A Corpus of Religious Material from the Civilian Areas of Roman Britain 9780904531275, 9781407318776

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A Corpus of Religious Material from the Civilian Areas of Roman Britain

Miranda J. Green

British Archaeological Reports 2 4 1976

British Archaeological Reports 122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England GENERAL EDITORS

A.C.C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y.M. Hands

A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phtl. D.R. Walker, B.A. ADVISORY EDITORS

C.B. Burgess, M.A. Neil Cossons, M.A., F .S.A., F .M.A. Professor B.W. Cunliffe, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, B.A., M.A., F.S.A. Professor G.D.B·. Jones, M.A., D.Phil., F.S.A. P.A. Mellars, M.A., Ph.D. Frances Lynch, M.A., F.S.A. P.A. Rahtz, M.A., F .S.A.

B. A. R. 24, 1976: "A Corpus of Religious Material of the Civilian Areas of Roman Britain. " © Miranda J. Green, 1976.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780904531275 paperback ISBN 9781407318776 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780904531275 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

F or S tephen a nd f or my p aren ts

PREFACE

T h is work c o mpr ises a s tudy o f t he k nown r e l ig ious ma ter ia l f ound i n Br ita in s ou th o f al i ne d rawn b etween t he r ivers D ee a nd Hu mber b u t e xc ludi ng f i nds f ro m m i l itary s i tes i n t h is a rea. THE GAZETTEER OF S ITES AND F INDS

On ly i t e ms w ith g ood p rovenances h ave b een i nc luded . Thus , f or i nstance, t he g roup o f b ronze mode l o b jects a l leged ly f rom a " Sussex b arrow", b u t o therw ise u n loca ted , i s n o t l i sted , a l though r e ference i s made t o t he m i nt he d iscuss ion .

Known o r s uspected r i tua l s truc tures , s cu lp tures , o b jects o f

wood , meta l , b one a nd c lay , l i terary e v idence , r i tua l d epos its , a nd a ny o ther d a ta o r e v idence r e la t ing t o t he r e l ig ious p rac t ices o f s ou thern B r ita in d ur ing 1 s t-4th c en tur ies A .D. h ave b een i nc luded . Bur ia ls i n t he mse lves a re om i tt ed e xcep t i n c ircu mstances *here t here i s e v idence o f e x traord inary r i tua l. Funerary o b jec ts a re i ncorpora ted o n ly where t hey t hrow s pec if ic l igh t o n c h thon ic

r i tua l.

Mosa ics a nd w a l l-pa in t ings a re l ikew ise om i t ted u n less t hey

y ie ld d e f in ite c u l tin for ma t ion . T he g azet teer i s a rranged g eograph ica l ly , f o l low ing t he s ys tem o f t he Br it ish Na t iona l Gr id , b y 1 00 , 1 0 a nd 1k i lometre s quares , f rom S E-TR ( F igure 1 i nd ica tes t he p os it ion o f t he Nat iona l G r id a nd ma jor R o man t owns ). The s i tes a re o rdered n umer ica l ly a ccord ing t o t he ir 2 -f igure N a t iona l G r id r eference , a l though e ach i s g iven a 4 o r 6 f igure r eference w i th in t h is o rder . Under e ach s i te-na me i s g iven a f u l l d escr ip t ion o f r i tua l s truc tures a nd o bj ects , w ith r eference t o p ub l ica t ions a nd t he p resen t l oca t ion o f t he o b jec t i f k nown . The p os tu lated t r iba l a rea i n wh ich e ach s i te f a l ls i s a lso s tated ( F igure 2 t en ta t ive ly s uggests t r iba l b oundar ies ). An a lphabe t ic s i tel is t g ives t he n a mes o f s i tes e ach w ith i t s 2 -f igure N a t iona l Gr id r e ference , h ere u sed i nstead o f ac orpus n u mber . An a dd it iona l i ndex t o t he g azet teer g ives p age r e ferences t o t he d i f feren t t ypes o f s i te a nd f ind . D ISCUSS ION T he d iscuss ion i s d iv ided i n to s even c hap ters :

a n i n troduc t ion g iv ing t he

p re-Ro man a nd Con t inen ta l b ackground t o t he e nqu iry ;

Ro man a nd Ro mano-

Ce lt ic d e it ies ; e v idence o f r i tua l p rac t ices ; Or ien ta l c u l ts a nd Chr ist ian ity ; f requenc ies a nd d istr ibut ion ; as u m mary o f t he c o mparat ive e v idence f rom Nor th Br ita in ;

a nd c hrono logy a nd c onc lus ions.

CONTENTS Page L ist o f P la tes L ist o f F igures Acknow ledge men ts L ist o f A bbrev ia t ions u sed i n t he References F ron t isp iece D ISCUSS ION CHAPTER 1 :

I n troduct ion :

The Pre-Ro man a nd Con t inenta l

Background t o t he Enqu iry CHAPTER 2 :

The C iv i l ian Br it ish Ev idence f or Ro man a nd Ro mano-Ce lt ic De i t ies

1 7

CHAPTER 3 :

The Ev idence o f R itua l S tructures a nd Ob jects

3 7

CHAPTER 4 :

The Pagan Or ienta l Cu l ts a nd Chr ist ian ity

5 3

CHAPTER 5 :

The F requenc ies a nd D istr ibut ion o f t he Re l ig ious Cu lt-Ob jec ts i n C iv il ian Ro man Br ita in

6 5

CHAPTER 6 :

A S u m mary o f t he Ev idence f ro m M i l itary Br ita in

1 08

CHAPTER 7 :

Chrono logy a nd Conc lus ions

1 16

References :

Chap ters 1 -7

1 20

I ndex o f C lass ica l Au thors a nd Ed it ions u sed i n t he Tex t

1 42

B ib liography t o Tex t

1 43

GAZETTEER A lphabe t ic S iteIndex t o t he Gazet teer

1 56

Gazet teer o f S ites a nd F inds

1 62

References

2 33

I ndex t o T ypes o f S i te a nd F ind

2 54

PLATES

2 62

L IST OF PLATES

Fron t isp iece : I

1

I I

I V

Bronze Horse man ;

n r . Wes twood Br idge , Peterborough

a .

Bronze Mars ;

Dragonby .

b .

Bronze Mars ;

D enver .

c .

Bronze p laque d ep ict ing Mars ;

d .

Frag men tary s tone s ta tue t te o f Mars ( ? );

e .

Cha lk f igur ine o f a r med warr ior ;

a .

Bronze Mars ;

Bury S t . Ed munds .

b .

Bronze Mars ;

S ou thbroo m.

Woodea ton . Woodea ton .

G ar ton S lack.

c .

S tone r el ief o f warr ior-god ;

d .

C lay mou ld ( and i mpress ion ) f or s ta tuet te o f Mars ;

S tow-on-the- Wo ld.

e .

P ipe-c lay s ta tue t te o f h orse man ;

f .

Bronze Mars ;

g .

I nscr ip t ion a t b ase o f ( f ).

a .

• S tone r e l ief o f moun ted warr ior-god ;

b .

Bronze b ust o f Mars ;

c .

Bronze h orse man ;

d .

Bronze r ider less h orse ;

e .

Marb le c ockere l ;

L ondon.

Grea t Ches ter ford .

F oss Dyke.

Marg idunu m.

Woodea ton .

Can terbury . Br igs tock .

O ld Bradwe l l.

f .

Bronze h orse man ;

g .

Bronze Mercury ;

Ca istor-by-Yarmou th .

Br igstock .

h .

Bronze Mercury ;

S ou thbroo m .

i .

Bronze c ockere l ;

Grea t Bedwyn .

a .

Bronze Mercury ;

Co lches ter .

b .

Bronze Mercury ;

Co lchester .

c .

Bronze Mercury ;

Manea F en .

e .

Bronze Mercury ;

F le mp ton .

f .

Bronze r ounde l d ep ict ing h ead o f Mercury ;

g .

Bronze Mercury ;

S andy .

T a l l ing ton.

h .

P ipe-c lay c ockere l ;

i .

Bronze r ounde l d ep ict ing b us t o f h orned Mercury ;

S i lchester . Wandswor th ,

L ondon . V

a .

Bronze Mercury ;

I ck l ingha m.

b .

Bronze Mercury ;

Co lchester . Dorchester ( Dorse t ).

c .

Bronze Mercury ;

d .

Bronze c and les t ick i n t he f orm o f ac ockere l ;

e .

S tone r e l ief o f H ercu les ;

Eas t L u lwor th .

Co le me.

f .

Bronze h and h o ld ing p urse , f ro m s ta tuet te o f Mercury ;

g .

Bronze H ercu les ;

h .

Two b ronze f igur ines o f H ercu les ;

Co lches ter . Co lchester .

Ha m H i l l .

V I

V I I

V II I

I X

X

a .

Two b ronze f igur ines o f Hercu les ;

b .

P ipe-c lay Hercu les ;

Co lchester.

c .

Bronze H ercu les ;

d .

T erra-co t ta H ercu les w ith c ornucop iae ;

Co lchester .

n r . E ly . Co lchester .

e .

Bronze H ercu les ;

f .

Bronze p laque d ep ict ing H ercu lesl ike f igure ;

Box moor , H e me l He mpstead. Woodea ton.

g .

Bronze H ercu les c arry ing Cup id ;

h .

Bronze H ercu les ;

Cow l inge.

Bress ingha m.

a .

Bronze H ercu les ;

Epp ing .

b .

Bronze H ercu les ;

Veru la m iu m .

c .

Bronze H ercu les ;

V eru la m iu m .

d .

Bronze M inerva ;

e .

S tone a l tar d ep ic t ing H ercu les ( par t o f t he G rea t A l tar );

f .

Bronze H ercu les ;

Co lchester . Bath .

B ishop 's Fro me.

g .

Fragmen ts o f p ipe-c lay M inerva ;

h .

Bronze H ercu les ;

a .

Bronze M inerva ;

L ondon .

V eru la m iu m . Can terbury .

b .

Bronze b ust o f M inerva ;

Woodea ton.

c .

Bronze b ust o f M inerva ;

S i lches ter .

d .

Cha lk e ag le d ep ic ted o n c o lu mn ;

e .

Bronze h ead o f e ag le ;

f .

Bronze M inerva ;

Wroxe ter .

L e ices ter .

P lax to l.

o f Minerva; Bath.

g .

S tone r e l ief

h .

Bronze p laque d ep ict ing M inerva ;

Ma iden Cast le.

i .

Bone p laque d ecora ted w ith i nc ised e ag le ;

j .

Fragmen tary b ronze M inerva ;

k .

Bronze e ag le ;

F enny S tra t ford .

1 .

Bronze e ag le ;

Woodea ton .

a .

Bronze e ag le ( ? ) ;

b .

Bronze J up iter :

c .

Bronze J up iter ;

d .

Bronze J up iter ;

Lydney .

God manchester.

Woodea ton . Wes t S toke. Wes t S toke. L ongho rn.

e .

Min ia ture b ronze whee l ;

f .

Min ia ture b ronze whee l ( probab ly p art o f ab rooch );

V eru la m iu m .

g .

Fragmen tary m in ia ture b ronze whee l ;

h .

Min ia ture b ronze whee l ;

i .

Bronze p o let ip ;

Ke t ter ing .

I ck l ingha m.

F el m ingha m Ha l l.

F e lm ingha m Ha l l.

j .

Frag men t o f g lass d ecora ted w ith a whee l ;

k .

Wing o f b ronze e ag le ;

a .

Par t o f b ronze s cep tre (? ) , d ep ic t ing J up iter-Taran is , whee l a nd e ag le 's w ing ;

L it t le H ough ton .

I ck l ingha m.

W il l ingha m F en .

b .

V iew o f ( a ), d ep ict ing d o lph in , whee l a nd e ag le 's w ing .

c . d .

V iew o f ( a ), d ep ic t ing b u l l 's h ead , d o lph in , whee l a nd e ag le 's w ing . S ide-v iew o f b ronze moun t , d ep ic t ing h eads o f b u l l , e ag le a nd h u man f ace ;

R iver R ibb le.

e .

Fron t v iew o f ( d ), d ep ic t ing h eads o f b u l l a nd e ag le.

f .

Bronze b ucke t- moun t , d ep ic t ing h eads o f b u l l a nd e ag le ;

Thea lby .

X I

X I I

g . h .

Bronze b ucket- moun t , d ep ic t ing h eads o f b u l l a nd e ag le ;

Thea lby .

S ide-v iew o f ( g ).

a .

Bronze ' pa ter fa m i l ias ' ;

b .

Bronze l ar ;

Brandon. L ondon .

S i lches ter .

c .

Bronze l ar ;

d .

Bronze ' pa ter fa m il ias ';

e .

Bronze V enus ;

Co lchester .

f .

Bronze V enus ;

Boker ley Corner .

a . b .

Bronze Cup id ; Bronze Cup id ;

Cot ton . Hayn ford .

c .

Bronze p laque d ep ict ing Cup id ;

Cr ick lade.

F ar ley Hea th .

d .

Bronze Cup id ;

e .

Bronze v esse l , d ecora ted w ith t hree h u man h eads a nd sm ith 's t oo ls ;

Fa l mer .

f .

Bronze D iana ;

g .

Frag men tary s tone r e l ief o f D iana w ith h ound ;

a . b .

P ipe-c lay Apo l lo ; Haches ton . Bronze r iver-god ; Grea t Ches ter ford .

c .

Bronze r iver-god ;

d .

Bronze V enus ( ? ); .Co lchester .

e .

Bronze p laque d ep ict ing wa ter-nymph ;

T hree Nuns Br idge.

X I I I

X IV

Bass ingbourn .

Co lches ter .

f .

P ipe-c lay p igeon ;

g .

P ipe-c lay V enus w ith Cup id ;

h .

P ipe-c lay V enus ;

XV

Co lchester.

Can terbury .

d, e. Two p ipe-c lay V enuses ; P ipe-c lay V enus ;

Har t l ip .

Co lchester .

a -c. Three p ipe-c lay V enuses ; f .

Net t le ton S hrub.

L ondon . L ondon .

Eastry .

a .

P ipe-c lay Dea n u tr ix , n urs ing o ne i n fan t ;

b .

P ipe-c lay Dea n u tr ix , n urs ing t wo i n fan ts ;

O ld We lwyn . L ondon.

c .

S ch ist p laque d ep ic t ing t he t hree ' Ma tres ';

d .

S tone r e l ief o f t wo ' Ma tres ' a nd Mercury ;

Ba th .

e .

S tone r e l ief o f t he t hree ' Ma tres ', w ith whee l i n g ab le a bove;

Wel low.

u nprovenanced Co tswo lds. f . g .

S tone r e l ief o f t he t hree ' Ma tres ';

Ancaster .

S tone r e l ief o f t hree ' Gen i i c ucu l la t i ' a nd a Mother-goddess ; C irences ter .

XV I

XV I I

a .

S tone r e l ief o f t he t hree ' Ma tres ';

L ondon .

b .

T in p laque d ep ic t ing t he t hree ' Ma tres ';

c .

S tone d ed ica t ion t o t he ' Ma tres ';

L ondon .

L ondon.

a .

S tone s ta tuet te o f Mo ther-goddess ;

b .

Bronze Mo ther-goddess ( ? );

c .

Bronze Mo ther-goddess w ith t wo i n fan ts ;

d .

G ower . Bronze Epona , w ith t wo p on ies ;

e .

S tone r e l ief o f ' Gen i i c ucu l la t i ' a nd s ea ted Mo ther-goddess ; Dag l ingwor th .

Caerwen t .

Woodea ton . Cu lverho le C ave ,

u nprovenanced Wil tsh ire.

f .

S tone r e l ief o f ' Gen ius c ucu l la tus ' ;

g .

S tone r e l ief o f Cernunnos ( ? ), w ith a n t lers , a nd h o ld ing t wo r a mh eaded s nakes ;

h .

Rusha l l Down .

C irencester .

Bronze Mars, g rasp ing t wo r a m-headed s nakes ;

S outhbroo m.

XV II I a .

S tone r e l ief d ep ic t ing Mercury a nd Ros mer ta ;

Ba th .

b .

S tone r e l ief d ep ic t ing Mercury a nd Ros mer ta ;

C irencester .

c .

S tone r e l ief o f ' Gen ius c ucu l la tus ' a nd a Mo ther-goddess ; C irencester .

X IX

2 0 (

XX I

XX II

d .

S tone r e l ief o f S uce l lus a nd Nan tosue l ta ;

e .

S tone a l tar d ep ict ing h orned Mercury ;

Eas t S toke.

a . b .

S ide-v iew o f p ipe-c lay t hree-horned b u l l ; F ron t v iew o f ( a ).

c .

J an iform h ead , made f ro m a n a n t ler-t ine ;

Sm ith f ie ld , L ondon . Co lchester. L o thbury , L ondon .

d .

Bronze h orned h ead ;

e .

Bronze p laque d ep ict ing h ead o f h orned g oddess ;

A the lney .

a .

H u man h ead , made f ro m a n am mon ite ;

I ck l ingha m.

Grea t Bedwyn (? ).

b .

S tone h ead ;

Ca mer ton .

c .

S tone h ead ;

Caerwen t .

d .

S tone c arv ing d ep ict ing t hree-headed g od ;

e .

Bronze g oa t ;. L ondon.

f .

Bronze g oa t ;

Wroxeter .

Nor th S tow .

g .

Bronze h ead o fb u l l ;

h .

S ide-v iew o f ( g ).

L e icester.

a .

Bronze p laque d ep ict ing d y ing b oar ;

b .

Bronze b oar ;

Woodendean .

c .

Bronze b oar ;

Wa t t isf ie ld .

d .

Bronze b oar ;

C o lches ter .

e .

P ipe-c lay h orse ;

f .

Bronze h orse ;

Mun tha m Cour t .

Can terbury .

B ourne.

g .

P ipe-c lay h orse ;

h .

Bronze d og ;

Wroxe ter .

i .

Bronze c row o n f erru le ;

a .

Frag men t o f s tone s ta tuet te d ep ict ing t he f orefee t o f ad og , w ith a ' S t . Andrew 's Cross ' b etween t he m ; L ydney .

L e icester . Co lches ter .

b .

Bronze d uck ;

A shby-delalaunde.

c .

Bronze h are ;

L inco ln .

d .

Bronze mask o f J up iter-He l ioserap is ;

F e lm ingha m Ha l l.

e .

Bronze Harpocra tes ;

f .

Bronze s teelyard-we igh t d ep ict ing S erap is ;

L ondon .

g .

I ron ' s is tru m ';

L ondon .

h .

I ron ' s istru m ' ;

L ondon .

i .

Bronze h ead o f i b is , emb le m o f Tho th ;

j .

Bronze s tee lyard-we igh t d ep ict ing Cybe le ;

k .

Porphyry h ead o f S erap is ;

H ighwor th.

Avebury .

Ch idd ing fo ld . L ondon.

XX I I I

XX IV

) 0 (V

) 0 (V I

a . b .

P o tsherd , w ith a pp l ied h ead o f J up iter Am mon ; Bronze p ine-branch ; L ondon .

C an terbury .

c .

S tone s ta tue o f A tys ;

L ondon .

d .

Bronze h ead o f A tys ;

M i ldenha l l.

e .

J et p laque d ep ic t ing A tys ;

a .

Bronze j ug w ith h ead o f A tys d ep ic ted a t b ase o f h and le ; Hockwo ld .

b .

Bronze h and h o ld ing p ine-branch ;

c .

P ew ter b ow l i nscr ibed w ith c h i-rho ;

d . e .

P otsherd i nscr ibed w ith c h i-rho ; Bronze c rown ; Cavenha m.

f .

S heet b ronze l ea f ;

a . b . c .

Par t o f i ron p o le-t ip ; Br igs tock . Bronze p o let ip ; Br igs tock . S heet g o ld s cep tre-head ( ? ), i n f orm o f h u man f ace ;

d .

Bronze amu let d ep ict ing d oub le p ha l lus ;

e .

Bronze p laque d ep ict ing t wo p ha l l i p u l l ing a q uadr iga ;

C as t le H i l l , Wh it ton .

Hockwo ld . L ondon .

Exeter .

Cavenham .

G loucester.

Veru lam iu m.

f .

I ck l ingha m . Par t o fb ronze mace ;

g .

Bronze s acr if ic ia l k n ife , d ecora ted w ith i ncised ' S t. Andrew 's

h .

Cross ' n ear t ip o f h and le ; Mun tha m C our t . Bronze p ha l l ic amu let i n t he f orm o f ab u l l 's h ead ;

a .

F our b one amu le ts d ep ict ing p ha l l i a nd h u man h ands ;

Mun tham Cour t .

I ck l ingha m.

V eru la m ium. b .

Pha l l ic amu let made f ro m a n a n t ler-t ine ;

Ford ing ton ,

Dorches ter . c . d .

F ounda t ion-depos it o f p o t s ea led w ith s tone l id , d iscovered b enea th a h ouse-f loor ; K enches ter . S tone o f p ha l l ic s hape , d ep ic t ing h u man f ace , w i th f our o verl app ing i nc ised c irc les b enea th ;

XXV I I

XXV I I I

Eype.

e .

L ead c urse ;

L ondon .

a . b . c .

Tr ip le v ase ; Co lchester . F ace-urn , w ith b earded f ace ; C o lches ter. T r ip le v ase ; Head ing ton , Ox ford .

d .

F ace-urn , w ith p a in ted d ed ica t ion t o Mercury ;

e . f .

F ace-urn ; L ondon . P o tsherd w ith a pp l ied h uman f ace ;

Worcester . V eru la m ium .

a .

M in ia ture p o t f ro m B e lg ic b ur ia l ;

b . c .

Two m in ia ture p o ts f ro m a p o t ter 's h u t ; M in ia ture b ronze b e l l ; Co lches ter .

d .

M in iature b ronze l a mp ;

L inco ln .

I sland T horns.

Caerwen t.

e .

M in ia ture e na me lin la id b ronze s too l ;

f .

M in ia ture b ronze a l tar ;

g . h .

M in ia ture b ronze s hove l ; C irencester . M in ia ture b ronze s pear ; Owmby .

i .

M in ia ture e na me lin la id b ronze s too l ;

j .

M in ia ture b ronze d ecora ted a xe ;

Caerwen t .

C o lches ter.

F ar ley H ea th.

Woodea ton.

k .

M in ia ture b ronze a xe w ith i nc ised i m ita t ion b ind ing ;

1 .

Min ia ture b ronze d ecora ted a xe ;

m . n.

Min ia ture b ronze a xe w ith i nc ised i m ita t ion b ind ing ; Four min ia ture b ronze a xes ;

Woodea ton .

Woodea ton .

( l ef t-r ight ) ;

Hockwo ld .

Ch i lham , Astha l l ,

A lchester , u nprovenanced Ken t . X-X IX

a .

Bronze f unerary monster ;

b .

Bronze s ph inx ;

C .

ouchan t r am ; Bronze c

n r . Ox ford .

Wa tche t . Co lchester .

d .

Bronze s nake ;

e .

o lph in ; Bronze d

f .

roup o f p an ther w ith f ore l i mbs g rasp ing r am-horned Bronze g h u man h ead ;

g .

V eru lam iu m . L e icester .

C o lchester .

P ipe-c lay b ust o f y oung g ir l , f ro m g rave ;

P res ton Road ,

Br igh ton . XXX

a .

S tone f igure ;

b .

A ltar d ep ic t ing i nc ised f igure ;

C irencester .

C.

S ea ted b ronze f i gure ;

d .

S ea ted s tone f igure ;

C irencester .

A lwa lton . Redruth .

L IST OF F IGURES

7-107 1 31 ) • 8 F igure 1 .

Map o f s ou thern Br ita in s how ing t he Na t iona l G r id a nd i t s r ela t ionsh ip t o t he ma jor Ro man T owns.

F igure 2 .

Map o f s ou thern Br ita in s how ing h ypo the t ica l t r iba l b oundar ies , m in ing a reas a nd r eg ions u nder mi l itary c on tro l ( i nd ica ted b y s t ipp l ing ), a nd ma jor Ro man T owns.

Based o nR ivet A .L .F ., ( 1964 ), Town a nd

Coun try i n Ro man Br ita in , F ig . 9 . F igure 3 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f Chr is t ian ity .

F igure 4 .

D istr ibut ion o f Cybe le a nd A tys.

F igure 5 .

D is tr ibut ion o fJ up iter i n c lass ica l g u ise.

F igure 6 .

D is tr ibu t ion o fJ up iter i n Ro mano-Ce l t ic g u ise.

F igure 7 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f Mars i n c lass ica l g u ise.

F igure 8 .

D is tr ibut ion o f Mars a s a n Eques tr ian Warr ior .

F igure 9 .

D istr ibut ion o f Mercury .

F igure 1 0.

D is tr ibu t ion o f Hercu les.

F igure 1 1.

D is tr ibut ion o f Minerva.

F igure 1 2.

D istr ibut ion o f Apo l lo.

F igure 1 3.

D is tr ibut ion o f p ipe-c lay P seudo-Venus.

F igure 1 4.

D is tr ibu t ion o f t he Dea Nu tr ix .

F igure 1 5.

D is tr ibu t ion o f t he Mo ther-goddess , i n t r ip le o r s ing le f or m.

F igure 1 6.

D istr ibu t ion o f G en i i Cucu l la t i.

F igure 1 7.

D is tr ibut ion o f S uce l lus.

F igure 1 8.

D is tr ibut ion o f Epona .

F igure 1 9.

D is tr ibu t ion o f Horned D e it ies , e xc lud ing Cernunnos.

F igure 2 0.

D istr ibut ion o f Mode l Ob jects.

F igure 2 1.

D is tr ibu t ion o f Face-Urns.

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

Is hou ld l ike t o t hank t he a uthor it ies o f t he f o l low ing museu ms wh ich I v is ited , o r f ro m who m Ig a ined i n forma t ion : Museu m ;

Ashwe l l V il lage Museu m ;

Bed ford Museu m ; Bra cing ;

A ldborough Ro man Town a nd

Ro man Ba ths a nd Museu m , Ba th ;

C ity Ar t G a l lery a nd Museu m , Brad ford ;

Museu m & Ar t G a l lery , Br idpor t ;

Ro man V i l la ,

Ar t Ga l lery a nd Museu ms ,

Br igh ton ; C ity Museu m , Br isto l ; Moyses ' Ha l l Museu m , Bury S t . Ed munds ; D iv is iona l L ibrary a nd Museu m , Bux ton , L eg ionary Museu m , Caer leon ; Publ ic L ibrary a nd Museum , Ca mborne ;

F itzw i l l ia m Museu m , Ca mbr idge ;

Un ivers i ty Museu m o f Archaeo logy a nd E thno logy , Ca mbr idge ; Can terbury ;

Na t iona l Museu m o f Wa les , Card if f ;

Roya l Museu m ,

Tu l l ie House , Car l is le ;

Ro man V i l la a nd Museum , C hedwor th ;

Che l ms ford a nd Essex Museu m ;

Ar t Ga l lery a nd Museu m , Che l tenha m ;

Grosvenor Museu m , Chester ;

Museum , Ch iches ter ;

Red H ouse Museu m a nd Ar t Ga l lery , Chr is tchurch ; C irences ter ;

C ity

Ro man Pa lace a nd Museu m , F ishbourne , Ch ichester ;

Co lchester a nd Essex Museu m ;

Museum , Corbr idge ;

h ea l Museu m ;

Cor in iu m Ro man Museu m ,

Corstop itu m Ro man S ite a nd

Museu m a nd Ar t G a l lery , Derby ;

Museum o f t he W i ltsh ire Archaeo logy a nd Natura l H istory S oc iety , D ev izes ; Dorse t C oun ty Museu m , D orchester ;

Corporat ion Museu m , Dover ; Na t iona l

Museum o f An t iqu it ies o f S cot land , Ed inburgh ; Exeter ;

Rouge mon t House Museu m ,

C ity Museu m a nd Ar t G a l lery , G louces ter ;

Pub l ic L ibrary a nd

Museum , Gran tha m ;

Grea t Dr if f ield Pr iva te Museu m ;

a nd Mun i men t Roo m ;

Pub l ic L ibrary a nd Ar t Ga l lery , Has le mere ;

Museum a nd Ar t Ga llery , H ereford ; Ga l lery , I psw ich ; Museum ;

Wes t f ie ld Museu m , Ket ter ing ;

Ga llery , L e ices ter ; London ;

Ga l lery , Luton ;

K ingswood S choo l Museu m a nd Ar t

Museu m a nd Ar t Ga l lery , L etchwor th ;

C ity a nd Coun ty Museu m , L inco ln ;

Barb ican House

Br it ish Museu m ,

Ro man V i l la a nd Museu m , L u l l ingstone ; Museum a nd Ar t G a l lery , Ma ids tone ;

Manches ter Museu m ;

Cas t le Museu m , Norw ich ;

C ity Ar t Ga l lery a nd Museu m , t he Cast le , No t t ingha m ; Ash mo lean Museu m , Ox ford ;

Peterborough ; Por ts mouth ; S t . A lbans ;

Un ivers ity Museu m ,

C ity Museu m a nd Ar t Ga l lery ,

C ity Museu m a nd Ar t G a l lery , P lymou th ; Museu m a nd Ar t Ga l lery , Read ing ;

Ryeda le Fo lk Museu m ;

Museu m o f

Museu m a nd Ar t G a l lery , Newpor t ;

Cen tra l Museu m a nd Ar t G a l lery , Nor tha mp ton ; Nott ingha m ;

Museu m a nd Ar t

Ro man Ma l ton

Borough Museu m , Newbury ;

An t iqu i t ies , N ewcast le-upon-Tyne ;

S c i ll ies ;

C ity

Museu m a nd Ar t

Museu m o f L ondon ( f or mer ly Gu i ldha l l &L ondon Museu ms ) ;

Lud low Museu m ; Museu m ;

Her t ford Museu m ;

Archaeo logy Museu m , K ingston-upon-Hu l l ;

Museum , Lewes ;

Gu ild ford Museu m

S a f fron Wa lden Museu m ;

V eru la m iu m Museu m ,

Norr is L ibrary a nd Museu m , S t. I ves ;

S a l isbury a nd S ou th Wi ltsh ire Museu m ;

S ou thsea Cast le,

R ichborough Cast le ; S t. Mary 's Museu m ,

Borough Museu m a nd Ar t

Ga l lery , S cun thorpe ;

Row ley 's House Museu m , S hrewsbury ;

Museu m , S i lchester ;

C i ty Museu m , S outha mp ton ;

Ca l leva

Pr it t lewel l Pr iory

Museu m , S ou thend-on-Sea ;

C ity Museu m & Ar t G a l lery , S toke-on-Tren t ;

S troud Museu m ; S o merset Coun ty Museum , T aun ton ; Torquay Natura l H istory S oc ie ty Museu m ; L etocetu m Ro man S i te a nd Museum , Wa l l ; Coun ty Museu m , Warw ick ;

C ity Museu m , W inchester ;

Ha mpsh ire Coun ty

Museu m S erv ice , Ch i lco mb House , W inchester ; C ity Museum & Ar t G a l lery , Worces ter ; Museu m a nd Ar t G a l lery , Wor th ing ; V irocon ium Museu m , Wroxeter ;

Wyndha m Museu m , Y eov il ;

Yorksh ire Museu m , Y ork .

I s hou ld l ike t o e x tend my s incere t hanks t o t he f o l low ing i nd iv idua ls a nd i nst itut ions : Mr . C . E . S tevens a nd Professor S . S . Frere , w ho g ave v a lua b le a dv ice a nd e ncourage men t a t e very s tage ; Dr . L . H . J ef fery , Professor J . M. C . T oynbee a nd Professor Barry Cun l if fe , a l l o f who m w ere a s ource o f h e lp t o me ;

t he Craven Co m m it tee a nd t he Ox ford Gradua te G ran ts Co mm i t tee,

who made t he e x tens ive museu m t our a nd t he r eproduct ion o f t he p lates p oss ib le. My e spec ia l g ra t itude i s d ue t o Mr . M. T urney , who i s r espons ib le f or t he p hotograph ic p r in ts ;

a nd t o my p aren ts Mr . a nd Mrs. E . R . A ldhouse a nd my

h usband S tephen , w ithout a l l o f whose a c t ive a nd e n thus iast ic h e lp n one o ft he work w ou ld h ave b een p oss ib le. Iam p ar t icu lar ly i ndebted t o my h usband f or t he b ase map u sed i n F igures 1 -21, a nd t o my f a ther f or t he d e ta i l i n F igures 1 -2.

L IST OF ABBREV IAT IONS U SED I N THE REFERENCES

Amer . J . o f Arch .

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A rch .

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A rch . Camb .

Archaeo log ia Ca mbrens is

A . C.

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A .A .

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A rch . J .

Archaeo log ica l J ourna l

Arch . N . L .

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Beds . Arch . J .

Bed fordsh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l

B .G .

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Berks . A rch . J .

Berksh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l

Berks , B ucks & Oxon Arch . J .

Berksh ire , Buck ingha msh ire a nd Ox ford-

B ir rn . A rch . S oc . Trans .

B ir m ingha m Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty

s h ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l T ransact ions Bon . J ahr .

Bonner J ahrbücher

Br it .

Br itann ia

B . M .

Br it ish Museu m G u ide

B . M. Q .

Br it ish Museu m Quar ter ly

B . B . C . S .

Bu l le t in o ft he Board o f Ce lt ic S tud ies

Bu l l . J . R . L ib .

B u l le t in o ft he J ohn Ry lands L ibrary

C . A . H . A .

C ah iers d 'Arch6o log ie e t d 'H isto ire d 'A lsace

Cambs . A nt iq . S oc .

C a mbr idgesh ire An t iquar ian S oc ie ty Proceed ings

C . I . L .

Corpus I nscr ip t ionu m L a t inaru m , H uebner , A . ( ed .)

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Corpus L nscr ip t ionu m e t Monu men toru m

C . B . A .

Re l ig ion is M ithr icae C ounc i l f or Br it ish Archaeo logy

C . W .

C u mber land a nd West mor land S oc ie ty T ransact ions

Curr . A rch .

C urren t Archaeo logy

Dor . N a t . H ist . & Arch . S oc .

P roceed ings o f t he Dorse t Na tura l H is tory a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty

E . M . A rch . Bu l l .

East M id lands Archaeo log ica l B u l le t in

E . C . N . R . S .

Ed it ions d u Centre Na t iona l d e l a Recherche

Eng . H ist . Rev .

S c ient if ique E ng l ish H istor ica l Rev iew

Ep ig . S tud .

Ep igraph ische S tud ien

Esp .

E sperand ieu , E . Recue i l G enera l d es Bas Re l iefs d e l a Gau le Ro ma ine

Ga l l . G er m . Han ts . F ie ld C lub

Ga l l ia G er man ia P roceed ings a nd Papers o f t he Ha mpsh ire

H is t . Re l .

H istor ia R e l ig ionu m

J ahrb . d es D eutsch .

J ahrbücher d es D eutschen Archaeo log ischen I nst itu t

J ahresber . Bay . Bod .

J ahresber ich t d er Bayer ischen Bodendenkma lpf lege

J . B . A . A .

J ourna l o ft he Br it ish Archaeo log ica l

F ie ld C lub

A ssoc ia t ion J . C . A . S . J . E . H .

J ourna l o ft he Chester Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty J ourna l o f E cc les ias t ica l H is tory

J . R . S .

J ourna l o f Roman S tud ies

K en t Arch . Res .

K en t Archaeo log ica l Research G roup 's C ounc i l N ews le t ter

L a tomus

C o l lect ions L a to mus

L e ics . Arch . &H ist . S oc . T rans .

L e icestersh ire Archaeo log ica l a nd H is tor ic a l S oc ie ty T ransac t ions

L incs . A rch it . & Arch . S oc .

L inco lnsh ire A rch itectura l a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty Repor ts a nd Papers

L on . Arch .

T he L ondon A rchaeo log ist

Man . d 'Arch .

Manue l d 'Archeo log ie G a l lo-Roma ine

Mem . C omm . An t iq .

Me mo ires d e l a C o mm iss ion d es Ant iqu i tes

Mem . S oc . An t iq .

••• •.• Co te d 'Or Me mo ires d e l a S oc ietA d es An t iqua ires d e F rance

Mon . An t iq . Norf . A rch .

T he Monmou thsh ire An t iquary Norfo lk Archaeo logy

N . S ta f fs . J . F . S .

Nor th S ta f fordsh ire J ourna l o f F ie ld S tud ies

Oxon . P . D . A . E . S .

Oxon iens ia Proceed ings o ft he D evonsh ire A rchaeo log ica l

P . P . S . P .R .I .A .

E xp lora t ion S oc ie ty Proceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety P roceed ings o f t he Roya l I r ish A cade my

P roc . Roy . S oc . Med . P . S . A .

P roceed ings o ft he Roya l S oc ie ty o f Med ic ine Proceed ings o ft he S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies

P . S . A . N .

Proceed ings o ft he S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies

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o f N ewcast le Proceed ings o ft he S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies o f S co t land

P . U . B . S . S . Recs . o f B ucks

Proceed ings o f t he U n ivers ity o fB r isto l S pe laeo log ica l S oc ie ty Records o f B uck inghamsh ire

R . L . K . Re l .

D er R e ichs L i mes K o mm iss ion T he R e l iquary

Rev . A rch .

Revue Archeo log ique

R . A . E .

Revue Archeo log ique d e l 'Est e t d u Cen tre E st

Rev . d es E tudes Anc .

Revue d es E tudes Anc iennes

Rev . Arch . N . E . R ev . d e l 'H ist . Re l .

Revue Archeo log ique d u Nord-Es t d e l 'O ise

Rev . H is t .

Revue H istor ique

R . I . B .

T he Ro man I nscr ip t ions o f Br ita in

R . C . H . M .

Roya l Co m m iss ion o n H istor ica l Monu men ts

S a lop . Arch . S oc . T rans .

S hropsh ire Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty

Revue d e l 'H isto ire d es Re l ig ions

T ransac t ions S . A . S .

Proceed ings o f t he S o merse tsh ire Archaeo log ica l a nd Na tura l H istory S oc ie ty

S t . A . &H er ts . Arch it . &

T ransact ions o ft he S t . A lbans a nd

Arch . S oc . Trans .

Her tfordsh ire Arch itectura l a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty

S uf f .

I ns t . Arch . P rocs .

T he S uf fo lk I nst itu te o f Archaeo logy Proceed ings

S y . A . C .

S urrey Archaeo log ica l Co l lec t ions

S . A . C .

S ussex Archaeo log ica l Co l lec t ions

T hor . S oc . Trans .

T horo ton S oc ie ty T ransact ions

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T ransact ions o f t he Br isto l a nd G louces tersh ire Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty

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T ransac t ions o ft he Devon Assoc ia t ion

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T ransac t ions o f t he E ssex Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty

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T ransact ions o f t he Newbury D is tr ict F ie ld C lub

Trans . Woo l . N . F . C .

T ransac t ions o f t he Woo lhope Na tura l ists ' F ie ld C lub

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T he V ic tor ia Coun ty H is tory

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Yorksh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l

Ya le C lass ica l S tud ies

FRONT ISPIECE B ronze s ta tue t te o f moun ted h orseman , w ith c rested h e l met a nd o va l s h ie ld . T he l ance wh ich was p resu mab ly h e ld i n t he r igh t h and i s n ow m iss ing . c ircu lar b ase may o r may n o t b e a n o r ig ina l f ea ture ; Westwood Br idge , P e terborough . S ize

Overa l l h e igh t :

c . 9 cm (2-i n . )

D iame ter o fb ase :

C . 8 .1 cm ( 37 1 -i n . )

T he

f ound w i th b ur ia l n r .

D ISCUSS ION

CHAPTER 1

I NTRODUCT ION : THE PRE-RO MAN AND CONT INENTAL BACKGROUND TO THE ENQU IRY

Wha t Ih ave a t te mp ted i n t h is s tudy i s t o t ake a measure o f t he r e l ig ious a ng le o f B r ita in a nd t he B r itons d ur ing t he Ro man p er iod .

I n o rder t o make

a ny p rogress w ith t h is t he me i ti s n ecessary t o t ake u p as pec if ic v iew a bou t t he f orm w h ich r e l ig ion t ook i n c iv il ian Ro man Br ita in . A t f i rst g lance a t t he ma ter ia l a nd a t t he l i terary e v idence i ta ppears a s i fr oman iza t ion mean t t ha t wha t w ere r ea l ly b e ing w orsh ipped w ere t he d iv in it ies o f t he G raecoRo man O lymp iad , a l though C elt ic is m d id e x ist , a nd i tc ou ld b e t hough t t ha t t he Romans , i n t ry ing t o p ro mo te r o man iza t ion , w ere a lso p ush ing c lass ica l r e l ig ion . Ib e l ieve t ha t , a l though Br ita in was p ar t o f t he Roman emp ire , i t was e ven s o ar emo te p ar t a nd IH ave a t te mp ted h ere t o s ee j us t h ow f ar r oman iza t ion d id o r d id n ot g o. Anderson i s ays t ha t t he Greeks a nd Ro mans t ook i tf or g ran ted t ha t f ore ign g ods d id n o t d ifer much f ro m t he ir own .

Caesar , t o

j udge f ro m h is c o m men t ,2 t hough t t ha t r o man iza t ion was a lready c omp lete : h e h as n o d if f icu l ty i n i den t ify ing C e l t ic g ods w ith Ro man .

From t he e v idence

a t o ur d isposa l w e h ave t o d ec ide t he d ep th o f Roman v eneer o n v o t ive o b jects l arge a nd sma l l wh ich a re f ound i n t he Ro man p rov ince o f Br i ta in ; h ow much was v eneer a nd h ow much r ea l r o man is m?

How d eep d id t ha t p rocess , wh ich

Haver f ie ld acou ld t ake a s ab ook t i t le , g o ?. 3 I t s hou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t t here w ere t wo ma in e le men ts f or m ing Ro mano-Br it ish r e l ig ion .

C lass ica l a uthors a re a b le t o i n form u s a bou t

Ro man c u l ts a nd t he a t t itude o f t he c lass ica l p eop les t owards t he r e l ig ions o f f ore igners. T here was t o lera t ion e xcep t w here a c u l t was t oo n a t iona l ist ic o r s ecre t f or c o mfor t , o r where i t was t oo b arbarous , e .g. i nvo lv ing h uman s acr if ice , f or Ro man t aste. T hus t he Ro mans a t te mpted t o a bo l ish Dru id is m i n Br i ta in a nd i n troduced t he p o l it ica l Cu l t o f t he Emperor t o a l l t he p rov inces , i nclud ing Br ita in . 4 On t he C e l t ic s ide o f t he c o in t h ings a re v ery d i f feren t , i n t erms o f modern k now ledge.

On t he t he me o f Cel t ic r el ig ion a nd o f h ow

t he C e l ts r egarded c lass ica l c u l ts t here i s l i terary , e p igraph ic a nd ( i n t he ma in b e fore t he Ro man p er iod ) i conograph ic s i lence. T he e v idence w e a re l ook ing f or w i l l p roduce ap icture u n fa ir ly b iased t owards t he Ro man s i mp ly b ecause , t o al arge e x ten t , c lass ica l lyin f luenced a r t-forms w ere u sed i n t he Roman p er iod , s ince t here w as a b as ic u n fa m il iar ity w ith n a tura l is t ic r epresen ta t ion , a nd e p igraphy ( men t ion ing g ods b y n ame ) w as a Roman c onc ep t f ore ign t o t he Ce l t ic p eop les.

1

I th as a lready b een s tated a bove t ha t Caesar 5 s ee ms t o h ave b el ieved t hat Ro man a nd C e l t ic d e it ies were i den t ica l.

I tw as Tac itus h owever 6 who c o ined

t he p hrase ' I n terpreta t io Ro mana ' a nd b y i ts ee ms t o mean t ha t c lass ica l g ods w ere f am i l iar t o t he Ce lts , b u t t he ir n a ture i n terpre ted i n aC e l t ic manner . T h is c ou ld p erhaps e qua l ly b e t ermed ' I n terpreta t io C e lt ica '. T he Ro mans d id , i n my o p in ion , av a luab le t h ing f or p os ter ity i n t he ir t rea tmen t o f C e l t ic r e l ig ion .

F ar f ro m s uppress ing i tt hey e nab led i t , a t l east i n p ar t , t o b e ma-

t er ia l ised , f orma l ized a nd t herefore made t ang ib le a nd p oss ib le t o s tudy , i f n o t e xp la ined .

S o i n t he Ro man p er iod f or t he f irst t ime c an b e s een , i n

Br ita in a s i n t he r est o f t he C e l to-Ro man w or ld , ar ecogn isab le s er ies o f r e l ig ious t he mes.

THE EV IDENCE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND OF CLASS ICAL WR ITERS FOR CELT IC REL IG ION BEFORE THE RO MAN CONQUEST OF GAUL AND BR ITA IN T he e v idence a t o ur d isposa l i s o f an u mber o f d if feren t k inds.

The

a rchaeo log ica l r ecord m igh t t e l l u s t he s or t o f a r t-form u sed t o d ep ict d ie t ies ; t he t ype o f s tructure t he C e l t may h ave b u i l t t o worsh ip a nd h onour h is g ods. I n forma t ion f ro m c lass ica l a u thors p oses i t s own s et o f p rob le ms.

I t i s o f ten

d if f icu l t t o p ick o u t t he p re-Ro man f ro m t he Ro man e v idence. A l mos t a l l c lass ica l wr iters w il l b e g iv ing i n for ma t ion a bou t b arbar ian c us to ms t hrough b iased e yes , t e l l ing s tor ies f or a r eason r a ther t han impar t ia l ly t rans m it t ing f ac ts .

I n t he s a me way t he wr iter w i l l b e u nconsc ious ly s ee ing h is ma ter ia l

t hrough Graeco-Ro man e yes : a ny th ing d i f feren t f ro m h is own c us to ms h e may we l l b e t e mp ted t o e xp la in i n t erms o f t he Ro man o rder .

When d ea l ing w ith

af ore ign n a t ion a nd a l ien c oncep ts , e spec ia l ly i n mat ters o f r e l ig ion , t here w i l l a u to ma t ica l ly b e a n i n terpre tat ion o r u nders tand ing b arr ier f or t he n oni nd igenous h istor ian .

One mus t b e w ary i n a ssu m ing t ha t t he l a ter c lass ica l

wr iters a re d escr ib ing p re-Ro man b e l iefs a t a l l. EV IDENCE OF PRE-RO MAN CELT IC S TRUCTURES I ti s impor tan t t o r ea l ise t ha t v ery f ew c lass ica l wr iters men t ion b u i l t p laces o f w orsh ip.

More o f ten t here a re r e ferences t o s acred a reas where

t here may o r may n o t h ave b een s o me k ind o f t e mp le s tructure.

I t i s w or th-

wh i le t o s um mar ise t he e v idence o f c lass ica l a u thors t o s ee i fa ny o f t he ir i n forma t ion t a l l ies w ith wha t i s k nown f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord. D iodorus S icu lus men t ions t ha t t here w ere s anc tuar ies d ed icated t hroughou t G au 1 .

7

He a lso t e l ls ( quot ing H eca taeus o f A bdera ) o f ac ircu lar t e mp le t o

Apo l lo among t he Hyperboreans. 8 s ub ject .

S trabo i s p ar t icu lar ly i nteres t ing o n t he

H e t a lks o f as acred l ake a t T ou louse where ofer ings w ere made ,

a nd w h ich was d espo iled b y t he Ro man g enera l Caep io i n 1 06 B .0 .9

He

s ta tes t ha t t he G reek wr iter P os idon ius d escr ibed a sma l l i s land o f f t he mou th o f t he L o ire i nhab ited b y w o men , who b u i l t at e mp le a nd e ach y ear r emoved t he r oo f , r e-tha tch ing i tt he s a me d ay . 1° Caesar i l

men t ions t he

y ear ly a sse mb ly o f t he G au l ish Dru ids i n t he l and o f t he Carnu tes , a t ah a ll owed s pot . i s i nd icated .

A s acred mee t ing-p lace i s

r eferred t o h ere b ut n o a ctua l t e mp le

E lsewhere t he s a me wr iter t a lks o f t he w orsh ip o f Mars among

t he C el ts , men t ion ing c onsecrated g round where p i les o f b ooty w ere o f fered

2

l z

t o t he g od .

Lucan 1 3 t a lks o f s acred g roves i n c onnect ion w ith Dru ids ;

a nd i n t he s a me p assage , when s peak ing o f t hree Ce l t ic d e it ies , r efers t o a l tars - a ga in s ugges t ing t he p resence o f ah a l lowed s po t .

E lsewhere

t he a u thor t a lks o f a Ce lt ic f ores t s anctuary o r g rove , w ith a l tars a nd t rees s pr ink led w ith t he h u man b lood o f s acr if ices. 1 4 T ac itus 1 5 t e l ls o f as acred g rove o f t he Dru ids i n Ang lesey , a nd L ivy 1 6 c o mmen ts o n ar evered s hr ine o f t he B o i i i n t he 3 rd c en tury B .C. S ueton ius men t ions s acred p laces p lundered o f t he ir v o t ive o f fer ings i n G au l b y Caesar .

1 7

P lu tarch 1 8 t el ls o f

t he h ang ing-up o f Caesar 's d agger i n t he s acred p lace o f t he Arvern i. T er tu l l ian 1 9 men t ions t ha t C e l ts h eard o rac les i n t he t o mbs o f t he ir r evered d ead - s o we h ave i n for ma t ion o f a nother f orm o f h a l lowed s po t -t he g rave. F ina l ly , P au l inus 2° s ays t ha t t he p agans d id n o t m ind t he d esit ruct ion o f t he ir t e mp les n ear ly s o much a s t he f e l l ing o f t he ir s acred p ines. i Ana lys is o f t he c lass ica l l i terary e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t many wr iters a gree o n t he i dea t ha t t he C e l ts f avoured n a tura l f ea tures o f t he l andscape a s p laces o f v enera t ion - g roves , r ivers , l akes a nd t rees , a s we l l a s u nspec if i ed ' h o ly p laces '.

There w ere many o f t hese s anctuar ies a nd t hey w ere o f

g rea t i mpor tance t o t he C el ts. We a lso g a in a f a in t i mpress ion o f t he o cc as iona l b u ilt s tructure. T he t erms ' f anum ' a nd ' t e mp lum ' may mean n oth ing o ther t han h a l lowed p laces , b u t t he L o ire s hr ine was t ang ib le e nough t o h ave ar oo f . F or t he r es t i t may b e s ign if ican t t hat t here i s l i t t le d eta iled d escr ipt i on o f t he a rch itecture .o r i n terna l f urn ish ings o f s hr ines. Archaeo log ica l e v idence f or b u i l t p laces o f w orsh ip i s more s ubs tant ia l t han t ha t g leaned f ro m l i terary s ources. F irst t here a re t he r e ma ins o f s outhern G au l ish ' Ce lto-L igur ian ' s anctuar ies , i nf luenced ( i n t he ir v ery e xi s tence ) b y t he G reek c o lony o f Mass il ia a nd d e f in itely p re-Ro man . T he L igur ians l i ved o n t he e as tern French R iv iera a nd i n Nor th- Wes t I ta ly , a nd s o me o f t he s hr ines f a l l w i th in t he ir , r a ther t han s tr ict ly G a l lo-Ce l t ic , t err it ory .

T he c on ten ts o f t hese s hr ines - s evered h eads a nd c arv ings o f h eads ,

a nd o ther n on-c lass ica l r e l ig ious s cu lptures , s how t hat t hey b e longed t o C e lts a nd w ere d pd ica ted t o C e lt ic d e it ies.

S hr ines o f t h is t ype , s ome b u i l t a s e ar ly

a s t he 6 th c en tury B .C., e x is ted e .g . a t er nes , G lanum , Roqueper tuse , Mour ids , S t. B la ise 2 1

a nd En tre mon t .2 2

S econd ly t here i s t he e v idence o f t he t rue Ce l t ic p re-Ro man s hr ines i n G au l a nd Br ita in . As e ar ly a s t he 6 th c en tury B .C. a t t he G o ldberg i n s ou th G ermany , i n t he c orner o f al arge s e t t le men t , l ay a n o b long p a l isaded e nc los ure i n wh ich w ere t wo w e l l-bu i l t s tructures , wh ich c ou ld h ave b een s hr ines Even e ar l ier ( 10th c en tury B .C.) i s t he l arge r i tua l e nc losure a t Au lnay-auxP lanches. 23

O ther much l a ter p re-Ro man e nc losures c on ta in ing r i tua l e v i-

d ence a re k nown a t L iben ice 2 3 a nd a t Mzecke Z ehrov ice ,

2 3

b o th i n C zecho-

s lovak ia. V ery d if feren t f ro m t he v as t o pen s truc tures w e h ave b een c ons ider ing , a nd c loser i n t ime , s pace a nd c u lture t o t he Ro mano-Cel t ic s hr ine , a re s truc tures wh ich u nder l ie a nd t here fore p re-da te Romano-Ce l t ic r el ig ious b u i ld ings. Any i n forma t ion w e c an g a in f rom t hese s i tes i s v a luab le s ince i t i nd ica tes p oss ib le c on t inu ity o f o ccupa t ion o f as anc tuary a nd t herefore p erhaps o f d e i ty o ver s evera l h undred y ears. An e xamp le o f p robab le c on t inen ta l c on t inu ity f rom p re-Ro man t o Ro man t imes i s S t . G er ma inles-Rocheux2 4

3

where aRo mano-Ce l t ic t e mp le o ver lay p os tho les o f a n e ar l ier b u i ld ing w ith ac en tra l s quare , p ara l le led i n Br ita in a t H ea throw ( see b e low ).

A t Fon ta ines

S a l es ( near V eze lay ) t he med ic ina l s pr ings a ppear t o h ave b een u sed f ro m Ha ls ta t t t imes , a nd a c ircu lar s anctuary w i th a s quare c e l la w as b u i lt i n t he 1s t c en tury B .C. 25 S o me p re-Ro man c on t inen ta l s hr ines w ere a ssoc ia ted w ith g raves - s uch a s t he s quare o r c ircu lar p o tho le s et t ings w ith in sma l l e ar thwork e nc losures , f ound e spec ia l ly i n t he Marne a rea , a nd e xe mp l if ied b y t he s hr ine a t Nornee .26

V iereckshanzen ( squar ish e ar thworks o f ten c on-

t a in ing ? shr ines , ma in ly f ound i n G er many ) s omet i mes o ccur i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith r i tua l s ha f ts , a nd b oth a re p re-Ro man .2 7 T he most f a mous o f t hese e nc losures a nd s ha f ts i s a t H o lzhausen i n B avar ia. I n o ne d eep s ha f t h ave b een f ound a wooden s take a nd r e ma ins o f h uman f l esh a nd b lood a dher ing t o i t .2 7

R itua l s ha f ts h ave a much w ider d istr ibu t ion o n t he Con t inen t t han

v iereckshanzen , b e ing s cat tered a l l o ver G au 1 .2 8

V er if ica t ion f or t he r i tua l

n a ture o f s ome c o mes f ro m t he f act t ha t e xamp les , e .&s.i n t he V end6e , i n t he e ar ly Ro man p er iod h ad f igur ines d epos ited i n t he m. T he Br it ish p re-Ro man e v idence i s n o t s o l av ish .

No h uge s acred e nc lo-

s ures a re k nown , b ut t he t e menos o f t he Romano-Ce l t ic s hr ine a t G osbecks i s t hough t t o h ave b een p re-Ro man , d ef in ite ly p re-da t ing t he t e mp le , a nd

3 0

p oss ib ly o nce c on ta in ing a s acred t ree o r p i t , a s t he t e mp le i s o f f-cen tre. O ther e v idence r anges i n d egree f ro m c er ta in ty ( i f t ha t t er m may e ver b e u sed a rchaeo log ica l ly ) t o mere s ugges t ion .

L ew is 3 1 makes a t o ta l o f e igh t

Ro mano-Ce l t ic s hr ines wh ich .are p robab ly o f I ron Age d ate i n o r ig in .

A t

Fr il ford ( p .194) a c rude c ircu lar t e mp le o f e ar ly Roman d a te c arr ied o n t he l i fe o f a n I ron Age s hr ine , a nd a t rue Romano-Ce l t ic t e mp le g rew u p a longs ide i t , c on t inu ing t he l i fe-span e ven f ur ther .

A t Wor th ( p .231) I ron Age

p o t tery , mode l I ron Age s h ie lds a nd o dd p os tho les p roc la im a nI ron Age o r ig in f or t he k nown Ro man t e mp le. Cer ta in s tructures r eca l l c on t inen ta l e xamp les o f r itua l s truc tures ment i oned a bove. Three r ect i l inear e nc losures , e ach c on ta in ing a d eep s haf t , a t F ox F ur long , L ong Wi t tenham 3 2

r eca l l t he G erman v iereckshanzen .

A

sma l l l a te I ron Age r ound b arrow a t Hand ley ( Dorse t ), l y ing w ith in a s quared i tched e nc losure 3 3

r eca l ls t he Marn ian ' grave ' s anc tuar ies.

Br it ish ' r itua l ' s ha f ts h ave t he ir o r ig in i n t he I ron Age. 34

Many Ro mano-

T he H ea throw

s hr ine s hou ld b e c ons idered h ere. A b u i ld ing r epu ted ly o f 4 th c en tury B .C. d a te i s e x traord inar ily s im i lar i n p lan t o many Ro mano-Ce l t ic t emp les , w ith as quare s truc ture s urrounded b y a n o u ter c o lonnade . 3 5 There a re p ara l le ls i n t he I ron Age f or t h is t ype o f b u i ld ing , h owever .

A t H o lzhausen t here w as

as im i lar s tructure i n o ne o f t he v iereckshanzen men t ioned a bove . I n t h is b r ief s urvey o f p re-Ro man C el t ic s anc tuar ies o n t he C on t inen t a nd i n Br ita in a k ind o f c on t inu ity may b e s een . T he h uge e ar ly p re-Ro man c ont inen ta l e nc losures may w e l l b e f orerunners o f t he t e mene o f many Ro manoCe lt ic s hr ines.

The s hape a nd a rch itectura l s ty le o f t he Ho lzhausen s hr ine ,

o r o f H eathrow , a re s ure ly p recursors o f t he c e l la a nd p or t ico mak ing u p a t rue Ro mano-Ce l t ic s hr ine.

4

DE IT IES I N THE PRE-RO MAN CELT IC WORLD Brennus , a Gau l ish c h ief ta in o f t he 3 rd c en tury B .C., l aughed a t t he G reeks ' b e l ief i n g ods w ith h uman f or m • 36

C lass ica l a u thors , w ith t he ir

d ear th o f e v idence , wou ld s ee m t o s uppor t t h is o u t look .

Archaeo logy t e l ls

as l ight ly d i f feren t s tory . Caesar s ta tes t hat images o f Mercury c ou ld b e s een i n G au l. 37

I n t he

s a me p assage h e l i s ts t he p opu lar ity o f v ar ious Ro man g ods t here , Mercury b e ing t he c o m mones t d e ity . Accord ing t o t he s a me a u thor t he c ockere l , g oose a nd h are w ere a l l s acred t o t he Br itons. 38 D io 's a ccoun t o f t he Boud iccan r evo l t i nd icates t he s anc t ity o f t he h are t o Andraste .39 L ucan 4 ° men t ions w ooden e f f ig ies , a nd e lsewhere h e t a lks o f t hree Ce lt ic d e i t ies - T eu ta tes , E su .s a nd T aran is. 4 1

O ther c lass ica l wr iters i nform u s o f t he worsh ip o f

G raeco-Ro man d e it ies among t he Cel ts. 42,43 Archaeo log ica l ly p re-Roman d e it ies i n t he Ce l t ic wor ld a re b es t a t tested i n t he s ou thern G au l ish s i tes d iscussed a bove (p . 3 ). h eads ,4 4 h orse men , 45

s qua t t ing d e it ies , 46

a n i ma ls45 a re r epresen ted .

S cu lp tured h u man • j an ifor m , 46 t r ip le h eads , 47 a nd

Th is i s a l l Ce l t ic i conography , wh ich i s met

a ga in i n t he Ro mano-Ce lt ic w or ld

t he h ead , t he c rosslegged p osture , mu l-

t i p l ica t ion o f h eads , h orse men , a re a l l Ro mano-Ce l t ic c u lt s ymbo ls , a s a re a n i ma ls . Wooden , p robab ly p re-Ro man , images o ccur o n t he Con t inen t a nd i n Br ita in . o n i t .

A t Foo t lands Farm , S ed lesco mbe " a c rude s take h ad a f ace c arved

An I r ish e xa mp le i s k nown a t S hercock , Co. Cavan .9

The o n ly k nown

Br it ish f e ma le e xa mp le c o mes f ro m Ba l lachu l ish i n Argy l l. 5

An i n teres t ing

g roup f ro m Ho lderness o n t he Hu mber s hou ld b e men t ioned .

Abou t s ix f igures ,

c arry ing s h ields , were a ssoc ia ted w ith a r ough ly c arved b oa t. 5 1 S tone s ta tue- menh irs a re f ound t hroughou t t he p re-Ro man I ron Age. c ont inen ta l H irsch landen 6 th c en tur 3, B .C. d ate.

T he

a nd Ho lzer l ingen s tone f igures 5 2 a re d atab le t o t he

AJ anus h ead f ro m L e ich l ingen 5 3 i s o f 4 th c en tury B .C.

T he l i fe-s ize s tone h ead f ro m Mzecke Z ehrov ice was f ound i n ar i tua l

e nc losure . 5 4 An i ma ls a re r epresen ted i n t he p re-Ro man Ce l t ic r ecord .

A sma l l b ronze

b oar f ro m Woodendean ( Sussex ) was r epu ted ly a ssoc ia ted w ith a n e ar ly I ron Age s wan 's n eck p in .5 5

Ab oar i s r epresen ted a s a n emb le m o f f eroc ity a nd

t enac i ty o n t he W itha m S h ie ld . 56

On t he Con t inen t Ha l ls tat t b rooches w ere

made w ith a r a m-headed s nake a s ad ev ice. 5 7

Th is monster i s w e l l-known i n

Ro mano-Celt ic mytho logy . Swans , d ucks , h orses , b u l ls a nd s tags w ere a ssoc ia ted w ith p re-Ro man s o lar c u l ts • 58 Much o f wha t we f ind i n t he Ro mano-Ce lt ic p er iod , i n t he way o f r e l ig ious i conography , s hows i t se l f f irs t i n t he e ar ly p re-Ro man I ron Age , a nd e ven b e fore. EV IDENCE FOR PRE-RO MAN R ITUAL C lass ica l a u thors a re much more f or thco m ing a bou t e xpress ions o f b el i ef among t he Ce lt ic p eop les. a Gau l ish l ake ,

5 9

o f

S trabo t a lks o f d epos it ion o f v o t ive o b jec ts i n

y ear ly t e mp le r e-tha tch ing i n Gau l ,

5

6 0

o f p r iests a nd

t he ir r i tes ,

6 1

a nd o f h u man s acr if ice .6 2 ,63 ,64

s acr if ice ,6 5 a s d o Caesar ,

6 6

L ucan a lso men t ions h uman

D iodorus 6 7 a nd A thenaeus. 68

mos t u sefu l s ource o n Dru id ic r i tua l ,

6 9

C aesar i s o ur

b u t P l iny a lso impar ts i n terest ing i n-

f orma t ion .7° I t must b e r e me mbered t ha t t he ma jor ity o f c lass ica l a u thors wr it ing a bou t t he Ce l ts d rew t he ir s ource- ma ter ia l f rom a s ing le s ource , P os idon ius. 7 1

However i ti s n ever the less i n teres t ing t o p o in t o u t who u ses

wh ich p ar ts o f Pos idon ius , s ince s evera l i t ems o f r e levance a re o n ly d iscussed b y o ne o r t wo s ubsequen t a u thor it ies. C lass ica l a u thors t e l l u s o f s acr if ices a nd o f fer ings i n l akes a nd r ivers. Archaeo logy c on f irms t h is t o s o me e x ten t. H oards o fI ron Age meta lwork h ave b een f ound o n t he Con t inen t , e .g . i n L ake Neuchä te l i n Sw itzer land ,7 2 a nd i n Br ita in , e .g . a t L lyn Cerr ig o n Ang lesey .7 3

T he c ustom o f o f fer ing

u p t he h eads o f e ne m ies , d iscussed i n c lass ica l s ources , 74 i s v er if ied b y a rchaeo logy . F ro m Cosgrove ( Nor than ts ) c omes a n e xamp le o f ap re-Ro man s hr ine w ith t he r e ma ins o f as ku l l b ur ied i n o ne wa l l ( p .179 ). i s a t tested i n t he ' Ce lto-L igur ian ' s hr ines c i ted a bove .7 5

H ead-hun t ing

A t En tre mon t , f or

e xa mp le , w ere h u man s ku l ls o f f i f teen a du l t ma les , s o me a ctua l ly r eta in ing l arge i ron n a ils w h ich f ixed t he m t o wooden s truc tures. 76 R itua l d epos its , o ther t han t hose i n l akes a nd r ivers , a re k nown i n t he p re-Ro man I ron Age. A p loughshare w as b ur ied a s af ounda t ion d epos it a t Fr il ford ( p .194 ) ,7 7 p resu mab ly a p rop it ia tory o f fer ing b y af armer o r t o a n a gr icu l tura l d e ity . s i te a t Wor th . Arras. 7 9

Mode l s h ie lds o fI ron Age t ype o ccurred a t t he t e mp le

I ron Age mode l a xes c ome f rom L ong W it tenham 7 8 a nd

A s tudy o f t he p re-Ro man e v idence f or C e l t ic r i tua l i nd ica tes t he n ecess i ty o fb oth l i terary a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i n o rder t o o b ta in e ven a g l i mpse o f t he manner o f worsh ip i n t h is p er iod .

C lass ica l wr iters g ive u s

i nforma t ion c oncern ing n a mes o f d e it ies , r i tua l c usto ms , a nd t he Dru ids. Archaeo logy p rov ides d eta i ls r e la t ing t o s hr ine s tructure a nd r i tua l o f fer ings. T he p icture i s s t il l b leak . Bo th c lass ica l a u thors a nd a rchaeo logy a re b iased i n t he ir way . T he g enera l p ic ture , h owever , i n t he p re-Ro man p er iod i n Gau l a nd Br i ta in , c rea ted b y t he e v idence w e h ave , i s t ha t o f t he p resence o f s o me b u i l t t e mp les a nd many ' l oca c onsecra ta '.

We g a ther t ha t t he C e l ts were a n i-

m is t ic , t ha t t hey r evered woods , t rees a nd s treams . T he e v idence s ugges ts c o mp lex r i tua l a nd p erhaps a c o mp l ica ted my tho logy . I ta lso s uggests t ha t t he f ounda t ions o f Ro mano-Ce lt ic r e l ig ion l ay f i rm ly i n t he p re-Roman p as t . THE REL IG IOUS BEL IEFS OF THE CELTS T he a va ilab le e v idence i s b iased t owards Ro me. c lass ica l ly-s lan ted ;

L iterary i n forma t ion i s

t he v as t ma jor ity o f d e ity-represen tat ions ( and a l l i n-

s cr ip t ions ) a re d a ted t o t he Ro man p er iod , a nd u se t he L a t in l anguage. I ti s s t il l p erhaps p oss ib le t o g a in s o me i dea o f w ha t t he Ce l ts t he mse lves b e l ieved b efore a nd d ur ing t he Ro man e ra. T he e v idence o f monu men ta l i nscr ip t ions a nd a r t-forms o f d e it ies i nd ica tes t ha t i n t he Ro man p er iod p eop le l i v ing i n C el t ic l ands c onquered b y Ro me w ere n e ither p ure ly Roman n or p urely C e lt ic i n t he ir r e l ig ious a l leg iances.

T ac itus ' t erm ' I n terpre ta t io Romana ' c an i n

my o p in ion j us t a s e as ily b e t ermed 'I n terpre ta t io Ce l t ica ', a nd o ne may

A

_

p erhaps merely a dop t t he w ord ' i n terpretat io ' a s mean ing t he s uper i mpos it ion o f Ro man o n to Ce l t ic g od o rv ice v ersa. I t s hou ld b e s tressed t ha t t he v ery a dven t o f i nscr ip t ions i n t he Ro man p er iod , a nd t he g iv ing o f n ames t o d e it ies , may i n i t se l f b e af orm o f ' i n terpre ta t io ' s ince wha t may h ave b een i l l-def ined C e lt ic g ods were n ow t i ed d own b y s pec if ic n ames. The s ame may b e s a id o f a r t-form. Most d e it ies i n t he Ro man p er iod owe s o meth ing t o c lass ica l a r t i n t he ir r epresen ta t ion . F ina l ly i ts hou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t w ith t he c om ing o f Ro me c a me t he i n troduc t ion o f s o me p ure ly Roman a nd , t o al esser e x ten t , e astern d e it ies. S ome r e l ig ious e v idence i n Ro mano-Ce l t ic l ands may b e u nequ ivoca l ly Ro man o r Ce lt ic. M i l itary i nscr ip t ions t o J up iter Opt i mus Max i mus f ound o n f or ts i nN or th Br ita in s uch a s Marypor t 8° c ou ld n ot b e more Ro man . Sma l l v ery c lass ica l f igur ines o f Mercury f ro m l arge Ro man t owns n eed h ave n o Ce lt ic ism a bou t t he m. On t he o ther h and t here i s n oth ing Ro man a bou t s o me i conography o ccurr ing w ith in t he Ro man p er iod . I n G au l a nd i n Br ita in w e mee t ac ross-legged , s tag-horned g od , ad e ity r epresen ted w i th t hree h eads , w ith r am o r b u l l h orns , w ith a b u l l , o r w ith a b oar .

However u n-Ro man t hey

a re Roman i n f luence i s a pparen t i n t he v as t i ncrease i n n u mbers o f e f f ig ies i n t he R oman p er iod , c ompared t o myster ious s i lence i n t he I ron Age. D i f f icu l t ies o ccur when a c er ta in amoun t o f ' i n terpre ta t io ' h as t aken p lace. Even a c lass ica llook ing d ie ty may h ave a Cel t ic s urname ( e .g. Mars Corot iacus a t Mar t lesham (p .218 ) ) .

On a Ro mano-Ce l t ic monumen t o ne may

h ave a c oup le - g od a nd c onsor t -o ne w ith a Ro man , o ne w ith a C e l t ic n ame , f or e xamp le Mercury a nd Ros mer ta .. A c lass ica l g od s uch a s Mercury may b e d ep icted i n a Ce l t ic s ty le , o r a s a n o ld man , o r t hree-headed ; aRo man g od s uch a s Mars may b e s een w ith a Ce l t ic emb le m , f or e xamp le Mars w ith a r a m-headed s nake.

I conography a nd e p igraphy a re u nre l iab le i n i nd ica t ing

a n a ccurate p icture o fb e l ie fs ; a n i nscr ip t ion o r s cu lpture may t e l l o n ly h a lf t he s tory . S uce l lus - t he ' good s tr iker ' - h as a t o ta l ly C elt ic n ame , a nd s o h as h is c onsor t Nan tosue l ta.

D id t he g od r epresen ted b y t h is n ame h ave

a n e x is tence a s ad ist inc t e n t ity b e fore t he Ro man c onques t o f G au l?

What

d o t he p resence o fb oth Roman a nd C e l t ic n a me a t tached t o o ne d e ity mean? D IFFERENCES BET WEEN RO MAN AND CELT IC BEL IEF I ti s p oss ib le t o make s o me g enera l o bserva t ions o n t he k nown a nd o bv ious c on tras ts b etween t he Ro man a nd C e l t ic way o f t hough t , i n o rder t o i nd ica te j ust h ow awkward a ny s or t o f f us ion w il l a ppear . Fro m t he monumen ts i ti s p oss ib le t o s ee , mere ly f ro m t he a r t-for m , t ha t t he Ro man r e l ig ious e v idence i s r epresen ted b y af orma l ized c lass ica l s ty le ; t h is s ty le w il l b e a r t is t ical ly s ound , n a tura l is t ic , w e l l-propor t ioned , a nd w e r are ly h ave a ny d oubts a s t o wh ich d e ity i s b e ing d ea l t w ith .

I n C el t ic r epresen ta t ion t he a r t i s n ot a s

impor tan t a s t he a c tua l f ac t o f r epresen ta t ion .

The t wo-d i mens iona l G en i i

c ucu l la t i f ro m t he Cotswo lds ( p .173 ) may b e r egarded mere ly a s s ke tches , a nd o f ten t he i den t ity o f ad e ity i s n ot a pparen t t hrough a ny d is t ingu ish ing f ea tures t hat w e c an u nders tand .

C e lt ic r e l ig ion a ppears i m med ia te ly l ess

s tereo typed a nd more p ersona l t han c lass ica l c u l ts. T he r e l ig ion o f t he C e l ts s ee ms t o h ave b een a t a more p r im it ive s tage t han t ha t o f t he Ro mans a t t he t ime o f t he ir c onques t o f Ce lt ic l ands. 7

T here was

n o C e l t ic S ta te Re l ig ion , a s t here w as n o Ce l t ic S ta te. The Ce l ts were more d irect ly a n im ist ic. G ods i n C el t ic t hough t w ere n o t s o c oncerned w ith f unct i ona l is t ic i den t ity a s t hose o f Ro me. Mars w as t he u n iversa l w ar-god , b u t i n G au l a nd Br ita in w e f ind l oca l e p ithets a nd n ames a t tached t o h im - e i ther a spec ts o f o ne g rea t g od o r s evera l u s ing t he s ame Ro man n ame. r a ther t han f unc t ion d e f ines many C e l t ic d e it ies.

L oca l ity

The c loseness o f n a ture i n

Ce lt ic b e l ief i s i nd icated b y t he impor tance o f a n i ma ls a nd a n i ma l-e mb lems. Epona i s n ecessar ily c onnected w ith h orses.

G ods a dop t h orns f or t he ir h eads.

Near ly a l l Ce l t ic g oddesses c an b e i den t if ied , i n o ne f orm o r a no ther , w ith p rosper ity a nd f ecund ity . Non-conven t iona l ity i n t hough t a nd a r tform g ave r ise t o monsters s uch a s t he r a m-headed s nake a nd t he t hree-horned b u l l . ARCHAEOLOG ICAL EV IDENCE FOR DE IT IES MENT IONED I N L ITERARY SOURCES L ucan i n h is Pharsa l ia 8 1

men t ions t hree C e l t ic g ods - Esus , T eu tates a nd

T aran is. Es us o ccurs i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o n a n i nscr ip t ion a ccompanyi ng h is p or tra it f ro m Par is • 82 T aran is i s men t ioned O n i nscr ip t ions l i nked w ith J up iter .8 3 T eu ta tes i s men t ioned o n i nscr ip t ions , u sua l ly i den t if ied w ith Mars , f or i ns tance o n t he v ot ive p laque f ro m Barkway i n s outhern Br ita in ( p . 2 09) . The f ive Ro man d e it ies r ecorded b y Caesar a s b e ing worsh ipped i n G au 18 4 a re f ound i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a l l o ver t he Romano-Ce l t ic wor ld - s o met imes e qua ted w ith C el t ic d e it ies ; M inerva c a l led ' Su l '.

f or e xamp le w e f i nd Apo l lo c a l led ' Grannus ' ,

One d ist inct ion i ti s d i f f icu l t t o make w ith t hese e qua-

t i ons ( and t h is a pp l ied t o a l l Ro man g ods w ith C e l t ic s urna mes , n o t o n ly Caesar 's ) i s t ha tb etween t rue i den t if ica t ion o f t wo i ndependen t g ods a nd t he t ack ing o f aC el t ic d escr ip t ive e p ithe t o n to aRo man g od. S u l a nd M inerva were b o th i nd iv idua l d e it ies. Where a Ce l t ic n ame i s p ure ly d escr ipt ive t ha t n a me may n o t h ave e x is ted i n i t s own r igh tb efore t he Ro man p er iod . CELT IC MYTHOLOGY Wha t a ppears f or t he f i rst t ime i n t he Roman p er iod i s p erhaps a r a ther c on fused b r ing ing d own t o e ar th o f C e l t ic amorphous d e it ies , who e x is ted b ef ore ( w ithou t much i dea o f r ecogn isab le f orm , i mage o r s tandard my tho logy ). Th is was a ch ieved b y t he u se o f L a t in a nd o f Roman a r t-for ms a s b as ic med ia , b u t o f ten w ith Ce l t ic mean ing a nd w ith s trange C e l t ic q u irks i n t he d ep ict ions , b o th o f t he ir own a nd s o met i mes o f Ro man g ods ;

f or e xa mp le z oo morph ism ,

t r ip l ica t ion , t he impor tance o f t he h ead , a l l o f w h ich , a s h as b een s een , h ave b een h in ted a t c er ta in ly a s e ar ly a s t he p re-Roman I ron Age.

C e l t ic i cono-

g raphy h as b orrowed b o th c lass ica l a r t-forms a nd t hemes t o ac er ta in e x ten t ( e .g . t he d og a s a n u nderwor ld s ymbo l ).

T he F rench s cho lars L ambrech ts 85

a nd Ha t t" a re more o r l ess a greed t hat f rom i nscr ip t ions a nd a r t-forms t here c an b e r ecogn ized i n t he Ro man p er iod , whether a r t if ic ia l ly s tandard ized o r n o t , c er ta in ma jor Ce l t ic d e it ies , wh ich may o r may n ot b e d i f feren t e n t it ies o r d i f feren t a spects o f t he s a me e n t ity .

I n a ny c ase t here i s g rea t i n tercon-

n ec t ion b etween t he m a nd i nd ica t ions o f as trong e le men t o f d ua l is m i n C e lt ic r e l ig ion a s a who le - t he i n terdependence o f L igh t a nd Darkness , Good a nd Ev il , S ky a nd Ear th/Underwor ld . L a mbrech ts 8 5 g ives a p icture o f o ne g rea t omn ipo ten t Ce l t ic d e ity , w ith s evera l d i f feren t g u ises , a nd r epresen ted b y

8

many a r t forms . a t o nce .

H e i so la tes k ey monu men ts where s evera l a spec ts a ppear

F or i nstance t he a r t-type c a l led t he ' Jup i ter-G ian t Co lumn ' i s c on-

n ec ted w i th r epresen ta t ions o ft he g od w ith a Whee l , i n t ha tb o th a re k nown a s J up i ter o n i nscr ip t ions , t hey l ook a l ike , a nd t he c o lumn g od s o me t i mes h as a • w hee l ;

t he g od i s a ga in l i nked i n d ed ica t ions a nd b y a ppearance w i th t ha t o f

t he Hammer-god r epresen ta t ion , s o me t i mes c a l led S uce l lus , a nd o nce more t h is t ype i s l i nked w ith a C e l t ic v ers ion o f t he c lass ica l wood land d e ity S i lvanus , a nd w ith t he Underwor ld a s D ispa ter . The J up i ter-G ian t c o lumns s how a warr ior s trugg l ing w i th t he f orces o f Ev i l i n t he f or m o f ac hthon ic s nake-foo ted g ian t .

L iterary s ources 87 i nd ica te t ha t Taran is was l i nked b o th

w i th J up i ter ( w ith a warr ior a spec t ) a nd w ith t he Underwor ld .

L ambrech ts '

maps i nd ica te t ha t Ce l t ic mons ters o ccur i n N . E . Gau l , where L a T bne t rad it i ons were s trong . Professor Ha t t8 8 g oes f ur ther t han L ambrech ts i n t ha t h e u ses t he e v idence o ft he G undestrup Cau ldron 8 9 a s ab as is f or c onstruct ing a my tho log ica l s tory a s af ounda t ion f or C e l t ic r e l ig ion . The s tory i s b as ica l ly o ne o ft he o ppos ing f orces o f L igh t a nd Darkness , as easona l my th , a nd o f c onf l ic ts b e tween t he e lemen ts o f S ky , E ar th a nd U nderwor ld r epresen ted b y c er ta in g roups o f d e i t ies . C er ta in ly t he G undestrup Bow l d ep ic ts s evera l f am i l iar C e l t ic i conograph ic t he mes - t he r am-headed s nake , t he s qua t t ing s tag-horned g od , t he whee l-god , a nd a Mo ther-goddess . Ha t t8 8 w ou ld s ee ' i n terpre ta t io ' a s ag radua l i ncrease i n t he i nf i l tra t ion o f Roman d e it ies i n to t he Ce l t ic p antheon .

He c i tes c er ta in e ar ly G a l lo-Ro man monumen ts , e .g .

t he Par is ' Sa ilor P i l lar '

9 0

,a nd t he Mav i l ly A ltar 9 1

a s e xamp les .

The d i f feren t g u ises u nder wh ich t he ma in Romano-Ce lt ic g odtypes a re k nown - S uce l lus , Cernunnos , t he whee l-god , J up i ter-G iant c o lumns - i nd ic a te r eg iona l p references o n t he Con t inen t . Gods i n Ro man g u ise s how s im il ar c omp lemen tary d is tr ibu t ion . Apo l lo G ramms was worsh ipped i n ac er ta in a rea , A po l lo Be lenus i n a no ther . E spec ia l ly i n t he c ase o f Mars a nd Mercury ( t he t wo mos t p opu lar Roman d e it ies a dop ted b y t he Ce l ts) 9 2 t here h as b een a bsorp t ion o ft he a r t-for ms t o r epresen t l oca l ised d omest ic a nd p ro tect ive g en i i, s ome t i mes b e ing k nown b y a Ce lt ic s urname , a nd o ccurr ing p erhaps o n ly o nce o r t w ice , k nown b y t ha t p ar t icu lar e p i the t , i n o ne a rea . Wha t w e h ave f i na l ly t o a sk o urse lves i s whe ther t he e qua t ion b e tween R oman a nd n a t ive d e it ies was d e l ibera te o r u nconsc ious ; d id i tt ake p lace a l l t he t ime , e ven when n o t a pparen t o n t he monumen ts , a nd wha t d id i ta ctua l ly mean? T he a nswer mus t b e t ha t i n most c ases a ny l i nk ing o fn a t ive a nd R o man g ods was u nconsc ious .

Once t he o r ig ina l s tep o fu s ing Roman n a mes

a nd a r t-for ms h ad b een t aken , t he r est b ecame a utoma t ic .

I n a reas where

t he c rosslegged , s tag-horned f or m was p reva len t i n Gau l a nd e qua ted o f ten w ith Mercury , t h is mus t h ave b een a u to ma t ic e qua t ion - a r ea l isa t ion t ha t Mercury h ad b een a bsorbed a s ap rosperous d e i ty , af unc t ion a k in t o t ha t o f C e l t ic n a ture-god l ings . S ome Roman i nf luence i s a t work e ven when o ne c omes a cross a d e ity w ith a n e n t ire ly C e l t ic n ame , s uch a s An tenoc it icus ( see C h . 6 ) a t Benwe l l i n Nor th B r ita in , o r ap ure ly Ce l t ic emb lem l i ke t he r am_ h eaded s nake .

T here i s Roman i nf luence b ecause o f t he ir v ery r epresen ta t ion

( t he u se o f La t in , a nd t he c o m monp lace o f s tone c arv ing ) . Whe ther t here i s a ny f ur ther e qua t ion i n t hese c ases i ti s i mposs ib le t o s ay .

9

THE EV IDENCE OF GAUL ISH ARCHAEOLOGY FOR RO MANO-CELT IC CULTS Br i ta in was p ar t o ft he Ro man emp ire a nd s hou ld n o t b e c ons idered i n i so la t ion . Apar t f ro m t h is , a nd p erhaps more i mpor tan t , i tw as p ar t o f a C e l t ic ' emp ire ' i n t ha t i ts hared c usto ms a nd r e l ig ion w ith o ther Ce lto-Roman p rov inces .

There i s ag rea t d ea l more i nforma t ion a va ilab le f ro m G au l t han

f rom Br i ta in , b ecause s o many more monumen ts a nd d ed ica t ions s urv ive . Ev idence f rom Gau l w i l l f i l l i n many g aps l e f t b y t he s parse r ecord f rom Br i ta in . Caesar 93 s a id t ha t t he Gau ls were a v ery r e l ig ious p eop le . T h is i s b orne o u t a rchaeo log ica l ly i n t he Ro man p er iod . I n Gau l t he monumen ts s how u s v ar ious t ypes o f Romano-Ce lt ic i conography . F irs t o ne f i nds ag od r epresen ted b y p ure ly c lass ica l a r t-form a nd/or e p igraphy ( t hough t h is may b e o f d ub ious impor t s ince o ne may f i nd a c lass ica l n ame a nd a C e lt ic-s ty le r epresen ta t ion o r v ice v ersa o n o ne a nd t he s a me monu ment ) . S econd ly w e h ave u nden iab ly Ce lt ic n a mes o r d ep ict ions - s uch a s C ernunnos , o r t he r a mh eaded s nake , t he t hree Mo thers ( or Ma tres ) , o r E pona . T h ird ly we h ave a Roman-type g od who m we c an r ecogn ise a s Roman b u t w ith s trange a dd i t ions e .g . J up iter w ith a whee l , Mars w i th a r a m-headed s nake , Mercury w i th Ce lt ic c onsor t , M inerva w ith a c ornucop iae , V enus a s ap ipe-c lay d omes t ic ? fer t i l ity g oddess . T here i s g rea t i n term ing l ing o f g od-forms a nd i ti sn ecess ary t o t ry a nd t race p a t terns a nd a ssess d egrees o f r o man isa t ion a s b es t we may . JUP ITER AND JUPITER TARAN . I S L ambrech ts 94 g ives g ood r easons f or l i nk ing t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic w hee lg od w i th J up i ter a nd w ith Taran is ( l inked i n l i terary s ources , a l ly i n e p igraphy 9 6 ) .

9 5

a nd o ccas ion-

On many G au l ish monuments J up iter a ppears w i th a

whee l , a nd w i th o ther n on-c lass ica l C e lt ic f ea tures .

9 7

A f ew e xa mp les w i l l

i nd ica te j ust h ow m ixed t he monu men ts d ed ica ted i n s ome way t o J up iter a ppear . C lass ica l b ronzes a re k nown , e .g . a t V ie i l Evreux .9 8 Monumen ts k nown a s J up i ter-G ian t c o lu mns - h igh p i l lars c ons ist ing o f many f ea tures a re k nown i n many p ar ts o f G au l .

There i s

9 9

u sua l ly a d ed ica t ion t o J up i ter ,

d ep ict ions o f s evera l " Ro man" d e i t ies w ith , a tt he t op , a Cor in th ian c ap i ta l , a nd a h orse man g roup d ep ic t ing a most u n-Roman J up i ter a s a warr ior o n h orseback , e i ther t ramp l ing o r b e ing s uppor ted b y ac h thon ic monster . 1 00 These d ep ic t ions o fJ up iter s ugges t a n e ques tr ian Mars r a ther t han a F a therg od . A t N ov iodunu m t he Roman e lemen t i s i n tensif ied b y ad ed ica t ion o f o ne o ft hese c o lu mns t o J up i ter a nd t he Emperor .1 01 Sma l l b ronzes d ep ic t ing J up iter a ccompan ied b y aw hee l a re k nown ,

1 02

a nd m in ia ture w hee ls a re k nown

f rom G au l ish g raves , a nd a re c arved o n t ombs tones .

1"

CERNUNNOS T he G au l ish a n t lered c rosslegged g od , k nown a s C ernunnos 1 04 a t tested i n G au l , ma in ly i n t he e ast . h is emb le ms , e .g . a t Re i ms . Autun . 1 °6 Cau ldron .

1 05

i s w e l l-

H e i s o f ten a ssoc ia ted w i th Mercury o r

T he g od i st hree-headed o n ab ronze f rom

T he s tag-horned g od i s a lso o f c ourse d ep icted o n t he G undes trup 1 07 H e a ppears f ro m t he monu men ts t o r epresen t p rosper i ty , n a ture

a nd f er t i l i ty . 1 0

MERCURY AND MARS Many c lass ica l d ep ic t ions o fb o th t hese d e i t ies a re k nown i n Gau l .

1 08

T hese g ods s ee m more t han o ther c lass ica l d e it ies t o h ave b een a bsorbed a s C e l t ic g od l ings .

I n t he c oun try o ft he Re m i Mercury i s of ten a ssoc ia ted w i th

t he t hree-headed g odtype .

1 09

Among t he S equan i Mercury i s p ar t icu lar ly

a ssocia ted w i th t he t r ip le Mo ther-goddess o r Ma tres .

Mercury a nd t he

Ma tres o ccur a t V indon issa , 10 a nd h e i s a ssoc ia ted w ith t he C e l t ic h orseg oddess E pona a t S trasbourg . 11 H e o ccurs w ith t he r a m-headed s nake , 12 w ith a C e l t ic c onsor t Ros mer ta , ap rosper ity g oddess whose n ame means ' t he g ood p urveyor ' . 1 13 1 66 d ed ica t ions t o t he g od b ear a Ce l t ic e p i the t -a n e xa mp le o fh ow p opu lar t he g od-for m was a s al oca l d e ity . 4 5 d iferen t e p it he ts a re k nown . Names may b e p ure ly d escr ip t ive , e .g . ' I ovan tucarus ' . 1 14 o r t opograph ica l , e .g . ' Mercury D um ias ' .

T he n umber o f s hr ines b u i lt f or

15

t he g od i n s o me f orm i s v ery l arge . The C e lt ic r o le o f Mars i n G au l was p ar t ia l ly s im i lar t o t ha t o f Mercury . L ike h im h e i s a ssoc ia ted w i th t he r am-headed s nake ,1 16 c er ta in s urna mes a re c ommon t o b o th d e it ies , e .g . L enus , s urnames t han a ny o ther d e i ty .

16

a nd b o th g ods h ave more C e lt ic

Mars h as o ne C e l t ic r o le a s ap eacefu l g od ,

a ssoc ia ted w ith p rosper ity a nd h ea l ing .

1 17

S ome e p i the ts a re t opograph ica l ,

e .g . Mars Veson t ius a t -Besancon ,1 18 b ut o thers h in t a t t he p ra isewor th iness o f t he g od , e .g . ' Leuce t ius ' ( Br i l l ian t) ,1 19 f R ig isamus ' ( Grea test K ing ) . 1 20 I n Ce l t ic i conography Mars h as a f ur ther r o le , t ha t o f a n a rmed h orseman 1 21 ( probab ly u nc lass ica l , a l though Mars a s ah orse man was worsh ipped i n Ro me i n t he e ar ly emp ire ) a nd r eca l l ing t he e questr ian Romano-Ce l t ic J up i ter o ft he c o lu mns . Mars i s r ecorded i n G au l e p igraph ica l ly f ar more t han p ictor ia l ly ; h is s hr ines a re f ew .

Apar t f rom h is c lass ica l warr ior-func t ion , Mars s eems

t o h ave h ad t wo e n t ire ly s epara te r o les i n G au l . H e i s al oca l p eacefu l p rot ector 1 22 a nd a lso a n e ques tr ian warr ior . H e i s k nown a s ah ea ler 1 17 a nd a s av ic tor ious g od ' Segomo ' . 1 23 THE GAUL ISH HA M MER-GOD AND S ILVANUS I n G au l t here a re d ep ic t ions o f a n e lder ly b earded g od w ith a l ong-hand led h a mmer , s o me t i mes w i th ap o t , s ick le , b i l l-hook a nd r aven , of ten a ccompan ied b y ac onsor t b ear ing a d ep ict ion o f ah ouse o n al ong s ta f f , a nd a ccompan ied b y ar aven . They b o th * s omet i mes a ppear w ith a d og ( occas iona l ly t hreeh eaded ) a nd t he g od i s f requen t ly d ecora ted w i th f unerary s igns o r a stra l s ymbo ls .

1 24

T here i s ad ed ica t ion t o t hese d e it ies f ro m S aarbrucken 1 25

n am ing t he m S uce l lus a nd N an tosue lta ( t he ' Good S tr iker ' a nd 'W ind ing R iver ') , t hus i den t ify ing t he g od a s ap rosper i ty , a nd t he g oddess a s a wa ter-de ity ( her h ouse i nd ica tes a r o le a s ad o mest ic p ro tec tress) . 1 26 S uce l lus ' a ppear a nce r eca l ls t ha t o fJ up i ter , a nd a t Ma inz h e was k nown a s J up iter S ucae lus ;1 27 h is a t tr ibu tes o f s ick le a nd b i l l-hook wou ld s ee m t o i den t ify h im w i th an a tured e i ty ;

h is r aven a nd d og w i th a f unerary c u l t .

t he g od w ith t he Ro man V u lcan .

S uce l lus ' h am mer may c onnec t

An a l tar f rom Vernegues 1 28

d ep ic ts a t ree ,

a whee l a nd a h am mer . T he g od i s p ar t icu lar ly p reva len t i n t he Rhone Va l ley .1 29 T he Ro man n a ture-de ity S i lvanus a ctua l ly a ppears o n t he s ame d ed ica t ion w ith S uce l lus i n o ne i ns tance . 1 30

1 1

S i lvanus h i mse lf i s f a ir ly c o m mon i n G au l , e spec ia l ly i n N arbonens is , where h e i s of ten a ssoc ia ted w ith S uce l lus .

1 31

C lass ica l d ep ic t ions o f

S i lvanus a re r are . VULCAN AND APOLLO T he Ro man sm i th-god ( or Ce lt ic e qu iva len t) i s f a ir ly w idespread . worsh ipped h im i n t he 3 rd c en tury B .C . o n t he b anks o f r ivers , e .g . a t Nan tes,

1 33

G au ls

D ed ica t ions t o h im o ccur ma in ly

1 32

w here h e s ee ms t o h ave b een r e-

v ered a s a n a r t isan g od ( o f i ron-work ing a nd s h ip-bu i ld ing ) . I n G au l Apo l lo a ppears f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t o h ave b een a lmost e n t ire ly c onnec ted w ith t he h ea l ing a spect o f h is S un-cu l ts .

H is w orsh ip

i s we l l-docu men ted b y c lass ica l w r iters i n t he Ro man emp ire , e spec ia l ly a s Apo l lo Be lenus .

1 34

Archaeo log ica l ly Apo l lo i s we l l-represen ted .

Very o f ten

h is c u lt was a ssoc ia ted w ith s anctuar ies b u i l t r ound h ea l ing s pr ings .

1 35

Apo l lo h as v ar ious c onsor ts i n d if feren t l oca l i t ies ( e .g . S irona a t Hochsche id1, 3 6 a nd Damona among t he L ingones) .

1 37

H e h as s evera l Ce lt ic e p i the ts ; B e lenus

h as b een men t ioned , p opu lar i n t he A lps r ound Nor icu m ;

Grannus was w or-

s h ipped i n t he Mose l le r eg ion . HERCULES Once a ga in t h is g od was p opu lar a nd h ad s evera l r o les i n G au l .

Apar t f ro m

p ure ly c lass ica l e p igraph ic a nd i conograph ic r epresen ta t ion , h e was a h ea ler • 1 38 - Hercu les Borvo - a t A ixles-Bams . H is n a me i s l inked w ith t opograph ic a l e p ithe ts , e .g . H ercu les Magusanus ( appear ing e leven t i mes i n a sma l l a rea o f G er many ) ;

t h is

p heno menon i dent if ies h im w ith t he l oca l p rosper ity f unc-

t ions c o m mon t o Mercury a nd Mars i n Gau l .

Bronzes o f Hercu les r ange f ro m

t he v ery c lass ica l t o t he v ery C e l t ic , t he l a t ter , a s a t Orange ,1 39

p robab ly i n-

d ica t ing a Ro mano-Ce l t ic i n terpre ta t ion o f t he g od . D IV INE ANI MALS I N GAUL ISH REL IG ION H orses , b irds , b oars , b u l ls, s tags , a nd d ogs a re a l l u b iqu i tous i n RomanoC e l t ic i conography .

A c ache o f p ipe-c lay h orses was d iscovered a t Assche-

K a lkoven i n Be lg iu m .

1 40

H orses o f ten a ppear a t t he s i tes o f h ea l i r w -spr ing

s anc tuar ies , e .g . w i th t he S un/hea ler g od A po l lo a t S a in te S ab ine .

1 11

T he

Ro mano-Ce l t ic e questr ian a spects o f J up iter a nd Mars h ave a lready b een c ons idered .

T he a n i ma l a ppears c ons tant ly a s an ecessary c o mpan ion o f E pona ,

a nd i ti s a ssoc ia ted w i th s evera l C e l t ic d e i t ies i n Gau l . 1 42 B irds h ave many a ssoc ia t ions w ith Ro mano-Ce l t ic d e it ies .

E ag les,

p igeons a nd c ockere ls a re t he a t tr ibu tes o f J up iter , V enus a nd Mercury i n Ro man my tho logy , b u t t he ir r epea ted p resence i n G au l may b e ap rov inc ia l p heno menon s ince t he Ce l ts r evered d iv ine b easts . many Ro mano-Ce lt ic d e i t ies i n G au l .

1 43

C rows o r r avens a ccompany

C ranes f i gure o n t he P ar is ' Sa i lor '

monu men t , a ssoc ia ted w i th t he b u l l ' Tarvos tr igaranus ' ,

1 44

a nd e lsewhere .1 45

Aqua t ic b irds a re c o m mon ( e .g . t he b ronze s wan a nd d uck f ro m V a ison) ,1 46 a nd ab ronze f ro m t he s i te

o f t he s ource o ft he S e ine s anctuary d ep icts t he

g oddess S equana i n ad uck-shaped v esse l, i t s mou th h o ld ing a r i tua l c ake . 1 47

1 2

Both b oars a nd b u l ls a re c om mon ly r epresen ted i n Ro mano-Gau l ish i conog raphy , b o th p resu mab ly s tand ing o r ig ina l ly a s emb le ms o f f eroc i ty , i nv inc ib i l ity , t enac i ty a nd s treng th b u t p erhaps w i th a d eeper s ign if icance i n Ga l l ic my tho logy ;

c o ins o f c er ta in t r ibes p or tray b oars .

o fb oars a re k nown , e .g . t ha t f ro m E uf f igne ix ,

1 49

i 48

S tone r epresen ta t ions o f

a nd b ronze e xamp les a lso

o ccur, e .g . ar e l ief o f t he a n i ma l f ro m a s hr ine i n n or thern Gau l . b u l l f igures p ro m inen t ly i n Gau l ish i conography . a ranus ' i n P ar is ,1 51

I ta ppears a s ' Tarvos tr ig-

a ssoc ia ted w i th t he g od E sus a nd t hree c ranes .

o ccurs w i th a mother-goddess a t S a in tes . a t Neuvy-en-Su l l ias , a t Harf leur . 154

T he

1 50

1 52

Ab u l l

Bronze b u l ls a re k nown , e .g .

a nd ap ipe-c lay e xa mp le i s r ecorded f ro m a t e mp le

1 53

The s tag i s d ep icted e i ther b y i t se lf o r a cco mpan ied b y g ods s uch a s C ernunnos a t Re i ms ,

1 55

a nd H ercu les a t L e Donon .

1 56

Ab ronze s tag , p er-

h aps s ign i f icant ly , o ccurs w i th b u l l a nd b oar a tN euvy-en-Su l l ias .

The

1 57

d og a ga in may b e r epresen ted e i ther a lone o r i n t he c o mpany o f v ar ious d e i t ies . I ta ppears w ith c lass ica l g ods l ike D iana , a nd o n t he s i tes o f Ce lt ic s pr ings . H e a ccompan ies S uce l lus , E pona ,158 a nd Neha lenn ia o f D o mburg ( al oca l mother-goddess) .

1 59

The r o le o f t he d og a ppears , i n t he Ce lt ic a s i n t he

c lass ica l w or ld , t o b e c oncerned w ith h ea l ing a nd w ith t he Underwor ld . MONSTERS ;

THE THREE-HORNED BULL AND RA M-HEADED SNAKE

Tr ip l ica t ion i s a we l l-known p heno menon i n Ce l t ic i conography .

Three-

h eaded r epresen ta t ions, a nd t hree Mo ther-goddesses t oge ther , a re f requen t o ccurrences .

T he a ppearance , s o me f if ty t imes i n Gau l , o f ab u l l w ith t hree

h orns , may s i mp ly r epresen t a mu lt ip l ica t ion o f p ower , t he h orns s ymbo l iz ing f ert i l i ty a nd s treng th . T hree-horned b u l ls a re u sua l ly p or trayed i n t he f or m o f sma l l b ronzes , e .g . a t S t . Re my ;1 60 at hree-horned b oar i s a lso k nown .1 61 D istr ibu t ion o f t hese c rea tures i s w e igh ted i n n or th-eas tern Gau l . The r a m-headed s nake i s a ssoc ia ted w ith t he s tag-horned d e i ty o n t he Gundes trup Bow l , a nd i tt urns u p c ons isten t ly w i th Cernunnos , ma in ly i n n or the astern G au l 1 . 641 62 a t Mav i l ly .

The s nake i s f ound w i th Mercury a t Beauva is ,1 63 a n dMars 1 Sma l l r a m-headed s nakes o ccur u nassoc ia ted , e .g . a t T r ier . 65

Th is p ar t icu lar monster w ou ld s eem t o b e b o th a c h thon ic a nd f er t i l i ty emb le m . Cernunnos i s c er ta in ly a p rosper i ty-god , b u t b o th r am a nd s nake a re c h thon ic i n t he c lassica l wor ld . 1 66 THE CULT OF THE E MPEROR , AND GEN I I A l l ma jor G a l l ic c i t ies , a s t hey were f ounded , a dop ted t he c u lt o ft he Emperor 's ' nu men ' o r ' gen ius ' . f ounded i n 1 2 B .C .

1 67

The Ro me a nd Augustus c u lt a t L yons was

' Seven iAugusta les 'a re k nown f or i nstance a t T r ier .

1 68

Ded ica tions t o t he Emperor a re l i nked w ith o ther g ods i n Gau l , e .g . w i th S i lvanus .

1 69

T u te lary g en i i , p ro tec tors o f t owns a nd sma l l s e t t le men ts a re c o m mon i n Gau l , f or i nstance a t S t . E us tache . 1 70 Person if ica tory s p ir its o f r ivers o r r eg ions a re a lso f requen t , e .g . V oseg ius o f t he Vosges ,1 71 a nd S equana o f t he S e ine .

1 72

1 3

C lass ica l g en i i o fh earth a nd h ome ( 1L ares ' a nd ' Pena tes ') w ere r ead i ly a dop ted i n G au l . Sma l l b ronze d anc ing f i gures o f l ares ' a re c om mon o ccurr ences , e .g . a t S peyer ,

1 73

a nd Mandeure .

1 74

G en i i C ucu l la t i S trange g od l ings w ear ing a d ist inct ive h ooded c loak ( a ' cucu l lus ') a re o f ten r epresen ted , u sua l ly i n s tone , a nd f rom t he ir f i ndspo ts , a ppear t o b e a ssoc iat ed w ith h ea l ing a nd g enera l we l l-be ing .

T he n ame ' Gen ius c ucu l latus ' i s

men t ioned o n o ne o r t wo i nscr ip t ions a ssoc ia ted w ith t hese d ep ict ions .

1 75

The

g od i s f ound a l l o ver t he p rov ince , u sua l ly a s as ing le f i gure , u n l ike t he t r ip l ic a te v ers ions o f Br ita in .

S ome G er man f i nds a re f rom g raves .

n or ma l ly p or trayed a s dwarves o r g ian ts ;

1 76

T hey a re

t hey a re s ome t i mes i t hy-pha l l ic .

1 76

T he G oddesses E very Romano-Ce lt ic g oddess i n G au l , d i f feren t t hough t he f or ms may b e , s ee ms t o h ave h ad s ome c onnect ion w ith h ea l ing , p rosper ity , f ert il ity , d omest i c ity a nd ( some t i mes) d ea th . E pona T he C e lt ic h orse-goddess E pona , a s h er n ame i mp l ies , was n ecessar i ly c onnec ted w i th h orses . H er emb le ms o f c ornucop iae , f ru it a nd c orn i den t ify h er w i th t he D eae Ma tres ( see b e low ) , a nd l i ke t hem t here i s ac onnect ion w ith t he U nderwor ld .1 77 E pona was r evered o f f ic ia l ly i n Rome ,1 78 a nd was k nown t o c lass ica l a uthors . 1 79 S he Was w orsh ipped a bove a l l o n t he D anube , a nd may b e d ep icted s ea ted o n ah orse o r b e tween t wo p on ies ; s ome t i mes s he a ppears w ith a d og .

E pona o ccurs i n s tone a nd b ronze , b u t a lso i n p ipe-c lay . 1 80

M inerva a nd D iana B o th t hese d e i t ies a re k nown i n G au l , o f ten i n p ure ly c lass ica l g u ise , s ome t i mes a ssoc ia ted o r i den t if ied w ith C e l t ic d e it ies . A t V ichy where t here a re h ea l ing s pr ings , av ery c lass ica l r epresen ta t ion o f M inerva i sk nown ,1 81 b ut l ess c lass ica l p ipe-c lay e xamp les o f t he g oddess a lso e x ist . B e l is i mae i s k nown a t Censor ine . 1 83

1 82

Minerva

I n G au l ish a s i n Ro man r e l ig ion D iana was a wood land a nd h un tress d e i ty -r ead i ly a dap tab le t o Ce lt ic l ands o f f ores t a nd w i ld b easts . S he was o ccasi ona l ly a dop ted a s al oca l p ro tectress , a s i n t he B lack F orest w here s he i s k nown a s D iana A bnoba .

1 84

T he D eae Ma tres Ag oddesstype o fn on-c lass ica l a r t o r r e l ig ious o r ig in i s v ery w idespread i n G au l , r epresen ted u sua l ly i n s tone o r b y d ed ica t ion , n or ma l ly i nt r ip l ica te -t he D eae Ma tres ( Ma trae o r Ma tronae ) . 1 85 T hey a re d ep icted s ea ted , a cc ompan ied b y c h i ldren , f ru i t , c orn , b read o r f i sh ( a l l emb le ms o fp rosper i ty o r f ert i l ity ) , o r d ogs ( symbo ls o f D ea th ) . e .g . a t Nyon ,

1 86

S ome t i mes r e l iefs a re v ery s ty l ized ,

a s i ft he a rt-for m was n o t i mpor tan t .

C e lt ic e p i the ts men-

t i oned o n d ed ica t ions may b e n a t iona l , t r iba l o r v ery l oca l , e .g . a tA ixlesBa ins w here t he g oddesses were c onnec ted w i th h ea l ing s pr ings .

1 87

A t ype

k nown a s t he S u lev iae o ccurs i n G au l s outh o f t he Rhone , t he n ame r eferr ing t o t he S un a nd h ea l th .

I n G au l t he T hree Mo thers o f ten o ccur i n s hr ines e .g .

1 4

a t Net tershe im ,

1 88

a nd a t Baden where t here was a Romano-Ce lt ic s hr ine

d ed ica ted t o t he Mo thers , d ep icted w ith Mercury . 1 89 Among t he T rever i t he Mo thers u sua l ly a ppear s ing ly r a ther t han i n t r ip l ica te . 1 90 ,191 T he Ce lt ic V enus a nd Dea N utr ix Tha t t he Mo ther-goddess t ype was a d omest ic a nd i nd iv idua l p r iva te d e i ty a s we l l a s t he o b jec t o f c o l lec t ive worsh ip i s i nd ica ted b y h er e x istence i nt wo a r tfor ms a s a sma l l p ipe-c lay f igur ine , mass-produced d ur ing t he f i rst t wo c en tur ies A .D . i n f actor ies i n c en tra l F rance , a nd a t C o logne . 1 92 P ipe-c lay f i gures o f o ther d e i t ies were made i n t hese c en tres , e .g . E pona , M inerva , c ockere ls , Apo l lo , Bacchus a nd Mars . F rom t he ir p lace o f manuf acture a nd d istr ibu t ion i ti s c er ta in t ha t t he marke t was a n e n t ire ly RomanoC e lt ic o ne .

They w ere p roduced t o a nswer an eed f or sma l l c heap f i gures f or

d o mest ic s hr ines o r g raves .

Two p ipe-c lay f er t i l ity Mo ther-goddess t ypes

a re b y f ar t he most c o m mon i n G au l -o ne t akes t he a r t-for m o f t he c lass ica l V enus, a nd t he o ther t ha t o fJ uno-Luc ina ( t he Roman g oddess o f c h i ldb ir th ) . T hese t wo t ypes we may c a l l t he Ce lt ic P seudo-Venus a nd Dea N u tr ix r espect i ve ly . 1 93 The f i gur ines a re f ound o n t he s i tes o f s acred s pr ings , e .g . V ichy 1 94

o r i n g raves ;1 95

i n s hr ines . 1 97 D eae Ma tres .

s o me h ave f unerary s igns .

1 98 .

T hey a re n umerous

T he ir f unct ions a nd c u l t s eems i den t ica l w ith t hose o f t he

M isce l laneous c lass ica l d e i t ies Mos t d e it ies k nown i h t he G raeco-Roman w or ld - L una , F or tuna , Venus , Nep tune , t he D ioscur i , Aescu lap ius , a nd D ionysus - a re r epresen ted t o a g rea ter o r l esser e x ten t i n t he p rov ince . 1 98 REPRESENTAT IONS OF HEADS , TR IPLE HEADS AND HORNS I tw as a Ce l t ic c us tom t o d ep ict g ods i n monstrous f orm , a l though t he p ortraya l i s b ased o n t he h u man i mage . T hree b as ic ways w ere u sed t o d ep ict t hese monsters -n a me ly b y c arv ing o r mou ld ing a h ead t oo l arge f or o r w ithou t ab ody , w i th mu l t ip le h eads , o r w i th h orns . Many e xamp les o f a l l t hese f or ms may b e c i ted b u t Iw i l l men t ion o n ly a f ew s tr ik ing i nstances . No tewor thy i s t he c o l lec t ion o f s tone h eads f rom t he T emp le d e l a F or t d 'Ha la t te ( O ise ) ;1 99

a t B ava i t he h ead o f ab ronze f i gure o ccup ies h a lf t he

s ta tue t te , s tress ing i t s i mpor tance . 2 °0 T he h ead o f t he g ian t o n J up iter c o lumns i s of ten e xaggera ted , 201 a nd t he h eads o f s ome Mo ther-goddesses a re o ccas iona l ly h uge .2 02

E spec ia l ly i n t he Re i ms a rea t r ip le-headed r e-

p resen ta t ions a re c o mmon , o f ten l i nked w ith Mercury o r h is a t tr ibutes , a s a t t he G undershof fen t e mp le .2 03 T r ip l ica t ion i s n o t c onf ined t o h eads - i n Tongres Museu m i s at r ip le-pha l lused Mercury . 204 G ods w i th h orns a re k nown a l l o ver t he Ce l t ic wor ld . h orned d e ity .

2 05

We h ave a lready c ons idered t he s tag-

T he Ce lts a ppear t o h ave s een t he h ead a s t he most i mpor tan t a nd r epresent a t ive p ar t o ft he b ody , w ith t he most p ower , s o t ha t i t was o f ten n o t n ecessary t o d ep ict a l l t he b ody . T h is d oes n o t mean t ha t t he H ead i t se lf was v enera ted a s ag od ; s evera l d e i t ies a re p or trayed a s h eads o r w ith l arge h eads . T r ip l ing may i ncrease t he p o tency o ft he h ead s t i l l f ur ther , c oup led w i th t he

1 5

v enera t ion t he Ce lts h ad f or t he n u mber ' t hree ' .

H orns a lso may b e as ymbo l

o f s treng th a nd f er t i l ity - a c onnect ion w i th t he a t tr ibu tes o fb u l l o r r am . I n t h is i n troductory c hap ter a n a t te mp t h as b een made t o p u t t he r e l ig ious c u lts o f s outhern Br ita in i n to a c hrono log ica l , g eograph ica l a nd e thn ic c on tex t . I ti s n ecessary t o h ave a n i dea o f wha t was h appen ing i n t he p re-Ro man I ron Age , w ha t c lass ica l a u thors s a id a bout Ce l t ic c u lt p ract ice , a nd t o s urvey t he Ro mano-Gau l ish ma ter ia l .

On ly t hus i s t here a ny h ope o f u nderstand ing t he

l ess w e l l-endowed p rov ince o f Br ita in .

1 6

CHAPTER 2

THE C IV IL IAN BRIT ISH EV IDENCE FOR RO MAN AND RO MANO-CELT IC DEIT IES

I n t h is c hap ter t he Br it ish e v idence may b e s ta ted i n af a ir ly c onc ise manner s ince we h ave a lready c ons idered t he b ackground a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f t he g od-for ms i n Chap ter 1 . T herefore h ere t here w i l l b e n o d e ta i led d isc uss ion o f c ont inen ta l p ara l le ls -t h is h as b een d one i n t he p rev ious c hap ter : b u t a n a t temp t w i l l b e made t o s how h ow t he Br i t ish e v idence f i ts i n w ith a nd s uppor ts t he Gau l ish ma ter ia l , a nd where t he d if ferences l i e . I tp erhaps s hou ld b e e xp la ined a t t h is s tage t ha t where d e it ies f ro m s ou the rn Br ita in a re ment ioned i n t h is c hap ter p age r eferences t o t he g aze t teer a re g iven . I n G au l ( Chap ter 1 ) i t was s een t ha t t here were a g rea t n u mber o f monuments b o th i n t he f or m o f d ed ica t ions t o , a nd d ep ic t ions o f , d e i t ies , o f wh ich i th as b een p oss ib le t o a t te mp t ac lass if ica t ion i n t er ms o f a r t-for m a nd f unct ion .

T he p oss ib le p it-fa l ls h ave b een p o in ted o u t w ith r egard t o c lass if ica t ion

b ut i th as b een n ecessary t o make s uch a n a t te mp t i n o rder t o u nders tand a ny th ing o f Ro mano-Ce l t ic r e l ig ion .

Av a l ian t a t te mp t b y Hat tl ( see C hap ter

1 ) t o s yn thes ise t he e v idence h as b een s een , where h e p uts f orward a n i dea o f a n o r ig ina l my tho logy , e lemen ts o f wh ich s urv ived i n t he Ro man p er iod , a mytho logy wh ich s ee ms, i n a l l i t s e ssen t ia ls , t ob e f eas ib le .

Cer ta in ly , t he

f act t ha t o ne f inds t he s a me d e i t ies r ecurr ing t hroughout Gau l i n t he a rchaeol og ica l r ecord s uggests t ha t t here was s o me s or t o f s ys te m . h as p o in ted o ut ,

2

A s L ambrech ts

t here a re d ist inct g eograph ica l g roup ings a nd p re ferences

f or c er ta in a r t-for ms d ep ic t ing me mbers o f t he Ga l lo-Ro man p an theon b u t t h is d oes n o t weaken t he g enera l i dea o f s uch a p an theon , h owever d i lu ted , s em i-forgot ten a nd c onfused i t may h ave b een o r b eco me i n s o me a reas o f Gau l . RO MAN AND RO MANO-CELT IC ART-FOR MS I N C IV IL IAN RO MAN BR ITAIN : JUPITER A s w e h ave s een i n Gau l , r epresen ta t ions o f J up iter c an v ary f ro m t he v ery c lass ica l t o t he v ery C e l t ic i n a r t- f or m , t hough i n terpre ta t ion i n t hese d ef in i te t er ms may n o t a lways b e s o e asy .

I f we l ook a t t he l i s t o fJ up iter

r epresen ta t ions f ro m o ur a rea ( see g aze t teer i ndex ) we f i nd s ome e igh t i nscr ipt ions d ed ica t ing monu men ts t o t he g od i n s o me f or m , i nc lud ing t hose o n t wo p oss ib le J up i ter-G ian t c o lu mn f rag men ts a nd a l ead c urse i nvok ing t he g od f ro m C irencester (p .174 ) , S pr inghead ( p .228 )a nd Ra tc l if fe-on-Soar ( p .165 ) r espec t ive ly.

I n o ur a rea J up iter i s n ever a c tua l ly i nvoked a s Taran is a nd

1 7

o n ly o nce i n t he m i l itary n or th ( see Chapter 6 ) .

Th is f act i sn o t s ign if icant

s ince ( see C hap ter 1 ) s o f ew d ed ica t ions t o Taran is h i mse lf a re k nown a nyw here .

T here i s p len ty o f o ther e v idence t o s ugges t t he p resence o ft he

G au l ish s ky-god i n B r ita in , t hough p ure ly c lass ica l b ronzes o fJ up iter a re k nown e .g . i n L ondon ( p .224 )( where t here i s n o r eason t o d oubt h is a uthent i c ity a s ac lass ica l d e ity ) a nd a t West S toke ( p .197 ,p l . I X , b .c ) . F ar more i n terest ing , f rom o ur p o in t o f v iew , i s t he c ompos ite f rag men t o f ac eremoni a l mace o r s cep tre f rom W i l l ingham F en ( p .210 ,p l . X , a -c) o n wh ich e lemen ts o f Ga l l ic my tho logy c an b e r ecogn ised .

H ere i s r epresented ag od

w ith a c lub , as nake-foo ted mons ter , whee l , s cep tre , d o lph in a nd b u l l . w hee l i s u ndoubted ly a s y mbo l o ft he C e lt ic J up iter ;

T he

a t Cast lesteads i n N or th

B r i ta in 3 i s ad ed ica t ion t o t he g od o n ac arv ing d ep ict ing a w hee l i n r e l ie f . T he d o lph in may r efer t o t he Ro mano-Ce lt ic J up iter 's Underwor ld a f f in i t ies ; t he s nake-foo ted monster h as a lready b een me t o n t he J up iter-G iant c o lumns ( Chap ter 1 , p .10 ) . T he b u l l may r epresen t as acr if ic ia l a n ima l , a s H a t t s ugges ts i n h is t hes is o n C e l t ic my tho logy . 4 The i n terdependence a nd d ua li sm s hown b y t he m ing l ing o f s ky a nd e ar th f ea tures i s t yp ica l o f Ce lt ic r e l ig ious c on fus ion .

T he p resence , i n t he s ame Ca mbr idgesh ire h oard , o f

M inerva , ( p . 2 10 ) may b e c onnec ted w ith t he p oss ib le Ga l l ic i n terpreta t ion o f t he g oddess a s a n a spec t o f t he C e lt ic c onsor t o f t he s ky-god i nh is warr ior r o le.

On t he Far ley H ea th s cep tre-b ind ing ( p . 2 19 ), p ar t o f t he Celt ic my th-

o logy mus t s ure ly b e d ep icted . S uce l lus ( who h as c onnect ions w ith J up iter i n G au l ( see Chap ter 1 ) )i s s hown a nd b y h i m a whee l a ssoc ia ted w ith a h ead o f wha t mus t b e ar epresen ta t ion 'of J up iter-Taran is , a s we l l a s o ther Ce l t ic my tho log ica l f igures s uch a s t he s tag , b u l l , b oar a nd r aven O ther r e l ig ious o b jec ts d ep ic t whee ls i n o ne f or m o r a no ther a nd t here a re more t han t wen ty whee l-represen ta t ions f rom c iv i l ian Br ita in .

The em-

b le m a ppears o nce , i n terest ing ly e nough , o n as tone c arv ing f rom B is leyw ith-Lyp ia t t ( p .172 )i n c o mpany w i th a Ram-headed s nake ( once a ga in a r ec ogn isab le p ar t o f aGa l l ic my tho logy ) a nd t h is monu men t s hows a ga in t he a ssoc ia t ion o f s ky a nd U nderwor ld - whee l a nd s nake .

Two e xamp les o f

Mo ther-goddess c arv ings h ave whee l-s igns o n t hem , b o th f rom t he Co tswo ld r eg ion ( a t E aston G rey ( p . 1 90 a nd p l . XV , e ) a nd u nprovenanced ) a nd t h is may b e t aken a s a n i nd ica t ion o f ac onnect ion i n t he my tho logy b e tween J up i ter-Taran is a nd t he G rea t Mo ther-goddess . Examp les a re k nown i n o ur a rea o f sma l l p o ts d ecora ted w ith whee ls ( a t e .g . S i lchester ( p . 1 96 )a nd L it t lehamp ton ( p . 2 19 )) , ( presu mab ly r i tua l f urn iture ) a nd s evera l sma l l b ronze v o t ive w hee ls , p resumab ly g oodluck t a l is mans , a re a lso k nown . T he W i l l ingha m F en a nd Far ley H ea th o b jects a re b o th i t e ms o f p r ies t ly r ega l ia a nd t he c o mp lex it ies o f t he o r ig ina l my tho logy may o n ly h ave b een r ea l ly u nderstood b y p r ies ts. We may c ons ider h ere t he p robab ly p r ies t ly c ache o f p laques f ro m S tony S tra t ford ( p . 1 79 ) w ith f igures, e .g . o f J up i ter , Mars a nd V u lcan ; t hese c ou ld r epresen t Roman a r t-subst itut ion f or Ce l t ic my tho logy o r t hey c ou ld mere ly b e c lass ica l p or traya ls. I n t h is c onnec t ion w e s hou ld c ons ider t he p oss ib le e xa mp les o f f ragmen ts o f J up i ter c o lu mns i n Br ita in , s ca t tered a bou t t he c oun try f ro m t he C o tswo lds ( Cirences ter ) ( p . 1 72 ) t o N or tha mptonsh ire ( I rches ter ) ( p . 1 81). T he C irencester o ne i s t he mos t p robab le e xamp le - t here i s ad ed ica t ion o f ac o lumn t o J up iter i nt he mid 4 th c en tury A .D. b y ag overnor o f Br itann ia Pr i ma i n h onour o f t he ' o ld r e l ig ion '.

1 R

I ft h is ' o ld r e l ig ion ' was t he C e lt ic r a ther t han t he Roman t h is may w e l l b e a f ragmen t o f aJ up iter-G ian t c o lu mn , a monu men t t o ac u l t s uppressed when C hr ist ian i ty b eca me t he o f f ic ia l Ro man s ta te c u l t u nder C ons tan t ine a nd r ev ived f or ab r ief p er iod u nder J u l ian .

I ts hou ld b e s tressed t ha t n owhere i n

B r ita in i s t here a n e xamp le o f ac o mp le te c o lumn o r o f t he e questr ian g roup a tt he t op . I ti s i n teres t ing t o n o te , h owever , t ha t i ft he S pr inghead d ed icat i on ( p . 2 28 )i s f rom o ne o ft hese monu men ts , i to ccurs i n at e mp le p rec inc t c onnec ted w ith F er t i l ity a nd H ea l ing ;

a nd t he monu men t a t K ingsco te ( p . 1 90 )

d ep ict ing amoun ted g od a nd a g oddess c ou ld r epresen t t he warr ior a spect o f t he Ce l t ic J up iter w ith h is c onsor t . F ro m T hea lby ( p .162 ,p l . X , f ,g ,h ) c omes t wo s trange b ronze b ucke tmounts i n t he f or m o f a n e ag le 's , ab u l l 's a nd a h u man h ead j o ined t oge ther . T he e ag le c ou ld b e s een a s r epresen ta t ive o f t he Romano-Ce l t ic J up i ter ; t he b u l l may r epresen t a n Ear th/Na ture s acr if ice i n t he my tho logy 4 a nd t he h uman h ead may d ep ict Taran is-Jup i ter h i mse lf . I ti s wor th ment ion ing i n t h is c ont ex t t he t hree-horned b u l l f rom Ma iden Cast le wh ich h as a n S -shape o n i t s b ack ( i n Gau l as ymbo l o f T aran is ) a nd t he r e ma ins o ft hree h uman b usts wh ich may d ep ict a G au l ish t r iad r epresen t ing S ky , E ar th a nd Ne therwor ld . F ina l ly s hou ld b e men t ioned t he s ome t h ir ty o r s o e xamp les , ma in ly i n b ronze , o f e ag les d is tr ibu ted t hroughou t s outhern Br ita in , e .g . f rom t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic s hr ine a t Woodea ton ( p .178 ,p l . V I I I , 1 , I X , a ) , w h ich c ou ld , f ro m c on tex t a nd f rom t he C e l t ic f ondness o f a n ima l emb lems , s tress t he C e lt ic a spec t o ft he Roman g od . However sma l l o ur s amp le i s , t he r epresen ta t ions o fJ up iter f rom t he a rea i nd ica te t ha t , a par t f ro m s tra igh t forward c lass ica llook ing d ep ict ions , t here i s e nough e v idence t o s how t ha t t he my tho logy o f G au l was k nown h ere , b y h owever many o r f ew p eop le : t he Roman J up i ter d id n o t e scape ' I n terpre ta t io C e lt ica ' . THE MOTHER-GODDESS As w e h ave s een i n c onnec t ion w i th G au l ( Chap ter 1 ) many o f t he f e ma le a r t-forms o f Romano-Ce lt ic r e l ig ion c an b e s hown t o h ave h ad s ome f er t i l i ty o r p rosper ity c onnect ion e ven when c lo thed w i th c lass ica l g arb . THE DEAE MATRES I n c iv i l ian Roman Br i ta in t here a re o n ly a bou t s ix i nscr ip t ions t ot he ( usua l ly ) t r ip l ica te s tone Mo ther-goddess o ft he C e l ts . On t hese d ed ica t ions t hey a re c a l led f or i ns tance ' Ma tres ' ( e .g . p . 2 25, p l . XV I c ) , ' S u lev iae ' ' Parcae ' ( p . 1 68 ) ( Fa tes ) o r t he Mothers o f G ermany , I ta ly , G au l a nd Br ita in ( a t Winches ter ) ( p . 1 93 ). T he P arcae f ro m L inco ln a re a T reveran a spec t o f t he Mo ther-goddess c u lt a l though t he Three Fates a re o f c lass ica l o r ig in , h av ing a f er t il ity s ign if icance i n Ro me. The S u lev iae o ccur o n ly s pas mod ica l ly i n B r ita in - a t Ba th ( p . 1 88 ), Co lches ter ( p . 2 16 ) a nd C irences ter ( p . 1 74 ) b ut o ccur f requen t ly i n G au l ( see Chap ter 1 ) ; o ne p resumes t ha t t he n ame c ou ld b e c onnected w ith t ha t o f t he Ba th h ea ler d iv in ity , S u l , e qua ted w i th Minerva.

1 9

A bout e igh teen c arv ings o ft he Gau l ish t r ip le Mo ther-goddess e x ist i n o ur a rea o fB r ita in , i nc lud ing o ne t in ' f ea ther-p laque ' f rom L ondon ( p . 2 25, p l . XV I , b ) .

T h is , t oge ther w i th t he d ed ica t ion i n l arge l e t ters ( p .225 ,p l . XV I ,

c ) a nd a c arv ing o ft he g oddesses ( p .225 ,p l . XV I , a ) , s ugges ts t ha t t here mus t h ave b een a t l eas t o ne s hr ine t o h er h ere ; a nd t he s ame i st rue o f Ancas ter ( p .167 ,p l . XV , f )w here t here i s ag ood d ea l o f e v idence f or h er worsh ip .

An i n terest ing e xamp le i s av ery s ty l ized c arv ing f rom Ba th ( p .188

p l . XV , c ) . S ome f ea tures o ft he Br it ish c arv ings a ppear t o c onnect t he g oddess w ith G au l ish my tho logy , a nd h er r epresen ta t ion i n G au l ish i conog raphy - t he p resence e .g . a t We l low ( p .186 ,p l . XV , d ) o ft he g oddesses w ith Mercury , t he c arv ings w i th whee ls a lready men t ioned i n c onnect ion w ith J up iter , a nd t he a ssoc ia t ion o ft he g oddesses w i th mounted warr ior a t K ingc o te ( p .190 )a nd w ith t hree g ods a t E as ton G rey ( p .190 ) . Aga in t he e x ist n ce o ft he Mo ther , n o t o n ly i n t r ip l ica te b u t s ing ly , i s k nown i n B r i ta in a s i n € au l , e .g . a t L ydney ( p .170 )a nd Caerwen t ( p .183 ,p l . XV I I , a ) . T he L ydney e xamp le i s i n terest ing s ince i t was ah ea l ing s hr ine a ssoc ia ted w ith d ogs ; ad og o ccurs o n a' Ma tres ' c arv ing f rom C irencester ( p .173 ) .

a nd

S o f rom af ew

Br it ish c arv ings w e s ee many G au l ish e lemen ts -t he c onnec t ion w ith d ogs , w ith Mercury , a nd G au l i s a lso r eca l led b y t he o ccurrence a t , e .g . Dag l ingwor th ( p .172 , p 1 . XV I I , e ) o ft he g oddesses w i th G en i i c ucu l la t i . THE PSEUDO-VENUS AND DEA NUTRD C T he sma l l p ipe-c lay f igur ines n amed p seudo-Venus a nd D ea N u tr ix 5 a ppear t o h ave b een sma l l , d o mes t ic v ers ions o f ap rosper i ty , f ert i l ity g oddess c onn ected , v ery p oss ib ly , w ith t he G rea t Mo ther c u l t o f t he Ro mano-Ce lt ic p eop les . I n c iv i l ian Ro man B r i ta in a bou t ah undred ' Venus ' f i gures a re k nown ( t he a r tf or m t aken f ro m t he Ro man Venus ) ,

6

a l l i mpor ted f rom Gau l ish f ac tor ies i n

C en tra l G au l a nd C o logne i n t he i st a nd 2 nd c entur ies A .D . U n l ike Gau l , f ew o ft he B r it ish f i gures c o me f rom s hr ines o r g raves b u t s o me a re k nown i n t h is c on tex t , b e ing f ound a t t he s hr ines o f S pr inghead ( p . 2 28 ) , H ockwo ld ( p .212 )a nd Ba th ( p .187 )a nd i n g raves , e .g . a t Veru lam iu m ( p .207 ) . T he f requen t a ssoc ia t ion i n G au l w i th h ea l ing wa ters i s s een a t S pr inghead , Ba th , a nd p oss ib ly i n t he Wa lbrook Va l ley ( London ( p .225 ,p l . X IV , a -e) a nd t he f unerary a spect , a par t f ro m g rave-assoc ia t ion , i s i nd ica ted b yt he p resence o f f unerary s igns o n a n e xa mp le f ro m L ondon .

T he min ia ture s hr ines o r

a ed icu lae i n wh ich t he f i gur ines were p laced i n G au l a re o n ly i nd ica ted b y a f ragmen t o f o ne , a ga in i n L ondon . 7 T he B r i t ish e xamp les i nd ica te t ha t t he c lass ica l a r t-for m o ft he g oddess V enus h as b een a ss im i la ted t o s uch a n e xt en t , e ven t hough a C e lt ic d e i ty s ee ms t o b e r epresen ted ( see C hap ter 1 ) , t ha t p ipe-c lay p igeons o r d oves ( emb lems o f t he c lass ica l V enus) a re k nown i nt he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ( see g azet teer i ndex ) . More o bv ious ly c onnected w i th a f er t i l i ty c u lt a re p ipe-c lay f i gur ines o ft he D ea N u tr ix a lso made i n G au l ish f actor ies i n i st a nd 2 nd c entur ies A .D . T he f igur ines t ook t he f orm o ft he c lass ica l J uno L uc ina ( goddess o f C h ildb ir th ) a n a spec t o fJ up i ter 's c onsor t i n t he Roman w or ld . d raped g oddess i n aw icker

8

T he f igures s how a

c ha ir n urs ing o ne o r t wo i n fants .

A t C anter-

b ury ( p . 2 31 )t he g oddess o ccurs w i th a d og a nd t h is c onnects h er w ith Mo thers

2 0

a ccompan ied b y d ogs o n t he C on t inen t , s ome t i mes c a l led Neha lenn ia ,

9

w i th

h ea l ing i n g enera l ( see Chap ter 1 ) , " a nd w ith t he D eae Ma tres , o ne w ith a d og b e ing k nown a t C irences ter .

I n G au l , a s i s t he c ase w i th t he ' Pseudo-

V enus ', t he D eae Nutr ices o f ten o ccur i n c e me ter ies a nd s hr ines,

1 1

b ut a t

n o s hr ine i s t he g oddess k nown i n Br ita in a nd o n ly o nce i n ac eme tery , a t Hassocks ( p . 2 21 ) . OTHER PROBABLE MOTHER-GODDESS TYPES T hese t ake e i ther a Ce l t ic o r aC e lt ic ized Roman f or m .

I ti s s ugges ted

b yt he Gau l ish e v idence t ha t E pona may b e c ons idered a s o ne r epresen ta t ive t ype , w ith h er f er t i l i ty emb lems o f c orn a nd f ru it a nd d ogs - t he s ame a s t hose o f many p roven Mo ther-goddesses . Apar t f rom t h is s he was ap a trone ss o fh orses , w ith w ho m s he i s a lways s hown a nd b y whom s he i s d iagnosed . A s as pec if ica l ly Gau l ish t ype w i th a g eograph ica l ly d ef ined a rea i n G au l i ti s n o t s urpr is ing t ha t o ne s ees l i t t le o fh er i n S outh-Eastern B r ita in , a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha th er a r ttype may h ave o r ig ina ted i n a nswer t o an eed o ft he e questr ian J up iter f or a l i ke c onsor t -c er ta in ly t he d istr ibu t ion o f E pona c arv ings a nd J up iter-G ian t c o lu mns i s i den t ica l .

1 2

I n c iv il ian Roman Br ita in t he

E pona l ist i nd ica tes o n ly 5 a ppearances , b u t t herefore s he was a t l eas t k nown w e l l o uts ide h er d istr ibu t ion a rea . On ly o ne d ed ica t ion , s cra tched a s ag raf f ito o n aj ar ( p . 1 75) , af ragmen t o f as tone c arv ing ( p . 2 16) , ap ipe-c lay f i gur ine ( p . 1 83) a nd a n u nprovenanced W i ltsh ire b ronze ( p l . XV I I , d ) a re k nown ; t he p rovenanced e xa mp les c om.e f rom A lcester , Co lchester a nd Caerwen t r espe it i ve ly . T hree o ther g oddesses k nown o n ly b y C e lt ic n ames ( bu t f rom t he ir a ssoc iat i ons , n ames a nd a t tr ibutes i n G au l a ppear ing v ery p oss ib ly t o b e a spec ts o f t he G rea t Mo ther c u l t ) a re p resen t i n S ou thern Br ita in . T hese a re Ros mer ta ( p p . 1 71-3 e t c . ) , N an tosue l ta ( p . 1 66) a nd Neme tona ( p . 1 88) , a nd t hey a re a l l c onsor ts o f d e it ies , n ever , a s f ar a s o ne c an t e l l , a ppear ing o n t he ir o wn , a lt hough a s ing le Mo ther-goddess w i thou t ad ed ica t ion m igh t p oss ib ly h ave b een c a l led Neme tona , o r b y a ny C e l t ic n ame . I ta ppears t ha t t hese d ep ic t ions w ere n ecessar i ly c onnec ted w i th t he ir ma le c ompan ions a nd were t he f em in ine v a lues o f o ne c oncep t r a ther t han o ne o ft wo s epara te e n t it ies . T he f i rs t b el onged t o t he Ga l lo-Roman Mercury , t he s econd t o t he Ce lt ic S uce l lus a nd t he t h ird t o Mars L euce t ius .

Rosmer ta 's emb lems s how h er t o b e ap rosper i ty

g oddess - Mercury a nd h erse lf may b e r epresen t ing t he marr iage o f Na tureg od a nd Mo ther-goddess i n G a l l ic my tho logy . H er n ame ' Good P urveyor ' a lso s uggests h er f unct ion . Nan tosue l ta - ' W ind ing R iver ' - was a ga in a d omes t ic d e i ty b ut a lso f unerary a s i s s een b y h er f requen t c ompan ion t he r aven ; a nd t he g oddess 's n a me s ugges ts t he c onnec t ion , a lready n o ted , b e tween Mo therg oddesses a nd wa ter . Neme tona , whose n ame r efers t o s acred g roves , b e longed t ot he k ing ly a spec t o ft he C e l t ic Mars ( see p . 2 9) .

Ros mer ta a nd

N an tosue l ta , l ike E pona , a ppear f requen t ly i n G au l b u t w i th a d e f ined g eog raph ica l a rea o f d is tr ibu t ion . I n Br i ta in we f i nd a s im i lar s i tua t ion t ot ha t o ft he h orse-goddess - G au l ish d e it ies a re k nown b u t r e la t ive ly r are ly . S uce llus h imse lf i s r are h ere ( see b e low ) b u t N an tosue l ta o n ly a ppears o nce , a t East S toke ( p . 1 66 , p l . XV I I I , d ) . Ros mer ta i s much b e t ter r epresen ted , b e ing f ound i n e leven i ns tances , ma in ly i n t he Co tswo ld r eg ion ( see C hap ter 5 ) .

2 1

Mars L euce t ius a nd Ne me tona a re k nown o n ly a t t he h ea l ing s pr ing s hr ine a t Ba th ( p . 1 88) a nd t he ir a ppearance h ere i s e xp la ined b y t he d ed ica t ion b y a f ore igner , aT reveran v is i tor . O ther , more l oca l ized C e l t ic g oddesses , must n ex t b e c ons idered .

T he

D eae Ma tres , i n G au l , a re of ten f ound w ith n ames t i e ing t hem t o o ne l oca l ity . L oca l g oddesses , p resu mab ly f e ma le p ro tec t ive a nd p rosper i ty g en i i, t hough u lt i ma te ly c onnected , p robab ly , w i th a G rea t Mo ther , a re n a med o ccas iona l ly i n Br i ta in - f or e xa mp le t h is i s h ow o ne must i n terpre t ' Dea R i ig ina ' a t L em ing ton ( p . 1 76) , Arneme t ia a t Bux ton ( p . 1 65 ) , Ancasta a t B it terne ( p . 1 93 ) , a nd C uda a t Dag l ingworth ( p . 1 72, p l . XV I I , e ) .

The l as t' c ited g oddess

i s e spec ia l ly i n terest ing s ince h er n ame c onnects h er w ith g a in a nd p rosper ity . M invera i n t he ma in a ppears t o b e h er o wn c lass ica l war l ike a nd i ndus tr ia l s e lf b u t t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t s he s o me t imes t ook o n a more p eacefu l , d omest ic , c haracter a s we l l . O f a bou t 9o r 1 0 r e l iefs o r s ta tues i n s tone o f t he g oddess i n t he a rea t here a re t wo r ea l ly C e l t iclook ing o nes ; t he B is ley e xamp le f ro m t he C o tswo lds ( p . 1 72) where s he was c er ta in ly n o warr iorg oddess , a nd , more i n teres t ing , t he L ower S laugh ter r e l ief ( p . 1 75 ) , wh ich a lso c omes f rom t he C o tswo lds a ssoc ia ted , i n a we l l , w ith p rosper ity d e i t ies s uch a s G en i i c ucu l la t i .

T hree p ipe-c lay s ta tue t tes f rom t he c en tra l Gau l ish

f actor ies a lso p roc la im h er t o b e s o me th ing o f ap r iva te d o mes t ic g en ius ( pp . 1 73 , 1 83 , 2 26 , p l . V I I , g ) , b ut M inerva 's C e l t ic a spec t i s r ea l ly s hown i n Br i ta in b yh er o ccurrence e qua ted w i th a l oca l h ea l ing g oddess S u l ( presumab ly ap re-Ro man d e ity ) a t Ba th ( p . 188) , where n o l ess t han e igh t i nscr ipt ions t o S u l o r S u l M inerva were f ound . A s w ith s o many o ther d e it ies , o ne c anno t t e l l w he ther , i n o ther p ar ts o f Br ita in , M inerva i s o ther t han s he a ppears t o b e .

O n ly a v ery f ew o ther i nscr ip t ions t o t he Roman g oddess a re k nown i n

c iv i l ian B r ita in . O nce s he i s c onnec ted w i th N ep tune , a t Ch iches ter ( p . 1 97) a nd t he e ar ly s hr ine t o wh ich t he i nscr ip t ion r efers i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een a p ure ly c lass ica l o ne ;

as am ian d ish a t C irences ter ( p . 1 73) was s cra tched

w ith a g ra f f ito t o t he g oddess, wh ich t e l le o ne n o th ing , e xcep t t ha t h ere s he i s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een r eferred t o a s a n o f f ic ia l s ta te d e ity . Two b ronze p laques s how ing d ep ict ions o f M inerva may t e l l o ne s ome th ing more . On o ne t he g oddess i s a r med i n t he c lass ica l way b ut o ccurs i n t he l a te Romano-Ce lt ic s hr ine a t Ma iden Cas t le ( p . 2 00 , p l . V I I I , h ) where s uch a v ery Ce l t ic r e l ig ious o b ject a s t he t hree-horned b u l l w ith t hree d e it ies o n i t s b ack was f ound . T he o ther p laque i s as tray f i nd f rom L av ing ton ( p . 1 91) , t he t rea tmen t o ft he g oddess b e ing r ea l ly v ery V e lt ic i ndeed ; b ear ing n o r ea l r es emb lance t o t he s tern , ma jes t ic f i gure f am i l iar t o c lass ica l my tho logy . I n c iv i l ian Roman Br ita in M inerva i s e lsewhere d ep ic ted i n t he f or m o f b ronze f i gur ines .

S he i s f requen t i n c os mopo l itan c en tres l ike L ondon ( p .

2 25 ) , a nd Co lches ter ( p . 2 16 , p l . V I I , d ) , where o ne p resu mes t ha t s he f u lf i l led h er c lass ica l r o le a s p a troness o f c raf ts . I n a ny c ase h er c lass ica l a nd C e l t ic r o le - d o mest ic p rosper ity a nd we l l-be ing - a re n o t f ar a part ; h er c onnec t ion a s d augh ter o fJ up iter , t oo , w ou ld f i t h er f or a p oss ible c onn ect ion w ith J up iter-Taran is i fs he w ere i den t if ied w i th t he g rea t C e lt ic Mo ther-goddess , a s h er p resence o n s ome o ft he e ar ly p ubl ic monu men ts f ro m G au l4 a nd e .g . a t W i l l ingham F en ( p . 2 10) w ou ld s uggest . Abou t e ighteen o r

2 2

s o b ronzes d ep ict ing M inerva a re k nown f rom c iv i l ian B r i ta in a nd i n a l l s he k eeps h er c lass ica l a r t-form t ype . o f M inerva w h ich may , l i ke S u l k nown a lso i n Gau l .

T here i s as trange g roup o f d ep ic t ions

M inerva , c onnect h er w i th h ea l ing , a n a spect

On a f ew b ronzes s he o ccurs a s ah e l me ted b ust ( e .g .

P l . V I I I , b .C ) a nd o n s o me o ft hese a s pa tu la k n ife o f i ron h as b een s ubst itu ted f or t he l ower h a lf o ft he g oddess 's b ody . o f a n e ag le 's h ead - s ymbo l o fJ up iter .

I n o ne c ase t he g r ip was i n t he f orm I ti s k nown t ha t i n Rome M inerva was

s omet i mes c onnected w ith med ic ine a s M inerva Med ica l 3 w ith s pr ings a s a t Ba th .

-b u t n o t a ssoc ia ted

On t he c ont inen t t here i s ar ar ity o f l oca l n ames f or M inerva - a nd c er ta in ly b o th i n mi l itary a nd c iv i l ian Br ita in t he e v idence wou ld s eem t o b ear t h is o u t . Venus t he c lass ica l g oddess o f L ove ( w i th h er s on C up id ) i s t he o n ly o ther p opu lar G raeco-Roman f e ma le d e i ty r epresen ted .

There a re s ome 4 6 r epre-

s en ta t ions o f o ne o r t he o ther , ma in ly i n t he f orm o f sma l l b ronzes , s uch a s a re f ound a l l o ver t he Romano-Ce lt ic wor ld . T here a re n o i nscr ip t ions t o t he g oddess a nd t h is d ear th i s r ef lected i n G au l .

I th as b een r ea l ised t ha t

V enus ' a r t-for m was b orrowed p robab ly t o p or tray a n a spect o ft he g rea t C e lt ic Mo ther-goddess, b u tt here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t t he f a ir ly c lass ica llook ing b ronze V enus d ep ict ions s uch a s t he V eru lam ium ( p .206 )a nd C o lches ter ( p . 2 16 , p l . -X I , e ) o nes a re o ther t han e x-vo tos t o t he Roman g oddess o f L ove . T he g oddess d oes a ppear i n Ce l t ic c on tex ts o n s o me o ccasi ons, e .g . a t t he t e mp le a t Woodea ton ( p . 1 77 , p l . XV I I , b ) where s he o ccurs i n ar ura l Ro mano-Ce lt ic s hr ine ;

b u t t he Ce l ts d o n ot a ppear t o h ave h ad a

g oddess o fl ove o ft he ir o wn . S he i s , h owever , q u ite a t h o me among t he more r o man ized Br itons , e .g . o f C o lches ter ( p . 2 16) , L ondon ( p . 2 24 ) a nd Wroxe ter ( p . 1 64 ) , where s he i s a t h er mos t f requent . Her s carc i ty i s i n terest ing , h owe ver , a tC irences ter where t he c u lt o f Mo ther-goddesses i s s o we l l r epresented . D iana i s n o t we l l-represen ted i n c iv i l ian Roman Br ita in . I n G au l s he was s o me t imes a ssoc ia ted w i th h ea l ing s pr ings wh ich w ith o ther t ra i ts i nd ica tes t ha t D iana , l ike a l mos t e very o ther G raeco-Roman d e ity , was , t o s ome d egree , Ce lt ic ized ( see Chap ter 1 ) . I n Br ita in t here i s l i t t le d irect e v idence o fh er Ce lt ic iza t ion . S ix b ronzes o ft he g oddess a re k nown , a nd t wo i nscr ip t ions o ne f rom Ba th ( p . 1 88) a t t he s pr ing-sanctuary - a nd f our c arv ings o f t he g oddess a s h un tress, o ne f ro m t he l a te t e mp le a t Ma iden Cast le ( p . 2 00) . Net t le ton ( p . 1 90 , p l . X I I , g ) D iana a ppears a ssoc ia ted w i th h er c lass ica l b ro ther , Apo l lo , b u t i n aC e lt ic c on tex t a nd Apo l lo h as a Ce lt ic n ame .

A t

F or tuna , g oddess o f f a te , was a lso , i n Roman r e l ig ion , ap ro tect ive T ute lary G en ius . 1 4 T h is w ou ld make h er v u lnerab le t o I n terpre ta t io Ce l t ica ' , b ut t here i s n o t v ery much e v idence f or t h is o n t he Con t inen t . I n Br ita in s he i s k nown i n a bou t s even i ns tances , o n o ne o ccas ion w i th Mercury a nd Ros mer ta a t G loucester ( p . 1 71) , a nd o nce l ook ing v ery Ce l t ic i n a Ce l t ic c on tex t a t L ower S laugh ter ( p . 1 75 ) i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther Romano-Ce l t ic d e it ies s uch a s G en i i c ucu l la t i .

O therw ise s he a ppears i n t he f or m o f sma l l f i gur ines , f or

i nstance f ro m L ondon ( p . 2 24) where h er c lass ica l r o le wou ld s eem t o b e a pp ropr ia te .

2 3

L una a nd Ceres/De me ter o ccur a bou t f i ve t imes e ach , a nd o ther c lass ica l d e i t ies a re e ven r arer , e .g . V ictory a t L ondon ( p .224 ) , p robab ly a ssoc ia ted w ith t he 2 nd c entury Cr ipp lega te f or t .

L ima o ccurs a t t he C e l t ic h ea l ing s i te

b e long ing t o S u l M inerva a t Ba th ( p .187 ) . C eres f i t ted i n t o C e l t ic r e l ig ion a s c orn-goddess a nd e ar th d e ity a nd d id n o t h ave t o b e Ce lt ic ized - b u t s he o n ly a ppears i n v ery r o man ized t owns, e .g . L ondon ( p .223 ) . CERNUNNOS I ti s r ecogn ised t ha t i n c er ta in f a ir ly w e l l-def ined l im its i n G au l t he g od C ernunnos ( a s tag-horned d e ity , n amed i n P ar is) i s k nown f rom h is a t tr ibu tes a nd a ssoc ia t ions t o b e ag od o f f er t i l ity , a bundance a nd r iches , b u t a lso a s a c h thon ic d e i ty a ssoc ia ted w ith a r am-headed s nake ( see Chap ter 1 ) . I n c iv i l ian Br ita in t he s carc i ty o fp or traya ls o f Cernunnos s hows t ha t t he p rov ince i s r igh t o u ts ide t he d istr ibu t ion a rea o ft h is d e ity . T here a re t hree a rchaeo log ica l r eferences t o t he c u lt o ft he g od - o ne mosa ic p oss ib ly s how ing t he h ead o ft he g od f ro m Veru lam iu m ( p . 2 07) ;

ar e l ief o f Cernunnos i n s tone

f rom C irencester ( p . 1 73 , p l . XV I I , g ) , c lu tch ing t wo r am-headed s nakes most s im i lar t o t he s or t o f Gau l ish e v idence k nown ; a nd f ina l ly a n o b jec t a bou t wh ich t here i s l i t t le i nfor ma t ion - a n a n t lered d e ity i s r ecorded o n ar e l ief , o ne o f at r iad o f d e it ies f rom D orchester , ( Dorse t ) ( p . 2 00) .

I nG au l , i t must

b e r eca l led , Cernunnos a lso a ppears a s o ne o f t hree g ods - e .g . a t Re ims w ith Mercury a nd Apo l lo ( Chap ter 1 ) . TEUTATES Teu ta tes a nd E sus, a s we l l a s Taran is, a re t he g ods men t ioned b y L ucan i n h is Pharsa l ia a nd e qua ted i n terchangeab ly w i th Mars a nd Mercury b y t he l a te Berne s cho lars o f t he t ex t .1 5 T here a re n o r eferences t o E sus a s s uch i n c iv i l ian , o r i ndeed a ny p ar t o f Br ita in a nd f ew r eferences t o T eu ta tes . T h is i n i t se lf i s n o t s ign if ican t , s ince i nscr ip t ions a t test ing e i ther Taran is , T eu ta tes o r E sus b y n ame a re r are a nywhere i n t he Ce lt ic wor ld . T he i mportan t t h ing i s t ha t t he g od T euta tes was k nown i n c iv i l ian Roman Br ita in . Two i nscr ip t ions e x ist ; o ne o n as i lver p laque f rom Barkway ( p . 2 08) i s u nm istakab ly t o h im , t he o ther i s af ragment ary s tone , b ut i ti s p robab ly t o Mars T eu ta tes , a t Cas tor ( p . 2 09) . S UCELLUS AND VULCAN We h ave s een ( Chap ter 1 ) t ha t t he a r t-form s ome t i mes c a l led S uce l lus , a nd d ep ict ing a n e lder ly , b earded d e i ty w i th a l ong-hand led h a mmer , h as a tt r ibu tes o fJ up iter , S i lvanus , D ispa ter a nd V u lcan . 1 6 S uce l lus h imse lf a pp ears i n t he c iv i l ian a rea o f Br ita in f ive t imes .

The F ar ley Hea th s cep tre-

b ind ing ( p . 2 19) h as a lready b een c ons idered i n c onnect ion w ith J up iter b u t i t i s i n terest ing n o t o n ly b ecause i tc onnec ts S uce l lus w ith t he Ce l t ic J up iter , b u t a lso b ecause h is f unerary a spec t i s s hown b y t he p resence o f r avens , a nd t he c onnec t ion w ith V u lcan i s i nd ica ted b y t he p resence o f sm ith 's t oo ls . S uce l lus a nd h is G a l l ic c onsor t Nantosue lta , a re k nown f ro m Eas t S toke ( p . 1 66, p l . XV I I I , d ) , a nd o n ar e l ief f rom C her ing ton ( p . 1 91) S uce l lus ' c onnect ion w ith S i lvanus i s i nd ica ted .

Odd ly e nough , o n ar e l ief f rom Chedwor th ( p . 1 74 )

S uce l lus a ppears t o b e i nd ica ted o n a n a l tar d ed ica ted t o Mars L enus . S t i l l t he d ep ic t ion i s c rude a nd i t may b e t ha t t he l ong-h a nd led h a m mer i s , i n f ac t , as pear b e long ing t o Mars . 2 4

As for Vulcan in our area, we have discussed above the presence of Smiths' tools on the Farley Heath binding. From Duns Tew (p.177 ) there is a very native-looking Cotswold carving of the god or his equivalent as a local smith-god, and there are dedications and depictions to the Celticized 'deus Volcanus' on sil ver plaques from Barkway (p. 209 ) and Stony Stratford (p.179 ). 0n potsherds e. g. at Colchester (p.216 ) and Wroxeter (p. 163 ) Smiths' tools have been applied to potsherds. This last occurrence is interesting since (see Chapter 6) in military northern Britain, at Malton, the museum is full of sherds of coarse black ware depicting not only Smiths' tools but also the wheel of the Celtic Jupiter. The connection between Romano-Celtic Jupiter and Vulcan, Sucellus and Taranis, is assured. Finally should be mentioned the strange bronze pot from a grave at Three Nuns' Bridge (p. 20 9 , PI. XII, e), decorated with three heads and smiths' equipment. All three heads may represent Vulcan, the number heing tripled for potency and the Celtic love of triads, or perhaps three gods or three different aspects of a god are being portrayed. THE ROMAN AND ROMANO-CELTIC HERCULES Like almost every other Roman god in Gaul, Hercules was unable to escape Celticization. The only British inscription from the civilian area is to Hercules Saegon at Silchester (p.19 5 ); Saegon is a Celtic name meaning 'victorious' and is linked with Mars ·on the continent (see Chapter 1, Mars). Apart from this, Hercules is, on the face of it, fairly Roman in Britain; but Jupiter Taranis at Willingham F'en (p. 210 , PI. X, a-c) and in the north at Corbridge (Chapter 6, p.11 O ) has borrowed Hercules' club, and a possible Celto-Roman Hercules was carved on the chalk at Cerne Abbas in Dorset. The Gallic Celts brought out a healing and chthonic aspect of Hercules hinted at in classical mythology by his connection with the three-headed canine guardian of the Under­ world. He occurs at the sites of healing springs in Gaul, and in graves. In Britain there is a pipe-clay Hercules, in company with a pipe-clay Celtic three-horned bull in a child's grave at Colchester Apart from the civilian British instances of Hercules already mentioned, there are sorne seven stone reliefs of the god - and he was associated with healing springs at Bath (p. 187 ), we must remember, Thirty-seven or so small depictions of the god are known and sometimes he is very Celtically stylized with the hair arranged in a kind of cap with vertical strokes running from the front of the head to the back in a typical Celtic manner, which would seem to suggest a Celtic manufacture and a Celtic-thinking clieRtele (see Gazetteer index); but e. g. at Colchester Hercules sometimes appears purely classical. Also occasionally on these bronzes Hercules is Ithyphallic Roman depictions do not emphasise Hercules' manhood in this way. (At Great Chesterford (p. 211 ) Hercules wears a torc, another Celtic phenomenon. ) The connection with springs, the finding of Hercules in a grave, and the wear­ ing of a torc (Gallic Mercury and Cernunnos wear torcs) would seem to indicate a Celtic connection, as a god of healing and associated with the Underworld. THE ROMAN AND ROMANO-CELTIC APOLLO Apollo was Celticized in Gaul: he is equated with important and recurring Celtic god-names such as Grannus and Belenus. Now in Gaul the healing 25

n a ture o ft he S un-god i s b rough t o u t more t han a ny o ther o f h is a spects ( s ee Chap ter 1 ) . H e a ppears c ons tan t ly c onnec ted w ith t herma l s pr ings e i ther a lone o r w ith h is c onsor t , e .g . a t t he t herma l s pr ing s hr ine a tH ochsche id . Apo l lo 's C e lt ic n ames a re r eg iona l t hough n o t t opograph ica l a nd i ti s n o t s urp r is ing t ha t t here a re f ew C e l t ic e p i the ts i n Br ita in a t a l l , o ccurrences b e ing v ery r are i n t he c iv i l ian a reas o ft he p rov ince . I n Br ita in t hree s tone f i gure-carv ings o f Apo l lo a re k nown .

S ign if ican t ly

e nough t wo o ft hese c ome f rom t he t herma l s pr ing s hr ine o f S u l M inerva a t Ba th ( pp . 1 87-8) . Three i nscr ip t ions a re k nown , o ne o f wh ich i sf ro m at e mp le i n t he Co tswo lds a t Ne t t le ton ( p . 1 90 )a nd i st o Apo l lo C uno mag lus , mean ing ' Hound l ord ' , a nd D iana a nd S i lvanus a re a lso k nown f ro m t h is s hr ine ( Apo l lo i s h ere c onnec ted w ith V ege ta t ion a nd Nature g ods) .

H e i s g od o fh un t ing ,

p resu mab ly , a nd i ti s i n terest ing t ha t e lsewhere i n B r i ta in - n o tab ly a t t he s hr ine a t Mun tham Cour t ( p .220 )a nd t he t e mp le o f Nodons a t L ydney ( p .169) h un t ing a nd h ea l ing a ppear t ob e c onnec ted . S ome e leven b ronzes o f Apo l lo a re k nown i n c iv i l ian

Ro man Br ita in , n o t o n s ign if icant s i tes b u t a s s tray

f i nds ; b u t o ne wh ite p ipe-c lay Apo l lo - f rom G au l ish manufacturers - f ound a t Hacheston ( p , 2 /8 ,P l . X I I I , a )b e trays t he Gau l ish c u l t o f A po l lo s ince h ere i s aRo mano-Gau l ish p r iva te c heap e xvo to made f or d epos it ing p oss ibly a t h ea l ing Apo l l ine s hr ines . S ILVANUS I N C IV IL IAN RO MAN BRITA IN T he Ro man n a ture a nd wood land g od wou ld a ppear t o h ave f i t ted we l l i n to t he C e l t ic r e l ig ious s cheme where a p rosper i ty a nd n a ture d e i ty was mos t i mp or tan t a nd where t here were v as t w i ld e xpanses o f f orest f or h un t ing . I n G au l h e was l i nked , a s h as b een s hown , w i th t he Hammer-god , S uce l lus , a nd w ith v ar ious l oca l h un ter-de it ies . I n Br ita in t here i s l i t t le r ecord ( on ly o ne i ns tance ) o fh is e qua t ion w ith t he h am mer-god , who i s e x tre me ly r are i n a ny c ase ( p . 1 91 ) ; b u t S i lvanus a nd/or a l oca l C e l t ic h un ter i s r e la t ive ly we l l r epresen ted . E igh t o r n ine d ep ict ions o f S i lvanus ( mos t o f t hem i n s tone ) e x is t a l together a nd h e i s s o me t i mes f ound w i th o ne o fh is mos t f requen t Ga l l ic emb le ms - t he s tag .

Bu t i ti s k nown t ha t t he s tag b e longed more u n i-

v ersa l ly t o C e l t ic r e l ig ion t han mere ly t o S i lvanus .

O ne i nscr ip t ion t o

S i lvanus o ccurs o n ab ronze p la te a t Co lches ter w i th a sma l l s tag a t tached ( p . 2 15 ) , S i lvanus i s r eferred t o i n s o me s hr ines i n c iv i l ian B r ita in , f or i nstance a t C o lches ter ( p .215) , Net t le ton ( p .190 )a nd L ydney ( p .169 ) . T h is b r ings o ne t o ad iscuss ion o ft he e p igraph ic e v idence f or S i lvanus i n c iv i l ian Roman Br i ta in . I nscr ip t ions a re r e la t ive ly n umerous a nd h e i s s o me t imes e qua ted w ith an a t ive o r w ith aRo man g od . Na t ive n ames a re r eg iona l a nd o bscure - Ca l l ir ius ( p .216 ) , N odons ( p .169 ) ; t w ice h e i s e qua ted w ith t he Nu men o f t he Emperor (s) ( pp . 1 86 ,190) a nd t h is p henomenon i s a lso me t w ith i n many p ar ts o f Gau l .

T he n ame Ca l l ir ius r efers t o h un t ing a nd Nodons was a lso a

h un t ing/hea l ing d e ity who was i den t if ied w i th Mars , h i mse lf a h ea ler i n G au l ( c f . Mars L enus a t T r ier ) .

2 6

NEPTUNE I n G au l a s i n Br ita in Neptune a ppears t o k eep h is c lass ica l a r t-for m e nt i re ly , a nd h is f unc t ion i s ma in ly c lass ica l .

H e i s o f ten f ound a s al oca l

r iver-god-gen ius r a ther t han a s a n O cean d e ity a nd p resu mab ly i s t hus i n k eepi ng w ith t he C e lt ic i deas o f s p ir its o r g en i i o fn a tura l p laces s uch a s r ivers a nd s treams .

The Br it ish e v idence f ro m t he c iv i l ian p ar t o f t he c oun try s ee ms

t ob ear t h is o ut .

T he c lass ica l N eptune i s s een ma in ly a s af resh-wa ter-god .

T he o n ly i nscr ip t ion t o Nep tune i s p robab ly p ure ly c lass ica l ; v ery e ar ly - l a te I st c entury A .D .

i ti s c erta in ly

-a nd r efers t o as hr ine o fb o th h i mse lf

a nd M inerva , s e t u p b y s h ip-bu i lders a t Ch ichester ( p . 1 97 ) ; b u t a t L ondon ( 1 3 .225 )a nd C irencester ( p .173 )c arv ings o f t he g od a s ar iver-sp ir it a re k nown .

T here a re n ine o r t en o ther d ep ict ions o f l oca l wa ter-gods , ma in ly

i n b ronze ( e .g . P l . X I I I , b ,c ) .

I ti s i n terest ing t o s ee t he c onnect ion o f t he

g od w i th t he h ea l ing ,hun t ing c u lts o f Nodons a t L ydney ( p .169 ) , a nd a t a W i ltsh ire v i l la a t Box a h un ter d e ity a nd p art o f ar e l ief o f a wa ter-god w ith at r iden t w ere a ssoc ia ted ( p .189 ) . GEN II CUCULLATI The l i t t le h ooded g od le ts o f r iches , p rosper ity a nd t he u nderwor ld s ee m d ef in ite ly c onnected i n f or m , d istr ibu t ion a nd a t tr ibu tes w i th t he Mo therg oddesses o r Deae Ma tres , a l though t hey s ee m t o h ave d onned t he c lass ica l c ostu me o f T e lesphorus; G reek g od o f w isdo m a nd t he a r t o f wr it ing , w ith a n a dd it iona l h ea l ing r o le t hrough b e ing t he s on o f Aescu lap ius .

I n m i l itary

Recu lver at erraco t ta G en ius c ucu l la tus was f ound w ith a r o l l o f p arch men t s ign ify ing w r it ing ;

h e r esemb led T e lesphorus .

1 7

Many s uch s ta tuet tes h ave

b een f ound i n t he Rh ine- Mose l le a rea , s o me t i mes i n t e mp les o r a s g raveg oods .

1 8

t e mp les .

Most o f t he t erracot tas a re f ro m T r ier a nd a re v o t ive o b jects f ro m S o me G er man e xamp les c o me f ro m s pr ings a s we l l a nd s ome c arry

e ggs - a s ure i nd ica t ion o f ac onnect ion w ith f er t i l ity a nd g enera l we l l-be ing . Br i t ish G en i i c ucu l la t i a re d if feren t f rom t he Cont inen ta l i n u sua l ly b e ing i n t r ip l ica te , f requen t ly p or trayed a s dwarfs a nd r are ly a s sma l l d o mest ic v o t ives l i ke t he G er man t erracot ta e xamp les . s ty l ized , a l most t wo-d i mens iona l .

1 8

S o me t i mes t hey a re v ery

L ike t he Ma tres , t he g od l ings o ccur i n

t wo d is t inc t z ones i n B r ita in - o ne i n t he m i l i tary Wa l l a rea a nd t he o ther i n t he Co tswo ld r eg ion , w ith s ca t tered o u t l iers e lsewhere i n t he c iv i l ian z one . T here a re a bout t en s e ts o f t r ip le ( very o ccas iona l ly q uadrup le ) -Gen i i c ucu ll a t i, s ome t i mes i n t he f or m o f r e l ie fs h o ld ings e ggs a s s ymbo ls o f f ert i l ity , t wo o f w h ich a re w ith a f e ma le ( see G aze t teer i ndex , a nd e .g . P l . XV I I , e ) . S o me r e l iefs p or tray t he t hree g od le ts a cco mpan ied b y o ther Ce lt ic d e it ies , w ith Mo ther-goddesses ( p . 1 72) a nd w ith Mercury a nd Ros mer ts ( p . 1 87 ) . T here a re t hree s ing le e xamp les o f t he G en ius c ucu l la tus - o ne i n b one , t wo i n s tone ( p p . 2 28, 1 91 , 1 73 , P l . XV I I , f ; XV I I I , c ) a cco mpan ied b y a Mo therg oddess . Apar t f ro m e xamp les w ith f e ma les a t Wyco mb, t hose w i th Mercury a nd Rosmerta a nd t he s ing le b one e xamp le o ccur a t t he s i tes o f s acred s pr ings -a t Ba th ( p .187 )a nd a t S pr inghead ( p .228 ) . p rosper i ty a nd w e l l-be ing .

2 7

A l l t he e v idence p o in ts t o

CLASS ICAL GEN I I AND CELTIC LOCAL GOD-NA MES T hese t wo g odtypes a re e x treme ly s im i lar i n f tmct ion a l though t he f am i l iar ' gen i i l oc i ' a re a c lass ica l p heno menon .

C lass ica l g en i i were s p ir its o fp ros-

p er i ty a nd p ro tect ion o f c er ta in p laces , e s tab l ishmen ts , i nst i tu t ions, a nd a re o f ten d ep ic ted a s h a lf-nude g ods w ith p a tera , c ornucop iae , e t c . O therw ise t hey may a ppear w ith mura l c rown a s t u te lary g oddesses o r T yches o f ac i ty , t i e ing u p v ery c lose ly , i n Ro man r e l ig ion , w ith F or tuna ( see C hap ter 1 ) . The Ce lts h onoured t he s p ir its o f l oca l i t ies e tc . a s we l l , a nd t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t many g ods w ith Ro man n ames , s uch a s Mars , o r Ce lt ic d e it ies s uch a s t he Ma tres , h ave r eg iona l s urnames , t i e ing t he m d own t o t he o vers ee ing o f ap ar t icu lar p lace . W ide ly d istr ibu ted d e it ies e .g . Mars o r Mercury w ith t hese n ames c an b e p u t i n to t ypes w ith r egard t o t he ir more f am i lar Ro man n ames . S o me d e i t ies, w ith C e lt ic n ames h owever , a s h as b een s hown w ith g oddesses , o n ly o ccur o nce o r t w ice i n as tr ict ly l oca l ized a rea a nd o ne must l ook o n t hese ( as i ndeed Ro man n amed g ods w ith o bscure C e lt ic , o f ten l oca l o r d escr ip t ive e p i the ts) a s l oca l p ro tect ing a spects o f ah igher , n a t iona l C e l t ic c u lt , w h ich i t se lf may we l l h ave b een a l l b ut f orgot ten . I n G au l a nd i n B r ita in b o th t he Roman ' gen ius l oc i ' a nd l oca l C e lt ic n amed g ods a re we l l-known .

C iv i l ian Roman Br ita in h as f ew o bscure C e lt ic-named

d e i t ies w i thou t a Ro man n ame a s ag u ide , a nd f ew C e l t ic e p ithe ts a t a l l c omp ared t o G au l a nd t he mi l itary a reas o f B r i ta in . Ag od n amed Maband i s k nown f ro m G odmanchester ( p . 2 09) , *a nd i s p robab ly t o b e c onnected w ith Apo l lo Maponus . Ag od o f ' t hree ways ' i s k nown a t T re t ire ( p . 1 69) . Ve teres Mocuxsu ma ( p . 1 67) may l i nk w ith t he Ve teres o r Hv it ires i n G er many a nd t he Nor th o f Br ita in , t hough Mocuxsu ma i s n o t k nown e lsewhere .

Nodons i s

l oca l ( p . 1 69) , e qua ted s o me t i mes w i th Mars a nd o nce w ith S i lvanus, b u t a lso o ccurr ing o n h is own . T he g od V ir id ius i s a nother , c om ing f rom Ancas ter ( p . 1 68) . A l l t hese a ppear o n ly o nce o r t w ice o r i n o ne o r t wo s pecif ic a -eas -e .g . Nodons a t L ydney a nd i n t he n or th a t C ockersand Moss . T he a nonymous d e it ies f ro m Redru th ( p . 1 98, P l . XXX , d ) , C irencester ( p . 1 73 , P l . 2 0a , a ,b) a nd A lwa lton ( p . 2 07 , P l . XXX , c ) must b e l oca l s p ir its . Ag lance a t t he ' c lass ica l ' g en ius i n Br i ta in i nd ica tes t ha t ac er ta in amoun t o f C e lt ic t a in t ing h as t aken p lace i n af ew e xamp les . F or i ns tance t here i s a p or traya l o f at r ip le ' gen ius l oc i ' i n s tone a t S ymonds Ha l l ( p .189 ) . Aga in o ne i nscr ip t ion t o ag en ius i s t o ag en ius C hogunc i ( p .172 ) - aC e lt ic t opog raph ica l n ame , a nd o ne i nscr ipt ion f rom c iv i l ian Roman Br i ta in i s t o ac lass ica l g en ius a nd t he C e l t ic Mo ther-goddesses a t C irencester ( p .174 ) .

A bout

e igh t e p igraph ic d ed ica t ions t o ag en ius l oc i e x ist i n o ur c iv i l ian a rea . I n s tone c arv ing t here a re a bou t t h irteen , i nc lud ing t wo o r t hree f ema le t u te lary Tyches f rom t owns . T here a re f our e xamp les o f g en i i i n t he f orm o f v ases t opped b y ah ead w i th p o t tery mura l c rowns , a l l f rom t he c iv i l ian a rea , a nd v ery l oca l ized w ith in t ha t r eg ion ( pp . 1 95 , 1 97 , 2 20) . F ina l ly o ne s hou ld men t ion t he p resence o ft he b ronze ' b ar ' o r h ouseho ld g od , d ep ic ted e i ther a s a' pa terfam i l ias ' -as evere , e lder ly , d raped p r ies t— l i ke f i gure w ith p a tera , o r ad anc ing b oy i n G rec ian t un ic w ith d r ink ing h orn , o r c ornucop iae a nd p a tera .

T hese o ccur a l l o ver G au l , a nd i n c iv i l ian R oman

Br i ta in a bou t t wen ty e xamp les a re k nown ( see G azet teer i ndex a nd e .g . P l . X I ,

2 8

a -d ) , t he ma jor ity o f wh ich a re o f t he d anc ing b oy t ype a nd t wo o f wh ich h ave t he s trange p rov inc ia l d oub le c ornucop iae t o emphas ise p rosper i ty f ound s omet i mes i n Ga l l ic e xamp les .

These a re Ro man i n o r ig in a nd a r t-for m , r e-

f err ing t o av ery o ld n on-O lymp ian h ouseho ld c u l t i n I t a ly ;

b u t i ti s e asy t o

s ee h ow C e l t ic t hough t wou ld a dap t a nd a dop t t he t ype a s r epresen ta t ive o f a l oca l p rosper ity a nd p ro tec t ive g od l ing . MARS AND MERCURY Mars .

T he Gau l ish e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t Mars a nd Mercury h ave , i n

C e l t ic c on tex ts, v ery much i n c o m mon .

T hey were i n terchangeab le i n e qua-

t i on w ith t he Ce lt ic Teuta tes a nd E sus, a ccord ing t o t he Berne s cho l iasts o n L ucan ;1 5

t hey b o th h ave t he l argest n u mber o f l oca l a nd r eg iona l Ce l t ic s ur-

n ames , t he ir d is tr ibu t ion i s t o s o me d egree c o mp le men tary i n G au l ;

t hey

u surp e ach o ther 's Ro man f unc t ions - Mars a ppear ing p erhaps i n h is a nc ien t R o man r o le o f a gr icu lture d e i ty i nstead o fh is more u sua l o ne a s warr ior , a nd Mercury a ppear ing i n m i l i tary a reas o f Gau l i n wh ich Mars i s l arge ly a bsent .

A part f ro m t h is t he t wo g ods o ccas iona l ly s hare t he s ame Ce l t ic e p ithe t

a nd s o me t i mes t he s a me C e l t ic f ert i l ity/ch thon ic emb le m b e long ing t o Cernunn os - t he r am-headed s nake . The C e l t ic Mars i s i n terest ing i n Gau l s ince a l though , i n f ac t , h e h as more d i f feren t C e lt ic e p ithe ts t han Mercury , s how ing h i mse lf t o h ave b een more a dap tab le , h e r are ly h a t e mpe lbez irk a t T r ier .

at e mp le - w ith e xcep t ions l i ke t he Mars L enus T he t o ta l n u mber o f G a l l ic r e l iefs o f Mars i s sma l l

c o mpared t o Mercury a nd c omp le te ly o u t o f t rue w ith t he e p igraph ic e v idence . I nscr ip t ions i nd ica te , a s s ta ted i n Chap ter 1 , ad o mest ic , r ust ic g en ius , b u t t he r epresen ta t ions u sua l ly i nd ica te s o me k ind o f warr ior . The s i tua t ion w ith r egard t o Mars i n c iv i l ian Ro man Br ita in s hows many s im i lar it ies w ith G au l .

F irs t o f a l l t here a re many more C e lt ic e p ithe ts

a pp l ied t o Mars i n t he a rea t han t o Mercury a nd t here a re a lso t races o f C e lt icism i n Mars ' a t tr ibu tes a nd h e a ppears a s ah ea ler , L enus ( p .183 ) . S o me o f Mars ' Ce l t ic e p i the ts h ere r efer t o we l l-known G au l ish g ods , a Mars O ce l lus - Ve l launus - L enus a t Caerwen t ( p . 1 83 ) , a nd i n t he C o tswo lds a t C hedwor th Mars L enus i s k nown ( 1 ) . 1 74 ) .

Oce l lus i s al oca l Br it ish g od n o t

k nown o n t he Con t inen t1 9 b u t a t Caerwen t h e i s e qua ted w i th Mars L enus t he f amous h ea ler-god o f t he T rever i .

A t Tr ier - t he c en tre o f t he c u lt -

was a g rea t c lass ica l ly-s ty led 2 nd c entury t e mp le t o t he g od .

T he g oose a s

a n emb lem was f ound t here a nd t he g oose i s f igured c onnected W ith t he g od a t Caerwen t .

Mars L euce t ius a nd Ne me tona , k nown o n t he Cont inent , a lso o ccur

i n Br ita in ( p . 1 88 ) .

L euce t ius means " sh in ing o r b r i l l ian t o ne" .

The Mars

L enus i nscr ip t ion a t Chedworth r efers t o as usp ic ious ly S uce l l ine d ep ict ion a nd t here a re a lready g l i mpses o f ac onnect ion b e tween C e l t ic Mars a nd J up iter T aran is .

Mars R igone me t is a nd R ig isamus - h ä th mean ing k ing o f

s o me k ind - o ccur i n c iv i l ian Ro man Br ita in a t Net t leham ( p .203 )a nd W . Coker ( p . 1 84 ) ,k ing ly e p ithe ts s uch a s t h is b e ing k nown a lso i n G au l . Teu ta tes h as a lready b een d iscussed .

Mars

Occurr ing o n ly o nce e ach a re Mars

Nodons ( equa ted a t L ydney ( p . 1 69) w ith a h ea l ing d e ity ) , Mars o f t he S ed iae a t B iddenha m ( p . 2 05 ) , Mars Medoc ius a t Co lchester ( p . 2 16) , Mars Coro t iacus a t Mar t lesha m ( p . 2 18) , Mars Brac iacae a t Bakewe l l ( p . 1 65 ) , Mars 0 1 1ud ius

2 9

-t he l a t ter mean ing a t ree a t C ustom S crubs ( p . 1 70 ) ; s o t here a re a bout e leven n a t ive n ames f or t he g od .

Twen ty-four o r s o i nscr ip t ions t o Mars a re

k nown a l toge ther i n t he a rea - o ne t o ' Mars A la tor ' o r t he A venger ( a Ro man e p ithe t ) a t Barkway ( p . 2 09 ) , a nd t wo d ed ica t ions a re t o Mars a nd t o t he Nu men o ft he Emperor ( bu t o ne o f t he m i s d ed ica ted b y aC e lt) a t N e t t leham ( p . 2 03) a nd a t t he F oss Dyke ( p .203 ,P l . I , f ,g ) . I n t he c iv i l ian a rea t here a re t wo i nd ica t ions o f t he Ce lt ic c onnect ion b et ween Mercury a nd Mars . T he r a m-headed s nake w h ich o ccurs of ten w i th Mercury a nd/or Cernunnos o n t he C on t inen t i s f ound o n t he G au l ish Mav i l ly p i l lar i n c ompany w ith Mars .

Now t he s ame p henomenon c an b e s een o n a

sma l l b ronze f i gure o f Mars f ound w i th o ther C e l to-sty led f i gures o f g ods i n ap o t a t S outhbroo m ( p .191 ,P l . XV I I , h ) . T he l i t t le b ronze s hows Mars w ith h is h e l me t a nd c lu tch ing t wo r am-headed s nakes , a s d oes C ernunnos a t C irenc es ter ; a nd a t C irencester t oo a n a l tar h as r ecen t ly b een d iscovered - t o Mars a nd Mercury t oge ther , i nd ica t ing a c onnec t ion ( p . 1 74 ) . S tone d ep ic t ions o f t he g od i n t he a rea - a bou t 2 1-2 - v ary f rom t he f a ir ly C e lt ic - e .g . a t B is ley ( p .172 )a nd K ings S tan ley ( p .170 ) ,w here t he g od i s s hown a s ad omest ic g en ius n o t a warr ior , f or h e h as a c ornucop iae a nd a t r ip le-crested c ap ( and wha t i s a warr ior d o ing i n t he r ura l C o tswo lds a nyway?) -t o t he r e la t ive ly c lass ica l . p l ica te ( p .

17 5

) .

One s tone d ep ict ion s hows t he g od i n C e l t ic t r i-

T he o n ly t h ing t ha t r ema ins c lass ica l a bou t t he g od i n s uch

c ircu mstances a s t he Co tswo ld g roup i s t he a rmed a r t-for m , w h ich means l i t t le . T here a re a bou t t h ir ty-two b ronze d ep ict ions o f Mars i n b as ica l ly c lass ica l a r t-for m , a ga in v ary ing f rom t he w ho l ly G reco-Roman ( e .g . a t Dragonby ( p . 1 62 ))t o t he e x tre me ly s ty l ized a nd Ce l t iclook ing ( e .g . a t D enver ( p . 2 03, P l . I ,b ) w ith t he s ame c apped h a ir a s t he C e l t ic H ercu les , a nd a no ther e xamp le a t D ragonby ( p .162 ,P l . I , a ) w ith u t ter ly C e lt ic f ea tures . Ano ther a spect o f Mars , f ound i n G au l a nd Br ita in , i s t he g od a s ah orseman .

T he C e lt ic c onnec t ion b e tween Mars a nd J up i ter Taran is i n t h is e ques-

t r ian warr ior-ro le h as a lready b een men t ioned (Chap ter 1 ) .

I n c lass ica l

r e l ig ion Mars h as a n e questr ian a spect a s Mars Equ irr ia , b u t i ti s n o t h is most u sua l r o le . I th as b een n o ted t ha t o n c er ta in G au l ish monu men ts J up i ter i s a n a rmed h orse man t ramp l ing d own t he f orces o f d arkness s ymbo l ized b y as nake-foo ted g ian t . I n G au l a nd B r i ta in t here a re v ar ious r epresen ta t ions o fh orsemen i n s tone o r b ronze , n o t a t tached t o J up iter-g ian t c o lu mns , a nd whenever t here i s ad ed ica t ion i ti s t o s ome a spect o f Mars ( o therw ise o ne w ou ld b e t e mp ted t o c a l l t h is g od a n a spect o f T aran is-Jup iter ) . I n Br ita in t here i s , a s a lready s ta ted , ad ed ica t ion t o Mars Coro t iacus ( p . 2 18) a nd o ne s ees a f a ir ly c lass ica llook ing Mars , b ut moun ted a nd r id ing o ver ap rostra te f oe - v ery s im i lar i n t hough t t o J up i ter-g ian t c o lu mns ; l i kew ise t he s tone r e l ief f ro m Wh i tcombe ( p . 2 02 ) . F ro m K ingsco te ( p . 1 90) c omes a r e l ief o f a moun ted g od a nd s ea ted g oddess , p erhaps aRo manoC e lt ic Mars a nd C onsor t . O therw ise i n Br ita in , a s i n G au l , o ne f i nds sma l l b ronze f i gures o f H orsemen , e .g . t hose f ro m t he Br igstock c ircu lar a nd p o lygona l s hr ines ( p . 1 81, P l . I I , f ) ;

av ery r ecen t ly f ound p o t w i th s tamped f i gures o f h orse men f ro m

3 0

K e lvedon ( p . 2 13) a nd o ne o r t wo e xa mp les o f h orse men i n t he f am i l iar wh i te p ipe-clay o ft he c en tra l Gau l ish manufactor ies ( pp . 2 11, 2 31, P l . I , e ) . A bout t wen ty o r s o d ep ict ions o f ' Mars ' a s a mounted warr ior e x ist i n c iv i l ian R o man Br i ta in . I t may f i na l ly b e o bserved t ha t t he c aches o fp laques o f Mars f ro m S tony S tra tford ( p . 1 79) a nd Barkway ( p . 2 09) may i nd ica te t e mp les , b u t t here i s l i t t le o ther e v idence o f as hr ine d ed ica ted s pec if ica l ly t o Mars . Mercury .

Mercury i n G au l h as b een c onfused a nd e qua ted w ith C e lt ic

n a t ive d e i t ies - Mercury o ccurs c lose ly c onnec ted w ith Cernunnos , w ith t he Mo thers ( among t he S equan i) , w ith s tags , r a m-headed s nakes , G en i i c ucu l la t i ; a nd we h ave a lso s een h ow , i n G au l , Mercury h as d ef in ite c onnect ions w i th Mars . The much sma l ler amoun t o f e v idence f or Mercury i n c iv i l ian Ro man B r ita in t e l ls t he s ame s tory a s t ha t f ro m t he Con t inen t . t he b es t r epresen ted d e i ty i n e ach a rea .

Mercury i s o vera l l t he

O f sma l l b ronzes t here a re i n t he

l ow land r eg ion o f Br ita in o ver f if ty o f Mercury h i mse lf ;

o nce , a t l east , h e i s

h orned ( p . 2 21, P l . I V , i ) -s how ing t he Ce lt ic a spect o fp o tency much a s i n t ha t h e i s o ccas iona l ly t hree-headed i n Gau l .

A sma l l b ronze f ro m Ca istor

( p . 2 04 )p or trays h im w ith t he C e l t ic t ore w i th s nake t er m ina ls ; o f ten f ound w ith t he t ore o n t he Con t inen t .

t he d e i ty i s

Apar t f ro m t hese b ronzes i n t he

c iv i l ian a rea t here a re more t han t wen ty b ronze o r p ipe-c lay e xa mp les o f Mercury 's emb le m t he c ock ;

t he Gau l ish- made p ipe-c lay e xamp les ( e .g .

P l . I V , h )b e tray a C e lt ic i n terest i n t he g od . O f s tone r e l iefs o r s cu lp tures i n t he r ound d ep ic t ing Mercury t here a re a bout t wen ty-f ive - o ne o f w h ich i s t he c lass ica l Mercury g roup f ro m t he Wa lbrook M ithraeu m ( p .224 )where Mercury mus t a ppear a s a Merchan ts ' g od a nd c lass ica l L ord o f S ou ls i n t he U nderwor ld ; M ithraea a s we l l .

h e i s f ound i n Gau l ish

E leven o f t hese Br i t ish c arv ings s how t he g od a cco mpan ied

b y h is G a l lo-Ro man c onsor t , Ros mer ta , o ne o f wh ich , a t G loucester ( p . 1 71) a lso i nc ludes F ortuna ;

a no ther a t Ba th ( p . 1 87 , P l . XV I I I , a ) a lso i nc ludes

G en i i c ucu l la t i , b e ings o f ten f ound w ith t he D eae Ma tres i n Br i ta in , a nd a ga in c onnec t ing Ros mer ta w ith t he Ce l t ic Mo ther-goddess c u l t . P l . XV , d ) Mercury a ppears w ith t he Deae Ma tres . may b e h orned ( p . 2 25 , P l . XV I I I , e ) .

A t We l low ( p . 1 86)

A t L ondon a s tone Mercury

As f or i nscr ip t ions , a par t f ro m t he

g lar ing d earth o f e p igraph ic e v idence a l toge ther f ro m t he p rov ince , Mercury t e lls a s l igh t ly d if ferent s tory f ro m t ha t i n Gau l .

There a re f ar f ewer i nscr ip-

t ions t o Mercury t han t o Mars i n t he c iv i l ian z one o f Br ita in .

the G a l l ic

s tory o f l ess Ce lt ic e p ithe ts f or Mercury c er ta in ly a pp l ies h ere , where o n ly o ne i s k nown - a d ed ica t ion t o Mercury Andescoc ioucus a nd t he Nu men o f t he Emperor a t Co lchester ( p . 2 16) , t he f or mer k nown n owhere e lse i n t he Ce lt ic wor ld .

A bou t f ive o ther i nscr ip t ions t o Mercury a re k nown i n t he a rea , o ne ,

i n teres t ing ly e nough , o n af ace-urn ( p . 1 68 , P l . XXVI I , d ) . Aga in , f our t imes o n ly i s t here a n emb le m o f Mercury i n as hr ine , a l though s evera l t e mp les i n Gau l were d ed ica ted t o t he g od ;

b u t t h is n eed n o t b e s ign i -

f ican t s ince v ery f ew Br i t ish t e mp les y ie ld e v idence o f t he ir d ed ica t ion .

T he

Gau l ish c onnect ion b e tween Mars a nd Mercury i s s een b y ar ecen t f i nd o f a n a ltar t o t hese t wo g ods a t C irencester .

3 1

THE RA M-HEADED SNAKE T he r am-headed s nake o ccurs a s a n emb lem o f s evera l g ods a s t he s urvey o f G au l ish e v idence h as i nd ica ted ; t he c ompan ion o f Cernunnos t he s tag-headed g od o n many G au l ish monu men ts , a nd o f Mercury a nd o ccas iona lly Mars .

I t

h as b een s een t ha t t he r a m-headed s nake i s af er t i l i ty a nd c h thon ic emb le m b o th t he s nake a nd t he r am were c h thon ic i n many a nc ien t r e l ig ions 2° a nd Mercury 's r am i n Ro man my tho logy was c h thon ic . Th is C e l t ic emb lem may we l l b e c onnected w i th t he s nake-foo ted g ian t u nder t he moun t o f J up i terTaran is . I t was n o t iced ( Ch . 1 )t ha t s ome H a l lsta t tb rooches h ave a r am-head , s how ing i t s p re-Ro man a ssoc ia t ions . I n Br i ta in t wo o ccurrences o ft he r am-headed s nake h ave a lready b een men t ioned - o ne w i th t he b ronze Mars f i gure f rom S outhbroom a nd o ne w ith C ernunnos a t C irences ter .

O ne o ther o ccurrence i n Br ita in i s v ery i n terest ing

s ince t he s nake o ccurs wrapped r ound a C o tswo ld a l tar a t L yp ia t t Park ( p .172) -b u t w ith a whee l o n t he t op o ft he a l tar : t h is i l lus tra tes d irec t ly t he a ssociat i on o ft he s nake w ith t he C e lt ic J up i ter , a n a ssoc ia t ion a lso f ound o n t he J up iter-G ian t c o lu mns . THE THREE-HORNED BULL Apar t f rom t he r am-headed s nake , a no ther a n i ma l- mons ter was k nown i n G a l lo-Ro man i conography - t he t hree-horned b u l l , t he t hree h orns b e ing t o i ncrease i t s p ower .

T h is monster a s w e h ave s een ( Chap ter 1 )i s we l l-a t tested

i n c er ta in a reas o f Gau l b u t o n ly t hree e xamp les a re k nown f rom o ur a rea o f c iv i l ian Roman Br ita in . Two e xamp les a re e spec ia l ly i n teres t ing - t ha t f ro m Ma iden Cast le ( p .200 )men t ioned a bove i n c onnect ion w ith J up iter , a nd o ne f rom C o lchester ( p .217 ,P l . XD ( , a ,b) .

T he f ormer c ame f ro m a l a te r e-

l i g ious c on tex t i n a4 th c entury s hr ine a nd t he r ema ins o ft hree d e it ies c an b e s een o n i t s b ack . I ti s i n teres t ing t ha t s uch a v ery Ce lt ic o b jec t s hou ld o ccur s o l a te . The Co lchester e xamp le i s o f i n terest : ( a ) b ecause i t was f rom a g rave , s how ing t he c h thon ic is m o ft he c rea ture , ( b ) b ecause i t was a ssoc ia ted i n t h is g rave w i th H ercu les who i n G au l h ad a c h thon ic r o le , a nd ( c ) b ecause b o th h e ( and o ther f i gures i n t he g rave) w ere made o ft he Gau l ish c heap d o mes t ic ma ter ia l o fp ipe-c lay , l i ke t he f i gures o f P seudo-Venus a nd D ea N u tr ix . D IV INE AN I MALS T he B u l l .

T h is a n i ma l may b e r egarded i n much t he s ame way a s t he t hree -

h orned v ar ie ty , a s a n emb le m o f s treng th , a nd a dop ted b y s evera l d e i t ies . N ine t wo-horned e xamp les a re k nown i n c iv i l ian Roman Br i ta in , ma in ly i n b ronze , s o me t i mes k nob-horned ( aC e l t ic s ty l iza t ion ) a nd o nce o r t w ice _ p ha ll i c ( p . 2 13, P l . XXV , h ) , s how ing , a s i n t he a dded h orn o f t he monster , t he d es ire t o i ncrease t he s treng th a nd f er t i l i ty p ower o f t he b eas t . T he B oar .

An emb lem o f f eroc i ty a nd t enac i ty i n Gau l ish i conography ,

t he b oar f i gures i n t he Ro mano-Br it ish a rchaeo log ica l r ecord j ust a s i n t ha t o f G au l . A bou t n ine v o t ive b oars a re k nown a nd t he b ronze r e l ief o f as la in b oar , f ro m Mun tham Cour t ( p . 2 20 , P l . XX I , a ) , where t here was a s hr ine , 3 2

may i nd ica te a l oca l h un t ing c u l t j ust a s Mercury Moccus i s k nown i n G au l . H un t ing , f eroc ity a nd war may h ave b een v ery c lose ly c onnec ted i n C e l t ic t hough t .

I t was n o ted ( Chap ter 1 ) h ow t he b oar a ppears , p resu mab ly a s a

w ar emb lem , o n t he s h ie ld f rom t he W itha m .

T he sma l l b ronze b oar f ro m

Woodendean ( p .197 ,P l . XX I , b ) o ccurred i n ap re-Ro man I ron Age c on tex t a nd , i n teres t ing ly e nough , t wo sma l l b ronze b oars were a ssoc ia ted w i th t he w hee l o ft he Ce lt ic J up iter a t H ouns low ( p .221 ) . The H orse .

I ti s u nnecessary t o r epea t t he c u lt impor tance o fh orses i n

R o mano-Ce lt ic a nd p re-Ro man c u l ts a s s hown b y G au l .

T hough t he e v idence

( a s f or e very o ther c a tegory o f c u lt-ob ject ) i s s hadowy i n c iv i l ian B r ita in a s c o mpared t o Gau l h orses d o , n ever the less , make t he ir a ppearance .

A bou t

t h ir teen b ronze a nd p ipe-c lay h orses a re k nown , t he l a t ter ma ter ia l i nd ica t ing t he p roduc t ion o f c heap e x-vo tos f ro m G au 1 .

2 1

T he l i t t le b ronze h orse f ro m

S i lchester i s i nterest ing b ecause , u n l ike t he h orse o f t he e questr ian Mars, e .g . a t B r igstock ( p . 1 81, P l . I I , d ) , t h is e xa mp le h as t he s ty l ized , d e l ica te l ook o ft he L a Tbne c raf t . The S tag .

As a n emb lem o f t he Ro mano -Ce lt ic h un ter , S i lvanus , a nd a lso

a s a n emb le m o f t he n a ture e le men t i n G a l l ic my tho logy - c onnected w ith C ernunnos , whose emb le m h e was a nd whose a n t lers t he Ce l t ic g od a dop ted ( known f ar b ack i n p re-Ro man C e l t ic l ands) , t h is a n i ma l i s n atura l ly i n e v id ence i n B r ita in , t hough n o t n ear ly s o u b iqu itous a s i n G au l .

He o ccurs i n

t h is p rov ince a s a sma l l b ronze b y h i mse lf b u t where h e i s w ith a g od i ti s w ith S i lvanus t he Ro man ( bu t Ce l t ic ized t o s o me e x ten t ) wood land a nd n a ture g od .

S i lvanus Ca l l ir ius ( hun ter) was a cco mpan ied b y as tag a t C o lchester ( p .

2 15) ;

a nd e lsewhere , o n s ta tues o f S i lvanus , t he s tag i s n o t u nknown .

I t

s hou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t S i lvanus a nd t he C e l t ic v ege ta t ion d e it ies a re c onc epts w h ich i n C e l t ic my tho logy wou ld s o n atura l ly c o me t oge ther i n a ny f usion b e tween t he t wo t ypes o fb e l ief t ha t i ti s e asy t o s ee why t he s tag i s a n emb lem c o m mon t o b o th t ypes o f i conography , t hough , a dm it ted ly i ti s i n G au l a nd n o t Br i ta in where t he s tag h i mse lf o ccurs w ith C ernunnos . The D og .

We h ave s een h ow , i n G au l , t he d og a ppears t o h ave b een an on-

s pec if ic c u lt-e mble m , b u t c onnec ted w i th , among o ther t h ings, h ea l ing a nd d ea th .

I n s outhern Br ita in more t han t h ir ty r epresen ta t ions o f d ogs - i n

b ronze , s tone o r a s r ea l s ke le tons , a re k nown , i nc lud ing n ine f ro m t he s hr ine a t Ly c lney ( p . / 69 )where t he g od N odons a ppears t o h ave b een c onnec ted w ith b oth h un t ing a nd h ea l ing .

Ab ronze d og i s k nown f ro m t he h ea l ing s anctuary

o n t he s pr ing-s i te a t S pr inghead ; o ne s e t o f Deae Ma tres f ro m -C irences ter i s a ssoc ia ted w ith a d og , a nd p its , e .g . t ha t a t Mun tham Cour t ( p . 2 20) , c ont a in d og s ke le tons .

I n t he Upchurch Marshes o f K en t ( p .230 )a r i tua l d epos it

o f s even o r e igh t p uppy b ur ia ls i n p o ts may h ave h ad s o me c onnec t ion w i th Underwor ld f orces . B irds .

Wa ter-b irds i n Gau l a ppear t o h ave h ad a c u l t s ign if icance c on-

n ected w i th t he s un a nd h ea l ing .

I n Br ita in wa ter-b irds a re k nown t hough n o t

s pec if ica l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th s uch a c u lt .

Abou t n ine a re r ecorded a nd t ha t

f ro m M i lber Down ( p . 1 99 )h as a r i tua l c ake i n i t s mou th j ust a s t ha t f ro m t he S e ine a ssoc ia ted w i th S equana ( Ch . 1 ) ;

o ne , f ro m Ro ther ly Down ( p . 1 90 )

b ears ah u man h ead o n i t s b ack p oss ib ly a s at herapeu t ic o r f unerary s ymbo l .

3 3

Marsh-b irds o r c ranes , s o i mpor tan t i n G a l l ic my tho logy ,

4

a re r epresen ted

o n ly b y o ne e xamp le f ro m B r ita in , o n a n a l tar f ro m a r itua l p i t .

Ravens ,

f unerary a nd p oss ib ly a lso p rophe t ic , a re k nown , s ome t i mes f ro m r itua l c ont ex ts . A t F e lm ingham H a l l ( p . 2 05 )a h oard o fb ronzes i nc luded a whee l a nd t wo r avens , a nd a r aven i s r epresen ted i n t he W i l l ingham Fen h oard ( p . 2 10) whence c omes t he i mpor tan t J up i ter-Taran is s cep tre . I ti s w or thwh i le r eme mber ing t he G au l ish c onnect ion o fJ up i ter w i th S uce l lus, a nd o f S uce l lus w i th r avens .

A t M i lber D own a r aven was f ound i n a ssocia t ion w ith s tag a nd

wa ter-b ird , a l l i n b ronze . O ther An i ma ls .

G oa ts , p resu mab ly c onnected w i th f ert i l i ty i n s ome f or m

( e .g . P l . XX , e ,f ) , a nd o ccas iona l o ther c rea tures , a re k nown f ro m t he a rea u nder s tudy

( see Gaze t teer i ndex ) .

T he h are , men t ioned b y D io a s s acr if ice

t o t he war-goddess Andraste b y Boud icca o n t he e ve o fb a t t le 2 2 i s k nown i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , e .g . a t t he s hr ine a t T h ist le ton ( p . 1 67 ) . An e ven more e n igma t ic c rea ture f rom B r ita in i s ab ronze mouse f ro m Kenchester , t he r el ig ious s ign if icance o f wh ich , i fa ny , e scapes t he wr iter . TYPES OF MONSTROUS DEPICT ION NOT S PECIFIC TO ANY PARTICULAR DEITY I n B r ita in a s i n Gau l t hese d ep ict ions f a l l i n to t hree c a tegor ies - g ods r ep resen ted a s h eads o n ly ;

mu l t ip l ica t ion , u sua l ly o f h eads ;

t he p resence o f

r am o r g oa t-horns o n t he h ead o f ag od . I th as b een s een ( Ch . 1 )t ha t t he H ead was r evered b y p re-Roman a nd Ro man Ce l ts , a s b o th l i terary a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence h as i nd ica ted . From t he e v idence i tc an b e d educed t ha t t he H ead was e x tre me ly impor tan t t o t he C e lts , a nd , a s s uch was a f avour ite me thod o f d ep ic t ion o f ag od .

Wha t s hou ld b e

r ea l ised i s t ha t t he e v idence d oes n o t n ecessar i ly p o in t t o ac u l t o ft he H ead . Cer ta in ly , h ead-decora t ion , f or i ns tance o n t he Mar lborough B ucket , may b e ad ep ic t ion c hosen b ecause i t was c ons idered a s i mpor tan t a nd p owerfu l , b u t t he H ead i t se lf was n o t worsh ipped .

S pec if ic , n amed d e i t ies may b e r epre-

s en ted b y t he H ead o n ly , e .g . An tenoc it icus a t Benwe l l ( Ch . 6 ) , a nd i n C hap ter 1i th as b een p o in ted o ut t ha t Mo ther-goddesses among o ther d e i t ies a re s ome t i mes p or trayed w ith a h ead l arge i n p ropor t ion t o t he r es t o f t he b ody . Mos t Br i t ish e xamp les o fh eads a re f rom t he N or th o ft he c oun try ( see C h . 6 ) where t hey mos t p robab ly r epresen ted v ar ious l oca l d e it ies s ince t he h ead o f t he g od was t he most n ecessary p ar t t ob e r epresen ted . There a re r e la t ive ly f ew e xamp les f ro m s ou th o ft he H u mber . Two s tone s ta tue- menh irs ( where , o u t o f ab lock o f s tone , o n ly t he h ead h ad b een p roper ly mode l led ) a re k nown -a t P i l tdown ( p .226) a nd L augharne ( p . 1 68) . A bout s ix teen s tone h eads a re l i sted , t wo o f wh ich , a t E ype ( p . 2 00 , P l . XXV I , d ) a nd Broadway ( p . 1 75 ) a re p ha l l ic , s uggest ing a f er t i l i ty r o le f or wh ichever a nonymous l oca l g od was b e ing p or trayed . A s i n t he G au l ish i conography , t he H ead i s s ome t i mes mu l t ip l ied - J anf or m h eads a re k nown i n p re-Ro man C e l t ic c on tex ts i n G au l ( see C h . 1 ) a nd i n n on-Ro man C e lt ic I re land .

2 3

I n c iv i l ian B r i ta in f our j an iform h eads a re

k nown , o ne f ro m L ondon c arved f rom ap iece o f a n t ler ( p . 2 25, P l . XIX , c ) . T he t hree-headed t ype o f r epresen ta t ion , s o f am i l iar among t he R em i , i s

3 4

v ery r are i n Br ita in wh ich i s o u ts ide t he d is tr ibu t ion a rea .

Three e xamp les

a re k nown f ro m s ou thern B r ita in - i n s tone a t Wroxe ter ( p . 1 63 ,P l . XX , d ) , a nd Bradens toke ( p . 1 91 )a nd o n ar ing i n tag l io a t Ca istor ( p .204 ) . Aga in w e s ee a G au l ish p heno menon a ppear ing ( t hough r are ly ) i n a n a rea b as ica l ly f ore ign t o i t . De it ies d ep icted w ith h orns a re a Nor th B r it ish t ype o f p or traya l , a nd p res u mably h ere , a s i n h ead t r ip l ica t ion , t he h orns were t here t o g ive g enera l s treng th a nd p ower . On ly a bou t n ine e xamp les h ave b een f ound b y t he w r iter i n ac iv i l ian Br it ish c on tex t ; o n ly o ne s tone e xamp le i s k nown , t ha t f rom Sm ithf ie ld , L ondon ( p . 2 25, P l . XV I I I , e ) . T he r est a re i n t he f orm o f sma l l v o t ive o b jects s uch a s a n tef ixa f rom D orchester ( p . 2 01 )a nd a c au ldron-moun t f ro m Bough ton A luph ( p .230 ) .

I n o ne e xamp le t he h orned d e ity i s f e ma le ,

f ro m I ck l ingha m ( p . 2 13, P l . XD ( , e ) . OTHER ' CLASS ICAL ' DEIT IES I ti s u nknown t o wha t d egree i fa ny Bacchus/D ionysus , f or e xamp le , was C e lt ic ized .

As a g od o r ig ina l ly o f a l l w i ld l i fe a nd l a ter s pec if ica l ly o f W ine

a nd t hus f er t i l ity , h is c u l t was a lso a mystery o ne a nd a s s uch h e was L ord o f S ou ls , c oncerned w ith s a lva t ion a nd t he a f ter l ife . I ti s i n t h is r o le t ha t h e must a ppear a t t he M i thraeu m i n L ondon ( p .223 )a nd i n M ithraea o n t he C ont inen t .

W ith h is f er t i l i ty a nd f unerary r o les , i ti s e asy t o s ee h ow , wh i le

k eep ing h is c lass ica l a rt -for m , h e may h ave b een a dop ted i n to C e lt ic r e l ig ion . Two f igur ines f ro m s outhern B r i ta in ( pp .2 12 , 2 30 )s ugges t t ha t t h is d id , i nd eed , h appen s ince t hey w ere made o ft he c heap p ipe-c lay G au l ish ma ter ia l i nd ica t ing a Ro mano-Ce l t ic r a ther t han ap ure ly Roman c l ien te le . The h ea ler Aescu lap ius o ccurs o ccas iona l ly i n o ur a rea ( pp . 1 87 ,191,226) , a nd h is a ppropr ia teness i n Ro mano-Ce l t ic my tho logy a s aH ea ler n eed n o t b e o versta ted . T he D ioscur i a re k nown b u t a re r are ( pp . 1 66 ,174 ,222) . T he ir c lass ica l a ssoc ia t ions w i th t he U nderwor ld wou ld make t he ir a ppearance i n t he Wa lbrook M ithraeu m p ar t icu lar ly a ppropr ia te . THE CULT OF THE EMPEROR A t C o lchester

a s a t L yons , t he I mper ia l C u lt was we l l-estab l ished i m me-

d ia te ly . Tac itus z4 men t ions t he t e mp le a t C o lches ter a nd i th as a lways b een t hough tt ha t t he c lass ica l w r iter i mp l ied t he worsh ip i n B r ita in o f t he emperor C laud ius h i mse lf r a ther t han h is In u men f . I n ar ecen t a rt ic le F ishw ick 25 h as p ut f orward v ery r easonab le a rgu men ts t o s how t ha t Tac itus h as b een m isint erpre ted a nd t ha t t he L a t in n eed i mp ly n o th ing o f t he s or t . I ts ee ms w ise t here fore t o b e l ieve t ha t t he I mper ia l C u lt i n B r i ta in was t he s ame c u l t a s t ha t e x ist ing i n o ther western R o man p rov inces .

L arge b ronze d ep ict ions o f

C laud ius p erhaps f ro m C o lchester , a nd Hadr ian i n L ondon , i nd ica te t he p resence o f t he c u lt a nd S ever ! Augusta les were p resen t a t L inco ln ( p . 1 68 ) .

A bou t

e leven d ed ica t ions h ave b een c o l lected b y t he w r i ter a nd L ondon ( pp . 2 23 ,224 ) h as t he most e v idence a f ter C o lches ter - w i th i t s c lass ica l l i terary r eferences a nd i t s s urv iv ing t e mp le r e ma ins ( p . 2 15) . T he l i nk ing o f t he emperor 's c u l t w ith t ha t o f S i lvanus , a nd w i th v ery o bscure l oca l C e l t ic g od-na mes ( e .g . a t

3 5

Co lches ter ( p .216 )m irrors s evera l i ns tances o ft h is p henomenon i n G au l . The c onnect ion b e tween o f f ic ia l s ta te c u l t a nd l oca l g en ius o n t he d ed ica t ions s hows t he j ux tapos i t ion o ft he v ery c lass ica l w i th t he v ery Ce l t ic i n a most e f fec t ive a nd s tar t l ing manner . I ti s a ga in s uggested b y t he p resence o ft he C u lt o ft he Emperor a t t he Romano-Ce l t ic s hr ine a t Har low ( p . 2 10 ) .

I t

s hou ld b e r e me mbered , h owever , t ha t o n H adr ian 's Wa l l t h is s ort o f l i nk ing o ft he emperor 's n u men a nd o ther g ods c an o ccur i n i nscr ip t ions s et u p b y q u ite o rd inary a r my p eop le .

3 6

CHAPTER 3

THE EV IDENCE OF R ITUAL S TRUCTURES AND OBJECTS

Th is c hap ter embraces a l l e v idences o f r e l ig ious e xpress ion wh ich a re n o t n ecessar i ly c onnected w i th a ny p ar t icu lar d e ity . THE S IM INES The s ub ject o ft e mp les a lone i s av as t t op ic , a nd h as b een t he r ecent t he me o f ad oc tora l t hes is b y D r . M .J . T . L ew is . I I ti s u nnecessary t o r epea t h is w ork h ere ;

h e d ea ls w i th a l l B r it ish ma ter ia l r ecorded a s l a te a s t he m id

1 960s, a nd h e c ites s evera l c on t inen ta l e xa mp les a s c o mpara t ive e v idence . H ere Iw i l l r efer b r ief ly t o t he s ub ject o f s hr ines i n s outhern Br ita in w ith s pec ia l c ons idera t ion t o •any e xcep t iona l ly i n terest ing o r r ecent ly d iscovered e xa mp les . Three b as ic c a tegor ies o f s hr ine e x isted i n t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic wor ld , d ef i ned b y a rch itectura l t ype . i n s ou thern France ;

F irst t here i s t he t ru ly c lass ica l , a s a t N i mes 2

s econd ly t he s o-ca l led Ro mano-Ce lt ic t ype , Ro mano-

C e lt ic i n d istr ibu t ion a nd s a id t o b e a rch i tectura l ly t he r esu l t o f af us ion b et ween c lass ica l a nd Ce lt ic i deas .

3

The b u i ld ings c ons ist u sua l ly o f t wo

c oncen tr ic s quares , r ectang les , p o lygons o r c irc les , w i th t he sma l ler i nner s quare o r c e l la s e t c en tra l ly w i th in a l arger p or t ico o ft he s ame s hape .

The

r econstruct ion o f many o f t he s quar ish t ype ( by f ar t he most c o m mon ) h as b een worked o u t f ro m t he r e la t ive t h ickness o f wa l l-founda t ions a s h av ing t he c e l la r is ing a bove t he p or t ico a s ak ind o ft ower . h owever , may n o t h ave b een r oofed a t a l l . t o c on ta in worsh ippers ;

S o me Ro mano-Ce l t ic s hr ines, The t ype i s sma l l a nd n o t d es igned

t he s hr ines m igh t h ave a nnexes , o utbu i ld ings ( dor m i-

t or ies, b a ths, t hea tres , p oo ls) , p its O r s ha f ts a ssoc ia ted w i th t he m .

T hey

migh t b e g rouped o r d oub le ( perhaps f or t he worsh ip o f d iv ine c oup les) ;4 t hey were o f ten e nc losed i n as acred a rea o r e nc losure b ounded b y ab ank o r wa l l -a t e menos .

The t h ird ma in g roup o ft e mp les f ound i n t he wes tern p rov inces

i s t he s imp le r ound , s quare , r ectangu lar o r p o lygona l t ype .

These may o ccur

s ing ly o r i n g roups a s w ith t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic t ype . C lass ica l Te mp les The " c lassica l" s hr ine a t C o lchester , w i th i t s l ong p od iu m a nd c e l la ( p .215) p resu mab ly s teps , p i las ters , c o lu mns a nd p ed i men ts , h ad a h uge e nc losure r ound i t .

5

A c lose p ara l le l i s t he r e l ig ious e nc losure a t S chonbuh l , Augst .

6

The s hr ines a t Ba th ( p . 1 86) a nd Wroxe ter ( p . 1 62) were b as ica l ly s im i lar i n

3 7

s hape t o t ha t a t Co lchester . T he An ton ine ' cap i to l iu m ' a t Veru lam iu m ( k . 2 06) c an b es t b e p ara l le led b y ar ow o ft hree s hr ines a t S uf fentu la i n T un is ia ,. 1w h ich i s a ga in An ton ine i n d a te ;

t he Wroxe ter s hr ine h as s im i lar it ies w i th t he

F lav ian I saeum a t S abra tha .

8

F ive c lass ica l t e mp les a re k nown b y s tructure

i n s ou th-eastern B r ita in , a nd o ne i s h in ted a tb y i nscr ip t ion .

A t Veru lam iu m

t he s hr ine , i fi t was a ' cap i to l iu m ', wou ld h ave b een d ed ica ted t ot he Cap i to l ine T r iad -J up iter , J uno a nd M inerva .

The C o lchester t e mp le ( t o t he i nu men '

o f C laud ius) i s men t ioned b y T ac itus 9 a nd i n t he Apoco locyntos is .

1 0

The

t emp le o fh ea l ing a t Ba th was d ed ica ted t o t he C e lt ic g oddess S u l , e qua ted w ith M inerva i n h er r o le o f Med ica , a l though many o ther d e i t ies were r epresen ted -a l l b as ica l ly c onnec ted w i th h ea l ing a nd t herma l s pr ings ( p .186 ) .

A c lass i-

c a l t e mp le s im i lar ly d ed ica ted t o ah ea ler , Mars L enus , i s k nown a t Tr ier .

1 1

A t Wroxe ter ( p . 1 63 )i ti s n o t a ctua l ly k nown t o w hom t he t e mp le was d ed ica ted , b u t ac arv ing o f ap ha l lus p u l l ing a q uadr iga h as b een f ound a nd al i fe-s ize s tone h ead o f ah orse , s uggest ing s ome s or t o f S un-cu l t . The i nscr ipt ion f ro m Ch iches ter , men t ion ing t he b u i ld ing o f as hr ine t o Nep tune a nd M inerva ( p .197) a t a n e ar ly d a te , s peaks f or i t se lf . T he t e mp le a t Cas tor ( p .207 )h as y ie lded n o d ed ica tory e v idence .

A l l b u t o ne o f t he s tructura l ly k nown c iv i l ian Br i t ish

c lass ica l t e mp les d a te f ro m t he I st c entury A .D . i n t he ir f irst p hase , Wroxe ter a lone b e ing p robab ly 2 nd c en tury . Romano-Ce l t ic S hr ines S ome 1 80 t e mp les a re k nown o n t he C on t inen t , c ompared t o a bout 5 0 i n s ou th-eas tern B r i ta in ( t hey d o n o t o ccur i n t he m i l itary n or thern a nd wes tern a reas o f t he p rov ince) .

T he G au l ish a nd B r i t ish Romano-Ce lt ic s hr ines h ave

much i n c o m mon a l though t here a re ma jor d i f ferences ( i n d egree r a ther t han k ind ) .

T he s acred p oo l a t S pr inghead ( p . 2 28 )i s s im i lar i n i dea t o t he f i shpond 2 A a t A les ia . 1 l though o ne d oes n o t f i nd t he G au l ish d oub le t e mp le c ustom o n t h is s ide o f t he c hanne l , t here a re p a irs o ft e mp les , n o t a lways o ft he s ame d a te , e .g . Ca is tor ( p . 2 04 ) , a nd g roups i n ap rec inc t , e .g . C o lchester ( p .215 )a nd S pr inghead ( p .228 ) , r eca l l ing t he Gau l ish c lusters a t e .g . Drevan t , 13 C ob lenz ,1 4 a nd o f c ourse T r ier . 1 5 W ith r egard t o t he G au l ish d oub le s hr ines h owever , t he d iv is ion o ft he c e l la a t F r i lford ( p . 1 94 )i n to t hree c hape ls i n i t s f i na l p hase may b e d ue t o as im i lar i dea -t h is t ime o ft he worsh ip o f at r iad o f g ods r a ther t han g od a nd c onsor t .

Many o ther s im i lar it ies b e tween Gau l ish

a nd B r i t ish Romano-Ce l t ic s hr ines may b e n o ted .

T he t e menos w i th i ts o f f-

c en tre s hr ine a t G osbecks ( p . 2 14 )i s p ara l le led b y s evera l s hr ines a round T r ier . 1 6 A t S pr inghead ( p . 2 28 )o ne f i nds a c omb ina t ion o f d if feren t t ypes o f s hr ine i n o ne p rec inct - Romano-Ce lt ic a nd s imp le r ectangu lar s hr ines a re mixed . A t P esch i n G er many 1 7 aR omano-Ce l t ic t e mp le a d jo ined ab as i l ica a nd ah exagona l s hr ine . A nnexes a re f ound o n b o th s ides o f t he c ha r ne l, e .g . a t Ca is tor ( p . 2 04 ) ,a nd i n Normandy where a l though t he t e mp les w ere sma l l t here was i nvar iab ly a n a nnexe .

1 8

L ike t hese s ome o u tbu i ld ings may have

b een f or e xcess c u l t o b jec ts b u t o ther more e labora te e xamp les may h ave b een p r ies ts ' h ouses , e .g . a t Ma iden Cast le ( p .200 ) . T he s em i-underground r oom a t B ru ton ( p . 1 85 ) may h ave b een a c hape l . O n s ome c ont inen ta l s i tes t here i s ap aved a rea p erhaps f or l arger o f fer ings , e .g . a t G undershof fen . 1 9 A t Pagan 's H i l l i n Br i ta in ( p . 1 84 )a p a th l ead ing t o t he s hr ine was t rodden i n w ith c o ins . s i tes .

P its a nd h ear ths a re c om mon o n c on t inen ta l a nd Br i t ish t e mp le-

A t Co lchester 4 a nd 5 ( p .215 )t here w ere p its i n t he c en tres o f t he

3 8

s hr ines ;

a tJ ordon H i l l ( p . 2 01 )t here w ere s labs a nd b ird-bones i n a l terna-

t i ve l ayers i n ad eep s ha f t . A t H en ley Wood ( p .182 )a nd H ockwo ld ( p . 2 12) t here were r i tua l d epos its o fb ird-bones , a nd h ear ths a nd o vens o ccurred a t C rown thorpe ( p .204 )p oss ib ly f or s acr if ic ia l a nd p ur if ica t ion p urposes .

2 0

R omano-Ce l t ic s hr ines w ere s o me t i mes a ssoc ia ted w ith g raves , e .g . a t S anxay i n G au 12 1 a nd L anc ing ( p . 2 20 ) i n Br ita in .2 2 T he p re-Ro man a ssoc iat i on o f s acred p laces w i th t he h ead h as b een r eferred t o i n C hap ter 1 . S i t ing o f s hr ines i n I ron Age h i l lfor ts was a lso n o t u ncom mon ; t wo s hr ines a t G ergov ia 2 3 o ccurred w i th in t he I ron Age d efences ; Chanctonbury i n s ou thern B r i ta in ( p .220 )was l i kew ise s i tua ted . O ther f ea tures w orth n o t ing a bou t t hese t e mp les i nc lude t he p resence n ear s ome o ft hea tres, p oss ib ly mere ly f or l arge g a ther ings o fp eop le a s c ongregat i ons a t c ere mon ies o r t he r i tua l e nactmen t o f my ths , e .g . p erhaps a t S anxay , 24 b u t t he l arge t e mp le a rea a t G osbecks n ear C o lchester ( p .214 )a nd t he t hea tre n earby may mean t ha t t h is w as t he s i te o f at r iba l mee t ing-p lace ( perhaps f or d iscuss ions o n g r ievances o ver t he c en tra l Roman a dm in istra t ion) .

The s ame

may b e t rue o f t he t hea tretemp le a ssoc ia t ion a t Veru lam ium ( p .206 )b u t p robab ly n o t w i th t he p oss ib le t hea tre a t t he r ura l o u t-ofthe-way s hr ine a t Wyco mb ( p . 1 75 ) . I n c onnec t ion w i th t he p oss ib le u se o f Ro mano-Ce l t ic s hr ines f or r e l ig ious/po l i t ica l g a ther ings , i ti s w or thwh i le p o in t ing o u t s o met h ing a bou t t he s i t ing o f s ome o ft he m .

I n G au l t he a reas i nhab ited b y t he

C e lt ic t r ibes a re f a ir ly a ccura te ly d e ter m inab le b y s tudy ing t he a reas o f t he med ieva l b ishopr ics , 25 a nd t here may h ave b een a g eograph ica l f ac tor i n t he d iv is ion o ft he t r ibes . I th as b een s een i n G au l t ha t s hr ines f requen t ly o ccur s i ted o n k nown f ron t iers o f G a l l ic t r ibes , e .g . C hamp l ieu b e tween t he S i lvanec tes a nd S uess iones .

2 6

I n B r ita in t he F r i lford s i te s ugges ts t ha t t he

V a le o ft he Wh ite H orse i s at e mp t ing d iv id ing l i ne b e tween t he D obunn i a nd t he A treba tes .

T he t e mp le a nd t he v a le a re s i ted v irtua l ly o n t he s ou thern

e dge o ft he Dobunn ic c o in a rea , a nd t here a re v ar ious b oundar ies b e tween p o t tery d is tr ibut ions h ere a s w e l l . 27 T he s hr ine c ou ld h ave b een a f ron t ier t e mp le b e tween t he D obunn i a nd t he A treba tes , a nd i th as b een s uggested27 t ha t t he r ound s hr ine may h ave b e longed t o o ne t r ibe a nd t he s quare RomanoC e lt ic t emp le t o t he o ther .

I n t he s ame way Woodea ton ( p .177 )w ith i t s f a ir-

g round a nd p oss ib le marke t ( reca l l ing s o me s i tes i n G au l) c ou ld h ave b een a f ron t ier s hr ine o ft he D obunn i a nd Ca tuve l laun i ,2 8 t he s i mp le sma l l s quare t e mp le a nd t he Romano-Ce l t ic s tructure b e long ing o ne t o e ach t r ibe .

Once

a ga in N e t t le ton S hrub w ith i t s v ar ie ty o f r e l ig ious s tructures ( p . 1 89 )may h ave b een s i tua ted o n t he b oundar ies o ft he D obunn i ( ye t a ga in ) a nd t he Be lgae . I f we a re c orrec t i n t h ink ing t ha t t he s i t ing o f t hese s hr ines may b e s ign if ican t , wha t w as t he r eason ? - p resu mab ly f or t he p urpose o fb less ing t rad ing , s et t l ing f euds , a ccom moda t ing s oc ia l g a ther ings , a nd f or g enera l d iscuss ions s anc t ioned b y t he g ods o fb o th t r ibes . Ma jor d if ferences b e tween Romano-Ce l t ic s hr ines o n t he Con t inen t a nd i n Br ita in i nc lude t he much w ider s ize r ange i n G au l , a nd t he more f requen t o ccurrence o f e labora te r e l ig ious c omp lexes s uch a s T r ier ,2 9 S ammy " a nd o n a sma l ler s ca le i n B r i ta in a t S pr inghead ( p . 2 28 ) , C o lchester ( p . 2 15 )a nd Br igs tock ( p . 1 81) . Romano-Ce l t ic t emp les were p opu lar e ar ly i n t he Roman p er iod i n G au l a nd i n B r i ta in , i n t own a nd c oun try ,

F ew u rban s hr ines were a ctua l ly b u i l t 3 9

l a te ; t he l a ter e xamp les w ere e rec ted i n t he c oun try . On t he C on t inen t t he b u i ld ing was g enera l ly e ar l ier t han i n B r ita in . The s quare t ypes s eem t o h ave b een u sed f i rst f o l lowed c lose ly b y r ound a nd p o lygona l e xamp les . There d oes n o t a ppear , f rom t he t e mp le e v idence , t o h ave b een a l a te p agan r ev iva l i n G au l . Pagan is m i n Br ita in l as ted l onger ;3 1 h ere a l l t he f i rs t c en tury a nd mos t 2 nd c en tury s hr ines w ere c onf ined t o ' Be lg ic ' t r iba l a reas - t he C a tuve ll aun i , A treba tes , Be lgae , Regnenses , T r inovan tes a nd Cant iac i . I n t he m id2 nd c en tury Ro mano-Ce lt ic s hr ines were b e ing b u i lt a t Chedwor th ( p . 1 74 ) i n t he t err i tory o ft he D obunn i a nd H ockwo ld ( p . 2 12 )o f t he I cen i . L a ter s t i l l t he D uro tr iges, C ornov i i a nd S i lures a dop ted t he s ty le . o ft h is t ype w ere r efurb ished d ur ing t he ir l ong l i fe-span .

Many B r it ish s hr ines Woodea ton ( p . 1 77)

l asted a bout 3 50 y ears . Many r ura l s hr ines w ere e i ther e x tens ive ly r enova ted o r a c tua l ly b u i l t f ro m n ew i n t he l a te 3 rd o r 4 th c entury , e .g . B rean D own ( p. 1 82 ) , a nd Ma iden Cast le ( p . 2 00 ) . I n t erms o f d a ted Br it ish r ect i l inear e xa mp les most were b u i l t i n t he I st c en tury , s evera l i n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c ent ur ies a nd l ess ( b ut s t i l l ag ood n u mber ) i n t he 4 th c en tury . O fp o lygona l o nes ( t here a re n o c ircu lar e xamp les i n t h is p rov ince ) n one a re d a tab le t o t he i st c entury , o ne t o t he 2 nd , t wo t o t he 3 rd a nd o ne t o t he 4 th c entury . I fo ne a na lyses t he n u mbers o f d i f feren t t ypes o f Romano-Ce l t ic s hr ine i n s ou thern B r ita in i tc an b e s een t ha t t here a re a bou t f our b u i ld ings wh ich may b e Romano-Ce lt ic s hr ines b ut where t here i sn o t s uf f ic ien t e v idence t o b e s ure , f ive d ef in ite e xamp les a re p o lygona l , a nd t here a re f or ty o r s o r ec tangu lar e xamp les . O ft hese t here a re t en g roups o f more t han o ne s hr ine i nc lud ing a t l eas t o ne Ro mano-Ce l t ic e xamp le i n e ach g roup . I n B r i ta in many Ro mano-Ce lt ic s hr ines s how n o e v idence o f a ny s or t o f c u l t o r d ed ica ted c u l t-ob jec t .

O f a c tua l d ed ica t ions o r d ep ict ions o f d e it ies

i n s ome f or m p ipe-c lay V enus f i gur ines o ccur f or i nstance a t S pr inghead ( p . 2 28) , a nd Hockwo ld ( p . 2 12) ;

Mercury a t G osbecks ( p . 2 14 ) , I rches ter

( p . 1 80) , Ne t t le ton ( p . 1 90) a nd L amya t t ( p . 1 85 ) ; J up iter Taran is a nd S uce l lus a t F ar ley Hea th ( p . 2 19) ; Mars a t Woodea ton ( p . 1 77 ) , L amya t t ( p . 1 85 ) a nd Wor th ( p . 2 31) ;

Venus a t Woodea ton ( p . 1 77) ; M inerva a t L amya t t

( p . 1 85 ) a nd Ma iden Cast le ( p . 2 00) ;

H ercu les a t Lamya t t ( p . 1 85 ) ; D iana a t

Net t le ton ( p . 1 90) ; Apo l lo Cuno mag lus a t N e t t le ton ; ab u l l a nd t r iad o f d e it ies a t Ma iden Cast le ( p . 2 00) ; t he G en i i c ucu l la t i a t Wyco mb ( p . 1 75) , a nd L enus a t Caerwen t . Hea l ing c u lts a re h in ted a tb y t he p resence o f ap aved p ond a t F ar ley H ea th ;

s pr ing , p oo l , p ipe-c lay V enuses a nd v o t ive l imbs a t

S pr inghead ; ad og-sku l l a t Caerwen t , a nd a w e l l a t J ordon H i l l h in t a t s ome u nderwor ld c u l t , a s p oss ib ly d o p its a t o ther s hr ines . O ther n o tewor thy f eat ures o r c u l t o b jec ts a re e .g . mode l t oo ls f rom s evera l s i tes ; r i tua l c rowns a t H ockwo ld ( p . 2 12) ; h orse f ounda t ion-bur ia ls a t Bour ton G rounds ( p . 1 79) ; s heep-bur ia ls a nd b ird-bones a t H en ley Wood ( p . 1 83) , a nd b ird-bones a nd a nt ler r i tua l d epos i ts a t H ockwo ld ( p . 2 12) . M isce l laneous S i mp le a nd C o mp lex S hr ines Re la t ive ly f ew s i mp le r ec tangu lar o r c ircu lar/po lygona l s hr ines s urv ive o n t he C on t inen t , b u t t hey o ccur e .g . a t C han teroy ( H . Marne ) w here s even s quar ish a nd f our r ound s hr ines were f ound t oge ther i n ap rec inc t ,3 2 a s i n Br ita in a t Br igstock ( p .181 )a nd C o l lywes ton ( p .169 ) . A t Pesch 3 3 a s a t t hese t wo Br it ish s hr ines t here i s ah exagona l b u i ld ing .

4 0

The s i mp le s quare

t ype o ccurs i n s outhern Br ita in a t e .g . S pr inghead a nd Co lches ter ( p .215 ) .

( 9 .228

) , Wyco mb ( p .175 )

S i mp le c ircu lar o r p o lygona l s hr ines a re c o m mon

i n Br ita in ,o ver t wen ty b e ing r ecorded . Odd it ies i n a rch itecture i nc lude t he b as i l ica a t T h ist le ton ( p . 1 67) , p ara ll e led a t P esch ,

3 4

a nd a t V anna ire ( Co te d 'Or ) ; 35 a nd t he t r iangu lar s hr ine a t

V eru lam ium ( p .206 )w ith t he o x-sku l l b ur ied b eh ind t he a l tar ( para l le led a t Mun tha m C our t ( p . 2 20 )) .

T he Veru la m iu m t e mp le h ad t hree p ar t i t ions , e ach

w ith a t ank , a nd w i th a l arge c our tyard i n f ron t .

Th is s truc ture i s p ara l le led

t o s o me e x ten t b y t he s hr ine t o M ithras o r t o Cybe le a t Z ugman te l .

3 6

T he l a te

L ydney c omp lex ( p . 1 69 )s hou ld a lso b e men t ioned h ere , d ed ica ted t o t he g od N odons, w i th d or m itor ies , b a ths ( reca l l ing t he c on t inen ta l s hr ine a t A les ia )3 7 a nd a ga in w i th t he c e l la d iv ided i n to t hree - q u ite p oss ibly f or t he worsh ip o f t hree d if feren t a spec ts o f t he C e lt ic g od Nodons ( hun ter , h ea ler a nd wa terg od ) . The d a t ing o f t he s i mp le a nd c o mp lex s hr ines i s u sua l ly 2 nd c en tury i n t he t owns a nd 3 rd c en tury i n r ura l a reas .

T he p ecu l iar t r iangu lar s hr ine a t

V eru lam ium was b u i lt a bou t A .D . 2 00 , L ydney i n t he mid-4 th c entury , a nd t he Th is t le ton b as i l ica i n t he 3 rd c entury .

O f t he c ircu lar/po lygona l e xamp les

most a re i st c entury , o ne e ach 2 nd a nd 4 th c entury a nd f our 3 rd c entury .

O f

t he r ec tangu lar o r s quare s hr ines most a re 3 rd c en tury , o ne i s i st c en tury a nd t wo a re 2 nd c entury . I fw e l ook a t t he d ed ica tory e v idence f or t hese s hr ines we s ee t ha t at r iad i s s ugges ted a t t he Veru lam iu m s hr ine ( p . 2 06 ) ; L ydney ( p . 1 69 )was d ed icat ed t o t he H un ter/Hea ler N odons ( a lso c oncerned w i th wa ter a nd p oss ib ly c onnec ted w ith t he S evern B ore ) ;3 8

S i lvanus Ca l l ir ius o ccurs a t C o lches ter

( p . 2 15 ) ; t he wea l th o f e v idence f ro m t he S pr inghead p rec inc t ( p . 2 8 h ea l ing ;

)s uggests

Mars i s k nown a t Ma iden Cast le ( p . 2 00 ) ; ah orse man g od a t Br ig-

s tock ( p . 1 81) ;

D iana a t Ma iden Cast le ( p . 2 00) ;

ag od k nown a s Ve ter is

Mocuxsu ma was worsh ipped a t T h ist le ton ( p . 1 67 ) , a nd ab ronze h are i s f ro m t he s ame s i te ;

aH un ter/Hea ler i s i mp l ied a t Mun tha m Cour t ( p .220 ) - w i th

ab ronze p laque o f ad y ing b oar a nd a v o t ive c lay l eg .

O ther n o tewor thy v o-

t ive o b jec ts i nc lude mode l a xes a t e .g . Br igs tock ( p . 1 81 ) ; i nfan t f ounda t ionb ur ia ls a t S pr inghead ( p .228 ) ; f ace-urns a t S pr inghead ( p . 2 28 ) ; c a lfb ur ia ls a t S outh Cadbury ;

o x-sacr if ices a t Mun tham ( as we l l a s as cep tre ,

s acr if ic ia l k n ife a nd t ongs) ( p . 2 20 ) ; a nd a t Veru lam iu m ( p . 2 06 )a nd Br igs tock ( p . 1 81) ;

p ine-cones o ccur a t Veru lam iu m , s uggest ing t he worsh ip o f A tys ;

as ku l l i n an iche a t Cosgrove ( p . 1 79) r eca l ls p re-Ro man d epos its i n s outhern Gau l ish s hr ines ( Ch . 1 ) .

A t L ydney ( p . 1 69 )f rag men ts o fp r iests ' c rowns a re

s ugges ted b y b ronze p laques . S u m mary o f Br i t ish Te mp le E v idence On ly s hr ines k nown b y s tructure , d ed ica t ion o r s trong ly s uggested b y c o ll ect ions o f v o t ive ma ter ia l h ave b een c ons idered h ere . I ti s wor thwh i le t o p o in t o u t t ha t a nywhere w here a n a l tar o r l arge s tone c arv ing h as b een f ound i ti s r easonab le t o s uppose s o me s or t o f s hr ine i n t he im med ia te v ic in ity ; p r ies t ly r ega l ia l i kew ise i nd ica tes a p lace o f worsh ip . f igur ines may mere ly b e token a h ouse-chape l .

4 1

Sma l l b ronzes o r c lay

D egrees o f r o man iza t ion c an b e t raced i n t he Br it ish t e mp les . Co lches ter i s a t t he s u mm i t o f ah ypo the t ica l l adder w i th a t t he b o t to m i ' Verne me ton" ( p . 1 66 )t he n ame imp ly ing a s acred g rove .

I nb e tween c ome mun ic ipa l c las-

s ica l s hr ines , Ro mano-Ce lt ic t e mp les a nd o ther r e l ig ious s truc tures . MODEL OBJECTS I n s hr ines , g raves , v i l las, t owns o r a s s tray f i nds , t hroughout t he R omanoC e lt ic w or ld a re f ound s trange i t e ms o f r e l ig ious e v idence i n t he f or m o f m in iat ure r ep l icas o ft oo ls o r weapons most c ommon ly a xes , s pears , s too ls , a nd p o ts , b u t w i th n u merous v ar ia t ions . F rom t he ir p resence i n s hr ines a nd g raves t he o b jects , wh ich o ne migh t o therw ise h ave t hough t t o b e t oys , w ou ld s eem t o h ave h ad s o me r i tua l s ign if icance ; t h is i s a lso s uggested b y t he f act t ha t t he a xes s ome t i mes h ave b een e ngraved w i th o dd s igns , e .g . a t Woodea ton ( p . 1 78, P l . XXV I I I , j, 1 ) a nd S i lches ter ( p . 1 95) .

I ti s we l l-known t ha t i n

E gyp t ian c on tex ts mode l t oo ls a c ted a s g rave-goods 3 9 a nd t he i dea may h ave b een t o o f fer t he t oo ls o f o ne 's t rade t o ad e i ty , f or t he s ake o f e conomy a nd c onven ience , i nstead o f o f fer ing u p ac omp le te r ea l o b ject . A n a l terna t ive e xp lana t ion m igh t b e t ha t t he t oo l ofered m igh t i n s ome way b e a ppropr ia te t o t he d e i ty , a nd i n f ac t t hese t wo i deas a re n o t t oo f ar a par t , i nt ha t i tw ou ld s eem q u ite r easonab le t o e xpec t a warr ior t o o f fer u p a mode l s word i n a s hr ine t o a warr ior-god . T here i s aRhen ish g roup o f mode ls i ng raves a round C o logne ma in ly c ons is t ing o f a gr icu ltura l t oo ls a nd a n i ma ls ;

t hese a re a lso

f ound o n t he b ronze r i tua l h ands s acred t o t he P hryg ian g od S abaz ius, a nd S abaz ius a s a n a gr icu l tura l g od wou ld h ave b een a n a ppropr ia te d e i ty f or t he mode l o x-yokes f ound a nd t he k eys , a s l ord o fh eaven ; b u t c er ta in ly S abaz ius c anno tb e r espons ib le f or a l l t he o b jects f ound . Never the less , t he p rac t ice o f d ed ica t ion o f c er ta in o b jects t o as u itab le d e i ty i s a t tested b y t he S abaz ian o b jects i n Rhen ish g raves . " We k now t ha t mode l o b jec ts were i n u se t hroughou t t he Ce l t ic w or ld i n r e-Ro man t imes a l though much more f requen t d ur ing t he Roman p er iod ,4 1 nd t he ir o ccas iona l p resence i n I ron Age c on tex ts , e .g . a t Arras i n Yorks , I n d L ong W it tenham ( Ch . 1 ) s how t ha t t hey mus t h ave b een a n a t ive Ce l t ic , h enomenon r a ther t han a p ure ly Ro manin troduced i dea . u re o b jec ts were k nown l ong b efore t he Roman p er iod4 2

I n G au l t oo , m in iaa nd we must r emem-

b er t ha t , a l though t he mode l whee ls i n b ronze c an b e c onnected t o as pec if ic d e ity) t hey a re p ar t o f t he s ame i dea a nd a re f ound i n t he Bronze Age i n G au l `1 3 . O uts ide B r i ta in mode l a xes a ppear , e .g . a t D ura E uropos 44 where t hey were i n t he f or m o f a xe-brooches .

E xamp les h ave b een f ound , e .g . a t

Rennes i n F rance , 45 o ne o f wh ich was d ecora ted w ith i nc ised l i nes . E ssar ts p o ts were f ound i n a Ro mano-Ce l t ic t e mp le c on tex t , a xe-p ins c ame f ro m a g rave . Ro me , o n t he V ia Cass ia .

4 7

4 6

A t

a nd a t Vermand

M in iature p o ts c ome f ro m a n I t a l ian g rave i n

4 7

Ana lys is o f C iv i l ian Br i t ish Mode l O b jec ts A bou t 1 50 mode l o b jec ts o f a l l k inds a re k nown f rom c iv i l ian R oman B r ita in , s o me o f wh ich c o me f ro m s hr ines , a nd o ccas iona lly f rom a g rave . F if ty o r s o h ave b een r ecovered i n t he f orm o f a xes, t he most c ommon d iscovery , a nd i ti s t hese wh ich a re t he most o f ten f ound i n s hr ine c on tex ts .

Twen ty o r

s o mode l s pears a re k nown , i nc lud ing a n i n teres t ing g roup f rom a v i l la a t 4 2

H amb ledon ( p . 1 97 )a nd t hose f ound i n t he Ro mano-Ce lt ic s hr ine a t Woodea ton ( p . 1 77 )w ere r itua l ly b en t o r b roken .

About f ive o f t he a xes k nown h ave b een

marked w i th c rosses o r swas t ikas , wh ich may b e i n terpre ted p oss ib ly a s s uns igns , s ymbo ls wh ich c an b e c onnec ted w ith t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic J up iter Taran is w i th h is s un-e mb le m t he whee l .

Mode l I ron-Age t ype s h ie lds a nd a sword

c ome f rom at e mp le c on tex t i n K en t a t Wor th ( p . 2 32 )p oss ib ly o f fered t o a warr ior d e i ty , a nd i n teres t ing ly , t he t e mp le a t Woodea ton , wh ich p roduced mode l s pears , h as a lso p roduced ab ronze p laque b ear ing a d ep ic t ion o f t he g od Mars o r a Ro mano-Ce l t ic warr ior ( p . 1 77 ,P l . I , c ) . Af ter a xes, t he n ex t l argest g roup o f mode l o b jects i s p o ts , o f v ar ious s hapes, s ome 4 0 , t oo sma l l t o u se . S o me t i mes t hey a re p erfec t r ep l icas o f w e l l-known Ro man c oarse p o t tery t ypes , e .g . t he min ia ture t hu mb p o t d isc overed i n aRo man p o t ter 's h u t i n t he New F orest p ot tery-k i ln a rea a t I s land T horns ( p .192 ,P l . XXV I I I , b ) , f ound w i th a no ther t iny v esse l ;

a nd i ti s i n-

d eed t e mp t ing t o i n terpre t t hese a s b e ing t he o f fer ing o f ap ot ter o f r ep l icas o f h is c raf t t o ap a tron g od o fp o t ters .

Mode l p o ts h ave b een f ound i n t e mp le

c on tex ts , f or e xamp le a t V eru la m iu m ( p .206 ) , a nd i n a Be lg ic g rave a t t he s ame s i te ( p .207 ,P l . XXV I I I , a ) .

A lso of ten a ssoc ia ted w ith s hr ines, e s-

p ec ia l ly i n c iv i l ian Ro man B r i ta in a re min ia ture , p erfec t b ronze s too ls , s o me t i mes b eau t ifu l ly d ecora ted w ith e na me l i n lay . These u sua l ly h ave a h o le i n t he t op a nd s o me t i mes , a s a t Caerwen t ( p .183 ,P l . XV I I I , e ) , t here a re t iers o fj o ined s too ls , a sma l ler o n t op o f al arger .

A min ia ture p o t

f ro m S i lches ter ( p . 1 96 )f i ts ; J e l l i n to t he h o le o f a mode l s too l , p oss ib ly f ound w ith i t . O ther mode l o b jects k nown f ro m t he a rea : „ . re mode l l a mps , s evera l b racel e ts , b e l ls , t iny a l tars ( one ap erfec t Ro man o ne i n b ronze , 3 " h igh , f ro m C o lches ter ( p . 2 16, P l . XXV I I I , f ) ) , ah am mer , s hove l , g a l ley p row , a nchors , p ioneer 's a xe , p incers , ac o lu mn - f rom a mi ma tufe s hr ine - a nd a s e t o f t hree t iny b ronze j o ined c ups , p oss ib ly c onnected w ith t he worsh ip o f at r iad o f d e i t ies , s uch a s t he Mo ther-goddesses ( see G aze t teer I ndex ) .

T he mode l

t oo ls s uch a s p loughs a nd y okes f ro m a S ussex b arrow c ou ld p oss ib ly b e c onn ec ted w i th t he Phryg ian S abaz ius , e spec ia l ly a s mode l l ocks were f ound , b ut t he d e ity i nvoked may we l l h ave mere ly b een a l oca l a gr icu l tura l s p ir it .

4 8

A mode l c au ldron ( a Ce l t ic t ype o f o b jec t) i s a lso k nown , f ro m Ancas ter ( p . PRIESTS ' REGAL IA , TE MPLE FURN ITURE , AND SACRIFICIAL MATERIAL T h is c a tegory i nc ludes i t e ms p robab ly worn b y p r iests , i nclud ing h eadg ear , maces c arr ied i n p rocess ions , a nd o ther o b jects o ne wou ld p resu me i n s o me way t o h ave b e longed t o worsh ip a nd s hr ines , a nd a lso a ny s pec if ic c lass ica l r eferences t o p r iests . We k now f ro m Caesar 4 9 a nd o ther c lass ica l w r i ters a bou t t he p r iesthood c a l led t he D ru ids , s upposed a ctua l ly t o h ave o r ig ina ted i n Br ita in a nd s pread f rom t here t o G au l , a nd t ha t i n b o th p laces t hey were an a t iona l p r ies thood .

We k now t ha t a t te mp ts were made t o s tamp

o u t t h is n a t iona l is t ic b ody w ho were a t t he s ame t ime p r iests , r u lers , t eachers , p h i losophers , a nd war-adv isers .

We l earn t ha t t hey were n o t q uenched

c o mp le te ly , a lthough o f f ic ia l ly s ta mped o u t i n t he m id I st

c entury , f or t hey

r eappear i n t he 3 rd c en tury i n a n a ccoun t o f S everus A lexander a nd Max im in 5° t he e vent b e ing l oca l ized t o Aqu i le ia , ac i ty o f C isa lp ine Gau l , where t he

4 3

c u l t o f Be lenus Apo l lo i s f requen t ly men t ioned i n i nscr ip t ions . D ed ica t ions t o Be lenus b y D ioc le t ian a nd Max im ian p rove t he o f f ic ia l s anc t ion o f t he c u l t a t t he e nd o ft he 3 rd c en tury . Auson ius i n t he 4 th c en tury 5 1 me nt ions t he D ru ids , s ta t ing t he p rac t ice o f s uccess ion f rom f a ther t o s on o ft he d ru id ica l o rder .

T he D ru ids were s t i l l o pera t ing i n t he 4 th c en tury , a s i s imp l ied b y

ap anegyr ic i n h onour o f C onstan t ine b y a n A u tun r he tor ic ian - ap anegyr ic a t T r ier i n 3 10 men t ioned Apo l lo , h is s anctuar ies , s pr ings , a nd Dru ids .

T here

was a s anc tuary a t Autun a nd t he D ru ids a pparen t ly k ep t t he ir p ower b y c onn ect ion w ith Apo l lo Be lenus a nd p rophe t ic p owers . 5 2 Apar t f rom t he Dru ids , Ro man o f f ic ia ls o ft he c u l t o f t he Emperor ' Seven iAugusta les ' - were k nown i n Gau l a nd Br ita in , e .g . T r ier a nd L inco ln ( p . 1 68) .

A t T r ier a nd Ba th ( p . 1 88) ' harusp ices ' were k nown ,

5 3

i n b o th p laces

Ro man o f f ic ia l d iv in ing p r iests o f ar ecogn ised o rder b e ing a ssoc ia ted w i th t owns where t he c u lts were b as ica l ly C e l t ic . S acr if ices , we a re t o ld , b y c lass ica l a u thors , were of ten h uman o nes a t l eas t u n t i l t he Ro man p er iod ( see C hap ter 1 ) ;

o thers were o f ten made i n t he

f or m o f v o t ive o f fer ings t hrown i n to l akes a nd s pr ings .

A f ter t he Roman c on-

q ues t i n Gau l a nd Br ita in t hey t ook v ar ious f or ms . Roman c o ins a nd t r inke ts were s t i l l c ons igned t o s acred wa ters , e .g . o ver 2 00 wooden o b jec ts a nd 8 80 c o ins i nc lud ing 1 20 i n av ase d ed ica ted t o S equana a t t he S ource o ft he S e ine s anctuary . 5 4 C e lt ic s acr if ices were n o t t he s ame a s t he Roman b arga in ing w ith t he g ods .

G if ts were l ef t i n l akes , we l ls , s hr ines f or t he g ods t o a ccep t

o r t o s purn .

A lso a t t he S e ine , a nd many o ther Gau l ish c u l t s i tes, h ave

5 5

b een f ound e x-vo tos i n t he f or m o f wooden f i gures o r p ar ts o f f i gures , e i ther a s c rude r epresen ta t ions o ft he g ods worsh ipped , o r a s d ep ic t ions o ft he p eop le t he mse lves , a nd c er ta in ly v o t ive l imbs a nd s pec if ic p ar ts o f t he b ody , s uch a s h ands , h ave b een f ound a t many t emp le s i tes , e spec ia l ly a ssoc ia ted w ith wa ters , c onnected w ith t he d es ire f or t he l imb i n q uest ion t o b e h ea led .5 6 I n s hr ines v ar ious o b jec ts o f s hee t-bronze f or med p ar t o fp r iest s ' r ega l ia a nd t e mp le f urn iture . T r iangu lar , r ectangu lar o r f ea ther-shaped p laques a re f ound a l l o ver t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic wor ld , e i ther a s s tray f inds o r o n r i tua l s i tes :

t hey may e i ther b e p la in , i nscr ibed w i th t he n a me o f ad e ity o r t Ley

may h ave a c tua l d ep ict ions o f d e i t ies :

s ome t i mes t hey s eem t oh ave b een p ar t

o f av o t ive h eaddress , p oss ib ly worn b y p r ies ts i n p rocess ions , b u t s ome t i mes t he p laques were o bv ious ly mean t t o b e h ung u p , p erhaps o n t he wooden c L por o f as hr ine o r a t tached t o ab ox i n at e mp le . Ac a tegory o f p laques f ound ma in ly o n t he Rh ine land a nd o n t he D anube a re t hose t r iangu lar e xamp les d ed ica ted t o t he S yr ian Baa l J up iter D o l ichenus , e .g . t hose a t H edderhe im ( see Ch . 4 ) , a nd many o ft he D o l ichen ian e xamp les a ppear t o h ave b een o f 2 nd c entury d a te .5 7 S ome o f t he r ec tangu lar i nscr ibed p laques s eem t o h ave b een a t tached t o b ronze s ta tue t tes o f d e i t ies . T hree s i lvered f ea ther p laques a re k nown f rom Ba la H issar i n G a la t ia . 5 8 T he s ign if icance o ft he f ea ther-shape o n s ome o f t he p laques i s o bscure . P laques c an e i ther h ave f ea ther mark ings o r f ea therl i ke f i n ia ls o n t he t op , o r a ctua l s hee t b ronze f ea thers a re k nown . T he o b jec ts may h ave b een i n t hese c ases s pec if ica l ly f or c rowns .

A lso k nown a re s hee t

o r c ast b ronze l e t ters - c ap ita ls , p robab ly o nce s pe l l ing t he n ame o ft he d e ity worsh ipped a t at e mp le a nd n a i led o n wooden d oors o r a rch i traves .

4 4

On t he Cont inen t t here a re t wo ma in t ypes o f v esse ls p robab ly u sed i n s o me s or t o f c eremon ia l -f ace-urns a nd t r ip le v ases .

O ther t ypes o f r i tua l

v esse ls a re k nown - f or e xamp le t he t wo h and led G er man v esse ls s uch a s t ha t f rom V indon issa s o me t imes w ith h o les i n t he r im g rooves, w ith a s ea ted b ird o n t he r im a nd w ith t r ip le g rooved h and les w ith a s nake t w ined r ound . These a ppear , f ro m t he s im i lar i ty w ith v esse ls a ssoc ia ted w i th s nakes o n s ome t auroctonous M ithras r e l iefs l i ke t ha t a t H eddernhe im , t o h ave b een M ithra ic , a nd t he e xa mp le w i th e igh t h o les f rom D ieburg o ccurred a c tua l ly i n aM ithraeu m . A t G ross K ro tzenburg a s im i lar tne o f v esse l was f ound d ecora ted w ith a wh ite s l ip a nd r e l iefs i n r ed p a in t . The ma in t ypes o f r i tua l v esse l f ound o n t he C on t inen t a nd i n B r ita in a re t he p o t tery f ace-urns a nd t r ip le v ases ; t he f or mer a re Ro man c oarse-ware j ars w ith a pp l ied o r p inched c lay f aces i n r e l ief , u sua l ly f e ma le , a nd t he e xp ression o n t he f ace t ends t ob e c ons isten t -ac oarse , r a ther l eer ing l ook . T hey a re s ome t i mes f ound i n g raves a nd a re e spec ia l ly n umerous o n t he G erman l imes, b u t a lso i n G au l i n t he c iv i l ian a reas , i n s hr ines , e .g . t he N or th F rench Ro mano-Ce l t ic s hr ines . 6 0 The d a t ing a ppears ma in ly t o b e A n ton ine - f ro m t he f or m o ft he v esse ls -b u t i n t he Rh ine land t hey w ere made a s e ar ly a s t he i st c en tury a nd a s l a te a s t he 4 th c entury .

6 1

T he u sua l

f e ma le f ace , t he p resence i n t e mp le a nd g raves , a nd t he f er t i l i ty a spect , s hown , e .g . a t Co lchester ( p . 2 17) b y h orns a nd a p ha l lus , may i nd ica te a c onn ec t ion w i th t he g rea t C e lt ic Mo ther-goddes, b u t ' ma le ' f ace-urns a re k nown ( s ee b e low ) . Tr ip le v ases - sma l l p o ts ( nor ma l ly ) t hree i n n umber , j o ined t oge ther o n ah o l low r ing - h ave a d is tr ibu t ion a l l o ver t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic wor ld a nd f ar ther a f ie ld , i n I t a ly , E gyp t a nd G au l , e .g . L ake Neucha te l .6 2 I tu sed t o b e t hough t t ha t t hey were f l ower-vases a nd t h is i s wha t t hey a re c a l led i n s ome museu m c a ta logues ,6 3 b u t t hey h ave b een f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th g raves a nd t hey may h ave b een c onstructed t hus t o h o ld w ine , o i l a nd whea t f or t he d ead . A lterna t ive ly t hey may h ave b een c onnec ted w ith t r iads o f d e i t ies, s uch a s t he t hree Mo ther-goddesses o r G en i i c ucu l la t i , b o th g ods c onnec ted w i th t he u nderw or ld a nd f er t i l ity ( see C hs . 1a nd 2 ) , e spec ia l ly w hen v ases w i th a h o le c onnec t ing a l t hree p o ts w i th t he h o l low r ing make t he w ine-o i l a rgumen t u n tenab le . EVIDENCE OF PRIESTS AND CERE MON IAL S PECIFICALLY CONNECTED W ITH C IV IL IAN RO MAN BRITA IN S evera l o b jects r em ind ing u s o ft he p resence o fp r ies ts i n s ou thern Roman Br ita in s urv ive . Many r ema ins o f s hee t me ta l p laques a re k nown , s ome t i mes a c tua l ly f ro m t e mp le s i tes l i ke Woodea ton ( p . 1 77 ) . A ltoge ther , f rom t he c iv i l ian a rea , s o me 3 5 c o mp le te p laques , f ea thers o r s izeab le f ragmen ts a re k nown , n o t i nclud ing t he p resence o fp laques a t tached t o s pec if ic c u l ts , s uch a s t he S tony S tra tford ( p . 1 79 )a nd Barkway ( p .209 )e xamp les , d ed ica ted t o Mars, J up i ter a nd V u lcan ( p resu mab ly t he Romano-Ce lt ic v ers ions) . T hese c aches o fp laques mus t mean t he p resence o f as hr ine o r a t l eas t ah oard o f p r iests ' r ega l ia , r a ther t han t he f urn iture o f ad omest ic h ouse c hape l .

O ther

p laques r epresen t ing a ctua l d e i t ies, i nc lude t he Mars f rom Woodea ton ( p .177 ,

4 5

P l . I , c ) , t he M inervas f ro m Ma iden Cast le ( p . 2 00, P l . V I I I , h ) a nd West L av ing ton ( p .191 )a nd t he t in p laque r epresen t ing t he Ma tres f rom L ondon ( p . 2 25, P l . XV I , b ) , a nd we h ave s o me p laques a ctua l ly men t ion ing d e i t ies b y i nscr ip t ion , e .g . S i lvanus a t t he t e mp le s i te a t C o lchester ( p .216 )a nd Mars R ig isamus f ro m West Coker ( p . 1 84 ) .

T he mi l itary Nor th o f Br i ta in

( see C h . 6 ) h as p roduced s i lver p laques r epresen t ing t he d e ity C oc id ius , a t Bewcas t le . Apar t f rom t he p laques wh ich may r epresen t p ar ts o f c rowns s ix teen f ragmen ts o r c omp le te r i tua l c rowns o r h eaddresses , e i ther s o l id s hee t me ta l o r me ta l r ounde ls d ecora ted o r u ndecora ted a nd a t tached b y c ha in , a re k nown . T he c rowns i n c iv i l ian Roman B r i ta in u sua l ly o ccur i n c lus ters o r h oards , a ga in p robab ly r epresen t ing s hr ines , e .g . H ockwo ld ( p .212 )- a k nown t e mp le s i te , a nd Cavenham ( p . 2 13, P l . ) (X IV , e ,f ) . O ther p r ies t ly r ega l ia i nc lude masks , a bou t s even o r e igh t a l toge ther , s o me t i mes o f s hee t me ta l , e .g . f ro m Ba th ( p . 1 87 ) , a nd t hese w ere k nown i n Gau l ; p oss ib ly worn b y p r ies ts i n p rocess ions .

6 4

t hey w ere

O ther sma l ler b ronze masks r e-

p resen t ing d e it ies may h ave d ecora ted b oxes o r d oors , o r were p oss ib ly w orn b y sma l l c u l t images i n p rocess ions . O ther o b jects f ro m t he a rea wh ich must h ave b een t o d o w i th r i tua l i nc lude b e l ls , p oss ib ly u sed i n p rocess ions , e .g . t ha t f ro m C h idd ing fo ld v i l la ( p . 1 97 ) ,p o le t ips - p oss ib ly k inds o f c eremon ia l mace o r ' s istra ' ( e .g . P l . XXV , a ,b) , e igh t o r n ine f ragmen ts o f c eremon ia l s cep tres o r maces , s uch a s t he f amous C e lt ic Taran is J up i ter e xamp le f rom W i l l ingham F en ( p . 2 10 ,P l . X , a -c) , f ound w i th o ther c u l t o b jec ts a nd a ga in p ar t o f ap r iest 's h oard , a nd t ha t f rom t he t e mp le s i te a t Mun tham C our t ( p .220 ,P l . XXV , f ) . I n t h is t e mp le were a lso f ound a s acr if i c ia l b ronze k n ife ( p . 2 20, P l . XXV , g ) , l i ke t hose o f ten d ep ic ted o n a l tars , a nd a p a ir o f c ere mon ia l t ongs , p oss ib ly f or t end ing a s acred f i re ( p . 2 20) . I n o ur a rea o f c iv i l ian Ro man Br ita in w e h ave o ne d ep ict ion o f ap robab le p r ies t , i n t he f or m o f ab one p laque f rom G rea t Cas ter ton ( p . 2 03) ; ap r iest o f S u l M inerva i s men t ioned o n a n i nscr ip t ion a t Ba th ( p . 1 88) , a nd a t haruspex ' i s a lso men t ioned o n a n i nscr ip t ion f rom t he s ame c i ty ( p .188 ) . Sever i Augusta les a re k nown f rom L inco ln a nd Y ork , t he l a t ter n ot i n o ur a rea , a nd a' Sev ir ' o f t he Br it ish I mper ia l C u lt i s men t ioned o n a n i nscr ip t ion f rom Bordeaux ; 65 a s we h ave s uggested t hese s how t he c lassica l e lement i n RomanoBr it ish r i tua l -' seven' a nd t harusp ices ' b e ing members o f Roman p r iesthood c o l leges . O ther p robab le s hr ine f urn ish ings f rom t he a rea o f s outhern Br i ta in i nc lude p ine c ones , p oss ib ly f ro m c ere mon ia l f i res , f rom e .g . S i lches ter ( p . 1 96 )a nd t he t e mp le s i te a t V eru lam iu m ( p .206 ) .

S pr inghead - t he h ea l ing t emp le p re-

c inc t i n K en t -h as a n i n terest ing c o l lec t ion o f v o t ive o b jects ( p . 2 28 ) ,i nc lud ing a tr ip lex s eeds a nd e xamp les o ft he v o t ive l imbs , f or h ea l ing p urposes , f ound i n G au l a s we h ave s een ( above ) a nd k nown e lsewhere i n Br i ta in , f or e xamp le a t t he t e mp le o f Nodons a t L ydney ( p . 1 69 ) . Wooden i do ls o f t he t ype o f e xv o to f ound i n s acred G a l l ic wa ters a nd we l ls s uch a s t he S e ine s anctuary a re k nown f rom a f ew B r it ish s i tes , e .g . D agenha m ( p . 2 27 )a nd T e igngrace ( p . 1 99) .

Mos t o f t hese may we l l b e p re-Roman ( see C h . 1 ) b u t t he Devon e xa mp le

may b e Roman a s i t was p oss ib ly a ssoc ia ted w ith a n amphora .

4 6

R ITUAL POTTERY I N BRITA IN Two r i tua l j ars a re k nown , a par t f ro m t he we l l-known c a tegor ies o f f aceu rns a nd t r ip le v ases ( see b e low ) . An e xa mp le o f as herd d ecora ted w ith p a in ted f i vres f ro m D orchester ( p .194 )i s c omparab le w ith s o me G au l ish e xamp les " ( see a bove) .

Ap o t f rom t he N ew F orest a t L inwood h ad i nc ised

r i tua l f igures p resu mab ly o f d e it ies a s d ecora t ion ( p .

191

) .

Tr ip le v ases a re

r e la t ive ly c om mon i n t he s ou th o f Br ita in - a bou t s even teen a re k nown , t hree f rom c e me ter ies a t C o lches ter ( p . 2 17 ,P l . XXV I I , a ) f or e xamp le . P rofessor F rere h as p o in ted o u t t o me t he o ccurrence o f t r ip le v ases i n s hops a t V eru la m ium , where t hey may h ave b een s o ld t o worsh ippers . Face-urns a ga in a re c om mon i n t he c iv i l ian a reas o f B r i ta in - a bou t t h ir ty-f ive o rd inary f ema le e xamp les a re k nown , t wo o r t hree more o ccurred w i th b ur ia ls , o ne w as marked w ith a f unerary s ign , f our o thers were p ar t icu lar ly i n terest ing -o ne w ith ap ha l lus a nd g oa thorns a t C o lchester ( p . 2 17 ) ,s uggest ing a f ert i l i ty c u lt , o ne w ith a ma le b earded f ace i nstead o ft he f e ma le t ype a t t he s ame s i te ( p .217 ,P l . XXV I I , b ) , o ne marked w ith at r iden t s ign a t Brough ( p . 1 67) ( p oss ib ly c onnect ing t he p o t w i th a s ea-de i ty o r p erhaps r epresen t ing J up iter 's t hunderbo l t wh ich s o me t i mes l ooks v ery l i ke at r iden t ) . T he most i n terest ing o f a l l i s d ed ica ted t o t he g od Mercury a t L inco ln ( p .168 ,P l . XXV I I , d ) , s how ing t ha t i n s o me c ases a t a ny r a te t he p o ts d id b e long t o s ome s pec if ic c u c u l t . 'The C astor f ace-urn

( p . 2 07) i s marked w i th f unerary s igns , a nd t h is ,

c oup led w i th t he ir f requen t o ccurrence i n g raves , makes a n U nderwor ld c onn ect ion f or t hese o b jec ts p robab le . O ther R i tua l Ob jects I ti s w or thwh i le men t ion ing s ome o ther sma l l r i tua l o b jec ts f ound i n c iv i l ian R o man B r i ta in , e .g . c har ms , ma in ly a ssoc ia ted w i th f er t i l ity , u sua l ly s o me s or t o f p ha l l ic amu le t w i th s o me t h ir ty-one k nown , e .g . I ck l ingham ( p . 2 13 , P l . XXV , e ,h ) a nd o ccurr ing o n t he Con t inen t i n q uan t i t ies . S ome " Roman" d e it ies i n C e l t ic i n terpre ta t ion were i t hy-pha l l ic , e .g . Mercury i n G au l a nd H ercu les i n G au l a nd B r ita in e .g . a t B it terne ( p . 1 93 ) ; m i l i tary amu le ts w ere of ten p ha l l ic , e .g . a t Z ugmante l .6 7 An tef ixes , i n t he f or m o f f e l ine h eads, h uman h eads , s o me t i mes h orned , u sed a s f i n ia ls o n t he r oofs o fb u i ldi ngs a re k nown o n c iv i l ian a nd m i l itary s i tes . T hey may h ave r epresen ted a s pec if ic d e i ty o r were s i mp ly g ood luck c har ms . One s p lend id e xamp le i n s tone r a ther t han t he u sua l p o t tery , w i th a l ea f c rown , f rom G loucester ( p . 1 71) r eca l ls t he c rown worn o n p re-Ro man G au l ish s tone d ep ict ions , a nd t hese a re n o t u nco m mon o n t he C on t inen t , e .g . a t Bru ma th . 6 8 Cer ta in i t e ms o f f unerary s ign if icance a re wor th men t ion ing .

I n t he

R o mano-Ce lt ic wor ld o ne f i nds e xamp les o f f unerary b eas ts , s uch a s l i ons , s ph inxes , w o lves o r o ther monsters , d evour ing e i ther o ther a n i ma ls o r h uman b e ings , s ome t i mes r epresen ted b y h eads a lone . T he s ymbo l is m i s t ha t o f t he t r iumph o f d ea th o ver l i fe . As tone s ph inx i s k nown f rom t he c iv i l ian a rea o f Ro man B r ita in , a t t he C o Ion ia a t Co lchester ( p . 2 16 ) , a nd sma l l b ronze e xa mp les a re k nown f ro m h ere a nd e lsewhere i n s ou thern Br ita in L e .g . P l . XXD C , b ) . On t he Con t inen t as tone s ph inx i s k nown f rom S p ire . 6 i F unerary l i ons a re more c o m mon i n o ur a rea o f s ou thern Br ita in , e .g . a t L ondon ( p .

2 25 ) a nd Ca mbr idge ( p . 2 10) ;

a bou t f i f teen a l toge ther a re k nown .

4 7

T he p re-Ro man d evour ing monster a t Noyes 7 0 i s b as ica l ly s im i lar t o ab ronze e xamp le a lso f ro m Gau l , a t F ouqueure a nd t o as tone r e l ief f rom Ar lon ;7 1 a B r it ish e xamp le i s k nown a t Ox ford ( p .177 ,P l . XX IX , a ) .

B ronze d o lph ins

a re a lso f unerary c u lt o b jec ts , r epresen t ing t he J ourney t o t he I s les o ft he B les t i n Ro man my tho logy . C on t inen ta l e xamp les a re k nown , e .g . f rom J ags thausen 7 2

a nd a bout f i ve e xamp les a re k nown f ro m c iv i l ian Ro man B r ita in ,

most ly f ro m t owns , e .g . L e icester ( p . 1 66, P l . XX IX , e ) . S even f unerary p ine c ones a re k nown f rom t he a rea - t he c onnec t ion w ith t he D ea th o f t he Phryg ian g od A tys n eed n o tb e d iscussed h ere ( see Ch . 4 ) .

Two e xamp les o f

h eads o n b ases a t Co lchester ( p . 2 16 )a nd T owcester ( p . 1 78 )s a id t o b e f une rary 7 3 a re a lso k nown , t he u lt i ma te mean ing o ft he i conography p resumab ly b e ing t he s ame b as ic t hough t a s d ep icted o n t he J up iter-G ian t c o lu mns w i th t he c h thon ic g ian tb e ing d r iven i n to t he e ar th ( see Ch . 1 ) . S ix o r s even sma l l b ronzes a nd s tone o b jects f ro m s outhern B r ita in a re d ecora ted w ith wha t a re s a id t ob e f unerary s igns .

These a re s ymbo ls , a s f ound o n Med io ma tr ican

t ombs 7 4 b u t p resu mab ly u l t i ma te ly t o b e c onnected w ith t he s un s y mbo ls o f J up iter-Taran is , a s o n S uce l lan r e l iefs a nd b ronzes , a nd a s i st he c ase w ith min ia ture whee ls b e ing f ound i n Gau l ish g raves .

T he Br it ish o b jects b ear ing

t hese s igns i nc lude a p ipe-c lay V enus f ro m L ondon ( p . 2 25) , s im i lar t o many G au l ish e xamp les ,and t he s acr if ic ia l b ronze k n ife f rom t he Mun tha m Cour t t e mp le s i te ( p . 2 20 ,P l . XXV , g ) .

T he most i n terest ing f unerary r ite i n c iv i-

l ian Ro man B r ita in i s f ound i n af ew s ca t tered c ases o fb ur ia ls , ma in ly o f m idd le-aged wo men , w i th t he ir h eads s evered a nd p laced e i ther b y t he k nees o r t he f ee t .

One v ery l oca l ised T ers ion o ccurs s evera l t imes i n D orse t where

t he b ur ia ls a re o f wo men ( w i th t he l ower j aws o ft he s evered h ead r e moved ) a nd a lways a cco mpan ied b y s p ind le-whor ls .

T he S tud land e xamp le ( p . 2 02 )

was i n terest ing s ince e xam ina t ion o ft he b ones s howed t ha t t he w o man may h ave s pen t much o fh er t ime o n h orseback .

Poss ib ly i n t h is p ar t o f Dorse t

t he q ueens o r l eaders o f c om mun i t ies w ere b ur ied i n t h is way ; o r l oca l w itches o r med ic ine wo men , t he h ead b e ing r emoved t o s top t he s p ir it ' wa lki ng ' o r t a lk ing o r s o t ha t t he h ead c ou ld l ead t he way d own t o t he Underwor ld . T hey a ppear t o b e l a te 3 rd a nd 4 th c en tury i n d a te . A l l o ver t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic wor ld a nd n o t l east i n c iv i l ian R oman Br i ta in where a bou t f i f ty e xamp les a re k nown a re f ound a l tars w ithou t a ny d ed ica t ion o r c arved d ep ic t ion wha tsoever , b u t p oss ib ly , i fa ny , o n ly t he mos t n oni n for ma t ive c arv ing ( o f as acr if ic ia l k n ife , o r a wrea th ) . T he ma jor ity o f t hese a l tars h ave n o tb een d efaced b y t ime a nd n ever were c arved o r i nscr ibed a nd o ne e xp lana t ion t ha t c omes t o m ind i s t ha t t hey may h ave b een p laced i n t emp les f or misce l laneous d e i t ies f or a ny w orsh ippers t o c ome a long a nd u se , f or a ny p urpose t hey l i ked . S o me o f t hese a l tars , e spec ia l ly i nt he Co tswo ld r eg ion where s tone must h ave b een c heap a nd a va i lab le e ven t o t he p oor w ere sma l l a nd p or tab le , a nd may h ave b een t aken f rom p lace t o p lace b y p er ipat e t ic t raders , u sed f or o f fer ings t o w h ichever d e i ty 's t err itory t he owner h appened t ob e i n a t a ny g iven t ime . A no ther e xp lana t ion o f ' unadorned ' a l tars may b e t he p a in t ing r a ther t han i nc is ing o f a n i nscr ip t ion . C urses i n l ead a re w e l l-known i n G au l a nd Br i ta in ( see P l . XXVI , e ) . I n G au l t he n ame o ft he d e i ty i nvoked i s o f ten men t ioned ; t he c urse i s n a i led u p o n t he d oor o f as hr ine , a s n a i l- marks o n t he B r it ish e xa mp les s how .

I n

c iv i l ian B r ita in s ome n ine c urses a re k nown , o n ly t wo o f wh ich a ctua l ly n ame 4 8

g ods - J up i ter o n o ne a t Ra tc l if fe ( p . 1 65 )a nd t he C e lt ic g od Nodons a t L ydney ( p .

1 69

) ,b o th f ro m s hr ines .

T he l a t ter c urse i s p ar t icu lar ly i n teres-

t i ng s ince i t may p oss ibly b e l i nked w ith a " Chr ist ian ised" p agan g o ld r ing f ound a t S i lchester ( p .195 )i nscr ibed w i th t he n ame S en ic ianus - t he L ydney c urse d enounces s omeone b y t ha t n a me a nd c omp la ins o ft he s tea l ing o f a r ing . 75 A t l east t hree B r it ish c urses c o me f rom s hr ines . One h as o n ly t o r ead o ne L ondon e xamp le t o s ee t he ir v ehemence - where t he u nfor tuna te T re t ia Mar ia i s c onde mned b y a n a dm irer ( presumably p ast ) w ish ing h er i nt erna l o rgans t o merge . M isce l laneous O b jec ts Apar t f ro m t he wooden i do ls a lready men t ioned a bove , ac ur ious s tone f i gure , p oss ibly o f a worsh ipper , c o mes f rom C irencester , ( p . 1 73, P l . 2 0a , a ) a nd s even c ur ious i ron a nd b ronze f i gures f rom B land ford ( p . 1 89) . A bou t e igh t sma l l b ronze d ep ict ions o f s nakes a re k nown , ma in ly f ro m t e mp le a reas , e .g . Veru lam iu m ( p . 2 06, P l . ) 0 (D ( , d ) , p oss ib ly r eferr ing t o t he c h thon ic e le men t i n Ro mano-Ce lt ic my tho logy . V o t ive l imbs a re k nown a t h ea l ing c en tres s uch a s L ydney ( p . 1 69 )a nd S pr inghead ( p . 2 28) a s h opefu l o f fer ings f or t he c ur ing o f t he p ar t icu lar o rgan d ep ic ted . R ITUAL DEPOS ITS The p oss ible p r ies ts ' h oards o f r i tua l o b jects , e .g . W i l l ingham F en ( p . 2 10) h ave a lready b een men t ioned i n c onnec t ion w i th p r iest ly r ega l ia ( see a bove ) . O ther h oards may h ave b een p r iva te d epos i ts , e .g . t he F e lm ingham Ha l l h oard , d a ted b y ac o in t o t he mid-3rd c en tury ( p . 2 05) ; t h is i nc luded r avens a nd a sma l l b ronze whee l , p resumab ly a l l c onnec ted w ith a Ro mano-Ce l t ic J up iter c u lt , b u t a ga in t hese may h ave c o me f rom a s hr ine ( no g rander were t he o b jec ts f ound a t t he Mun tham Cour t k nown t e mp le s i te ( p .220 ) . Ac o mp le te ly d if feren t t ype o f h oard wor th men t ion ing i s t he h oards o f h u man s ku l ls f ound i n t he Wa lb rook v a l ley i n L ondon ( p . 2 26) a nd a t Wookey H o le ( p .184 ) - h ere a ssocia ted w ith i st a nd 2 nd c en tury Roman p ot tery .

H u man s acr if ice r eca l l ing t he p re-

R o man S ou th Gau l ish s ku l l-n iches ( see C h . 1 ) a nd t he s ku l l f ound embedded i n t he wa l l o f as hr ine a t Cosgrove ( p . 1 79 )c ome t o m ind . Ano ther h oard f rom O r mesby ( p .205 )c ons is ted o f ab ronze swan , d og , mode l h and a nd l eg s uggest i ng s o me s or t o fh ea l ing c u l t l i ke t ha t a t S pr inghead .

Aga in c onnected p ossib ly

w ith h ea l ing , d ea th o r b o th , a re t he t wo d og s ke le ton h oards ( f ro m Upchurch i n K en t ( p . 2 30 )a nd f ro m L ondon ( p .226 ) ,t he f ormer w i th s even ö r e igh t p upp ies i n u rns a nd t he l a t ter w i th t wo d ogs i n ab ox a cco mpan ied b y 2 nd c en tury p ot tery . Re l ig ious o b jec ts s uch a s f i gur ines a nd mode l a xes were s o me t i mes b ur ied w ith t he d ead a nd t hese a re n o tewor thy a s b e ing s ome th ing a par t f rom t he n or ma l b ur ia ls w i th p ot tery , c o ins a nd t r inke ts .

I n t hese c ases a s pec if ic a t-

t e mpt was made t o p ro tect t he d ead i n t he U nderwor ld b yb ury ing a d ep ic t ion o f a n a ppropr ia te d e i ty w ith t he b ody , o r p erhaps a v o t ive o b jec t a ccep tab le t o t he c h thon ic g ods . A bout s even teen c ases where t h is h as o ccurred a re k nown t o t he wr iter - i nc lud ing p ipe-c lay f i gur ines o f V enus ( t h is p henomenon i s c ommon i n G au l) - a nd we h ave a lready n o ted t he o ccurrence o f f unerary s igns o n t he L ondon e xa mp le .

4 9

R itua l f ounda t ion d epos its were n u merous a nd o ccurred i nt he I ron A ge a t t he F r i lford ( p . 1 94 )t e mp le s i te where ap loughshare was b ur ied - a s a p rop it ia tory o f fer ing t o an a ture g od , o r b y af ar mer t o e nsure t he s uccess o ft he s hr ine a s ap lace o f worsh ip . I n t owns many p ot tery f ounda t ion d epos i ts u nder h ouses mus t h ave b een l ost f rom r ecord a nd p robab ly many t ha t a re k nown h ave e scaped my n o t ice .

T hree v ery s im i lar o nes a re k nown f rom t he

Dobunn ic a rea a t G louces ter ( p . 1 71 )a nd o ne a t K enchester ( p .169 , P l . XXVI , c )n earby t he p o ts a l l b e ing s im i lar s ave o ne , a nd a l l w ith l i ds a nd c on ta ini ng e ar th .

I n fan t f ounda t ion-bur ia ls a re k nown e .g . a t t he t emp le s ite a t

S pr inghead ( p .228 ) , a nd t hree a re k nown f rom Hamb ledon V i l la ( p . 1 97 ) . s ku l ls a nd f ow l b ones e tc . a re k nown f rom a t l east s even t emp le s ites i n s ou thern B r i ta in a nd o ne h orse b ur ia l h as b een f ound .

Ox-

A t L ondon a t l eas t

f i ve c o in f ounda t ion d epos i ts a re k nown ( p .226) . O ther r i tua l d epos its wor th n o t ing f rom o ur a rea i nclude t he d epos its o f a n i ma l b ones i n s hr ines, o ther t han i n f ounda t ion c on tex ts e .g . o x-sku l ls ; p ar t icu lar ly i n terest ing a re t he c a lf

bur ia ls mak ing a n a venue t o t he S ou th

Cadbury ( p .185 )s hr ine , t hough t hese a re p re-Roman . F ina l ly a word may b e s a id a bou t o dd r i tua l s tructures o r f or ma t ions f ound i n t he a rea o f c iv i l ian Roman B r ita in - t he c irc le o ft i les , w i th a s arsen s tone i n t he midd le a nd a k n ife n earby , i n p robab le a ssoc ia t ion w ith ap it c on ta in ing ap laque s how ing ab ronze h are f ro m W in terborne K ingston ( p .202 )( presu ma b ly s y mbo l is ing s o me s acr if ic ia l r i te) ; t he p o t tery f unne l s tructure f ound w i th a d ep ic t ion o f ad og a nd 2 1 c o ins a t L ydney ( p .169 )a t t he l a te Roman s hr ine t o Nodons , a nd a t L inco ln ( p . 1 68 )t he o dd min iature o ven c on ta in ing f ow l b ones , r a ther s im i lar i n e ssence t o t he p o ts c on ta in ing h ens ' e ggs f ro m York ( see Ch . 6 ) . T he s tudy o ft he v ar ious d epos its k nown i n t he a rea i s i nforma t ive n o t l east b ecause o ft he s ugges t ion i tg ives o ft he p resence o ft he o f icia l ly s tamped-ou t p ract ice o fh u man s acr if ice , a nd a lso b ecause o ft he e x treme l oca l iza t ion

o f r i tua l , w ith many d iferen t p ract ices r epresen ted .

S ome h ave

ac o m mon t he me e .g . t he d epos i ts o fb ird b ones , b u t s o me a ppear u n ique e .g . t he f unne l s tructure a t L ydney ( p . 1 69 ) . I ti s p oss ib le t o s ee a g rada t ion o f r oman iza t ion h ere . ' Seven iAugus ta les , a re a ctua l ly k nown a t L inco ln ( p . 1 68 ) , c onnected w i th t he c u l t o f t he Emperor , ap ar t icu lar ly Ro man c oncep t ; b u t , e .g . a t C o lchester ( p . 2 16 )t he i nscr ip t ion t o t he Emperor 's ' nu men ' c oup led w ith t ha t o f Mercury Andescoc ioucus - ' t he G rea t A ct iva tor ' , may mean t ha t as ev ir o f ic ia l ly i n terested i nt he Emperorc u l t may a lso h ave r ema ined l oya l t o al oca l p r iva te g od l ing .

Aga in , a tt he

c lass ica l Ba th s hr ine t o aC e l t ic g oddess ( p ./88 )a no ther v ery Ro man p r iesth ood i s k nown -t he p resence o ft he ' haruspex y , a ga in s how ing t he mix ture o f C e l t ic a nd Roman c u lts .

L ess r oman iza t ion i s s hown b y p r ies ts ' c rowns a nd

s cep tres e ven t hough t he Roman e le men t i n d ecora t ion makes i t se lf f e l t , a nd f ur ther s t i l l d own t he Roman s ca le a re , f or e xa mp le , f ace-po ts , t r ip le v ases , mode l t oo ls , v o t ive l imbs a l l r esu lt ing f rom a f us ion o f C e lt ic a nd Roman t hough ts a nd me thods o f e xpress ion .

S ome o ft he r i tua l d epos i ts s uch a s

h u man f ounda t ion-bur ia ls a nd d ecap ita ted c is t-bur ia ls s how t he v ery l as t a nd mos t p r im it ive s tages o ft he r oman iz ing p rocess , t here b e ing l i t t le o f R oman t hough t h ere a l though t here may b e p o t tery a nd c o ins t o s how a tl east a c on tac t w i th Roman ma ter ia l c iv i l iza t ion . 5 0

R ITUAL WELLS Id o n o t p ropose t o g o i n to t h is s ub ject i n g rea t d e ta i l .

T he q uest ion o f

s haf ts i n t he p re-Ro man a nd R o man p er iod h as b een d ea l t w ith a t g rea t l eng th b y D r . A rme Ross .

7 6

Ih ave i nc luded s o me o fh er c orpus i n t he p resen t r e-

l ig ious g aze t teer f or t he s ou thern , c iv i l ian a rea o f Br i ta in , b u t Iw i l l h ere d iscuss o n ly a f ew i n for ma t ive p o in ts a bout t he p heno menon o f r i tua l w e l ls . A t t he o u tse t Is hou ld p o in t o u t t ha t many o f t he s haf ts , p its a nd we l ls l i sted b y D r . Ross wou ld n o t a ppear t o me n ecessar i ly t o b e r i tua l b u t more p roba b ly mere ly r ubb ish p i ts o r w e l ls i n to wh ich r ubb ish was t hrown a f ter t hey h ad c eased t o f unc t ion . I n S ou th-eastern B r ita in a nd t o al esser e x ten t i n t he Nor th o ft he c oun try -b u t ma in ly b e ing i n t he Be lg ic a reas o f B r i ta in - o ne f i nds o ccurrences o f n arrow , c ircu lar s haf ts , o f ten v ery d eep , s ome t i mes c on ta in ing o b jec ts s ugg est ing a r i tua l f unct ion f or t he s haf t .

I n G au l a nd G er many t hese a re f a ir ly

c om mon e .g . Mon tbuoy n ear O r leans c on ta in ing a wooden f i gur ine ;7 7

s ome

o f t he m d a te t o b efore t he R oman p er iod , s how ing t he ir C e l t ic o r ig ins , f or i nstance i n t he ' v iereckshanzen ' l i ke H o lzhausen w here b lood a nd f l esh r e ma ins w ere f ound a dher ing t o s takes i n t he s ha f ts . " R i tua l" we l ls o n t he RomanoC e lt ic c on t inent a nd i n Br i ta in were d ug a nd u sed t hroughout t he Roman p er iod i nb o th G au l a nd B r ita in .

I ft hese we l ls a re r itua l o ne wou ld p resu me t ha t t hey

r efer t o t he C e lt ic d ua l is t ic c u l ts o f U nderwor ld , Ear th a nd S ky - t he we l l b e ing r egarded a s as ource o f c o mmun ica t ion f rom e arth t o u nderwor ld - j us t a s t he t ree may h ave b een r egarded i n C e l t ic my tho logy a s med ia tor b e tween s ky a nd e ar th . 18 O ne mus t r eme mber t ha t i n t he c lassica l wor ld p i ts ( bo thro i a nd mund i) 7 9 w ere n o t u nknown , f or j us t t h is p urpose o f c o mmun ing w ith t he d ead , a nd o ne must a ssu me t ha t t he p resence o f t e mp les n ear g raves must b e p ar t o f t he s a me i dea . O f t he Ro mano-Br it ish s haf ts i n t he a rea o f c iv i l ian Roman Br i ta in , where t he s haf ts a re c oncen tra ted , s o me t wo-hundred-and-twen ty e xa mp les h ave b een r ecorded . "

O f t hese Iwou ld s ay t ha t a bou t f if ty-f ive a re o dd e nough t o b e

p robab ly r i tua l a nd t he o ther o ne-hundred-and-seven ty-seven a re d ub ious a s a ny th ing o ther t han r ubb ish p i ts . E igh t o ft he we l ls c on ta ined d ed ica t ions t o o r d ep ic t ions o f d e i t ies - Mars o ft he S ed iae ( p .205 ) , c ranes ( p . 2 06 ) , H ercu les ( p . 2 11 ) , ar iver-god ( p . 2 11 ) ,p ipe-c lay P seudo-Venus ( p . 2 3 1 ) ; o ne c on ta ined e ight a l tars i nc lud ing d ed ica t ions t o M inerva , G en i i c ucu l la t i a nd Mars ( p . 1 75 ) . A l l o ne c an s ay i s t ha t i n t he C e l t ic p antheon a l l t he d e it ies r epresen ted c ou ld b e s een t ob e long t o t he p os tu la ted n a ture/underwor ld c yc le .

8 1

F our o ft he we l ls wou ld a ppear t o h ave h ad s pec ia l c hambers, o ne w ith a n i ma l b ur ia ls, f i ve a t l eas t c on ta in s ing le o r mu l t ip le d og s ke le tons o r s ku l ls -s o me t i mes t he h ead b e ing s evered f rom t he b ody . A t Mun tham C our t ( p . 2 20) a 2 00 f ti st c en tury w e l l was f i l led w i th n u merous d og r e ma ins , a nd o ther a n i ma ls i n we l ls i nc lude c ocks , o xen , h orses , s tags , h ares .

A s tag a t

V i l leneuve Rennev i l le was b ur ied w i th a Ga l l ic Warr ior i n ap i t .

8 2

Most o f

t hese a n i ma ls we h ave a lready me t i n t he C e l t ic p an theon - d ogs were c onnect ed w i th h ea l ing a nd t he u nderwor ld , t he c ock b e longed t o Mercury , t he h are a nd c ock a re men t ioned b y C aesar a s b e ing r i tua l ,

5 1

8 3

t he s tag a nd b u l l b e long

t o Ro mano-Gau l ish i conography , t he h orse w e h ave me t i n c onnect ion w i th s un-cu l ts , Taran is a nd t he e questr ian warr ior . O ther b ur ia ls p resen t i n we l ls i nc lude t hose o fh u man b e ings , a nd i ti s a ga in t e mp t ing t o t h ink i n t er ms o fh u man s acr if ice t o t he g ods o f t he u nderwor ld when o ne c ons iders t he G er man e xamp les o f t he im med ia te p re-Roman p er iod w ith t he g r is ly r e ma ins a t tached t o s takes ( see C h . 1 ) . a ppear i n a bou t t en we l ls i n Br ita in .

H u man b ur ia ls

C onnec ted a ga in , p oss ib ly , w i th t hese

s takes a re t rees . T he o ak l i n ings i n s ome w e l ls may b e mere ly a l i n ing b u t i n t hree s haf ts i n s ou thern Br i ta in t here were r ema ins o f c omp le te t rees , p ara l le l t o t he c ypress s te m f ound i n ap it i nt he Vend6e ( see C h . 1 ) . T he t ree w i th i t s r oo ts d eep u nderground a nd i t s b ranches s tre tch ing i n to t he s ky wou ld b e a n o bv ious v o t ive o b ject i n t hese w e l ls . O ther we l ls h ave s trange a rrange ments o f c o mp le te p o ts , s ome t i mes a rranged i n l ayers a nd f or ma t ions , a nd o ther s e l ibera te l ayer ing s equences o ccur , e .g . a t I psw ich ( p . 2 18) where t wo p i ts e ach h ad h are-fur a t e xact ly t he s ame d ep th ;

t here a re o ther s im i lar e xamp les o f a l terna te l ayer ing .

Abou t f our teen o ft he s haf ts h ave t he c omp le te p o t-forma t ions . Two o ther i ns tances a re p ar t icu lar ly i n terest ing -t ha t c on ta in ing t he h oard o f sm ith 's e qu ip men t f ound i n ad eep we l l a t G rea t Chesterford ( p . 2 11) wh ich was p oss ib ly t he o f fer ing t o a sm ith g od l i ke S uce l lus i n h is f unerary a spect , a nd t he o ccurrence o ft wo we l ls a t Ca istor ( p . 2 04 ) s i tua ted w i th in a n e nc losure v ery r em in iscen t o f at e mp le t e menos , a s i fh ere a t l east t he we l l d id t ake t he p lace o f ab u i lt s anctuary . T he g rea t v ar ie ty b ut a t t he s a me t ime p ecu l iar c onsistenc ies o ft he we l l c on ten ts s hou ld b e n o ted . S o me p henomena If i nd d i f f icu l t t o e xp la in , e .g . t he c omp le te p o t a rrange men ts , b u t o thers f a l l e as i ly i n to o ur s cheme f or Ce l t ic c u l t-r itua l ;

s o me a t l eas t o ft hese s haf ts mus tb e s ymbo l ic .

R itua l we l ls i n t he mse lves , s te m m ing a s t hey d o i n Br ita in f ro m t he Bronze Age 8 4 ,a re b as ica l ly an on-Ro man i dea , a l though we k now o f t he I t a l ian mundus , t he p re-O lymp ian c o m mun ing w ith e ar th f orces b y d igg ing p i ts i n t he c en tres o f s e t t le men ts a nd t he o f fer ing o ft he f i rs t f ru i ts t o t he c h thon ic p owers - s o t here i s ac om mon p re-O lymp ian i dea h ere .

Roman iza t ion i s s hown b y t he o ccurrence

o f Ro man p o t tery , c o ins , Ro maninf luenced c u l t-ob jec ts s uch a s d ep ict ions o f H ercu les b ut t he e ssen t ia l C e l t ic c h thon ic e lemen t r ema ins . T h is c an b e s een b y t he v ege tab le a nd f auna l ( i nc lud ing h u man ) ma t ter f ound i n t hese p its a nd b y t he s ugges t ion t ha t e ach g od r epresen ted c an b e t raced t o t he C e l t ic Na ture/ c h thon ic g roup o f d e i t ies .

I t mus t , h owever , b e p o in ted o ut t ha t , f or e xamp le ,

i n C aerwen t a nd Co lchester a r e la t ive ly r oman ized c om mun i ty a ccep ted t h is e ssen t ia l ly C e l t ic f orm o f r i tua l s tructure .

5 2

CHAPTER 4

THE PAGAN OR IENTAL CULTS AND CHRISTIAN ITY

PAGAN EASTERN REL IG ION There i s r e la t ive ly l i t t le e v idence f or e astern c u lts i n c iv i l ian Ro man B r ita in , a nd t h is i s n o t s urpr is ing when i ti s c ons idered wha t al arge p ar t t he a r my p layed i n t he d if fus ion o f t hese c u lts f ro m E as t t o Wes t .

However , most

o ft he Or ien ta l c u l ts k nown i n o ther p ar ts o f t he emp ire were k nown h ere , a nd i ti s impor tan t t o e xp la in t he ir p resence s ince t hey were p ar t o f t he r e l ig ious l i fe o ft he Ro mano-Br i t ish c o mmun i ty , a nd where e v idence o f s uch c u lts d oes o ccur i t may b e s een a s ' ro man iza t ion ' q u i te a s much a s, s ay , t he Cu lt o f t he Emperor . M ithra ism I ti s i nappropr ia te here t o d escr ibe t he p rofound , c o mp lex a nd myster ious e le men ts o ft he M ithra ic my tho logy . e x ists .

1

A v ast amoun t o f l i tera ture o n t he s ub ject

C lass ica l s ources s ay l i t t le a bou t t he c u l t .

We k now f ro m P lu tarch 2

t ha t Pompey 's C i l ic ian p ira tes, when d efea ted a nd s et t led i n I ta ly i n 6 7 B . C . ? , w orsh ipped t he g od .

Ro me h erse lf a ccep ted t he c u l t i n t he I st c entury A .D .

T he Mi thra ic c u l t c a me t o t he West ( i .e . Gau l a nd G er many ) a s ar esu l t o ft he c onques t o f As ia M inor i n t he i st c entury ;

i tc ame i n t he wake o f a rm ies a nd

merchan ts a nd was c oncen tra ted i n t he Wes t o n f ron t ier a reas a nd a t p or ts .

4

I n t he emp ire a s a who le t he c u lt a t ta ined r ea l impor tance u nder t he Anton ines ,5 u nder C o rnmodus wave o ft he c u lt .

6

S everus , a nd l ast ly D ioc le t ian , who l ed t he s econd g rea t

I n A . D . 3 07 a n a l tar was d ed ica ted t o M i thras a s S usta iner

o f Imper ia l Power , o n t he D anube a t Carnuntu m ,

7

a nd D ioc le t ian o f f ic ia l ly

r ecogn ized M ithras a s p ro tec tor o f t he r econs tructed emp ire .

8

T here was a

b r ief r ev iva l u nder J u l ian i n t he mid-4 th c en tury , b efore G ra t ian o rdered t he c losure o f a l l p agan s hr ines i n 3 77 .

9

There were M i thra is ts i n t he wes tern p rov inces i n t he I s t c en tury A .D . a nd a t C arnuntu m t hey a re a t tested i n 7 1 i n t he 1 5 th L eg ion . f ound i n f ron t ier r eg ions i n a l l western p rov inces , a t Tr ier , p robab ly s e t u p b y merch a n ts ,

1 2

1 1

1 0

M i thraea a re

b u t c iv i l ian e xamp les , a s

a re r e la t ive ly s carce .

M ithra is m i n C iv i l ian Roman Br ita in The e v idence f or t he c u l t o f M ithras i n o ur a rea o f Ro man Br ita in i s s lender , a s i ti s , r e la t ive ly s peak ing , i n a l l t he Wes tern p rov inc ia l c iv i l ian a reas .

As

we s ha l l s ee ( Ch . 6 ) , we k now o f s evera l sma l l M i thraea i n t he r eg ion o f Hadr ian 's wa l l a nd i n Nor th Wa les a t Caernarvon .

5 3

One d ef in ite a nd o ne p robab le

s hr ine a re k nown s ou th o ft he H u mber , t ha t a t L ondon ( p . 2 23 )b e ing t he d ef in ite a nd t ha t a t L e ices ter ( p . 1 65) b e ing t he p robab le o ne , k nown o n ly f rom i t s p lan a nd n o t b y a ny d iagnos t ic v o t ive o b jec ts, t he o n ly i conograph ic e v idence b e ing a n e n igma t ic a nd n ondescr ip t s tone t orso . T he L ondon M i thraeu m ( p .223 )l ay i n t he Wa lbrook v a l ley , o n i t s marshy e ast b ank , e v iden t ly a n impor tan t c u lt s i te s ince i n s ize i ti s e xceeded b y o n ly t wo o r t hree M i thraea i n t he Ro man wor ld , i nc lud ing o ne a t Rome i t se lf . 1 3 S hr ines i n t he West were u sua l ly sma l l , e .g . t hose a t Heddenhe i m 14 a nd S trasbourg . 1 5 A s i n t he c ase o f s o me C on t inen ta l e xamp les , t he s i te was b y wa ter a nd i n i t s S .W . c orner t he b u i ld ing h ad a woodenl ined w e l l f or l us trat ion p urposes , s im i lar t o t ha t a t S trasbourg .

1 5

T he f i rst p er iod o f t he s i te

was i n t he s econd h a lf o ft he 2 nd c entury A .D . when M i thra ism was s pread ing t hrough t he emp ire .

Many o ther l ayers e x isted o n t he s i te b ecause o f t he

e x tre me we tness o ft he Wa lbrook v a l ley .

I n t he mid-4 th c en tury s o me o ft he

v o t ive o b jects were b ur ied , p resu mab ly u nder t he t hrea t o f s ome s or t o f t roub le , p oss ib ly o r ig ina t ing f ro m C hr is t ians , s ince s o me o f t he s tatuary was i n f act b roken . T he b ur ied s cu lp ture was n o t r ecovered b ut more was f ound a a t ah igher l eve l , a s we l l a s r e l ics o f a n i ma l s acr if ices - a ga in p ara l le led a t S trasbourg . T he t e mp le was r estored t o u se i n t he l a ter 4 th c entury , t hough i n i t s l a ter f or m t he s hr ine was l i t t le more t han a h u t o r s hed , b ut i ti s p roba b le t ha t t he M ithraeu m a ctua l ly d id r e ma in i n u se u n t i l we l l a f ter t he m idd le o ft he 4 th c en tury A .D . T he c arved s tones a re e sPec ia l ly i nforma t ive a nd i nc lude a sma l l t auroct onous r e l ief d ed ica ted a ctua l ly b y av e teran o ft he 2 nd L eg ion , b u t i ti s t oo sma l l a nd r ough t o h ave b een t he ma in b u l l-slay ing r e l ief : i ti sp erhaps t he most impor tan t f i nd f ro m t he s i te . Four p la in a l tars h ave b een f ound a nd p ar t o f ad ed ica t ion t o M ithras b y a n imper ia l f reedman o f A .D . 3 05-6 , a tt he t ime o ft he D ioc le t ian ic f l oru i t o ft he c u l t ( s ee a bove ) . O ther s cu lp tures i nc lude ah ead o f M ithras f ro m a l arger s cu lp ture o ft he b u l l-s lay ing , al arge h and w ith t he k i l l ing k n ife , a sma l l h and f rom a no ther t auroctony , ah ead o f t he E gyp t ian g od , S erap is , t he b us t o f ar iver g od o r Neptune ( sp ir i t o f t he T ha mes o r Wa lbrook s trea m ? ) , t wo smashed t orsos p oss ib ly o f Bacchus , a nd r e l iefs o f Cautopa tes , t he D ioscur i , Bacchus a nd A targa t is , b es ides s ta tues o f aG en ius ( t he s p ir i t o f L ondon ? ) , Mercury a nd M inerva .

I n t he ma in , t hese a re

s cu lptures o f f ore ign marb le a nd make , d a t ing t o t he m id o r l a te 2 nd c en tury .1 6 Aga in , t he p resence o f a l l t hese d e it ies s hows t he g rea t t o lerance a nd i nc lus iveness o ft he M ithra ic c u l t i n L ondon , b u t ac ommon t heme r uns t hrough t he c ho ice o f r epresen ted g ods : M inerva was g oddess o f s o ld iers, w isdom , c raf ts - a l l a ppropr ia te f or s o ld iers a nd merchan ts a nd f or a c u l t b ased o n h onour ; D ionysus/Bacchus ' p resence c an b e e xp la ined a s L ord o f S ou ls , a nd h e o ccurs i n o ther M i thraea . i 7 Mercury a ppears i n h is c apac i ty a s Merchan tg od , a nd L eader o f s ou ls , a nd i s k nown i n c t her M i thraea . 1 8 S erap is was a g od o f s ky , f er t i l ity , a nd t he u nderwor ld .

A targa t is , aS yr ian g oddess , h ad

a mystery c u l t o fh er o wn a nd was c onnected w i th s a lva t ion a nd t he a f terl ife . T he L ondon M i thraeu m p robab ly c a tered l arge ly f or c iv i l ian merchan ts a nd v e teran s o ld iers .

T he Cr ipp lega te 2 nd c entury f or t may h ave p roduced

s ome m i l i tary worsh ippers .

T he who le p ic ture o ne g e ts i s o ne o f wea l th

a nd p rosper ity f or t he c u l t h ere , u n l ike t he sma l l , c ruder n or thern s hr ines

5 4

o f Carrawburgh a nd Rudches ter . i fa ny e v idence .

O ther t owns i n Br ita in r evea l v ery s can ty ,

A t V eru lam ium ( p .206 )we o n ly h ave a M i thra ic t oken a nd a

f ragment o f ac astor-ware v esse l .

A s ta tue o f Ahr i man i s k nown f rom

C aerwent ( p .183 ) : p resu mab ly t here must s o mewhere h ave b een a M ithraeu m . T hree d oub le-hand led p o t f ragmen ts w i th s nakes r ound t he h and les , l i ke t hose f ound e .g . o n Heddernhe im t auroc tonous r e l iefs 1 9 a re k nown a t L ondon ( p .226) L u l l ingstone v i l la ( p .227 )a nd C irences ter ( p ./ 74 ) . T here i s ap oss ib le M i thra ic s cu lp ture f rom Co lchester ( p . 2 16) .

T he d ear th o f e v idence f ro m

h ere s hows t he v ery m i l itary s lan t o ft he c u l t .

There must h ave b een mer-

c han ts a t a l l t he ma jor c iv i l ian t owns , b ut e ven i n Nor th B r i ta in t he e v idence i s n o th ing l i ke a s a bundan t a s i np ara l le l a reas o f Gau l a nd G er many . T he Worsh ip o f Cybe le a nd A tys C ybe le , t he g rea t Mo ther o f Moun t I da i n Ana to l ia , was b rough t t o a nd a dop ted b yR o me i n 2 04 B .C . ,t he r eason b e ing t he f orecast ing o f t he d efea t o f H ann iba l i fa nd o n ly i ft he s y mbo l ic s tone o f I da were i nsta l led w i th in t he r e l ig ious p rec incts o ft he c i ty o f Ro me . " I n 1 91 B .C. t he g oddess was g iven a n i ndependen t t e mp le o n t he P a la t ine H i l l , b u t Ro man c i t izens were f orb idden t o p ar t ic ipa te i n t he s e lf-castra t ing p r iest ly i n it ia t ion r i tes . I t was 1 01 B .C . b efore t he f i rst Roman c i t izen b ecame a e unuch-pr iest . I n g enera l t he p r iests w ere n a t ive P hryg ians . U nder C laud ius t he r es tr ic t ions o n C ybe le 's c u l t were a l l l i f ted a nd h er c onsort , A tys, was n ow f or t he f i rst t ime r ea l ly a ccep ted a s ag od a nd i n troduced t o t he R oman c u lt .

T he c u lt o f C ybe le s pread w i th t he

emp ire ; i nA sia i th ad a lways b een impor tan t , b u t w i th t he c onquest o f Gau l c en tres o ft he c u lt a ppeared a t e .g . L ugdunu m , Augustodunu m , Narbo . Even i n t he Wes tern p rov inces t he c u lt was most p ers isten t .

I n t he e ar ly 3 90s A . D .

V a len t in ian I b anned a t tendance a t p agan s hr ines , b ut C ybe le s t i l l e x isted a s ag oddess i nt he west i n t he l a te 4 th c entury .

S he f i na l ly f aded o u t u nder t he

Emperor T heodos ius a t t he e nd o ft he 4 th c entury A .D .

2 1

Ad e ta i led a ccoun t o ft he my ths a nd r i tes o f C ybe le i s u nnecessary .

2 2

I t was

C laud ius a nd h is s uccessors i nt he i st c entury A .D . who p inned d own t he s er ies f est iva ls o r c yc le o fh o l idays a nd c ere mon ies t o c e lebra te t he s easona l f er t i l i ty c yc le o f t he my th .

A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he c ere mon ia l f es t iva l, t he

g a l l i o r p r iests s acr if iced a 6 -year o ld s teer . Ap rocess ion o f r eed b earers o r c annophor i r epresented t he d iscovery o f A tys w i th h is mo ther . T hen t he d ea th o fA tys , p erson ify ing w in ter a nd b arrenness , was r epresen ted b y t he p rocess ion o f d endrophor i c arry ing t he p ine o f A tys, t he t ree u nder w h ich h e c astra ted a nd/or k i l led h i mse lf . Neophy tes n ow c astra ted t he r ri se lves f or t he p r iesthood a nd t o e nsure t he f er t i l ity o ft he e arth . A t t he r esurrect ion o f A tys s pr ing r eturned t o t he e ar th - a n Easter f est iva l -t he H i lar ia , r epres en t ing i t , b e ing p ar t icu lar ly e labora te i n t he 3 rd c en tury A .D . 23 C ybe le h ad t he a dvan tage o f e ar ly a ccep tance b y Ro me .

S he was r ead i ly a dop ted f or

i nstance i n G au l i n c iv i l ian t owns a nd t he c oun trys ide .

T h is may h ave b een i n

p ar t d ue t o h er r o le a s G rea t Mo ther , wh ich f i t ted i n we l l w ith p re-conce ived C e l t ic my tho log ica l c oncep ts . I n t he 2 nd c en tury i n Gau l L yons was t he ma in c u lt-cen tre a nd L ugdunens is h as r evea led a l arge n u mber o ft aurobo l ic ( t he b u l l-s lay ing r ite ) d ed ica t ions . 24 Autun was a lso a most i mpor tan t c en tre f or t he Cybe le c u lt , 25 a nd we k now o f c lashes b e tween h er c u l t a nd t ha t o f C hr ist ian i ty . There i s n o s uch e v idence i n Br ita in b u t i n Gau l ' dendrophorP

o r s acred p ine-bearers f or med t he mse lves i n to g u i lds a pproved a nd r ecogn ized b yt he Roman S ta te .

2 6

A t Autun r us t ic p rocess ions b ore a s ta tue o f

C ybe le i n ac har io t d rawn b y o xen t hrough h arvest f i e lds a nd v ineyards i n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c en tur ies A .D . 25 I n G au l Cybe le was s ome t i mes a ssoc ia ted w i th M i thras , 26 a nd o ccas iona l ly w ith t he Imper ia l c u l t . 27 Br it ish Ev idence f or t he Worsh ip o f Cybe le a nd A tys T he a na lys is o f c iv i l ian Br it ish e v idence o ft he worsh ip o f C ybe le a nd h er y oung c onsor t A tys s hows t he p resence o f a bou t t h ir ty-f ive s epara te o b jects r e la t ing t o t he c u l t o ft he Phryg ian c oup le . 1 0 o ft hese o b jec ts a re i n s ome way r epresen ta t ive o f C ybe le h erse lf .

T hey c an b e d iv ided i n to b ronze a nd

b one , o f wh ich t here a re s even ( i nc lud ing s tee lyard-we igh t d ep ict ions) , o ne a l tar , o ne mosa ic a nd o ne c ere mon ia l o b ject . i n f act , u n ique .

T h is l a t ter o b jec t i s s trange ,

I ti s c a l led a ' castra t ion-c lamp ' b y F ranc is ,

2 8

a nd i t mus t

h ave b een t emp le f urn iture o f s o me k ind , w he ther a ctua l ly f or t h is g rueso me p urpose o r whe ther a c ere mon ia l v ers ion o f more p rac t ica l , u norna rnen ted s pec i mens s uch a s t ha t f ound a t Bas le , 29 o r whe ther p ar t o f ad iferen t t ype o f c u l t f urn iture s uch a s t ongs o r p ar t o f ac ere mon ia l s too l . T hese s oc a l led ' f orceps ' f ound i n t he T hames i n L ondon ( p . 2 22 ) , may w e l l h ave b een f l ung t here t o a vo id v io la t ion b y Chr ist ians ( who were s ack ing t he M ithraeum i n Wa lbrook ) a nd t hen g radua l ly d ecayed a tt he h inges ; t he t wo h a lves w ere f ound v ery c lose t oge ther a nd i fb roken a nd h ur led away b y C hr ist ians i ti s p robab le f i rs t ly t ha t t he p ieces wou ld n o t h ave b een f ound t oge ther a nd , s econdl y , t ha t more w i lfu l d amage t o t he m wou ld h ave b een d one . T he o b jec t c anno t a ctua l ly h ave b een made a s af unct ion ing p a ir o f f orceps a l though t ha t i s wha t t hey a re s o me t i mes t ermed , s ince t he t erm ina l p a ir o f l i ons ' h eads wou ld make i tu nsu i tab le f or g rasp ing a ny th ing w i th i t s e nds .

I t

h as n o t t he b road c rush ing s urfaces n ecessary f or n u tcrackers , a nd a nyway i t i s t oo s p lend id - i t was worn a nd r epa ired i n a nt iqu ity a nd t he s uggest ion i s t ha t i t was t reasured a nd i n u se a l ong t ime . W i th i t s a bundan t r e l ig ious c arv ing a nd c arefu l workmansh ip i t must h ave b een s ome k ind o f r e l ig ious c u l t o b jec t . I th ad t wo l ong s hanks w ith s erra ted i nner e dges , d ecora ted w ith h eads o f a n i ma ls a nd d e i t ies i n a n I ta l ian s ty le w ith A tys a nd C ybe le a t t he t op , t hen t wo h orses , t he p lane tary d e it ies o ft he d ays o ft he w eek , b u l ls a nd l i ons ' h eads .

T he l i ons a nd t he b usts o f A tys a nd C ybe le s ure ly p o in t t o t he

s pec if ic c u lt n a ture o ft he o b ject . I ti s i n a ny c ase t oo l arge , c umbersome , a nd y e t d e l ica te ly wrough t t o h ave h ad a ny k ind o f e veryday p urpose . " A s i n Gau l ,

3 1

s tee lyard we igh ts d ep ict ing t he g oddess, e .g . f ro m L ondon

( p . 2 22, P l . XX I I , j ) , a re a ppropr ia te f or amys tery-de ity . C ybe le , c om ing t o L ondon p oss ib ly w ith merchan ts, wou ld h ave b lessed t he ir t ransac t ions , a nd sma l l t a l is mans o f t he g oddess wou ld b e i n k eep ing . T here a re n o t races o f Cybe le = me troons o r s hr ines a nywhere i n B r i ta in , n o t e ven i n t he Nor th , b u t i n t he c iv i l ian a rea t wo c u lt i t e ms o f C ybe le may p o in t t o s o me s or t o f s hr ine . i n L ondon .

I ti s h igh ly l i ke ly t ha t t here was s uch a s hr ine

The ma jor i ty o f o b jec ts c ome f rom h ere - we h ave t he s trange

b ronze o b jec t f rom t he T hames , a nd we a lso h ave a n a l tar t o t he g oddess f ro m h ere ( p .222 ) . A mosa ic f ro m a v i l la a t Wha t ley ( p . / 86 ) , p robab ly d ep ic t ing t he g oddess, may p o in t t o ap r iva te h ouse s hr ine t o t he d e ity , p ara l le l t o t he

5 6

C hr ist ian h ouse c hape ls s hown b y mosa ics i n t he t wo D orse t v i l las o f F ramp ton a nd H in ton S t . Mary . I n c iv i l ian Ro man Br i ta in w e h ave e xamp les o f s evera l s tone r epresen tat i ons o f A tys wh ich may we l l r epresen t t he p resence o f t e mp les , a par t f rom s even b ronzes ma in ly f ro m L ondon , i nc lud ing a f i ne c lass ica l b ronze f ound i n t he T ha mes , t oge ther w ith ah er maphrod i t ic p r iest f i gure ( p . 2 22 ) (A tys h i ms e lf i s s ome t i mes s hown a s h er maphrod it ic , p oss ib ly b ecause t he p erson if icat i on o ft he g enera t ive p ower o fn a ture , r epresen ted , n eeds t o b e i nd ica ted b y b o th s exes ) .

A v ase i n b ronze w i th a d ep ic t ion o f A tys f rom H ockwo ld ( p .212 ,

P l . XX IV , a ) , c o mes f ro m t he v ic in ity o f ak nown Ro mano-Ce lt ic t e mp le s i te . T h is i s s trange a nd may b e d ue t o af ore ign v i l la b a i l if f worsh ipp ing A tys b ut u s ing n a t ive s hr ines . C lay a nd s tone p ine-cones , f ound i n c iv i l ian a nd m i l itary B r i ta in , a s f unerary monumen ts , p robab ly r efer b ack t o t he A tys my th o f d ea th u nder a p ine t ree .

A bou t s even o ft hese a re k nown i n o ur a rea - f ive f ro m

o ne v i l la a t Raps ley ( p . 2 20 ) .

A sma l l b ronze p ine c o mes f rom L ondon ( p .222,

PL . ) (X I I I , b ) , a nd a no ther e xamp le f ro m t he t emp le s i te a t H ockwo ld ( p . 2 12, P l . XX IV , b ) .

F ive s tone c arv ings o f A tys a re k nown , t wo f rom t he Co Ion ia

o f G louces ter ( p . 1 71 )where t races o f ab u i ld ing were f ound w i th a d ep ic t ion o f A tys a s ac h i ld . I n L ondon a no ther i s k nown ( p . 2 22, P l . XX I I I , c ) , s treng then ing t he i dea o f as hr ine f or t he c u l t , a nd t wo c oun try i t e ms a re k nown

b o th f rom v i l las - a s tone s ta tue ( p . 1 92 )a nd a mosa ic ( p . 1 82 ) ,

a ga in b ear ing o u t t he r ura l w orsh ip o f C ybe le a nd A tys i n Gau l , i fo n ly c on tr ib u t ing a s hred o f e v idence . T he Egyp t ian De it ies I t was t he He l len is t ic monarch o f E gyp t , P to le my IS o ter , who i ntroduced S erap is - an ew d e i ty , i n to t he E gyp t ian p an theon , t ak ing t he p lace o f O s ir is, v ege ta t ion a nd f unerary g od - a f us ion o fO s ir is a nd t he Ap is b u l l . T he G reeks c ou ld n o t t o lera te d e i t ies i n a n i ma l f orm a nd i n E gyp t ion c u lt t he d e if i ed Os ir is was r epresen ted b yt he Ap is b u l l . T he o ther r eason f or t he c reat i on o f S erap is was t ha t P to le my , aG reek , p laced a s r u ler o ver E gyp t ians , n eeded t o e stab l ish an ew c u l t t o g o w ith t he n ew d ynasty , a s

as y mbo l o f n ew

a u thor i ty , l oya lty , a nd t o f or m a g en t le b reak w ith t he l ong e stab l ished a nd s et t led E gyp t ian p an theon a nd t he p owerfu l h ierarchy o f t he p r iesthood . 3 2 There i s n o d ef in ite c lass ica l l i terary a l lus ion t o t he c u l t o f S erap is b efore t he t ime o f S u l la .

3 3

T ac i tus 3 4 a nd P lu tarch 3 5 t a lk o f S erap is, who b ecame

af er t i l i ty , s ky a nd f unerary d e i ty ,3 6 a nd a lso a h ea ler - v o t ive l imbs h ave b een d iscovered a t S erape ian s i tes . 3 7 S o S erap is s ee ms t o h ave b een a c ompos ite g od , s im i lar t ot hose o f t he C e l t ic p an theon .

( See C h . 1 ) .

I s is , t he o r ig ina l f er t i l i ty a nd Moon g oddess , p res id ing o ver a nd p ro tect ing w o men , s h ips a nd h arbours , a nd h er n ew c onsor t , S erap is, f ound d i f f icu lt ies i nb e ing a ccep ted b y Ro me a tt he b eg inn ing o f t he emp ire , e spec ia l ly b ecause o ft he h a ted Egyp t ian , C leopa tra , t he l ast o ft he P to le my l i ne ; b u t a t P u teo l i t here w as a S erapaeu m a s e ar ly a s 1 05 B .C ., a nd i n t he 2 nd c entury B .C . a lso , t here w as a n I saeu m a t P o mpe i i .

T iber ius was v ery much a ga inst t he c u lt

a nd a ctua l ly e xecu ted p r ies ts ,3 8 b u t u nder Ca l igu la a nd l a ter t he c u l t f l our ished , a nd u nder t h is p ar t icu lar emperor I s is was i nsta l led o n t he Pa la t ine i n t he i mper ia l p a lace a nd t here w as a n I saeu m a nd S erapeau m o n t he Ca mpus

5 7

Mar t ius .

I n t he r e ign o f Caraca l la ( ag rea t f o l lower o f t he c u l t , i n 2 11-217)

at e mp le t o t he Egyp t ian c oup le was e rected o n t he Q u ir ina l .

3 9

The c u l t o f

I s is a nd S erap is s urv ived u n t i l t he e nd o f t he 4 th c entury A .D .4 ° We k now l i t t le o ft he c ere mon ies o ft he E gyp t ian s ta te g ods a nd t he ir s on , Harpocra tes , t he G raeco-Egyp t ian H orus .4 1 T he I s is C u l t i n C iv i l ian Ro man Br ita in I n c iv i l ian Ro man Br i ta in t he E gyp t ian p an theon i s n o t we l l-represen ted , ( un l ike Gau l where t here was a c u lt c oncen tra t ion o n Rhone a nd Rh ine 4 2 ) ,b ei ng c oncen tra ted , i ft ha t word c an b e u sed , i n L ondon ( p .222 ) ,w ith o n ly s porad ic a ppearances e lsewhere , e .g . D orchester ( p . 2 01 ) , C an terbury ( p .231) a nd E xe ter ( p . 1 99 ) , a nd v ery o ccas iona l ly i n t he c oun try .

D ep ict ions o f I s is

a ppear i n t he f or m o f s tee lyard we igh ts i n L ondon ( p . 2 22 )a nd mode l r a t t les o r s istra a lso c o me f ro m t here ( p . 2 22, P l . XX I I , g ,h ) .

Par t o f as istru m

h as b een f ound a t E xe ter ( p . 1 99) , ab ronze s tatuet te i s k nown f ro m D orchester ( p . 2 01) , a nd a s hr ine must h ave e x isted i n L ondon , a s aI st c en tury A .D . j ug f ro m S ou thwark men t ions a n I saeu m ( p . 2 22 ) . S erap is i s r epresen ted b y t hree me ta l c u l t o b jec ts - o n ly o ne , ab ronze r ing ( p . 1 79 ) ,b e ing s a fe ly a u then t ic , b u t t hree s tone h eads o ft he g od a re k nown - o ne f rom t he Wa lbrook M i thrae um ( p . 2 22 ) , a lready men t ioned , wear ing h is c orn-mod ius emb le m o f f er t i l ity , e n tw ined w i th v ine l eaves , a nd w i th a p hys iognomy v ery a k in t o t ha t o ft he c lass ica l J up i ter .

E lsewhere , s tone h eads c ome f rom S i lches ter where t here

may h ave b een a S erapaeu m , a nd f ro m a g rave i n r ura l W iltsh ire a t H ighwor th ( p . 1 93, P l . XX I I , k ) c o mes ap orphyry h ead o ft he g od , p resumab ly p resen t h ere i n h is r o le a s L ord o ft he D ead .

Harpocra tes, G en ius o f Wa tch fu lness a nd

t ac i turn ity , i s r epresented r ea l ly o n ly i n L ondon ( p . 2 22, P l . XX I I , e ) , w ith o ther o ccas iona l s ca t tered o ccurrences . F our b ronzes f ro m L ondon e x is t a nd o ne t erraco t ta f igure . Where t hey s urv ive , h is a n i ma l emb lems c an b e s een , a s c an h is w ings , moon-crescen t , a nd t he f i nger t o t he l i ps . T he h awk , s y mbo l o ft he o r ig ina l H orus o f E gyp t , o ccurs t hree t imes, o nce , i n teres t ing ly , f rom a Ro mano-Ce lt ic s hr ine i n S urrey , a t F ar ley H ea th ( p . 2 19) , s how ing p erh aps C e lt ic a cceptance o ft he c u l t . O ther E gyp t ian d e i t ies o ccur r are ly i n c iv i l ian Roman Br ita in . T hree b ronze r epresen ta t ions o ft he h ead o f a n t h is a re k nown , p resu mab ly s ymbo l is ing t he E gyp t ian g od o f med ic ine a nd wr i t ing , T ho th , whose emb le m was t he I b is ( e .g . P l . XX I I ,i ) , a nd t hree r epresen ta t ions o ft he o r ig ina l g od , Os ir is, a re k nown ( pp . 1 72,200 ) . J up i ter Am mon , t he S un-god o f T hebes , o ccurs t w ice i n t he f or m o fp ot tery a pp l iqués i n K en t , a t C an terbury ( p . 2 31, P l . XXI I I , a ) a nd Borough G reen ( p .227 ) ,a nd o ne o r t wo s carabs a re k nown ( pp . 1 96,230 ) ,r ep resen ta t ions o ft he E gyp t ian D ung Bee t le , c onnected w ith t he w orsh ip o ft he s un g od , Re , i n h is c rea tor r o le , a nd l a ter b ecom ing mere ly g ood l uck s ymbo ls . 43 T he g oodluck dwarf , Bes , a ppears t w ice , o nce i n f a ience a t G louces ter ( p .172 ) . T hree p oss ib le d ep ict ions i n b ronze o f H e l ioserap is t he a spec t o f S erap is c onnected p art icu lar ly w i th t he s un - e x is t ( e .g . P l . d ) a nd , f i na l ly , a s amu le ts , N e ith , g oddess o f S a is i n Egyp t , a nd B ast , t he c a t-de i ty o f Bubast is , a re r epresen ted a t G louces ter ( p .172 ) . A s chwabt is ( f igur ines p laced i n Egyp t ian t o mbs t o d o o ne 's work f or o ne i n t he a f ter l ife ) i s a lso k nown ( p . 1 97) .

5 8

T he Cu lts o f S yr ia Apar t f ro m t he c u lt o f A targa t is , t he g rea t Mo ther-goddess o f H ierapo l is , t he S yr ian d e it ies h ave s o much i n c o m mon t ha t t hey a re e as i ly g rouped t og e ther .

T hey a re a l l , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f A targa t is , ma le , a nd t hey a l l

b egan a s l oca l S yr ian s ky/sun a nd wea ther g ods o r Baa ls o f d if feren t c i t ies a nd r eg ions i n S yr ia .

I n Roman t imes t he f l oru i t o ft he S yr ian Mo ther o ccurred

i nt he Eas tern Ro man emp ire i n t he i st a nd 2 nd c entur ies A .D .

H owever , s he

e n tered I t a ly l ong b efore t h is a nd h ere S yr ian s laves may h ave b een t he f i rst w orsh ippers .

I n t he 2 nd c entury B .C . merchan ts were i mpor t ing i n to I t a ly

s laves, e .g . f ro m D e los , w h ich was a g rea t c u l t c entre f or t he g oddess . 1 87 B . C .

F ro m

t here were S yr ian mus ic ians i n Ro me a nd i n 1 34 B .C . t he S ic i l ian

s lave r evo l t was l ed b y a n A targa t is worsh ipper .

4 4

I n S yr ia t here was n o u n iversa l p an theon a s t here was i n Egyp t b u t mere ly l oca l c ity p ro tectors ,

4 5

a l l-powerfu l d e i t ies .

I n t he I st c entury A .D . t here

w ere S yr ian r ecru its i n t he a r my .

T he e ar ly 3 rd c entury d ynas ty o ft he

S everans h ad a h a lf-Syr ian c our t .

T he H igh Pr iest o f t he Baa l o f Emesa ,

E lagaba lus , b eca me emperor i n t he 3 rd c entury A .D .

T he a dop t ion o f S yr ian

d e i t ies b y R o me was q u ite n a tura l . J up iter D o l ichenus was t he r esu l t o ft he f us ion o f t he e le men ts a nd i dent ity o fJ up iter w ith t he l o ca l wea ther g od o f Do l iche a t Co m magene . B aa l a nd a lso p res ided o ver t he i ron-work ing i n t he a rea .

H e was a s ky

H is c u l t s pread

w i th t he s o ld iers a nd was a t i t s mos t p opu lar i n t he Ro man wor ld i n t he f i rs t p ar t o f t he 3 rd c en tury A .D .

4 6

H e i s s carce ly f ound , a t a ny r a te i n t he

Western p rov inces , i n c iv i l ian c on tex ts . a f ter t he a nnexa t ion o f C o mmagene . o n t he Aven t ine H i l l i n 1 38 A .D .

4 7

H e b eca me p opu lar w ith t he a r my

I n Ro me t here was a Do l ichene t e mp le H e was e spec ia l ly p opu lar i n t he Rh ine land

a nd Nor thern Gau l , j ust a s h e was f ar more p opu lar i n m i l itary t han i n c iv i l ian a reas o f B r ita in , where h e h ard ly a ppears a t a l l . H eddernhe im ,

4 8

c ons is t

Mos t c u lt o b jects , e .g . a t

o ft r iangu lar b ronze a nd s i lver p laques s how ing t he

g od i n t he c on ica l p i leus o f a sm ith-god w ie ld ing a t hunderbo l t a nd d oub le a xe , s tand ing o n t op o f ab u l l ;

h is c onsor t , J uno Reg ina , s tands o n ah ind .

Monu-

ments t o t he g od a ppear a l l a long t he who le l eng th o f t he Rh ine a nd l imes .

4 9

J up i ter H e l iopo l itanus , t he r o man ized S yr ian Baa l o f He l iopo l is o r Baa lbek , a lso made h is a ppearance i n t he Western p rov inces , ma in ly i n t he 3 rd c entury A .D . when h e a ppears t o h ave b een p opu lar i n S outhern G au l , f or s o me r eason , a nd Upper G er many , a ppear ing a s a wea ther a nd v ege ta t ion d e ity r a ther t han a s af igh ter l ike D o l ichenus .5 0 On ly o ne S yr ian d e ity a sp ired t ob eco m ing a n a t iona l c u lt - S o l I nv ictus t he Unconquered S un , h a i led a s s uch b y t he l eg ions a t Pa l myra .

T he mo ther

o ft he I l lyr ian Emperor A ure l ian i n t he l a ter 3 rd c entury A . D . h ad b een a p r iestess o f t he S un a t Emesa , a nd i t was u nder Aure l ian t ha t S o l I nv ictus g rew t o r ea l i mportance , u n l ike t he o s ten ta t ious b u t p aroch ia l a t te mp ts o f E lagaba lus . A ure l ian b u i lt a t e mp le t o S o l i n t he m idd le o f Ro me , i n 2 74 A .D . o n t he Ca mpus Agr ippae , as hr ine o f f an tas t ic p ropor t ions a nd e labora t ion . T here were o f f ic ia l s ta te c lergy , ' pon t if ices d e i S o l is ' , r o man izing t he g od s t i l l f ur ther .

The c u lt

r e ma ined t he c h ief imper ia l , a nd t hus o f f ic ia l c u l t u n t i l t he a rr iva l o f Chr is t ian-

5 9

i t y i n i t s o f f ic ia l c apac ity a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he 4 th c entury A .D .

5 1

O nce

a ga in t he my tho logy a nd r i tua ls a t tached t o t he S yr ian c u lts a re w e ll-document ed . 5 2 S yr ian G ods i n C iv i l ian B r ita in T he r ange a nd f requency o f a ny o ft he S yr ian d e i t ies i n c iv i l ian Roman Br ita in i s e x treme ly sma l l a nd s parse b u t t h is i s o n ly t o b e e xpected w hen o ne c ons iders t ha t i t was t he a r my u nder w h ich t he S yr ian c u l ts e spec ia l ly s pread .

Do l ichenus, A targa t is a nd S o l I nv ictus d o make t he ir a ppearance

b u t o n ly v ery o ccas iona l ly .

D o l ichenus was p robab ly f i rst w orsh ipped i n

Nor th Br ita in i n t he m id-2nd c en tury i n t he H adr ian 's Wa l l a rea .

On ly f our

d ef in ite p ieces o f e v idence a t test t he worsh ip o ft he g od i n t he c iv i l ian r eg ion . A c astor-ware p o t f ro m C a mbr idgesh ire s hows t he g od w ith d oub le-axe a nd Phryg ian c ap ( p . 2 07) ;

a n i nscr ip t ion s urv ives wh ich t hough f ound i n an on-

m i l i tary c on tex t a t S t . J u l ians ( p . 1 82 )may a c tua l ly h ave c ome f ro m C aer leon , a nd t wo b ronzes a re k nown .

A targa t is i s k nown a s D ea S yr ia a t Corbr idge i n

t he Nor th , b u t i n t he c iv i l ian a rea s he i s k nown o n ly f ro m t he Wa lbrook ( London) M i thraeu m ( p . 2 22 ) ,f rom t he l eve ls a bove t he b ur ied s cu lp ture , o n a sma l l r ounde l d ep ic t ing t he f i sh-goddess w i th a t tendant D ioscur i . S o l I nv ic tus i s r epresen ted i n L ondon o n af unerary l ead c y l inder ( p .223 )a nd p oss ib ly o n ab ronze f ro m t he l a te Ro mano-Ce lt ic s hr ine a t L ydney ( p .170) . T he F unct ion o ft he Pagan Or ienta l C u lts Ap hys ica l r eason f or t he * s pread o f e as tern c u lts was t he s lave t rade , c onq ues t , a nd o ther t rade .

T h ink ing p eop le i n t he Ro man emp ire w ere d issa t is-

f i ed w i th t he s tacca to o f f ic ia l is m o f t he Roman S ta te c u lts . n or ma l ly t o leran t o f f ore ign r e l ig ions .

T he Ro mans w ere

T h is c o mb ina t ion o f f ac tors h e lped t o

s pread Or ien ta l c u l ts t hroughout t he Roman w or ld . E astern r e l ig ions w ere e bu l l ien t , a l ive , s y mpa the t ic a nd r espons ive ; e ach man h ad a n i nd iv idua l b ond w ith h is g od .

T he s enses , c onsc ience a nd i n te l l igence were p rov ided f r.

Mer it a nd h igh s tandards were c a l led f or - r e fresh ing c oncep ts i n as on :? , wha t men ta l ly s tu l t ify ing Ro man emp ire . I n B r i ta in p agan O r ien ta l c u lts must h ave a rr ived w ith t he a rmy o r vi t h merchan ts ; T hus we a re a b le t o a pprec ia te t he c oncen tra t ion o f c u lt-ob jec ts i n L ondon a nd , t o al esser e x ten t , p laces l i ke G loucester .

T he a dop t ion o f

t hese c u l ts i mp l ies a d egree o f Roman s oph is t ica t ion s ince t hey a ppeared t hrough Roman med ia . I ti s r ura l b ackwa ters l i ke H ockwo ld , y ie ld ing e d ence o f t he k now ledge o ft hese r i tes ,wh ich a rouse i n terest . CHR IST IAN ITY I ti s n o t p roposed h ere t o d iscuss t he o r ig ins a nd g row th o f C hr ist ian ity i n t he w es tern p rov inces n or t o e xam ine i n d e ta i l t he C on t inen ta l e v idence . T he s ub ject i s c omp lex ; t o d o i tj us t ice wou ld b e t o p roduce t oo l ong a n arrat ive a nd i ti s p o in t less t o c o mpress i ti n to a f ew p aragraphs .

Moreover

C hr ist ian i ty i n t he Ro man p er iod h as b een t he s ub ject o f r ecen t s tud ies, a nd i ti s u nnecessary t o p rec is wha t i s a lready w e l l-docu men ted .

6 0

5 3

T he L iterary Ev idence Br ita in d id n o t r ea l ly k now a bou t Chr ist b efore t he l a ter 2 nd c en tury A .D . T er tu ll ian w r it ing a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 3 rd c en tury s a id t ha t e ven p eop le l i v ing i n o u t-of-the-way p laces i n Br ita in w ere l earn ing a bou t Chr ist 5 4 t annoru m i naccessa Ro man is l oca Chr is to v ero s ubd ita ' .

' Br i-

Or igen , wr it ing

c irca 2 30-40 i n Caesarea , s ays i n o ne p lace t ha t many Br itons h ad n o t y e t h eard o f t he G ospe 15 5 b u t i n a no ther t ha t Chr ist was a u n ify ing f orce among t he Br itons ' Quando e n im t erra Br itann iae a n te a dven tu m Chr ist i i n u n ius d e i c onsens i t r e l ig ione m ' .

5 6

D r . Morr is h as g iven g ood r easons f or d a t ing

t he martyrdo m o f S t . A lban a t Veru la m iu m t o 2 09 .

I n 3 14 Br i t ish b ishops

5 7

f ro m t hree d ef in ite d ioceses , L ondon , York a nd p robab ly Co lchester ( t he l ast b ishop n amed Ade lph ius, w i th a p r iest a nd d eacon i n a t tendance ) a t tended t he a n t i-Dona t is t Counc i l o f Ar les ,

5 8

b u t D r . Mann h as p o in ted o u t t ha t a Br it ish

b ishop may we l l h ave c o me f ro m C irences ter .

5 9

T here were , a l toge ther ,

t h irty-three p re la tes r epresen t ing G au l , Br ita in , S pa in a nd N . W . Morocco " a nd t h is i mp l ies a n o rgan ized Church a t a ny r a te i n t he ma jor t owns o ft hese a reas b y t h is d a te .

I n 3 25 t he Church i n Br ita in i s r ecorded a s h av ing a ccep-

t ed t he d e f in it ions a nd d ecrees o ft he Counc i l o f N icaea 6 1

a nd i n 3 59 a t t he

C ounci l o f Ar im inu m Br it ish b ishops , o fu nknown s ees, a ccep ted t he o f fer o f p ay men t o ft he ir e xpenses b y t he c en tra l f i scus f or t he ir j ourney b ecause t hey , a nd p resumably a lso t he ir c hurches were s o p oor .

By 3 90 Pa tr ick 's

6 2

f am i ly h ad i ncluded Chr is t ian c lergy f or t wo g enera t ions .

6 3

I n t he l a te 4 th

c entury V ictr ic ius o f Rouen s et t led e cc les ias t ica l d isputes i n Br ita in .

6 4

A t

t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c entury we h ear a bout Pe lag ius a nd h is d oc tr ine o f F ree W i l l a nd D iv ine Grace i n Br i ta in a nd t here must h ave b een s oph ist ica ted C hr ist ians i n Br i ta in t o d eba te t h is h eresy .

We a lso k now t ha t Pope Ce lest ine

i n 4 22-32 a t te mp ted t o s top i ti n t he p rov ince a nd h e s ent G er manus i n 4 29 t o B r ita in f or t h is p urpose .

6 5

T he r es is tance a ga inst Chr is t ian ity b y p agan is m

i s s hown i n l i terary e v idence b y Nenn ius 6 6 i n t ha t h e r ecords t ha t V or t igern i n t he m id-5 th c en tury c onsu lted ' mag i' n o t Te p iscopP .

6 7

Archaeo log ica l Ev idence f or Chr is t ian ity i n C iv i l ian Ro man Br i ta in 6 8 The d istr ibu t ion o f C hr ist ian o b jects i n Br ita in d ur ing t he l a te Ro man p er iod s hows at h in s ca t ter t hroughou t s ou thern a nd e astern Br ita in w i th e ven f ewer f i nds i n t he n or thern mi l itary a reas o f t he p rov ince .

The p icture i s n o t o ne o f

ag rea t wave o fp opu lar i ty f or t he c u lt a nd Br i ta in s ee ms t o b e d if feren t i n t h is a nd o ther r espects f ro m o ther p rov inces e .g . Nor th A fr ica wh ich h as much e v idence o f Chr is t ian i ty b o th i n t he way o f l i terary a nd a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l a t test ing t he p opu lar ity o ft he c u l t .

6 9

I n c iv i l ian Ro man B r i ta in we k now o f c hurches a t S i lchester ( p . 1 95 ) , Caerwen t ( p .183 ) , a nd ( f ro m Bede) Can terbury ( p . 2 31 ) .

We k now o f d o mest ic

c hape ls a t L u l l ingstone ( p . 2 27 ) , F ramp ton ( p .201 )a nd H in ton S t . Mary ( p . 1 86) , a s we l l a s t he e v idence f ro m C irencester ( p .174 )where a C hr ist ian ( ?) c ryp togra m was f ound s cra tched o n t he wa l l o f ah ouse i n t he 3 rd c en tury , o ur e ar l ies t e v idence .

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F ramp ton ( p .201 ) , H in ton ( p .186 )a nd L u l l ings tone ( p .227 )a re r are e xamp les i n Br i ta in o f c hape ls b u i l t o n c oun try e sta tes , wh ich o ne d oes of ten f i nd i n Roman Gau l .

7 1

I ti s p oss ib le i n f act t ha t F ramp ton was n o t a ctua l ly a v i l la

6 1

-i t was s i ted o n l ow we t g round r a ther u nsu i tab le f or a c oun try s ea t a nd s im i lar s truc tures a re k nown a t Aqu i le ia . 7 2 L u l l ings tone w as i n i ts C hr ist ian p hase a s ump tuous r es idence ,7 3 v ery p oss ib ly b e long ing t o aR o man , o r a t l east a v ery i mportan t o f f ic ia l o f s o me k ind ; d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o ft he 4 th c en tury s o me o f t he r oo ms w ere s e t a s ide f or Chr ist ian u se a nd o n t he wa l ls r ich ly d ressed f i gures , w ith h ands i n t he ' Gran t& a t t itude o f p rayer , a s we l l a s d ep ict ions o ft he C h i-Rho monogram w ere f ound p a in ted .

The c lo thes

o ft he p a in ted f i gures s how g rea t wea l th i n t he ir o rnamen ta t ion , a ga in i nd icat ing t he s tand ing o ft he v i l la-owner a t t h is p er iod . Para l le ls t o t hese f i gures a re t ob e f ound , e .g . i n t he p a in t ings o ft he C hr ist ian c hurch a t T abarka i n N or thern T un is ia 7 4 a nd t he D om it i l la Ca tacomb n ear Ro me .7 5 F ra mp ton a nd H in ton S t . Mary h ad mosa ics d ep ict ing Chr ist i n o ne a nd Ch i-Rhos i n b o th . Apar t f rom t h is t he mosa ic f l oors o ft hese a nd o ther v i l las i n t he a rea o ft he s ou th-west s how c lass ica l my th ica l s cenes , s uch a s Be l lerophon s lay ing t he C h i maera wh ich , a l legor ica l ly , may h ave b een c hosen t o r epresen t t he C hr ist i an t hough t o ft he t r iu mph a nd c on t inu ing s trugg le o f g ood o ver e v i l a nd l i gh t o ver d arkness ,7 6 j ust a s t h is t heme i s f ound i n C e l t ic p agan ism , i n t he J up i ter-G ian t c o lu mns ( see Ch . 1 ) . A t F ramp ton t he C h i-Rho marched w i th p agan s cenes , t he monogram b e ing t ucked i n to ab order o f a n a pse .

7 7

A t Caerwen t ( p .183 )o n t he s i te o f t he Roman Ba ths, af ter t he ir c o l lapse , a sma l l b u i ld ing w ith o b long c hamber a nd f l a t tened a pse o n t he e ast e nd , o f v ery l a te Ro man o r s ub-Roman d a te , was b u i lt . A t t he S outh- West c orner was a f ragmen t o f a n L -shaz ed a n te-cha mber , c on te mporary w i th t he o b long r oom b u t n o tb onded w ith i t . ( 8 A t S i lchester 7 9 a n o b long b u i ld ing w ith n ar thex , a pse , a nd n ave a nd t wo s ide a is les , w i th t wo l a tera l c hambers o r q uas it ransep ts was 4 th c entury i n d a te , r e markab ly c hurchl ike i n p lan a lthough s ome p agan a nd Chr ist ian s hr ines a rch i tectura l ly c ou ld b e v ery s im i lar i nt he Roman p er iod a s o ne c an s ee f rom t he g round p lan o ft he i st c en tury p agan u nderground b as i l ica a t P or ta Magg iore i n Rome 8° a nd t he 4 th c entury t e mp le t o D ea S yr ia o n t he J an icu lu m .8 1 I n e ar ly c hurches , s uch a s S i lchester r-a y we l l h ave b een , s o me t i mes t he c e lebran t f aced e ast , s tand ing b eh ind t he a l tar , f ac ing t he c ongrega t ion a nd t here wou ld b e ab ench r ound t he a pse f or t he . 3 1 ergy . r T here a ppears t o h ave b een r oo m e nough f or s uch ab ench a t S i lchester . T he t ransep ts h ere c an b e ma tched i n s acr ist ies o f e ar ly c hurches a l l o v t -t he emp ire .

8 3

A t G uesser ia i n A lger ia t he c hurch was s im i lar i n p lan b ut l arge

a nd w i th a n a pse o n t he e ast - n o t t he w est a s a t S i lchester . 84 F ina l ly : Is r egards p oss ib le Ro man c hurches i n B r i ta in , B ede s hou ld n o t b e f orgoU

5

i n h is r e mark c oncern ing S t . Mar t in 's C hurch , C anterbury b u i l t , h e s ta tes , wh i le t he Ro mans s t i l l l ived i n t hese i s lands . A t C hedwor th ( p .174 )f our s labs h ave b een f ound s haped f or ah exagona l p oo l o r n ymphaeu m , a l l o f wh ich a re s cra tched w ith s ome s or t o f c ross a nd o ne d ef in ite ly " Chr ist ian ized" b y t he p resence o f as cra tched Ch i-Rho , p roba b ly e ar ly 4 th c entury . T he c ryp togram f ound a t C irencester i s i n terest ing . F ound i n 1 868 i tc ons isted o f a word-square i n r ust ic c ap i ta ls o n af ragmen t o f r ed wa l l-p las ter i n a Roman h ouse i n t he t own .

I t was worked o ut t ha t t he

s eem ing ly mean ing less words c an b e a rranged i n t he f or m o f ac ross ;

o ne

h ad t he s ing le w ord p a ternoster a s t he t runk a nd a rms w ith a s hared -' n ' i n t he m idd le a nd a n a lpha a nd omega a t e ach e nd .

8 6 ,7°

O ther v ers ions o f t he f orm-

u la e x is t a t D ura where t hey must a n teda te 2 56 w hen t he c i ty f e l l t o t he Pers ians 8 .7 6 2

Most B r i t ish Chr ist ian f i nds a re a ssoc ia ted w ith t he owners o f Roman v i l las .

There i s n o e v idence f ro m t he p easan t s et t lemen ts .

Many o f t he

R omano-Ce l t ic t e mp les were e x tre me ly a ct ive d ur ing t he 4 th c entury e ven t hough t he R oman wor ld was o f f ic ia l ly C hr ist ian .

I n G au l t here i s l a te p agan

e v idence b u tu n l ike Br ita in t here i s n o e v idence o fn ew t emp les b e ing b u i lt a t t h is t i me . ( S ee Ch . 3 ) . T here a re t wo e xamp les i n B r ita in o ft he p agan r i te o f d ecap ita t ion o f s ke le tons wh ich c an p robab ly b e d a ted t o t he 4 th c en tury a t S awbr idgewor th ( p . 2 10 )a nd Rad ley ( p .194 ) . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he C hr ist i an r esponse t o s ome p agan s hr ines was v io len t d estruct ion a nd a t t he L ondon a nd Carrawburgh M ithraea t here i s e v idence f or ' Chr ist ian ' w ra th , b u t a t t he L ondon s hr ine , a s w e h ave s een , M ithra is m w en t o n e ven a f ter t he h id ing o f s ome o f t he s acred images a nd t he d ep ic t ion o f A targa t is , t he S yr ian Mo therg oddess, c ame f ro m l a ter l eve ls .8 8 S ome o f t he p agan t own t e mp les d id h ave as horter l i fe t han s ome o ft he c ountry e xamp les a nd i ti s i n t he c oun trys ide t ha t t he n ew l a te s hr ines were e rec ted . O ft he t own s hr ines o n ly a f ew s how e v idence o fu se af ter 3 50 e .g . Co lchester 2 .8 9 A t S i lchester t he l i t t le ' c hurch ' o ccup ied a p ro m inen t p os i t ion i m med ia te ly s ou th-east o f t he f oru m b u t i t was sma l l a nd p oor a nd i t s d a te i s p robab ly n o e ar l ier t han 3 60 , a nd t wo p agan S i lchester t e mp les w ere s t i l l p robab ly i n u se i n 3 70 .

A t V eru lam-

i um t he R omano-Ce lt ic s hr ine a ssoc ia ted w ith t he t hea tre was s t i l l b e ing u sed a nd was a ctua l ly r efurb ished a s l a te a s 4 00 ,9 0 a nd y e t o n ly 3 0 y ears l a ter G er manus was s en t h ere t o c o mba t P e lag ian is m .

S ome Romano-Ce l t ic

s hr ines d ec l ined a f ter t he r e ign o f Va len t in ian . Brean D own was n o tb u i lt u nt i l 3 40 b u t was o ut o fu se b y 3 70 - t he i n ter ior was r ansacked a nd a sme lt ing f urnace p u t i n t he n or thern a nnexe . S pr inghead , t ha t impor tan t h ea l ing c en tre , w as d ec l in ing i n t he l a ter 4 th c entury b u t , f or e xamp le , F r i lford wen t o n a f ter 4 00 a nd s o may h ave Ma iden C ast le ( See C h . 3 ) . V ery f ew p agan t e mp les s how s igns o f d e l ibera te r ansack ing b y C hr ist ians o r a nyone e lse .9 1 We h ave s een f ro m e .g . L u l l ingstone , C hedwor th a nd f rom F ramp ton a nd H inton S t . Mary t ha t t he v i l las p layed a l arge p ar t i n t he d istr ibut ion o f C hr ist i an o b jec ts i n t he p rov ince o f Br ita in . F or i nstance t wo C hr ist ian l ead t anks wh ich may b e b ap t is ma l f on ts p robab ly c o me f rom v i l las - o ne c ame f ro m n ear t he v i l la a t I ck l ingham ( p . 2 13 ) 9 2 a nd o ne c ame f rom W iggonho l t ( p . 2 19) w here a v i l la i s k nown . The p ew ter b ow ls f rom We lney ( p .211 )a nd App leshaw n ear Andover ( 1 3 .193 )c ame f rom v i l las a s p oss ib ly d id t he p ew ter b ow l f rom E ly ( p .211 )a nd d ef in ite ly t he t wo r ings f ro m F ifehead N ev i l le ( p . 1 86) .

T he o ther C hr ist ian o b jects a re f ro m t he t owns, e .g . ap ew ter b ow l f rom

L ondon ( p . 2 22 ,P l . XX IV , c ) , al ead s ea l , r ing a nd g lass s herd w ith f i sh a nd p a lm b ranch f ro m S i lchester ( p . 1 96 ) , s poons f rom D orchester ( p . 2 01 )a nd C anterbury ( p . 2 31) , p ew ter i ngo ts f ro m L ondon ( p . 2 21 ) , a n i nscr ibed s herd f ro m E xe ter ( p . 1 99, P l . XXIV , d ) , a nd a s am ian d ish f orm 3 1 f rom C an terb ury ( p .231 ) , a nd a s poon f rom C o lchester ( p . 2 17 ) . S poons s uch a s t hose f ro m Br i ta in , p resu mab ly C hr isten ing s poons o r f or s o me o t her l i turg ica l p urpose , a re a lso k nown o n t he C on t inen t e .g . o ne f rom A in i nscr ibed w ith

‚v ivas

i n d eo ' l i ke t he S i lchester r ing x a nd a s i lvered

b ronze e xa mp le f ro m Me tz i nscr ibed ' Pe ter a nd Pau l ' ." L ead t anks a re a lso k nown o u ts ide Br ita in , s ome i nscr ibed w i th s ome Chr ist ian mo t if a s t he t wo d iscussed a bove a nd a lso s o me p la in o nes wh ich may h ave b een f or s ecu-

6 3

l ar u se .

9 4

The n on-Chr ist ian Br it ish e xamp le f ro m Bour ton-on-the- Wa ter

c an p robab ly b e d a ted 3 70-90 wh ich h e lps d a te t he Chr ist ian e xa mp les .

9 5

A na lys is o f C iv i l ian Br i t ish Ro man Chr is t ian F inds S ta t ist ica l ly , i n S outh-eastern B r ita in w e h ave e v idence o f t hree c hurches , t hree c hape ls , o ne c ryp togra m , o ne n ymphaeu m , t hree t anks , t hree f i shb rooches , e igh t p ew ter a nd b ronze b ow ls , t we lve s poons, n ine p o ttery a nd g lass v esse ls o r s herds, e igh t p ew ter i ngo ts, a nd misce l laneous sma l l o b jec ts i nc lud ing t we lve r ings , a nd t hree b ishops a re men t ioned s pec if ica lly . I n r ea l t er ms Chr ist ian i ty d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave g a ined a ny b ut ap recari ous f oo tho ld i n Br ita in . a nd u nd is t ingu ished .

S tructures f or w orsh ip a re " mown b u t t hey a re f ew

O b jec ts a re f or t he most p ar t sma l l a nd i nd iv idua l .

S t i l l we d o h ave t he l ead t anks , t he M i ldenha l l T reasure ( p . 2 13 )a nd L u l l ings tone ( p . 2 27 ) , a s we l l a s n or thern f i nds s uch a s t he Trapra in t reasure a l l g o ing t o s how t he s oc ia l s tand ing a nd t he w ea l th o f t he e ar l ies t Chr ist ians i n Br i ta in , a nd t he c o lu mn e rected i n t he l a ter 4 th c entury i n C irencester , i n h onour o ft he o ld r e l ig ion ( see C h . 2 ) , may mean t ha t Chr is t ian ity h ad a l l b ut d r iven o ut c o l lec t ive p agan is m a t l east i n t he p rov ince .

6 4

CHAPTER 5

THE FREQUENCIES AND D ISTR IBUT ION OF REL IG IOUS CULT-OBJECTS I N C IV IL IAN RO MAN BRITA IN ( For s i tes ment ioned i n t h is s ect ion t he r eader i s r eferred t o t he a lphabe t ic i ndex o f s i tes) . Th is c hap ter i s e ssen t ia l ly a d iscuss ion o ft he r e la t ive f requency among t he d if feren t t r ibes a nd t he n on-cantona l ma jor t owns i n c iv i l ian Roman Br ita in , o f g od-forms a nd r i tua l o b jec ts .

T he c a tegor ies f or c o mpara t ive d iscuss ion

a re t he ( s omewha t a rb itrary ) d iv is ions o ft he c an tons ; c o lon iae ;

t he t hree s outhern

a nd L ondon a nd B a th ( bo th t hese l as t-na med t owns g rew u p f or

s pec if ic a nd e xcep t iona l r easons - t he o ne a s t he c o m merc ia l c ap i ta l ,a nd t he o ther s urround ing a g rea t Ce l t ic c u l t-s i te ) .

I n af ur ther s ect ion a ny s ig-

n if ican t d is t inct ions b e tween ma jor c an tona l t owns, impos ing v i l las ( such a s Woodches ter) a nd t he s urround ing r ura l a reas a nd sma l l s e t t le men ts w i l l b e c ons idered .

F ina l ly t he d is tr ibut ion o f r o man iza t ion i n t he a rea , a s s hown

b y t he r e l ig ious e v idence , w i l l b e a ssessed . THE AREA ( F ig . 1 , p . 8 7 ) By c iv i l ian Ro man Br ita in i s meant E ng land s ou th o f Yorksh ire a nd L ancas h ire p lus t he c iv i l ian a reas o f S outh Wa les ( see F ig . 1 ) . W ith in t h is r eg ion s pec if ica l ly mi l i tary i nsta l la t ions s uch a s Caer leon a nd t he S axon S hore F or ts , a re om i t ted . I ts hou ld b e p o in ted o ut t ha t i ti s d if f icu lt

i n t he e x tre me t o a ss ign d ef in ite

t err i tor ies t o t r ibes i n B r i ta in d ur ing t he p re-Ro man a nd Ro man p er iods . i s imposs ib le t o b e a t a l l c er ta in o f t r iba l b oundar ies .

I t

F or t he i den t i ty a nd

l oca t ion o f t he o r ig ina l c iv i ta tes t he b as ic a u thor i ty i s P to le my 's ' Geography ', wr it ten i n t he 2 nd c entury b ut t hough t t o r efer t o i st c en tury s itua t ions .

Con-

f i r ma t ion o f t he i den t ity o ft r iba l c ap ita ls c o mes f ro m i nscr ip t ions ( e .g . a t Caerwen t a nd Wroxe ter ) , Cos mography .

2

1

a nd f ro m o ther wr i t ten s ources s uch a s t he Ravenna

C o in e v idence i s a lso i nva luab le , a l though o ne must b ear i n

mind t he p oss ib i l i ty o f f a lse i n terpre ta t ion ow ing t o t rade .

N ever the less , d is-

t r ibu t ions o f t r iba l c o inage d o q u ite c lear ly d ef ine p o l i t ica l u n its c orrespond ing c lose ly t o t he P to le ma ic t r ibes 3 ( F ig . 2 ) . a ss ign ing a reas t o t r ibes .

There a re o ther o ccas iona l a ids i n

F or i nstance t he T hur maston m i lestone men t ion ing

L e ices ter i s o bv ious ly i n C or i tan ian t err i tory .

6 5

4

THE NATURE OF THE PROBLE M I nas much a s t h is c hap ter i s c oncerned w i th t he d istr ibu t ion o f r e l ig ious c u l ts i n Roman Br ita in , c er ta in s pec if ic q uest ions s hou ld b e e xa m ined a nd t he ma in p rob le ms o ut l ined . 1 .

Two p ar t icu lar ly r e levan t t op ics a re s e t d own b e low :

T he d i f ferences i n r e l ig ious b e l ie fs b e tween t he c an tons ; c o lon iae ;

b e tween L ondon a nd Ba th ;

b e tween t he

whe ther a ny d e i t ies a ch ieved

p ro m inence i n ag iven a rea ; h ow l oca l o r w idespread c u lt-trends were ; w he ther n e ighbour ing c an tons i nf luenced o r r e ma ined i ndependen t o f e ach o ther . 2 .

Whe ther t owns d i f fered s ign if ican t ly f rom t he r ura l a reas w i th in t he t r ibes ; w he ther o ne t r ibe d i f fers f ro m a no ther i . n t h is r espec t ; c er ta in c u lts b e s a id t o f avour t own o r c oun trys ide?

c an

THE GENERAL FREQUENCY OF GOD-TYPES T here i s g rea t d anger i n a ssu m ing a the is m a nywhere , e specia l ly i n Ro man t owns .

Apparen t d is tr ibu t ion o f c u lt-ob jec ts mus t i n s o me c ases b e ar ef lec-

t i on o f e xcava t ion a nd c o l lec t ion s amp l ing , r a ther t han r ea l i ty . However , i t i s n o t p oss ib le t o s k ir t r ound t he d ear th o f e v idence i n t he p rov ince a s a who le c o mpared t o , s ay , G au l .

I n B r ita in we a re d ea l ing w ith m inute n umbers a nd

a ny a pparen t s ta t ist ica l s ign if icance mus t b e c arefu l ly s cru t in ized b efore i t s v a l id ity i s a ccep ted . I n many i ns tances n umbers o fu nder t hree o f a ny p art i cu lar d e i ty o r c u l t-ob jec t o ccur ;

t hese i nstances a re o n ly i mpor tan t i n i n-

d ica t ing t ha t t he g od i n q ues t ion i s k nown , o r t ha t aw ide v ar ie ty o f g od-for ms ( t hough e ach may b e p oor ly r epresen ted ) i s r epresen ted i n ag iven a rea . E spec ia l ly i n t he c ase o f Or ien ta l d e it ies a w ide v ar ie ty ( a lbe it a t h in s cat ter) o f e xa mp les o ccur t hroughou t t he p rov ince ; t h is i s i n i t se lf i n terest ing , a nd i fa ny e astern g od a ppears t w ice i n o ne t r iba l a rea a nd n owhere e lse , t h is may b e a n i mpor tan t r ea l iza t ion . G od-types i n c iv i l ian Ro man B r i ta in c an b e d iv ided i n to t hree ma in c a teg or ies o r g roups : 1 .

Or ien ta l , s ubd iv is ib le i n to p agan c u l ts a nd C hr ist ian i ty , wh ich , t hough i n o r ig in a n e astern c u l t , b eca me an a t iona l r e l ig ion i n t he 4 th c entury .

2&3 .

T he d iv is ion b e tween 2 a nd 3 i s d i f f icu l t .

I th as b een s een ( Ch . 1 ) t ha t

i ti s o f ten h ard t o d ist ingu ish c lass ica l a nd Ro mano-Ce lt ic d e i t ies b y a r t-for m a lone . T o ac er ta in e x ten t d iv is ions o f d e i t ies w i th in t he l ast t wo c a tegor ies a re d iv is ions i n to t ypes o f r epresen ta t ion r a ther t han c oncep ts , t hough t here a re e xcep t ions t o t h is ( e .g . t he p ipe-c lay ' Venus ' T he t wo g roups i n q uest ion may t hus b e d iv ided a s f o l lows : 2 .

G od-for ms w ith r ecogn isab le o r ig ins i n t he c lassica l p antheon , t hough s ome t i mes a dop t ing s trange f or ms a nd e qua t ions, w i th C e lt ic s urna mes a nd i den t if ica t ions w i th C e l t ic g ods . T hese a re a s f o l lows - A po l lo , Bacchus , D iana , G en i i , H ercu les , J up iter ( c lassica l a nd Ro manoC e lt ic) , Mars ( i nb o th c lass ica l a nd C e lt ic g u ise) , Mercury , M inerva , N ep tune , N u men o f t he Emperor , S i lvanus , V enus ( i n b ronze o r s tone) , V u lcan , a nd o ther ' Ro man ' d e it ies . 6 6

3 .

Dep ic t ions wh ich t hough s ome t i mes a dop t ing Ro man a r t-for ms , d o n o t , i n t he ir e ssen t ia l c harac ter ist ics , p ortray r ecogn isab ly Ro man g ods , a nd n ever b ear Ro man n ames .

T hese a re a s f o l lows -An i ma ls , M isce l-

l aneous n a med o r d ep ic ted Ce l t ic d e i t ies , Cernunnos , Dea Nu tr ix , Gen i i c ucu l la t i, g ods d ep icted a s h eads o r w i th h orns , t he D eae Ma tres, t he Ce l t ic p ipe-c lay P seudo-Venus , t he r am-headed s nake , S uce l lus , t he t hree-horned b u l l, T ou ta tes . s ha l l s ee .

Ros mer ta s tradd les g roups 2 a nd 3 a s we

S he i s t he c onsor t o f Mercury a nd i s n ever f ound w i thou t h im ,

b ut s he i s aC e lt ic r a ther t han a Ro man p heno menon . F requency o f Each G roup Group O ne .

A tys a nd C ybe le were t he most impor tan t p agan o r ien ta l d e i-

t i es i n t he c antons .

M i thra is m a nd E gyp t ian c u l ts a re s carce .

T here a re

more Chr is t ian c u l t-ob jec ts i n t he t r iba l a reas t han t hose o f a ny o ther c u lt , b u t i t mus tb e r e me mbered t ha t t he Chr ist ian r e l ig ion b eca me t he of ic ia l s ta te c u lt i nt he 4 th c entury a nd mos t C hr ist ian c u l t-ob jec ts d a te f ro m t h is p er iod .

Among t he t hree c o lon iae t here i s l i t t le i nd ica t ion o f o r ien ta l worsh ip ,

o dd i ndeed c onsider ing t he p resu mab ly c os mopo l i tan p opu la t ion i nc lud ing merchan ts .

A t G loucester t here was p robab ly a Me troon .

L iterary s ources

s ugges t t ha t t here was a n o rgan ized Church a t Co lchester b y t he e ar ly 4 th c entury .

U n l ike Ba th where t here i s a n a l mos t c o mp le te d ear th , L ondon i s

r e la t ive ly r ich i n a l l G roup O ne t ypes .

C hr ist ian ity , M ithra is m , C ybe le-

a nd I s is-worsh ip a re a l l we l l-recorded h ere - a M i thraeu m , a nd I saeu m a nd p robab ly a Metroon a re e v idenced . I n G roup Two o ne i s s truck b y t he h igh f requency i n t he c antons o f j ust f ive g ods - H ercu les , J up iter ( i n v ar ious f or ms) , Mars , Mercury a nd M inerva . T h is mirrors t he s i tua t ion i n Gau l where Mercury i s t he c o m monest d e ity , b u t h ere i n B r ita in Mars h as t he l arges t v ar ie ty o f n a t ive e p ithe ts ; v ince Mercury h as o n ly o ne ( a t Co lchester ) .

i n t h is p ro-

Hercu les a lso h as o ne n a t ive

s urna me , S aegon a t S i lchester , a nd M inerva i s e qua ted o n ly w i th S u l a t Ba th . A f ter t hese f ive V enus a nd C up id a re most p opu lar , f o l lowed b y G en i i , t hen Apo l lo , B acchus , D iana , a nd f i na l ly S i lvanus a nd V u lcan .

I n t he t hree c o lon-

i ae Mars , Mercury a nd H ercu les s how s im i lar p opu lar ity t o t he c antons .

The

Nu men o ft he Emperor i s n a tura l ly o f g rea ter s ign if icance h ere , a s a re Venus a nd G en i i .

I n L ondon a nd Ba th r espect ive ly ( t hough f or d if feren t r easons)

Mercury a nd M inerva were t he most c o m mon ly d ep icted d e it ies, t he f or mer i n h is c lass ica l mercan t i le r o le , a nd t he l a t ter a s ah ea ler . I n G roup T hree t he Mo ther-goddess i s t he b est-represen ted , e i ther i n t he f or m o fp ipe c lay ' Venus ' f i gur ines , Dea N u tr ix o r i n h er t r ip l ica te ( or s ing le ) ' Ma tres ' f or m . t ion ;

T he ' Pseudo-Venus ' i s b y f ar t he most p ro l if ic t ype o f d ep ic-

w i th l ess t han h a lf h er n u mbers c o mes t he Dea N u tr ix , a nd t hen t he

' Ma tres ' .

An i ma l emb le ms a nd G en i i c ucu l la t i a re f a ir ly we l l-represen ted ,

b ut g ods d ep ic ted b y h eads a lone o r w ith h orns , s o p reva len t i n n or thern Br i ta in , o ccur s e ldo m h ere .

I n t he c o lon iae n one o f t he more C e lt ic t ypes

were p opu lar , e xcep t p erhaps t he Ce l t ic ' Venus ' a t C o lchester . t here must h ave b een a c u l t-cen tre f or t he Mo ther-goddess ;

I n L ondon

t here a re many

p ipe-c lay ' Venus ' f igures - o ver h a lf f ro m t he Wa lbrook Va l ley - a nd t here i s e v idence o f as hr ine t o t he D eae Ma tres i n t he f or m o f as cu lpture , ad ed ic a t ion a nd a t i n p laque .

6 7

I n terpre ta t ion o f G od-for m F requenc ies I ti s n ecessary t o c ons ider wha t t hese f requenc ies mean i n a bso lu te t er ms . D o f i ve s ta tues o f A tys a nd e igh t b ronze s ta tuet tes o f Hercu les mean much o r l i t t le , a nd wha t i s t he ir i mpor tance r e la t ive t o e ach o ther ? Two t ypes o f wors h ipper must b e b orne i n m ind h ere .

T here was g roup-worsh ip ( i nc lud ing t ha t

o f t he o f f ic ia l s ta te r e l ig ion) , a nd t he i nd iv idua l d evo tee .

Sma l l b ronzes a nd

p ipe-c lay f igures were p robab ly f or p r iva te u se , t he f or mer p erhaps t he p roper ty o f wea l thy p eop le s ince t hey were o bv ious ly s o me t imes impor ted .

I t

i s n ecessary t o c ons ider t e mp les t o s pec if ic d e i t ies , s tone s ta tues a nd r e l iefs . Are t hese t he r esu l t o f i nd iv idua l p ie ty o r w ere t hey s e t u p b y t he S ta te , g roups o r g u i lds ? T he L ondon M ithraeu m was p robab ly e rected b y ag roup o f d evot ees, s o me o f whom d ed ica ted t he r e l iefs a nd s cu lp tures f ound t here . T h is was a mee t ing-p lace n o t o n ly f or M i thra is ts b u t a lso f or d evo tees o f M inerva , D ionysus , Mercury a nd o thers . t o S u l i n Ba th .

T he s ame must b e t rue o f t he g rea t t e mp le

H ere was a c lass ica l t e mp le d ed ica ted t o aC e l t ic g oddess ,

i n s o me i nstances e qua ted w ith a s ta te Roman d e i ty , b ut w ith amass ive a l tar d ep ic t ing c lass ica l g ods , a nd c on ta in ing many s cu lptures o f c lass ica l a nd C e l t ic d iv in i t ies .

T h is i s as upre me e xamp le o f c orpora te w orsh ip .

T he a l-

t ar t o C ybe le f ro m L ondon may b e long t o as hr ine , p erhaps s e t u p b y ag u i ld ( poss ib ly o f merchan ts) ; b u t t he sma l l b ronzes d ep ict ing A tys o r Cybe le w ere t he p roper ty o f i nd iv idua ls who c ou ld e i ther b e t he s ame merchants who p u t u p t he money f or t he t e mp le , o r o fp oorer f o lk . T he c hurches o f L ondon a nd Co lches ter mus t h ave b een s ta te-run ;

Chr is t ian l ead t anks p oss ib ly b e longed

t o aC hr is t ian s hr ine , b u t sma l l o b jects - l i ke t he C h i-Rho i nscr ibed s herd f ro m E xe ter - b e longed t o p r iva te d evo tees .

I nscr ip t ions a re l i ke ly t o h ave

b een t he r esu lt o f c orpora te worsh ip - b ecause o f t he e xpense a nd b ecause o f t he i mp l ica t ions o f at e mp le .

Most s ta tues o r r e l iefs i n s tone w ere p robably

t he p roper ty o f g roups , b u t sma l l s tone c arv ings , s uch a s a re f ound i n t he t err i tory o ft he D obunn i , c ou ld we l l h ave t aken t he p lace o f me ta l o r c lay s ince many o ft hese a r t ic les were r ough ly made , a nd s tone i n t he C o tswo lds was p erhaps a s c heap a s p ipe-c lay i n o ther a reas . S ign if icant ly t here a re f ew sma l l f i gur ines o f e .g . Mars a nd Mercury among t h is t r ibe c ompared t o t he n u mber o f s tone e f f ig ies o ft hese d e i t ies ; a ga in t he D eae Ma tres i n s tone a re f requen t h ere b u t p ipe-c lay f igur ines o f ' Venus ' o r t he D ea N u tr ix a re mos t u nco m mon . CO MPAR ISONS BET WEEN THE CANTONS , BET WEEN THE COLONIAE , AND LONDON AND BATH ( I n e ach c ase t he c an tons a re c ons idered f i rs t ( Tab le 1 , p . 8 3) ) G roup One ;

Or ien ta l D e i t ies a nd C hr is t ian ity ( F igs . 3& 4 , p p . 8 9 ,90)

T he D e me tae ( re la t ive ly u nro man ized ) h ave r evea led n o e v idence o f t a l worsh ip . F our o ther t r ibes - t he C or itan i , C orn ov i i , Du mnon i i a nd T r inovan tes - h ave p roduced f our o r l ess c u l t o b jects e ach . Two t r ibes h ave ac o mpara t ive ly h igh f requency - t he A treba tes a nd C an t iac i . B o th t hese t r ibes w ere r oman ized e ar ly .

T he r e la t ive ly ' c iv i l ized ' t r ibe o ft he Catuve l l-

a un i h ave a s urpr is ing ly l ow f requency , a s d o t he Regnenses , w hereas t he D uro tr iges a nd I cen i h ave a h igh f requency . On ly t wo c u lts o f e astern o r ig in w ere a t a l l s ign if ican t -a s s ta ted e ar l ier -C hr ist ian ity a nd t he Phryg ian c u lt o f A tys a nd C ybe le . T here i s a l most 6 8

t w ice a s much e v idence f or Chr is t ian ity i n t he c an tons a s f or C ybe le 's worsh ip . T here were c hurches a t S i lchester t he c ap ita l o f t he A treba tes , a t L u l l ings tone a nd C an terbury i n t he l and o ft he C an t iac i , a nd a t Caerwent c ap i ta l o f t he S i lures .

The C an t iac i h ave t he mos t e v idence f or Chr ist ian ity f o l lowed ,

s trange ly , b y t he I cen i . T hen c ome t he A treba tes a nd D uro tr iges . T he h uge s ou th-eas tern t r ibe o f t he C a tuve l laun i h ave c o mpara t ive ly f ew Chr ist ian o ff er ings .

T he Dobunn i h ave v ery l i t t le e v idence - t he e n ig ma t ic word-square

f ro m C irencester , a nd t he n ympheau m a t C hedworth .

T he l a t ter t r ibe i s i n-

t erest ing s ince i tb ordered t he D uro tr iges , who h ave o ne o ft he h ighes t i nstanc es o f Chr is t ian ity - w i th t he ir t wo v i l las a t test ing c orpora te C hr ist ian worsh ip . A ga in Can t iac i a nd Ca tuve l laun i h ad l i t t le i n c o m mon h ere . T he D u mnon i i a nd D uro tr iges s hare ab order a nd y e t t he f requency o f C hr ist ian ity i s h igh i n o ne a nd a l mos t n on-ex is ten t i n t he o ther . T he T r inovan tes, i n t h is i nstance , s ee m t o h ave h ad c loser c on tac t w i th t he Ca tuve l laun ian p eop le t han t he ir o ther n e ighbours t he I cen i . The p ic ture i s s l igh t ly d i f feren t a s r egards A tys a nd Cybe le .

The D obunn i

a nd A treba tes h ave t hree c u l t-f igures e ach , t he I cen i a nd T r inovan tes t wo , a nd t he r est o f t he t r ibes o ne o r n one .

The Ca tuve l laun i a ga in s tand o ut a s p ecu l iar

i n s ee m ing ly h av ing l i t t le i n terest i n t he c u lt . f ew .

S igns o f c orpora te worsh ip a re

An A treba tan worsh ipped a s tone s ta tue o f A tys ;

t he B e lgae a nd D uro tr iges

may b o th h ave h ad p r iva te h ouseho ld s hr ines, mosa ics d ep ic t ing t he d e it ies h av ing b een f ound i n e ach o f t he ir a reas .

The I cen i p robab ly u sed ab ronze

v ase w i th t he h ead o f A tys d ep ic ted o n t he h and le a s ar i tua l o b ject i n as hr ine a t Hockwo ld . O ther e astern c u lts a re o f l i t t le d istr ibu t iona l s ign if icance i n t he c an tons . H owever R o man a c an ton , i tc anno t h ave h ad t he c os mopo l itan p opu la t ion o f L ondon o r Y ork .

T he p opu la t ion must h ave b een l oca l , o r i fe astern merchan ts

d id v is i t t he t r ibes , t hey c anno t h ave r e ma ined l ong e nough t o e stab l ish t he ir r e l ig ion o r i n troduce i tt o t he n a t ives t hey t raded w ith .

A l though t hese l esser

c u lts a re p oor ly r epresen ted t he d istr ibut ion o f s o me i s w or th c o m men t s ince t hey a re o b jects u nheard o f i n more c os mopo l itan c en tres .

Tho th ( represen ted

b y a n i b is ) a ppears among t he Can t iac i , Regnenses a nd S i lures . J up i terAm mon o ccurs t w ice among t he C ant iac i . J up i ter H e l ioserap is o ccurs o nce among t he r ura l I cen i .

I ti s i n terest ing t o n o te t ha t S erap is o ccurs i n o n ly t wo

B r it ish t r iba l a reas - t hree t imes among t he A treba tes . Turn ing t o t he C o lon iae , L ondon a nd Ba th , t he l a t ter c i ty may b e d is m issed a t o nce , n a tura l ly e nough f or a C e lt ic h ea l ing s anctuary . c ase a l toge ther .

L ondon i s ad if feren t

T he c i ty h as y ie lded more t han t w ice a s much e v idence f or

e astern c u lts a s a l l t he c o lon iae p u t t oge ther ( i nc lud ing York ) .

Bo th t he A tys/

Cybe le c u l t a nd C hr ist ian ity h ave h igh f requenc ies o f o ccurrence , w ith C hr ist t he mos t p opu lar , j us t a s h e i s among t he c an tons .

I n t he c o lon iae e v idence

f or Chr is t ian i ty a nd Cybe le-worsh ip i s e ven ly b a lanced . t he c o lon iae a re d isappo in t ing . e rn d e i ty -A tys .

G louces ter h as e v idence o f a more t hr iv ing A tys/Cybe le

c u lt w ith p erhaps more t han o ne s hr ine . t o Cybe le , e v idenced b y al arge a l tar . Egyp t ian p antheon .

C o mpared t o L ondon

L inco ln h as b u t o ne r epresen ta t ion o f a n e astL ondon a lso p robab ly h ad a t e mp le The c o lon iae l ack e v idence f or t he

I n L ondon S erap is a ppears a t t he Wa lbrook M i thraeu m ;

I s is h ad a s hr ine , i nd ica ted b y ap o t a t test ing t he p resence o f ai f anu m

6 9

a nd sma l l b ronzes d ep ic t ing h er a nd h er s on , n amed i n l a ter Egyp t ian my th Harpocra tes , s how t ha t t he mystery-cu l t was h onoured b y p r iva te i nd iv idua ls . L ondon i s t he o n ly e x tra-can tona l t own w i th a ny e v idence o f M ithras .

Here

t here was a l arge M ithraeu m , a nd i ti s p ossib le t ha t t here was a no ther b igger t e mp le , s ince a h uge r igh t h and c lasp ing a k n ife ( f ar t oo l arge f or t he k nown s hr ine ) h as b een f ound . As r egards o ther o r ien ta l d e i t ies ( on ly r epresented s ing ly among t he c o lo n iae , a nd a t L ondon a nd Ba th ) n o t much may u sefu l ly b e s a id . Do l ichenus a ppears a t Ba th a nd Co lches ter . a l l .

J up iter

T he r est a ppear o n ly o nce i fa t

O ft hese o n ly A targa t is i n L ondon i s a t a l l i mportan tb e ing r epresented

b y a n e labora te marb le r ounde l .

A s w i th S erap is , o ne o r more p eop le wou ld

h ave s e t u p t he p laque i n t he Wa lbrook M i thraeu m b ut i ti s p robab le t ha t s evera l p eop le f ound s o lace i n h er c u lt i ft hey f ound M ithras h i mse lf t oo much o f a men ta l a nd mora l b urden . G roup Two G od-for ms :

De it ies o f Ro man O r ig in ( F igs . 5 -12 , p p . 9 1-98)

T he t wo t r ibes s how ing t he g rea tes t i n terest i n t h is g roup wou ld s ee m t o h ave b een t he Ca tuve l laun i a nd t he D obunn i -t hey e ach h ave t he g rea test v ar ie ty o f f or ms a nd a lso t he l argest n umbers . t r ibe ;

O ne was ap r i mary B e lg ic

t he o ther was a n on-Be lg ic , b e lg ic ized t r ibe .

Hercu les was a t h is

mos t f requen t among t he Catuve l laun i , b ut r are among t he D obunn i ;

J up iter

( i n c lass ica l f or m , a nd a s a whee l-god ) i s i mpor tan t i n b o th t r iba l a reas b ut much more s o among t he Ca tuve l laun i , a nd a lso among t he Cor itan i , a s i s Mars .

Among t he Ca tuve l laun i t he p or traya l o f Mars a s ah orse man s ee ms

t o h ave h ad l oca l p opu lar ity .

Among t he D obunn i , where Mars i s v ery c o m mon

t he g od h as a dop ted t he Gau l ish g u ise o f ap eacefu l r ura l p rosper ity g en ius, w ith Ce lt ic e p ithe ts a nd a n on warl ike a spec t -e .g . a s Mars L enus , 0 1 1ud ius , Nodons .

J up iter , w here t here i s e v idence f or i den t if ica t ion w ith t he Ce lt ic s ky -

g od , was mos t p opu lar among t he Ca tuve l laun i , f o l lowed b y t he Duro tr iges , D obunn i a nd Regnenses,

Mercury i s most f requen t among t he Dobunn i , a nd

t here was h ere a l oca l c u lt-cen tre o f t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic Mercury a cco mpan ied b y h is C e l t ic c onsor t Ros mer ta .

I n h is c onvent iona l Roman f or m Mars f ound

more worsh ippers among t he Ca tuve l laun i a nd Cor i tan i .

G en i i were o ver-

w he lm ing ly p opu lar among t he Dobunn i , t here b e ing a d e f in ite l oca l c u lt-type i n t he C o tswo ld r eg ion .

The a dop t ion o f Mars , Mercury a nd t he G en ius a p-

p ears t o h ave b een i n a nswer t o an eed f or l oca l p ro tec t ing s p ir its , t he c lass ica l g en ius e spec ia l ly b e ing most a dap tab le t o b eco m ing a l oca l g od o f Ce l t ic p eop les .

T he Ca tuve l laun i o n t he o ther h and , a par t f rom t he Mars-horse man

a nd J up iter-Taran is c u lts , k ep t much more t o c lass ica l f or ms .

I ta ppears

t ha t t h is t r ibe f avoured s ky a nd warr ior c u lts , i n c ontras t t o t he n a tureo r ien ta ted Dobunn ic r itua l .

Th is n a ture a spect i s e nhanced b y t he r e la t ive

p opu lar ity o f S i lvanus among t he Co tswo ld D obunn i .

The I cen i a nd T r ino-

v an tes s eem t o h ave s hared a l oca l H ercu les a nd a Mercury c u lt .

V enus a nd

C up id w ere p opu lar among t he Ca tuve l laun i , a nd a t Wroxe ter c ap ita l o f t he C ornov i i .

A f ter t he s even most p opu lar f or ms o f H ercu les , J up iter , Mars ,

Mercury , G en i i , M inerva a nd Venus/Cup id , Apo l lo , Bacchus , a nd S i lvanus a re b est r epresen ted .

Apo l lo was r e la t ive ly i mpor tant among t he D obunn i .

D iana a nd Neptune h ad t he ir ma in h o me among t he Dobunn i .

The C an t iaci a nd

Regnenses, c ons ider ing t he ir p os i t ion a nd r o man ized s ta tus i n t he p rov ince , a ppear t o h ave b een p oor i n Group Two r epresen ta t ions . 7 0

Mercury was t he most u n iversa l ly a dop ted g od-for m , i n t ha t h e i s r ep resented i n a l most e very t r iba l a rea .

Mars i n t er ms o f n u mbers i s a s

p opu lar a s Mercury i n t he c antons ( a lthough t he n on- c an tona l t owns r a ise Mercury 's t o ta l) , a nd t h is may r ef lec t t he Ga l l ic u se o f t hese t wo g od-types more t han a ny o ther f or e qua t ion w ith t he ir o wn a n im is t ic d e i t ies .

On t he

r everse s ide o f t he c o in o ne o f t he l east r epresen ted c oncep ts i s t he Emperor 's ' numen .1

T h is sma l l f igure i s t o s o me e x ten t mis lead ing s ince o ne wou ld n o t

e xpect t o f i nd t he c u lt e xpressed i n t er ms o f sma l l c u l t-ob jec ts .

One d oes

f i nd , among t he Cor itan i , o ther d e it ies l inked w ith t he C u lt o f t he Emperor , w hereas t h is i s r are e lsewhere . Nu mbers a re sma l l i n t he c iv i l ian c o lon iae , b u t i t must b e r e me mbered t ha t o ne i s d ea ling w ith t owns r a ther t han t r iba l a reas .

Co lchester h as p ro-

d uced t he g rea test n u mber a nd v ar ie ty o f G roup Two g od-types . a nd Venus ,a re mos t p opu lar h ere . most f requen t ly . e lse .

H ercu les

I n t he c o lon iae i n g enera l Mercury o ccurs

G en i i l oc i w ere r e la t ive ly p opu lar a t L inco ln , b u t n owhere

T he I mper ia l C u lt was i n e v idence a t C o lchester a nd a t L inco ln .

Ev i-

d ence f rom G loucester i s e x tre me ly s parse e xcep t f or t he c u lt o f Mercury a nd Rosmer ta ( bu t f or h er a ssoc ia t ion w ith Mercury s he wou ld b e aG roup T hree d e i ty ) , a nd h ere i s a n e xa mp le o f t he a dop t ion b y ac o lon ia o f l oca l o u ts ide c u l ts , t he o n ly c en tre f or t h is p ar t icu lar c oup le b e ing t he Co tswo lds . O therw ise a t G loucester , o n ly F or tuna i s k nown , a nd s he i s i n f ac t a ssoc ia ted o n ar e l ief w ith Mercury a nd Ros mer ta , wh ich wou ld s uggest Ce lt ic i n terpret a t ion .

O n ly a t C o lches ter d oes o ne f i nd n a t ive a nd l oca l e p i the ts f or Ro man

g ods - e .g . Mercury Andescoc ioucus, Mars Medoc ius , a nd S i lvanus Ca l l ir ius . I n L ondon a l l G roup Two c u lts a re r e la t ive ly c o m mon , a s b ef i ts a c os mop o l itan c en tre , a nd o ne w ou ld e xpect h ere , a s i n t he c o lon iae , t o f i nd r e l ig ion o f more c lass ica l f or m t han among t he c an tons .

Mercury , i n c lass ica l f or m ,

was b y f ar t he most p opu lar d e ity , f o l lowed b y M inerva ( presu mably i n h er G raeco-Ro man r o le o f s ta te a nd a r t isan g oddess) , a nd J up iter ( ag -I n ma in ly i n Ro man g u ise) . T he C u l t o f t he Emperor i s we l l-a t tested h ere L ondon w as much more t han t he c om merc ia l c ap i ta l o f c iv i l ian Ro man Br ita in , a nd may w e l l h ave b een t he o f f ic ia l r e l ig ious c en tre a t s o me t ime . t he 4 th c entury t he c i ty w as k nown a s ' Augusta:

Cer ta in ly b y

A s a t Co lchester , Hercu les

a nd Venus a ppear i n c lass ica l f or m , a lthough t he C e lt ic a r t-sty le o f Hercu les i s r epresented , w i th r ud i mentary f ea tures a nd c apl ike h a ir . T he d e it ies o f Ba th w ere ma in ly c onnec ted i n s o me way w ith Ce lt ic h ea l ing c u lts . a l l M inerva i s r epresen ted e qua ted w ith S u l .

A bove

Apo l lo i n c lass ica l a r t-for m i s

h ere , H ercu les , Mercury a nd Ros mer ta , G en i i ( presu mab ly r epresen t ing t he s p ir i t o ft he s hr ine) a re a l l p resen t . Group T hree :

Ro mano-Ce l t ic a nd Na t ive D e i t ies ( F igs . 1 3-19 , p p . 9 9-105)

A s i s t he c ase w ith G roup Two c u lts t he t r ibes y ie ld ing mos t e v idence f or t he more n a t ive d e it ies w ere t he Dobunn i a nd Ca tuve l laun i -t he f or mer w ith a bou t t w ice a s many i ns tances a s t he l a t ter .

A t t he o ther e nd o f t he s ca le t he

S i lures a nd Tr inovantes h ave f ew e xa mp les . More s o t han i n G roup Two , t he G roup Three g ods i n t he c antons i nd ica te al ack o f u n ity a nd o f a ny r ea l ly p opu lar g od-for ms, w i th a f ew e xcep t ions . There w ere many more d i f feren t Ce l t ic c u l ts t han t hose o f c lass ica l o r ig in

7 1

but fewer of each type represented in the archaeological record. It is possible to isolate and define a few local preferences. Among animal-forms the highest occurrence of horse-depictions occurs among the Cornovii, where there may have been a local cult. The dog favours the Dobunnic and Cantiacic areas (although in both regions concentrated on a few sites), and the bull was comp­ aratively popular among the Catuvellauni. Genii cucullati were extremely localized, occurring almost exclusively among the Dobunni (interesting because they were not a local British, but appear to have been an imported Gaulish, cult, and occur in Britain frequently in the North, on Hadrian's Wall). The distribution of different forms of fertility or Mother-goddess may conveniently be considered together. The Celtic pipe-clay 'Pseudo-Venus' is the most numerous type - most popular among the Cantiaci and C atuvellauni, with the Atrebates and Regnenses coming behind; the anomaly of the Dumnonii should . be pointed out here, a cache of figures being found on one of the Scillies. The Cornovii are also well-represented. The main south-east trend supports a Gallic origin for the cult. The same may be said of the Dea Nutrix figurines except once mor� for the Dumnonii where Dea Nutrix statuettes occur on the same island. The 'Matres' usually depicted in stone show a complementary distribution to the Dea Nutrix. The Dobunni have produced virtually no Dea Nutrix or 'Venus' statuettes but they were the centre of the Deae Matres cult. The Catuvellauni and Cantiaci did not favour the 'Matres'. It is quite possible that the pipe-clay figures represented a different, possibly more romanized, facet of the cult, but geology may also be a factor. Cheap depictions of the Mother-goddess could be produced in the Cotswolds in stone, but this was not easy in the south-east. In any event the stone 'Matres' carvings do indicate a preference for the areas of the Dobunni and the Coritani. Rosmerta may be mentioned here since although she is invariably associated with Mercury, she herself has no origin in the classical pantheon. As with the 'Matres', the Dobunni above all favoured her cult, although continental evidence shows her to be a Gaulish god-type. It has been noted that the Dobunni have the most occurrences of genii and of local epithets for 'Roman gods'. They were also the most important tribe with regard to miscellaneous Celtic depictions (whether anonymous or with purely Celtic names). It is here that the particularly Celtic god-forms occur, those lmown to be Gallic - e. g. Cernunnos, triple Mars and triple Genius loci. Three-headed representations appear among the Dobunni, Iceni and Cornovii. The coloniae were Roman towns par excellence. Here, even more than in the·cantons, the nature of Celtic religion is brought out - quantities of god­ types or names but each with only a few worshippers. Under Group Two have been mentioned three obscure names attached to three 'Roman' gods at Col­ chester. The 'Pseudo-Venus' type appears at Colchester, but Deae Nutrices are absent from all the coloniae. The 'Matres' were lmown at Lincoln, and as the Suleviae at Colchester; Rosmerta is lmown at Gloucester. The Lincoln and Gloucester occurrences are instances of coloniae 'borrowing' native deities; Rosmerta has already been discussed, and it is interesting that the 'Matres' occur among the Coritani outside Lincoln. In London the first striking phenomenon is the prevalence of the Celtic 'Venus' pipe-clay figure. There must have been an import- and a cult-centre

72

h ere .

Abou t h a lf t he n umbers c ome f rom t he s acred Wa lbrook Va l ley .

The

D ea N u tr ix i s a lso we l l-represen ted , t hough o ccurrences d o n o t c o mpare w ith t he p opu lar i ty o f t he ' Venus ' .

T here may we l l h ave a lso b een a s hr ine t o t he

D eae Ma tres , a s a n i nscr ip t ion , s cu lp ture a nd v o t ive p laque s uggest .

H ere

t he D eae Ma tres a nd t he Dea N utr ix were n o t mu tua l ly e xc lus ive , b ut L ondon was a n e xcep t iona lly c os mopo l i tan c en tre . EV IDENCE OF R ITUAL ( F igs . 2 0 &2 1) ( pp . 1 06 ,107) ( Once a ga in t he c an tons a re c ons idered f i rst ( Tab le I , p . 8 6) ) S tructures T hese c ons ist o ft e mp les a nd ' r itua l ' we l ls . t ype i s t he ' Ro mano-Ce lt ic ' t e mp le . a reas o f t he p rov ince .

The mos t p opu lar t e mp le-

They c luster i n t he s ou thern a nd e astern

Most t r ibes h ave a t l eas t o ne e xamp le , b u t n e ighbour-

i ng c an tons s how marked d if ferences o ne t o a nother .

The I cen i h ave f ive

r ec tangu lar R o mano-Ce lt ic s hr ines, t he T r inovan tes o ne .

I fo ne l ooks a t

t e mp les o fn on Ro mano-Ce lt ic r ound o r p o lygona l t ype , t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a l oca l t rad it ion o n t he n or thern e dge o f t he Catuve l laun i a nd s ou thern e dge o f Cor i tan ian t err itory , t we lve b e ing k nown - e .g . a t Br igstock a nd C o l lyweston .

S i mp le r ec tangu lar s hr ines a re a p heno menon e spec ia l ly o f t he

C an t iac i , w here f ive a re r ecorded .

C lass ica l t e mp les i n t he c an tons a re f ew

b u t o ne f i nds t he s trange p henomenon o f al arge c lass ica l s hr ine i n t he r e mo te C ornov ian c ap ita l, y e t n öne r ecorded i n t he r oman ized a nd w e l l-excava ted t own o f S i lchester .

H ere t here must h ave s ure ly b een o ne s hr ine d ed ica ted

t o p ure ly c lass ica l d e it ies , C hr ist ian c hurches a ppear o n ly t o h ave b een b u i lt i n s tab le r oman ized a reas , s uch a s t he l ands o f t he Can t iac i , A treba tes a nd S i lures .

T hese u rban c hurches a re v ery t h in o n t he g round , a nd i ti s l ike ly

t ha t we h ave t o l ook more c lose ly a t v i l las s uch a s F ramp ton o f t he D uro tr iges , a nd L u l l ings tone o f t he C an t iac i , t o f i nd p r iva te c hape ls r a ther t han 1 s cour t he t owns f or e v idence o f t rue o f f ic ia l c hurches t h is e ar ly i n t he h is iufy o f C hr ist ian ity . R itua l s haf ts m igh t b e e xpected t o s hare t he s ame d istr ibut ion-pa t tern a s R o mano-Ce l t ic t e mp les e spec ia l ly a s s o me s hr ines a re a ssoc ia ted w i th p its . D r . Ross s uggests t ha t we l ls b e long f i rst a nd f ore most t o t he Be lg ic Br itons , b u t i n my v iew c er ta in p ecu l iar it ies s how u p i n t he d is tr ibut ion . b a tes h ave p roduced n o c er ta in s ha f ts .

T he A tre-

The Ca tuve l laun i a nd Can t iac i d o , o n

t he o ther h and , h ave t we lve e xa mp les e ach .

T he a r t if ic ia l ly-crea ted t r ibe o f

t he Regnenses wou ld h ave c on ta ined b o th Be lg ic a nd n on-Be lg ic e le men ts , a nd t h is t r iba l a rea c on ta ins t he t h ird l arges t n u mber o f we l ls - s ix i n a l l .

T he

C or i tan i h ave f ive , a nd t he T r inovan tes a nd D uro tr iges ( no t a l l p r i mary Be lg ic t r ibes) h ave f our e ach . T he s econd c a tegory o f r i tua l ma ter ia l c ons ists o f v ar ious t ypes o f r i tua l d epos it , p resu mab ly t o p rop i t ia te d e it ies o r p oss ib ly mere ly t o a ver t e v i l .

I n

t h is c a tegory wou ld f a l l f ounda t ion-bur ia ls , f ounda t ion-depos its a nd f unerary d epos its .

For t he most p ar t t he d is tr ibu t ion mere ly r ef lects l oca l wh i ms o f

d evo t ion .

The n u mbers o f e ach t ype a re sma l l a nd i nd ica te l i t t le p a tte r n .

S o me r i tua ls a re s trange e nough , h owever , t o s uggest s o me th ing more .

T here

a re a bou t h a lf-a-dozen i ns tances o fb od ies b ur ied i n c ists o r c of f ins , u sua l ly

t hose o f m idd le-aged wo men , d ecap ita ted , w i th t he h ead p os it ioned e i ther b y t he k nees o r a t t he f ee t .

There a ppears t o h ave b een a c en tre f or t h is r i tua l

among t he D uro tr iges ( perhaps t h is p ar t icu lar t r ibe was p lagued b y w i tches) , b u t t here a re o u t ly ing o ccurrences among t he Can t iac i, A treba tes a nd C a tuve l laun i . I ti s i mposs ib le t o d ec ide whe ther t h is i nd ica tes c on tact b e tween t he t r ibes c oncerned o r s i mp ly t ha t d ecap ita t ion was au n iversa l ly ' mown me thod o f d ea l ing w ith c er ta in t ypes o f o f fender o r s acr if ice , b ut o ne w h ich w as r are ly u sed . F ounda t ion-depos its a nd b ur ia ls were q u i te w idespread p heno mena . T he H ockwo ld s hr ine o f t he I cen i h ad d epos its o f f ow l-bones, a s h ad t ha t a t H en ley Wood i n D obunn ic t err i tory ;

y e t i t wou ld b e f oo l ish t o a ssume a c onnec t ion

b e tween t he t wo s i tes . H owever b as ic a nd l oca l t he i deas may b e t he d is tr ibut i on o f f ounda t ion-bur ia ls s ee ms t o h ave b een c oncen tra ted i n t he s ou th-east , among , f or e xa mp le , t he C an t iac i a nd t he C a tuve l laun i , a s a re f unerary d epos i ts o f v ar ious k inds . Sma l l r i tua l o b jec ts i n t he c an tons h ave f i na l ly t o b e d iscussed .

T he t ypes

a re many a nd d iverse . S ome were o bv ious ly v ery i mpor tan t a l l o ver c iv i l ian Ro man Br ita in . S ome a re more l oca l ized , a nd s o me a re a lmost u n ique . Twe lve o u t o ft he f our teen ma in t r ibes i n s ou thern B r i ta in h ave v ar ious n umb ers o fp la in a l tars - t he h ighest n umber ( a t l east e leven) c om ing f rom 'Dobunn ic t err itory .

T h is t r ibe s pec ia l ized i n r ough ly- made , p or tab le a l tars ,

o f ten o f v ery sma l l s ize , a nd a l most c o mp le te ly p la in .

They may h ave b een

made t o p rop i t ia te l oca l g en i i o f wh ich t here w ere many i n t h is t r iba l r eg ion . The a l tars a re o f s im i lar t ype t o t ha t f ound i n t he a rea o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l d ed ica ted t o g ods s uch a s C oc id ius o r L a t is . T he C a tuve l laun i , Cor i tan i a nd C ornov i i h ave a lso p roduced s evera l o ft hese a l tars . The C a tuve l laun i must h ave i mpor ted t he ir a l tars i n many c ases , ow ing t o t he g enera l l ack o f c arvab le s tone . F ace-urns may s how l oca l p references . T he A treba tes h ave p roduced n one ( t hough t he p o ts were a G au l ish o r Romano-Gau l ish t ype o f c u lt-ob jec t ) , whereas t he C or itan i a nd I cen i h ave s ix a nd s even r espect ive ly . The C a tuve ll aun i h ave , a s w e h ave s een , s evera l Ro mano-Ce lt ic t e mp les , a nd a lso t he h ighest i nc idence o f f ace-urns .

H owever t he o n ly t r ibe i n Br i ta in t o h ave

p roduced t e mp les a nd f ace-urns i n a ssoc ia t ion i s t he C an t iac i , t hree p o ts c o mi ng f rom o ne s hr ine ( Spr inghead ) .

T he h igh f requency o f t e mp les a nd f ace-urns

h o lds g ood f or t he I cen i b ut n o t f or t he Cor i tan i , where f ew e xamp les a re k nown . I ti s i n terest ing t ha t t he T r inovan tes , Catuve l laun i a nd I cen i, w h ich a re n e ighbour ing t r ibes, a re u n ited i n t he ir u se o f f ace-urns .

T he Dobunn i ( so r ich i n

o ther c u l t- ma ter ia l) d o n o t s ee m t o h ave u sed f ace-urns a t a l l . Mode l o b jects h ave a h igh i nc idence among t he t r ibes i n g enera l . H ere t he t rend i s d ef in i te ly a s ou th-easter ly o ne . T he Ca tuve l laun i h ave p roduced b y f ar t he most e xa mp les ( over f or ty ) b u t i ts hould b e p o in ted o u t t ha t t he n u mbers a re swe l led b y f i nds f rom Woodea ton , at e mp le-s ite o n t he b orders o ft he C a tuve l laun i a nd t he D obunn i, w h ich may h ave b een a f a irground a nd manufactory f or t hese i t ems .

Af ter t h is t r ibe t he A treba tes h ave t he l argest

n u mber , ma in ly f rom t he c ap ita l a t S i lchester . h ave a lso p roduced s evera l o ft hese i mp lemen ts .

7 4

T he Regnenses a nd Can t iac i The c u l ts c onnected w i th

t hese min ia ture o f fer ings were g enera l ly p opu lar s ince t hey r eached n ear ly e very t r ibe i nc lud ing t he S i lures a nd t he D u mnon i i .

O ne p henomenon s hou ld

b e n o ted - t he p reponderance o fm in ia ture w eapons among t he Ca tuve l laun i , p oss ibly d eno t ing a warr ior-cu l t , p erhaps t i e ing i n w i th t he h orseman-cu lt d iscussed a bove . ' Sacr if ic ia l ' o b jects o r i t ems o fp r iest ly r ega l ia a re i n terest ing i n t ha t t he ir p resence s hou ld imp ly s hr ines o f s o me k ind . Many o f t he o b jects a re a c tua l ly f rom s hr ines b ut o thers a ppear a s s tray f i nds . The Ca tuve l laun i a nd t he I cen i s how a g rea t i n terest i n p r iests ' g ear .

Many i t ems c ome f rom t he

Woodea ton t e mp le-s ite ( probab ly a ss ignab le t o t he Ca tuve l laun i) ; c ome f rom t he Hockwo ld t emp le-s ite i n t he l and o f t he I cen i .

s evera l

I n t he a rea o f

t hese t r ibes t here may h ave b een a c o l lege o f p r ies ts o r a workshop mak ing s hee t-bronze , s ince s evera l c eremon ia l o b jec ts , s uch a s h eaddresses a nd p laques , o ccurr ing n owhere e l se i n s uch q uan t it ies, a re r ecorded .

T he

p opu lar ity o f s hr ines a nd p r ies ts ' g ear d oes t a l ly i n t hese t wo t r iba l r eg ions . R ura l s hr ines may h ave b een more a ct ive t han u rban e xamp les . S evera l t e mp les a re k nown a t S i lchester a nd Caerwen t , b ut w ith f ew c ere mon ia l t r i mm ings . A t Mun tham Cour t , i nt he midd le o f r ura l Regnes ian t err i tory , t here i s a bundan t e v idence f or t he r i tua ls c arr ied o u t -t ongs , a mace , a nd a s acr if i c ia l k n ife . O f t he c o lon iae C o lches ter y ie lds most e v idence o f r i tua l .

T he f i rs t t h ing

t ha t s tr ikes o ne i s t he n u mber o f d ef in ite s hr ines ( a t l east n ine ) , a nd t he ir c onsp icuous a bsence i n a ' n y o ther c o lon ia .

G loucester a nd L inco ln h ave o ne

o r t wo p oss ib le s hr ines b u t n o th ing c er ta in .

C o lchester a ppears t o r ef lect

t rends among t he C a tuve l laun i i n t h is r espect .

L ondon s uf fers f rom a d ear th

o f k nown t e mp les ( b ut i ti s n o tor ious ly d i f f icu l t t o s a lvage a ny th ing s truc tura l f ro m L ondon) . T here must h ave b een a c lass ica l t e mp le t o t he I mper ia l C u l t , s im i lar t o t ha t k nown a t C o lchester . A t Ba th t he o ne i mpor tant s hr ine i s k nown . W ith h er mass ive e d if ice S u l wou ld h ave n eeded n o o ther monumen t i n h er h onour . No th ing may u sefu l ly b e s a id o f a ny o ther t ype o f r i tua l e v idence among t he c o lon iae e xcep t f or f ace-urns . C o lchester s ee ms t o h ave h ad c onnect ions w ith t he C atuve l laun i r a ther t han w i th t he T r inovan tes . More t han h a lf-ad ozen f ace-urns a re r ecorded f rom C o lchester . T he p ot ter ies were h ere a nd C o lches ter may w e l l h ave t raded f ace-urns t o t he Ca tuve l laun i . T he p o ts a re a lso k nown a t L ondon . T r ip le v ases a re p opu lar i n b o th C o lchester a nd L ondon . C o lchester a nd V eru la m iu m s ee m a lso t o h ave s hared t he t r ip lev ase c us to m . D IFFERENCES I N REL IG IOUS D ISTR IBUTION BET WEEN TO WN AND COUNTRYSIDE T own a nd C oun try c an b e s a id t o b e s eparable i n t erms o f p opu la t ion a nd way o fl i fe , t o ac erta in e x ten t . I ti s i n terest ing w ith in e ach c anton t o d iscuss s ign if ican t d istr ibut iona l t rends t owards t own o r c oun try . I ti s p roposed t o c on tras t c an tona l c ap i ta ls a nd t he sma l ler wa l led t owns w i th o ther s et t le men ts , v i llas a nd i so la ted r ura l s i tes a nd f i nds .

I ts hou ld b e p o in ted o u t t ha t i t wou ld

b e g ross ly s i mp l ist ic t o g roup a l l v i l las w ith t he p oorest f ar msteads . F or t h is r eason a nd i n o rder t o i nd ica te c on trasts b e tween t he c antona l t owns a nd 7 5

o ther ma jor Ro man c i t ies s uch a s t he c o lon iae , t here w i l l b e af ina l s ec t ion d ea l ing w i th d egrees o f r e l ig ious r o man iza t ion t hroughou t t he d i fferen t t ypes o f s e t t le men t -f rom L ondon a nd C o lches ter r igh t d own t o t he c ultura l ly b ackward ' sa l tus ' . The c ompar ison o ft owns w i th c oun trys ide i s a f fected b y t he f act t ha t t owns ( w i th t he e xcep t ion o f Caerwen t a nd S i lchester) h ave o n ly b een s amp led b y e xcava t ion , whereas c oun try s i tes h ave o f ten b een more f u l ly d ea lt w i th . T h is d i f ference i n s i te-trea tmen t s hou ld o f fse t a ny a pparen t p icture o f r e l ig io us t rends . The s i tua t ion o f r e l ig ion i n u rban a nd r ura l a reas w il l f i rs tb e d ea l t w ith i nb r ief t r ibe b y t r ibe . T he A treba tes Chr ist ian ity , a s m igh tb e e xpected , was at own-cu lt c en tred o n S i lchester . O f G roup Two d e it ies Mars o n ly i s more r ura l . I n ma tters o f r itua l , i nc ludi ng s hr ines, a nd i n G roup T hree d e it ies, t he t own i s t he mos t i mpor tan t . T he Be lgae Here , b y c on tras t w ith t he A treba tes , t he c ountrys ide t akes p recedence o ver t he t own o f W inchester , where l i t t le r e l ig ious e v idence i s a va i lab le , a nd B it terne ( a sma l l p or t ) .

Rura l p eop le were f am i l iar w ith t he I mper ia l C u l t ,

a nd o ther d e it ies o f Ro man o r ig in .

T he o n ly g od-forms s hared b y t own a nd

c oun try were v ar ious t ypes o f Mo ther-goddess . T he C an t iac i Or ien ta l c u l ts , i nc lud ing C hr ist ian ity , s eem we l l s pread-ou t b e tween t he t own a nd c oun try .

C hurches a re k nown a t C an terbury a nd a t L u l l ingstone .

T he ma jor ity o f G roup Two d ep ict ions a re f rom r ura l a reas . T he l arge t e mp le-prec inc t a t S pr inghead s hou ld b e c oun ted a s r ura l , a nd o ther s hr ines o ccur i n t he c oun trys ide r a ther t han C an terbury o r Rochester . T he Ca tuve l laun i Bo th T own a nd C oun try were a ct ive i n mat ters o f r e l ig ious e xpress ion , b u t more e v idence c o mes f ro m r ura l a reas , e ven i n t he c ase o f C hr ist ian ity . A s r egards G roup Two a nd T hree d e i t ies t here a ppear t o b e g rea ter n u mbers a nd more v ar ie ty i n t he c oun trys ide .

The l oca l c u l t o f Mars a s ah orse man i s

e ssen t ia l ly r ura l , a s i s t he p ract ice o fu s ing a n i ma l-emb le ms . The Ce l t ic ' Pseudo-Venus ' i s , h owever , t own-based . T he emphas is i n ma t ters o f r i tua l i s s tr ik ing ly i nd ica ted b yp r iest ly r ega l ia , mode l t oo ls a nd r itua l d epos i ts , wh ich a re a l l b ased o n t he c oun trys ide . O fR omano-Ce l t ic s hr ines t he d ist r ibu t ion i s r ough ly e qua l t own t o c ountry , b ut t he c ircu lar/po lygona l t emp les a re s i tua ted i n t he c oun trys ide , a s i s t he c ase w i th r i tua l we l ls . T he C or itan i C oun try a nd t owns a ppear t o b e more o r l ess e qua l a s r egards d e it ies . Among G roup Two d e it ies J up iter was more p ro m inen t i n t he c oun try , Mercury i n t he t owns . T he Deae Ma tres w ere c en tred o n t he t own o f Ancaster , b u t o bscure n a t ive-named d e it ies make t he ir a ppearance i nb o th t ypes o f s e t t le-

7 6

men t - Arnemet ia a nd V ir id ius i n t owns , Ve ter is Mocuxsu ma a nd Mars B rac iacae i n t he c oun try .

R itua l o bservances i nd ica te a r ura l b ias .

T he Cornov i i There i s as tr ik ing d if ference b e tween t own a nd c oun try .

A l mos t a l l t he

e v idence i s f ro m Wroxe ter . T he De me tae Noth ing may u sefu l ly b e s a id o f t h is i l l-represen ted t r ibe . T he Dobunn i Both T own a nd C oun try h ad a l arge s hare i n t he r e l ig ious l i fe o ft he t r ibe , w h ich was v ery a ct ive .

Most u rban e v idence c o mes f ro m C irencester .

L arge

a nd s oph is t ica ted v i l las l ike Woodchester a nd S poon ley Wood h ave p roduced v ery c lass ica l c u l t-ob jects , b u t i n t owns t he emphas is i s o n G roup Three g odf or ms .

I n r ura l a reas g ods o f G roups Two a nd Three were e qua l ly a bundan t .

T he c oun try h as t he e dge o n t he t owns a s r egards worsh ip . t i ng b ecause h e f avours r ura l a reas , a s d o G en i i l oc i .

Mars i s i nteres-

T he s oph is t ica ted

r ura l r es idence a t C hedwor th , b es ides b e ing o n ly h a lf a m i le f ro m a Ro manoC e lt ic t e mp le , i t se lf p roduced c rude n a t ive d ep ic t ions o f d e it ies , p resu mab ly t he g ods o ft he v i l la-sta f f . a nd Coun try

T he ' Ma tres ' a re e qua l ly d istr ibuted b e tween T own

b u t G en i i c ucu l la t i a nd Ros mer ta h ave a b ias t owards t he c oun try-

s ide . As r egards r itua l, i nd iv idua l ism a nd v ar ie ty a re t o b e f ound i n r ura l a reas , a nd tw ice a s many sma l l p or tab le s tone a l tars a re f ound o uts ide a s i ns ide t he t owns .

I ti s t he c oun trys ide w h ich h as p roduced t he v ast ma jor ity o f s hr ines ,

e ven t he l a te a nd e labora te L ydney c o mp lex . T he Du mnon i i Th is t r ibe , l ike t he D e me tae , was r e la t ive ly u nro man ized . t here i s a n emphas is, i ti s i n t he r ura l a reas .

H owever , i f

T he Duro tr iges The c oun trys ide h as f ar more t o t e l l u s a bout r e l ig ion t han e i ther Dorchester o r I l ches ter .

C u lt-cen tres f or C hr ist ian ity w ere i n t he v i l las .

O ther G roup

One , Two a nd Three d e it ies a re b e t ter-represen ted i n t he c oun try , a s a re t he r itua l i t ems s uch a s s hr ines . The I cen i Cu ltl ife was t i ed u p i n r ura l ity , a nd a much l ive l ier r e l ig ious p icture i s p resen ted i n t he c oun try t han a t Ca is tor . T here were l oca l c u lt-cen tres o f H ercu les a nd Mercury i n r ura l a reas .

The Ro man c oncep t o f Imes ' was

k nown b y a t l eas t t hree c oun try f am i l ies i n t he ir d o mest ic s hr ines . I fo ne c ons iders r itua l , t here i s f i rm e v idence f or a c u lt-cen tre a t Ca istor , b u t l i t t le f ro m t he s hr ines t o s ugges t e xpress ions o f w orsh ip . T he n u merous i t e ms o f p r iest ly r ega l ia i mp ly a g rea t d ea l o f r ura l r e l ig ious a ct iv ity . The Regnenses The emphas is i s o nce more o n t he c oun trys ide .

E ven t he l i t t le-kno w n

Egyp t ian Tho th i s r epresen ted n o t a t Ch iches ter b u t a t av i l la - a lbe it a w ea lthy 7 7

o ne .

I ti s i n terest ing t ha t t he e ar ly a nd s oph ist ica ted p a lace a t F ishbourne

h as p roduced l i t t le c u l t- ma ter ia l . T he h ear t o f worsh ip s eems t o h ave b een r ura l h o mesteads a nd c oun try s hr ines . A t l east e igh t r ura l t e mp les a re k nown o r t hough t t o e x is t .

A t C h ichester we h ave o ne i nscr ip t ion a t test ing a c lass i-

c a l s hr ine . T he S i lures A s i n t he c ase o ft he A treba tes , w e h ave h ere a n e xa mp le o ft he t horough ly e xcava ted t own , Caerwen t . Roman iza t ion c ame l a te t o t h is a rea , a nd v i l las a re f ew . Near ly a l l e v idence o f r e l ig ious a c t iv i ty i s c entred o n t he t own . E ither t he S i lures o ft he c oun try wen t t he ir o wn way a nd worsh ipped t he ir wooden a nd w icker i do ls a t t he ir ' l oca c onsecra ta '

( unde tectab le i n a rchaeo-

l ogy ) , o r t he t rue c en tre o f worsh ip was t he t own , a nd t h is i s w here p eop le c ame t o c o m mune w ith o r p rop it ia te t he ir g ods . T he T r inovan tes There i s s o me c u l t-act iv ity a t tested a t C he l msford , b ut t he emphas is i s o n r ura l a reas . S U MMARY AND CONCLUS IONS OF D ISTR IBUT ION S URVEY One o r t wo s ign if ican t r esu lts may b e p o in ted o u t h ere .

F irst i ti s p oss ible

t o i so la te a f ew l oca l c u lts - ah orse-cu lt among t he C ornov i i , a Mars-horseman-cu lt among t he Ca tuve l laun i , Ros mer ta among t he Dobunn i , t he ' Ma tres ' a nd G en i i c ucu l la t i among t he Dobunn i .

O ther d e it ies s uch a s Mercury , Mars

a nd J up iter ( i n c lass ica l o r Ce l t ic g u ise ) w ere u n iversa l ly p opu lar .

I ti sp os-

s ib le t o s ay t ha t t he c o lon iae o f G loucester a nd L inco ln were i n f luenced b y n e ighbour ing t r ibes .

L oca l p references may a lso b e s een i n ma t ters o f r i tua l ,

e .g . c ircu lar s hr ines among t he n or thern C a tuve l laun i o r s ou thern Cor i tan i , f ace-urns among t he I cen i .

I n c on tras t o ne may p o in t t o t he n a t iona l i mpor tance

o f Ro mano-Ce lt ic s hr ines a nd m in ia ture i mp lements . No tewor thy a lso i st he p ro m inence o f D obunn i a nd Ca tuve l laun i i n r e l ig ious e v idence , a nd t he ma jor d ist inc t ions b e tween t hem , e .g . t ha t t he C a tuve l laun i may h ave f avoured t he more Ro maninf luenced ' sky-cu lts ' whereas t he Dobunn i i nc l ined more t o l oca l n ature-gods a nd d e i t ies c onnec ted w i th f er t i l i ty a nd p rosper ity . L it t le o f ac onc lus ive n a ture c an b e s a id a bou t t own a nd c oun try c on trasts i n d istr ibu t ion . I n many c ases t he t rends must mere ly r ef lec t e xcava t ion a nd c o l lec t ion p a t terns , b u t i n o thers , e .g . t he o ccurrences o f p r iest ly r ega l ia among t he r ura l Ca tuve l laun i , t here may b e ar ea l s ign if icance . I n v ery g ene ra l t erms t here i s ac onstan t s lan t t owards t he c oun try i n t he c ase o f many d e i t ies s uch a s H ercu les , J up i ter , Mars a nd S i lvan .us . R itua l ma ter ia l t oo s hows a marked b ias t owards c oun try a reas . DEGREES OF RO MAN IZAT ION AS I ND ICATED BY REL IG IOUS EV IDENCE I Urban . T he d i f ferent t ypes o fu rban s e t t lemen t i n wh ich r e l ig ious e v idence o ccurs c an b e g raded a s r egards r o man iza tion . A t t he t op o ft he l adder may c o me t he c o lon iae a nd L ondon , wh ich a l though a t f i rst u nchar tered , was e xt re me ly i mpor tan t a s ap or t a nd a mercan t i le a nd a dm in is tra t ive c entre .

7 8

L eav ing a s ide t he f ew a no ma l ies o f mun ic ip ia ( Veru lam iu m a nd p oss ib ly L e icester ) , n ex t s hou ld c o me t he c iv itas c ap ita ls , a nd t hen sma l ler wa l led t owns . T he a no ma ly o f Ba th w ith i t s g rea t C e lt ic h ea l ing b e c ons idered h ere . I R ura l A reas .

s anctuary may

T he c oun try r es idences w ith t he g rea test amoun t o f

r oman iza t ion a re t he l arger more s u mp tuous v i l las , s i tua ted ma in ly i n t he s ou th-wes t o ft he c oun try , a nd w hose i nhab i tants w ou ld u sua l ly b e t ownsfo lk i n o r ig in .

Sma l l s e t t le men ts a nd sma l ler l ess e labora te v i l las may s how a

g rea ter o r l esser d egree o f r oman iza t ion , wh ich may o r may n o t b e a pparen t i n r e l ig ious a ct iv ity . T he l eas t r o man ized a reas s hou ld b e t hose where n o p ar t icu lar ly Ro man way o f l i fe i s e v iden t ; p laces w here t here may h ave b een t enan t f armers, o r where t he l and was k ep t c u ltura l ly b ackward , a s i n t he c ase o f t he p oss ib le ' sa ltus ' o n C ranborne C hase . I n t he f or mer a reas r ura l s hr ines w ou ld h ave e x isted f or u se b y f ar mers a nd t he s ta f f o f t he l arger v i l las, a s w e l l ( probab ly ) a s b y t hose t own-dwe l lers w hose r oo ts w ere i n t he c oun trys ide .

I n t he l a t ter a reas o ne w ou ld e xpec t t o f i nd l i t t le o r n o th ing

s ince Roman c u lture was more o r l ess e ssen t ia l f or t he f or ma l iza t ion o f mat er ia l r e l ig ious e v idence , b e i tc lass ica l , Ro mano-Ce l t ic o r C e l t ic i n o u tward f or m . R e l ig ious E v idence f or Roman iza t ion On ly r epresen ta t ive s amp les o f ' graded ' s e t t le men ts w i l l b e c ons idered . C o lches ter , a t t he p res u med a pex o f Ro man s oph is t ica t ion , s hou ld f i rst b e c ons idered . b e Ro mans .

Co lchester was b u i lt a s at own p ar t ly t o s how t he Br i tons h ow t o Re l ig ious r oman iza t ion i s i nd ica ted b y t he C u l t o ft he Emperor ,

w ith i t s g rea t c lass ica l monumen t , b y C hr ist ian ity ( l i terary e v idence ) , a nd b y s evera l sma l l c lass ica l b ronzes . C e l t ic i nf luence i s i nd ica ted b y Ro manoC e lt ic s hr ines s ome o f wh ich w ere a ssoc ia ted w i th r i tua l p its , a nd b y RomanoC e lt ic d e i t ies l i ke Mars Medoc ius , t he S u lev iae , G en i i c ucu l la t i a nd S i lvanus C a l l ir ius . One c an s ee a t C o lchester ap yram id o f r oman iza t ion w ith t he I mper ia l C u lt a t t he t op a nd w ith r i tua l p i ts a nd , e .g . Mercury Andesoc ioucus a t t he b o t to m . A t L ondon t he h igh d egree o f r o man iza t ion i s s een , f or e xamp le , b y e v id ence f or t he I mper ia l C u lt , C hr is t ian i ty , a nd p agan Or ien ta l c u lts a t tes ted , f or i ns tance , b y t he Wa lbrook M ithraeu m w ith i t s s oph ist ica ted f ore ign c arv ings . Many sma l l c lass ica l ( i n s o me c ases i mpor ted ) b ronze f i gur ines a re k nown . L ondon was n o t f ree f rom C e l t ic i nf luence , h owever , a s i s s hown b y e .g . t he p ipe-c lay ' Venus ' s ta tue t tes , t he D eae Ma tres a nd d og-bur ia ls . A s e xa mp les o f c antona l c ap ita ls i ti s e xped ien t t o t ake o ne t horough ly e xc ava ted a nd o ne s amp led s i te t o s ee d egrees o f r o man iza t ion - S i lchester a nd Ca is tor , o f t he A treba tes a nd I cen i r espect ive ly . A t S i lches ter t rue Roman c u lture i s s een , f or e xamp le , i n t he p resence o f a" larar iu m" a nd a C hr ist ian " church" .

C e l t ic i nf luence r evea ls i t se lf i n Romano-Ce l t ic s hr ines, J up i ter 's

p resence a s aw hee l-god , a nd H ercu les S aegon . T here i s l i t t le e v idence o f Group T hree d e i t ies h ere . A t Ca is tor t here i s l i t t le t ru ly c lass ica l r e l ig ious e v idence ;

Romano-Ce l t ic s hr ines , a nd Mercury wear ing a t orc w i th s nake-

t er m ina ls a t test t he p resence o f Ro mano-Ce l t ic c u l ts .

7 9

Ba th 's r e l ig ious p rec inc t i s a n e xqu is i te e xamp le o f t he v ery e ssence o f t he f us ion o f C e lt ic a nd Ro man r e l ig ious i deas - w i th i ts f i rst c en tury c lass ica l ly-sty led s hr ine t o M inerva , b u t aM inerva i dent if ied w i th t he p re-Ro man h ea ler S u l . C e l t ic .

Much f rom h ere i s c lass ica l i n s ty le b u t t he i n terpre ta t ion i s

Even t he c lass ica l b ronze h ead o f M inerva r epresen ts S u l .

K enchester a nd G rea t C hes terford may b e t aken a s e xamp les o f sma l ler t owns, b o th s amp led b y e xcava t ion .

T he o ne b e longed t o t he t r iba l t err i tory

o ft he D obunn i , t he o ther t o t he Ca tuve l laun i .

K enchester 's e v idence , s uch

a s i ti s , d isp lays b as ic a f f i l ia t ion w i th t he s urround ing a rea . Two a nd T hree a re r epresen ted ;

Gods o f G roups

a Ro mano-Ce lt ic t e mp le i s r ecorded .

C hes terford h as y ie lded more e v idence o f r e l ig ious a ct iv ity .

Grea t

The emphas is

i s o n Ro mano-Ce lt ic r a ther t han p ure ly c lass ica l d ep ict ions - i nc lud ing a f ragmen t o f ap oss ib le J up i ter-G ian t c o lumn , at orc-wear ing H ercu les , a nd ap ipe-c lay e questr ian Mars .

Bo th t owns i nd ica te l ess c lass ica l r e l ig ion t han

t he c an tona l c ap ita ls , a nd t he l ack o f G roup One d e i t ies i s i n terest ing . T he C oun trys ide L arge v i l las a re r epresen ted b y Chedwor th ( Dobunn i) , Woodchester ( Dobunn i) , a nd L u l l ingstone ( Cant iac i) . S pr inghead ( Cant iac i) a nd S andy ( Ca tuve l laun i) a re c ons idered a s c orpora te b ut u np lanned s e t t le men ts . T he r oman iza t ion o f Woodea ton Romano-Ce lt ic t e mp le a t t he b orders o f Ca tuve ll aun ian a nd D obu rm ic t err itor ies, t he Br igstock s hr ines o ft he Catuve l laun i/ Cor itan i b orders , a nd t he D obunn ic a nd C a tuve l laun ian a reas o u ts ide t he t owns w i l l b e d iscussed . F ina l ly s o me c u ltura l ly d eso la te a reas ( wh ich may b e ‚s a ltus t w i l l b e e xam ined . A t Woodchester , a n e x treme ly l uxur ious v i l la , p erhaps t he r es idence o f a Ro man o f f ic ia l, t he sma l l amoun t o f e v idence i s e n t ire ly c lass ica l . T he G raeco-Roman s ty le o f L una i s ma tched e lsewhere o n ly i n L ondon a t t he Wa lb rook M ithraeu m .

C hedwor th i s i n terest ing .

T he n ymphaeum , w ith i t s

C hr ist ian- marked s tones , i nd ica tes r e l ig ious s oph is t ica t ion ; b u t s o me o f t he r e l ig ious o b jec ts f ro m t h is s i te a re v ery C e lt ic i ndeed . L u l l ingstone s hows ah igh d egree o f s oph is t ica t ion w ith i t s Chr is t ian c hape l d ecora ted w i th e labor a te wa l l-pa in t ings . S andy i s a n u np lanned , i l l-def ined s e tt lemen t , wh ich h as ac e me tery a t tached t o i t .

Re l ig ious e v idence i s s parse , b u t i nc ludes ab ronze

r ounde l d ep ic t ing t he h ead o f Mercury , a nd a T r ip le v ase . B o th t hese i t ems f i t i n w e l l w i th t he c u lt e v idence f rom t he t r iba l a rea i n wh ich i ti s s itua ted . S pr inghead i nd ica tes a n e labora te t e mp le-prec inc t w i th a t l eas t s even d iferen t s hr ines , c en tred o n s pr ings w h ich mus t h ave b een s acred .

T he t e mp les a re o f

Ro mano-Ce l t ic o r o f s i mp le r ectangu lar d es ign , w i th a n e xamp le o f aC e l t ic s acred p oo l . A l l t he v o t ive o b jec ts h ave a s trong Romano-Ce l t ic s lan t v o t ive l imbs, G en i i c ucu l la t i , t he C e lt ic ' Venus ', d og , a nd p oss ib le J up i terG ian t c o lu mn . I n t he r ura l a reas o ft he Ca tuve l laun i a nd t he Dobunn i v ary ing d egrees o f r o man iza t ion i n r e l ig ious e xpress ion a re t o b e f ound , w here n o c orpora te s e t t le men t o r ma jor v i l la h as b een r ecorded .

T he Romano-Ce l t ic s hr ine a t

Woodea ton l asted o ver 3 00 y ears , p ost-da t ing a s i mp le r ectangu lar s truc ture . F inds a re C e lt ic r a ther t han c lass ica l i n i nf luence , a l though Mars a nd ( ?) V enus a re k nown . Even more C e lt ic a re t he B r igstock s hr ines , l a te i n d : ite ,

8 0

c ircu lar o r p o lygona l i n s hape , a nd y ie ld ing e v idence o f al oca l e questr ian Mars c u l t . I n t he D obunn ic c oun trys ide o u tward s igns o f c u l t t ake a r o man ized f orm i n t he u se o f s tone ; a l tars a nd r e l iefs a re f ar more c ommon h ere t han among t he Ca tuve l laun i . T here a re c o l lect ions o f Romanlook ing a l tars w ith d ep ict i ons o f C e l t ic ized Roman g ods , l i ke t he f i gures o f Mars f rom K ing 's S tan ley , a nd t he g roup o f Romano-Ce lt ic d e it ies o n v o t ive t ab le ts a t L ower S laugh ter . T here i s , i n my o p in ion , l i t t le d i f ference i n r oman iza t ion b e tween t hese a nd t he c aches o f s hee t- me ta l f igured p laques , b ear ing d ed ica t ions t o ' Ro man ' d e i t ies , f ound w ith f ragmen ts o fp r iests ' h eaddresses, f ro m Barkway a nd S tony S tra tford i n Ca tuve l laun ian t err itory . I s t here a ny d ist inct ion t o b e made b e tween Mars 0 1 1ud ius a t C us to m S crubs i n t he D obunn ic a rea , a nd Mars T outa tes a t Barkway among t he Ca tuve l laun i ? F ina l ly t here a re s o me a reas o f B r i ta in wh ich , f or wha tever r eason , s how l i t t le e v idence o f Roman c u lture . I n t hese a reas r e l ig ious e v idence i s a lso l arge ly a bsen t .

L owbury H i l l a nd C o ld K i tchen H i l l may w e l l h ave b een s acred ,

b ut t here i sn o t ang ib le e v idence - a r i tua l ( ?) b ur ia l a t t he o ne , a nd a s ca t ter o f t r inke ts a t t he o ther . 5 The p reced ing d iscuss ion h as i nd ica ted t ha t i nb o th t owns a nd c oun try a reas r o man . iza t ion c an b e r ecogn ized i n d i f feren t t ypes o f s e t t le men t . P erhaps most e n l igh ten ing i s t he f act t ha t f ew a reas o f Br i ta in w ere f ree f rom C e l t ic B r i t ish r e l ig ious i n f luence h owever f ar Roman c u lture was o u tward ly s uper i mposed .

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