s c omponen t a ppea r s a s a mea sure o f t he r a t io b e tween t he m idd le t h ree p e r iod s , 3 30 -78 , a nd t h e r e s t . Howeve r , b o th t he l o ad ing s a nd t he s quared l o ad ing s m ake i tc l ea r t ha t t he f i na l p e r iod make s b y f a r t he g rea te s t c on t r ibut ion , w he rea s t ha t o f t he f i r s t t h ree p e r iod s i s a l l b u t i n s ign i f ican t . T hu s w e a re l e f t w i th n ega t ive l o ad ing s f r om 3 48 -78 a nd p o s i t ive l o ad i n g s t he rea f te r . F rom t he s quared l o ad ing s i ti sa pparen t t ha t t he i s sue s o f t he f i na l p e r iod f o rm t he mo s t s i gn i f ican t s i ng le p ar t o f t h i s c omponen t . Howeve r , v e ry f ew c o in s o f 3 78 -88 a r e f ound o n mo s t s i te s r e la t ive t o t ho se o f t he o the r p e r iod s . I ti st h e re fo re b e s t i n te rp re ted a s ar a t io o f 3 48 -78 i s sue s t o t hose o f 3 78 o nwa rd s p ar t icu lar ly t ho se a f te r 3 88 . T ha t i s , t he r a t io o f l a te -Con s tan t in ian a nd V a len t in ian ic i s sue s t o t ho se o f t he h ou se o f T heodo s iu s . T h i s c omponen t a ccoun t s f o r af u r the r 1 8 .9 % o ft he o b se rved v ar iance i nt he d a ta a nd i s , l i ke t h e f i r s tc omponen t , v e ry s im i la r t ot ha tp rev iou s ly r epor ted . T he f our th c omponen t d i f fe r s f r om t ha t o f t he e a rl ie r a na ly s i s , a l though i ts how s s ome s im i lar i ty w i th t he f i f th c omponen t o f t he p i lo t s amp le . I th a s al a rge n ega t ive l o ad ing o n t he t wo p e r iod s b e fo re 3 30 , a nd a much s male r p o s i t ive l o ad ing o n a l s ub sequen t p e r iod s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f3 78 -88 . T he 1 0 .1 % o fv ar iance a ccoun ted f o rb y t h i sc omponen ti st he re fo re a lmo s t e n t ire ly d ue t ot he p ropor t ion o fc o in s i nt he f i r s tt wo p e r iod s . T he t wo r ema in ing c omponen t s i lu s t ra ted h e re a ccoun t f o r o n ly av e ry s mal p ropor t ion o f t h e t o ta l v ar iance . T he f i f th c omponen t ( 2 .7 % ) c an b e e n t i re ly a t t r ibu ted t ot he r e la t ive p ro p o r t ion s o f c o in s i n e ach o f t he se f i r s t t wo p e r iod s , a nd t he s i x th ( 0 .4 % ) i sa lmo s t d i rec t ly e qu iva len t t ot he p ropor t ion i nt he p e r iod 3 78 -88 . T he c omponen t s o f t he i s sue p e r iod d a ta a l r e la te t o s i ng le o r a d jacen t p e r iod s a nd t he a bundance o f t he ir i s sue s r e la t ive t o t ho se o f l a te r y ear s . T hu s t he p ropor t ion s o f c o in s i n e ach o f t he i s sue p e r iod s c an b e r e garded a s l a rge ly i ndependen t v ar iab le s , b u t t he i r d e sc r ip t i on o f t he v ar iance i nt he d a ta c an b e i mp roved b y i ns ome c a se sc omb in ing a d jacen tp e r iod s a nd i n o the r s c on s ide r ing t he r a t io s b e tween t he p ropo r t ion s i n a d jacen t p e r iod s . P e rhap s

7 5

s u rpr i s ing i st he e x ten t t o wh ich t he i s sue s o f t he t wo p e r iod s b e fo re 3 30 c on t r ibu te t o t he t o ta l v ar iance . T he se a re p e r iod s f o r w h ich v e ry f ew c o in s a re r e cove red , y e t t h e ir p re sence a nd t he ir n umbe r s v a ry c ons ide rab ly b e tween d i f fe ren t s i te s . T h i s m ay r ep re sen t ar ea l d i f fe rence b e tween t he c hrono log ica l p a t te rn s o fd epo s i t ion b e tween s i te s , b u t e qua l ly i tc ou ld r e su l t f r om c hance v ar ia t ion i n t he p re sence o f t he se r a re r i s sue s . T he i s sue s o f 3 78 -88 a re e ven l e s s f r equen t a s s i te f i nd s s o t he s ma l l v a r ia t ion i d en t i f ied b y t he s i x th c omponen t i s a lmo s tc e r ta in ly t he r e su l to fc hance .

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a ) p r inc ipa l c omponen t s l o ad ing m a t r ix , a nd b ) s quared l o ad ing s f o r s i x p r inc i p a l c omponen t s o f t he m in imum i s sue p e r iod d a ta f r om s i te s p roduc ing 1 0 o r mo re i d ent i f iab le f our th c en tury c o in s .

E xam ina t ion o ft he c omponen t s f o rt he m in imum i s sue p e r iod s s hown i n f i g . 4 .7a a nd 4 .7b r e vea l s t he e x ten t o f v ar ia t ion w i th in t he l a rge r i s sue p e r iod s o f t he p rev iou s d i ag ram s . I n c on t ra s t t ot h e e xpec ta t ion s f r om t he s t udy o f t he p i lo t s amp le , t he re a re f ew c a se s w he re t he l o ad ing s w i th in a c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod d o n o t a l l h ave t he s ame s i gn . T he re i s ac on s id e r ab ly c l o se r c or re spondence b e tween t he c omponen t s f o r t he t wo t ype s o f i s sue p e r iod s t han w a s r epor ted p rev iou s ly . T he e xcep t ion s i n c lude t ha t n o ted a bove w he re t he re a re d i f fe rence s b e tween t he b ehav iour o f t he 3 30 -5 i s sue s a nd t ho se o f 3 35 -40 . T h i s c an b e s e en i n c om p onen t s 5a nd 6 i n f i g . 4 .7a . I n c omponen t s 2a nd 4 t he ir a re m ino r d i f fe rence s b e tween t he i s sue s o f 3 35 -40 a nd 3 40 -49 . I n t he s e cond c omponen t t he l a t te r g roup i s mo re c l o se ly a s so c i a ted w i th t he i s sue s o f 3 49 -53 t han w i th t he p reced ing p e r iod s . Th i s s uppo r t s K en t ' s r ev ised d a t ing , men t ioned a bove , o f t he V ICTOR IAE DD AVGG Q NN r e ve rse t ype [ Ken t , 1 981 , 1 31 ] . W i th in p e r iod d i f fe rence s a re a l so s e en f o r c o in s o f l a te r d a te s i n t he s i x th c omponen t , b u ti n e ach c a se t he l o ad ing s a re t oo s mal t os ugge s t t ha t t h e re i ss i gn if ican tv ar ia t ion . I n t he m in imum i s sue p e r iod d a ta t he f i r s t c omponen t a ccoun t s f o r 2 6 .1 % o f t h e o b served v ar iance . T he o ve ra l l a ppearance i sv e ry s im i la r t o t ha t o f t he l onge r i s sue p e r iod s b u t t he i s sue s o f t he t h ree p e r iod s 3 30 -49 a re n ow s e en t o make d e c rea s ing c on t r ibu t ion s w i th t ho se o f t he 3 40 's b e ing o f much l e s s i mpo r tance t han t ho se o ft h ep rev iou sd ecade . F o rt h ep e r iod s 7 6

a f te r 3 49 t he l o ad ing s a re a ga in o ft he o ppo s i te s i gn a nd t he re a re s ome d i f fe rence s i n m agn i t ude w hen c ompa red t ot he p rev iou s d i ag ram . I np a r t icu la r , t he l o ad ing f o rt he p e r iod 3 49 -53 i sp re sen t w he re b e fo re i th ad b een l a rge ly i g no red . Sma l l p o s i t ive l o ad ing s o ccur f o r e ach p e r iod f r om 3 60 o nward s b u t t h e i r r e la t ive i mpor tance s t o t he c omponen t a re s omewha t d i f f e ren t f r om t ha t s e en i nt he f i r s t c omponen t o f t he c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod d a ta . I n p ar t icu l a r , t he c o in s o f 3 88 -92 a re n ow t he mo s ti mpor tan ts i ng le g roup , w h i le t he i mpor tance o ft he V a len t in ian ic i s sue s i sg rea t ly r educed . F rom t h i s i tc an b ec onc luded t ha t t he v a r ia t ion i nt he p ropor t ion s o f c o in s i s sued i n 3 30 -40 r ep re sen t s am a jo rp ar t o f t he t o ta l . Aga in , t h i s r ef le c t s R ave tz ' t y pe A p a t te rn , b u t h e re i ti st he r a t io o ft he se i s sue s t ot ho se o f3 88 -92 t h a ti sp ar t ic u la r ly s i gn if i can t r a the rt han t ha t t ot he c o in so fb o th 3 64 -78 a nd 3 88 o nward s . T he s e cond c omponen t ( 23 .4 % ) a l so f olow s t ha t o f t he c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod s . W i th t h e f i ne r r e so lu t ion p rov ided b y t he s hor te r i s sue p e r iod s t he r a t io o f c o in s o f 3 40 -53 t ot he V a len t in ian ic a nd l a te r i s sue s f r om 3 60 o nward s a ppea r s a s t he ma in p ar t o f t h i s c omponen t , w i th b y f a r t he h i ghe s tl o ad ing a ppl ied t ot ho se o f3 50 -3 . Mo re s o t han b e fo re t h i sc omponen t m ea sure s t he p ropor t ion o fF EL T EMP R EPARAT IO i m i ta t ion s . T he t h ird c omponen t ( 17 .0 % ) d i f fe r s f r om t ha t o f t he p rev iou s d i ag ram s i n t ha t t he c o in s o f t h e 3 50 's t ha t f o rmed t he ma jo r p ar t o f t he s e cond c omponen t a re n ow a lmo s t w holy e xc luded . T h i s c omponen t r ep re sent s t he r a t io o f V a lent in ian ic i s sue s t o t ho se o f 3 88 -92 . T he f ou r th c omponen t d epa r t s f r om t he p a t tern o ft h e c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod si nh i gh l igh t i ng t h e i n terna l v ar ia t ion o f t he Va len t in ian ic i s sue s . Th i s c omponen t , a ccoun t ing f o r a f u r the r 1 0 .2 % o f t h e o bse rved v ar iance c on s i s t s a lmo s t e n t i re ly o f t he r a t io o fc o in s o f3 60 -7 a ga in s t t ho se o f3 67 -75 . T he f i f th a nd s i x th c omponen t s s how s ome s im i la r i t ie s w i th t he f o rm o f t he f our th c om p onen t o f t he c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod d a ta i nt ha t t hey a re b o th c oncerned w i th t he p ropo r t i on s o f t he p re -330 i s sue s . T he f i f th c omponen t i se s sen t ia l ly t he r a t io o f a l l c o in s m in ted b e fo re 3 24 t ot ho se o f3 30 -5 . T he s i x th i ss im i la r ly t h e r a t io o ft he p re -324 i s sue s , p ar t icu la r ly t ho se o f 3 17 -24 , t ot ha t o f c o in s m in ted b e tween 3 35 a nd 3 49 . T ha t t he f i f th a nd s i x th c om p onen t s o f t he m in imum i s sue p e r iod d a ta a ccoun t f o r 7 .8 % a nd 7 . 1% o f t he v a r iance i nd i c a te s t h e e x ten t o f t he i n c rea sed r e so lu t ion o f t he s ho r te r i s sue p e r iod s . I ndeed , t he f i r s t s i x c omponen t s c ove r 9 1 .5 % o ft he v ar iance a nd af u r the rs i x c omponen t sa re r equ ired t oe xp la in mo re t h an 9 9 .5 % . A s m igh t b e e xpe c ted , t he se b ecome i n c rea s ing ly d i ff i cu l t t o i n te rp re t a s t hey f o cu s mo re o n t he m ino rv ar ia t ion s b e tween t he d i f fe ren ti s sue s . T he c l o se s im i lar i ty o f f o rm o f s eve ra l c omponen t s f r om b o th s e t s o f i s sue p e r iods s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t t he l onge r c onven t iona l i s sue p er iod g roup ing s c ap ture a s i gn i f ican t p ropor t ion o f t he t o ta l v a r iance o f i s sue s b e tween s i te s . T he f i r s t t h ree c omponen t s o f t he m in imum i s sue p e r iod d a ta a ccoun t f o r 6 6 .5 % o f t he v ar iance c ompared t o 8 6 .7 % i n t h e c a se o f t h e f i r s t t h ree c omponen t s o ft he c onven t iona l i s sue p e r iod d a ta . C lea r ly , t he re i s much v a r ia t ion t h a t i sm a sked b y t he d iv is ion i n to t he se l onge rp e r iod s , b u ti ti se qua l ly a pparen t t ha te ven i f f u r the r c omponen t s c an b e e x t rac ted f r om t he h i ghe r r e so lu t ion d a ta t he ir i n te rp re ta t ion i n t e rm so ft he i s sue a nd d epo s i t ion o fc o in b ecome sl e s s a pp rop r ia te . T he d e term ina t ion o f t he s ource s o f v ar iance i n t he d a ta b y p r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na ly s i s h a s r e su l ted i n as e t o f c omponen t s t ha t a r e e a s i ly r e la ted t o t he o r ig ina l v a r iab le s . I n e ach c a se t he c omponen t s a re c ompo sed o fl o ad ing so n c h rono log icaly a d jacen t p e r iod s wh ich s ug g e s t s t h a t t hey m ay b e r e la ted t or e a l , r a the r t han m e re ly s t a t i s t ica l , d i f fe rence sb e tween s i te s . T he n ex t s t age o f t he a na ly s i s i nvo lve s a n e xam ina t ion o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s i te s b e tween t he se d i f fe ren t c omponen t s i n o rde r t o d e term ine w he the r t he c omponen t s c an b e r e la ted t o mean ing fu l a r chaeo log ica l d i f fe rence s b e tween s i te s . Mean ing fu l d i f fe rence s m igh t i n c lude s pa t ia l v a r ia t ion i nd ica t ing d i f fe rence s i ns upp ly o ri nc o in d epo s i t ing a c t iv i ty , t empora l v ar ia t i on i nc o in d epo s i t ing a c t iv i ty o r m e re ly o ccupa t ion o f s i te s , o r f unc t iona l v a r ia t ion b e twe en d i f fe ren td epo s it iona l a c t iv i t ie sc ar r ied o u to n d i f fe ren ts i te s . T he se p o s s ib le s ource s o f v a r ia t ion a re n o t a l terna t ive s , e ach may c o -ex i s t w i th t he o the r s . S i te s m ay v ary i n f unc t ion t h rough t ime , a nd t he c o in d epo s i t ing a c t iv i t ie s o n s i te s o f ag i ven t ype m ay v a ry b o th t h rough t ime a nd s pace . S im i lar ly t he a r chaeo log ica l ly o b se rved e f fec t s o f d epo s i t iona l a c t ion may b e c ond i t ioned b y t he a va i lab i l i ty o f c o in s , i t se l f p o s s ib ly v ary ing i n b o th t ime a nd s pace . S pa t ia l v ar ia t ion w i l l b e e xam ined i n g rea te r d e ta i l i n t he f olow ing

7 7

s e c t ion ; h e re t he c en t ra l c oncern i sw i th t he c hrono log ica l a nd a pparen tf unc t iona l v a r ia t ion . R oman s i te s a re f r equen t ly c l a s s if ied i n to l oo se f unc t iona l g roup s o n t he b a s i s o f a r ch i tec t u ra l o r p l an f o rm . T hu s w e u se t e rm s s uch a s v i l la , t emp le , m a jor a nd m ino r u rban , a nd r u ra l s e t t lemen t s t o c onvey a b road c l a s s if i ca t ion o f f unc t ion . S uch g roup s a re n o t f o rma l ly d e f ined a nd a re b y n o m ean s mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive . R e l ig iou s a c t iv i ty , f o r e xamp le , w a s n o t c on f ined o n ly t ot emp le s a s i si nd ica ted b y t he p re sence o f s ub s tan t ia l f e a tu re s i n te rp re ted a s s h r ine s a tv i l la s s uch a s C hedwo r th . N e i the r w a s a g r icu l tu re c onf ined t ot h e v i l las a nd r u ra l s e t t lemen t s ; t he e v idence f o rf a rm ss i tua ted w i th in c i ty w a l l s , a si nf our th c en tury C i rence s te r , s ugge s t s t ha t a g r icu l ture w a s a l so p rac t ised f r om t he u rban c en t re s . I ndeed i ti sw ide ly a pp re c i a ted t ha to n a ny g i ven c r i te r ion t he re may b e a s much v ar ia t ion w i th in a sb e tween g roup s .

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