The End of Roman Britain: Papers arising from a Conference, Durham 1978 9780860540694, 9781407323435

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The End of Roman Britain Papers arising from a Conference, Durham 1978 Edited by P.J. Casey

B A R British Series 7 I 1 979

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :\I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, :\LA.

B.A. R. 71, 1979, "The End of Roman Britain" © The Individual Authors 1979

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540694 paperback ISBN 9781407323435 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540694 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page

. . List of Contributors Introduction

4-13

Romano-Saxon attitudes

Susanne Haselgrove

The end of Roman Britain: the literary and numismatic evidence reviewed

J. P. C. Kent

15-27

Late Roman gold and silver coin hoards in Britain: a gazetteer

S. Archer

29-64

Magnus Maximus in Britain: a reappraisal

P. J. Casey

66-79

Saint Patrick and fifth century Britain: an historical model explored

Charles Thomas

81-101

Romano-Saxon pottery: an alternative interpretation

John Gillam

103-18

Pottery production and trade at the end of Roman Britain: the case against continuity

Michael Fulford

120-32

The north Britons, the Picts and the Scots

Leslie Alcock

134-42

Hadrian' s Wall: the last phases

J. C. Mann

144-51

Roman settlements and post-Roman estates in south-east Wales

Wendy Davies

153-73

The latest occupation of the site of the baths basilica at Wroxeter

P. A. Barker

175-81

The end of Roman temples in the west of Britain

Philip Rahtz and Lorna Watts

183-201

Roman material from hillforts

I. C. G. Burrow

212-29

Climate, nutrition and disease: an hypothesis of Romano-British population

Michael E. Jones

231-51

Meanwhile in north Italy and Cyrenaica. . .

R. S. 0. Tomlin

253-70

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Leslie Alcock, . Profe�sor of Archaeology, University of Glasgow S. _Archer, Orpington, Kent P. A. Barker, Department of Extra-mural Studies, University of Birmingham I. C. G. Burrow, Archaeological Officer, Somerset County Planning Department, Taunton P. J. Casey, Department of Archaeology, University of Durham Wendy Davies, Department of History, University College, London M. Fulford, Department of Archaeology, University of Reading J. Gillam, Reader in Archaeology, University of Newcastle upon Tyne Susanne Haselgrove, Department of Archaeology, University of Durham Michael E. Jones, Department of History, University of Texas, Austin, Texas J. P. C. Kent, Deputy Keeper, Department of Coins and Medals, British Museum J. C. Mann, Department of Archaeology, University of Durham P. Rahtz, Professor of Archaeology, University of York Charles Thomas, Director, Institute of Cornish studies R. S. 0. Tomlin, Wolfson College, Oxford. Lorna Watts, Department of Archaeology, University of York

I NTRODUCTION

The p apers i nt h is v o lu me w ere , i n t he ma in , p resen ted a t a Con ference h eld a t t he Un ivers ity o f Durha m i n March 1 978. I ng a ther ing t he p apers t ogether f or p ubl ica t ion t he o pportun i ty h as b een t aken t o i nv ite c on tr ibu t ions f ro m a n umber o f s cho lars w ho c ou ld n ot b e a t t he C on ference.

A n umber o f s peakers

a tt he Con ference h ave b een u nab le t o i nclude t heir work a t t he p resen t t ime. I nso far a s t he C on ference h ad a s truc ture w ith in t he ma in t he me i t was t o e xa m ine t he l i terary a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he t rans it ion f ro m R oman r u le o n ar eg iona lb asis. Th is s truc ture was d esigned t o i l lum ina te b o th t he d i f ferences i n t he q ua l i ty o f t he e v idence i n v ar ious a reas o f t he c oun try a s w el l a s t he d if fer ing r a tes a t w h ich Ro man itas was r ep laced b y s ometh ing e lse. I tw as a lso f e l t t ha t a n o bl ique a pproach t o t he p roble ms o f c on t inu ity a nd c hange m ight i l lum ina te t he p er iod i n an ew w ay .

J ust a s i ti s p oss ib le t o d ef ine a n

o b ject b y t he s pace w h ich s urrounds i ts o , i tw as r easoned , t he e nd o f Ro man B r i ta in migh t b e more c learly d ef ined b y e xam in ing t he p er iods i mmed ia tely b efore a nd a f ter t he c o l lapse o f Ro man c on tro l.

To t h is e nd t he c o l labora t ion

o fb o th Ro man ists a nd p ost-Ro man ists was s ough t a nd i ti s ap leasure t o r ecord t he a lacr ity w i th w h ich s cho lars o fb o th f i elds a greed t o p ar t ic ipa te i n t he Conf erence.

By t he s a me t oken t he l arge a ud ience was c omposed o f w orkers i n

b o th f i elds a nd t he mu tua l i n terchange o f i deas a nd i n for ma t ion w as a g race n ote w h ich r an t hrough t he p roceed ings.

Areas b eyond t he f ron t ier w ere e xa m ined

t o e stabl ish whether t he d ecl ine o f Ro man p ower was r ef lected i n c hanges i n t he a rchaeo log ical r ecord o f p eop les who m igh t p rev iously h ave b een i nh ib ited b yt he n ear p resence o f Ro man f orces. Even ts c on te mporary w ith t hose i n B r i ta in i n I t a ly , A fr ica a nd Gau l where d ocumen tary e v idence i lu stra tes a v ar iety o f r esponses t ob arbar ian a t tack , w ere a dvanced a s models f or e ven ts i nB r i ta in . I t i s a ma t ter f or r egret t ha t i ti s n o t p ossible t o i nclude among t he p apers t he c o m men ts made i n d iscussion . I nd iv idua l c on tr ibu tors h ave , n o d oub t , i nc luded r esponse t o t he d iscussions i n t he p r in ted v ers ions o f t he ir p apers. I t w as a pparen t t ha t ag u l f s t il l e x isted b etween Ro man a nd , f or i nstance, S axon s tud ies.

Th is was n o t s o much a p roble m o f a pproach a s much a s al ack o f a

t wo-way f low o f i n for ma t ion b etween p er iod s pec ial ists. A n umber o f p ropos it i ons n ow h e ld t o b e u n tenab le , o r r endered o bso le te b y f ur ther r esearch , were s t i l l t he s tockin-trade o fb o th p ar t ies; t h is s ee ms t ob e e spec ia l ly t rue i n t he f i elds Ro man c eram ic a nd m i l itary e qu ipmen t s tud ies. The Ro man ists f or t heir p art c her ished n o t ion s a bou t t he u se o f c o in e v idence wh ich a lar med s ome o f t he n um is mat ists p resen t. Further , a s S ue Haselgrove p o in ts o u t , t he f a i lure o f Ro man ists t o e stab l ish wha t was n o t o sten ta t iously Ro man i n t he way o f l i fe o f t he f our th c en tury mak es c hanges i n t ha t l i fe s ty le d if icu l t t o d etec t. I f we d o n o t k now wha t was n or ma l h ow a re w e t o e stabl ish wha t i s a bnor ma l o r i nt rus ive? A l l p art ies a greed t ha t t he t rans i t ion f ro m Ro man B ri ta in a t t he a dm in istra t ive l evel s ee ms t oh ave b een a brup t a nd t ha t t h is c an b e t raced i nt he

c essa t ion o f p o t tery p roduc t ion a nd t he d em ise o f t he c urrency .

On t he o ther

h and i n a reas b eyond t he b ounds o f p ri mary S axon s et t le men t , a nd e spec ial ly i n Wa les , t he Ro man t w i l ight s haded impercep t ibly i n to a n e arly med iaeva l d awn . A Con ference o f t he s ize o f t ha t h eld i n Durha m d epends f or i t s s uccess n o t merely o n t he q ual ity o f i t s c on tr ibu tors b u t o n an u mber o fb ackground workers. Thanks s hou ld b e r endered t o t he s tuden ts o f t he D epar tmen t o f Archaeo logy w hose u nob trus ive o rgan isat iona l s k i l ls b rough t t he e n terpr ise t o ah appy c onclus ion—Rober t Young , Caro l ine Wingf ield , I an Sm ith , S tephen D ick inson , R ichard S teele a nd J a mes H ibbs. D urha m .

7 . i i. ' 79

ROMANO-SAXON ATTITUDES b y S usanne H ase lgrove

" Between Ro man Br i ta in a nd S axon Eng land t here i s ag rea t g u l f f ixed , av o id o f c on fus ion whose o bscur i ty r e ma ins a s tand ing c ha ll enge t o h istor ica l i nqu iry ; And n o t l east o f t he d angers w h ich c onf ron t t hose w ho a t te mp t t o b r idge t he g u lf l i es i n t he d if f icu l ty o f d e ter m in ing t he l im i ts o f f i rm g round u pon i t s b orders" ( Myres, 1 936:v i i ) A l though wr it ten s o me f or ty y ears a go , Myres ' words a ppear , t o my v iew a t l east , a s t rue t oday a s t hey w ere i n 1 936.

Th is may a ppear a s urpr is ing

a sser t ion , c ons ider ing t he f or ty y ears o f s cho larsh ip wh ich h ave e lapsed s ince t he f i rst a ppearance o f Ro man B r i ta in a nd The Eng l ish S e t t le men ts.

I ti s n o t

my c on ten t ion t ha t w e h ave n o t amassed more d a ta , i ndeed , o ur k now ledge o f r ura l s e t t le men t h as i ncreased g rea t ly o ver t hese y ears ( Fow ler , 1 976 ; Rahtz, 1 976 ), b u t r a ther , t ha tb ecause o f al ack o f a ny s ecure t heore t ical f ramework f or t he ir i n terpre ta t ion , more d a ta h ave o f ten merely b rough t g rea ter c on fusion . One o f t he ma in c auses f or t he ir f a ilure t o e stabl ish s uch a f ra mework w as t he a rchaeo log ists ' b e l ief t ha t t he f ra mework wh ich t hey c ou ld e stabl ish f rom t he h istor ica l s ources was a dequa te. The c onsequences o f s uch a n a tt itude h ave b een d ocumen ted b y Morr is : " Un t i l a bou t t wen ty y ears a go a l most a l l s cho lars * ...accep ted Bede 's m istaken d a te o f ' a bou t4 50 ' f or t he f irs t a rr iva l o f t he Eng l ish w i thou t c r it ica l e nqu iry , a nd i gnored t he e v idence o n wh ich t he German d a tes were f ounded , w h ile Ger man s cho lars p a id n o a t ten t ion t o B ede. f us ion n a tura l ly f o l lowed".

Con-

( Morr is, 1 974 : 2 28 ).

Th is u ncr i t ica l a t t i tude t o t he l i terary s ources i s a l l t he more s urpr is ing c onsi der ing t ha t many o f t he s cho lars o ft he p er iod c ame i n to Archaeo logy w i th a b ackground i nC lassics a nd H istory. For e xa mp le , t he ' Ca tastrophe ' v ersion o f t he e nd o f Ro man Br i ta in was p ropounded i n ad ocumen t wh ich , p ace A lcock ( 19 73 :9 ) was n o t p r i mar ily ' narra t ive h istory ' b u t r a ther s ometh ing a pproach ing t he man ifesto o f as ix th c en tury ' Fest iva l o f L ight '.

One c an o n ly h ope t ha t

a rchaeo log ists w il l t ake t o h ear t t he modern h istor ica l a ssess men ts o f t he q ua l ity o f t he t ex ts ( e .g. Du mv il le , 1 977 ) , a nd n o t p lace t oo much r e l iance o n t he m. Is ha l l r e turn t o t he p roble m o f c onstruct ing t he c hrono logy o ft he p er iod f rom t he h istor ica l s ources, l a ter. Af ur ther o bstacle w h ich h as i nh ib ited t he e stabl ish men t o f t he s or t o f t heore t ica l f ra mework , wh ich h as s o g rea t ly a ided t he s tudy o f a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l o f o ther p er iods a nd a reas ( e .g. C larke , 1 972a ; Ren frew , 1 973 ;

4

S ou th , 19 77 ), i s t ha t t he p er iod h as r arely b een s tud ied i n i t s own r ight. L y ing a s t hey d o a t t he b orders o f wha t C larke h as d es igna ted a s a rchaeo log ica l ' Spec ia l ist Cel ls ' ( Clarke , 19 73:7 ) —the Ro man a nd S axon p er iods — the y ears o f ' Transi t ion ' h ave most o f ten b een s tud ied b y s cho lars whose ma in i n terests l ay i nt he ' Classic ' f or ms o f Ro man a nd Ger man ic c u l ture. I n o rder t o s tudy t he ' Romano-Saxon ' p er iod , t herefore , t hese a rchaeo log ists h ad t o s tep , t o ag rea ter o r l esser e x ten t , o u t o f t he d isc ip l inary t err i tory w ith wh ich t hey w ere most f am i l iar i n to t he ' o bscur i ty ' o f Myres "grea t g u l f '. I n o rder t o o r ien ta te t he ms e lves i n t h is u n fa m i l iar t err i tory , s uch a rchaeo log ists l ooked f or l inks a nd p ara l le ls w i th t he s ecur ity o f t he ir ' Spec ial ist C el ls '.

Thus , s tuden ts o f Ro man

B r i ta in h ave l ooked f or ' vest iges ' o f t he i nst i tu t ions a nd p rocesses, w hose e x istence t hey c ou ld d e monstra te , d ur ing t he e ar l ier ' Co lon ia l ' p er iod .

S im i-

l arly , a rchaeo log ists p r i mar i ly c oncerned w ith t he c o mplex ' S ta te ' o f S axon Eng land , h ave s earched f or t he ' Roo ts ' o f i t s f or m a nd o rgan isa t ion .

C lear ly ,

t herefore , w hen a p er iod i s merely t rea ted a s a n a ppendage , i ti s n o t g o ing t o r ece ive t he amoun t o f c r it ica l a ssess men t o f t he e v idence a nd i t s i n terpretat ion w h ich i s n ecessary f or a p roper u nderstand ing o f t he p oss ible r ange o f p rocess es o pera t ing a nd f or t he f or mu la t ion o f a dequa te r esearch d es igns t o t est f or t hem. More o f ten t han n o t , h owever , t he ' vest ige '/ 'Roo ts ' a pproach h as p rev a i led : " The Age o f Arthur e nded Ro man Br ita in , a nd c rea ted t he n a t ions o f modern Br i ta in ...His v ic tory b r ief ly d e monstra ted t ha t Br ita in was a nd c ou ld b e as ingle p o l it ical s ta te...In n a me h e w as t he l ast Ro man emperor ; b u t h e r u led a s t he f i rst med ieva l k ing.

Many p er manen t

i nst i tu t ions , c usto ms a nd c onven t ions t ha t s t il l i nf luence modern p o l it ica l b ehav iour b eg in t he ir h istory i n t he A rthur ian a ge". ( Morr is, 19 73 :506 ). Further more , s uch a t t i tudes h ave l ed t o t he a pp l ica t ion o f " ca tegor ies o f t hough t a nd s hades o f mean ing i nappropr ia te t o t he 1 965 :1).

p er iod u nder r ev iew" ( Clark ,

The p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l s truc ture o f t he t rans it iona l ' Ro mano-Saxon

p er iod ' was n o t t ha t o f al a te S axon ' Early S ta te Modu le ' ( Hodges, 1 978 ) n or t ha t o f af u l ly-opera t iona l Ro man Imper ia l s a tel l ite , b u t r a ther a web o f c ont rad ic t ions, w i th in wh ich e le men ts o f Ro mano-Br it ish , Ce l t ic a nd Ger man ic e lemen ts w ere s trugg l ing f or a scendency .

I ndeed , i ts ee ms q uest ionable t o

w ha t e x ten t many p ar ts o f Br ita in were e ver f u l ly ' Ro man ised ', e ven w hen t he p rov ince was a f u l l member o f t he Imper ia l s yste m ( Tho mas , 1 976 ).

However ,

t h is i s a n a spec t l i t t le a cknow ledged b y many o f t hose s tudy ing Ro man B r i ta in , w hose ma in i n terest i s i n t he Ro man ised s eg men t o f t he p opu la t ion , w hose b ehav iour c an b e i n ferred b y a na logy w ith o ther p ar ts o f t he Emp ire , f or wh ich more d eta iled l i terary s ources s urv ive ( e .g. Wacher , 19 74;

L iversidge , 1 968 ).

The ma in c onsequence o f c oncen tra t ing o n t he b ehav iour o f w ha t must h ave b een a minor ity o f t he t o ta l p opu la t ion o f t he p rov ince i s t ha t s uch s cho lars a re i l l-equ ipped t o d ea l w i th t he e nd o f Ro man Br ita in , when a Ro man ised l i fe-sty le b egan t o l ose i t s p opu lar i ty , e ven i t s v iabi l i ty. H av ing n ever r ea l ly c o me t o t erms w ith wha t t he ma jor ity o f p eop le were d o ing u nder Ro man r u le , i ti s d if icu l t f or s uch s cho lars t o make more t han empa thet ic g uesses a s t o t he • e f fect t he b reakdown o f t he s yste m h ad o n t he D iocese , a s a who le :

5

"We c an f ee l s ure t ha t t hough o wners m igh t c l ing t o t he ir v i l las a s l ong a s p ossible , n ever the less c ond i t ions e ven tua l ly b ecame t oo i nsecure f or p ersona l s afe ty ; a nd t ha t more s er iously s t i l l , t he s laves a nd c o lon i , u pon w hose l abours p roduct iv ity d epended , w ere f ound i ncreas ingly d if f icu l t t o r eta in o r r ep lace" ( Frere , 1 974 :419 ). At h ird ma jor p roble m w h ich h as c on fron ted t hose a t te mp t ing t o s tudy t he y ears o ft rans it ion i s t ha t o f C hrono logy. Bo th ' Ro man ists ' a nd ' S axon ists ' a re u sed t o w ork ing w ith in a s ecure h istor ica l ly b ased c hrono logy , w i th in w h ich a rchaeo log ica l p heno mena c an b e r e la ted t o s pec if ic h istor ica l e ven ts.

T he

p rob le m i s p ar t icu larly a cu te f or ' Ro man ' a rchaeo log ists b ecause t hey a re d ea l ing w i th t he s a me s or t o f ma ter ia l ( par t icu larly c o ins a nd p ottery ) a t t he End o f Ro man Br ita in , a s e ar l ier o n , b u t , b ecause t he i s land was n o l onger p ar t o f t he e cono m ic n e twork o f t he Emp ire , t he ' ru les ' o f c ircu lat ion a nd u se , c ruc ia l t o t he ir u t il ity a s c hrono logy i nd ica tors, n o l onger a pp ly. I n t he p ast , when t he ' S hor t ' C hrono logy o f a' Ca tastrophe ' model f or t he e nd o f R oman Br ita in w as p opu lar , t h is p roble m was l i t t le a cknow ledged ; h owever , w i th t he p resen t v ogue f or ' Con t inu ity ', t he t rue i mp l ica t ion s o f t he c hronolog ica l p robl ems h ave t o b e f aced . For e xa mp le, a rchaeo log ists e xcava t ing t he f i na l l evels o f o ccupa t ion , w i th in w ha t h ad b een f ormer ly a Roman t own , n eed t o b e a ble t o a ssess t he d ura t ion o f s uch a s tage b u t , c anno t make u se o f t he c o in a nd p o tt ery e v idence i n t he s a me way a s t hey c ou ld f or e ar l ier p hases o f o ccupa t ion . Un for tuna te ly , t he r esponse o f most e xcava tors t o i n terpre t ing t he f inal s tages o f L a te Ro man s i tes i s t o e xpand o r c on trac t t he f ina l o ccupa t ion , d epend ing o n w he ther t hey b e l ieve i n " a l l t h is Dark A ge n on sense" ( Rah tz , 1 975 : 6 1) o r n o t. Man ifest ly , l i t t le p rogress i n r eso lv ing t he c ruc ia l c hrono log ica l p roble ms w i l lb e made wh ile t he d eba te i s c arr ied o n a ts uch a l evel . O ne means o fg e t t ing t he c hrono logy o f t he p er iod o n a more o b ject ive b as is w ou ld b e t hrough t he u se o f r ad io me tr ic a nd o ther s c ien t if ic d a t ing me thods. Howe ver , many s cho lars a re u nw il l ing t o u se s uch t echn iques b ecause t hey b e l ieve t he l eve l o f e rror i nvo lved t o b e s o g rea t a s t o p rec lude t he ir u se w ith in t he h is tor ica l p er iods. S uch a n a rgumen t i s f a l lac ious o n t wo g rounds. F irst ly , s uch t echn iques c an a nd h ave b een u sed s uccessfu l ly i n d ea l ing w i th ma ter ia l f ro m h is tor ica l ly d a ted p er iods. F or e xa mp le , r ad iocarbon a nd t hermo lum inescen t d a t ing h as b een u sed t o g rea t e f fec t i n t he s tudy o f t he S axon C hurch o f A l l S ain ts a t Br ixworth ( Everson , 1 977 ). Rad iocarbon d a t ing o f ap iece o f a n i ma l b one f rom a d i tch o therw ise o n ly p roduc ing u nd iagnost ic p o t tery a nd b r ick , p roduced a' ca l ibra ted mean ' o fA .D . 7 10 ( p lus o r m inus e igh ty y ears ( i b id.:63 ) ) , w h ich b y i nd ica t ing a ct iv ity o n t he s i te a t t h is p er iod , s uggests t hat Hugh C and idus ' a sser t ion t ha t Br ixwor th was a monast ic c o lony o f P e terborough Abbey , d ur ing t he S axon p er iod may i ndeed h ave b een c orrect ( Me l lows, 1 949 :15 ).

F ur ther-

more , b r ick f ro m t he f abr ic o f t he C hurch w as d a ted b y t he t her mo l im inescen t me thod a nd p roduced d a tes i nb o th t he Roman a nd S axon p er iod , t hereby c ausing ar e-assess men t o f t he h ypo thes is t ha t t he s tructure h ad b een e n t ire ly c onst ructed f rom r e-used Ro man ma ter ia l ( Everson , 1 977 :99 ). The s econd g round o n wh ich t he a rgumen t c an b e r efu ted i s t ha t t he p er iod o f Trans it ion i s n o t ah istor ica l o ne b u t , a tb est , ap ro toh istor ic p er iod .

6

The s ources u sed t o f or m a c hrono log ica l f ra mework h ave b een a ccura tely d escr ibed a s : "made u p o fh a lf t ru ths, f or t hey a re a bstracts d er ived f ro m l ost o r ig ina ls , d istor ted b y t he i gnorance o f t he ir c o mp i lers.

They a wa i t

t he c r it ica l s cru t iny t ha t c en tur ies o f s cho larsh ip h ave l av ished u pon t ex ts o f o ther p er iods"

( Morr is, 19 73 :x iv ).

However , t hey a re u sed c on f iden tly b y a rchaeo log ists t o c onstruct t he ' f ixed p o in ts ' o f t he ir a rchaeo log ica l c hrono log ies, w i thou t r ea l iz ing t ha t many o f t hem were a rr ived a tb y p rocesses e qua l ly a s c abba l ist ic a s t he ' p re-dose t echn ique' o r ' l iqu id s cin t i l la t ion c oun t ing ' a nd f requen tly a s wor thy o f t he e rror t er ms a u to ma t ica l ly a ssigned t o t he l a t ter ( Harr ison , 1 976 ).

I ndeed ,

i nt he most r ecen t ly p ubl ished w ork o n t he I r ish t ree-r ing s equence ( Pearson 19 77 ) al eve l o f a ccuracy o f p lus o r m inus t wen ty-f ive y ears i s q uo ted f or t he r ad iocarbon d a tes o bta ined , a nd i ti s p oss ible t ha t f urther work w il l r esu l t i n t he d egree o f e rror b e ing s t i l l f ur ther r educed. A lthough t he p robl em o f a rchaeo log ica l a ssoc ia t ion ( Co les a nd J ones , 19 74 ) w i l l a lways r e ma in w i th r ad iocarbon d a t ing , i t s p o ten t ia l f or e stabl ish ing t he d a te a t w h ich ma ter ial was d epos ited i s s ure ly a t l east a s g ood a s t ha t o f fered b y r ecourse t o r e mo te h is tor ica l e ven ts, o r b y t he a ssess men t o f p ure ly t ypo log ica l c r i ter ia ( W ilson , 1 959 ), a nd o f i n f in ite ly w ider a pp l ica t ion . An a l l ied p roblem i nt rea t ing t he p er iod a s ah istor ica l o ne i s t ha t i te nc ourages a rchaeo log ists t o l im i t t he ir e xp lana t ions o f a rchaeo log ica l p heno mena t o t h e t rad it iona l , h istor ical ly a t tested ' I nvas ion , D if fus ion , Migra t ion ' ( Ada ms, 1 968 ), r ather t han c ast ing t he ir n ets f ur ther ( e .g. B in ford , 1 968; B in ford , 1 972;

C larke , 1 972b ) .

C oup led w i th t h is r eluc tance i s t he o bsess ion , p ar t icu lar ly

among ' Saxon ' a rchaeo log ists w i th l i nk ing t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ial t o e thn ic g roups, o n ly h in ted a tb y l a ter t ex tua l e v idence ( e .g. L eeds, 19 13; Hawkes, 1 961; Ev ison , 19 65 ).

There c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t here were d i f feren t e thn ic

g roups i nvo lved i nt he s e t t le men t o f Eng land , a nd t ha t t hey c an p robably b e d ist i ngu ished t hrough t he u se o f a rchaeo log ica l c r iter ia , b u t , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t much p rogress w i l lb e made i n i den t ify ing t he m i ft he c urren t methods o f a na lys is c on t inue t ob e u sed.

A l though t he f o l low ing c r it ique was p ubl ished i n 19 56 , i t

i s s t i l l ap re t ty f a ir a ssess men t o f t he p rocesses o f r eason ing most f requen tly emp loyed : " Because a l arge n umber o f o rna men ts a re f ound i n as er ies o f g raves a nd i tc an b e s hown t ha t t he o r ig in o f t he s ty le o f o rnamen ts l i es i n s o me c on t inen ta l d istr ict o r o ther , i s i ta ny p roof t ha t t he p eop le i n t hose g raves were d escended f rom t hose i n t he l and i n w h ich t ha t s ty le o f o rna men t was f or mer ly c om mon? O f c ourse i ti s n o t. There i s n o p roof w ha tever t ha t t he p eop le i n t he g raves d id n o t o bta in t he ir o rnamen ts f rom a s ource q u i te o u ts ide t he d istr ict i n wh ich t hey l i ved"

( Le thbr idge , 1 956 :114 ).

Moreover , e v idence f or t h is t rans it iona l p er iod i s n o l onger c om ing e xclusively f rom t he f unerary c on tex ts , w i th wh ich t he t rad i t iona l t axonom ies a nd t ypo log ies w ere d es igned t o d ea l ( and t o wh ich t hey a re most a ppropr ia te ), b u t r a ther

7

f rom d o mest ic o nes. Ye t , o n s et t lemen t s i tes, t he h igh s tatus o b jec ts most c o mmon ly u sed f or t he i den t if ica t ion o f e thn ic i den t ity a re f ound w i th s uch r ar ity a s a l most t o p reclude t he ir p rof itable u se f or t h is p urpose.

F or t h is

r eason a lone , s urely i ti s t ime f or u s t o s eek s o me n ew a pproaches. One a rea o f r ecen t d eve lopmen ts w h ich c ou ld c on tr ibu te t o ap rof itable s tudy o f e thn ic i den t i ty w ith in t h is p er iod , i s t ha t o f ' Ethno-archaeo logy ', where a rchaeo log ists s tudy c on te mporary ' Sma l l S ca le ' s oc ie t ies w ith p ar t icu lar emphasis o n t he ir mater ia l c u l ture a nd w i th s pec if ica l ly a rchaeo log ica l p robl e ms i n m ind ( Gou ld , 1 978 ).

F or e xa mp le , Hodder 's w ork ( 19 78 ) h as s uggested

t ha t t he d egree t o w h ich e thn ic i den t ity i s emphasised b e tween d iferen t e thn ic g roups may b e r e la ted t o t he e x ten t t o w h ich g roup i den t ity n eeds t o b e ma int a ined a nd a lso t o t he d egree t o w h ich t he g roups a re i n c o mpet it ion w i th e ach o ther o ver s carce r esources. O f p ar t icu lar r e levance t o ap er iod w hen l ong-ter m , o pen-area e xcavat i ons a re mak ing a va i lable l arge q uan t it ies o f s e t t le men t e v idence ( Rah tz, 19 76 ), i s t he a rchaeo log ica l u se o f p roxem ic t heory , w h ich s hows t ha t d iferen t e thn ic g roups r e la te t o a nd u se s pace i n d iferen t w ays ( Ha l l , 19 66 ). F le tcher 's a rcha eo log ica l a pp l ica t ion o f p roxe m ic t heory t o ac on te mporary A fr ican v i l lage a nd a n a nc ien t E gyp t ian o ne ( Fle tcher , 19 77 ) h ave s hown t ha t t here a re p referred measure men ts a nd s hapes p ar t icu lar t o e thn ic g roups , wh ich c an b e d e tected i n t he d esign , s ize a nd l ayou t o fb o th i nd iv idua l h ouses a nd w ho le s e t t le men ts. S hou ld i tb e p oss ible t o e stabl ish d eta i led i n for ma t ion a bou t s uch p re ferred s hapes a nd u n its, n o t o n ly f ro m t he C on t inen ta l h ome lands o f t he G erman ic s e t t lers , b u t a lso f ro m Ro mano-Br i t ish s i tes, we w ou ld b e i n a much b etter p o t i t ion t o d ist ingu ish t he s e t t le men ts o f d i fferen t Ger man ic g roups, o ne f ro m a no ther , a nd a lso , f rom t hose o f t he r e mnan t Ro mano-Br it ish p opu la t ion . Af i na l , a nd l i t t le a cknow ledged f actor w h ich h as i n f luenced h ow t he p er iod h as b een r egarded a nd t here fore s tud ied b y a rchaeo log ists , i s t he a t t i tude wh ich t hey h o ld t o t he t wo c u l tures i nvo lved—Roman a nd G er man ic.

Most ' Ro man '

a rchaeo log ists h ave t he ir a esthe t ic a pprec ia t ions a t tuned t o t he h igh q ua l ity a nd e legance o f Ro man a nd Ro man ised ma ter ia l c u l ture a nd a re t herefore n ot v ery i mpressed b y a nd t herefore i n terested i n Ger man ic a rtefacts.

Fur ther more ,

t hey r ecogn ise t he Ger man ic m igran ts a s t he d estroyers o f t he c u l ture t hey a dm ire a nd a re c onsequen tly r eady t o t h ink t he worst o f t he Ang lo-Saxon s e tt lers o f Br i ta in w ith t he r esu l t t hat many o f t he m t end t o a gree w ith G ildas ' v ersion o f e ven ts : " Con foreba tur n a mque u l t ion is i ustae p raeceden tum s ce lerum c ausa d e man iu sque a d mare i gn is o r ien ta l i o r ien ta l i s acr ilg iorum manu e xaf fera tus e t f in it i mas q uasque c iv ita tes a grosque p opu lar is n on q u ien t a ccensus d onee c uctum p aene e xunens i nsu lae s uperf ic ia m r ubra o cc iden ta lem t ruc ique o ceanum l i ngua d ela mbe t" ( ed. Mo mmsen , 1 989 :39 ). Tha t s uch a v iew h as h ad a s usta ined f o l low ing u n t i l q u i te r ecen t ly i s s carcely s urpr is ing when o ne c ons iders t ha t t he ma jor ity o f s cho lars g rew u p i n at ime when Br ita in a nd t he ma jor i ty o ft he Grea t Powers s t il l h ad emp ires a nd t heref ore t he v irtues a nd t rad it ions o f t he Roman Emp ire were a dm ired a s t hose o f

8

k indred s p ir i ts.

A s t he t wen t ieth c en tury p rogressed , i ncreas ingly l ess r espect

w as p a id t o t he Imper ia l ' i dea l ' i n wha t w as t o b ecome t he ' Th ird Wor ld '; wh ile i n Europe i t sel f , t he ' n eo-barbar ians ' o f Fasc is m a nd Co mmun is m w ere c ha ll eng ing t he e s tabl ished o rder a nd t rad i t iona l s tandards . I n s uch a c on tex t , i t w ou ld h ave b een h ard t o v iew t he e nd o f R oman B r i ta in a nd t he o ther p rov inces a s merely t he s uccess ion f ro m a ' p layed-ou t ' , d ecaden t l i fe-s tyle t o an ew a nd v igorous o ne w i thou t t he f ee l ing t ha t o ne was a lso a dm i t t ing t o t he e ven tua l e c l ipse o f o ne 's o wn . The o ther s ide o f t he c o in was a v iewpo in t , o f ten h e ld b y t hose w hose ma in c oncerns l ay i n t he l a t er S axon c en tur ies; t ha t o f a dm ira t ion f or ' The N oble S avage '. S uch a n a t t i tude h ad a l ong p ed igree i n Engl ish p h ilosoph ica l t rad i t ion ( Ker mode, 1 964 : 3o c iv ) b u t f ound i t s a rchaeo log ica l e xpression i n a n a dm ira t ion f or t he Ger man ic m igran ts, w ho , d esp i te h av ing a v ery l ow l evel o f ma ter ia l c u l ture ( and t herefore o n ly a v ery l ow r ung o n t he V ictor ian l adder o f s oc ia l e vo lu t ion ), s t il l managed t o m igrate o ver l arge a reas o f Europe a nd s uccessfu l ly d efea t t he m igh t o f Rome a nd b r ing i n an ew o rder ( e .g . B randon , 1 978 : 2 ) . N a tura l ly , t h is a dm ira t ion was most marked i n t he c oun tr ies w hose r u lers h oped t o emu la te t he ir G erman ic a ncestors : " The y ear 1 933 w itnessed a v ic tory o f a n a t t itude t owards t he h istory o f t he c u l ture o f Ger many w h ich g ave t o t he G er man ic e le men t o f a l l t ha t i s G er man a s ign if icance p rev iously u n though t o f . The b est o f w hat i s G erman i s G er man ic a nd must b e f ound i n p ure f or m i n e ar ly G er man t imes. A rchaeo log ica l r esearch t hus f ound i t self f aced w i th t he p leasan t t ask o f e xa m in ing a nd r econstruct ing t he r eal e ssence o fG er man ic l i fe a nd c ustoms" ( Schne ider , q uo ted i n Dan ie l , 1 964 :121 ). A s o ne migh t e xpec t , t he a dm ira t ion was more mu ted among Br i t ish s cho lars : " The h ero ic c harac ter o f t he Anglo-Saxons , s o c lear ly p or trayed i n t he ir imag ina t ive l i tera ture a nd p oetry , i s o n ly d im ly p erce ived i n t he ir ma ter ia l r e ma ins" ( W i lson , 1 971:16 ). T he c onsequence o f s uch a n a pproach i s , n o t u n mtural ly , ar ead iness t o u ndere s t i mate t he c on tr ibu t ion o f Ce l t ic a nd Ro mano-Br it ish c u l ture a nd i nst itu t ions t o t he l a ter s oc ia l a nd t enur ia l p a t terns o fS axon England , b e l iev ing w i th S tubbs t ha t " fro m t he Br iton a nd t he Ro man o f t he f if th c en tury w e h ave r ece ived n o th ing" ( S tubbs, 1 894 :3 ).

F or tuna tely , t he a l terna t ive l obby o f ' Cel t ic c on-

t i nu i ty ' h as h ad v oc iferous a nd p ersuas ive a dvoca tes ( e .g. J ones, 1 976 ) a nd , a l most b y a cc iden t , ah ea l thy b a lance h as b een ma in ta ined , s o f ar. The p reced ing p ar t o f t h is p aper h as b een c oncerned w i th a n e xa m ina t ion o fh ow a rchaeo log ists ' a t t i tudes t o v ar ious p henomena o f t he ' Trans i t iona l ' y ears —the h istor ica l s ources, c hrono logy , Ro mans a nd S axons e tc., h ave d et erm ined t he way i nw h ich t he p er iod h as b een s tud ied.

To c onclude, Ih ope

t o s uggest wha t a c t ion may b e t aken i n t he f u ture , t o c orrec t s ome o f t he b iases w h ich a re t he p roduc ts o f t hese a t t i tudes , a nd a lso t o r ev iew s o me n ew a pproaches wh ich may g ive f resh p erspec t ives o nt he p roble ms o f t he p er iod. F irst ly , i n o rder t o a ssess t he i mpact o f t he Ger man ic i ncurs ions a nd s et t le men ts, we n eed t o h ave a much more c o mp lete p icture o f t he L a te Ro man 9

s i tua t ion , p ar t icu lar ly i n t hose a reas o n t he p er iphery o f t he ma instrea m o f Ro man ised c u l ture. A l though t here i s n o d oubt t ha t t he ma ter ial c u l ture o f s uch r ura l a reas i s l ess a bundan t a nd v ar ied t han t ha t o f t he more ' soph ist ica ted ' t own-dwel lers a nd v i l la-owners, i ti s o f ten much more a bundan t a nd i n for mat i ve t han t ha t a va i lable t o p reh istor ians f or t he r econstruct ion a nd i n terpretat i on o f e ar l ier s oc ial a nd e cono m ic p a t terns.

Mere ly b ecause a s tudy o f s uch

r ura l p opu la t ions i s n o t g o ing t o c on tr ibu te t o o ur u nderstand ing o f t he ma jor h istor ica l e ven ts o f t he D iocese , t o a ny g rea t e x ten t , t ha t i s n o r eason t o v irt ua l ly i gnore t he m c o mp letely . F ur thermore, i fw e a re i n terested i n t he macro-econom ics o f t he Ro man Emp ire , s ure ly i ti s a ppropr iate t o s tudy t he p oss ible e f fec ts o f c hanges a t t he macro-level o n t he p r i mary p roducers, u pon w hose l abour t he w ho le s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic s uperstructure was u l t i ma tely s uppor ted .

Mak ing u se o f a dvances i n e nv ironmen tal a rchaeo logy

( Evans, 1 978 ) , c on siderable i n for ma t ion c an b e o b ta ined a bou t a gr icu ltura l s tra teg ies a nd p a t terns o f l and-use , w ith w h ich w e c an t est t he models o f e cono m ic o rgan isa t ion d er ived f ro m t he l i terary a nd e p igraph ic s ources.

N o t

o n ly wou ld s uch a more c o mprehensive p icture o f r ura l l i fe i n L ate Ro man Br ita in b e o fg rea t u se t o t hose s tudy ing t he e nd o f Ro man r u le a nd t he t ransit i on t o Ger man ic c on tro l , b u t i tm igh t a lso g ive R oman a rchaeo log ists n ew p erspect ives o n o ld p roble ms. S econd ly , a nd more i mpor tan t ly , t here i s an eed f or a r ad ica l r estruct ur ing o f h ow t he ' Romano-Saxon ' p er iod i s s tud ied b y a rchaeolog ists. A t t he mo men t , w e a re t ry ing t o b u i ld a n a rchaeo log ica l ' b r idge ' b e tween t wo h istor ic al ' rocks ' , whereas t he o n ly t h ing w h ich wou ld r ea l ly b r idge Myres "Grea t Gu l f ' w ou ld b e t ex tua l e v idence.

Archaeo log ica l e v idence c an n ever p rov ide

t he b as is f or wr it ing t he s a me s ort o f ' po l it ica l ' h istory f or t he Tran s i t iona l y ears , a s c an t he l i terary a nd e p igraph ic mater ia l f or b o th t he Ro man a nd S axon p er iods.

However , i tc an t el l u s ac onsiderable amoun t a bou t w ha t w as

g o ing o n a t t he b as ic l eve l o fh uman b ehav iour a nd Ib e l ieve t hat we s hou ld c oncen tra te o ng lean ing t he more g enera l i ns igh ts w h ich a re a va ilab le f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . Bu t , i n o rder t o max im ise t he amoun t o f i n for ma t ion w e r ecover , a rcha eo log ists o ft he p er iod w i l l h ave t o t ake n o te o f t he d evelopmen ts i n a rchaeo log ica l method a nd t heory w h ich h ave t aken p lace i n o ther p arts o ft he d isc ip l ine. A l l a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l , w hether i td a tes f rom t he Bronze Age o r t he Med ieva l p er iod i s t he p roduct o f ab ehav ioura l s yste m wh ich d eterm ined i t s d epos i t iona l a nd i m med ia te p ost-depos i t iona l h istory ( Clarke , 1 973 ;16 ). A s t ime w en t o n , f ur ther p ost-depos i t iona l a nd s a mp l ing f actors o pera ted t o d et er m ine t he s a mp le w h ich s urv ived t o b e c o l lec ted i n t he p resen t ( Tay lor , 1 972 ). Un less w e a pproach a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l , t ak ing f u l l n o te o f t he o pera t ion o f s uch f ac tors, o ur i n terpre ta t ions w il l a lways , a tb est , b e l im ited , a t w ors t , m is lead ing .On ly t hrough e xp l ic i t mode l b u ild ing a nd t est ing w i l l we e ver e xp lo i t t he f u l l p o ten t ia l o ft he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ( Dan ie ls , 1 972 ). F or e xa mp le, f or t he ' Trans i t iona l ' p er iod , we c an h ypo thes ize t ha t t here was al arge G er man ic i ncursion i n to Br ita in . Then w e c an r ev iew t he a va ilable mater ia l r ecord f or a ny u namb iguous s igns o f t he ma jor d isloca t ions , wh ich s uch a n i nvas ion wou ld p roduce. I n c e me tery e v idence , w e wou ld e xpect t o f ind n ew b ur ia l r i tua ls, p ossibly i n n ew p laces; i n s et t le men t e v idence , we wou ld e xpect t o f ind h ouse a nd s e t t le men t t ypes , c omparable w i th t hose f ound 1 0

i nt he i nvaders ' h o me lands; i nh igh s ta tus b u i ld ings, wh ich w ere l ike ly t o c ont a in p or table v a luab les , w e m ight e xpect t o f ind s igns o f d estruc t ion a nd b urni ng .

I n s hor t , i ti s n ecessary t o w ork o u t w ha t a rchaeo log ica l s igns a ny

b ehav iour w e a re s uggest ing h appened , wou ld h ave l ef t i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a nd t hen s ee i ft hey a re t here , r a ther t han l ook ing a t t he a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins a nd g uess ing wha t b ehav iour p roduced t he m. S uch a p rocedure may s eem more p ro trac ted a nd c o mp l ica ted t han w ha t a rchaeo log ists u sua l ly d o b u t i tc er ta in ly e nsures t ha t t here i s ac onsiderable amoun t o f t hought p u t i n to e very s tage i n t he p rocess o f r eason ing.

I t may w el l b e t ha t t he i n it ia l h ypo-

t hes is i s wrong a nd t he p rocedure h as t o b e r epea ted u n t il a model i s a rr ived a t w h ich most c losely a grees w i th t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence. However , e ven i ft he t wo a re c o mpa t ible , we must n ever e xclude t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t t h is i s f or tu i tous a nd f or t h is r eason , e very n ew p iece o f e v idence r ecovered must b e t ested a ga inst t he p reva il ing i n terpreta t ion a nd w e must b e p repared t o a bandon t he model i fi ti s n o l onger a ppropr ia te. A l l t h is may s ee m d if icu l t , c omp l ica ted a nd n o t v ery p os i t ive. However , Id o n ot t h ink t ha t a nyone wou ld c la im t ha t t he p rocesses o f i n ferr ing t he p ast f rom a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins w as e asy.

Wha t Iam s uggest ing i s t ha t w e s hou ld

a pproach i tw ith a s much c are a nd t hough t a s p oss ible, b e we a rchaeo log ists o f t he Pa laeo l i th ic o r t he Romano-Saxon p er iod . The e v idence i t sel f i s a n e xt remely b iased s amp le o f t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins o f p ast p opu la t ions a nd i ti s o ur r esponsib i l i ty t o e nsure t hat o ur o wn a t t itudes a nd i n terpreta t ion o f i td o n o t r esu l t i n f ur ther l im i t ing i t s p o ten t ia l f or i l lum ina t ing t he p ast.

Io n ly h ope

t ha t , t hrough s ome n ew ' Ro mano-Saxon ' a t t i tudes, s uch a s t hose Ih ave s ugg ested h ere, t he n ex t f orty y ears o f s cho larsh ip may e nable u s t o p rogress b eyond t he r a ther d is ma l c oncep t ion o f t he p er iod p u t f orward b y Dr. Myres i n 1 936: " And i fw e l eave t he s ub ject w ith l i t t le more t han ab lurred i mpress ion i n o ur m inds we c an n one t he l ess ma in ta in t hat t ha t b lurred i mpress ion r epresen ts more f a ithfu l ly t han a ny c lear-cu t p icture t he s p ir it o f t he a ge t ha t we h ave b een t ry ing t o u nderstand" ( op .c i t.:456 ).

RE FERE NCES

A dams, W. Y ., 1 968. 2 15. A lcock , L ., 1 973.

' I nvas ion , d if fus ion , e vo lu t ion ?

An t iqu i ty X L I I :1 9 4-

A r thur 's Br ita in , Harmondsworth.

B in ford , L . R ., 1 968. ' Archaeo log ica l p erspec t ives.' I n S . R . B in ford a nd L . R . B in ford ( eds. ), N ew Perspect ives i n Archaeo logy :5-32, C h icago. B in ford , L . R ., 1 972. ' Mortuary p rac t ices : The ir s tudy a nd t he ir p o ten t ia l .' I n L . R . B in ford , An A rchaeo log ica l P erspec t ive : 208-243. N ew York a nd L ondon . B randon , P ., 1 978. ' The S axon h er i tage.' S axons :1-12. L ondon .

1

I nP . Brandon ( ed.), The S ou th

C lark , J . G . D ., 1 965.

' Tra f f ic i n s tone a xe a nd a dze b lades.'

The E cono m ic

H istory Rev iew XV I I I :1-28. C larke, D . L . ( ed .), 1 972a. C larke, D . L ., 1 972b.

Models i n Archaeo logy , L ondon .

' Models a nd p arad ig ms i n C on te mporary Archaeo logy.'

I nD . L . C larke ( ed.) , Models i n Archaeo logy :1-60. C larke , D . L ., 1 973.

' Archaeo logy :

L ondon .

The l oss o f i nnocence.'

An t iqu i ty XLV I I :

6 -18 . Dan iel , G . E ., 1 964.

The I dea o f Preh istory , Harmondswor th.

Dan iels, S . G . H ., 1 972.

' Research d es ign models.'

I n D . L . C larke ( ed .),

Models i n Archaeo logy :201-229 , L ondon . Du mv il le , D ., 1 977.

' Sub-Ro man Br i ta in : H istory a nd l egend.'

H is tory U M ,

N o. 2 05 :173-192. Evans , J ., 1 978.

An I n troduct ion t o Env ironmen ta l Archaeo logy , L ondon .

Everson , P ., 1 977.

' Excava t ions i n Br ixwor th Churchyard.'

J ourna l o f t he

Br it ish Archaeo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion CXXX :123-132. Ev ison , V ., 1 965.

F if th Cen tury I nvasions S ou th o f t he Tha mes, L ondon .

F le tcher , R ., 1 977.

' Al terna t ives a nd d i f ferences.'

A rchaeo logy a nd An thropo logy :49-68. F ow ler , P . J ., 1 976.

I n M. J . T . S pr iggs ( ed. ),

Ox ford .

' Agr icu l ture a nd r ura l s et t le men t .'

I n D . M. W i lson

( ed .), The A rchaeo logy o f Anglo-Saxon Eng land :23-48.

L ondon .

Frere , S . S ., 1 974. Br itann ia , L ondon . Gou ld , R . A . ( ed .) , 1 978. Exp lora t ions i nE thnoarchaeo logy . Ha l l , E . T ., 1 966.

A lbuquerque.

The H idden D i mens ion , L ondon .

Harr ison , K ., 1 976.

Fra meworks o f Ang lo-Saxon H istory t o A . D . 9 00 ,

Cambr idge. Hawkes , S . C ., 1 961.

' The J u t ish S ty le A .

AS tudy o f Ger man ic a n i ma l a rt

i n s ou thern England i n t he f i f th c en tury A . D. ' Archaeo log ia XCV1 I I : 2 9-71. Hodder , I . , 1 978. West K enya .'

' The ma in ta inance o fg roup i den t i t ies i n t he Bar ingo d istr ic t , I nD . Green , C . C . Hase lgrove a nd M. J . T . S pr iggs

( eds.), S oc ia l O rgan isa t ion a nd S et t le men t :47-73. Hodges, R ., 1 978. Eng land . '

Ox ford.

' S ta te f or ma t ion a nd t he r o le o f t rade i n Midd le S axon

I n D . Green , C . C . Hase lgrove a nd M. J . T . S pr iggs ( eds.),

S oc ia l O rgan isa t ion a nd S et t le me n t :4 39-453.

Ox ford .

J ones , G . R ., 1 976. ' Mu l t ip le E sta tes a nd e ar ly s e t t le men t .' I n P . H . S awyer ( ed.) , Med ieva l S et t le me n t : 1 5-40. L ondon . K er mode, F ., 1 964. I n troduct ion , t o S hakespeare , W., The Te mpest . L ondon . L eeds , E . T ., 1 913.

The Archaeo logy o f t he Anglo-Saxon S et t le men ts. Ox ford .

1 2

L ethbr idge , T . C ., 1 956. A Reassess men t .'

' The Anglo-Saxon s et t le men t o f Eastern Eng land :

I n D . B . Harden ( ed.), Dark Age Br i ta in : 1 12-122.

London . L iversidge , J ., 1 968.

Br ita in i n t he Ro man Emp ire.

L ondon .

Mel lows, W. T . ( ed .) , 1 949. The Chron icle o f Hugh Cand idus, a Monk o f Peterborough , L ondon . mom msen , T . ( ed .), 1 898.

G i ldas ' De e xc id io e t c onquestu Br itann iae ,

Monumen ta G er man iae h istor ica c hron ica m inora s aec. v o l . 3 :1-85.

I V. V . V I. V I I

Ber l in .

Morr is, J ., 1 973.

The Age o f Arthur.

L ondon .

Morr is, J ., 1 974.

Rev iew o f Myres, J . N . L ., a nd Green , B ., The Anglo-

S axon c e metery o f C a istor-by-Norw ich a nd Marksha l l.

Med ieva l

Archaeo logy XV I I I :2 25-232. Myres, J . N . L ., 1 936. I n Co l l ingwood , R . G . a nd Myres, J . N . L ., Ro man Br ita in a nd The Engl ish S e t t le men ts. Ox ford. P earson , G . W., P i lcher , J . R ., Ba il l ie , M. G . L . a nd H il la m , J ., 1 977. ' Abso lu te r ad iocarbon d a t ing u s ing a l ow a l t itude , European t ree-r ing c al ibra t ion .' N a ture 2 70 : 2 5-28. Rah tz , P . A ., 1 975.

' How l ikely i s l ike ly? '

An t iqu ity XLD ( :5 9-61.

Rah tz, P . A ., 1 976.

' Bu i ld ings a nd r ura l s et tle men t .'

The A rchaeo logy o f Ang lo-Saxon E n g land :5 0-98. Ren frew , A . C . ( ed .), 1 973. S ou th , S . R ., 1 977.

I n D . M. Wilson ( ed .), L ondon .

The Exp lana t ion o f Cu l ture Change.

Me thod a nd Theory i n H istor ica l Archaeo logy .

L ondon . L ondon .

S tubbs, C . W., 1 874.

S elect Char ters.

L ondon .

Tay lor , C . C ., 1 972.

' The s tudy o f s et t le men t p a t terns i n p re-Saxon Br ita in .'

I n P . J . U cko , R . Tr ingha m a nd G . W. D i mb leby ( eds.), Man , S et t le men t a nd U rban is m :109-113. L ondon . Thomas, C ., 1 976.

' The e nd o f t he Ro man S ou th- West.'

I n K . Bran igan a nd

P . J . F ow ler ( eds.) , The Ro man West Coun try :1 98-213. Wacher , J ., 1 974.

The Towns o f Ro man Br i ta in .

Wi lson , D . M., 1 959.

' Almgren a nd c hrono logy :

L ondon . as um mary a nd s o me

c o m men ts.' Med ieva l A rchaeo logy I I :1 12-119. Wi lson , D . M., 1 971.

The Ang lo-Saxons.

1 3

N ew ton Abbo t.

Har mon ewor th.

THE END OF RO MAN BR ITAIN : THE L ITERARY AND NU M IS MATIC EV IDENCE REVIE WED b y J .P . C.K en t

With t he p ub l ica t ion o f Professor T ho mpson ' s mag ister ia l p aperl, o ne i st e mp ted t o wonder whe ther t he l i terary e v idence f or t he e nd o f R o man B r i ta in i s ap rof itab le s ub ject t o p ursue .

I s i ti ndeed a s ub ject a t a l l?

Dr .

D u mv i l le 2 h as p ersuasive ly p u t t he c ase f or a gnost ic is m a s o pposed t o t he 'f unda men ta l is m ' o ft he l a te Dr . Morr is 3 ; t here r e ma ins t he impression t ha t o ne r ece ived y ears a go , t ha t o ne i s i nv i ted t o a n a ct o f f a ith . a ccepts t he r eve la t ion o r o ne d oes n o t .

E ither o ne

Ic onc lude t ha t ad eta i led d iscuss ion

o f wha t s n ippe t f ro m G i ldas o r 'Nenn ius ' may b e a ccep ted a nd wh ich r e jected i s a n u nprof itab le e xerc ise t ha t w i ll c onv ince n o-one a nd i n n o way a dvance t he s ub jec t . We must o f c ourse d eve lop s o me a t t itude t o t hese s curces, i f s ources t hey b e , a nd Iw i l l g ive my o p in ion t ha t t here must b e al i t t le wheat among t he c haf f . S ince i ti s p a lpab le t ha t n o t e very th ing t hey s ay i s wrong , t here must b e u nder ly ing s ources n o t a l l k nown t o u s, wr it ten o r o ra l, h owe ver l ack ing i n mer i t . Bu t i t i s my f ur ther o p in ion t ha t we c an l earn a l i t t le more b y p roceed ing b y a na logy .

Iwas b rough t u p o n t he d octr ine t ha t Ro man

Br ita in was u n l ike t he r est o ft he Emp ire ; u n l ike i n i t s d eve lop men t a nd p art i cu lar ly i n i t s e nd . Th is p aper w i l l emphasise a nother a pproach , t i n tt he e nd o f Ro man Br i ta in h ad many a na log ies w ith t hose o fo ther p rov inces a nd t ha tb y c ast ing o ur n e t more w ide ly , we may r ece ive a l i t t le e n l igh tenmen t . The e nd o f R o man Br ita in was j ust a n a spect o f t he g rea t Fa ll o f t he R oman Emp ire ' . L e t u s l ook a t t h is w ider c on tex t . I n o ne s ense , Iam s urp r ised t ha t t he emp ire d id n ot 'f a l l ' s ooner a nd more c o mprehens ive ly t han was a ctua l ly t he c ase . Why t he R o man a rmy o f t he mid-four th c en tury w as s o d angerously i nadequa te wou ld r equ ire a who le e ssay t o e xp la in . We w i l l b r ief ly e xa m ine t he d eve loped p heno menon . The d r if t o f t roops f ro m f ron t ier t o c om i ta tus a rose i n t he c on tex t o f t he s uccession o f midth irdc en tury u surpa t ions b y o ver- m igh ty p rov in ica l c o m manders ' ' ' . Thus, Ph i l ip w as o verwhe l med a t V erona b y Dec ius w ith t he Army o f I l lyr icum ;

G a l lus a nd

V o lus ian , s uccessors t o D ec ius i n t he f i e ld , were d estroyed a t I n teramna b y A em i l ian ; Ae m i l ian i nt urn f e l l a t S po le to t o t he G er man a rmy o f Va ler ian . E ach p re tender a rr ived i n I t a ly w ith a n o verwhe lm ing f orce—wh ich h e p ro mp tl y r eturned t o i t s p rov ince , t hus e xpos ing h i mse l f d efence less b u t f or t he P rae tor ians t o t he n ex t a ssau lt . O ne o f t he s ecre ts o f Ga l l ienus ' s urv iva l w as h is c oncep t o f ac om i ta tensian a rmy o f v ex i l la t ions 5 . S uch a n a rmy c ou ld c arry t he war a ga inst r iva l emperors a nd a ga ins t sw if t ly mov ing b arb ar ians, b u t i t was a n om inous p or ten t .

F irst ly , i tc reamed o f f t he b est o f

t he e x ist ing t roops t o d efend t he emperor r a ther t han t he emp ire ; s econd ly , b yc rea t ing a c orps d 'e l i te a lways u nder t he imper ia l e ye i tt heea tened n eg lect o ft he f ron t ier a rm ies ; t h ird ly , b y l i nk ing t he p erson o f t he emperor 1 5

w ith a n e ssen t ia l ly f ree-stand ing p ower-base , i tb egan t he d ec l ine i n i mper ia l i n i t ia t ive t ha t i s s o marked a f ea ture o f t he l a te emp ire .

I td id n ot e ven s ecure

t he p erson o f t he emperor - i t mere ly made h im v u lnerab le t o ad i f feren t g roup o f o f f icers. The f i rst o f t he many i n terregna made p ossib le b y t he n ew s yste m c a me sw if t ly ; o n t he a ssass ina t ion o f Aure l ian n ear P er in thus i n 2 75, t here were n o i nstan t c and ida tes f or p ower , b ut t he a rmy , u ndeterred , h ad c on t inued i t s p redeterm ined march e astward f or u pwards o f s ix h undred mi les b efore t he n ex t emperor , T ac itus, a rr ived f ro m R ome ; i veness o f t he J un ta , t he I mper ia l G enera l S ta f f .

s uch was t he e f fect-

B y t he m idfour th c en tury , t hese j un tas h ad mu lt ip l ied w ith t he d iv is ions o f t he emp ire , a nd h ad b eco me t o ac onsiderab le e x ten t c iv i l ian ized . T he p ages o f Am m ianus t est ify t o t he e ssen t ia l i nef f ic iency o f t h is r ule b y c omm i tt ee , f raugh t a s s uch b od ies a re w i th c on f l ic t ing p ersona l i t ies a nd i n teres ts . I t was p erhaps i nev itab le , t hough n ot l ess s y mp to ma t ic o f i l l, t hat a f ter t he t h ird c en tury , 't op men ' r are ly a sp ired t o t he t hrone . We f i nd s en ior c o lon e ls ( Magnen t ius, Va len t in ian I , J ov ian ) , b r igad iers ( Theodos ius I , p erhaps Max i mus) , j un ior min isters ( Eugen ius, J ohannes) . I n terspersed w i th t he m were t he d iasa trous p roducts o f a n 'i mper ia l ' e duca t ion , t he p ious, f u t i le a nd s o me t i mes v ic ious s c ions o f wha t we must s evere ly j udge t o h ave b een s econd-ra te a nd f or tu itous i mper ia l h ouses .

I n t he f if th c en tury t here were

a t te mp ts t o r everse t he p rocess b ut i t was t oo l a te .

C onstan t ius I l , P e tron ius

Max i mus, An the m ius a nd Nepos were c er ta in ly 't op men '. r ect ly managed b y t he

R o mu lus w as d i-

t op men ', b ut t he f a te o f t he West was a lready s ea led ;

i mper ia l p o l icy , o r l ack o f i t , was l arge ly i rre levan t . P ub l ic mora le was l ow i n t he l a te emp ire, a nd n o t w ithou t r eason .

We h ave

s een h ow a nd why p ara lys is s et i n a t t he t op . I t was n o b e t ter a t h igh c o m mand l eve l . The c asua l it ies i n t he c iv i l wars o ft he m id-four th c en tury s eem t o h ave b rough t t he s hor tage o f r ecru its f or t he a rmy t o c r is is p o in t .

T he b at t le

o f Mursa ( 351) b etween C onstan t ius I a nd Magnen t ius, a Pyrrh ic v ictory f or t he f ormer , marks a c rucia l s tage i n t h is p rocess .

6

C asua l t ies were s o h eavy

t ha t i t was a who le y ear b efore t he v ictor ' c ou ld move f orward , a nd Magnent i us n ever p u t af orce i n t he f i e ld a ga in . T o d efend Gau l a ga inst a ma jor b arb ar ian a t tack a f ew y ears l a ter , J u l ian h ad j ust 1 3 ,000 men . 7 He c omm it ted t he m a l l t o o ne d espera te b at t le a t S trassbourg a nd was b r i l l ian t ly s uccessfu l ; h ad h is f orce b een c ut u p , Gau l wou ld h ave b een ' v ir tua l ly d e fenceless . imper ia l g enera ls h ad a n i l l n a me f or s lo th a nd e ven c oward ice,

8

Non-

b u t i ti s

h ard t o b e l ieve t ha t men l i ke A rbet io , who h ad r isen f ro m t he r anks t o b e Mag ister Equ itu m , were o ther t han b rave a nd s k il fu l o f f icers who s imp ly d ared n o t r isk t he ir a rm ies. Adr ianop le ( 378 ) was s oon t o s how t ha t t he emperor ' sp resence a s s uch was n o b et ter g uaran tee o f s uccess.

I ti sn on-

t he less n o tewor thy t ha t t he Ro man s tate, wh ich a f ter C annae c ou ld i nstan t ly r a ise f our n ew l eg ions f ro m c en tra l I t a ly , c ou ld n o t n ow r ecru i t a ny s or t o f a n a rmy w ithou t i ncreasing r esort t o b arbar ian t roops a nd g enera ls. B y t he f i f th c en tury , Ae t ius ' wars were f ough t w i th Franks, S uev ians, Huns a nd G oths ; r ebe l l ious Armor ica was p u t d own b y K ing G oar a nd h is A lans . Imp or tan t c a mpa igns were c onducted w ith t iny a rm ies ; t he r ecovery o f Br ita in i n 3 69 , f or e xamp le, was u ndertaken w ith f our u n i ts o f t he f i e ld-army , a max i mu m o f 2 ,000 men .9

1 6

With t he c onstan t a nx ie ty o ver d eser ted f i e lds a nd t he p ercep t ib le e v idence o f c on tracted c i t ies i nt he West , o ne i s b ound t o s uspect a bso lute d epopu la t ions a s t he e ssen t ia l f ac tor i n t he f a l l o f t he emp ire . "

D id t h is a pp ly a lso i n

B r i ta in? I th as b een d oubted , y e t i n L ondon t he myster ious d ark e ar th ', i n terven ing b etween e ar ly R o man a nd med iaeva l l ayers, s uggests a l arge u rban a rea u noccup ied a nd i ndeed c u lt iva ted . I nd iv idua l mora le s tood n o h igher .

F ore most i n p eop le ' sm inds must h ave

b een t he f i sca l p ressure r e len t lessly e xer ted b y ag overnmen t u nw i l l ing t o a ccept a d ec l ine i n r evenue .

I n t he ir d espa ir , men l i ke t he a ur i legu l i o f

T hrace t urned r ead i ly t o t he b arbar ians, 'v ect iga l iu m p er ferre p osse n on s u f f icien tes s arc inas g raves ' .1 1 T here was a r e medy -t he r e mova l o f c orrup t ion a nd t he c u l t iva t ion o f e f f ic iency ; n e i ther o f c ourse was r emo tely p oss ib le g iven t he s p ir it o f t he a ge , a nd Amm ianus g ives s o me h a ir-ra is ing s t or ies o f t he c orrup t ion a nd i rresponsib i l i ty o f h igh-rank ing o f f icers .1 2 Y e t r ea l ly n u mera te emperors l i ke Marc ian o r Anastas ius c ou ld w ith in a f ew y ears c onver t ad ef ic i t i n to a h andso me s urp lus, a nd l eave a g ood n a me a s r e l ievers o f b urdens , wh i le J u l ian 's e xper ience i n B e lg ica S ecunda s howed t ha t v ery much more t ax w as d e manded t han was n eedfu l . 1 3 J ust ice , i fw e may b e l ieve t he o p in ion o f aR o man r efugee a t A t t i la 's c our t , e n joyed n o h igher e stee m .

T he C hr ist ian C hurch was h ard ly h e lp fu l, e xp la in ing t he woes o f

t he t ime a s G od ' sp un ishmen t f or t he s ins o f t he p eop le, 1 5 a nd more o f ten u rg ing r es igna t ion t han r esistance . The c on junct ion o f p agan p rophecy R o me ' st we lve s aecu la -w ith C hr ist ian e xpecta t ion o f t he S econd C om ing o f C hr ist s erved t o c on f irm t he g enera l a t mosphere o f h e lp lessness. 1 6 O f t he many who f ough t o n a n i ncreas ing n u mber t ook a r ms n ot a ga inst t he b arbar ians b u t a ga inst t he ir own r u lers.

S o me t i mes, a s i n A fr ica , r e l ig ious f ana t ic is m

g ave p ar t icu lar f ervour t o ac on f l ict t ha t h ad many a spects o f c lass war fare ; i n G au l, t he B agaudae o f t he l a te t h ird c entury o nwards r epresen ted a t t imes af u l l-sca le r ura l i nsurrec t ion r a ther t han mere t rad i t iona l b r igandage .

We

s hou ld n o t h owever e i ther o ver look o r u nderest i ma te t he many d ist ingu ished p ub l ic s ervan ts who k ep t t he emp ire g o ing d esp i te a l l d i f f icu l t ies a nd d iscoura ge men ts. T he

i dea ' o f t he R o man Emp ire p roved d urab le f ar b eyond t he t ime when

t he i nst itut ion i t se lf w as s t i l l r ecogn izab le , S t . Pa tr ick , f or e xa mp le , a dver ts t ar t ly o n t he m isdeeds o f t he s o ld iers o f t he n a t ive d ynast C oro t icus, n ot t o b e c a l led c i t izens o f t he H o ly R o mans ' .1 7 I ndeed i ti s a rguab le t ha t i t was n o t e n t ire ly d ead u n t i l t he e nd o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury , a f ter wh ich i ts low ly g ave way t o an os ta lg ia t ha t s tead i ly d eve loped i n to t he R ena issance ; c an a f ter a l l b e n o r eb ir th u n t i l l i fe i s e x t inct .

t here

G iven t he c ircu mstances, t he f a l l o f t he Western Emp ire a nd t herefore t he l oss o f Br ita in a ppear t o h ave b een i nev itab le . The s tory o f h ow a nd when t h is h appened h as o f ten b een r e to ld . O n 3 1 D ece mber 4 06, Vanda ls, A lans a nd S uev i c rossed t he f rozen Rh ine a nd a ppeared t o b e mak ing f or t he C hanne l p or ts.

Br ita in , 'f er t i l is p rov inc ia t yrannoru m ' ,1 8 s ee ms a lready t o h ave

b een i n r evo lt u nder , i n q u ick s uccess ion , Marcus a nd G ra t tan ; n o te t ha t t he l a t ter b ore a l eg it im ist ' n a me , t hough s carce ly o ne o f g ood omen i n Br ita in . G ra t ian was a 'mun iceps ' ,p resu mab ly a c iv i l ian ;

t he e ven ts i n G au l s ee med

t o r equ ire a s o ld ier-emperor , a nd n ow was e lected C onstan t ine, a c o mmon 1 7

s o ld ier ,

o b s o la m s pec ie m n om in is ' .19 No d oubt t he omen l ooked t o C on-

s tan t ine t he Grea t , whose c en tenary y ear t h is was, a nd i ti s a l most u ncanny t ha t i ts hou ld h ave b een g iven a d isastrous t w ist b y h is u se o f t he n ames F lav ius C laud ius,

2 0

p roper t o t he u n lucky C onstan t ine I .

H is s ons w ere

n a med C onstans a nd J u l ian , wh ich c on f irms t he a l lusion t o t he Constan t in ian h ouse .

C onstan t ine , i n p ursu i t o f h is imper ia l d est iny , c rossed w i th p ar t o f

h is a r my t o t he c on t inen t , where h e h ad a c on fused c areer . wherever h is a rmy was .

He was emperor

H e a vo ided a s how-down w i th t he b arbar ians, many

o f who m p assed o n i n to S pa in , wh i ther C onstan t ine a lso s en t p ar t o f h is f orces . H is S pan ish a r my r ebe l led a ga inst h im , a nd h e w as l e f t s tranded i n A r les . Even b efore h e f e l l i n to t he h ands o f H onor ius, a n ew u surper , J ov inus , h ad a lready b een p roc la i med i n Gau l, a n om inee o f t he v ery b arbar ians w ho h ad i nvaded t he p rov ince . N ow i t was, a ccord ing t o af a mous p assage o f Z osi mus r e la t ing t o 4 09, t ha t t he Br i tons c eased t o o bey Ro man l aws, t ook u p a r ms a nd f reed t he c it ies f ro m t he b arbar ians.

2 1

Th is r efers, we s uppose , t o t he Anna l f or 4 08 :

Br itann iae S axonu m i ncurs ione d evasta tae . i cans a nd o thers .

T hey w ere i m i ta ted b y t he Ar mor-

S o t here i s n o q uest ion h ere o f Bagaudae , b ut o f magna tes

a ct ing r esponsib ly a nd e f fec t ive ly , s et t ing u p g overnmen ts t ha t b eca me , i f t hey were n o t a lready f ro m t he f irst , 't yrann ies ' ,i .e . monarch ies w i thout Ro man a u thor ity .

The a rche type o f t hese t yran ts i s o f c ourse t he ' superbus

t yrannus ' Vor t igern h i mse lf .

D id Honor ius t hen wr ite t o t he

o rder ing t he m t o p ro tect t he mse lves?

c it ies o f Br ita in '

Z os i mus ' c on tex t , t he G oth ic o ccupa-

t ion o f Ro me , s t i l l It h ink l ends c redence t o t he o ld emenda t ion Bre t t i i f or Br itann i ; f or tuna te ly i ti s n o t v ery i mpor tan t— the o utco me was t he s ame i n a ny c ase . We s ee h ow Ro man Br i ta in f orma l ly e nded , w i th t he r epud ia t ion o f a u surped i mper ia l a uthor i ty a nd t he r efusa l o f t he l eg i t i ma te emperor t o r esu me r espons ib i l i ty .

Th is w i l l h ave mean t : n o f resh a ppo in t men t o f o f f ic ia ls, n o

d espa tch o f g o ld f or p ay , n o sma l l c hange t o r edee m t ha t p ay .

I t i s s ure ly n o

l onger n ecessary t o p o in t o u t t ha t c o ins i n t he Ro man wor ld 'd r if ted ' b u t l i t t le , b u t were moved sw if t ly a nd d e l ibera te ly , t hen r e ma ined c lose t o t he ir p lace o f i ssue u n t i l d epos it ion o r l oss .

S o Br ita in b egan a r ap id r evers ion t o ac o in-

l ess e cono my . Wha t o f t he s ucceed ing y ears ? T he h in ts o f i n terna l r evo lut ion , o f o ne p ar ty o f n o tab les o ust ing a no ther , h ave b een we l l s e t o ut b y J ohn Morr is ,22 whose r egret ted d ea th h as impover ished o ur p roceed ings.

Perhaps t he most

i n terest ing a nd s uggest ive i s h is S ic i l ian Br iton , who w ishes a n eminen t r e lat ive t he e n joymen t o f a p erpetua l c onsu lsh ip ' ,2 3 ad ist inct ion s uch a s n ot e ven emperors h ad a ssu med .

Perhaps t h is i s mere h yperbo le , t hough i tg oes

f ar b eyond t he i t era ted c onsu lsh ips p roposed i n r ecorded a cc la mat ions o f t he p er iod . 2 4 To me, i ti s r e markab ly r em in iscen t o f Ambrosius ' i den t i f ica t ion o f h is f a ther a s ' unus d e c onsu l ibus g en t is Ro man icae ' .2 5 G ens Ro man ica i s, e ven f or N enn ius, a n o dd e xpression f or t he R o man Emp ire b ut i s, Is uggest, a n a ccep tab le l a t in is m f or t he G erman ic 'We lsh ' :c o mpare f or e xa mp le R o man ian ' a nd 'Wa l lach lan ' . Ambros ius i s r epresen ted t o b e ay ounger c on te mporary o f Vor t igern , o f a no ther a nd h ost i le l i ne , t he p a ir e xe mp l i fy ing G i ldas ' d ictu m a bout h is c oun try : f or t is e t i nv icta a d c iv i l ia b e l la .

1 8

2 6

B o th

w ere d ynasts, b o th l e f t d escendan ts .

I ti s n o t p rof itab le t o s pecu la te a bout

d a tes wh ich l a ter wr i ters i n ferred , n or e ven i f 'Vor t igern ' i s r ea l ly a t i t le r a ther t han a n a me .

N or i s i tu sefu l t o c on trast n a mes, when i ti s c lear t ha t

i n t he s ub-Ro man p er iod ( and f or a l l we k now , b efore ) n otab les migh t b ear n a mes o f Ro man o r ig in ( Constan t ine , Aure l ius, Ambrosius) o r C e lt ic ( Vor t ip or ius, C onanus, C uneg lassus) o r b o th ( Marcus, q u i e t Cono morus) . C onsu l a s H ead o f S ta te i n p ost-Ro man Br itain i s n o t u n th inkable .

The

C onstan-

t i ne I I c er ta in ly h ad t he n o t ion o f c onsu ls a ppo in ted b y h i mse lf—h is f irst c ons u lsh ip was r ecogn ised a t Tr ier i n 4 09 2 7 a nd t ha t ( f or e xa mp le) o ne o f h is Mag istr i M i l itu m i n Br i ta in s hou ld h ave h e ld t h is t i t le a nd u sed i t s s tand ing t o h ead t he s ecession f ro m C onstan t ine a nd Ro me i s ap oss ib i l ity .

The s l ip-

p ery s lope t o r iva l c onsu ls a nd p erpetua lc onsu ls, e ven h ered itary c onsu ls, i s n ot d if f icu lt t o i mag ine .

There were a f ter a l l c erta in ly r u lers i n Br i ta in

w ho i n d ue c ourse a f fected s uch R o man s ty les a s wh ich must s ure ly h ave b een i nher ited .

' Tr ibunus ' a nd ' Pro tec tor '

2 8

The e nd o f R o man Br i ta in wou ld n ot b e c o mp lete w i thout s o me d iscussion o f ' Heng ist ' . T he a ccep tance o f h im , o r s o meone l i ke h im , h as a lways b een r egarded a s r easonab le , a nd we must a sk o urse lves wha t made h im c red ib le t o

Vor t igern ' ,a nd was t he f a te o f e astern Eng land a t h is h ands r ea l ly a s u n-

u sua l a s we h ave a lways s upposed .

F irst , h is a ppearance : t he n ot ion o f a

F rank ish s et t le men t i n t he s ou th-east o f Br i tain h as won n o a cceptance.

2 9

B u t t he Frank ish amb ience o f t he e ar l iest c e me ter ies r e ma ins, a nd i ft hese s o-ca l led Frank ish g raves r epresen t t he 'Heng ist ' a nd im med iate ly H eng ist ' s ta te o f t he G erman ic s e t t le men t we b eg in t o s ee l i gh t .

p ost-

I f 'Heng ist '

a nd h is men l ooked l i ke Franks, who a f ter a l l r ese mb led ( and o f ten were ) R o man s o ld iers, t he ir c red ib i l ity a nd e f f icacy n eed o ccasion n o s urpr ise . F ea tures s uch a s i nhu ma t ion a nd o r ien ta t ion s uggest s o me s or t o f a cco m mod a t ion t o aC hr ist ian s oc iety , p erhaps e ven s o me k ind o f c on form ity b y t he l eaders: t hough e ven t he p ious Arcad ius d id n ot s crup le t o w ink a t t he p agani sm o f h is f a ithfu l Mag ister M i l itu m Frav it ta .

C hr ist ian i ty was p erhaps i n

r e trea t b eyond t he o ld imper ia l f ron t iers—S t . Pa tr ick s peaks o f t he a postate ' P icts 30 — but t hough t here was d oubt less a bys ma l s uperst i t ion , i t was n ot p ag an is m t ha t worr ied t he c lergy o f t h is p er iod s o much a s h eresy .

O ver t

p agan is m h ad p robab ly b een smashed i n t he West b y t he g overn men t o f H onor ius b efore t he b arbar ian i nvas ions;

a n e ven t p ara l le l t o t he r ecorded d es-

t ruct ion o f h ea then t e mp les a t C ar thage i n March 3 99 b y imper ia l c om i tes 3 1 may we l l a ccoun t f or t he d estruct ion o f t e mp les i n Br ita in s o w ide ly a t tested b y a rchaeo logy a t t h is t ime . How d id o ther p rov inces o f t he west mee t t he ir e nd?

S o me, s uch a s

S pa in a nd A fr ica , f e l l p iece mea l i n to b arbar ian h ands a s t he ir a rm ies dw ind led a nd d isappeared . O thers, l i ke N or icu m , were o verrun , s o me p laces o f ferr ing n o r esistance , o thers s urv iv ing f or y ears . I l lyr icu m was e f fect ive ly s ub jected t o t he r u le o f t he Mag ister M i l itu m Marce l linus a nd t hen o f h is n ephew J u l ius N epos.

Th is was a k ingdo m w i thout t he e xp l ic it n a me , t hough p reserv ing t he

f orms o f t he emp ire , a nd m igh t h ave h ad a n i n teres t ing a nd s em ina l , h is tory h ad t he d ynasty e stab l ished i t se lf a nd n o t b eco me e n meshed i n t he f a ta l p o l it i cs o f I t a ly .

G au l h ad a v ar ied h istory .

By 4 76 Ar mor ica h ad l apsed i n to

a u tono my , Aqui ta ine was V isigo th ic , t he n or th was Frank ish a nd t he u pper

1 9

Rhone v a l ley Burgund ian . There r e ma ined t wo a reas, Provence a nd C en tra l n or thern France . The f ormer f o l lowed t he f or tunes o f I t a ly ; i n t he l a t ter , t he a r my s ee ms t o h ave t urned i t se lf i n to a k ingdom wh ich p ersisted a t S o issons f or s o me y ears b efore b e ing o verwhe l med b y t he F ranks ( S ee A ppend ix I ) . I n I t a ly i t se lf t he a rmy h ad made a nd u n made emperors s ince 4 56, a nd i n 4 76 i tt oo t urned i t se lf i n to a k ingdom u nder i t s g enera l Odovacar . Though o ver t ly s ty l ing h i mse lf K ing , h e was t o t he emperors n o more t han h e h ad e ver b een , Pa tr ic ian a nd Mag ister M i l itu m ; t he ambiva lence o f h i s p os it i on b eca me e v iden t when Z eno , b y t he s i mp le a c t o f g iving h is o f f ice t o Theod er ic, r ep laced t he b arbar ian Army o f I t a ly b y t he O strogo th ic h orde .

S o t he

r evo lt o f t he b arbar ian Ar my o f Br i ta in a nd t he e stab l ishmen t o f t he K ingdo m o f K en t was n o t i n a ny way u n typ ica l o f e ven ts i n t he f i f th c en tury, a nd h owever u nre l iab le t he d eta i ls may b e, t he f act s hou ld n ot b e c onsidered a ny l e ss c red ib le . The l ast f l icker o f e f fect ive R o man i ty was t he p eop le i n d eep t roub le .

a ppea l t o Aet ius ' b y a

B u t o ne must a sk wha t Aet ius c ou ld h ave d one f or

t he m . He m igh t h ave s en t G oar a nd h is A lans, f resh f rom t he s ub juga t ion o f Armor ica ; b ut i ti s h ard t o b e l ieve t ha t t h is w ou ld h ave b een a ny b et ter f or Br ita in , o r r ea l ly d ist ingu ishable f ro m t he e x ist ing menace o f t he S axons. Who were t he Br i tons who a ppea led i s f ood f or t hough t .

The a pparen t f edera l

c haracter o f t he a ppe l lan ts d oes n o t r u le o ut a d e f acto monarch ica l g overnmen t .

When O dovacar s ough t t o s uppress t he Western Emp ire i n 4 76 , i t was

t he R o man S ena te t ha t h ad t o wr i te t o Z eno .

B ut i nt he e ven t , t he Br i tons

wen t o n t o g o i ta lone , n ot e n t ire ly u nsuccessfu l ly , a nd f or me t h is e ven t marks d ef in it ive ly t he e nd o f R o man B r i ta in .

2 0

APPEND IX I

CO INAGE AND THE END OF RO MAN BR ITAIN The c lass if ica t ion o f t he l a test Ro man c o ins t o b e f ound i n R o man c ont ex ts i n Br ita in h as n o t ma ter ia l ly c hanged s ince Id ef ined i ti n 1 961.

3 2

I ti s

b r ie f ly r esta ted h ere , f or t he s ake o f c o mp le teness. G o ld . G o ld c o ins d own t o a nd i nc lud ing t hose o f C ons tan t ine I I a re f ound q u i te f ree ly i n t he s ou th a nd e ast o f Br i tain .

They i nc lude Ro me a nd Ravenna

s o lid i o f Arcad ius a nd Honor ius s truck a f ter 4 03 , b ut n o e xa mp le o f t he t ypes a nd s ty les o f t he s econd h a lf o f H onor ius ' r e ign h as b een n o ted . S i lver . S i lver c o ins d own t o a nd i nc lud ing t he M i lan i ssues o f Arcad ius a nd Honor ius a re a bundan t i n s outhern a nd e astern Br i ta in ; t ha t a ny a re l a ter t han c . 4 00 .

i ti s u n l ike ly

T he v ery r are s i l iquae o f Ro me , Ravenna

a nd Aqu i le ia b e long ing t o t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury h ave n o t b een r ecorded , b ut c o ins o f C onstan t ine L I I o ccasiona l ly o ccur . s i l iquae t ha t h ave b een d rast ica l ly c l ipped ;

Many h oards c on ta in

i ti s v ery l i ke ly t ha t c l ipp ing ,

wh ich i s u nknown t o e ar l ier R o man c o inages i n t he p recious meta ls, i s a p ost-Ro man p heno menon .

Three h oards o f c l ipped s i l iquae a lso i nclude

e xa mp les o f t he v ery r are VRBS RO MA Tr ier i ssue o f Honor ius, wh ich i s a l l ied b y s ty le t o t he Theodosius I a nd Va len t in ian I I p ieces o f c . 4 25-428 , a nd was t herefore p robab ly s truck c . 4 20 .

These a re t he- l a-

t est Ro man c o ins t o b e f ound i n a n u nequ ivoca l ly Ro man c on tex t . Bronze .

The l a test b ronze c oins a re t he n u merous p ost-395 SALVS REI

PVBL ICAE i ssues s truck a t R o me a nd A qu i le ia .

T he s ucceed ing VRBS

RO MA FELIX i ssue o f 4 04 i s n o t r e l iab ly r eported f ro m Br i tain ; n o t n orma l ly f ound n or th o f I t a ly .

i ti s

A GLORIA RO MANORV M t ype was

s ubsequen t ly i ssued f or Honor ius a t b o th Ar les a nd L yons, b ut i s n ot k nown t o h ave b een f ound i n Br i ta in . U n l ike e ar l ier c o inages, Theodosian i ssues s how a marked r ecess ion f ro m t he n or th a nd west o f Br ita in , t he r eason f or wh ich h as n o t b een e stab l ished . T he g o ld c oinage, i n wh ich o f f ic ia l s a lar ies a nd p aymen ts were made , i s t he most impor tan t f or e stab l ish ing t he c ut-of f d a te , a nd i t s e v idence c o inc ides w i th t ha t o f t he l i terary s ources .

I mper ia l s i lver c oin a f ter C . 4 00 was e x-

c eed ing ly s carce, a nd i t s a bsence i s p erhaps f or tu i tous.

O ne migh t c on ject-

u re t ha t t he c l ipp ings o f l a te imper ia l s i lver c o in were me l ted d own a nd r ec ast i n to t he s i lver i ngo ts s o c harac ter is t ic o f t he p er iod , b u t t he r eason f or t h is a c t iv i ty i s n ot c lear .

Bronze c o ins c ou ld b e a nd were s tockp i led i n p ro-

v inc ia l t reasur ies; t he mass ive S ALVS i ssues were p robab ly a dequa te f or t he n eeds o f t he p rov ince d own t o t he c essa t ion o f Ro man r u le .

2 1

I ti s h ard ly n ecessary t o r epea t t hat t here i s n o e v idence t ha t c o inage was s truck i n Br i ta in b y a ny s ub-Ro man g overn men t .

I ti s n ot u n th inkab le

t ha t c o inage i n g o ld o r s i lver i n t he n a me o f H onor ius o r e ven o f Va len t in ian I I s hou ld h ave b een p roduced , b u t t here i s n o i nd ica t ion t ha t t h is a ctua l ly h appened ; i ti s p robab le t ha t t he n eed f or c o ined money d isappeared w i th t he Ro man f i sca l s yste m .

With s o f rag i le a b asis, t he e cono my w i l l n o t h ave r e-

q u ired sma l l c hange , a nd i n a ny c ase, t he e xcavat ions a t Brean Down d e mons tra ted t ha t e ven t he t in iest o f t he l a te R o man i m i ta t ions a re c on te mporary w ith t he ir p roto type, t he FEL TEl

REPARATIO i ssues o f c . 3 54 358 .

2 2

APPENDIX 1 1 -

THE K INGDO M OF THE FRANE S AND THE

K INGDO M OF THE RO MANS '

Dur ing t he t h ird q uar ter o ft he f i f th c en tury , t here d eve loped , a ccord ing t o G regory o f T ours, a s trange r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he Ro man Mag ister M i l itu m G a l liaru m a nd t he K ingdo m o f t he S a l ian Franks.

The l ust fu l K ing

C h i lder ic was d r iven o u tb y h is p eop le who i nv i ted t he Mag ister M i l itu m A eg id ius t o b e t he ir k ing .

Af ter e igh t y ears, t he Franks 'c la moured f or h is

r e turn ', a nd h e r ega ined t he t hrone .

S hor t ly a f terwards, h e marr ied a n a d-

m irer , t he r unaway Q ueen Basina o f Thur ing ia , a nd t he ir s on C lov is was b orn .

3 3

C h i lder ie d ied , a nd C lov is, i n t he f if th y ear o f h is r e ign , a t tacked

A eg id ius ' s on S yagr ius, 'k ing o f t he Ro mans ', who r e i ned a t h is f a ther ' s s ea t a t S o issons, o verca me a nd s oon a f ter k i l led h im . The c hrono log ica l b asis o f t h is s tory i s p oss ib le . C lov is d ied 2 7 Nove mb er 5 11 a t t he a ge o f 4 5 a nd h av ing r e igned f or 3 0 y ears . He was t herefore b orn p robab ly i n 4 66 . A eg id ius was a ppo in ted t o t he G a l lic c o m mand b y Ma jorl an .3 5 A f ter Ma jor ian i sd epos it ion a nd murder ( 2-7 A ugust 4 61) h e r efused t o r ecogn ize L ib ius S everus a nd e ven i n tr igued w ith t he Vanda ls ( i nve tera te f oes o f R ic i mer ) t o b r ing d own t he I t a lian g overnmen t .

H is p ro jected i nvas ion

o f I t a ly was d eferred o n a ccoun t o f a( successfu l) war a ga inst t he V isigoths, c u lm ina t ing i n t he d ea th o f t he ir k ing ' sb ro ther i n b at t le n ear Or leans i n 4 63 . A eg id ius h i mse lf d ied i n 4 64, 3 6 h av ing h e ld o f f ice f or a max i mu m o f s even y ears-e igh t i nc lus ive ly r eckoned , p resu mab ly Gregory ' se igh t y ears ' k ings h ip . The s ubsequen t h istory o f t he Army o f G au l i s o bscure .

Gregory i s

t o ta l ly c on fused . H e a t tr ibu tes ab at t le o f O r leans ( t he s a me?) t o Ch i lder icmak ing o ne wonder w hether t he s tory o f h is e x i le a nd Aeg id ius ' k ingsh ip h as a ny r ea l b as is; h e s peaks o f aC o mes Pau lus, c o m mand ing Ro man a nd Franki sh t roops, who s uccessfu l ly f ough t t he V isigo ths o n b eha lf o f t he Armor icans o f B ourges, f e l l i nb a t t le a t Angers a nd was s ucceeded i n c o m mand b y Ch i lder i e ; h e s peaks o f O dovacar-no t t he Pa tr ic ian a nd K ing i n I t a ly , b u t t he l eader o f s o me b and o f A t lan t ic c oast S axons, p erhaps i n a l l iance w i th t he G oths a t A ngers-who a f ter s uf fer ing d efea t a t t he h ands o f C h i lder ie, j o ined h im i n 4 80 i n s ubdu ing t he A la mann i who h ad i nvaded p ar t o f I t a ly '. I tc er ta in ly l o oks a s t hough Gregory c onfused t he S axon w i th h is more f a mous c on te mpor ary a nd n a mesake .3 7 Gregory ' s words m igh t i n fer t ha t C oun t Pau l was Mag ister M i l itu m d own t o ( perhaps a y ear o r s o b e fore) 4 80 .

I fh e f ough t o n b eha lf o f t he Ar-

mor icans d efea ted a t B ourges, h is a ppo in t men t p resu mab ly wen t b ack t o 4 70 . I nt h is y ear K ing R io th i mus a nd a n a rmy o f 'Br i tones ' ,a t t he i nstance o f t he Emperor An the m ius, o ccup ied B ourges, b ut were t ota l ly d efea ted b y t he V is igoths ' be fore t he R o mans c ou ld j oin t hem '; s urv ivors f l ed t o t he Burgun2 3

d ians, a l l ies o f t he Ro mans . 38 T here may h ave b een o ther Mag istr i M i l itu m i n G au l . I n 4 72 , B i l l i mer ' r ec tor G a l l iarum ' u nsuccess fu l ly b rough t a n a r my t o r e l ieve An the m ius, b e leaguered i n R o me b y R ic imer .

3 9

A f ter t he d ea ths

o f An the m ius a nd R ic i mer i n t he s a me y ear , t he B urgund ians e n joyed ab r ief mo men t o f g lory . G undobad s ucceeded h is u nc le a s P a tr ician a nd n om ina ted G lycer ius a s emperor i n 4 73 . H is b rother C h i lper ic o f Burgundy i s s ty led Mag ister M i l itu m b y S idon ius, 40 t hough t here i s l i t t le s ign o f t he t i t le b e ing c on t inued b y t he d ynasty . S im i lar ly , when C lov is 't ook o ver t he a dm in istrat i on o f Be lg ica S ecunda ' ,i .e . c onquered S yasr ius, t he metropo l itan b ishop Re m ig ius a ddressed h im s i mp ly a s 'K ing ' .4 1

E cd ic ius ( t he s on o f t he Em-

p eror Av i tus) who a s 'p r ivatus ' l ed a s p ir ited r es istance t o t he V isigo ths i n Auvergne was made Mag ister M i l itu m ( o f I t a ly ) b y J u l ius N epos, a pparen t ly a s ap re l im inary t o w i thdraw ing h im t o I t a ly a nd a bandon ing Auvergne t o t he G o ths . 42 I fS yagr ius d id n o t s ucceed t o h is f a ther ' sa uthor i ty u n t i l c . 4 80, i ti s q u ite l i ke ly t ha t h e n ever , u n less b y u surpa t ion , b ore t he t i t le o f Mag ister M i l itu m , b ut t ha t h e was d irect ly a cc la i med a s k ing b y t he a rmy; t he d irec tl y c o mpet it ive r e la t ionsh ip o f t h is a u thor ity , u nsponsored b y a ny imper ia l g overn men t , w ith t ha t o f C lov is i s man i fest .

I t was p robab ly f ro m p ruden t

i n ten t ion t ha t C lov is d eferred h is t r ia l o f s treng th w i th S yagr ius u n t i l a f ter t he d ea th o f t he p ower fu l a nd b e l l icose K ing Eur ic o f t he V is igoths. Al i t t le a rchaeo log ica l e v idence b ears o n t h is q uest ion . Graves o f p agan warr iors a nd t he ir r ich ly a t t ired l ad ies a re n u merous i n n or thern G au l .

Dur ing t he f our th c en tury , t he ir d istr ibu t ion e x tends ( w i th a f ew o ut-

l i ers) o ver s ix p rov inces: G erman ia Ia nd I , Be lg ica Ia nd I a nd L ugdunens is I V ( Senon ia ) a nd t he e astern p ar t o f L ugdunens is I l . T here i s an o t v ery e xac t c orrespondance b etween t h is d istr ibu t ion a nd t ha t o f u n its o f L ae t i a s l i sted i n t he No t it ia D ign itatu m a nd i th as b een t hough t t ha t t hese g raves m igh t b e o f L aet 1 .

4 3

They c anno t r epresen t ab arbar ian i nvas ion , a nd must i ndeed

b e s o me 'p oo l ' o f warr iors, who l ly o r p ar t ly p agan , a va i lab le t o t he emp ire i n t he f our th c entury . we l l b eh ind t he Rh ine .

The d istr ibu t ion i s marked ly i n land f ro m t he c oas t a nd I ts pec if ica l ly a vo ids

T oxandr ia ' t he n or thern p ar t

o f G er man ia I , t he l and o f t he F ranks s ince t he t ime o f J u l ian .

4 4

F i f th c en-

t ury p agan g raves a re h owever h eav i ly c oncen tra ted i n G erman ia I , w i th a f ew a long t he l ower Rh ine a nd i n Be lg ica I ; t hey d o n o t a vo id T oxandr ia . Presu mab ly t h is l a ter g roup i s Frank ish o r Frank ic ized .

The 'p oo l ' o f

p agan warr iors f ro m w th in t he emp ire p roper w i l l b y t h is t ime h ave b een c hr ist ian ized a nd a ss im i lated , o r p erhaps l arge ly w iped o ut . Nu m is ma t ic e v idence i s s can ty b ut c onsisten t .

D ur ing t he l ater f i f th

c en tury t here a re t hree d ist ingu ishab le s trea ms o f c o inage i n G au l . T he f i rst i s t he i mper ia l c o inage s truck a t Ar les; o n ly s o l id i b ear t he e xp lic it m in t i n i t ia ls AR a nd c an b e a t tr ibu ted w ithou t h esi ta t ion .

Most o f t he s o l id i o f

Av itus ( 455-456) a nd Ma jor ian ( 457-461) were s truck t here, d oubt less most o f t he ir t re m isses a lso ; a l l t hese c o ins a re i n t he u nm istakab le s ty le o fR av enna , whence d ies o r e ngravers must h ave b een o b ta ined .

T he a ct iv ity o f

t he min t a t t h is t ime was d ue t o t he p resence o f t he emperor a nd t he c om itatus . No s uch c o ins a re k nown f or S everus, An the m ius, O lybr ius o r G lycer ius . There a re v ery sma l l i ssues o f ap oor , l oca l s ty le f or Nepos a nd Ro mu lus.

2 4

The s econd c o inage , a lso o f s o l id i i a nd t re m isses, i s a t tr ibutab le t o t he V isigo ths . V a len t in ian I I .

The ma in s er ies b eg ins i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he r e ign o f 4 5

I t s d efect ive we igh t a nd a l loy was a lready n ot iceab le enough

t o a t tract a n a dverse r e mark i n al aw o f Ma jor ian ;

i ti s n otewor thy h owever

t ha t h e d oes n ot s t ig ma t ize t he c o in a s u n law fu l o r f a lse, a nd a sma l l n u mber i n t he n a me o f Ma jor ian h i mse lf a re k nown .

There a re n u merous e xa mp les

w i th t he n a me o f L ib ius S everus—presu mab ly t he V isigoths, u n l ike Aeg id ius, c hose t o r ecogn ize h is g overnmen t—but n one f or An the mius, t he ir e ne my . T he i m mobi l ized t ypes o f S everus a nd Va len t in ian I I f urn ished c o inage r eq u ire men ts b etween 4 65 a nd c . 4 80 .

The l a ter c o ins o f t h is g roup a re t re-

m isses o n wh ich t he w estern c rossin-wrea th t ype h as g iven way t o t he e aste rn s o l idus t ype o f V ictory-andlong-cross;

Th is s uggests a d a te a f ter 4 74,

when t he t ype b eca me g enera l ized o n western s o l id i .

There i s a n e x tensive

s er ies o f s uch t re m isses i n t he n a me o f Z eno , a nd t hese p robab ly b eg in a f ter t he d ea th o f Nepos i n 4 80 , p erhaps a f ter t ha t o f Eur ic i n 4 85 .

The V isigo th ic

c o inage s ee ms t o h ave r e ma ined b ase u n t i l a f ter t he f a l l o f A lar ic H i n 5 07 , a nd i ti s t herefore l i ke ly t ha t c o inage i n t he n ame o f Anas tas ius , a l l o f wh ich a ppears t o b e f ine a nd o f f u l l we igh t , d id n ot c o m mence u n t i l af ter t ha t d ate . The t h ird c o inage c onsists e xc lus ive ly o f sma l l s i lver c o ins. 46 They b ear t he n a mes o f Ma jor ian , An the m ius, Nepos a nd Anastasius : f ind-spots a re most ly b etween t he S e ine a nd t he l ower midd le Rh ine .

The more n u mer-

o us l a ter p ieces a re c er ta in ly Frank ish , b ut t he r are a nd w ide ly d istr ibu ted p ieces b etween Ma jor ian a nd N epos h ave s o me c la im t o b e c ons idered a s t he p roducts o f a min t s tr ik ing f or t he Mag ister M i l itu m G a l l iaru m ;

al oca t ion

a t S o issons s u i ts b o th t he d istr ibu t ion a nd t he l i terary e v idence .

I tw i l l t hen

h ave b eco me Frank ish i n 4 86 . I ti s s urpr ising t ha t n o c o inage c an a s y e t b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he B urgund t ans p r ior t o t he a ccession o f Anastasius ( 491) .

Ear l ier c o ins a re h owever

t o b e e x 'p ected .

REFERENCES 1

E .A . Tho mpson , " Br ita in , A .D . 4 06-410", Br itann ia 1 977 , p p . 3 03-3/8

2 .

D .N . Du mv i l le , 'S ub-Ro man Br ita in :

h istory a nd l egend ', H istory ,

1 977 , p p . 1 73-192 3 .

J ohn Morr is, T he Age o f Ar thur , L ondon , 1 973 .

4 .

For a n a ccoun t o f t h is p er iod , s ee M . Besn ier , L ' Emp ire r o ma in d e 1 'a vene men t d es S ev res a u C onci le d e N ic e, Par is, 1 937 .

5 .

S ee most r ecen t ly L ukas d e B lo is, The P o l icy o f t he Emperor G a l l ienus, L e iden , 1 976, p p . 2 6f f .

6 .

Eu trop ius X .12 : i ngen tes Ro man i i mper i l v ires e a d im ica t ione c onsu mpt ae s un t .

V ictor Ep it .42 .4 :

i n q uo b e l lo p aene n usqua m amp lius Ro ma-

n ae c onsu mp tae s un t v ires, t o t iusque i mper il f or tuna p essundata . 7 .

Am m . 1 6 .12 .1

2 5

8 .

Vetran io .

Ep i t . d e Caes . 4 1.25: p rope a d s tu l t i t ia m s i mp lic issimus;

V ictor 4 1.26 :

i ngen io s to l id ior i dc ircoque a gres t i v ecordia p ess imus .

BUT Eu trop ius X .6:

p ro mo tus d iu turn i ta te e t f e l ic i ta te mi l i t iae ...v irum

p robu m e t moru m v eteru m . Ar bet io .

Am m . 1 5 . 8 . 4, 1 6 .6 .1

Barba t io . Am m . 1 6 .11.7 : mag ister p ed itu m i gnavus . S everus.

Am m 1 6 .11.1: b e l loru m u su e t ma tur i ta te ( f irmatus ) BUT

Am m . 1 7 ,10 .1: b e l l icosus a n te h aec, e t i ndustr ius, r epen te c ommarc u lt .

E t q u i s aepe u n iversos a d f or t i ter f ac iendu m h or taba tur e t s ingu-

l os, t une d issuasor p ugnand i c on te mptus v ideba tur e t t im idus, mor te m f or tasse metuens a dven tan te m . I acobus .

C laud ian e p ig . 2 7 :

S ic n unqua m h ost i l i macu letur s angu ine

d ex tra ' . S ee i n g enera l Pr iscus f rag . 8 , FHG . I V , p . 8 6 . 9 .

Am m . 2 7 .8 .7 .

The s a me n u mber a cco mpan ied L up icinus t o Br i ta in

i n 3 60 : Am m . 2 0 .1.3 . 1 0 .

F or d epopu la t ion , s ee A .H .M . J ones, The L a ter Ro man Emp ire , O xford 1 964, p p . 1 04Of f .

1 1:

Am m . 3 1. 6 .6 .

1 2 .

E .G . The s tory o f Ro manus, C o mes A fr icae : Am m . 2 8 .6 .

1 3 .

Am m . 1 7 .3 .

1 4 .

Pr iscus f rag . 8 , FHG .IV, p . 8 7

1 5 .

E .g . J ero me , 2 2 . 6 0 : n ostr is p ecca t is b arbar i f or tes s un t , n os tr is v i t i is Ro manus s upera tur e xerc itus.

S a lv ian d e g ub . De l V I I . 1 6 :

p aene u nu m l upanar omn iu m v i ta e tc . 1 6 .

C f . Nu m . Chron . 1 967 , p . 8 9

1 7 .

P a tr ick , e p . a d mi l. Corot ic i 2

1 8 .

J ero me,

1 9 .

1 33 .9

Prosper , Chron . s ub a nno 4 08 ; Bede, H ist . 1 .11: p rop ter s olam s pe r n n om in is s ine mer ito v ir tut is .

2 0 .

C ohen , Meda i l les imper ia les 2 n o . 1 ; t h is p iece r equ ires c on f irma t ion , b u t t he o bverse l egend i s f ound o n ac o in w i th t he u sua l r everse i n t he B . M .

2 1.

Z os i mus V I . 3

2 2 .

Morr is, o p . c it . p . 4 5

2 3 .

p _p . 2 : o p to t e ....perpetu i c onsu latus h onore g audere .

2 4 .

G esta d e Theodosiano p ub licando 5 : Ae t i a veas , t er c onsu le m t e l

2 5 .

N enn ius 4 5 .

F or d a t ing b y ac onsu l J ust inus, s ee V .E . Nash- W i l l ia ms,

The E ar ly C hr is t ian Monu men ts o f Wa les , Card if f 1 950 , n o . 1 04 . H e i s p resu med t o b e t he c onsu l o f 5 40 , t hough a t t h is d a te t he Ro man c onsu ls h ips were s carce ly u sed b eyond t he s ou th o f France . 2 6 .

G i ldas, d e e xc id io 1 9(21)

2 7 .

N . Gau th ier , Receu i l d es i nscr ip t ions c hre t iennes d e l a Gau le I , P remiere Be lg ique , Par is 1 975, 1 .93 2 6

Elafius vir tribuniciae pote statis: Constantlus, vita G e rmani 26; BONEl\llMORI FILI TRIBVNI: Htlbner, Inscriptiones Britannia e Christiana e 13; MEMORIA VOTEPORIGIS PROTICTORIS: ECMW. no. 138. For the 'name' Protector' in his genealogy, see P. C. Bartrum, Early Welsh Genealogical Tracts (?_�_Q,__46 � ____ 29. V . I. Evison,The Fifth-Century Invasions South of th e Thames, London, 1965.

28.

30.

Patrick, op. cit. 15

31.

Augustin, de civ. D e l XVIII. 54; Hydat. Chron. Sub anno 399. Cod. Th e od. xvi.10.16(399): si qua in agris templa sunt, sin e turba ac tumultu diruantur. But in g e neral, desecrated temples and othe r public buildings we re to b e pres e rv ed from damage : Cod. Th eod. xvi.10.15, 18 (399). Cf. Th eodoret 5.29; G eorg. Vit. S. Chrys. 23. Pr e sumably much wanton damag e and destruction in th e nam e of de ­ paganization took place around this tim e.

32.

J. P.C. Kent, ' From Roman Britain to Saxon England' , Anglo-Saxon Coins, ed. R.H. M. Dolle y, London 1961 pp.1-22.

33.

Gre g. Tur. Hist. Franc. 2. 12. Is th e re pe rhaps a hint of a Mero­ vingian deposition in the time of Majorian and Aegidius in Sidonius Poems XIII.30 with its refe rence to th e ' detonsus...Sygamb e r' ?

34.

ibid., 2.27.

35.

Priscus frag. 30, FHG. IV, p. 104.

36.

Hydat. Chron. sub annis 463, 464.

37.

Greg. Tur. ibid. 2.18-19. The Saxon form of the name is Eadwacer: W. G. Searle, Onomasticon Anglo-Saxonicum, Cambridge 1897, p. 189.

38.

Jordanes, Getica, 45.

39.

Paul. Diac. Hist. Rom. XV. 4. It is unlikely that the survivors of this debacle returned to Gaul.

40.

Sidon., �- 5.6

41.

Re migius, ep. CCSL 117, Turnhout 1957 pp. 408-409.

42.

Jordanes, loc. cit., Sidonius, �- 2.1, 5.16; the inte ntion to honour Ecdicius is cr edited to Anth emius.

43.

Horst-W. Bbhme,' Tombes g ermaniques des rv e et v e siecles en Gaule du nord' , Problemes d e chronologie relative et absolue conce rn.ant l es cime tieres merovingiennes d 1 entre Loire et Rhin, Paris 1978, pp. 21 ff.

44.

Amm. 17.8.3.

45.

P. Le Gentilhomme, Le monnayage et la circulation monetaire dans Les royaumes barbares en Occident, Paris, 1946 pp. 23-38.

46.

J. Lafaurie , ' Monnaie en arg e nt trouve e Fleury-sur-Orne' , Annales de Normandie 1964 p. 173ff. Pieces in the name of Majorian (? struck by Aegidius) seem to be the most numerous, but at leasf one- Anfhemius has been found in Britain: see J. Douglas, Nenia Brit�nnica, p. 8 (Tumulus II, Chatham Lines).

a

27

Honorius: gold solidi 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Milan, c. 395-400 Aquileia, 402 Rome, 404 Ravenna, c. 402-408 Ravenna, c. 420

Honorius : silver ' siliquae' 6. 7.

Milan, c. 395-400 Trier, c. 420

Late bronze coins 8. Aries, c. 390 (Arcadius) 9. Rome, c. 400 (Honorius) 10.

Julius Nepos, solidus of Aries

Visigothic gold coins . 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Valentinian Ill, solidus Valentinian III, tremiss is Valentinian III, solidus (probably posthumous) Valentinian III, tremissis (probably posthumous) Majorian, solidus Majorian, tremissis Libius Severus, solidus Libius Severus, tremissis Zeno, tremissis

Gallic imperial issue 20.

Majorian, silver coin

28

1

5

2

6

1 0

1 5

3

7

1

1 6

1 2

1 7

20 P la te 1

8

1 3

1 8

9

1 4

1 9

LATE RO MAN GOLD AND S ILVER CO IN HOARDS I N BR ITA IN : A GAZETTEER b y S . A rcher*

I n troduc t ion The i nc idence o f l a te R o man p rec ious me ta l c o in h oards i n B r i ta in h as l ong b een r ecogn ised a s ap heno menon n o t s hared b y t he o ther d ioceses o f t he w es tern emp ire where s uch h oards a re v ery r are .

Th is c o mpara t ive r ichness

i n h oards , s o me o f c ons iderab le s ize a nd v a lue , p resen ts a p ic ture a t c ur ious v ar iance w i th t he w ide ly h e ld s cho lar ly v iew t ha t B r i ta in was b o th p over tys tr icken a nd r un d own i n t he l as t y ears o f t he R o man o ccupa t ion . An umber o f s ugges t ions h ave b een a dvanced t o a ccoun t f or t he o ccurrence o f t hese h oards , wh ich c ons is t o verwhe lm ing ly o f d epos i ts o f s i lver s i l iquae . A n a t trac t ive p ropos i t ion was p u t f orward b y S ir A r thur E vans . 1 N o t icing t ha t t he h oards d om ina ted i n t he s ou th-wes t , a nd e spec ia l ly i n t he Mend ip r eg ion , E vans s ugges ted t ha t t he me ta l f or t he p roduc t ion o f t he c o inage was d er ived f ro m t he a rgen t i ferous l ead d epos i ts o f t he a rea ,

s i lver b e ing e x tracted f ro m

t he e xpor ted l ead a t T r ier , a nd o ther min t c en tres , a nd c o ined t o p ay t he mine l essees f or t he b ase me ta l .

Th is i s a n e ngag ing s ugges t ion b u t d oes n o t o f fer

ag ood e xp lana t ion f or h oards f ound o u ts ide t he m in ing a rea n or d oes i te xp la in t he a bsence o f c o in d epos i ts i n t he v ic in i ty o f t he c on t inen ta l min ts t he mse lves . P erhaps E vans was n earer t he mark when h e o bserved t ha t h oard ing i n B r i ta in mus t b e r epresen ta t ive o f ap er iod when c o in was a va i lab le f or d epos i t ion b u t o ne wh ich t er m ina ted i n as i tua t ion i n wh ich t he n or ma l p rocess o f h oard r ec overy was i n terrup ted .

The c on t inen t , o n t he o ther h and , c ou ld b e s een a s

r epresen ta t ive o f a n a rea i n wh ich n orma l d epos i t a nd r ecovery c ou ld t ake p lace.

T h is s ugges t ion may b e d eve loped ;

t he p a t tern i s c o mpa t ible w i th

o ther e v idence wh ich s ugges ts t ha t t he e nd o f R o man a dm in is tra t ion i n Br i ta in w as s udden a nd c a tas troph ic .

On t he c on t inen t t he t rans i t ion was o f ad i f feren t

n a ture b e ing a s lower , a nd l a ter , c hange f ro m R o man a dm in is tra t ion t o b arb ar ian s oc ia l s ys te ms wh ich b ased t he mse lves o n R o man p rac t ices , n o t l eas t i n t he p roduc t ion o f c oinage .

I n s uch c ircu ms tances e ar l ier p rec ious me ta l

i ssues migh t b e e xpec ted t o p rov ide , a s i n o ther o n-go ing e cono m ies , t he

* Th is p aper i s ar ecens ion o f Mr . A rcher 's d isser ta t ion p resen ted a t t he U n ivers i ty o f L e ices ter i n 1 978 . I t h as b een p roduced b y t he e d i tor who h as a dded s uch h oards a s h ave c o me t o l igh t s ince 1 978 .

These a re i nc luded b y

t he k indness o f Andrew Burne t t o f t he Depar t men t o f C o ins a nd Meda ls o f t he B r i t ish Museu m i n a dvance o f h is o wn f u l l p ub l ica t ion . I n p repar ing t he p aper al arge n umber o f e d i tor ia l i n terpo la t ions a nd i n terpre ta t ions h ad b een i nc luded wh ich may n o t n ecessar i ly r epresen t t he v iews o f Mr . A rcher .

2 9

ePRE

- c .400 • POST- c .400

•

•

•

bC

l b -

• S •

4 , . .

•

e

4 . -1 04 1 , -

ß < 0 . •— . 4 • , • . w . • •

• •

F ig . 1

3 0

l b -

•

ma teria l f or l a ter c o in i ssues .

I ti s , p erhaps , t he s udden c u t o f f i n Br i ta in

wh ich p rov ides t he c on tras t w i th t he c on t inen t ,the d i f fer ing p os t-depos i t iona l e ven ts i n t he t wo a reas p roduc ing t he p resen t o bservable p a t tern . T he d a ting o f h oards The d a t ing o f i nd iv idua l c o ins i n t he l a ter f our th c en tury i s ar e la t ively s imp le ma t ter u n t i l t he a ccess ion o f H onor ius i n 3 93 .

U p t o t ha t d a te t he r ap id

s er ies o f i mper ia l a ccessions a nd e leva t ions o f c o-e mperors who s hare c o in t ypes , a nd i n i t ia te n ew o nes , p er m i ts a c lose d a t ing o f i ndiv idua l p rec ious me ta l i ssues .

I n t heory , a t l eas t , t he t er m ina l d a tes o f h oards s hou ld b e

e asy t o e s tablish .

U n for tuna te ly t h is i s r arely t rue s ince a ccoun ts o f h oards

s e ldo m p reserve t he d e ta i ls n eeded t o e s tabl ish t he s peci f ic i den t i ty o f i nd ivi dua l c oins .

N onethe less t he a bsence o f i ssues o f Magnus Max i mus a nd Eugen ius

may b e t aken a s b e ing i ndica t ive o f d epos i t b efore 3 83 a nd 3 93 r espect ively . W i th t he j o in t r eign o f A rcad ius a nd H onor ius p roble ms a r ise .

C lear ly i ti s

d es irable t o d a te a s c losely a s p oss ible a ny h oards c los ing w i th i ssues o f t hese emperors s ince t he q ues t ion o f t he l a tes t d a te o f t he u se o f c o in i n R o man B r i ta in h inges o n t hese d epos i ts .

An u mber o f f actors may b e u sed t o s or t

s uch h oards i n to a r e la t ive s equence.

F irs t ly s ince Arcad ius ( 383-408 ) r eigned

f or t en y ears b efore t he e leva t ion o f h is b ro ther h is c o ins w i l l o bv ious ly p red om ina te i n h oards d a t ing t o b efore 3 93 a nd w i l l d o mina te f or s o me y ears a f ter t he a ccess ion o f H onor ius .

A s econd f actor i s t he b ehav iour o f t he

V IRTVS RO MANORV M s i lver i ssues o f t he min t o f M i lan .

A f ter c . 3 95 t h is

m in t d om ina tes i n t he s upply o f s i lver t o t he wes t a nd s ince t h is was a min t o pera ting i n t he d o ma ins o f H onor ius i ssues i n h is n a me r ap id ly o ver took t hose i n t he n ame o f h is b ro ther .

I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t b y c . 4 10 t he r a t io o f

M i lan c oins o f Honor ius t o t hose o f Arcad ius s tood a t t wo-to-one .

2

The b as is

o f t h is c a lcu la t ion was t he o bserved f requency o f t hese c o ins i n t he C o lera ine h oard wh ich was d a ted t o c . 4 10 b y t he i nc lus ion o f c o ins o f C ons tan t ine I I ( 4 07-11).

H owever , t he C o lera ine h oard i s c lear ly l a ter t han t h is d a te s ince

i ti ncludes a c oin o f H onor ius i ssued b y t he Tr ier min t i n 4 20 .

Th is b eing s o

t he b u i ld u p o f t he M i lan c o in r a t io may e x tend f or a d ecade l onger t han p rev ious ly t hough t a nd i t may b e s ign i f ican t t ha t t he o n ly o ther h oard , f or wh ich d e ta i ls s urv ive , t ha t c on ta ins a l a te Tr ier c oin o f H onor ius i s T er ling where t he 2 :1 r a t io a lso p er ta ins .

I t may b e p oss ib le , t hen , t o e x tend t he d a t ing o f

s o me h oards c redi ted w i th a d epos i t d a te o f c . 4 10 i n t h is p aper t o al a ter p er iod . A t ten t ion s hou ld a lso b e d rawn t o d i fferences i n d a tes wh ich a r ise f ro m t he c onsidera t ion o f d ispara te p ar ts o f wha t may b e mu l t ip le h oards , t ha t i s t he t hree I ck l ingha m a nd t he t hree S hapwick f inds .

Two o f t he I ck lingha m

f i nds a ppear t o d a te t o c . 4 00 a nd o ne ( I ck l ingha m I I ) t o c . 4 10 . c repancy o f d a tes i n t he S hapw ick f inds o f s i lver i s a lso w ide ; c . 3 90 a nd S hapwick Ie . 4 00.

The d is-

S hapwick I

The c opper c o in c o mponen t o f t h is ( f ind t ermin-

a tes w i th i ssues o f Magnus Max i mus a nd s o s hou ld d a te t o c . 3 88 . i ti s t hus c lose t o S hapwick I .

T here i s . o f c ourse , t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t hese c o mpon-

e n ts h ad b een a ccumu la ted o ver a d ecade o r more .

I fs o i ti s a warn ing a ga ins t

a scr ibing i nd iv idua l h oards t o s peci f ic p o l i t ica l e ven ts .

3 1

Af ur ther c hrono log ica l p rob le m mus t b e c ons idered , t ha t o f c l ipp ing . The c l ipp ing o f s i l iquae i s b o th c o m mon a nd o f v arying s ever i ty ,

r ang ing f ro m

t he r e mova l o f al i t t le s i lver f ro m t he c ircum ference o f t he c o in , w i thou t imp ing ing o n t he l egend , t o t he t o ta l e l im ina t ion o f t he l egend .

I t wou ld a ppear

t ha t t he s anc t i ty o f t he i mper ia l p or tra i t p rec luded t he c u t t ing o f c o ins i n to s egmen ts i fi ndeed t he o b ject o f c l ipp ing was t o l ower t he d eno mina t iona l v a lue o f t he c o inage .

A l l o f t he h oards c on ta in ing c l ipped c o ins c lose w i th

i ssues o f H onor ius s o t ha t t he a ppearance o f t he p rac t ice s ee ms t o b e l a te , e spec ia l ly s ince H onor ian h oards wh ich a re d a ted t o e ar ly i n t he r e ign ( Nor th Mend ip , a nd S prox ton ) d o n o t c on ta in c l ipped i ssues .

F ro m t h is i t may b e

d educed t ha t c l ipp ing d oes n o t s tar t b e fore t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury .

An

e xp lana t ion f or t he p ract ice h as b een s ough t i n t he d ec l in ing v o lu me o f c ur . r ency r each ing Br i ta in a f ter t he r evo l t o f C ons tan t ine I I b u t t he p rob le m o f wha t b eca me o f t he c l ipp ings a ppears t o b e p re jud ic ia l t o t he t heory t ha t i t was a p rac t ice a ssoc ia ted w i th r e medying a s carc i ty o f c o in s ince n o c o inage o f a n u no f f ic ia l n a ture s ee ms t o h ave b een p roduced f ro m t he c l ipped s i lver . On t he o ther h and a n u mber o f h oards d o c on ta in sma l l b ars o f s i lver , e .g . Whor l ton . The p resence o f ac l ipped s i l iqua i n t he l a tes t R o man c on tex t i n f or t a t C aernarvon , N or th Wa les , as i te whose a bandonmen t h as b een e s tabl i shed a s b e ing a ssoc ia ted w i th t roop w i thdrawa ls b y S t i l icho i n 4 02 ( s ee b e low o f fers a c on f irma t ion f or t he e s tabl ishmen t o f t he p ract ice i n t he v ery l a te f our th o r v ery e ar ly f i f th c en tury .

T he i nc lus ion o f c l ipped c o ins i n t he

l a tes t d a tab le h oards ( Co lera ine a nd S t . P ancras ) a ppears t o i ndica te a s pan o f a t l eas t t wo d ecades f or t he ir p roduct ion , a nd o r , u se . The i n for ma t ion i n t he g aze t teer i s p resen ted i n t he f o l low ing manner : 1 .

H oards a re n amed a s i n t he o r ig ina l p ubl ica t ion w i th t he c oun ty n ames a s t hey e x is ted b efore t he r ecen t l oca l g overnmen t r eor ; an isa t ion .

2 .

F or e cono my o f s pace d eno m ina t ions o ther t han s i l iquae a re i nd ica ted b y t he i n i t ia l l e t ter o f t he d eno m ina t ion a f ter t he n umber r epresen ted— S , s o l idus : M , mi l iarens is : A , a rgen teus .

3 .

M in ts a re a bbrev ia ted t hus : A r les —A ;

M i lan— M ;

L ondon—L ;

R o me —R ;

i ka—TH ; C ons tan t inop le —CON ; c er ta in—?

T r ier—TR ;

A qu i le ia—AQ ;

L ugdunum—LUG ;

S isc ia —S IS ;

N ico med ia—N IC ;

T hessa lon-

An t ioch —ANT ;

Un-

4 .

C l ipped c o ins a re i nd ica ted b y ' c ' f o l low ing t he n umber o f c o ins .

5 .

D epos i t d a tes a re e i ther t he d a te o f t he l a tes t c o in i n t he h oard o r d educed f ro m t he r a t io o f c o ins o f A rcad ius t o H onor ius f ro m t he Mi lan m in t . ( See a bove ).

R e ferences 1 .

E vans , A . N o tes o n t he c o inage a nd s i lver c urrency i n Br i ta in f ro m Va len t in ian t o C ons tan t ine I I . NC , 1 915 , 4 33 f f .

2 .

P earce , J . W. E . N o tes o n t he T er l ing a nd o ther s i lver h oards f ound i n B r i ta in . NC , 1 933 , 1 7O f f .

R eferences t o i nd iv idua l h oards a re g iven i n t he t ex t , t he a bbrev ia t ion NC i nd ica tes t ha t t he N um is ma t ic C hron ic le i s q uo ted . 3 2

1 . ALLINGTON , N r . S ou tha mpton , Han ts ., 1 869

4 a>

Theodos ius

C l )

c z e

7:1

3 3

r 4

E 1

. " . °4

; E l

C O

c uc e o

; • 4

0

. 94

c . )

S i l iquae a nd b ronze c o ins f ro m P os tumus t o Theodos ius I (?)

0 0

3 . AMESBURY , Wi l ts .,

c • I

8 00 s i l iquae a nd 1 6 s o lid i " up t o a f ter C ons tan t ine I ."

h ica l d escr ip t ion o f t he wor ld ,

N

C • 1

2 . ALCESTER , Warks ., p re-1871

C

Depos i ted :

c . 4 00

Va len t in ian I

Va len t in ian I

N C f D 1 1

1 1

c )

1 1

C \ 1

1 1

r I

r I

L C D

L C D C r J

1 1

C9

r I

L C D

L C D

C N 1

c ••

r I

r I

t 4

0 r =

L C D

C D '

r I

e l C \ I

1 1

r I

1 1

C,' " J

4 . BARTON ON HU MBER ,

C \ 1

G O CI

i n

G O

0 0 CI

1 1

C \ I

Uncer ta in

CD

Theodos ius

a

C \ 1 r I

C r D

94

5 . BATH/BR ISTOL , G los/So m ., 1 839

C \ I

0 c i )

e ar ly 1 9th c en tury

P roc . S oc .

m u ) e

3 5

C I D

Uncer ta in

C . )

Va len t in ian I

VCH S ussex I I , 5 2

c n c i ) e r I

Va len t in ian I

7 . CAKEHA M , S ussex , c .

4 1 s i l iquae a nd ( ?) 7b ronze c o ins " la te 4 th-ear ly 5 th c en tury"

6 . BURTLE ,

C . )

u )

1 . 0

C I )

c o

0

C l )

. 1E 3 -

" C S

••

U ) 0 C 2 .

�

VCH Som. I, 292

VCH Norfolk, I, 314

VCH Berks, I, 205; Arch. J., VII, 87

VCH Surrey, IV, 360

L

TR

LG

AR

M

NC 1936, 314-6 AQ

R

Deposited: c. 395 Originally c. 3000 siliquae and 450-600 solidi

Constantius II Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Valentinian II Theodosius Magnus Maximus Flavius Victor Eugenius Arcadius Honorius Uncertain

Mints

12. CLEEVE PRIOR, Wares., 1811 SIS

SIR

TH CN

NIC

AN

12 6 7 12 1

ls ls ls 11 5 6 12 1

85

1

9 15

2s

7 15

1

10 12

Tots. 10 12

?

Silver and bronze coins. Silver issues of Valentinian I, Theodosius, Honorius. Bronze issues of Valentinian I, Gratian.

11. CHOBHAM, Surrey, 1772

Silver and bronze coins of Constantius II, Valens, Valentinian, Gratian.

10. CHADDLEWORTH, Berks., ?

10 siliquae, 4 solidi. Silver issues Julian-Arcadius/Honorius. Gold issues Gratian, Magnus Maxi.mus, Honorius

9. CARLTON ST PETER, Norfolk, 1807

26 siliquae "Honorius, Arcadius and the l �t�r Pmperors"

8. CAMERTON, Som., after 1841.

t -

C

r 1 N

C Y D C r D

C D

L r j t . . , , c \I G o N c \ I , i i n i 1 a o , ( e i n c e D d i e L C D

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r 4 C D r I

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c z

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r (

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c n ce e in e co co c \ I

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r I

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Theodos ius

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C ons tan t ius I

1 3 . COLERA INE , C o . Londonderry , 1 854

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e e 5 ,s , e, e

4 3

2 5 . GU ISBOROUGH , Y orks .,

e

0

a

Uncer ta in

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z

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2 4. GROVELY WOOD , Wi lts .,

g 4

C

c \ I

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c , c ` l ec q

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Arcad ius .

NC 1 845 , 9 -14

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a

a

( S tockcrs ton ) , c t ) C •

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C l )

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c i 7 2

0

2 8 .

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4 )

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X

Uncer ta in

V a len t in ian

C ons tan t ius

2 6. HOL WAY ( Taun ton ) ,

C Z

C e — 4

• 4 > 0

e l

C D

1 1

1 1

C 1 1 .

C 7 ) C t Z

r I

C D C \ 1

M t4

r I

C \I C V

r i

1 1

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VCH S u f fo lk I ,

f — I

11

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c t

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L C D

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g i

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r I s e

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C

Va len t in ian I

4 a)

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Uncer ta in

CD

C l ) z

z g 1 .

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4 1

r — i C O

z
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1 1

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▪

0 0 , 0 t

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b i ß

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4 i 2 4

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H

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Va len t in ian

C \ 1

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C ons tan t ius I

7 1, C V

0

3 2. KE MPSTON ,

a

C ons tan t ius I

3 1. I CKLINGHA M I I , S u f fo lk , c . 1 880/90

11

CZ ,t 4

z

e c o c n 0

r- i

r- I

r- I

L CD

CY' D

L CD

N

x

C i)

Ma iden Cas t le .

a o c o F 1 U z I

11

•• ' 7 3

4 4

4 )

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c e

„ ,• o $ 4 gi

4 )

, a )

0

a )

; 4 H

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1 - 1

C L C . )

.MA IDEN CASTLE ,

C ) 4 1

3 3

C l )

Uncer ta in

C l )

. 1

a

0

0

•

Mar lborough , Wi l ts .,

C l )

o f H onor ius .

C )

C l )

0

C J I

C i )

C ›

•• • I

c d C l ) c a

c e

• O ' ' o

CeD

a )

0

: 7 " J

. 0 e c e

. ,

S . . 4

o c '

a )

C )t i n , >i b n .e

C 2

C l ) C \ I

A

r I

C l

c l

T 1

1 C Y Z

r 1

NC 1 942 , 1 05-6

i t U a n c e r

c g

11

T 1

C l

C l ) C . ) . 0 C l )

1 1

T 4

5

C l )

4 9

Va len t in ian I

L r z c r z

Va len t in ian I

r I

• 0 0

0 ; . -> 0

C I

C Z

N

C \I C O

C O

r i

L ,-

t 1

N

r I

H

c • •

C0

C 'D

b-

C9

CD

c . 0 r I

z < 0 2 1

z

0 = H

r x 7 J

r z


C . )

r n r n c n• S

5 >a ) * II

• •• 1

0

• ri

C l )

c d 0 a ) e i 2 c )

c d

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g=

C Y

L I D

VCH Worcs ., I ,

C l

• • • 4 pa l ; Z

5 6 . TRED INGTON , Worcs .,

E . L o th ian ,

r 4

z C ons tan t ius I

5 3 . THETFORD , N orfo lk ,

r i

eV a lens , V a len t in ian I ,

NC

C C l l

C q

L C D r 1

c e c e r I

r 1

C l

N

1 1

1 1

r 1 r 1

r -i

C O

r 1 1 1

C l )

r i p

C e D

r 1

C \ I

C \ I

C

N

( . z )L . c D

C q

r f

1 1

C I

r I

C \I

N 11 r 1

z

C l )

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.

. . _ .g „ , C f )

. E . . )

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, 1 . 2 (

>

g .

. r n

C i p e i

g Z . . . „ ,

• X ' :

c . 3

" 1 , • > , • ' ''

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5

c i )u ). E

• , 4

• , • 4

. F 44

f) . 4 , . i

0

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< =

n

6 2

C f ) 1 1

C f ) C I D

C f ) 1 1

C l ) 1 1

C I )

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Durobr ivae ,

r I

1 1

5 9 . WATERNE WTON , Hunts .,

1 4

1 29 s i lver a nd b ronze c o ins ' mos t ly ' o f V a len tin ian-Gra t ian

r f

5 8 . UPH ILL , S om ., 1 846

5 7. TUDDENHA M S T MART IN , S uf fo lk , 1 938/9

NC 1 946, 1 69-73

r 1

ICD Cl

C • •

c q

c

e

' c t '

C D

C . 0

c ons is ted o f

1 4

c • •

. f c . , . , . 0 . " . . " , , . . . . , . 4 . . > 5 — I —

• , 1 a . ) r n. › ., . P I g r n z . ' • .2 e4 4 a ) . p 0 c c r ) .

. 4 -

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a ) r . " . , › 4

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Pe7 d '

, 5

4

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c d 1 5

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0

= c d 4 d

c o

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c r 2 Z • , 1 b . 0 z

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p i c d

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z 80 ), _ z C l ) ; .0 ,4 . 2 ,0 . . . ) C l ) . 1 . .4

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4 c i D e e ) o C ) - 7 ; ' , . C ) ' m c o. e c e › ; • 4 C I D

a

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r i) 42 P r e c d C 2

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r n X r n z , c d

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A s i liqua o fJ u l ian a nd 1

C . ) C . ) C . ) C C C D C -

6 1. WIVEL ISCO MBE , S om . ,

I 1

. 4 1 . . Z . t . .)

V a lens—Honor ius .

C ) r f

C .)

r i

C .)

r I

a

C C

0

1 1 . : 3

( 1 ) • * 1 C o 0 C \ I

1 1

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Theodos ius

tN II C J

V alent in ian I

V a lent inian

3 . UNCERTA IN LOCAL ITY

( : )

› f

a e o f Va lent inian I , V a lens , G ra t ian , Max imus ,

r i

S i liquae , a mi liarens is o f G ra t ian a nd b ronze c o ins

C D C Y Z C S D

C g

r i

C D

, g 4

C \ I

C " D

C V

C V

" C S

c n 0

2

1 . 7

3

6

4

7

P la te 2

5

8

MAGNUS MAXIMUS I N BR ITAIN b y P . J . Casey

" These q u icksands, L ep idus, k eep o f ft he m , f or y ou s ink" ( An tony a nd C leopa tra , I , 7 .) The p ar t p layed b y Magnus Max i mus i n t he d ec l ine , a nd e ven tua l c o l lapse , o f Ro man Br i ta in i s o ne wh ich h as b een wel l r ehearsed i nb o th modern a nd a nc ien t l i tera ture. I nt he f or mer c a tegory c an b e q uo ted t he v iews o f I . A . R ich mond , r eproduced i nt he most r ecen t work o n Hadr ian 's Wa l l : 1The r estora t ion o f 3 69 o pens Per iod W, t he l ast a nd t he s hor test i nt he h istory o f t he Wa l l. Magnus Max i mus i s c red i ted w i th n or the rn c a mpa igns, b u t i n 3 83 h e l ed t he , a r my o f Br ita in i n r evo l t a ga inst Gra t ian , a nd , p assing o ver w ith h is f orces t o t he C on t inen t , d ra ined t he i sland o f i t s p ro tectors.

H e e i ther e vacua ted t he Wa l l ,

o r .. l e f t i td efended b y o n ly t he b arest s keleton o f f orces. Th is v iew i s d er ived , i n i t s e ssen t ia ls , f rom G ildas w hose c o mprehens ive d enunc ia t ion o f Max i mus h as s e t t he t one f or a l l s ubsequen t a ccoun ts :2 .. i t E s c. Br i ta in ] .. s en t Max i mus f orth t o Gau l w ith ag rea t r et inue o fh angers-on a nd e ven t he imper ia l i ns ign ia , w h ich h e w as n ever f i t t ob ear; h e h ad n o l ega l c la im t o t he t i t le, b u t w as r a ised t o i tl ike a t yran tb y r ebel l ious s o ld iery .

App ly ing c unn ing r a ther

t han v irtue, Max i mus t urned t he n e ighbour ing l ands a nd p rov inces a gs inst Ro me , a nd a t tach ing t he m t o h is k ingdom o f w ickedness w ith t he n ets o fh is p er jury a nd l y ing.

O ne o fh is w ings h e s tretched

t o S pa in , o ne t o I t a ly ; t he t hrone o fh is w ickedness h e p laced a t Tr ier , where h e r aged a ga inst h is masters t ha t o f t he t wo l eg it i ma te emperors h e d rove o ne f ro m Ro me , t he o ther f ro m h is l i fe... S oon , t hough e n trenched i n t hese a ppa l l ing a cts o f d ar ing , h e h ad h is e v i lh ead c u t o f f a t A qu ile ia... A f ter t ha t Br ita in was d espo iled o fh er who le a r my , h er mil it ary r esources , h er g overnors , b ru ta l a s t hey w ere, a nd h er s turdy y ou th , who f o l lowed t he t yran t 's f oo tsteps, n ever t o r e turn h o me. That t he G ildes ian a ccoun t o f e ven ts i s ag ross e xaggerat ion , a t t he l east , d oes n o t r equ ire d iscuss ion h ere. I ti s e nough t o n o te t ha t t he f act t ha t G ildas , f or whatever r eason , c hose t o i gnore a l l e ven ts r e la t ing t o t he Roman a dm in ist ra t ion o f Br i ta in a f ter t he r evo l t o f Max i mus p reven ts h is a cknow ledge men t o f t he c on t inued p resence o f r egu lar f orces s uch a s t hose o f t he Co mes B ri tann iarum ,3 t he ' l eg ion ' w i thdrawn b y S t i l icho 4 o r o f t he t roops who f o l lowed Constan t ine I I t o t he Con t inen t i n4 07. 6 6

I t i s t he p urpose o f t h is p aper t o r eassess t he p osi t ion o f Max i mus i n r elat ion t o B r ita in a nd t o s uggest t ha t ar ev ision o fh is r o le i s p ossible i n t he l i gh t o f l i terary a nd n um is ma t ic e v idence. I n s um mary i tc an b e s hown t ha t Max i mus r eturned t o B r i ta in a t l east o nce d uring h is r eign , a l most c erta in ly t o c onduc t c a mpa igns o nt he n or thern f ron t ier , a nd i tw i l lb e s uggested t ha t p o l i t ical a nd s tra teg ic c hanges s o met i mes c red i ted t o Coun t Theodos ius c ou ld h ave b een t he work o f Max i mus. The c ircu mstances b y wh ich Magnus Max i mus c a me t o p ower a re e n t irely o bscure, a s i ndeed i s t he p os i t ion wh ich h e o ccup ied i n B r i ta in o n t he e ve o f h is r evo l t . Tha t h is c areer i ncluded s erv ice i n Br ita in u nder C oun t Theodos ius i sw el l k nown a nd i ti s p ossib le t ha t h e f o l lowed Theodos ius t o A fr ica f or h is c ampa igns t here. Max i mus ' c onnect ions w ith t he Theodos i i s hou ld n o t b e o verl ooked.

L ike Theodos ius, f a ther a nd s on , Max i mus was f ro m S pa in a nd i ti s

v ery l ikely t ha t h e was r ela ted t o t he Coun t a nd h is s on .

5

I l l d isposed c on-

t emporar ies w ere n o tb eyond s uggest ing t ha t t he r evo l t o f Max i mus may h ave t aken p lace w ith t he c onn ivance o f t he emperor Theodos ius; c er ta in ly h is c ap tors w ere a t p a ins t o e x trac t ad en ia l o f s uch c o mp l ic ity b efore k i l l ing h i m. 6 Theod os ius h i mself h ad n o r eason t o l ove t he House o f Va len t in ian s ince G ra t ian h ad , i n myster ious c ircumstances, e xecu ted Coun t Theodos ius t he most s uccessfu l s o ld ier o fh is g enera t ion a nd f a ther o f t he p resen t r u ler o f t he e astern emp ire. T hough i n i mper ia l s ta tus i n fer ior t o Gra t ian a nd h is t welve y ear o ld s on , V a len t in ian I , Theodos ius s yste ma t ica l ly s trengthened h is o wn p os i t ion a nd , o nt he d ea th o f Gra t ian , o ccup ied t he Ba lkan p rov inces a nd a ssumed a p osit ion o fd e f ac to s uper ior i ty o ver h is t echn ica l ly s uper ior c o l league t he y oung V a len t in ian . There i s v ery l i t t le e v idence t ha t Theodosius t ook a ny p ract ica l s t eps t o s usta in h is j un ior c o l league a nd i ta ppears t ha t i t was w i th s ome h esit a t ion t ha t h e r esponded t o t he i nvas ion o f I t a ly wh ich e xpel led Va len t in ian . O n ly t he i n terven t ion o ft he f or m idable J ust ina , mo ther o f t he d ispossessed emperor , w i th t he b r ibe o f marr iage w ith h er d augh ter Ga l la d id t he r ecen t ly w idowered Theodosius s er iously c on te mp la te i n terven t ion a ga inst Max i mus .7 Even w i thou t a ny d irect p roof o f a Max i mus-Theodos ius a x is t he u surper 's p os i t ion was a s trong o ne. Far f ro m l angu ish ing i n i mper ia l i l leg i t i macy Max i mus a ch ieved a ccep tance i n to t he i mper ia l c o l lege. L ike Theodos ius h e t rea ted Va len t in ian a s a n i mper ia l i n fer ior ; h is n om inee a ch ieved a c onsu lsh ip , h is s tatue was e rec ted i np ubl ic p laces i n t he e astern emp ire 8 a nd c o inage i n h is n a me was s truck a t t he m in t o f Con stan t inop le b y Theodos ius. 9 B efore t he i nvasion o fI ta ly i n3 87 Max i mus l eg i t i ma tely r u led t he Prefec ture o f t he G au ls, Va len t in ian t he P refec ture o f I t a ly a nd Theodos ius t he r est o f t he emp ire. Even ts w ith in t he r e ign o f Max i mus a re a s o bscure a s t he d eta ils o f t he r evo l t i t sel f . Th is t ook p lace i n t he s pr ing o f 3 83 a nd , wh ilst s k ir m ish ing t ook p lace w ith e le men ts o ft he a r my l oya l t o Gra t ian , who lesa le d efec t ions f ro m t he emperors a r my c aused h is f l ight t o L ugdunum. Here , o n Augus t 2 5th , h e w as murdered b y Andraga th ias t he mag ister e qu i tum. There i s n o e v idence t o i nd ica te t he n umbers o ft roops f rom Br ita in i nvo lved i n t hese e ven ts a nd i ti s j us t p ossible t ha t t he r evo l t was f o men ted i n Gau l g iven t he s upport r endered t o Max i mus b y Merobaudes, Gra t ian 's mag ister p ed itum. 1 ° N ever the less i t i s i n Br ita in t ha t Max i mus f i rst s truck c o inage.

6 7

The c o irmge o f Max i mus h ad i t s i ncep t ion a t am in t o pened i n L ondon i n 3 83 f ro m wh ich c a me a p rocla ma t ion i ssue i n g o ld a nd s ilver t o p ay a n a ccess ion d ona t ive t o t he t roops : S o l idus

O bv.

DNMAG MA-X IMVSPFAVG

Rev.

RE S TITVT OR-RE I PVB L IC AE

Min t mark AVG S il iqua

R IC D ( ( London ) 1 .

O bv.

DNMAG MA-X I MVS PFAVG

Rev.

VOT/V/MVLT/X

Min t mark AVG

R IC I X

( London ) 4 .

P l. N o. 2 The u se o f t he m in t s igna ture AVG (usta ) f or L ondon i s i n l ine w i th wha t l i t t le w e k now a bou t t he c hange i n t he n a me o f t he c i ty

1 1

a nd t he a ssoc ia t ion

o f Max i mus w ith B r ita in makes t he i den t if ica t ion o f t he m in t p roduc ing h is e ar l iest c o inage w ith L ondon a c er ta in ty .

O f t he s i lver c o inage l i tt le n eeds

t o b e s a id b eyond r e mark ing t ha t t he u se o f t he v o ta t ype i s c onsonan t w ith t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he c o in a s a n a ccession i ssue.

The g o ld , h owever , c a l ls f or

s o me c o m men t b ecause i n i conograph ic t er ms i tr epresen ts a d irect p o l i t ical s ta te men t b eing a c o mp lete r epud ia t ion o f t he c o in t ypes u sed b y Gra t ian a nd ar evers ion t o t he s o l id i o f Va len t in ian a nd Va len s i ssued , s ign if ican t ly , b ef ore t he e leva t ion o f Gra t ian ( Pl . N o. 3 ) . Max i mus '

n ex t c o in i ssue i s f ro m t he m in t o f Tr ier where t he f i rst i ssue

o f s o l id i c on t inues t he RESTITVT OR t ype i n i t ia ted a t L ondon .

A c ons iderable

s ty l ist ic d iference i s d iscernable b etween t he L ondon a nd Tr ier a ccess ion s o l id i , t he L ondon c o ins s how ing l i t t le o f t he p rac t iced s k i l l o f t he p ro fessiona l d ie c u t ters o f Tr ier ( Pl. N o. 4 ).

A f ter wha t a ppears t o h ave b een ab r ief

i n terva l t he Tr ier m in t r ever ted t o t he n or ma l g o ld t ype o f t he p er iod , i n f act t ha t u sed b y t he House o f Va len t in ian a f ter t he a bandon men t o f t he RESTITVTOR t ype : O bv.

DNMAG MA-XIMVSPFAVG

Rev.

V ICTOR-IAAVGG Two emperors s eated f ac ing , t ogether h o ld ing g lobe , b etween t he m v ic tory w ith o u tspread w ings. R IC D ( ( Tr ier ) 7 7 P l. N o. 5

The s ea ted emperors o nt h is i ssue a re r epresen ted a s b eing o f e qua l s ta ture wh ich , i n t he i conograph ic t rad i t ions o f t he c o innge o f t he p er iod , i nd ica tes t ha t t hey a re o f e qua l imper ia l s en ior ity .

We may c on trast t h is w i th i ssues

f or Max i mus a nd h is s on F lav ius V ic tor w here t he l a t ter i s s hown a s a sma l ler f i gure.

There i s n o d oubt t ha t Max i mus i s p rocla im ing h i mself t o b e o n a

f oo t ing o f e qua l i ty w ith Theodosius. I ti s t h is t ype o f s o l idus , w i th a n a ssoc ia ted i ssue o f s i lver , w h ich c o mp r ises t he s econd c o inage o f Max i mus f ro m t he L ondon m in t a nd wh ich p rov ides t he e v idence f or t he p resence o f t he u surper i n B r i ta in d ur ing i t s emm ission :

6 8

S o l idus

O bv .

DNMAG MA-X IMVSPFAG

Rev .

V ICTOR-IAAVGG

Min t Mark

R IC I X ( London ) 2 (b )

AVGOB

p l. N o . 6 S il iqua

O bv .

DN MAGMA-X I MVSPFAVG

Rev .

V ICT OR IAAVGG V ic tory a dvanc ing l ef t h o ld ing wrea th a nd p a lm .

Min t mark

AVGPS

R IC I X ( London ) 3 P l . N o . 7

Ag o ld i ssue i nt he n a me o f Theodos ius wh ich f or ms a c o mponen t o f t h is c o ina ge i nR IC ( Pl . N o . 8 ) i s i l lusory , t he u n ique s pec i men b e ing a s i lver g il t f orgery o f d oub t fu l a n t iqu i ty . The o rgan isa t ion o f t he i ssue o f R o man g o ld c o inage u nderwen t af undamen ta l c hange i n t he r e ign o f Va len t in ian I .

I th as b een d e mons tra ted t ha t

f o l lowing t he w ide-spread f i sca l r e for ms o f 3 66-7 t he p ay men t o f t axes c ou ld b e made o n ly i n t he f or m o f b u l l ion .

1 2

Th is was a ch ieved b y t he p rov inc ia l

g overnors a ccep t ing t he c a lcu la ted t axes f ro m t he c iv i ta tes o n ly a f ter t he g o ld c o inage , c o l lec ted b y t he i nd iv idua l ly a ssessed c o m mun i t ies t he mse lves , h ad b een mel ted i n to b ar f or m o f g uaran teed we igh t a nd p ur i ty a t g overnmen t t reas ur ies .

These b ars b ore g overnmen t s ta mps o f we igh t a nd p ur i ty ,

b e ing made g ood b y t he t axpayers .

a ny d e fec t

C er t i f ied b ars were t hen c o l lec ted b y o f f i-

c ers o f t he C o mes S acrarum L arg i t ione m a nd t ranspor ted t o t he i mper ia l r es id ence .

H ere t he g o ld was d epos i ted w i th t he s cr in ium a ureae massae a nd i t

was f ro m t hese s tocks t ha t g o ld c o inage , a nd b y t he s a me s ys te m s i lver , was p roduced f or i mper ia l e xpend i ture .

T hus a f ter t he r e for ms o f 3 66-7 t he i m-

p er ia l r es idence ( c om i ta tus ) was , w i th f ew e xcep t ions , t he o n ly s ource o f g o ld c o inage .

E ar ly i n 3 68 t h is i mper ia l c o inage was f ur ther d is t ingu ished b y t he

u se o f t he c er t i fying mark OB (ryzia tu m ) t o s how t ha t t he i nd iv idua l c o ins w ere o f p ure g o ld , t es ted a nd a cqu ired u nder t he o pera t ions o f t he r ecen t r e forms . S i lver c o ins r eceived a s im i lar mark P (u )S (u la tu m ) , i nd ica t ing t ha t t hey were o f p ure s i lver f ro m t he m in t o f t he c om i ta tus .

S o me r em iss ion o f t h is r ig id

s ys te m t ook p lace b e tween t he r e ign o f V a len t in ian a nd Max i mus b u t i ti s d e mons trab le t ha t c o inage b ear ing t he a t tes ta t ion mark a ssoc ia ted w i th t he o pera t ions o f t he c o mes s acrarum l arg i t ione m mus t h ave emana ted f ro m t he imper ia l c our t.

I td oes n o t n eed t o b e emphasised t ha t t h is c ourt was f re-

q uen t ly mob ile a nd i ti s p oss ible t o p lo t t he move men t o f t he c our t f ro m t he m in t marks o f t he c o ins s truck i n t he v ar ious c it ies t o wh ich i tt ravel led . A c orrela t ion b etween c o in i ssues a nd t he move men ts o f emperors a s a t tested b y t he p lace o f p ro mu lga t ion o fl aws

p reserved i n t he Codex Theodos ianus i s p os-

s ib le. I t f o l lows f ro m t h is t ha t t he c o inage o f Max i mus f ro m t he L ondon m in t b ear ing t he m in t mark AVGOB ( or i n s i lver AVGPS ) must h ave b een s truck w hen t he i mper ia l c om i ta tus was i n Br ita in a nd , a s we h ave a lready s een , t hese c o ins c anno tb e a ssoc ia ted w ith t he f irst L ondon i ssue o f t he r eign a nd t ha t t he t ype i s t he s a me a s t he s econd I ssue o f t he Tr ier m in t .

I tc an b e

f ur ther d e monstra ted t ha t t he AVGOB c o inage b ears l i t t le s tyl is t ic r e la t ionsh ip t o t he f irst L ondon c o inage b u t i s s im i lar t o t he c o inage p roduced f or t he c ourt m in t a t Tr ier. I tf o l lows , t hen , t ha t t hese c o ins r epresen t av is i t t o Br i ta in b y Max i mus a f ter t he e stabl ish men t o f h is c our t a t Tr ier.

6 9

The d a te o f s uch a v is i t s hou ld n ow b e i nvest iga ted . I t wou ld b e r easona ble t o e xpect a p er iod o f c onso l ida t ion t o e lapse o n t he Con t inen t b efore e ven t he most p ress ing m i l i tary d e mand wou ld b r ing t he f i eld a r my b ack t o B r i ta in . S uch a p er iod wou ld t er m ina te w i th t he r ecogn it ion o f Max i mus a s d e j ure c o ll eague b y Theodos ius. Un fortuna te ly w e d o n o t k now w hen t h is f i rst t ook p lace . Theodosius l ef t h is own d o ma ins i n 3 48 t o j ourney a s f ar n or th a s Verona , a rr iv ing b y August 3 1st a f ter a s low p rogress f rom Constan t inop le a nd a mon th 's r es idence a t Heraclea. 1 3 The r eason f or t he v isi t i s n o t k nown bu t i tc an b e c on jec tured t ha t i t was i n tended t o r econc ile Va len t in ian I t o t he r ecogn it ion o f Max i mus, s ince t he p resence o f Va len t in ian a t A qu ile ia o n t he f o l low ing S ep tember 9 th s trongly s uggests a c on ference b etween t he t wo a ugust i h ad t aken t aken p lace. 1 4

A t t h is t ime Theodos ius c ompensated Va len t in ian f or t he t er-

r i tory wh ich h e h ad l ost t o Max i mus b y r estor in g t o h im t he d ioceses o f Dac ia a nd Macedon ia wh ich h e h ad h i ther to o ccup ied . I ft h is i n terpreta t ion i s c orrec t i ti mp l ies t ha t r ecogn it ion was a f forded b y Theodos ius t o Max i mus b efore h e was r ecogn ised b y Va len t in ian 's e n tourage. I ti s k nown t ha t Max i mus s en t ambassadors t o Theodosius o n more t han o ne o ccasion , t he e ar l iest b e ing t he d espa tch o f h is p raepos i tus s acr i c ub icu l i s oon a f t er h is e stabl ish men t a t Tr ier. Z os imus s ta tes t ha t t h is embassy a ch ieved r ecogn i t ion o f t he p osit ion o f Max i mus .15 I fr ecogn i t ion was o bta ined i n t he w in ter o f 3 83-4 i td id n o t p rev en t Max i mus t ak ing t he o f f ice o f c onsu l i nh is own d o ma ins i n o ppos i t ion t o t hose n om ina ted b y Theodosius a nd r ecogn ised i n t he r est o f t he emp ire. I ns o far a s t he c o inage o f t he e astern emp ire b ears u pon t he d a te o f r ecogn it ion t here i s a n i ssue o f c oppers i n t he n a me o f Max i mus b y t he m in t o f C on stan t inop le wh ich , wh i lst a pparen tly p ostda t ing t he Verona e p isode , c annot b e c losely d a ted .1 6

The f act t ha t o n ly t wo s pec i mens o f t h is c o inage a re e x tan t s uggests

t ha t i t was s truck a nd n o t i ssued o r was w ithdrawn f ro m c ircu la t ion . T h is m igh t s uggest t ha t i tw as s truck j u st b e fore Max i mus i nvaded I t a ly i n 3 87.

H owever ,

Max i mus 's Praetor ian Prefect , Evod ius, h eld a c onsu lsh ip w i th Theodosius 's s on Honor ius i n 3 86, s ince t he c onsu lsh ip was h eld f rom J anuary I s t t he a rr ange men ts w i l l h ave b een e n tered i n to i n t he p rev ious y ear s o t ha t f u l l c ol leg ia te s ta tus h ad b een a ch ieved b y 3 85 a t t he l a test a nd a n e ar l ier d a te i s n o t o u t o f t he q uest ion .

Wh i lst t h is i s i nconclusive t here i s as ource o f e v idence f or t he

d a te o f av is it w h ich r equ ires c lose i nvest iga t ion . The Ga l l ic C hron icle c on ta ins t he f o l low ing e n tr ies r elevan t t o Max i mus :1 7 G ra t ian i i , 0 1 . XXCX Max i mus t yrannus i n Br itann ia a m il it ibus c onst i tu itur. Gra t ian i i i I ncursan tes P ictos e t S cot tos Max i mus t yrannus s trenue s uperav i t . Gra t ian v i , a A

l eccc

Max i mus i n Ga l l ias t ransfre tav i t e t , c on f l ic tu c on tra Gra t ianu m h ab ito , e unde m f ug itan te m L ugdun i i n ter fec it . Theodos ius i , 0 1 . c cxv i Max i mus , t imens O r ien ta l is imper i i p r inc ipe m Theodos ium , c um Va len t in iano f oedus i n i i t . Theodosius i i Max i mus , i nd ignum d icens c on tra e cc lesiae s ta tum a g i , l ocu m 7 0

i nru mpend i ( quod c um Va len t in iano i unxera t ) f oeder is i nven i t. Va len t in ianus, v er i tus im menen te m j am c erv ic ibus s u is t yrannum a d Theodos iu m c on fug i t . Theodosius i i Theodosius , c um e xerc itu a d I t a l ia m t ransgrad iens, i n terfec i t .

Max i mum

T he method u sed t o d a te e ven ts i n t he Ga l l ic Chron icle i s c o mp lex. There a re t hree s yste ms; b y O ly mp iads ( i .e. f our y ear p er iods ), b y y ears a f ter Abraha m a nd b y r egna l y ears. The o ver lap b e tween t hese s yste ms, n one o f w h ich s tar ts i t s y ear a t t he s a me t ime o r a t t he s a me p o in ts i n r ela t ion t o t he modern c alend ar y ear , l eads t o as l ippage b etween t he d a tes o f e ven ts.

However , i ti s c lear

t ha t t he r egna l y ears , whether p r i mary p arts o f t he t ex t o r l a ter a dd it ions, w ork o n t he b asis o f t he c onst i tu t iona l p os it ion o f t he emperor. Regna l y ears a re c a lcu la ted f rom t he t ime t ha t t he emperor b eca me s en ior a ugustus a nd n o t f rom t he d a te o fh is a ccess ion a s as ubord ina te me mber o f t he i mper ia l c o l lege. T he a na l ist t akes a p rag ma t ic v iew o f t he c onst itu t iona l p osit ion o f Theodos ius, t rea t ing h im a s s en ior a ugustus when h is a ctua l p os it ion was a s j un ior c o l league t o Va len t in ian I . Even t h is s yste m p resen ts p roble ms s ince i mper ia l y ears s tarted o n J anuary I st , t he d a te a t wh ich t r ibun ic ian p ower was r enewed , b u t a ny p ar t o f ar e ign w h ich p receded t he f i rst J anuary o f ar e ign s hou ld b e t reated a s ar egna l y ear i n i t s o wn r igh t.

Thus t he f irst r egna l y ear o f Gra t ian a s

s en ior a ugustus s hou ld b e f ro m S ep te mber t o Dece mber 3 79 a nd h is l ast f ro m J anuary t o August 3 83.

Gra t ian , t hen , h as s ix r egna l y ears a s s en ior a ugustus

a nd , under Gra t ian v i , t he Ga l l ic Chron icle c orrec t ly r ecords h is d ea th. I f w e work b ack f ro m t h is p o in t t he o ther r ecords p erta in ing t o Max i mus s hou ld b e : Grat ian i i =3 80 Gra t ian i i i =3 81

Max i mus u surpat ion i n Br i ta in . Max i mus v anqu ishes P icts a nd S co ts.

Gra t ian v i =3 83

Max i mus c rosses t o Gau l , k i l ls Gra t ian .

T he e n tr ies f or Theodos ius a re c on fused. U sing t he r egna l y ear s yste m w e c an s ee t ha t h is f i rst y ear s hou ld c o inc ide w ith t he h al f y ear f o l low ing t he d ea th o f G ra t ian , s o t ha t t he C hron icle d a tes f or Theodos ius s hou ld b e : Theodosius i= 3 83 Theodosius i i =3 85 Theodosius V I =3 86 I ti s c lear t hat t hese d a tes c anno t s tand s ince we k now t ha t Max i mus was d ef ea ted i n 3 88 a nd t ha t h is i nvas ion o f I t a ly a nd t he e xpu ls ion o f Va len t in ian t ook p lace i n3 87. Fur ther e n tr ies i n t he Chron icle c orrect ly r ecord t he d ea th o fT heodos ius i n t he mon th wh ich wou ld h ave b een t he s tar t o f t he s event een th y ear o fh is i mper ia l p ower , t ha t i s J anuary 3 95, mak ing n o d ist inc t ion a s t o h is s ta tus i n r e la t ion t o Grat ian a nd Va len t in ian .

I n as uperscr ip t ion

t he Chron icle r ecords t hat Theodos ius r e igned f or e leven y ears a s , i n t he C hron icler 's e st i ma t ion , s en ior a ugustus.

The f ac t i s t ha t o n t h is c a lcu la t ion

t he r e ign l ength o f Theodos ius s hou ld h ave b een t h ir teen y ears. Two y ears a re m iss ing o f w h ich o ne was c er ta in ly l ost b y m isca lcu la t ing t he r egna l y ears a s f o l low ing t he s ix th y ear o f Gra t ian , t rea t ing t ha t y ear a s ac omp lete c a lendar

7 1

p er iod i nstead o f a s s topp ing m idway t hrough 3 83, o ne o ther h as p resumably b een l ost a s ad ropped e n try a nd b o th om issions h ave b een made g ood b y c losing u p t he t ex tb y t wo y ears.

I f we r estore t he y ears i n t he l i ght o f o ur k nowledge

o f e ven ts f ro m o ther s ources we h ave t he f o l low ing : Theodosius i( 383) Max i mus makes t rea ty w i th Va len t in ian , f ear ing Theodosius. Theodos ius i i ( rec te v , 3 87 ) Max i mus i nvades I ta ly , Va len t in ian f l ees. Theodosius i i i ( rec te v i , 3 88 )

Max i mus d efeated.

O f t hese e n tr ies t he f i rst i s ag arbled a ccoun t o f t he t ru th , w h ich i s t ha t Maximus d e manded t he p resence o f Va len t in ian a t Tr ier , a n i nv i ta t ion wh ich was d ecl ined , t hough a n e xchange o f embass ies t ook p lace. R e turn ing t o t he e n tr ies f or t he r e ign o f G ra t ian t here a re t wo w h ich p urpor t t o c hron ic le e ven ts b e fore t he k nown d a te o f t he a ccess ion o f Maximus , o ne c la im ing t ha t h e c a me t o p ower i n 3 80 a nd t he o ther t ha t h e f ought P ic ts a nd S co ts i n 3 81.

H ither to l i t t le c o m men t h as b een made u pon t h is misda t ing o f

e ven ts a nd t he p rac t ice h as b een t o i gnore t he e ar l ier e n try , r egard ing i ta s a n i nconsequen t ia l e rror , a nd t o a ccep t t he s econd , u sua l ly d a ted t o 3 82 , a s ag enu ine p iece o f i n for ma t ion .

Fro m t h is t rea t men t o f t he t ex t a r ises t he

modern v iew t ha t Max i mus c a mpa igned a ga inst t he P ic ts a nd t he S co ts i n t he y ear b efore h is e leva t ion .

Fro m t h is b el ief s te m a n umber o f hypo theses,

s uch a s t ha t Max i mus h eld t he r ank o f Dux Br itann iarum f or , g oes t he r easoni ng , i ti s s ure ly i n t ha t c apac i ty t ha t h e w ou ld h ave b een wel l p laced t o f i ght n or thern a t tackers. I n s uch a p os i t ion a nd a f ter a v ic tory h is p opu lar i ty w ith t he a r my o f Br i ta in wou ld h ave b een s uch a s t o s ecure t he ir b ack ing f or h is e leva t ion . A l l t h is s upposes t ha t t he i nconven ien t e n try f or 3 80 c an b e f orgott en , b u t i tw i l l s i mp ly n o t g o a way . Here i s a n a dm it ted e rror o fg rea t magn it ude , t he c o mp lete m isda t ing o ft he u surpa t ion .

C an t he n ex t e n try b e a

s im i lar e rror , t ha t i s ac orrec t s ta te men t o f e ven ts m isp laced i n t he C hron icle? There i s , i n t he i n terna l c hrono logy p roposed h ere , ag ap b e tween t he P ict ish c ampa ign , a nd t he c orrect ly d a ted r ecord o f t he c ross ing o f t he Channe l b y Max imus a nd t he d ea th o f G ra t ian , wh ich we k now t o h ave t aken p lace v ery s hor t ly a f ter t he s tra t o f t he r evo l t . I t may b e s ugges ted t ha t t he C hron ic le makes u se o f t wo d i f feren t s ources wh ich h ave b een b rough t t ogether t o make a s i ng le n arrat i ve.

The f i rst o f t hese s uggested s ources wou ld c ompr ise t he t wo e n tr ies wh ich

p reda te t he c orrect e n try f or 3 83. Th is ' f irst s ource ' r ecords t he a ccession o f Max i mus a nd , i n as ubsequen t y ear , h is c ampa ign a ga ins t t he P ic ts a nd S co ts . S uch a s ugges tion a nd t he t ex tua l a d jus t men t wh ich l eads t o i tm igh t , a tb es t , b e mere s pecu la t ion a nd s pec ia l p lead ing w ere i tn o t f or t he n um is ma t ic e v idence f or t he p resence o f Max i mus a nd t he i mper ia l c om i ta tus i n Br i ta in a t w ha t c ou ld wel l b e a n e ar ly d a te i n t he r e ign . U p t o n ow t he l ast p osit ive imper ia l m il itary c a mpa ign i n Br ita in , w ith t he p oss ible e xcep t ion o f a ct ion b y S t il icho i n 3 95, h as b een t he d espa tch o f Coun t Theodos ius t o d ea l w ith t he i ncursions o f t he P icts, S co ts a nd A t tacot t i i n 3 67. Th is e ven t h as b een u sed t o p rov ide a d a te f or a w ide r ange o f a rchaeo log ica l p heno mena i n f our th c en tury c on tex ts. However , t he p resence o f Max i mus i n Br i ta in n ow o pens u p t he p oss ib il ity o f r e-exam in ing s it es a nd

7 2

e ven ts h i ther to f ir m ly a ssoc ia ted w ith t he Barbar ian Consp iracy . One a rea w i l l s uf f ice t o e xa m ine t he p oten t ia l f or a r e invest iga t ion o f e ven ts —the n or thern f ron t ier a rea. Any r econsidera t ion o f t he n or thern f ron t ier must p roceed f ro m Amm ianus Marce l l inus ' a ccoun t o f e ven ts i n 3 67-9. Amm ianus r ecords t wo ma jor e ven ts wh ich afec ted t he c om mand s truc ture o f Br i ta in a t t he momen t o f t he b arbar ian a t tack .

N ec tar idus , t he c o mes mar it im i t rac tus , was k i l led a nd Fu l lofaudes

t he d ux was h ost il ibus i nsid i is c ircumven tum. 1 8

Tha t i s t ha t t he Coun t o f t he

S axon S hore was k i l led a nd ag enera l , who may h ave b een t he Dux B r i tann iarum , was i n s o me manner s urpr ised b y t he e ne my . I ti s c lear t ha t i n Am m ianus ' v iew t he c en tre o f a c t ion was n o t i n t he n or th b u t i n t he s ou th e ast. Where e lse s hou ld a Coun t o f t he S axon S hore b e k i l led b u t where t he d efences o f t ha t s hore l ay? The d ea th o f t h is o f f icer c learly i nd ica tes a n a t tack o n t he a rea o f h is c ommand a nd t ha t l ay i nt he a rea f ro m t he Wash a round t he s ou th c oast , e xt end ing p erhaps a s f ar west a s Card if f . Th is i n terpreta t ion i s c on f ir med b y t he f act t hat Am m ianus f ocuses h is n arra t ive o n L ondon a nd n o t o n t he f ron t ier a rea : Unde c um c onsecu i Ba tav i v en issen t e t Heru l i , I ov i ique , f i den tesv ir ibus n umer i , e gressus t enden sque a d L und in ium , v etus o pp idum q uod Augustua m p oster i tas a ppel lav i t , d iv is is p lur ifar iam g lob is , a dortus e st v agan tes h ost ium v asta tor ias manus , g raves o nere s arc inarum , e t p ropere f usis , q u i v inctos h om ines a geban t e t p ecora , p raeda m e xcussi t , q ua m t r ibu tar i i p erd idere m iserr im i. E isde mque r est itu ta omn i p rae ter p ar te m e x igua m , i mpensa m m il i t ibus f ess is, mersa m d if f icu l ta t ibus s um m is a n tehac c iv ita te m , s ed s ub i to , q ua m s a lus s perar i p o tu i t r ecrea ta m , i n o van t is s pec ie m l aet iss i mus i n tro i it. 19 "When t he Ba tav i i , Heru l i , J ov i i a nd V ic tores , who f o l lowed h im , h ad a rr ived , t roops c on f iden t i n t he ir s trength , h e b egan h is march a nd c a me t o t he o ld t own o f L und in ium , w h ich l a ter t imes c a l led Augusta. There h e d iv ided h is t roops i n to many p ar ts a nd a t tacked t he p reda tory b ands o f t he e ne my , wh ich were r ang ing a bou t a nd were l aden w i th h eavy b urdens; q u ick ly r ou t ing t hose who w ere d r iv ing a long p r isoners a nd c a t t le , h e wrested f rom t he m t he b oo ty wh ich t he w retched t r ibu te p ay ing p eop le [ i .e. p rov incia ls ] h as l ost. And when a l l t h is h ad b een r estored t o t he m , e xcep t f or a sma l l p ar t w hich w as a l lo tted t o t he w eary s o ld iers, h e e n tered t he c i ty , wh ich h ad p rev iously b een p lunged i n to t he g rea test d i f f icu l t ies , b u t h ad b een r estored more q u ick ly t han r escue c ou ld h ave b een e xp ected , r e jo ic ing a nd a s i fc e lebra t ing a n o vat ion" I n s hor t we h ave a n a ccoun t o ft he S axon S hore b e ing o verwhe lmed , i t s c o mmander k i l led a nd L ondon t hrea tened a nd r el ieved b y t he i n terven t ion o f t he e xped it ionary f orce. F o l low ing t h is Theodos ius amnest ied d eser ters a nd r es tored t he m t o t he ir g arr isons , t hese p resumably b e ing t he c oas ta l f or ts. S ca t tered b ands o f h ost i les w ere ambushed a nd a p rov ince c rea ted f rom t err itory r ecovered f ro m t he e ne my . C it ies w ere r estored , t hough n o t n ecess ar i ly i n t he s ense t ha t t hey h ad s uf fered b y e ne my a ct ion , a nd t he f ron t iers were p ro tected b y " sen t inels a nd o u tposts" ( l im i t isque v ig il is t ueba tur e t 7 3

e t p rae ten tur is ), f or ts w ere a lso r estored .

There i s n o th ing i n t h is a ccoun t

wh ich c ou ld n o t b e s een a s r ela t ing t o t he f orts o f t he S axon S hore , c er ta in ly t he e v idence f or t he o u tposts b e ing t he o u tpost f or ts o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l i s b el ied b y t he a rchaeo logy o ft hese s truc tures wh ich s uggests t he ir a bandonmen t a t a much e arl ier d a te . 2 0

The b u ild ing o f af or t a t Caer Gyb i o n t he n or th c oast o f

Anglesey may b e i n t h is p er iod a nd wou ld c er ta in ly r ank a s b e ing a n o u tpost . I ft he ma in a c t iv ity o f Theodosius w ere t o h ave b een i n t he s ou th-east w ha t was t he p lace o f t he d ux i nt hese e ven ts? The p hrase wh ich d escr ibes h i s f a te i s o pen t o more t han o ne i n terpre ta t ion .

Tha t t he e ne my s urpr ised h im i s

c lear , t ha th e was ambushed i s l ess c erta in s ince c ircumven tu m m igh t b e u sed i nt he s ense t ha th e was p reven ted f ro m i n terven ing i n wha tever was h appen ing. N or n eed t he f a te o f t he d ux h ave t o b e s een i n t he c on tex t o f Hadr ian 's Wal l s ince t he s phere o fh is c o m mand e x tended t hroughou t t he n on-coasta l f orces s ta t ioned i n Br ita in w ith t he e xcep t ion o f f i eld a rmy u n i ts.

I n t he l i gh t o f t hese

o bserva t ions t he c on t inu ity o fu n its i n Hadr ian 's Wa l l f or ts f ro m t he t h ird c en t ury a s r ecorded i n t he N ot it ia D ign i ta tum i s r easonable. Am m ianus' t ex t l ends n o s upport t ot he v iew t ha t t he n or thern f ron t ier was d es troyed . I ndeed a n a t tack o nt he mass ive f or t if ica t ions o f t he Wa l l wou ld h ard ly b e c onsonan t w i th t he s tra tegy o f t he c onsp iracy s ince a s eaborne a t tack b y t he b arbar ians i s imp l ic i t i nt he p ar t ic ipa t ion b y t he S co t t i f rom I reland a nd i n a n a t tack , b y P icts, o n t he S axon S hore . 2 0 a S uch a s cenar io d oes n o t p reclude t he p lacing o f V a len t ia i n Cu mbr ia where e p igraph ic e v idence s hows t ha t Amb les ide was a t tacked i n t he f our th c en tury , p erhaps a t t h is t ime , a nd a r e t ired c en tur ion a nd a u n i t p ay c lerk w ere k i l led b y t he e ne my who h ad b roken i n to t he f or t. 2 1 o r A t taco t t i wou ld n o tb e o u t o f p lace i n t h is a rea o r i n Wa les.

Ac t ion b y S co t t i Though c ons-

t i tu t iona l p ropr iety m igh t b e b et ter s erved i ft he n ew p rov ince w i th i t s c onsu lar g overnor w ere p laced a t York .

The e v idence f or t he p resence o f p re-367 g ar-

r isons i n Wa l l f orts i nt he N o t it ia D ign ita tum a s l i sted i n t he s ect ion p er l ineam v a l l i wou ld b e i n k eep ing w i th t h is i n terpreta t ion .

However , t here r ema ins t he

p roble m o f t he a rean i , o r a rcan i, who we a re t o ld were r e moved f rom t he ir p osts.

These a ppear t oh ave b een s cou ts , whether Ro man s o ld iers o r n a t ive

r ecru its i s n o t c lear , whose d u ty was t o " hasten h ither a nd t h ither , o ver l ong d istances, t o g ive i n for ma t ion t o o ur g enera ls ( duces ) o f t he c lashes o f r ebell i on among n e ighbour ing p eop les." Gradua l c orrup t ion a nd t he s ale o f i n tel l ig ence t o t he e ne my i s g iven a s t he r eason f or t he ir d is m issa l .

I t i s n o t s ta ted

t ha t i n3 67 t hey h ad b e trayed t he ir t rust r a ther " they were c onv icted o fh av ing b een l ed b y t he r ece ip t , o r t he p ro m ise, o fg rea t b oo ty a t v ar ious t imes [ s ic ] t o b etray t o t he s avages w ha t was g o ing o n among u s. "2 2

The f act t ha t t here

h ad b een n o warn ing o f t he b arbar ian a t tack mere ly b rough t t o ah ead t he p robl em o ft he a rean i. I td oes n o t p rove t ha t t he Wal l was a ssau l ted w i th t he ir c onn ivance. Bu t modern h istor ical o p in ion i s s trongly wedded t o t he c oncep t o f aWa l l d estruct ion i n 3 67. The p hys ica l e v idence i s e x iguous t hough a t B irdoswa ld a c o in o f Va len t in ian p rov ides a t er m inus p ost q ue m f or t he r econst ruct ion o f ab arrack b lock .2 3

E lsewhere , t he k now ledge t ha t s o meth ing h ap-

p ened i n3 67 i s s uf f ic ien t t o a scr ibe a rchaeo log ica l e ven ts t o t ha t d a te.

More

t o t he p o in t i s t he l i st o ft roops s ta t ioned s ou th o ft he Wa l l u nder t he c o m mand o f t he Dux Br itann iarum wh ich may wel l r epresen t n ew t act ical f orma t ions o f t he f our th c en tury b u t t he p resence o f t he Equ i tes Cr isp i s uggests a C onstan t ini an r a ther t han a Valen t in ian ic d a te f or t he i n i t ia l d ep loymen t o f t hese f orces , t hough c hanges may h ave b een made f rom t ime t o t ime. 2 4 7 4

I f we a re t o c as t d oubts u pon t he a ct iv i t ies o f Coun t Theodosius i n t he n or th c an w e p erhaps a ssocia te Max i mus w i th t he a rea a nd t hus l ook t o t h is r u ler a s t he i n it ia tor o f s o me o f t he l ate a ct iv i ty i nt he f ron t ier a rea?

To d o

t h is i t must f irst b e s hown t ha t t he n or th was t he s cene o f Max i mus ' c ampa ign , e spec ia l ly s ince i th as a lready b een a rgued t ha t t he e ven ts o f 3 67 t ook p lace l argely i nt he s ou th-east a nd Max i mus i s c red ited w i th a ct ion a ga inst t wo o f t he p eop les i nvo lved i nt ha t a t tack : I ncursan tes P ictos e t S co t tos Max i mus t yrranus s trenue s uperav i t2 5 Th is h as t he r ing o fb e ing a c ons iderable v ic tory , b u t was i t won i nt he n or th? There i s o ne p iece o f e v idence wh ich may b ear u pon t he l oca t ion o f Max i mus ' c ampa ign , t he o ccurrence o fh is c o inage i n Br i ta in . The c o inage o f Max i mus i s v ery r estr ic ted b o th i n s i te f ind a nd i nh oard c on tex ts w i th e ven t he sma l l c opper i ssues o f t he p er iod 3 83-88 b e ing r are ly e ncoun tered. 26

O f t he p rec ious

me ta l i ssues s o l id i a re f ound a t Corbr idge , S ou th S h ie lds a nd i n t he Cakeha m h oard . 27

w h i lst s i lver o ccurs i nh oards a t S pr inghead , 2 8C leeve Pr ior 29 a nd

i n ap oor ly r ecorded h oard p erhaps d er iv ing f rom Yorksh ire. f irst i nstances t he Max i mus c o mponen t i s o f sma l l v o lume.

I n a l l b u t t he

The Corbr idge

h oard i s a n o u tstand ing f ind c ons is t ing o f f or ty e ight s o l id i o f wh ich n o l ess t han t h irteen a re o f Magnus Max i mus. 30

These c o ins a re t he l atest i ssues i n t he

h oard a nd c ons ist o f as pec i men o f t he f irst i ssue o f Tr ier o f t he RESTITVT OR REIPVBL ICAE t ype a nd t welve o f t he s econd i ssue V ICTORIA AVGG t ype. N one o f t he c o ins s hows a ny w ear a nd a d epos i t d a te i n 3 84 wou ld n o t b e o u t o f p lace e spec ia l ly s ince t he h oard c on ta ins a p reponderance o f i ssues o f Gra t ian , c o ins wh ich i n n or ma l c ircumstances o ne wou ld e xpect t o h ave b een s yste ma t ica l ly w i thdrawn f or r estr ik ing i nv u l tum n ov i p r inc ip i w i th in a s hor t p er iod b y Max i mus ' a dm in istra t ion .

Wh ilst i ti s n ever p oss ible t o a ssoc ia te a h oard w i th

t he mo t ives o f t he h oarder t he e x istence o f s uch a l arge n umber o f s o l id i o f Max i mus a t Corbr idge s trong ly s uggests a m il i tary p resence a nd t he c on tex t o ft he c a mpa ign a ga inst t he P ic ts a nd t he S co ts h as a c ompel l ing c la im t o b e t he o ccas ion o n wh ich t hese c o ins c a me t o b e i n c ircu la t ion i n t he n or th. A s im il ar c on tex t may b e c la i med f or t he S ou th S h ields c o in wh ich b eing a n AVGOB i ssue c an b e d irec t ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he p resence o f Max i mus i n B r i ta in .3 1 S uch a n i ssue c ou ld h ave b een s truck t o p ay t he e xpenses o f t he c a mpa ign o r f or i ssue a s ad onat ive t o t he t roops o n t he s uccessfu l c o mp let ion o fh ost il i t ies. The p resence o f t he c o in a t Arbe ia d oes n o t n ecessitate t he i nclusion o f t he g arr ison o f t he f ort i nt he c a mpa ign s ince t he p or t f ac il i t ies a t S ou th S h ields wou ld t he mselves j ust ify t he u se o f t he s i te i n a ny a ct ion i nt he n or th b y a n e xped it ionary f orce. I f we l ook a t s truc tura l e ven ts w ith wh ich Max i mus m ight h ave b een a ss oc ia ted we c ou ld p o in t t o t he l a te r efurb ish ing o f Corbr idge i n w h ich t he l av ish u se o f s cu lp ture o n i nscr ip t ions f rom p agan s truc tures h as b een n o ted . Th is migh tb e i n l ine w i th t he w el l k nown f eroc ious r el ig iosity o f Max i mus t han w i th t he t o lerance o r i nd i f ference o f Va len t in ian I . B u t t h is i s am inor ma t ter , f ur ther s ou th s tand t he York sh ire c oast s igna l s ta t ions f or wh ich t here i s n o n um is ma t ic o r a rchaeo log ica l e v idence wh ich wou ld c on trad ict a c la im t ha t t hey c ou ld h ave b een b u i l tb y Max i mus r a ther t han Coun t Theodos ius.

Max i mus

i s k nown t oh ave t ak en a n i n terest i n n ava l o pera t ions a nd u sed c on siderable n ava lf orces , u nder t he c o m mand o f Andraga th ius, i nh is u nsuccessfu l o perat ions a ga inst Theodosius. The s uggest ion t ha t Max i mus h ad s o me c onnect ion 7 5

w ith t he c onstruc t ion o f t he s igna l s ta t ion c ha in i s p la in ly h eret ical b u t may g a in s o me a rchaeo log ica l s uppor t f ro m a c onsidera t ion o f t he f or ts a t Mahon a nd Brough o n Humber.

Mahon i s t he f or t most c losely a ssoc ia ted w i th t he

c oasta l d efence s yste m o f Yorksh ire a nd wou ld c erta in ly b e i nvo lved w ith a ny a ct ion a r ising f ro m a n a t tack o nt he c oasta l a reas o ccup ied b y t he wa tch t owers a nd a i med a t t he r ich s e t t le men ts o f t he Va le o f York .

The l ast g arr ison o f

Mahon was t he Numerus S uperven ien t ium P e tuer iens ium , au n it wh ich , i t may b e p resu med , h ad b een t ransferred f ro m Brough o n Humber ( Petuar ia ). 32 Excava t ions a t Brough o n Humber i nd ica te t ha t a n a bandon men t t ook p lace i n t he l a ter f our th c en tury when f lood ing o f t he Humber e stuary c hanged t he o ccupat i on p at tern o f t he a rea.

I t may b e s ign if ican t t ha t t he l ast c o in f rom t he s ite

i s as ing le s pec i men o f t he o therw ise r are c o inage o f Magnus Max i mus . 3 3

The

t ransfer o f au n i t f ro m a r edundan t f or t t o g arr ison Ma l ton c ou ld b e s een a s p ar t o f ad efensive s che me f or t he n or th e ast w h ich i ncluded t he p rov is ion o f f l ee ts , s igna l s ta t ions a nd l and f orces a s ad e fence a ga ins t ar ecrudescence o f P ic t ish t roubles f o l low ing c a mpa igns a ga inst t he m .

A f ter t he i n terven t ion o f

Max i mus t he P ic t ish t hrea t a ppears t o h ave b een l ess a cu te t han h ither to a nd o n ly a ssumes ma jor p ropor t ions i n t he f i f th c en tury . The p resence o f Max i mus i n Br i ta in r ef lects n ew l i ght o n af ur ther p robl em , t he d a te o f t he d is man t l ing o f t he m i l itary f orces s ta t ioned i n Wa les. The b ackground t o e ven ts i n Wa les h as b een s een i n r ela t ion t o t he g enea log ies o ft he k ingdo m o f Gwynedd wh ich t raced i t s d escen t f ro m Max i mus. F ro m t h is e ar ly med iaeva l s ource , a nd o ther l egendary a ccoun ts o f Max i mus o f We lsh o r ig in , ap ic ture emerged o f as er ies o f Welsh d ynast ies w ho were i nvested w i th p ower b y t he u surper s o t ha t h e c ou ld d epr ive t he w est o f Br ita in o ff orces i n h is b id f or p ower.

These Welsh s ources h ave b een t he s ub ject o f t he most

s earch ing c r i t ic is m a nd i ti s n ow c lear t ha t t he ir h istor ica l u t il i ty r es ides o n ly i nt he l i ght wh ich t hey s hed o n med iaeva l l earn ing r a ther t han o n l at e Ro man afa irs . 3 4

The e f fect o f Dr. Dumv il le 's work h as b een t o ofer a l og ical e x-

p lana t ion o f Max i mus ' p lace i n Welsh l egend wh ich d oes n o t i nvo lve h im i n a ny e ven t wh ich c ou ld b e c onstrued a s g iv ing r ise t o t he u se o f n a t ive d ynast ies t o p o l ice a reas e vacua ted b y Ro man t roops. However , t he om ission o f Wales a nd t he a rea w est o f Porchester f ro m t he N o t i t ia D ign ita tum s t il l r equ ires e xplanat i on .

The c ruc ia l p roble m i s t o f i t t he e v idence f rom t he f or t a t S egon t iu m

i n to a s che me wh ich a l lows f or i t s n on-appearance i n t he N o t i t ia a nd y et a l lows f or i t s c on t inu i ty a f ter t he r e ign o f Max i mus. The p resence o f au n i t o f S egun t ienses i n t he N o t it ia 's l i st o f A ux il ia Pa la t ina s erv ing u nder t he Co mes I l lyr ic i i n t he B a lkans h as l ong b een t he s ubj ec t o f c o m men t ,3 5 a nd t he ir i nclusion i n t he l i s t h as b een a scr ibed t o t heir p art ic ipat ion i nt he Ba t tle o f Mursa o n t he s ide o f Magnen t ius o r t o t he ir p resence a t Aqu i le ia a s ac o mponen t o f Max i mus ' a r my .

Bo th v iews h ave b een

a t tacked b u t t he c oncensus v iew i s s t il l t ha t t hey w ere w i thdrawn i n 3 83 a nd t ha t t hey a re t ob e i den t if ied w ith t he g arr ison o f C aernarfon .3 6 Bu t n um is ma t ic e v idence i s a ga inst t he a bandonmen t o f Caernarfon a t t h is d a te

s ince a c o in o f Max i mus h as b een i den t if ied f rom t he s i te. 3 7

The

c urren t e xcava t ions, w h i lst n o c o mp lete a ss im ila t ion o f t he e xcava t ion d ata i s y et p oss ible , a lso s upports t h is e v idence. 38 Three c o ins o f t he p er iod a f ter 3 88 h ave b een r ecovered b r ing ing t he t o ta l o f p os t-Max i mus c o inage t o s ix

7 6

s pec i mens.

Further a c l ipped s i l iqua f ro m a v ery l a te s tra t igraph ica l c on tex t

may a dvance t he d a te o f t he l a test o ccupa t ion i n to t he p er iod a f ter 3 95.

Wh i lst

t hese c o ins a re f ew i n n u mber t hey a re o f s u ff ic ien t s ta t ist ica l s ign if icance t o b r ing S egon t iu m i n to l i ne w i th o ther m i l itary s i tes o ccup ied f or a s l ong a s n ew c o inage t ypes were i n troduced i n to Br i ta in .

I n t h is e ven t t he p resence o ft he

S egun t ienses , a ssum ing a s t he p resen t w r i ter d oes t ha t t h is i s t he u n i t f ro m Wa les, wou ld b e t he r esu l t o f t he r e mova l o f u n i ts f ro m Br ita in b y S t i l icho. S uch a n i n terpre ta t ion o f e ven ts wou ld h ave i n terest ing i mp l ica t ions f or t he d a te a nd s ta tus o f t he Br i t ish s ec t ion o f t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tum b ecause t he f orces a ssigned t o t he Dux Br i tann iaru m wou ld b e ar ef lect ion o f S t i l icho 's a bandon men t o f t he western m i l i tary c o m mand a nd t he d ocu men t wou ld s how t he s i tua t ion i n Br i ta in a f ter 4 01.

There wou ld t hen b e v irtua l ly n o w i thdrawa l o f

f orces b y Max i mus i n 3 83, o r s uch a s were i nvo lved i n t he u surpa t ion c r isis w i l l h ave r eturned i n 3 84.

I n t h is c ase t he i nstances where ma ter ia l h as b een

f ound i n f or ts n o t l i sted i n t he c o m mand o f t he Dux , i n e ssence c o ins o f t he i ssues o f 3 88-402, a re o f n o s ign if icance s ince t hey d o n o t impugn t he v erac ity o f t he No t i t ia.

I t was , n o d oub t , t he d is man tl ing o f t he w estern c o m mand a t

t h is d a te t ha t l ed t o t he l arge s ca le r a id ing i n t he a rea wh ich r esu l ted i n t he c ap ture o f Pa tr ick a nd h is s lavery i n I reland " cu m t o t m i l ia h om inu m". Th is p aper h as n o t s ough t t o r ewr ite t he h istory o f Br ita in i n t he f our th c en tury a nd t he a u thor a cknow ledges t ha t t he t hread o f a rgu men t i s s o me t i mes t h in , n onetheless t here s ee ms t o b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t t he g enera l ly a ccep ted v iew o f t he p lace o f Magnus Max i mus i n l a te Ro man a f fa irs i n Br ita in c an b e r ev ised a nd t ha t t he i n f luen t ia l G i ldes ian a ccoun t i s a n u naccep table h istor ica l s ource. AC KNOW LEDGE ME NTS Anyone a t te mp t ing t o u se n um is ma t ic e v idence i n e luc ida t ing t he h is tory o f t he wes tern emp ire i n t he f our th c en tury o wes a d ebt t o D r . J . P . C . K en t . I n t h is p aper t he d eb t i s v ery g rea t a nd i s h ere a cknow ledged . T h is p aper h as a lso b ene f i ted f ro m d iscuss ions w i th D r . R . S . 0 . T om l in , J . R ackha m a nd C . C . Hase lgrove , n one o f who m n ecessar i ly a gree w i th i t s c on ten ts .

A l l c o ins

i l lus tra ted a re b y c our tesy o f t he B r i t ish Museum w i th t he e xcep t ion o f N o . 1 . Wh ich p ub l ished b y c our tesy o f C openhagen Museum. NOTES 1 .

Bruce , J . Co l l ingwood .

Handbook t o t he Ro man Wa l l , e d 1 3. ( Newcast le ,

1 974 ) b y C .Dan ie ls. 2 .

G ildas , De e x id io Br i tonum.

Ed . a nd t rans. M. Win terbo t to m ( 1978 ).

3 .

No t it ia D ign ita tum.

4 .

C laud ian , d e b el lo Go th ico , 4 16-8.

Ed. 0 . S eeck ( 18 I n t he l i ght o f t he d iscuss ion i n t h is

p aper t he l eg ion w ithdrawn c anno t h ave b een V I V ictr ix . 5 .

Pa lanque , J -R.

L 'e mpereur Max i me , i n L es empereurs r o ma ins d e

PE s pagne. Co l loques i n terna t ionaux d u C en tre N a t iona le d e Recherche S c ien t if ique ( Par is, 1 965 ). 6 .

Paca tus, L a t in i Pac tus Drepan i i p anegyr icus Theodos io a ugustus d ic tu s. ( =Pan . L a t. X I I ) x l i i i. 4 . e d. E . Ga l let ier ( Par is , 1 955 ).

7 .

Palanque , J -R. l oc . c i t. 7 7

8 .

Z osi mus, H istor ia n ova e d . P . Mendelssohn ( Le ipzig , 1 887 ).

Trans.

J . J . Buchanan a nd H . T . Dav ies ( San An ton io , 1 967 ). 9 .

Carson , R . A . G ., e t a l .

L a te Ro man Bronze Co inage ( 1960 ) Par t 2 .

N o. 2 180. 1 0.

Prosper T iro , Chron icle ( MGH Chron . Min . 1 .461).

1 1.

Am m ianus Marce l l inus , H istor ia e d. J . C . Ro lfe ( 1939 ) x xv i i , 8 .7.

1 2.

K en t , J . P . C ., Go ld c o inage i n t he l a ter Roman emp ire , i n Carson , R . A . G . a nd S u ther land , H . e ds., E ssays i n Ro man c o inage p resen ted t o Haro ld Ma t t ing ly ( 1956 ).

1 3.

S eeck , 0 ., Regesten d er K a iser u nd Papste ( S tu t tgar t , 1 919 ).

1 4.

I b id .

1 5.

Z os i mus, I V.3.1.

1 6.

Carson , R . A . G ., e t a l ., L a te Ro man b ronze c o inage , l oc.c it.

1 7.

S eeck , 0 ., e d., Chron ica Ga l l ica a CCCL I I , ( Ber l in , 1 892 ).

T h is t ex t

h as most r ecen t ly b een d iscussed i n Mi l ler , M., ' The l ast Br it ish e n try i n t he Ga l l ic Chron icles ' Br itann ia , LX , 1 978 , 3 15-8 where t he r egnal d a t ing s yste m d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave b een a pprec ia ted. 1 8.

Am m ianus , XXVI I , 8 .1f f .

1 9.

Am m ianus MXVI I , 8 . 7/8 .

2 0.

Casey , P . J ., Constan t ine t he Grea t i n Br ita in— the e v idence o ft he c o ina ge o f t he L ondon m in t , A . D. 3 12-314. L ondon in iens ia :

i n J . B ird e t a l . e ds. C o l lectanea

s tud ies i n L ondon a rchaeo logy a nd h is tory p resen ted t o

Ra lph Merr if ield ( 1978 ). 2 0a.

Th is s cenar io d epends o n t he i n terpreta t ion o f Am m ianus ts p assage Ga l l icanos v ero t rac tus F ranc i e t S axones, e isde m c on f ines, q uo q u isque e rumpere p otu it , t erra v e l man, p raed is a cerb is i ncend i isque e t c ap t ivorum f uner ibus omn ium v io laban t

( ) own ,

8 .5 ) a s r eferr ing t o e ven ts i n Gau l .

I tc an b e a rgued t hat t he Ga l l ic s hore i nt h is p assage i s ap oet ic t er m wh ich r ea l ly means t he s hore o f Br i ta in n earest t o Gau l .

On t he o ther h and t he

e rup t ion o f s er ious b r igandage i n Gau l i n 3 69 , i n wh ich me mbers o f t he imper ia l h ouseho ld s taf f w ere k i l led , c ou ld b e s een a s t he r esu l t o f t he d isrup t ions c aused b yb arbar ian i ncurs ions.

As im ilar s itua t ion s ee ms

t o b e h in ted a t i n Br i ta in a t t he s a me t ime ( XXVI I I , 2 .10 ).

I f Am m ianus

means s ou thern Br i ta in t hen t he s che me o f e ven ts i n 3 67 wou ld b e t hat t he s ou th-east was o verrun b y F ranks a nd S axons, t h is wou ld c on f ine t he a ct iv it ies o f t he s eaborne P icts t o a more n or thern a rea.

P ic t ish ma ter ia l

h as b een f ound i n East Ang l ia ( An t. J ., 3 2, 1 952, 7 1f f.) b u t t he s cene o f t he ir a c t iv ity , i fn o t i n t he s ou theast , s hou ld b e i n t he r eg ion o f York. I n wh ich e ven t Va len t ia wou ld h ave t o b e l oca ted i n t h is a rea; t h is wou ld b e c onsonan t w ith t he c rea t ion o f ac onsu lar g overnor f or t he n ew p rov ince s ince h e wou ld b e b ased o n t he s econd s en ior c i ty o f t he d iocese . 2 1.

J . R.S . L I I I , 1 963, 1 60.

7 8

2 2.

Amm ianus ) 0 (VI I I , 3 .8.

2 3.

R ich mond , I . A . a nd B irley , E . B ., Excava t ions o n Hadr ian 's Wa l l i n t he B irdoswa ld-P ike H i l l s ector , 1 929.

Trans. Cumb. & West . An t. &

Arch. S oc., XX , 1 930 , 1 69-205. 2 4.

No t i t ia D ign ita tum.

2 5.

Chron ica Ga l l ica a CCCL I I , Gra t ian

2 6.

Casey , P . J ., The i n terpre ta t ion o f Ro mano-Br it ish s i te f inds , 1 930 , 1 69-205.

O cc. XL .

I n C asey , P . J . a nd Reece , R . e ds., Co ins a nd t he Archaeo lo-

g ist ( 1974 ). 2 7 .

S ussex Arch. C o i ls., 8 , 2 90.

2 8.

Carson , R . A . G ., S pr inghead , Gravesend ( K en t ), Ro man imper ia l t reasure t rove.

2 9 . 3 0.

N um is ma t ic Chron icle , 7 th s er., V , 1 965.

Nu m is ma t ic C hron icle , 5 th s er., XV I , 1 936, 3 14. Know les, W. H . a nd Forster , R . H ., Corstop itu m : e xcava t ions i n 1 908.

3 1.

r epor t o n t he

Arch. Ae l iana , 3 rd s er., V , 1 909.

Co in d iscovered i n May , 1 976.

N ow i n Arbe ia Ro man For t Mus., Tyne

a nd Wear. 3 2.

No t i t ia D ign i ta tum , O cc. XL , 3 1.

3 3.

Wacher , J ., Excava t ions a t Brough-on-Hu mber , 1 958-61 ( 1969 ).

3 4.

Du mv il le , D . N ., S ub-Ro man Br ita in : h istory a nd l egend.

H istory , 6 2,

J une 1 977 , 1 73-92. 3 5.

Frere , S . S ., B r itann ia e d. 2 ( 1974 ) 4 05.

3 6.

Hof f man , D ., Das s pa tro m ische Bewegungsheer u nd d ie N o t i t ia D ign i ta tum ( 1969 ) Vo l. 1 , 1 64, Vo l . 2 , 1 81.

3 7 .

N o te 6 8.

Boon , G . C ., S egon t iu m f i f ty y ears o n : I-The c o ins.

Arch. Cambrens is,

CXXV , 1 976, 4 0-79. 3 8.

Excava t ions c onducted f or t he Welsh O f f ice b y P . J . Casey a nd J . L . Dav ies.

7 9

SAINT PATR ICK AND F IFTH-CENTURY BR ITAIN : AN H ISTOR ICAL MODEL EXPLORED b y C har les Tho mas

Pa tr ick , t he Apost le o f I re land , h as f or t he modern s tuden t t he a t tract i on o f b e ing a g enu ine h istor ica l f igure— if n o t q u i te a t t he l eve l o f S t i l icho , p erhaps, o r o f S t . G er manus, t hen d ec ided ly more s o t han ( say ) C unedda, o r Vor t igern .

Ar thur ' ,

T he 1 500th a nn iversary o f Pa tr ick ' sd ea th was

o f f ic ia l ly marked , p ostage s ta mps a nd a l l, b y t he C a tho l ic c hurch a nd b y t he I r ish n a t ion i n 1 961.

Af u l l l i brary o f Pa tr ic iana wou ld n ow r un t o many

h undred b ooks, a bou t 5 0 o f wh ich a re we l l wor th p erusing a nd d igest ing . I re land a bounds i n c hurches, s hr ines, a nd p laces o f p i lgr i mage, t he d en ia l o f whose d irect a nd a u then t ic c onnect ion w i th t he n a t iona l s a in t wou ld g ive g ratu itous o f fence .

T he e cc les iast ica l p r i mac ies ( both R o man C a tho l ic , a nd

C hurch o f I re land ) o f Armagh r est i m med ia te ly u pon wha t a re t aken t o b e t he u nd isputed a c ta o f t he s a in t , s tar t ing a bou t A .D . 4 40 .

The s o mewha t d if feren t P a tr ick who m Ip ropose t o d iscuss was a Br iton , b orn w ith in t he Ro man f ron t iers o f h is t ime . aC hr ist ian d eacon , o wned l and a nd s ervan ts;

H is f a ther , b o th a d ecur io a nd P a tr ick ' s( pa terna l?) g rand-

f a ther h ad b een a p r iest o f t he Church ; a nd Pa tr ick h i mse lf b eca me , f irst a d eacon , a nd e ven tua l ly a b ishop .

A s ay ou th ( f ro m a bout 1 6 t o 2 2 ) h e was a

h erds man i n I re land , h av ing b een e nslaved b y I r ish r a iders .

He e scaped , o n

f oo t , a nd t hen i n as h ip , av oyage f o l lowed b y a nother l onger t rek o n f oot . Y ears l a ter when , a s ab ishop , h e r eturned v o lun tar i ly t o I re land , h is work t here—h is 'miss ion ' —was n o t w i thou t i nc iden t , a nd h e s ee ms t o h ave s uf fered p r iva t ions a nd misrepresen ta t ion .

H e wro te i n L a t in ;

h e must h ave b een

a b le t o s peak L a t in , t he v ernacu lar Br i t ish o f h is h o me land , a nd t he v ernacul ar I r ish o f t he s a me p er iod . v ers ion .

He k new h is B ib le , p robab ly i n more t han o ne

Throughout h is a du l t l i fe , h e was c onsc ious o f G od ' sd irect a nd

s pec if ic g u idance , ag u idance c onveyed t o h im t hrough d rea ms a nd v is ions . H e wrote ( or d icta ted ) works i n L a t in , t wo o f wh ich—h is Ep isto la , a n o pen l e t ter t o t he war-band o f ak ing n a med a s C oro t icus, a nd h is C onfess io—have s urv ived, a nd i n f orms whose g enera l a uthen t ic i ty i s n o t d oubted .

H e was b y

t he s tandards o f a ny p er iod a v ery h u mb le, h o ly a nd r e markab le man ;

a nd

a ny th ing we c an f ind o ut a bou t Pa tr ick i s p rec ious s i mp ly b ecause , i n a Br ita in w i th p erhaps s o me f our m i l l ion i nhab itan ts, h e i s ar are , n a med , a r t icu la te i nd iv idua l i n ag rea t o cean o f h istor ica l a nony m ity .

8 1

I Wha t h as j ust b een s a id c onst itutes ( t he l una t ic f r inge a par t ) r easonable a nd a ccep ted c o m mon g round . T he mo men t t ha t w e g o a ny f ur ther , c on trov ersy b eg ins ; o ver P a tr ick 's p ersona l g eography , h is e scape a nd t rave ls, t he d e ta i ls o f h is c areer , t he e x ten t o f h is s urv iv ing wr i t ings, e ven t he d egrees o f h is k now ledge o f v ar ious l anguages—and a bove a l l o ver h is d a tes . S o f orcef u l a ppears t o b e t he h o ld e xerc ised b y t h is man o n e ar ly h istor ians t ha t s uch a rgu men ts h ave , a las, f ar t oo o f ten a ssu med a d ist inct ly p ersona l f lavour ( " Is t here a s pec ia l t ype o f o d iu m P a tr ic ianu m w i th wh ich e ven t he most g en ia l s cho lars a re l i ab le t o b e i n fected?" a sked B inchy ( 1962 , 1 5) ) . Co l lec t ive ly, t hese a rgu men ts a nd u ncer ta in t ies make u p wha t i s c a l led 't he Pa tr ic ian p robl em '. Whe ther o r n ot Pa tr ick was b orn b efore A .D . 4 00, a l l s ave t he most e ccen tr ic v iews wou ld s ee h im a s work ing , a nd d y ing , i n t he 5 th c entury ; a nd i n a ny s ymposiu m d ea l ing w i th t ha t c en tury , t here a re many r easons f or i nc lud ing e ven o ne more Pa tr ic ian e ssay . T here i s ( a s j ust p o in ted o ut ) t he v ir tua l u n iqueness o f h is n a med i den t ity i n s uch a c on tex t . p or tan t p ieces i n l a te L a t in , f irm ly a t tr ibutab le t o h im .

We h ave t wo im-

H is c areer i nvo lved

c er ta in ly t wo a nd most p robab ly t hree c oun tr ies ( Br ita in , I re land a nd G au l) , a nd a ny e v idence o f 5 th-cen tury t rave l i s d es irab le . Though P a tr ick ' sm ission i su sua l ly , i fi naccura te ly , d ep ic ted a s t he s tar t o f t he Chr ist ian h istory o f I re land , i tc an b e a rgued t ha t ac lose s tudy o f h is wr i t ings ( and o f wha t c an b e i n ferred f ro m t he m ) t hrows j ust a s much l i gh t o n t he s ta tus o f t he Church i n c on te mporary Br ita in . I fs o , i td oes t h is s evera l g enera t ions e ar l ier t han o ur l ex t ma jor s ource , G i ldas, t he b u lk o f whose work w as p robab ly c o mp i led a nd made p ub l ic i n 5 34 x 5 49 ( Dav ies, 1 968 ;

M i l ler , 1 975b) .

F ina l ly—and Imake

h is p lea o n ly a f ter s evera l y ears o f r ead ing a nd r e-read ing t he r e levan t mas er ia l— i t i s h igh t ime t ha t we l ooked a ga in w i th c are a nd p ers istence a t wha t P a tr ick a ctua lly wrote ( or d id n o t wr ite) ; p ay ing r a ther l ess a t ten t ion t o t he A ngu ist ic a nd s e man t ic s ide , a nd r a ther more , a s t he l a te P ere Gros jean a nd J a mes C arney h ave b o th a lso ur ged , t o a na lyses o f t he s tructure a nd t he c ont ex ts o fb oth Ep isto la a nd C on fess io . I I T he s ources f or Pa tr ick a re v ar ied , a nd must b e c lar if ied .

The f i gure

o f p resen t-day p opu lar my tho logy h as b een c onstruc ted f ro m a l ong s er ies o f L ives, t he o ldest among wh ich—the s o-ca l led Me mo ir b y T frechan , a nd t he L ife b y Mu irchu—were c o mposed , a nd f ro m a s pec i f ica l ly Armagh s tandpo int , nt he p er iod 6 70 x 7 00 ( c f . K enney 1 929, 3 29-334) . S ince t hese were p receded , : fa t a l l , i n s urv iv ing I r ish h ag iography o n ly b y t he p ro to type L ife o f Br ig id b y C og i tosus ( Kenney 1 929, 3 59-60 ) , a nd t hus c orrespond r ough ly t o t he f i rst g roup o f p re-Bedan N or thu mbr ian l i ves ( l isted : T ho mas 1 971, 2 13-4, 2 25-6) , t hey a re i mpor tan t d ocu men ts i n t he mse lves; b u t b o th a re s o me t wo c en tur ies l a ter t han a ny th ing Pa tr ick wro te .

S t i l l e ar l ier , t hough n o t b efore t he l a ter

f th o r e ar liest 7 th c en tur ies, r eferences t o Pa tr ick were i nc luded i n t he v ar ious Anna ls, l ost o r s urv iv ing , t ha t were c rea ted a nd ma in ta ined b y c er ta in ma jor 8 2

monast ic I r ish c hurches, i nc lud ing—fro m 5 63— Iona ( Hughes 1 972 , c h . 4 ; Smy th 1 972 ; e n tr ies c onven ien t ly s e t o u t i n Hanson 1 968 , a pp .1) . T here i s ag ap i n t he r ecord .

I ti s o f c ourse c once ivab le t ha t e n tr ies

r e lat ing t o Pa tr ick ' sc areer a nd d ea th , i nser ted i n ac o mp i la t ion b egun a s e ar ly a s ( ?) 5 60 x 5 90, c ou ld h ave b een g a thered o ra l ly f ro m a man , who h ad k nown a much o lder man , who i n t urn h ad s o me f irst-hand k now ledge o f Pat r ick ; a nd t h is f orms o ne , q ui te f a ir a rgu men t f or a ccep t ing t he l a ter o f t he t wo Pa tr ic ian d ea th-da tes. B u t , L ives a nd a nna l ist ic e n tr ies a s ide , t he s o le p er m issib le s ource f or a ny f resh e nqu iry h as t o b e Pa tr ick ' s own wr i t ings; a nd t hese must b e t he Ep isto la a nd C on fess io , w i thout c er ta in a dd it iona l minor i t e ms ( B ie ler 1 953 , 4 8-54) t ha t h ave b een a t tr ibu ted t o h im . I V When we a pproach t he p rob le m o n t h is s tr ict b as is, we c an a t l east n ow b enef it f ro m t he g row ing i n terest i n t he l ast d ecades o f Ro man Br ita in , p ar t ic u lar ly i nt he N or th , where c urren t a rchaeo logy a nd , p erhaps l ess w ide ly p ubl i c ised , s o me v ery a cute h istor ica l r e-assess men ts, e xpand t he r ange o f p erm issib le i n ferences . O f t he t wo ma in s ources—Pa tr ick ' ss et t ing a nd Pa tr ick ' s d a t ing— the f ormer , a s t he l ess c o mp lex , c an b e t ack led f irst . Wi th in I re land , Pa tr ick ' st raceab le a ct iv i t ies a re v ery much n or ther ly . H is Con fess io men t ions Cg.)a s ing le p lace-name, l i nked t o h is y ou th fu l c apt i v i ty , s i lvam v oc lu t i t he w ood o f F oc lut ', q uae e st p rope mare o cc iden ta le w h ich i s n ear t he w estern s ea ' ( i .e . t he A t lan t ic s hore) . Wi thout r ehearsing a l l t he d eba tes, i tc an b e s a id t ha t af ormer ly w ooded d istr ic t a round K i l la la , c o . Mayo , i s t he most w ide ly a ccep ted i den t if ica t ion .

The c onnect ion w i th

A r magh may r est o n t rad it ion , b u t i ti s t rad i t ion o f av er y e ar ly p er iod a nd t here i s amp le r eason t o c red it i t ; s uch wou ld i nc lude Armagh ' sp rox im ity t o Ema in Machae o r Navan F or t , f ormer s ea t o f t he U l id ian k ingdo m i n n or the ast I re land .

The s a in t ' st hree t rad i t iona l r est ing-p laces ( Sau l, Downpa tr ick

o r Ar magh ) a re a t l east i n t he s ame r eg ion . S ubsequen t , t hough a ga in p robab ly q u i te e ar ly , p lace-na me e v idence ( c f . B owen 1 969, 1 26) ,wou ld l i nk Pa tr ick ' s w ork ma in ly t o t he n or th-east . We a re t o ld t ha t P a tr ick , a s al ad , was t aken c ap t ive f ro m h is f ather ' s v i l lu la . O ne a ssu mes t ha t t h is was s o mewhere s outh o f t he Hadr ian ic f ron t ier ; a nd s ince a rguab ly s o mewhere o pposite t he U lster c oast , west r a ther t han e ast o f t he P enn ines .

T h is v i l lu la , p roper ty o f a man who was s uf f ic ien t ly

c lose t o u rban l i fe t o b e ad ecur io a nd a d eacon , was n ear ( prope )a pl ace ( Conf . 1 )v ico b annave m t aburn iae .

( MS D , Armagh , h as t he v ar ian t r ead ing

hern iae . )T he p rov isiona l p icture i s o f s o me l a te Ro man t own , p robab ly s ea t o f ac iv i tas, i n t he n or th-west ; at own s uppor t ing a l and-own ing c ur ia l c lass, a nd f or t he p rev ious t wo g enera t ions C hr ist ian i ty; a nd i ti s d if f icu lt t o s ee t h is a s o ther t han L uguva l iu m , R o man C ar l is le . The p lace-na me i su sua l ly r e-d iv ided a s / Banna y en ta b urn iae/ , whence t he e ar lier , i fg eograph ica l ly l ess c ogen t , s uggest ion o f t he B annaven ta i n N or than ts ., Wh i lton L odge n ear Daven try . O ne migh t n ow p ropose—w i thou t p re jud ice t o t he e xac t s hade o f mean ing o f t he RB e le men t y en ta ( Jackson , 1 970)—tha t we h ave av icus Banna ( yen ta ) B ern iae, a nd t ha t t h is was a c iv i l 8 3

s et t le men t a t tached t o Banna ; f ur ther , a nd t ha t t he Banna o f t he R udge Cup, Am iens p a tera , a nd ( R IB 1 905 ) t he u ena tores b ann iesses, was t he f or t a t B ird oswa ld , whose n ame h as n ow b een s o i ngen iously r eloca ted ( Hassa l l , 1 976 ; Breeze a nd D obson , 1 974 , a pp . 4 ) . The v i l lu la o f C a lporn ius, p oss ib ly l ike t ha t o f T ac itus ' sG erman c h ief ta in a n a t ive f arm r a ther t han a c onven t iona l RB v i l la—cf . Anna les i v .7 3 :

Iowe t h is i dea t o Ma lco lm T odd—wou ld h ave

l a in i n t he I r th ing v a l ley . We a re c red ib ly c lose t o C ar l is le , a nd t o t he S o lway a s al andfa l l f or I r ish r a iders . I n t he p lace-name, t he d ist inc t ive s uf f ix B ern iae s hou ld b e aR o mano-Br i t ish d istr ictlabe l ; Br it . * bern— 'moun ta in p ass '

?( c f . J ackson 1 953 , 7 01-5) .

N or—as we s ha l l s ee—shou ld a p ost-400 d a te f or t h is g enera l s cene , w ith a d ecur iona te , R o man s choo l ing , a n e stab l ished C hurch , ac oun try e sta te , a nd a we l l-to-do u rban b ackground , n ow n ecessar i ly b e e xc luded . B u t wha t d a te a re we t a lk ing a bout? V F or c en tur ies, d esp i te t he a bsence o f a ny c lear t e mpora l a l lus ions i n P a tr ick ' s wr it ing , t he t rad i t iona l v iew o f h is c hrono logy r ested u pon t wo r ec e ived d a tes ; o ne , a bou t 4 9 2/3 ,f or h is d ea th , a nd a nother , o f 4 32 , f or h is r eturn t o I re land a s ab ishop . i s i pso f ac to

T he f ormer , t he l a test o f a l l Pa tr ic ian d a tes,

t he l east u n l ike ly t o h ave b een t rans m i t ted more o r l ess a ccu-

r a te ly u p t o t ha t s tage when a nna ls were r e trospect ive ly f i l led ; we s ha l l r et urn t o i t . T he o r ig in o f t he 4 32 d a t ing may we l l l i e i n t he mode o f c onstruc t ing a nna ls, a t l east t wo c en tur ies l a ter , t ha t d rew u pon e ar l ier E uropean mater ia l . The C hron ic le o f Prosper o f A qu i ta ine , p ub l ished f ro m R ome a bou t 4 33 , a nd a pparen t ly k nown i n I re land , s ta ted—and t h is c ou ld n o tb e e as i ly s e t a s ide— t ha t i n 4 31, a p erson Pa l lad ius h ad b een s en t a s t he ir f irst b ishop t o t he I r ish b e l ievers i n Chr ist , a nd s en t w ith t he a pprova l o f C e lest ine I , p ope f ro m 4 22 t o 4 32 . P a l lad ius, a member o f t he p apa l c ur ia a nd a d eacon a t Auxerre , wou ld h ave b een k nown t o Prosper , a nd w i thout embark ing o n f u ll d iscussion h ere , t he e v idence c lear ly i mp l ies a n e p iscopa l p ar ty s en t f ro m t he C hurch i n G au l t o e x ist ing C hr ist ians— ma in ly s e t t lers a nd t raders f ro m l a te R oman Br ita in?— in t he D ub l in a nd Wick low a reas o f t he p resen t L e inster . C ha mp ions o f P a tr ick , whose i n terests i nc luded s uppor t f or t he p r i macy o ft he s a in t ' ss upposed o r ig ina l f ounda t ion a t Armagh , were c oncerned t o p lace h is r e turn a s ab ishop a s e ar ly a s p ossib le . f or P a l lad ius, t hen 4 32 was t he n ex t b est y ear ;

I f4 31 h ad b een p re-e mp ted

a nd a ppropr ia te g losses ( o f

P a l lad ius ' sf a i lure , d epar ture , o r u n t ime ly d ea th ) a ppeared .

I ft he p er iod

f ro m 4 32 t o 4 92 ( s ix ty y ears) s ee ms a l ong c areer f or a nyone u n l ike ly t o h ave b een c onsecra ted a s ab ishop b efore t he c anon ica l a ge o f f u l l p r iesthood ( 35) , P a tr ick was l i ke t he p rophe t Moses ( Deut . x xx iv .7 )a ccorded a s pan o f 1 20 y ears, n ea t ly b isec ted . Ac o mp l ica t ion was t he a ppearance o f as econd o bit , h a lf-way b etween t hese d a tes, a round 4 61; t hough a s Hanson ( 1968 ) h as s ugg ested , t h is may mark a ssi m i la t ion t o t he o b it o f a much more w ide ly b lown f i gure , L eo I , p ope f ro m 4 40 t o 4 61, a nd t he p resen t wr iter wou ld j o in o thers i n s pecu la t ing t ha t 4 61 was n o t , o r ig ina l ly , a Pa tr ic ian o b it a t a ll . 8 4

This 'traditional' view, of the career in Ireland from 432 to 492/3, was first seriously challenged in 1905 by the Roman historian J.B. Bury. Bury, who preferred the 461 obit, presented a scheme in which the events of the saint's career, as recorded by Patrick or by his later biographers, were given absolute dates. These were drawn either from the history of the later Roman empire, or less happily from that of early Ireland (as it was then thought to be ascertainable). On this model Patrick, born ln 389 (rejecting the Daventry Bannaventa, but suggesting 'the lower Severn' as a compromise), was captured in 405, supposed date of a great raid on Britain by king Niall Nol Giallach' I Niall of the Nine Hostages'. His escape six years later was in 411; after the short sea-trip, the long walk per desertum (Conf. 19 'through a deserted (countryside)') took place in a Gaul laid waste by the Vandals, 409 x 416. Patrick remained on the Continent, was ordained at Auxerre by a person identified as bishop Amator (d. 418); returned, episcopally, to Ireland in 432, as tradition required; founded the church at Armagh about 444; and died (aged 72, which is a good deal more feasible than 120) in 461. Since 1905, this has (as Binchy (1962) forcefully reminds us) become the new orthodoxy-the 'orthodox' as opposed to the older 'traditional' (i. e., 432 to 492) scheme. If most of Bury's synchronisms can now be overturned, it is only fair to add that Richard Hanson (1968) has argued, elegantly and quite independently of Bury's work, for a very similar dating. Hanson's various premisses about life and language in late Roman Britain have first to be accepted; if some of his readers, like the present writer, are unable to do this, his book is nevertheless a powerful restatement of the orthodox 1905 position. The complexity of the problem was much extended by two separate post­ War works, T. F. 0'Rahilly's The Two Patricks (1957) and James Carney's The Problems of Saint Patrlck (1961). Both scholars, for similar reasons, felt that the orthodox theory had failed to explain the existence of two separate obits. Their solutions are not dissimllar. There were actually two people involved in the Patrician story, and the earlier and older of them was only later to be remembered as 'Patrick' or 'Old Patrick' (senex patricius) after his death in 457 or 461 or whenever. The real Patrick, the bishop who had been a youthful slave and who later returned to Ireland from Britain, roughly at the time of Patrick no. 1's death, himself died in 493 on March 17, St. Patrick's day. 0' Rahilly's choice for the first 'Patrick' was Palladius; Carney' s, a Gaulish bishop called Secundinus, who first appears in the early Annals as a companion of either Patrick (proper) or, more convincingly, of Palladius. The 'Duo-Patrician theory', appearing embarrassingly enough in time for the 1961 Patrician Year, is essentially an attack on the 461 obit, support for that of 493, and thus, if commonsense be our guide, for a Patrician career entirely in the 5th century and a return to Ireland divorced both from 432 and from the largely unconnected (but dated) arrival cf Palladius. Much of Carney's book is a great deal more acute and percipient than has been admitted by his many critics, some of whom seem to have been put off not by what he says, but by the manner of its saying; and by h s elevation of the shadowy and in85

defensible (and unnecessary) Secundinus. This ls not the place to elaborate on the nature of the various 457 x 461 annallstic entries, which-whether connected with Leo I s death or not-contain certain curious features. It ls however time to take the obvious next step. VI

In his tremendous but largely erosive examination of the whole problem (iucluding the tradlti nal, orthodox, and duo-Patrician chronologies 1, Blnchy (1.962) left his readers with an impression that-as he crunched sadly among the broken shards of a century of misdirected effort-he, persona ly, favoured a ' late' Patrick. He did so, with little hope that either alternativt:: could now be wholly established; and with the recondite suggestion that if the archaeo­ log·sts could ever establish (by C14, perhaps ? ) the date at which the Ulldian dynasty finally abandoned their g reat stronghold of Emaln Machae (last exca­ vation, 1961 , unpubl shed), this might offer a terminus for the building of Patrick's first church at Armagh, a few miles away, as a Christian adjunct to the secula seat. Binchy' s rea ism is a corrective to romance. In putting forward now another historical model, at the risk of derision, I choose the one which, 1f su ely obvious, has yet t,o be explored. It is that of a single, late, Patrick from north Britain, whose death£_. 493 may well constitute the sole acceptable date transmitted to posterity; who is therefore not entirely likely to have returned as a bishop as early as 432; and whose life, and work, is contained wlthin the 5th century. It has for some time been recognised that, within limits, a relative chronology can be deduced from Patrick' s writings alone_ Its crux is pro­ bably the publication of his Epistola, assuming (I am certain rightly) that this antedated the Confessio; and if this relative dating is to be anchored to ab­ solute time, the events of Patrick's life in a broadly-agreed sequence must be tested for likelihood again t what we already know of the 5th century, in Britain and abroad. I would proceed a little further here in supposing that, from the Epistola and Confess lo, we can infer the existence of two more documents, now lost, and that any fresh model must also explain the settings of these. Lastly, any student joining the present writer in believing (contra Hanson (1968) and Bieler) that Patrick returned to, was clerically trained in, and was then episcopally sent from his native Britain; further, that (with Christine Mohrmann (1961 )) it is virtually certain that Patrick spent some ti.me in northe ....-n Gaul; must accommodate such facets of the saint's .ue in a hypothesis. If a model on these lines stands up to examination, it ls bound to carry some challenging implications about the Church in sub-Roman Britain. VII

If Patrick did die about 493, one could postulate his birth in the second decade-say 415-elther in Roman Carlis e, or a th paternal va uk some !4 miles eastward. His demonstrable knowle ge o Latin (Mo rmann, 1961 ) points to formal schooling (cf. Jackson, 1953, esp. 96-103), w l ch i eluded, 86

o ru nder lay a l a ter g row th o f , h is a cqua in tancesh ip w i th t he B ib le ; b oth t he V e tus L a t ina t ex t c urren t i n l a te R o man Br ita in ( W i l l iams, 1 912 , e sp . c h . x i i ) a nd J ero me ' sV u lga tethe New T esta men t v ersion o f wh ich a ppeared a f ter 3 83 b u t ( so Hanson , 1 968 , 1 84 ) p robab ly d id n ot c ircu la te a t a l l w ide ly i nB r ita in u n t i l 4 15 x 4 20 .

Pa tr ick ' ss choo ldays s hou ld t hen b e 4 20 x 4 30 .

On t h is d a t ing , i t must b e r eca l led t ha t P a tr ick ' sf a ther , b orn c . 3 90? a nd g rand fa ther , b orn c . 3 60 x 3 65, a nd a p resby ter b y c . 4 00 i fn o t 1 7 ; efore, w ou ld h ave b een members o f aC hr ist ian c o mmun i ty . The p oss ib i l i ty t ha t o ne s uch c ou ld h ave b een f ound i n R o man C ar l is le i n t he l a ter 4 th c en tury h as b een a ired b efore ( Tho mas 1 968 ; T ho mas 1 971, 9 -11; Wacher 1 974, 4 06 f ., 4 21) .

More d if f icu lt i s t he mat ter o f C a lporn ius a s ad ecur io , s ince we s up-

p ose f ro m e xp l ic it c o m men t ( Con f . 1 , In . 1 L )) tha t Pa tr ick ' sf a ther was h o ldi ng s uch a n o f f ice , p resu mab ly a t C uguva l ium , c . 4 15 x 4 30 .

Hanson ( 1968 ,

1 76 ) t hough t t ha t C a lporn ius, a s a me mber o f t he c ur ia l c lass, b eca me a d eacon t o a vo id t he f i nancia l b urden o f t he o b l iga tory p ub lic o f f ices, a nd t ha t 3 88 x 3 95 i s t he l a test p er iod when s uch a n a ct ion wou ld h ave b een p oss ib le , o r mean ing fuL H e a dm i ts ( i b id ., 1 79) t ha t t here i s o f c ourse n o r eason why t h is s hou ld n o t a lso h ave t aken p lace a f ter 4 08 , e ven i ft he p art icu lar mo t ive f or s o d o ing h ad b een r emoved , t hough ' . ..there i s n o e v idence t ha t t he d ec ur iona te c on t inued a f ter t ha t d a te '. D iscuss ion o f t h is impor tan t p o in t i nvo lves a rgu ing e x s i len t io ; b u t e ven i fw e h ad n o c lues o ther t han t he l a ter r epe t it ion o f f orma l Ro man t i t les o n s ome p ost-Ro man i nscr ibed C hr ist ian t o mbstones, we migh t a ssu me ( w i th D av ies, 1 968 , 1 40 ) f ro m G i ldas a lone t ha t t here h ad b een p ar ts o f 5 th-century B r i ta in i n wh ich p ub l ic i o f ak ind c ou ld b e f ound , a nd p resu mab ly i n c on t inu ing p ost-400 u rban c on tex ts .

T he c on t inui ty o ft o wn l i fe i n R o man C ar l is le h as

b een a rgued f ro m r ather l a ter s ources ( c f . T homas 1 968 , 18 ) ;

n ow , h owever,

f or t he 5 th c en tury t he r ecen t e xcava t ions ( M ichae l McCar thy , i n l i t t ., Nove mb er 1 977 ) i mp ly t ha t " substan t ia l masonry b u i ld ings were b e ing e rected a f ter t he r e ign o f G ra t tan" ( c f . Wacher 1 974, 4 07 ) a nd t ha t o ther f inds may i nd ica te o ccupa t ion i n t he l a ter 5 th a nd 6 th c entur ies. T he s tatus-po l it ica l a nd r e l ig ious —o f Luguva l ium w i l l o ccupy u s a ga in b e low . I ts ee ms we must a l low t he p oss ibi lity o f t he o rdo c iv ita t is C arvet ioru m , o r i t s s uccessor , f unct ion ing i n s ome f ash ion a f ter c . 4 00 ; a nd t ha t , f or t h is d istr ict , we c anno t y e t r u le o ut e ven d ecur iones a s l a te a s 4 15 . Pa tr ick ' sc apture o ccurred when ( Con f . 1 ) h e was f ere s edec im

h ard ly

s ix teen ' ,a long w i th t he e ns lave men t o f s o mewha t h yperbo l ic 'many t housands o fp eop le ' . S ince t he a im o f t hese I r ish r a ids f ro m t he 3 rd t o 5 th c en tur ies A .D . c lear ly i nc luded b ooty a s we l l a s s laves, t he f resh e xa mina t ions o f R oman ma ter ia l f ound i n I re land ( Ba teson 1 973 ;

1 976) , w i th t he ir s ign i f icance

i n P a tr ick ' ss tory ( Do l ley 1 976) , a re t ime ly i ndeed .

M ichae l D o l ley r egards

t he o r thodox , B ury , d a te o f 4 05 a s f a l ling w i th in a p hase when

h istor ica l ly,

a rchaeo log ica l ly , a nd n um is ma t ica l ly , t hen , a n a bduct ion o f Pa tr ick ...see ms i mprobable ' . Withou t o pen ing h ere t he q uest ion o f I r ish d ynast ic d a tes, we c an n ote t ha t D o l ley a lso c onsiders 't here i s n o th ing i nheren t ly i mprobab le i n t he s a in t b e ing a bducted a t t he e nd o f t he 4 20s o r i n t he e ar ly 4 30s d ur ing t ha t h eyday o f t he N ia l l N c i ig ia l lach who f igures i n I r ish t rad it ion a s t he a rchs po l ia tor o f Br ita in ' ( 2p .c i t ., 1 89) .

8 7

T he c ap t iv i ty t akes u s f ro m 4 30 t o 4 36 ( Con f . 1 7 , s ex a rm 's) .

Pa tr ick e s-

c aped o n f oo t a nd wa lked f or te ...ducen ta mi l ia p assus ( i f t h is i s r e l iab le , a bou t 1 85 t o 1 90 o f o ur modern mi les) , a nd a p reference f or t he s outh , r a ther t han e ast , c oast o f I re land i s i nd ica ted - s ee Map , F ig . 2 .

The s h ip , manned

b y p agans, t ha t a greed t o g ive h im av oyage r eached t erram .. p ost t r iduu m , a f ter a 3 -day p er iod ; s ure ly t oo l ong f or a c rossing o f t he I r ish S ea , u n less d e layed b y ( me morab ly b ad ) weather , b ut a t a mean s a i l ing s peed o f 3n aut ica l mi les t h is i s a ppropr ia te f or a sma l l v esse l a nd a l and fa l l a t t he n earest p oin t , t he c oast o f n or th-west Br i t tany . T he march o f 2 8 d ays w ith t he c rew ( now s een t o b e t raders ? ) p er d esert um h as b een f u l ly d issected b y C arney ( 1961, 6 2 f . ) . I ti nvo lved a d eserted c oun trys ide, a r oad wh ich t raversed wooded p ar ts , d o mes t ic ( ? ) p igs a nd w i ld h oney , a nd e ventua l ly c iv i l iza t ion a ga in . I f we a re i n c . 4 36, i th appens t hat i n 4 35 x 4 37 t he p rov ince o f Armor ica was i nvo lved i n aw idespread r evo lt a f fect ing G a l l ia u lter ior ( Tho mpson 1 956: 1 50-7 ) .

1 977 , 3 10-11:

C hadw ick 1 969 ,

Aj ourney f ro m L eon , d own t o t he L o ire v a l ley , u s ing i n p ar t t he

R o man r oads, a nd c ross ing t he a f forested s p ine o f Br i t tany ( s t i l l r e la t ive ly u npopu la ted t oday) , migh t e xp la in t h is p ar t icu lar ly L ong March ;

e spec ia lly

i f most o ft he i nhab itan ts were e ngaged i nb e ing b acaudae s o mewhere e l se . T hat P a tr ick t hen s tayed i n wha tever n on-Br i t ish l and h e h ad r eached i s s o c lear ly imp lied b y C on f . 2 3 ( 'And a ga in a f ter a f ew y ears Iwas i n B r ita in w ith my f am i ly ...' )t ha t t he l ayman may we l l wonder why a cres o f p r in t h ave b een d evo ted t o t h is t op ic .

O ther minor a l lus ions p o in t , i fa nywhere , t o Gau l

( h is G a l l iae, C on f . 4 3 : o r G a l li ,

n .

1 4) .

The embro ider ies o f t he l a te 7 th-

c en tury wr iters, a nd much l a ter c o m men ta tors, e x tend t h is t o Ro me , t o L er ins, t he Tyrrhen ian S ea , a nd f or t ha t ma t ter Auxerre . B ut t he t enor o f t he a l lusions, t aken w ith Pa tr ick ' sa ccoun t o f h is g od less y outh a nd h is h arsh c ap t iv ity , a nd Mohr mann i sf irm c onc lusion ( 1962 , 4 5 f . )t ha t a t s o me s tage h e was e xposed t o t he c o l loqu ia l s poken L a t in o f n or thern G au l i n t he 5 th c en tury , a l l g u ide u s i n a ccoun t ing f or t hose p aucos a nnos .

Pa tr ick was i n 4 36 a we l l-born C hr ist ian

R o man c i t izen , f reed f ro m s er fdo m , a b le t o s peak s ome L a t in a s we l l a s Br i t ish a nd I r ish .

G iven t h is p ostu la ted a rr iva l i nn or th-west France , i s i t

n o t c red ib le t ha t h e wou ld s eek f e l low-Chr ist ians i n N an tes, o r Tours , o r e ven A uxerre -where G er manus a nd h is c irc le , a lready i nvo lved i n Br i ta in ( t he v is it o f 4 29) a nd I re land ( Pa l lad ius ' sm iss ion o f 4 31) , migh t e xpress ap art i cu lar c oncern f or h i m? I ft hese f ew y ears ' were l ess t han t he s ix i n c ap t iv i ty - a t most , t hree o r f our - a nd P atr ick were t o h ave r e turned a bou t 4 40 , p ar ts o f t he Br i ta in t o wh ich h e n ow wen tb ack wou ld f i gure p oor ly a s m il ieux i n wh ich s et t led f a mi ly l i fe o n t he Roman mode l c on t inued , t he C hurch p ossessed i n f luence, a nd y oung men m igh t o bta in a f orma l e duca t ion f or t he p r iesthood . O ne wou ld n o t , h owever , d eny t h is t o most o f Wa les ( Dav ies, 1 968 : V ictory , 1 977 : D av ies, 1 978 ) , a nd Ib e l ieve t ha t i t was s t i l l l arge ly t rue o f N or th Br ita in , i n t he s ense o f S co t land b etween t he Wa l ls, C u mbr ia , a nd most o f N or thu mbr ia a nd Y orks h ire . Fro m P a tr ick ' s wr it ings , we g et t he b road s equence o f t he n ex t p hase o f h is l i fe . H e was t ra ined f or t he d iacona te , ag rade h e s hou ld h ave a t ta ined a t t he a ge o f 3 0 ( 9 _ . 4 45) .

D ur ing t h is t ra in ing a nd b efore b eco m ing a d eacon, h e 8 8

F ig . 2 S ke tch map —Pa tr ick 's s et t ing a nd j ourneys

8 9

c on fessed t o my d earest f r iend ' ( am ic iss im i ; a n o lder man ? a p r iest , s p ir itua l i nstructor , o r o ld f am i ly f r iend ? ) as in c o mm it ted i n h is p rec ap t iv i ty b oyhood - p oss ib ly a minor t he f t o f c hurch p roper ty .

The c on fession ,

n ot t he c omm ission , o f t h is s in ( t h is i s a n i mpor tan t p o in t ) f a l ls i n P a tr ick ' s a ge o f 2 5 x3 0 , 4 40 x 4 45 .

He p resu mab ly p rogressed t o t he g rade o fp r iest ,

a t 3 5, a bout 4 50 ? - a nd i n t h is p er iod we c an i n fer , w ith s o me l ike l ihood , t ha t h is f a ther C a lporn ius d ied , a ged a bou t 5 5 x6 0 . P a tr ick i nher ited w hat h e c a l ls n ob i l itas r nea 1 0) , t he r ank a nd p roper ty o f h is f am i ly , w h ich h e s ubsequen t ly s o ld f or t he g ood o f o thers -t ha t i s , t o p rov ide f unds f or t he n ew e p iscopa te i n I re land t o wh ich , d u ly c onsecra ted b ishop , h e r e luctan t ly a greed t o g o .

We s ha l l r eturn , b e low , t o t he i mp lica t ion t ha tb e tween 4 31 ( Pa l lad ius

a nd s o me s uch d ate a s 4 50 , t he r esponsibi l i ty f or p rov id ing a n ew b ishop i n t he a d jo in ing l and h ad p assed , f ro m t he C hurch i n G au l, t o t ha t o f Br i ta in . C hap ters o r s ect ions, a s we n ow h ave t hem n o t a l l c onsecut ive , i nh is C on fess io t e l l u s s o me th ing o f Pa tr ick ' sd i f f icu lt ies i n I re land .

As ab ishop

t ra ined i n t he R o man s yste m o f t err itor ia l d ioceses t ha t h ad emerged i n4 thc entury Br ita in , h e was n ow am id t he d if feren t a nd much more c o mp lex p att ern o f e ar ly h istor ic I re land .

H is a ppropr ia te r e t inue c ons isted o n ly o f a

s low ly-grow ing f am i l ia o fn a t ive I r ish c onver ts, who w ou ld h ave t o b e t augh t, t hrough t he med iu m o f t he ir own l anguage , t o r ec i te a nd t hen t o r ead L a t in . P a tr ick ' st err i tory o f fered n o o bv ious u rbs o r c iv itas f or h is c athedra , i n a n I re land where s uch c oncep ts mean t v ery l i t t le . T he u nqua li f ied g if t , t he a band onmen t o f a ncestra l d iv in i t ies w ith in C e lt ic p o ly the is m , t he f reedom t o t rave l f ro m o ne p et ty r ea lm t o a no ther , were mat ters t ha t -a s h e w ou ld h ave k nown - c ou ld n o t b e t aken f or g ran ted . V I I I T he g rea t t rau ma t ha t marked P a tr ick ' se p iscopa l work c a me o n ly a f ter many y ears .

He l earned t ha t t he mi l ites ( probab ly t he c usto mary C e l t ic war-

b and - M i l ler 1 975a ) o f a Br it ish k ing , C orot icus, h ad r a ided I re land ; a s we l l a s p lunder ing , h ad s la in s o me a nd d ragged away o thers o f ab ody o f I r ish o n ly r ecen t ly b ap t ised b y t he s a in t ; a nd h ad a ctua l ly s o ld t hese u n for tuna te s laves, i nc lud ing wo men , t o a posta t i P ict i a nd t o S cot t i . P a tr ick s en t ap ar ty , h eaded b y o ne o f h is n a t ive c ler ics, w ith a l et ter a sk ing f or t he r eturn o f h is f l ock . Th is r equest was me tw i th j eers .

H e t hen wrote , a nd made p ub lic, h i s

Ep isto la , p ronounc ing wha t amoun ted t o t he e xco mmun ica t ion o f Coro t icus a nd h is g u i lty f o l lowers - p ersons whose s ins were t he g rea ter b ecause ( l ike Pa tr ick ) t hey w ere Br i tons, Ro man c i t izens, a nd n om ina l ly C hr ist ians t he ms e lves . I th as l ong b een s een t ha t t h is e p isode i s o ne o f t he k eys t o Patr ick ' s r e lat ive c hrono logy ; b u t i ti s a n e p isode t ha t p resen ts u s w ith a n u mber o f v ar iab les .

T here were a t l east t wo k ings c a l led C oro t icus ( Ceret ic, C ered ig , )

i n 5 th-century Br ita in .

O ne i n west-cen tra l Wa les, t he e pony m o f C ered ig iaun

o r C ard igan , i sn ot c lose ly d a teab le , a nd i ndeed h is h istor ica l r ea li ty i sb ound u p w ith a ccep tance o r r e jec t ion o f t he who le C unedda s tory . T he o ther k ing , who i s ( geograph ica l ly ) al i t t le more l i ke ly t o h ave b een l i nked w ith r a ids o n t he U lster c oast , w ith P icts, a nd w i th S cot t i ( t he I r ish s et t lers i n Argy l l ) , r u led t he emergen t Br i t ish k ingdo m we c a l l S tra thc lyde , w ith h is s ea t a tA l l 9 0

C lua ide o r Du mbar ton Rock . H is i den t if ica t ion w i th Pa tr ick ' so pponen t h ad a lready o ccurred b y c . 7 00, a c hap ter-head i n t he Armagh t ex t o f Muirchu ' s L ife n am ing h im C o ir t tech r ege m A bo ( 'C k ing o f A i l ' ( C lua ide ) ) . Descendan ts d irec t o r c o l la tera l o ft h is man f igure i n We lsh v ers ions o f p ed igrees o ft he Men o f t he Nor th , w ith o b its o f ac red ib le k ind a nd i n al i ke ly s uccess ion f ro m t he l a te 6 th c en tury .

C orot icus ' s own p osi t ion i n s uch g e-

n ea log ies i s o f c ourse r e la t ive , n ot a bso lu te, b u t t he imp lica t ion o f r ecen t s tud ies i s c lear . T he b est g uess, a nd i t may b e al i t t le more t han t hat , wou ld p lace h is b ir th a t c . 4 40 x 4 50, a nd h is f l oru it t hus a round 4 65 x 4 75 ( M i l ler 1 975a, e sp . 2 61, 2 78 n .1: K irby 1 976, 1 00 ; D u mv i l le 1 977 , 1 76, 1 91) . A n e ar l ier p reference f or a f l oru it a round 4 50 ( e .g . Tho mpson 1 958 , 2 1; H anson 1 968 , 1 01-2 ) may r ef lect a c oncea led c ircu lar o r r ec iproca l d at ing ( o f Coro t icus b y t he 4 32-to-461 mode l o f Pa tr ick , a nd t hen b ack t o Pa tr ick b y t he t hus-da ted C oro t icus - c f . To lstoy 1 962 ) . A C oro t icus o f S tra thc lyde i nt he t h ird q uar ter o f t he 5 th c entury h as much t o r eco m mend h im .

The S cot t i o f t he Ep isto la , who a re p agans, must b e t he

I r ish o f t he n ascen t s e t t le men ts i n western S co t land , p robab ly i n C owa l ( M i l ler 1 975b, 4 3 , n .1) . I f we a re t o a ccep t e ven t he t enta t ive c hrono logy o ft hese c o lon ies ( Bannerman 1 968 , 1 974) , t hen c . 4 75 i s ag ood d ea l more c red ib le t han c . 4 40-450 .

Ic anno t h ere e xp lore t he mat ter o f t he P ic ts who

a re c a l led a posta te , i .e ., who h ad a bandoned a p rev ious Chr ista in c onvers ion , b ecause t h is wou ld r equ ire p ro longed d iscuss ion o f t he who le N in ian ic e p isode ; b u t a ga in Ib e l ieve s uch a postasy wou ld b e d if f icu lt t o c red it a s e ar ly a s t he 4 40s .

4 50 .

We p ostu la ted a bove t ha t Pa tr ick r e turned t o I re land a s ab ishop a bout Pa tr ick s ays t ha t t he n a t ive c ler ic, t he s anctus p resby ter , who m h e

s en t w i th h is f irst missive t o C orot icus was s o meone q uern e go e x i n fan t ia d ocu i

who m It augh t f ro m c h i ldhood '.

A ssu m ing t h is t o mean a t l east a s

e ar ly a s 1 0 t o 1 5 y ears o ld , w e s hou ld c onsider a min imu m o f 2 0 y ears s ince P a tr ick ' sr eturn h ad p assed .

The p resen t h istor ica l mode l c an t hen p rov ide

m in i ma l d a tes o f 4 70 f or t he r a id , a nd 4 71 f or p ub l ic c urrency o f t he Ep isto la . I X The e luc ida t ion o f t he r est o f Pa tr ick ' sc areer d epends a l most e n t ire ly u pon t he C on fessio ; n ot o n ly f ro m i t s e xp l ic it ( and i mp lic i t ) s ta te men ts, b ut t hrough f u l l a na lysis o f i t s s o mewha t co n fus ing c on ten t . Ig ive p rov is iona l c onc lus ions, r eserv ing t he n ecessar i ly l onger d iscussion f or a no ther work ( Tho mas 1 979) . T he C on fessio a ppears t o h ave b een wr it ten o r d icta ted s o me t ime af ter t he Ep isto la ( and i t may b e j ust wor th h in t ing t ha t t he c ur ious p assa ge , Ep . 1 0 , whose e x istence migh t a rgue a ga inst t h is s equence, may h ave b een d isp laced i n t he c ourse o f e ar ly t ex tua l t rans m ission f ro m s o me s uch s e t t ing a s C on f . 2 7-28 ) . Pa tr ick ' s Con fess io c on ta ins p len t ifu l r eference t o s ome e ven t t ha t o ccurred when h e was n o t p resen t ; was n o t h i mse lf i n Br i ta in ; a nd wh ich h e h ad n ot b rough t a bou t ( Con f . 3 2 ) . Add it iona l ly , t h is was a f ter h e h ad b eco me ab ishop ( Con f .2 6) . The e ven t—te mpta t io , d efensio ; we c an c a l l i t 't he A ccusa t ion ' —was i n im ica l t o Pa tr ick ; i th appened i n Br ita in , a nd was a l most c er ta in ly l a ter t han b o th C orot icus ' sr a id a nd t he Ep isto la ;

9 1

a nd t here s eems e very l i ke l ihood t ha t i t was a r epercussion o f Patr ick ' s a ct ion i n p resu m ing t o e xco m mun ica te, f ro m h is I r ish s ee, a Br it ish C hr isti an r u ler . I ft h is were s o , wha t Pa tr ick d id mere ly b rough t t o ah ead a l ong s porad ic c a mpa ign o f r u mours a nd misunderstand ings . T hese ma in ly c oncerned s uch t h ings a s h is mo t ives f or a gree ing t o r eturn t o I re land , s cene o f h is u nh appy y outh fu l e nslave men t ; t he f i nanc ing o f h is w ork , b o th a t t he t ime o f h is d epar ture a nd s ubsequen t ly ; h is own p o l ic ies c oncern ing g i f ts f ro m , a nd p aymen ts t o , t he I r ish ; a nd , worst o f a l l, t he s uggest ions t hat h e migh t h ave u nder taken b ap t is ms f or r ewards, o r ( t he o f fence o f s i mony ) h ave s o ld or d ina t ions. Pa tr ick was t o ld b y c er ta in v isitors, p resumab ly p r iests f rom B r itain ( a l iquan t is f ra tr ibus, C on f . 3 2 ) t ha t t hese c harges a ga inst h i m wou ld b e a ired . T he s et t ing , i tw i l l b e c la i med , c an o n ly h ave b een a n e cc les iast ica l s ynod . I ti s e qua l ly c lear f ro m t he C on fess io ( 2 6-29, 3 2 ) t ha t h e was s ubsequen t ly t o ld wha t t ook p lace a t s uch a p ub l ic g a ther ing .

T he s hock o f t h is n ews i n-

s p ired, t he s a me n igh t , a no ther d iv ine v ision b y way o f ad rea m . T he r e la t ive d a te t ha t n ow emerges, a s ak ind o f c heck o n t he c hrono logy a ssu med e ar lier , p roves t o b e t h ir ty y ears a f ter t he c on fess ion , d ur ing h is t ra in ing f or t he d ioc ana te , o ft ha t y ou thfu l s in ( Con f . 2 7 ) ; f or i t was t h is s ecre t c on fess ion t ha t h ad b een o pen ly b e trayed a t 't he Accusa t ion ' ,b y t he v ery f r iend t o w ho m i t was o r ig ina l ly made . I ft h is c on fess ion h ad b een made , a s s uggested , w ith in 4 40 x 4 45, we s hou ld n ow h ave r eached 4 70 x 4 75; a nd v iew ing t he R a id o f C orot icus, t he Ep isto la , a nd t he A ccusa t ion a s ac ausa t ive s equence , w e c an a ccep t 4 70 x .471 a s ad a te . I ti s a n o bv ious f ur ther a ssu mp t ion t ha t P a tr ick was i nv ited t o r e turn t o Br ita in , a nd t o e xp la in i n p erson h is own c ase ; t o p rov ide a nswers t o as er ies o f q uest ions t ha t may n o t h ave amoun ted t o a ny f orma l c harge , b ut t ha t wou ld c er ta in ly r equ ire h is a t tendance .

He d id n ot r eturn , a nd o n h is own i n ter-

p reta t ion o f G od ' sd es ign f or h im h e c ou ld n ever f ee l f ree t o d o s o ( Con f .43 ) . O n t he o ther h and , h e c an h ard ly h ave om i t ted t o s end b ack , b y t he h ands o f h is v is itors, a ppropr ia te a nswers o r r e futa t ions i nt he f orm o f ad ocument we c an c a l l

t he Rebut ta l '.

The c o mp le te a bsence o f a ny r eference t o f ur ther

p roceed ings i mp l ies t ha t t h is R ebut ta l was c onv inc ing e nough t o s a t isfy t he d om in ica t i r e thor ic i, t he s en iores, i n Br i ta in— the r u l ing b ody o f t he B r it ish c hurch? (C onf . 1 3 , 2 6, 3 7 ) . I f Pa tr ick were i n ap osi t ion t o wr ite ad ocumen t ( i n L a t in ) h e was a lso i n ap os it ion t o make a nd k eep a c opy o f i t ; a nd t o me i ti s c lear t ha t h e d rew o n p rec ise ly s uch a c opy o f t h is n owlost o rig ina l i n t he c o mposi t ion o f h is l a ter C on fessio ( e .g . 2 8 , 3 1, 3 7-38 , 4 3-44 , 4 6, 4 85 5 a nd 6 1) . I ft hese e ven ts t ook p lace when Pa tr ick was i n h is l a te 5 0s, t he C on fess io s ee ms t o b e a work o f h is f i na l y ears ( 1 2 .s enectu te mea C on f . 1 0 ; a n tequa m mor tar , C on f . 6 2) . I ti s n o t u nk ind t o s ay t ha t t he n arra t ive, a s s uch , r a mb les ; Mohrmann ( 1 961) f e lt t ha t i th ad b een d icta ted a nd , d irect q uo ta t ions f ro m t he B ib le a par t , d icta ted i n al anguage wh ich f or many y ears h ad n o t b een i n d a i ly u se . T he L a t in , t o Mohrmann , i s r em in iscen t o f t he c o l loqu ia l s peech Patr ick w ou ld , l ong a go , h ave a cqu ired d ur ing h is f ew y ears i n Gau l . The c los ing o f t he C on fess io i s o ur l ast g l i mpse o f P a tr ick ; a nd i f we s uggest t ha t i t was 9 2

c omp leted c . 4 85 x 4 90 , ag ood t en y ears a f ter t he Accusa t ion a nd Rebut ta l, w e d raw n ear t o h is d ea th i n t he p er iod 4 90 x 4 95 . X Wha t h as b een p resen ted i n s ect ions V II t o I X o f t h is p aper i s ah ypot hes is, c onven t iona l ly e xpressed a s a n h istor ica l mode l—no more . The i nt erna l ly-der ived r e la t ive d a t ing h as i nvo lved s o me f resh , a nd n ecessar i ly c on troversia l, c onc lusions d er ived f ro m P a tr ick ' s own wr i t ings, a nd o n s o me o ft hese p o in ts t here w i l l c on t inue t o b e a l most a s many v iews a s t here a re modern s tuden ts . The e x terna l, a bso lu te d a tes h ere s uggested f or k ey p o in ts — b ir th a nd p aren tage , f irst c ap t iv ity , e scape, t ra in ing , r eturn t o I re land , E p isto la a nd i t s a f terma th—can a t l east b e e xp la ined , g iven r ecourse t o b o th a rchaeo logy a nd e ar ly h istory , w i th a bou t t he s a me d egree o f l i ke l ihood a s i nB ury ' ss che me o f 1 905 ; s o me may t h ink , w i th r a ther more l i ke lihood , s ince o ne d raws o n af ur ther 7 0 y ears o f p roduct ive r esearch . The o u tco me i s

mono-Pa tr ic ian ' ,a s ing le, l a te P a tr ick ; a nd i ndepen-

d en t o f t he t wo Pa tr icks ' p rob le m , s o n o tab ly r ev ived i n 1 957 b y 0 ' Rah i l ly, t hough i n f act g o ing b ack t o av ery much e ar l ier ( 7 th-8 th c en tur ies) p hase , where i ta rose f ro m t he c on fus ing d up l ica t ion o f a nna l ist ic o b its .

I ti s n ow

f ash ionable among C e l t ic ists, f o l low ing B inchy ' s1 962 d e mo l it ion o f a l most a l l p rev ious P a tr ic ian t heor ies, t o p re fer a 'l a te ' Pa tr ick ; a nd s o me s tudents t ake a c rumb o f c o mfor t f ro m B inchy ' sc aut ious ly-expressed p reference f or l a teness ', l arge ly o n t he g rounds t ha t s o many p ersons s a id t o b e d irec t ly a ssoc ia ted w i th Pa tr ick l i ved we l l i n to t he 6 th c en tury .

S uch c o mfor t may

w e l l h owever b e c o ld , i fi tf a i ls t o n ot ice t int B inchy a lso f avoured t he i dea o f a n e scape t o Br ita in , n o t Gau l ; a n e ar ly r a ther t han l a te f l oru i t f or C oro t ic us ; a nd a n a ssess men t o ft he v ery l ow v a luc o f t he Annals, a s as ource f or a ny th ing much b efore 7 00, wh ich s o mewha t d im in ished h is own r easons f or c om ing d own o n t he 'l a teness ' s ide . Wha t n o-one w ou ld d eny i s t he i mpo rt ance o f Pa tr ick ' s wr it ings s i mp ly a s as ource f or 5 th-cen tury I re land . T o s ing le o u t o ne a spect— tha t o f e ar ly I r ish l aw a nd s oc iety— there i s s t i l l amp le r oo m f or i n formed c o m men t o n s uch p assages a s C on f . 3 5

4 2 a nd 4 8-53 . I n s ay ing t h is Imere ly e cho t he t enor o f

t wo l a ter p apers b y B inchy h i mse lf ( 1975, 1 976) , r e in forced b y t he im m inen t a ppearance o f h is o wn mag ister ia l C orpus I ur is H ibern ic i . L ess f requen t ly men t ioned ( t hough c f . B ie ler 1 968 ) i s t he p ossib le r e levance o f P a tr ick ' s wr i t ings t o c on te mporary Br ita in . Ic onc lude b y t urn ing t o t he n ecessary I mp l icat ions . X I The s ecu lar p icture o f Pa tr ick ' sb oyhood i s an or th-west h in ter land o f t he Wa l l where , u p t o 4 30 i fn ot b eyond , aR oman itas t ha t i nc luded ( undefended?) c oun try p roper t ies w i th s ervan ts, c ur ia les, t he u se o f a nd e duca t ion i n f orma l L a t in , a nd a nu rban-con tro l led h ierarch ica l C hurch , c on t inued ( or , more p rob ab ly , h ad b een r esu med a f ter i n term it ten t b reaks) . The a rchaeo logy a pprop r ia te t o t h is s cene h as h ard ly y e t emerged . h owever , h as d ea lt w ith t wo , r e la ted t he mes. 9 3

S o me r ecen t h istor ica l wr it ing , One i s o f p rec ise ly t h is manner

o f c on t inu ity , at rue s ub-Ro man n or th , l a ter e ven t han t he c .400 o ccupa t ion n ow a rgued f or Raveng lass ( Br i tann ia VI I ( 1977 ) , 3 78)for i nstance , a s imp l ied b y M i l ler ( 1975c ; 1 975d ) a nd Tho mpson ( 1977 ) . The o ther c onst i tu tes an ew emphas is o n t he r o le o f t he s urv iv ing Br it ish ( or Ro mano-Br it ish )—as o pposed t o , s ay , Nor thu mbr ian Ang les— in s hap ing t he l a ter , p re-Dan ish Nor th o therw ise k nown t o u s f ro m t he f irst h istor ica l s ources ( Jackson , 1 963 ; J ones, 1 976 ; B idd le , 1 976 ; F au l l, 1 977 ;

G e l l ing , 1 978 , c h . 4 ;

F e l lows J ensen , 1 978 ) .

H igham , 1 978 ; •

T he s uppos it ion t ha t i t was a round 4 40 when P a tr ick , a f ter t he p aucos a nnos i n G au l, r eturned t o h is h o me d istr ict a lso r equ ires t ha t h e c ou ld t hen f ind a s oc iety a b le t o s upp ly c ler ica l t ra in ing— th is i s o n a ny mode l f ar t oo e ar ly t o a dduce monast ic c en tres—and o ne w i th in wh ich h e c ou ld b o th i nher it , a nd r ea l ise t he v a lue o f , a n e sta te , i n t he f ra me o f p ub l ic ly- main ta ined l aw a nd c usto m .

I ft h is i s t o t ake s ub-Ro man l i fe i n s o mewhere l i ke Car l is le a

d ecade o r s o l a ter t han most p eop le wou ld n ow p ostu la te, i tu nder l ines t he s pec if ic c ha l lenge wh ich p ro toh istor ic a rchaeo logy f aces . I n t he e cc les iast ica l s phere , Pa tr ick , i ti s t rue , om its—perhaps a s k nown f acts t o h is p u tat ive r eaders—any d e ta i l o f t he c ircu mstances u nder wh ich h e was c onsecra ted ab ishop , a nd d espa tched t o I re land .

Aga in , P a t-

r ick ' s wr it ings c anno t n ega te t he i dea t ha t , e ven i f. Pa l lad ius i n 4 31 d ropped d ead u pon a rr iva l, a ssoc ia tes o f Pa l lad ius, a nd t he ir r ep lace men ts, c on t inued t o m in ister s o mewhere e lse i n I re land , p ossib ly t hroughou t Pa tr ick ' sl i fet i me . I th as b een s uggested , i fw ithout v ery much f orce , t ha t C on f . 5 1 o b l ique ly r efers t o Chr ist ian workers i n I re land o ther t han t he s a in t .

Wha t d oes h owever

s ee m t o b e a n i nescapab le c onc lusion i s t ha t , i f Pa l lad ius was n ot s en t f ro m Br i ta in a nd was r espons ib le e i ther t o a Gau l ish me tropo l itan o r t o Rome d ir ect ly , Pa tr ick ' s own m iss ion was o f Br i t ish o r ig in ; a nd t ha t , a t l east a s l a te a s t he Ra id-Ep isto la-Accusa t ion s equence, was s ubord ina te t o c hurch a uthor i ty i n Br ita in . Those Pa tr ic ian s cho lars ( by n o means a l l) who a gree w ith s uch a n i nf erence h ave ofered v ar ious r easons f or i t .

Ma in tenance o f C hr ist ian o r tho-

d oxy ( i n t he s ense o f f reedo m f ro m t he t a in ts o f P e lag ian is m ) s ee ms l e ss p rob ab le t han p ract ica l c ons idera t ions o f t he t ime ; a nd a s l a te a s 4 48 G ermanus, o n h is s econd v is it t o Br ita in , may h ave h ad t o r oo t o ut l urk ing h ere t ics ( so Morr is 1 973 , 3 46-7 ) . I fa n o rgan ised C hurch s urv ived f ro m Ro man t imes i n Wa les a nd t he Nor th ( a s o pposed t o much o f t he s ou th a nd e ast ) , we a re e nt i t led t o s uppose t ha t i t wou ld h ave ma in ta ined s ome c on tact w ith t he C hurch i n t he Western Emp ire , e ven i f we c anno t d e monstra te i t s e x ten t . T he mechan is ms o f a ny s uch c on tact a re i ncreasing ly b e ing d e l inea ted b y a rchaeo logy a nd e p igraphy , a s we l l a s h istor ica l i nference ; t hey s hou ld h ave i nvo lved a c onstan t t raf f ic o f sma l l-sca le , p assenger-carry ing t rad ing s h ips, p rec ise ly l i ke t ha t i n wh ich Pa tr ick e scaped . T he t ransfer o f r espons ib i l i ty f or Chr ist ian a f fairs i n I re land , i fi t t ook p lace a nywhere b e tween 4 31 a nd 4 61, f e l l most p robab ly w ith in t he p ap acy o f L eo I (4 40-461) ; a nd s uch a move i s i n a ccord w ith what we k now o f h is .p o l ic ies ( c f . J a l land , 1 941; S tockme ier , 1 949 ) . I ti s i nconce ivab le t ha t L eo wou ld h ave k nown o f t he r e mo te Pa tr ick b y n ame ( con tra _ Morr is, 1 966, 3 64-5) ; b ut c an o ne g uess t ha t t he e lder ly G ermanus c onveyed t he n ecessary

9 4

p apa l d irect ive o n h is s econd v is it i n t he s u m mer o f 4 48 ( Tho mpson 1 977 , 3 11 n . 3 5) , a nd e ven , r enew ing a n e ar l ier a cqua in tancesh ip w i th P a tr ick , a dv ised h is c onsecra t ion? More s tr ik ing i s t he i n ference t ha t , i n 4 48 x 4 50 , ap roper ly-governed Br i t ish c hurch was a b le t o r ece ive a nd c arry o ut a ny s uch i nstruct ion . The a f terma th o f t he Ra id a nd t he Ep isto la , h ypo thes ised e ar l ier , was e xam ined b y B inchy ( 1 962 , 9 0-95) . Most s tuden ts a gree t ha t s uch a n e cc les iast ica l mee t ing d id o ccur , a nd i fs o, t ha t i t was a f orma l s ynod—a p rov inc ia l c ounc i l o fb ishops a nd o ther c lergy , c onvened f or d octr ina l o r d isc ip l in ary p urposes.

T he ma in a rea o f d ispute c overs i t s d a te ; a nd t here a re

t hose who wou ld s ee i ta s e ven p reced ing P a tr ick ' s miss ion .

C arney ( 1961,

9 5) t hough t , a s t he p resen t wr iter d oes, t ha t i tt ook p lace l ong a f ter Pa tr ick h ad r eturned t o I re land ; t ha t Pa tr ick was c ensured a nd p oss ib ly ( t hey ) made a n e f for t t o r eca l l h im '.

B inchy makes t he p o in t t ha t i n c on te mporary C anon

L aw a b ishop migh tb e c ensured , o r d eposed , o n ly b y t he me tropo l itan o f h is p rov ince, a ct ing i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he o ther b ishops . S ince we a re d iscuss ing a mode l t ha t p laces t h is a bou t 4 71, we c an a dd t ha t t he l a te J ohn Morr is—who f avoured a n

e ar ly ' Pa tr ick—was empha t ic o n

h is own v iew o f 5 th-century Br it ian t ha t i t wou ld b e

n ex t t o imposs ib le ' f or

t he Br it ish C hurch , c la im ing s p ir itua l s uper ior ity o ver I re land , t o h ave me t t o a ssert a ny s uch c la im

a f ter t he d isasters o f t he l a te 4 50s ' ,a nd t ha t i t

w ou ld b e u n l ike ly e ven a d ecade b efore ( Morr is 1 966, 3 63 ) . Aga inst t h is v iew s tand t he r ecords, u n loca ted b ut r eferr ing t o t he Br i t ish i n e i ther Wa les o r t he N or th , o f c anons a greed a t j ust s uch s ynods ( e .g . o f ' Nor th B r i ta in ' , . a nd

The Grove o f V ic tory ' ) ,p robab ly i n t he 6 th c entury ( Haddam & S tubbs,

1 871, I . 1 16f f ; B ie ler 1 963 , 6 6) ; t he p icture o f t he C hurch a f forded b y G i ldas ; a nd s t i l l l a ter Bede ' s men t ion o f t he v ar ious mee t ings h e ld ( 602 x 6 03 ) s o mewhere i n t he west TE. _1 .2 ) . I ft he Church c on t inued a t a l l b eyond t he a dvance o f e ar ly Eng l ish s et t lemen t—and t he e v idence f avours t he i dea—one c anno t d eny i tt he l ike l ihood o f f orma l c onven t ions. The q uest ion o f a Br it ish me tropo l itan i n t he l a ter 5 th c en tury—B inchy ' s o b jec t ion t o e ven a c .450 d a te f or s uch a s ynod— is b ound u p w i th a no ther q uest i on ; t hat o ft he a rrange men t o f f i ve p rov inc iae i n t he l a te 4 th c en tury c iv i l d iocese o f Br itann ia , a nd t he e cc les iast ica l r ef lect ion t hereof . With t he p ost3 69 a dd it ion o f Va len t ia , o ur p icture h as t o a cco m moda te f i ve d iv is ions . Br i tann ia Pr i ma ( Wa les a nd t he West ) , Br itann ia S ecunda ( approx i ma te ly t he E ast M id lands a nd L inco ln ) , a nd Max ima C aesar iens is ( t he S outh-east a nd East Ang lia ) , a re b road ly a greed .

The r e ma in ing N or th , p rev ious ly F lav ia

C aesar iens is, was d iv ided ; a nd i fo ne f o l lows h ere, e .g ., Hassa l l ( 1 976 , 1 09 ) , Va len t ia

w ith i t s c en tre a t York , n ow c o mpr ised most o f t he Nor th , t he n ew

F lav ia Caesar iens is b e ing a r educed a nd l ess i mpor tan t p rov ince, p oss ib ly w i th C ar l is le a nd t he c iv itas C arve t ioru m , a nd l i t t le more .

O f t he f i rst t hree

p rov inces n amed a bove , t he c ap ita ls were p robab ly C irencester , L ondon a nd L inco ln . T he n ames o f t he Br it ish c lergy a t tend ing t he C ounc i l o f Ar les i n 3 14 ( Mann 1 961) r epresen t t he b ishops o f t he f our , p re-369, p rov inc ia l s ea ts . A f ter t he Counc il o f N icaea ( 325) , we f ind t he r ise o f metropo l itans—b ishops e xerc is ing f u l l p rov inc ia l, a nd n o t mere ly l oca l d iocesan , p owers . 9 5

I fb y t he

3 70s Br itann ia h ad s o me 2 0 t o 3 0 b ishops, whose s ea ts c orresponded t o c iv itas c ap ita ls a nd t he c o lon iae , o ne c an s uppose , a t t he l east , c ircumstances g iv ing r ise t o t wo me tropo l itans ( f or t he o ld b ipar t i te S uper ior a nd I n fer ior ) a nd c once ivab ly f our .

By t he s econd q uar ter o f t he 5 th c en tury, when i ti s

l i ke ly t ha t t he f ormer a rrange men t o f p rov inc iae h ad b een a bandoned , a nd t ha t t he c iv i ta tes h ad a lready g iven way t o ad if feren t p at tern o f n a t ive p r inc ipa l it i es, o ne e nv isages a r educed e cc les iast ica l s tructure . B ishops we c an a l low ; t he e v idence f or t he m , i fs ke tchy , a rgues f or c on t inu i ty o f s uch o f f ices, n otab ly i n Wa les . My g uess wou ld b e t ha t , t he s pec ia l a nd myster ious c ase o f L ond in iu m a side , t he most l i ke ly s ea t f or a s ing le 5 th-cen tury metropo l i tan o f t he Br it ish C hurch wou ld h ave b een York . T h is ( t o l eap f orward a c en tury a nd a h a lf ) i s ab e l ief a lso f ed b y t he c orrespondence b e tween Gregory t he Grea t a nd August ine, t he L ibe l lus R esp onsionu m t ha t we k now f ro m Bede ( HE 1 .2 7 ) . A ugust ine , i n tended a s t he n ew me tropo l itan o f Eng land , h ad b een c onsecra ted a rchb ishop a t Ar les ( and t here i s n o r eason t o t h ink t ha t a ny p rev ious Br i t ish metropo l itan h as e ven b een g ran ted t h is r ank , t hen a d ist inct ion u n l ike ly t o b e a ccorded t o s o sma l l a nd d istan t as ee ) .

August ine , p laced b y t he p ope o ver Br it tan iaru m omnes

e p iscop i, was i nstructed t o s end a b ishop a d E buracu m c iu i ta te m, t o Y ork ; ab ishop who wou ld i n h is t urn c onsecra te t we lve f ur ther n or thern b ishops a nd e n joy t he r ank o f me tropo l itanus . T he f uture r e la t ive r ank ing o f t he met ropo l i tan o f f ices o f York , a nd L ondon ( f or Gregory i n tended August ine ' ss ee t o b e t here , r a ther t han a t C an terbury ) , wou ld b e d e term ined b y t he s en ior ity o f t he ir h o lders . Whe ther o r n ot t h is s uggests s o me k now ledge , a t Ro me , o f af ormer me tropo l itansh ip a t York , t oo impor tan t t o b e o ver looked , York ' ss pec ia l e cc les iast ica l s ta tus f ormed , a s Er ic J ohn ( 1970) h as s hown , p ar t o f as pec i f ic t rad it ion t aken o ver b y t he c onver ted N or thumbr ians. I t migh t i ndeed b e g uessed t ha t s ub-Ro man a nd l a ter b ishops o f D e ira , r u l ing o ver f i rst a Br it ish , a nd t hen a m ixed , p opu la t ion , h ad c la i med s uch a t i t le a nd s ta tus t hrough t he 5 th c en tury a nd i n to t he 6 th . H ere, i fa nywhere i n Br ita in , we c an b eg in t o i mag ine a s ynod i n 4 71; a s ynod wh ich was c oncerned w i th Pa tr ick ' s miss ion , a nd wh ich c ou ld ( but d id n o t ) r eca l l a nd d epose h im . X I I I s t h is r econstruct ion o f a Br it ish C hurch , i nt he l a ter p ar t o ft he 5 th c en tury , r e mote ly f eas ib le?

I n ap re l im inary f ash ion , ac au t ious d is tr ibu-

t i on- map (F ig . 3 )s uppor ts i t . I tc overs e v idence c urren t ly t hough t t ob e r e levan t t o t h is p hase—a p er iod when , i ft he Br i t ish k ingdo ms o r s ta tes o f *Bernacc ia a nd *De ir ( Jackson , 1 953 , 7 01, 4 20 ) , w ere s tar t ing t o f a l l t o Ang l ian h ands, t hose emerg ing a s E lme t ( c f . J ones, 1 975) , Rheged a nd t he k ingdo ms o f s outhern S co t land were n o t , a nd were n om ina l ly Chr ist ians ; a s were p resu mab ly t he f i ve f ur ther s ou th a nd wes t whose r u lers, t wo g ener a t ions l a ter , a t tracted G i ldas ' sc o m men t . The p lace-na mes i n E cc les ' , s i mp lex o r c o mpound ( Cameron 1 968 , 1 975, 6 -7 ; F e l lows J ensen , 1 977 ; G e l l ing , 1 978 , 8 3f f . ) ,a re o f p ecu l iar i n terest , a nd a re t hough t t o i nd ica te p o in ts where t he s t i l l p agan Ang lo-Saxons, e ncoun ter ing Br it ish Chr ist ian i ty a nd a l lo t t ing t he ir own a ppropr ia te p lace-names, b orrowed a Pr im it ive We lsh 9 6

F ig . 3

The b ackground t o s ub-Ro man B r i t ish C hr is t ian i ty ; s y mbo ls a re ( 1 ) R -B C hr is t ian e v idence , ( 2 ) p ar t o r n ear-co mp le te s urv iva l o f R -B p lace-names ( a f ter H ogg a nd G e l l ing ) , p ound E cc les p lace-na mes .

( 3 ) s i mp le o r c o rn-

T he l ine s hows a pprox . l im i t o f

Eng l ish s e t t le men t , c irca 5 00

9 7

word ( *egf es) .

Though s uch b orrow ings a re p resu mab ly l a te 6 th a nd 7 t h

c en tury i n most c ases—and t hough t he p resen t wr i ter s uspects t hat B r i t ish L a t in e cc lesia mean t 'a Chr ist ian c o m mun ity ' a nd n ot

ac hurch b u i ld ing '

( ? d om in icu m )— the i n ference s tands, p ar t icu lar ly f or t hose i n E l me t , wh ich may b e f a ir ly e ar ly i nstances ( c f . J ones, 1 976) . T en ta t ive a s a l l t h is may s ee m , we c annot a f ford t o i gnore t he p ossib il i ty t ha t P a tr ick ' sC on fess io c on ta ins—and t h is h o lds g ood , wh ichever c hron o log ica l mode l o ne a pp l ies—so me o f o ur o n ly a l lusions t o e cc lesiast ica l g overn men t i n Br ita in b etween t he a ge o f H onor ius a nd t he g enerat ion o f G i ldas . FOOTNOTE T he s ubstance o f t h is e ssay was g iven a s ap aper t o as pecia l is t s e min ar a t t he Un iversi ty o f N ot t ingham i n May 1 978 , a s t he wr i ter ' st r ibu te t o t he r e t ir ing Professor o f C lassics, Edward Tho mpson , F .B .A .

Iam g rate-

f u l t o Ma lco lm T odd , who o rgan ised t he s e minar , f or h is r eady p erm ission t o r eproduce t he e xpanded t ex t h ere ;

a nd a lso t o J ohn Casey , f or s o k ind ly

i nv i t ing me t o c on tr ibu te t o t he p roceed ings o f aC on ference wh ich , t o my r egret , Iwas u nab le t o a t tend .

B IBL IOGRAPHY I S t . Pa tr ick ' s wr it ings T he f u l lest s tudy o f t he s urv iv ing MSS a nd t ex tua l t rans m ission i s B ie ler , L ., C od ices Pa tr ic iana L a t in i ( Dub l in : D ub l in I nst . f or Adv . S tud ., 1 942 ) .

The s tandard t ex tua l v ers ions a re ( 3 ) Wh ite , Newport J .D ., 'L ibr i

S anc t i Pa tr ic i i— the L a t in wr it ings o f S a in t Pa tr ick ' ,Proc . Roy .I r ish A cad ., 2 5 C 7( 1905) , r epr in ted e n larged a s L ibr i Sanct i Pa tr ic ii . t ings o f S t . Pa tr ick ( London :

The La t in Wr i-

S .P .C . K ., 1 918—"Tex ts f or S tuden ts, n o .4") ,

a nd ( b ) B ie ler , L ., L ibr i Ep isto laru m S anct i Pa tr ic i i Ep iscop i ( Dub l in : S tat i onery O f f ice, 1 952 , 2v o ls., a r epr in t f ro m C lassica e t Med iaeva l ia , X I I ( 1957 ) ) .

Eng l ish t rans la t ions a re : Wh i te, N ewpor t , A Trans la t ion o f t he

L a t in Wr it ings o f S t . Pa tr ick ( London : S .P .C . K ., 1 918 ) , a nd B ie ler , L ., The Works o f S t . Pa tr ick ( West m inster , Md ., a nd L ondon : C hr is t ian Wr i ters , v o l . 1 7 ) .

1 953, Anc ien t

H ood , A . B . E ., S t . P a tr ick - H is Wr i t ings

a nd Mu irchu 's L i fe ( Ph i l l i more , 1 978 ) , c onven ien t ly w i th t ex ts , l i tera l t ransl a t ions , a nd I n troduc t ion b y t he l a te J ohn Morr is .

The u se fu l n u mber ing o f

t he C on fess io c hap ters o r s ec t ions i s ar ecen t i n troduc t ion . I R eferences B annerman , J ohn W., 'T he D ä l R ia ta a nd Nor thern I re land i n t he 6 th a nd 7 th c entur ies ' ,i n C arney , J ., & Greene , D ., e ds ., Ce lt ic S tud ies—essays i n me mory o f Angus Ma theson ( 1968 ) , 1 -11 Bannerman , J ohn W., S tud ies i n t he H istory o f Da lr iada ( Ed inburgh & L ondon , 1 974) B a teson , J .D ., Ro man Ma ter ia l f ro m I re land : R oy . I r ish A cad ., 7 3 C ( 1973 ) , 2 1-97

9 8

ar e-considera t ion ', P roc .

B a teson , J .D .,

F ur ther F inds o f Ro man Ma ter ia l f ro m I re land ', Proc . Roy .

I r ish Acad ., 7 6 C ( 1976) , 1 71-180 B idd le, M .,

The a rchaeo logy o f t he Church—a w iden ing h or izon ' ,i n :

Morr is,

R . & Addy man , P .V ., e ds ., The Archaeo log ica l S tudy o f Churches ( CBA, Res . R ep . 1 3 , 1 976) B ie ler , L udw ig , The Works o f S t . Pa tr ick ( 'Anc ien t Chr ist ian Wr iters, 1 7 : West m inster , Md ., & L ondon , 1 953 ) B ie ler , L udw ig , The I r ish P en iten t ia ls

( Scr ip tores L at in i H ibern iae , 5 :

Dub l in , 1 963 ) B ie ler , L udw ig ,

S t . Pa tr ick a nd t he Br i t ish Church ', i n : Bar ley , M . W.

& Hanson , R ., e ds ., Chr ist ian ity i n Br ita in 3 00-700 ( Le icester , 1 968 ) 7 5-86 B inchy, D .A .

Pa tr ick a nd h is b iogrT oh ers, a nc ien t a nd modern ', S tud ia

H ibern ica , 2( 1962 ) , 7 -123 B inchy , D .A .,

I r ish H istory a nd I r ish L aws ', S tud ia H ibern ica, 1 5 ( 1975) ,

7 -36 a nd 1 6 ( 1976) , 7 -45 . B owen , E .G . ,S a in ts S e t t le men ts a nd S eaways i n t he Ce lt ic L ands ( Card if f , 1 969) B reeze, Dav id J ., & Dobson , Br ian , Hadr ian ' s Wa l l ( 1976) B ur y, J .B ., The L ife o f S t . Pa tr ick a nd H is P lace i n H istory ( 1905) C ameron , K enne th ,

E cc les i n Eng l ish P lace-Na mes ', i n Bar ley, M .W . ,&

Hanson , R ., e ds ., Chr ist ian ity i n Br i ta in 3 00-700 ( Le icester , 1 968 ) 8 7-92 C ameron , Kenneth , e d ., P lace-Na me Ev idence f or Ang lo-Saxon I nvasion a nd S cand inav ian S e t t le men ts ( Eng l ish P -N S oc ., 1 975) C arney , J a mes, The Prob le m o f S a in t Pa tr ick ( Dub lin , 1 961) C hadw ick , N ora K ., E ar ly Br it tany ( Card i f f , 1 969) D av ies, Wi l l ia m H .,

The Church i n Wa les ', i n Bar ley , M . W. & Hanson ,R .,

e ds . ,Chr ist ian i ty i n Br ita in 3 00-700 ( Le icester , 1 968 ) , 1 31-150 D av ies, Wendy , An E ar ly We lsh M icrocos m—Stud ies i n t he L lan .daf f Char ters ( Roy . H ist . S oc ., L ondon , 1 978 ) D o l ley, M ichae l, 'Roman Co ins f ro m I re land a nd t he Da te o f S t . P a tr ick ', Proc . Roy . I r ish Acad ., 7 6 C ( 1976) , 1 81-190 D umv i l le, D .N . , 'S ub-Ro man Br ita in—H istory a nd L egend ', H istory , 6 2 ( 1977 ) , 1 73-192 F au l l, Margare t , 'Br i t ish S urv iva l i n Ang lo-Saxon Nor thun a l Dr ia ', i n L a ing , L ., e d ., S tud ies i n C e l t ic S urv iva l ( B .A .R . 3 7 , 1 977 ) , 1 -56 F e l lows J ensen , G ., P lace-Na mes a nd S e t t le men t H istory : A Rev iew ' , Nor thern H istory , 1 3 ( 1977 ) , 1 -26

9 9

F e l lows J ensen , G .,

P lace-Na mes a nd S et t le men t i n t he Nor th R id ing o f

Yorksh ire ' ,Nor thern H istory , 1 4 ( 1978 ) , 1 9-146 G e l l ing , Margare t , S ignposts t o t he Past—P lace-na mes a nd t he H istory o f Eng land ( 1978) Haddan , A .W . &S tubbs, W., Counc i ls a nd Ecc lesiast ica l Docu men ts r e lat ing t o G rea t Br i ta in a nd I re land ( 3v o ls., 1 869-1871) Hanson , R .P .C . ,S a in t Pa tr ick—H is Or ig ins a nd C areer ( Word, 1 968 ) Hassa l l, Mark ,

Br i ta in i n t he No t it ia ', i n G oodburn , R . & Bartho lomew , P .,

e ds ., Aspects o f t he No t it ia D ign ita tu m ( B .A .R . S .15, 1 976) , 1 03-11 8 H igha m , N ., 'C on t inu i ty S tud ies i n t he F irst M i l len iu m A .D . i n Nor th Cu mbr ia ' Nor thern S tud ies, 1 4 ( 1978 ) , 1 -18 Hughes, K a th leen , Ear ly Chr ist ian I re land :

I n troduct ion t o t he S ources ( 19 7 2 )

J ackson , K enne th , L anguage a nd H istory i n Ear ly Br i ta in ( Ed inburgh , 1 953) J ackson , K enne th , 'Ang les a nd Br i tons i n Nor thu mbr ia a nd C u mbr ia ', i n : L ew is, Henry , e d ., Ang les a nd Br itons - 0 ' Donne l l L ectures ( Card if f , 1 963 ) , 6 9-84 . J ackson , K enne th , 'Ro mano-Br it ish Na mes i n t he An ton ine I t inerary ', Br itann ia , 1( 1970) , 6 2-82 . J a l land , T .G . ,The L ife a nd T i mes o f S t L eo t he Grea t ( S .P .C .K . ,1 941) . J ohn , Er ic, 'The S oc ia l a nd P o l i t ica l Prob le ms o f t he Ear ly Eng l ish C hurch ', i n :

L and , Church a nd P eop le - E ssays Presen ted t o Professor H .P .R .

F inberg ( ed . Th irsk , J oan ) , Agr ic . H ist . R ev ., 1 8 , S upp le men t ( 19 7 0) , 3 9-63 . J ones, G .R .J . , 'Ear ly Terr i tor ia l Organ isa t ion i n E l mer a nd Gwynedd ', Nor thern H istory , 1 0 ( 1975) , 3 -27 . J ones, G .R .J ., 'H istor ica l G eography a nd O ur L anded Her itage ', U n iv . o f L eeds Rev iew , 1 9 ( 1976) , 5 3-78 . K enney , J a mes, F ., The S ources f or t he Ear ly H istory o f I re land : I , E cc les iast ica l ( New York , 1 929) . K irby , D .P . ,' Br it ish Dynast ic H istory i n t he P re-V ik ing Per iod ', B u l l . Board Ce lt . S tud ., 2 7 ( 1976) , 8 1-/13 . Mann , J .C .,

The a dm in istra t ion o f Ro man Br ita in ', An t iqu ity, 3 5 , ( 1961) ,

3 16-320 . M i l ler , M ., 'H istor ic ity a nd t he Ped igrees o f t he N or thcoun try men ', Bu l l. B oard C e l t . S tud . ,2 6 ( 1975) , 2 55-280 ( = M i l ler 1 975a ) M i l ler , M ., 'Re la t ive a nd Abso lute Pub lica t ion Da tes o f G i ldas ' sD e Excid io i n Med ieva l S cho larsh ip ' ,Bu l l . Board C e l t . S tud ., 2 6 ( 19 7 5) , 1 69-1 7 4 ( = M i l ler 1 975b) . M i l ler , M ., 'S t i l icho ' sP ic t ish War ' ,Br itann ia , 6( 1975) , 1 41-150 ( = Mil ler 1 975c) .

1 00

M i l ler , M ., 'Bede ' sU se o f G i ldas ' ,Eng . H ist . Rev ., . 9 1 ( 1975) , 2 41-261 ( = M i l ler 1 975d ) . Mohrmann , Chr ist ine , The L a t in o f S a in t Pa tr ick ( Dub l in , 1 961) . Morr is, J ohn , 'The D a tes o f t he C e lt ic S a in ts ' ,J ourn . Theo log ica l S tud ., I I. ( 1966) , 3 42-391 . Morr is, J ohn , The Age o f Ar thur ( 1973 ) . 0 ' Rah i l ly , T .F ., The Two Pa tr icks .

A L ecture o n t he H istory o f Chr ist ian ity

i n F if th-Cen tury I re land ( Dub l in , 1 957 ) . Smy th , A .P ., 'The Ear l iest I r ish Anna ls ', Proc . Roy . I r ish Acad ., 7 2 C ( 1972 ) , 1 -48 . S tock me ier , P ., L eo Id es Grossen Beur te i lung d er k a iser l ichen Re l ig ionsp o l it ik ( Mun ich , 1 959) . T ho mas, Char les, 'T he Ev idence f ro m Nor th Br ita in ', i n : Bar ley , M . W ., & Hanson , R ., e ds ., Chr ist ian i ty i n Br ita in 3 00-700 ( Le icester , 1 968 ) , 9 3-122 . T ho mas, Char les, The Ear ly Chr ist ian Archaeo logy o f Nor th Br ita in ( 1971) . T ho mas, Char les, C hr ist ian i ty i n Ro man a nd S ub-Ro man Br ita in t o A .D . 5 00 ( f or thco m ing , 1 979) . T ho mpson , E .A .,

Z os i mus o n t he End o f Ro man Br ita in ', An t iqu ity ,

2

( 1956) , 1 63-167 . T ho mpson , E .A ., 'T he Or ig ins o f Chr ist ian ity i n S co t land ' ,S cot . H ist . Rev ., 3 7 ( 1958 ) , 1 7-22 . T ho mpson , E .A ., 'Br i ta in A .D . 4 06-410 ' ,Br i tann ia , 8( 1977 ) , 3 03-318 . T o lstoy , N .,

Who was C orot icus? ' I r ish Ecc les. Record , 9 7 ( 1962 ) , 1 37-147 .

V ic tory , S ian , The C e lt ic Church i n Wa les ( S .P .C .K ., 1 977) . Wacher , J .S ., The T owns o f Ro man Br i ta in ( 1974) . W i l l ia ms, Hugh , Chr ist ian i ty i n Ear ly Br ita in ( Oxford , 1 912 ) .

1 01

RO MANO-SAXON POTTERY : AN ALTERNAT IVE I NTERPRETATION b y J ohn G i l la m

Imust a dm i t s tra igh t away t ha t t h is p aper i s n ot , a nd was n ever i n tended t ob e, a r e-survey o f Ro mano-Saxon p o t tery . T o e x tend t he r ange o f p ub l ished s pec i mens, a nd s ubsequen t ly t o s tudy t he e n larged mass o f e v idence, a re t asks w h ich Il eave t o o thers . Ih ave worked f ro m a ccess ib ly p ub l ished ma ter ia l , w i th t he a dd i t ion o f f acts c o m mun ica ted b y f e l low s tuden ts , o r h ave c ome a cross i n t he c ourse o f o ther s tud ies . t he a nces try o f R omano-Saxon p o t tery .

My p urpose i s t o t ake a f resh l ook a t The a va i lable e v idence i s s u f f ic ien t

f or t h is p urpose , j us t a s i th as b een s u f f icien t t o p rov ide a b as is f or t he g ene ra l ly a ccep ted i deas o n t he s ub ject . T he t erm R o mano-Saxon p o t tery was f irst u sed b y Dr . J . N . L . Myres i n 1 944 .

The s ub jec t was s ubsequen t ly s tud ied i n o ne o r t wo p apers, f ro m v ar ious

h ands, a nd t hen , i n 1 956, t he d ef in i t ive p aper b y Myres a ppeared , a s ac on tr ib u t ion t o D ark-Age Br ita in , s tud ies p resen ted t o t he l a te E . T . L eeds ( Myres 1 956 , p p . 1 6-39) . F ur ther s tud ies, w i th n ew ma ter ia l, h ave a ppeared s ince, b u t t he Myres p aper r e ma ins t he most c onven ien t s tar t ing p o in t .

I ti s as cho-

l ar ly p iece o f work , w e l l d ocu men ted a nd we l l a rgued ; i tb r ings t oge ther f acts w h ich f ew p eop le h ad n o t iced b efore, l e t a lone t hough t a bout . Myres d ist ingu ished b etween t wo s epara te c lasses o f p ot tery , e ach i n i t s w ay a pparen t ly a h ybr id b e tween R o man a nd S axon s ty les . T he f irst , a nd sma l ler , c ompr ises v esse ls whose p rovenance, f abr ic a nd me thods o f manuf ac ture a re p ure ly Ang lo-Saxon , b u t , e i ther i n f orm o r d ecora t ion , a re r em in iscen t o f C e lt ic o r R o mano-Ce lt ic p ot tery .

H ere , a s Myres j ust ly p o in ts o u t ,

w e a re d ea ling w i th t he s urv iva l o f at rad i t ion .

We n eed o n ly t h ink o f t he e s-

c u tcheons o n t he C aphea ton b ow l , o r t he d ecora t ive r ounde ls i n t he L ind isfarne g ospe ls, t o b e r em inded t ha t C e lt ic t rad it ions c ou ld s urv ive u n t i l l ong af ter t he f i rst Eng l ish s e t t le men ts. The p ot tery i s a n e xa mp le , a t ah u mb ler l eve l, o ft he s a me k ind o fp rocess . T he o ther k ind o f R o mano-Saxon p ot tery i s wha t r ea l ly c oncerns u s.

I ti s

w hee l-thrown , h ard , a nd o f v ar ious c o lours, most o f ten g rey , t hough s o me t i mes r ed ; i ti s c o mp le te ly R o man i n t echn ique . I n h is 1 956 p aper Myres s ubd iv ides t he ware i n to s o me h a lf d ozen c a teg or ies, b ased o n f orm a nd t ype o f d ecora t ion .

T he f irst c a tegory c o mpr ises

v esse ls w i th o ne o r more r ows o f h o l low b osses . Myres r efers t o t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t wo o f t he v esse ls wh ich h e i l lustra tes, o ne o f wh ich c a me f ro m a n A ng lo-Saxon c e me tery i n K en t , may b e c on te mporary i mpor ts f ro m t he c on t in en t .

I fs o , a nd i ts ee ms n ot u n l ike ly , t hen t hey c an s carce ly b e d ef ined a s

R omano-Saxon p o t tery .

1 03

F ig . 4 R o mano-Saxon Ware .

1 .

P ot tery F ind-Spo ts .

1 04

2 .

K iln S i tes .

The v esse ls i n t he s econd c ategory a re s im i lar , e xcep t t ha t s o me o f t he m h ave, a dd i t iona l ly , d ecora t ive g roups o f sma l l d epress ions, o r d i mp les . S im i lar f eatures a re k nown t o a ppear o n u ndoubted Ang lo-Saxon v esse ls. Myres s ays t ha t t he f orm o f t he sma l ler v esse ls i n t h is c a tegory i s as ty l ized v ersion o f ac haracter ist ic Ang lo-Saxon u rn t ype, r endered i n min iature a nd w hee l- made .

On t he o ther h and , a t l east t wo o f t hose wh ich h e i l lustra tes

l ook l ike s tra igh t-forward R o man p rov incia l t ypes, t he sma l l b u lbous f unne ln eck b eaker ; t he r ema inder c ou ld we l l b e v ar ian ts o f t he t ype . Each o f t he r e ma in ing c a tegor ies i nc ludes a sma l ler n umber o f e xamp les . T here a re w ide- mouthed j ars, o rb ow ls, d ecora ted w i th h o l low b osses a nd d imp les;

t here a re t a l l b eakers w ith s i mi lar d ecora t ion , a nd t here a re v esse ls

w i th d epress ions i nstead o fb osses; t here a re v esse ls w i th d iagona l l i nes f orm ing c hevrons o r z ig zags, w i th a d ot i n e ach s pace , wh i le t here a re o thers w i th c on t inuous z ones o f d ecora t ion f ormed b y d iagona l l i nes . I n a dd i t ion , t here a re s o me p ieces w ith a s pec ia l ly i n terest ing f orm o f d ecora t ion . Ho l low b osses were p ushed o ut f ro m i nside t he v esse l, e ach a ga inst a s ta mp . T he f irst p iece o f Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery Ie ver p ersona l ly h and led , a t Grea t C aster ton i n L e icestersh ire , b ut t hen i n R ut land , was o f t h is c haracter . S ix y ears b efore Myres ' sp aper c ame o u t i t was a lready b e ing s poken o f a s Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery , t hough i n t echn ique i t was c o mp le te ly R o man .

I tc a me f ro m a s tra t if ied a nd d a ted l a te-Ro man c on tex t .

Ia ccep t , w ith l i t t le h esi ta t ion , Myres ' sd a t ing o f most o f t he e xa mp les o ft he ware i n h is o r ig ina l p aper t o t he f our th c en tury . Many p ieces were u ns tra t if ied , a nd o ne o r t wo c a me f ro m p ost-Ro man c on tex ts, b u t t he b u lk o f t he s trat if ied ma ter ia l c a me f ro m c on tex ts o f t he f our th c en tury , o r n o t much e ar l ier . E v idence f or a marked ly e ar l ier d a te f or t he o dd p iece was r ather s ka ted o ver , t hough i n al a ter p aper Myres t ook i t more s er iously . Myres ' sd istr ibut ion map c an n ow b e a dded t o .

H e h i mse lf made many

a dd i t ions, t h ir teen y ears l a ter , i nc lud ing s o me i n L inco lnsh ire a nd i n Yorks h ire . Ay ear l a ter Mr . Warw ick R odwe l l g rea t ly i ncreased t he n u mber o f k nown s pec i mens f rom E ssex . I n n or thern Br i ta in i ti s p oss ib le t o a dd t wo d o ts i n Nor thu mber land a nd o ne i n C u mbr ia . Af urther d o t must b e a dded i n S hropsh ire , o n t he s treng th o f d iscover ies b y Mr . Ph i l ip Barker . Mr . Wi l l iam R ober ts, who i s a t t he I nst itute o f Archaeo logy , h as g enerously s en t me a l i st wh ich h e h as c o mp i led o f s i tes o n wh ich Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery h as b een f ound ; t h is i sb ased o n r esearch i n museu ms, o n c o mmun ica t ions f ro m o ther , s tuden ts, a nd o n p rev ious ly p ub l ished ma ter ia l . T he map , F ig . 4 makes u se o f i n forma t ion f ree ly p laced a t my d isposa l b y Mr . Rober ts; i ts hows t he g enera lised d istr ibu t ion o f R o mano-Saxon p ot tery , a nd t he k nown k i ln s i tes a re a lso marked . T he p at tern o f d istr ibut ion i s s o l id ly e astern , ma in ly b et ween t he H u mber a nd t he Tha mes . There a re f ewer e xamp les i n t he f ar N or th , i nt he west a nd s ou th o f t he Tha mes .

R o mano-Saxon p ot tery i s n o t t he o n ly

R o man p roduct t o h ave a ma in ly e astern d istr ibut ion .

Among t he s evera l

p roducts wh ich h ave s uch a d istr ibut ion , b lack-burn ished ware c a tegory 2may b e t aken a s a n e xa mp le . ( G i l la m 1 976, p . 5 8 a nd W il l iams 1 977 , p . 1 65) . O nce a ga in t he p at tern i s ma in ly e astern . D if ferences t here c er ta in ly a re ; BB2 i s c o m mon i n K en t , where much o f i t was made ; S co t land a nd n or the astern Eng land l oo m l arge , b ecause t h is i s where most o f t he t roops were 1 05

s ta t ioned f or mos t o f t he p er iod d uring wh ich BB2 was o n t he marke t . Bu t , l ooked a t f ro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f t ranspor t a nd marke t ing , t he u nder lying p a t tern i s v ery s im i lar . A l low ing f or e xp l icab le d i f ferences , i ti s t he s a me k ind o f p a t tern ;

t here w ere s hor t h au ls b y l and , b ecause t hese were e xpens ive ,

a nd l onger h au ls b y s ea , b ecause t hey w ere c heaper . I t may b e t hen t ha t t he p a t tern o f d is tr ibu t ion o f R o mano-Saxon p o t tery i s n o more t han t ha t o f ar eg iona l d is tr ibu t ion o f as ub-reg iona l ware o r s t yle. I ti s p oss ible t ha t t he p a t tern i s t ha t o f t he n orma l d is tr ibu t ion o f Essex o r H er t fordsh ire p roduc ts , a f ter t he l oss o f S co t land . T he ware i s f ound o n , , a nd i s c o m mon b eh ind , p ar t o f t he S axon S hore , d oub t less s imp ly b ecause t ha t i s where mos t o f t he t roops w ere s ta t ioned b e tween t he l a te t h ird c en tury a nd t he e nd o f t he R o man p er iod , j us t a s , i n t he e ar l ier p er iod , c er ta in w ares were c o m moner o n H adr ian 's Wa l l t han e lsewhere . R o mano-Saxon p o t tery n eed t hen h ave h ad n o s pec ia l c onnec t ion w i th t he S axon S hore f or ts , n or w i th t he G er man ic mercenar ies i n ferred t o b e i n t he h in ter land .

T here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t here a re r ese mb lances b etween Ro mano-Saxon p o t tery a nd c er ta in k inds o f Ang lo-Saxon p o t tery , i n Eng land , a f ter t he Eng lish s e t t le men ts.

I n f act , o f c ourse, R o mano-Saxon p o t tery i s o n ly d ef ined a s s uch

b ecause o f t he r ese mb lance . T here a re p ara l le ls i n f orm, p ara l le ls i nd ecor a t ion , a nd s o me t i mes i nb o th . Myres ' sc onc lusions were j ud ic ious, a nd c overed s evera l p oss ib l i t ies . T h ir teen y ears a f ter h e p ut t he m f orward , h e h i mse lf modest ly r eferred t o t he m a s ab a l lon d 'e ssa i ( Myres 1 969, p . 6 6) .

O f h is c onc lus ions, t he o ne

wh ich h as b een a ccep ted most w ide ly , a nd r eissued w ith l i t t le c hange , b y l a ter wr iters, may b e s u m mar ised a s f o l lows. R o mano-Br i t ish p ot ters , work ing b y t he ir own methods, were c onsc ious ly i n f luenced b y , o r e ven c op ied , t he s hapes a nd d ecorat ive d eta i ls o f p ot tery a ncestra l t o Ang lo-Saxon p o t tery , i n o rder t o mee t t he d e mand f or v esse ls, o f f am i l iar f orm o r d ecorat ion , f ro m G erman ic t roops o n o r n ear t he S axon S hore . I n 1 968 Myres h ad a s econd word t o s ay o n t he s ub ject , i n h is c on tr ibut ion , o n t he Ang lo-Saxon p o t tery , t o Mrs . Margare t J ones ' sr epor t o n Muck ing , E ssex ( Jones 1 968 , p p . 2 22-224) .

Having n o ted t ha t R o mano-Saxon p o t tery ,

a s d ef ined , h ad t urned u p i n Ang lo-Saxon c on tex ts , h e wen t o n t o s ay : " I t c orrobora tes t he s uggest ion Ip ut f orward i n 1 956 t ha t t hese wares may h ave b een d es igned b y R o mano-Br it ish p o t ters t o mee t t he t aste f or b arbar ian f ash ions a t t he e nd o f t he f our th a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i f th c en tur ies" . H ere h e s eems t o h ave t aken a more d e f in i te l i ne t han i n h is f irst p aper . Myres ' st h ird t hough ts o n t he s ub ject c a me o ut i n 1 969, i n h is b ook o n Ang loS axon p o t tery a nd t he s et t le men t o f Eng land ( Myres 1 969) . H ere, i fs uch a t h ing were p ossib le , h e i s e ven more modest a nd j ud ic ious t han a t f irs t . He r efers t o t he e x tens ion o f t he d istr ibut ion p at tern , o ver t he p rev ious d ecade o r more . H e d iv ides t he wares i n to t wo c lasses, o ne o f wh ich h e a dm i ts h ad b egun t o d eve lop b e fore t here c ou ld h ave b een a ny l a te-Ro man G erman ic i nf l uence . I n g enera l h e d iscusses t he s ub ject a s as cho lar , n o t a s a n a dvocate . Even s o , i n t he l ast r esor t h e c l ings t o t he i deas a lready s u mmar ised , a nd s ays: T here r e ma ins - a s trong p resu mp t ion t ha t t he p opu lar ity o f t hese

1 06

t ypes o f p ot tery i n e astern Br ita in - i s r e la ted -t o t he s oc ia l a nd mi l i tary c hanges c rea ted b y t he S axon S hore d efences". U nderstandab ly , R o mano-Saxon p ot tery i s n o t d iscussed a t l eng th i n Myres ' s r ecen t c orpus o f Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery o f t he p agan p er iod .

H e men t ions i t

h owever when i ti mp inges o n h is ma in t heme . ( Myres 1 977 , p p . 2 4-5, 4 9 a nd 1 22-4) . He r efers t o d ecora t ive mot i fs, s uch a s, among o thers, t r iangu lar g roups o f d o ts, wh ich a re f ound o n b o th s ides o f t he c u ltura l d iv ide i n t he f our th a nd f i f th c entur ies, o n G erman ic p o t tery , o n R o man g lass a nd o n R o manoS axon p ot tery . The f acts a re i nd ispu tab le , b ut t he i mp l ied a rgumen t i s p erhaps t wo-edged .

Myres a lso c onsiders n on-cera m ic e v idence f or e ar ly i n truders

f rom t he f ree-German wor ld , a nd a n u mber o f sma l l b arbar ian me ta l o b jects i s q uoted b y e xamp le , t hough t he q uan t i ty i s s a id t o b e sma l l . T he t o ta l n u mb er o f G erman ic p o t tery v esse ls, f ound i n Eng land , o f t ypes d a ted o n t he C on t inen t t o t he f our th c en tury , i s n o t g rea t , wh i le t here i s o n ly a bout a d ozen G erman ic v esse ls o f t h ird - c en tury t ypes among t he 3 ,500 v esse ls i n t he c orpus .

Myres i s a l most c er ta in ly c orrec t i n s uggest ing t ha t t he v esse ls were

c on te mporary i mpor ts a nd n o t t he p roducts o f" e ccen tr ic f i f th-cen tury c ra f tsmen w ith a t aste f or t he a n t ique". T he ir d istr ibu t ion c overs t he a reas i n e astern Eng land n or th o f t he T ha mes i n wh ich R o mano-Saxon p ot tery i s a lso c om mon , t hough t h is i s n ot n ecessar i ly v ery s trong e v idence f or f ree-German a ux i l iar ies i n t he r eg ion .

Q uan t i t ies, e spec ia l ly o f t he e ar lier t ype , a re sma l l,

wh i le i n t ha t p ar t o f Br i ta in where e p igraph ic e v idence f or f ree-German a ux i l iar ies a ctua l ly e x ists, c era m ic e v idence i s a bundan t . The c o inc idence o f t he d istr ibut ion p a t terns i s n o t n ecessar i ly s ign if ican t , f or i ti sp rec ise ly i n t he e ast t hat s uch i mpor ts a s t here may h ave b een f ro m f ree G ermany wou ld b e e xpected .

Myres a lso s uggests t ha t f ree-German i n truders may b e d is-

t ingu ished b y t he ir b ur ia l c usto ms .

T here a re c e meter ies i n e astern Eng land ,

a t , f or e xamp le , C a is ter b y N orwich , a pparen t ly o f l a te d a te , i n wh ich c re mat i ons a re f ound ; c re ma t ion , a s ar i te , was o f c ourse o ver taken b y i nhu ma t ion i n t he c ourse o f t he R o man p er iod , wh i le a t t he s a me t ime i t was a r i te a pprop r ia te t o b arbar ian s o ld iers . T he u rns t hemse lves a re u sua l ly R o manoBr i t ish , s o met i mes R o mano-Saxon , a nd i n af ew i nstances a pparen t ly d irect ly i nsp ired b y t h ird-cen tury G erman ic v esse ls o verseas . T h is i s aw e igh ty a rgumen t i n f avour o fb arbar ian c re ma t ions, e spec ia l ly a s s o me v esse ls o f f ore ign i nsp irat ion a re p resen t , b u t i ti s h ard ly c onc lusive .

T he p rec ise p er iod o f

u se o f t he c e me ter ies i s n ot s ecure ly k nown , a nd n e ither i s t he p rec ise d a te a t w h ich i nhu ma t ion r ep laced c re ma t ion ; i ts ee ms t o h ave b een a g radua l p roc ess, a nd e xa mp les a re k nown o f c re ma t ions i n t ypo log ica l ly a dvanced u rns i n p ure ly R o man c on tex ts . T hroughou t t he r eferences t o R o mano-Saxon p ot tery i n h is l a test w ork , Myres ma in ta ins h is e ar l ier a t t itude, a nd e i ther s ays o r i mp lies t ha t i ti s w i thout d oubt a h ybr id b etween R o man a nd S axon s ty les, a nd t ha t i t was u sed , a longs ide o ther wares, b y f ree G erman ic s o ld iers i n e astern Eng land . Av a luab le p aper p ub l ished i n 1 970 , b y Mr . Warw ick R odwe l l, a dds c ons iderab ly t o o ur k now ledge o f t he q uan t ity o f R o mano-Saxon ware , a nd t o i t s d istr ibut ion , i n E ssex i n p ar t icu lar ( Rodwe l l 1 970 ) .

Mr . R odwe l l i s af irm

b e l iever i n R o mano-Saxon p ot tery , n o t mere ly i n i t s e x istence , wh ich i s d en ied b y n o-one, b u t i n i t s h ybr id n ature a nd h istor ica l s ign if icance . 1 07

I n h is c onc lu-

s ions h e i s i n terested i n c on t inu ity b etween Ro man a nd S axon o ccupa t ion o n c er ta in . s i tes .

He c lear ly d e monstra tes t ha t most o f t he many s ites i n Essex

wh ich h ave p roduced Ro mano-Saxon p o t tery h ave a lso p roduced Ang lo-Saxon p o t tery , a nd t ha t s o me t i mes t he R o mano-Saxon p ot tery , c a me f ro m a p ostR o man c on tex t . I n t h is c onnect ion i ti s r e levan t t ha t Ih ave d iscussed a n a pparen t ly s im il ar s i tua t ion w i th M iss Margaret D ar l ing , who i s c urren t ly p repar ing t he r esu lts o f t he l a te C har les Green ' se xcava t ions a t C a ister b y Yar mou th f or p ub l ica t ion .

S he t e l ls me t ha t wh i le R o mano-Saxon p ot tery i s r ecorded a s

t urn ing u p i n p ost-Ro man l eve ls a t C a ister , s o i s much Ro man p ot tery o f o ther t ypes .

O n macroscrop ic e xa m ina t ion t he R o mano-Saxon p ot tery a ppears

t o h ave b een made i n t he s a me k i lns a s s o me o f t he o ther Ro man p o t tery . T here s ee ms t hen t o b e n o e v idence f or c on t inu i ty b etween t he Ro man o ccup a t ion a nd t he Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men t . T here i s ab r ief t rea tmen t o f t he s ub ject b y Mr . J . G . H urst ( Hurst 1 976) . A s ing le o ne o f Myres ' ss evera l t en tat ive h ypotheses i s t aken , a nd r e-stated w ith a c lar ity a nd f ir mness wh ich makes i tr ead l i ke t he u nshakeab le f ina l word o n t he s ub jec t .

I tr eads:

" There i s l i t t le d oub t t ha t we h ave h ere a

c lass o f p ot tery made b y R o mano-Br i t ish p ot ters t o meet t he t astes o f Ang loS axon mercenar ies b rough t i n d ur ing t he f our th a nd e ar ly f i f th c en tur ies" . Mr . H urst h as l i t t le d oubt , b u t If ee l t ha t we s hou ld h ave a q uest ion ing l ook a t t he i dea . Iam n ot t he o n ly o ne t o f ee l t h is way .

A t t he b eg inn ing o f Dece mber 1 978 ,

a s t h is p aper was b e ing p repared f or p ub l ica t ion , t he n ew v o lu me o f t he Archaeo log ica l J ourna l a rr ived .

I n i tt here i s ar eference, b y M iss T an ta M .

D ick inson , t o ap aper wr it ten t wo y ears p rev ious ly b y aG erman s cho lar , i n wh ich h e e xpressed s cep t ic is m a bou t Myres ' si deas o n Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery , a nd o n o ther ma t ters ( D ick inson 1 978 ,p . 4 07 a nd V ierck 1 976, p p . 4 3-55) . Un t i l t hen Ih ad b een u naware o f t he e x istence o f V ierck ' sp aper , a nd , a s t here was a d ead l ine t o mee t , i t was t oo l a te t o o bta in , r ead a nd make u se o f i t .

T he r e levan t p or t ion o f M iss D ick inson ' ss u m mary o f t he a rgu men t, w i th

wh ich s he i s o bv ious ly i s s ympa thy , may h owever b e q uo ted .

"Ro mano-

S axon p o t tery s hou ld a lso b e v iewed w i th c aut ion a s e v idence f or G erman ic s o ld iers i n f our th-century Br ita in .

V ierck g oes t o t he n ub o f t he p rob le m b y

q uery ing t he i dea t ha t s uch p o t tery r ef lects 'G erman ic ' t aste .

Con t inenta l

e v idence ( and , Iw ou ld a dd , many i nconsistenc ies i n Myres ' sd iscuss ion o f R o mano-Saxon p o t tery ) s uggests t ha t t he n or th G ermans were i n f luenced b y d eve lop men ts I n l a te R o man c era m ic ( and o ther v esse l) f ash ions, r a ther t han v ice v ersa ;

Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery i s p robab ly p ure ly p rov inc ia l R o man"

Ih ad f e lt d oubt fu l s ince 1 950 a bou t whe ther Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery i s r ea l ly wha t i ti s c la i med t o b e .

S ubsequen t ly , t hese d oubts c rysta l l ised a s ar esu lt

o f d iscuss ions w ith c o l leagues, among t he m , Dr . K . T . Greene, Mrs . V . G . Swan a nd Dr . C . J . Young .

My a pproach h as b een t ha t o f as tuden t o f Ro man

p rov inc ia l p o t tery r a ther t han o f Ang lo-Saxon o r o ther German ic p o t tery . I ti s t oo o bv ious t o n eed s ay ing t ha t f our th-cen tury , o r e ar lier , R o man p o t tery c ou ld n o t h ave b een i n f luenced b y , f or e xa mp le , l a te f i f th o r s ixth c en tury Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery .

I ft he c haracter ist ics o f Ro mano-Saxon p o ttery 1 08

a re t he r esu lt o f G erman ic i n f luence , t hen t he i n f luence p resu mab ly c a me f rom f ree-German ic p ot tery o f t he R o man p er iod . Th is wou ld a lso h ave t o b e a ncestra l t o c er ta in Ang lo-Saxon v esse ls . My own k now ledge o ft he f ree-German ic p ot tery o f t he R o man p er iod i s n e i ther s o d eep n or s o w ide a s Iwou ld l i ke i tt o b e , b u t , s o f ar a s i tg oes, i td oes n ot i nc lude many v esse ls wh ich l ook a s t hough t hey c ou ld h ave i n f lue nced Ro mano-Saxon ware . I n h is d efn it ive p aper , 1 956, Myres, whose k now ledge o f t he s ub jec t i sb o th d eep a nd w ide , p lays d own t h is p ar t o f h is a rgu men t , a nd h e d oes n ot i l lustra te a s ing le f ree-German ic v esse l o f t he R o man p er iod , w ith t he c la im t ha t i ti s a ncestra l t o Romano-Saxon p o t tery . H e r efers, h owever , t o ab ucke lurne f ro m C uxhaven wh ich h e s ays migh t a l most b e t he mode l f or a v esse l f ro m R ichborough , t hough l a ter h e s ays, o ft he S axon b ucke lurnen t ha t "i ti s n ot g enera l ly s upposed t ha t s uch u rns were f am i l iar o b jects i n t h is c oun try u n t i l t he Ang lo-Saxon s et t le men ts b egan i n s treng th a bou t t he m idd le o f t he f i f th c entury".

I n h is c on tr ibu t ion t o t he

Muck ing r epor t Myres t races t he a pparen t o r ig ins o f s o me o f t he mo t i fs t o f ree-German ic p o t tery , i n p ar t icu lar t he t r iangu lar g roups o f t hree s ha l low d i mp les.

T he c o mpar isons i n h is f irst p aper a re ma in ly w ith Ang lo-Saxon

p ot tery o f al a ter d a te .

Wh i le t he g roups o f d i mp les a re o r c ourse c om mon

t o b o th Ro mano-Saxon a nd Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery , n ot d iss im i lar mo t i fs a re a lso f ound o n n on-ceram ic a r tefacts o f t he Ro man p er iod . Mr . Rodwe l l h as p o in ted o u t t ha t t wo s herds o f d i mp led R omano-Saxon p o t tery, a s we l l a s an a t ive v esse l w ith s im i lar d ecora t ion , h ave b een p ub l ished f rom Wi js ter , an a t ive s i te , n o t f ar f ro m t he F r is ian c oas t , i n t he N ether lands ( Rodwe l l 1 970 ) .

T he s a me s i te h as a lso p roduced s am ian a nd t erra-n igra ,

a s w e l l a s much n a t ive Fr is ian p ot tery l ack ing t hese mot i fs .

I tw i l l r ead i ly

b e a ccep ted t ha t t he R omano-Saxon s herds a re i mpor ts, a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he n a t ive v esse l h ad b een i n f luenced b y i mpor ts . T he G er man ic p o t tery , o f t he R o man p er iod b u t f rom o u tside t he Emp ire, w i th wh ich Iam most f am i l iar ,

h appens t o b e t ha t f ro m t he F irs ian c oas t .

I ti sh and- made , t hough we l l- made, smoo th a nd l ea thery i n t ex ture, a nd i t r anges i n c o lour f ro m l i gh t f awn t o v ery d ark b rown . I n t echn ique i ti su n l ike R o man p ot tery , t hough i ti s n o t v ast ly d i f feren t f ro m Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery . I tc omes f ro m p ar t o f t he wor ld f ro m wh ich s o me o f t he Eng l ish s e t t lers c a me, t hough a dm i t ted ly i t was o n ly o ne o f t he ir h o me lands. Apar t f ro m b e ing f r eq uen t ly , t hough n o t i nvar iab ly , d ecora ted o n t he e dge o f t he r im , a nd o ccas iona l ly o n t he s hou lder , b y n otch ing o r f i ngert ip d epress ions, i ti s d evo id o f d ecora t ion .

T here i s a n a bsence o fb osses, l arge c ircu lar d epressions,

s tamps o r c hevrons, a nd , w ith t he o dd e xcep t ion o f d i mp les, o f a ny th ing e lse wh ich wou ld b e t hough t o f a s a nces tra l t o t he c harac ter is t ic R omano-Saxon d ecora t ion . R o mano-Saxon p o t tery c an t hen o n ly w ith d i f f icu lty b e d erv ied f ro m f reeG erman ic p o t tery .

I t may , w i th n o g rea ter d i f f icu lty , b e d er ived f rom e ar l ier

Romano-Br i t ish p o t tery . Thus, u n less t hey a re p ure ly f or tu itous, t he s im il ar i t ies b e tween R o mano-Saxon a nd Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery r equ ire a no ther e xp lana t ion . I t wou ld b e c hrono log ica l ly a ccep tab le t o t urn t he a rgu men t u ps ide d own a nd t o s uggest t ha t R o mano-Saxon p o t tery may h ave i n f luenced Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery . 1 09

I ti s a dm it ted ly e as ier t o s uggest t ha t Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery may h ave i n f luenced Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery t han t o s how h ow i th appened .

Any i mpor ted

v esse ls, o r v esse ls c lose ly b ased o n c on t inen ta l p roto types, a re un l ike ly t o h ave b een i n f luenced d irect ly b y ar eg iona l s ty le .o f R omano-Br i t ish p ot tery . O ther v esse ls may h ave b een i n f luenced , f or i ti s p oss ib le t ha t p ar ts o f t he t rad it ion s urv ived u n t i l t he Eng l ish s et t le men ts .

Myres h as h i mse lf d emon-

s tra ted t ha t c er ta in C e lt ic a nd R o mano-Ce lt ic t rad i t ions s urv ived , a nd i n s o me p ar ts o f G au l t he t echn iques, a s we l l a s t he s ty les o f R o man p o t tery s urv ived t he G erman ic s et t le men ts .

T here i s h owever a d if f icu lty .

T o j udge

f ro m t he a bsence o fi t sp roducts f ro m s i tes, t he o rgan ised p o t tery i ndustry o f R o man Br ita in h ad g one i n to r ap id d ec l ine e ar ly i n t he f i f th c en tury , w h i le i t s p roduc ts h ad a lways t ended t o waste o u t r ap id ly, s o t ha t l ong-ter m

s urv iva ls

i n u se a re e xcep t iona l . Ac era m ic l i nk b e tween t he b eg inn ing a nd t he e nd o f t he f i f th c en tury , t hough n o t impossib le , i s d i f f icu lt t o d e monstra te . I th as h owever l ong b een r ecogn ised t ha t many G erman ic b rooches, a nd most G erman ic g lass v esse ls, f ro m t he l a te f our th c en tury o nwards, were d er ived f ro m R o man mode ls . L a te-Ro man s ty les i n p ot tery , g lass a nd s i lver may h ave i n f luenced f ree-German p ot tery , a s V ierck s uggests. Whatever t he c hanne l o f i n f luence , a nd whe ther t here was much i n f luence a t a l l, i ti s impor t an t t ha t t here a re p ossib le r easons f or t he s im i lar i t ies b etween Ro manoS axon a nd Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery o ther t han f ree-German ic i n f luence o n R o manoBr i t ish p o t tery . Mrs . V . G . Swan , who i s o n t he p o in t o f c o mp le t ing a g azet teer o f R o man k i lns i n Br i ta in , f or p ub l ica t ion b y t he Roya l C om m ission o n H istor ica l Monumen ts ( Eng land ) h as d rawn my a t ten t ion t to a n u mber o f k i ln s i tes, n o t k nown i n 1 956, a t wh ich R o mano-Saxon p o t tery , a s d ef ined b y Myres, was b e ing made , a longside o ther p ot tery . T h is d oes n o t , o f i t se lf , p rec lude German ic i n f luence , b u t i td oes u nder l ine t he f act t ha t t he p o t tery was p ar t o f o rd inary Br it ish p roduct ion . T here a re t hree k i ln s i tes i n p ar t icu lar . i n E ssex .

T he f irst o f t hese i s a t I nwor th

I t was e xcava ted i n 1 971, a nd i ti sb e ing p repared f or p ub l ica t ion

b y Mr . R odwe l l . R o mano-Saxon p ot tery was b e ing made a t t hese k i lns, a s was much o ther , more o rd inary , Ro mano-Br i t ish p ot tery . T he ma in p rod uct ion h as b een a ss igned t o t he l a te f our th a nd e ar ly f i f th c entur ies. T he s econd g roup i s o n Mou lsha m S tree t , C he l msford , a lso i n E ssex . was a p a ir o f k i lns, a pparen t ly e ar l ier t han t hese a t I nwor th .

Here t here

Mr . Pau l Drury

d irected t he e xcava t ion i n 1 973 a nd s ubsequen t ly , a nd i s work ing o n t he mat er ia l f or p ub l ica t ion .

R o mano-Saxon p ot tery i s p resen t , a s i s a lso o ther

Ro mano-Br i t ish p o t tery . T he t h ird g roup i s i n H er t fordsh ire , a t Much Hadda m , Bra m ley Ha l l F ar m , n ear Braugh ing . Mr . B ernard B arr was r espons ib le f or t he e xcava t ion , b etween 1 965 a nd 1 970 . I t was a n e x tre me ly l arge k i ln c o mp lex . I th as b een t hough t t ha t s o me o f t he p o t tery s upp l ied t o Ca ister b y Yarmou th c a me f ro m t h is s ource . a s w e l l a s o ther p o t tery . l a te-Ro man f orms.

O ne o f t he k i lns w as mak ing Ro mano-Saxon

T he k i ln c o mp lex a s a who le was mak ing s tandard

T hese i nc luded s tra igh t-s ided f l anged b ow ls w ith i n terna l

wavy l i nes . T hese h ave , o f c ourse , b een r ecorded p rev ious ly i n H er t fordsh ire , b y C order among o thers, i n e ar ly f our th-cen tury c on tex ts . A s im ilar t ype was p roduced a t C ra mbeck , i n t he n or th o f Eng land , b u t n ot b efore t he l a ter f our th c en tury . 10

T he k nowns k i lns a re c oncen tra ted i n o ne r eg ion , t wo i n E ssex a nd o ne i n H er t fordsh ire .

T h is may g o s o me way t owards e xp la in ing t he d istr ibu t ion

p at tern o f t he p o t tery . T he p roducts o f many Ro mano-Br it ish p ot ter ies t end t o b e d istr ibu ted a round t he p ot ter ies a nd n or thward f ro m t he m , r a ther t han s ou thward o r a cross c oun try . V esse ls wh ich h ave c erta in f ea tures i n c o m mon w i th R o mano-Saxon ware h ave b een f ound i n d eposi ts o f e ar l ier d a te t han t he f our th c entury , we l l away f ro m t he r eg ion where i ti s most c o m mon .

Fro m Bewcast le i n C u mbr ia t here

i s an arrow- mouthed j ar i nb urn ished g rey f abr ic, w ith h o l low b osses ( R ichmond a nd H odgson 1 938 , N o . 1 9) . Myres f i gures a n ot d issim i lar v esse l f ro m S uf fo lk . T he Bewcast le v esse l was f ound i n ad epos i t w ith s evera l c o ins o f t he T etr ic i , t ha t i s t he e ar ly 2 70s, a nd n o l a ter c o in .

Fro m t urre t 3 3h o n

H adr ian ' s Wa l l t here i s t he g rea ter p ar t o f aj ar , t he b ase a lone b e ing a bsen t , w ith a z ig-zag p at tern r ound t he i n-s lop ing n eck , a nd f our teen h o l low b osses, r ound t he b ody , e ach w ith a d i mp le i n t he c en tre a nd e ach s urrounded b y a g roove ( Myke t a nd Maxwe l l 1 972, N o . 1 8 ) . T he f abr ic i s b lack a nd b urn ished , t hough i ti s n ot i den t ica l w i th t ha t o f e i ther o f t he t wo ma in c a tegor ies o f b lackb urn ished k i tchen w ares . T he v esse l was f ound i mmed ia te ly o u tside t he t urre t . A l l t he o ther p ot tery f ound , i ns ide t he t urre t a nd o u ts ide i t , s tra t if ied a nd u nstra t if ied , was o f s econd-cen tury d a te .

The d a t ing wh ich t h is s uggests

i s q u ite s ecure a s t he t urre t was o ne o f t hose wh ich h ad b een d is man t led b efore a ny b ut m inor i n terna l s truc tura l c hanges h ad b een made ; t he s ou th f ace o f t he Wa l l was c arr ied o ver i t s r e ma ins . T h is p rocess h as l ong b een a ss igned t o t he e ar l iest y ears o f t he t h ird c en tury , t hough t here i s r eason t o s uppose t ha t i ts hou ld b e a ssigned t o t he 1 80s . Wh ichever i s c orrect , t he t urre t was n ot o ccup ied a f ter t he s econd c en tury .

T he v esse l h as much i n c o m mon w i th

R o mano-Saxon p o t tery , a nd t here a re t hose who h ave s o d escr ibed i t . The h o l low b osses e ach w ith a c en tra l d i mp le , h ave c lose p ara l le ls o n o ne o f Myres ' s v esse ls f ro m F e lixstowe i n S uf fo lk , wh i le i n g enera l f orm t he v esse l i sn ot u n l ike a n e xa mp le f ro m L akenhea th , a lso i n S uf fo lk .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he

v esse l f ro m t he t urre t h ad b een made i n S uf fo lk , a nd h ad t rave l led t o t he Wa l l b y much t he s a me r ou te a s BB2 , made n o t s o v ery f ar away ; e xamp les o f BB2 w ere f ound i n t he t urret . Whe ther w e t h ink o f t he v esse l a s R o manoS axon o r a s ap ro to type , i t s o ccurrence i n as ecure ly d a ted s econd-cen tury c on tex t i s s urely s ign i f ican t .

S o me v ar ie t ies o f R o mano-Saxon p o t tery h ave

a lready b een r ecorded i n s econd-cen tury c on tex ts , a s Myres h imse l f h as p o in ted o u t .

O f o ne t h ing w e may b e c er ta in , a nd t ha t i s t ha t t he s pec imen f ro m t urre t

3 3b i s n o t o f i t se lf e v idence t ha t t here were G erman mercenar ies o n Hadr ian ' s Wa l l i nt he s econd c en tury . I n t he p ub l ished r ecord o f Ro man p ot tery f ro m Br i ta in a s a who le , t here i s n o s hor tage o f mo t i fs wh ich migh t b e r e la ted t o R o mano-Saxon p ot tery . T h is i s n o t t o s peak o f e xac t c oun terpar ts, f or a v esse l d ecora ted w ith e xact c oun terpar ts o f R o mano-Saxon mo t ifs wou ld q u ite l og ica l ly t end t o b e c lassed a s a ctua l R o mano-Saxon p o t tery . Vesse ls w ith l arge h o llow b osses a re n o t v ery c o m mon , t hough t hey d o a ppear .

V esse ls w i th sma l l h o l low b osses a re

q u ite c o mmon , a nd h ave a l ong h is tory .

T he f i ne mica-dusted j ars, o f t he

F lav ian p er iod , f ro m I nch tu th i l , V eru lam ium a nd e lsewhere h ave sma l l b osses p ushed o u t f ro m t he i ns ide a nd a rranged i n s ymme tr ica l p at terns. T hese may we l l h ave b een o f G erman o r ig in , b u t i ti s C e lt ic G ermany , w ith in t he 1 11

D om it ian ic f ron t ier . The sma l l t r iang luar g roups o f d i mp les a re o n ly f ound o n v esse ls wh ich wou ld b e d escr ibed a s Ro mano-Saxon i n a ny c ase, b ut t r ia ngu lar g roups o f s ta mps a re k nown , a nd t r iangu lar g roups o fbarbot ine d iscs a re c o m mon . Vesse ls w ith l arge c ircu lar d epressions a re q ui te c o m mon . G roups o f d iag n a l l i nes, f orm ing c hevrons o r z ig zags, a re v ery c o mmon i ndeed , a s a re c on t inuous z ones o f d iagona l l i nes . T he u se o f s ta mped d ec ora t ion , o f v ar ious k inds, i s w idespread i n t ime a nd s pace . Eng land i tg oes b ack t o t he p re-Ro man I ron Age .

I n e astern

I n t he Ro man p er iod i ti s

f ound o n t he s o-ca l led Par is ian ware o f L inco lnsh ire a nd Hu mberside , a nd o n i m ita t ion s am ian a nd o ther v esse ls i n East Ang lia .

L a ter , a nd p robab ly o f

d if feren t o r ig in , s tamp ing i s f ound o n t he p roducts o fb oth t he N ew F orest a nd o f O x fordsh ire .

Wh i le s ta mp ing i n g enera l i s c o m mon , a nd s ee ms a t

f i rst t o h ave h ad a n e astern b ias, t he s tamped o r mou lded b osses a re c on f ined t o v esse ls a lready d escr ibed a s R o mano-Saxon .

S o , i n t he n a ture o f t h ings,

t he s ta mped b oss i s a mot i f wh ich c an h ave n o p rototype .

I ti s s o d ist inct ive ,

b e ing e i ther i t se lf o r n oth ing , t ha t whenever i ta ppears i ti s n a tura l ly h a iled a s R o mano-Saxon , a nd a mot if c an h ard ly b e ap rototype o f i t se lf . d i f f icu lty w i th t h is a pproach .

Tha t i s a

I f aR o mano-Br it ish v esse l ,n o t n orma l ly

c lassed a s R o mano-Saxon , r ese mb les a R o mano-Saxon v esse l o n ly s l igh t ly, i t may e as i ly b e wr it ten o f f a s i rre levan t ; i fi tr ese mb les i tc lose ly, i t may j ust a s e as i ly b e c la i med a s R o mano-Saxon b y d ef in i t ion . I n t h is way many p ro to types may b e d iscoun ted , whereas i n f ac t t he p rov ince , f ro m e nd t o e nd , a nd a t a l l p er iods, p roduces p oss ib le p roto types .

S o me o f t he d ecora ted p ieces

wh ich h ave b een men t ioned c o me f ro m t he N ew F orest i ndustry , a nd t hey a re o f f our th c en tury d a te .

They c an h ard ly t he mse lves b e a ncestra l t o R o mano-

S axon p o t tery , b ut t hey may i l lustra te p ara l le l t rends .

S evera l t ypes o f

c o lour-coa ted Ox fordsh ire p ot tery a re d istr ibuted i n E ssex a s we l l a s e lsewhere ( Young 1 977 , f i gs. 4 2-49 a nd 5 1) ; t here may t hen b e s o me l i nk b e tween O x fordsh ire a nd R o mano-Saxon p ot tery .

I ti s d i f f icu lt t o a ssess t he e x ten t t o

wh ich t he s evera l v ar iet ies o f R o mano-Saxon p ot tery were p ar t o f t he n orma l, t hough h e terogeneous s tock a nd r eper to ire o f Ro mano-Br it ish p o t ters , f or i ti s as ub jec t ive ma t ter . My o wn i mpress ion , a f ter l ong e xper ience i n h andl i ng R o mano-Br i t ish p o t tery , a nd i n s tudying i ti n i l lus tra t ions , i s t ha t R omanoS axon p o t tery c ou ld w e l l h ave d eve loped i t s d is t inc t ive f ea tures , s pon taneous ly , a ga ins t t he b ackground wh ich h as b een s ke tched i n o u t l ine , w i thou t i n f luence f ro m o u ts ide . We h ave s een t ha t , wh i le i ti sb y n o means c er ta in , i t may we l l b e p ossib le t ha t t he t rad it ion o f u s ing t he mo t ifs o f R o mano-Saxon p ot tery a nd i t s p rotot ypes r e ma ined a l ive u n t i l i ti n f luenced Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery .

I ft h is were s o ,

i t must b e a dm i t ted t ha t t he Ang lo-Saxons w ere s o mewha t s e lect ive i n wha t t hey a l lowed t o i nf luence t he m ; i t may b e a sked , why were s o me mo t ifs c hosen a nd n ot o thers . T here i s ap ossib le a nswer . The e ar l iest p agan c e me ter ies a re f ound ma in ly i n C a mbr idgesh ire a nd East Ang l ia , a nd t h is a rea l i es w i th in t he r eg ion where t he mot ifs a re r e la t ive ly c o m mon . G iven t ha t t he t rad i t ions h ad p ersisted , l oca l p ot tery wou ld h ave h ad t he g rea test i n f luence o n t he e arl i est s e t t lers . O f c ourse , i t must b e f ree ly a dm it ted t ha t t h is a pprox i mate c o inc idence o f t wo d istr ibut ion p a t terns i s c apab le o fb e ing i n terpre ted i n more t han o ne q u ite d i f feren t way .

12

The a rgu men t s o f ar may b e s u m mar ised a s f o l lows: R o mano-Saxon p o t tery was made i n t h is c oun try , a t s evera l d i f feren t c en tres , t hough i n al im i ted r eg ion . I t was R o man i n t echn ique , a nd was n o t n ecessar i ly i n f luenced b y f ree-Ger man ic v esse ls o f t he R o man p er iod . I ti s f ound ma in ly i nt he e astern p ar t o ft he c oun try , i n a nd t o n or th o f t he r eg ion i n wh ich i ti s k nown t o h ave b een made , t hough s o me v esse ls, o r p roto types, a re f ound o n more d istan t s i tes .

Most e xa mp les b e long t o t he f our th c en tury , t hough e ar-

l i er e xa mp les, o r p ro totypes, a re k nown . T h is o f c ourse makes i td if f icu lt t o a ccep t t ha t t he p ot tery was c usto m- made t o s u it t he t aste o f G erman ic s o ld iers. w he ther r egu lars, mercenar ies,

T he p resence o f G erman ic s o ld iers,

s o ld ier-se t t lers ,

o r wha tever t he ir s tatus,

e spec ia lly i n t he f our th c en tury , i n t he r eg ion where Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery i s c o m monest , i s w ide ly a ccep ted a s b e ing we l l a t tested b y meta lwork a nd o ther e v idence .

O n t he o ther h and , a f ter s uggest ing t ha t Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery

i sp robab ly p ure ly p rov inc ia l R o man , M iss D ick inson g oes o n to s ay ;

"A

c o mparab le a rgu men t a pp l ies t o t he n o t ion t ha t G erman ic t aste i s a pparen t i n l a te Ro man mi l i tary b e lt-equ ipmen t" . A f ter b r ief ly d iscussing t he i deas o f o ther s cho lars s he c onc ludes t ha t " un less o ther a nd p os it ive e v idence i s a dduced , t he h ypothes is o f w idespread G erman ic mi l i tary s et t le men t i n f our th-century B r i ta in s hou ld b e a bandoned" ( D ick inson 1 978 , p p . 4 07-8 ) . Even i ft here were G erman ic s o ld ier-set t lers i n e astern Eng land i n t he f our th-cen tury , wh ich , i nv iew o f what h as j ust b een q uo ted s ee ms h igh ly u n like ly , t hey wou ld p robab ly h ave u sed o ther k inds o f p ot tery a s we l l a s R omano-Saxon , a nd t hey wou ld n ot h ave b een t he o n ly u sers o f t h is. There were o f c ourse f ree-German ic t roops i n R o man Br ita in .

Ad etach-

men t o f S ueb i d ed icated a n a l tar t o t he G erman ic g oddess G ar mangab is a t L anchester i n C oun ty D urha m , i n t he t ime o f G ord ian ( A .D . 2 38-244) , wh i le s omewhere o n o r n ear t he western p ar t o f Hadr ian ' s Wa l l t hree s e lf-sty led G erman ' d ed ica ted a n a l tar t o aC e lt ic g od ; t h is i s d atab le b y i t s l ayou t a nd l e t ter ing t o t he t h ird c en tury ( R .I .B . 1 074 a nd 2 063 ) . Even more d ef in ite, f ro m Housesteads o n H adr ian ' s Wa l l, t here a re t wo a l tars, a nd a t a l l p i l lar , i n scr ibed l i ke a n a l tar , wh ich were f ound , o n t wo s epara te o ccasions, o n t he s ame s ite a s e ach o ther , s ou th o f H ousesteads f or t ( R .I .B . 1 576, 1 593 , 1 594) ; t he s ite l a ter p roved t ob e t ha t o f at e mp le ( B ir ley 1 961, p p . 3 07-8 , a nd 1 962, p p . 17-133 ) . T he i nscr ibed s tones a re l i nked t o e ach o ther , n o t o n ly b y t he ir c om mon f i nd-spot b ut a lso b y t he u se o f t he s a me t erm , A la isiagae , f or a p a ir o f s ubsid iary d e it ies . T he f irst a l tar i s u nda ted , t hough i t may b e a ss igned w i th f a ir p robab i l i ty , t o t he t h ird c en tury , o n t he s treng th o f i t s l ayou t a nd l e t ter ing . I ti s d ed ica ted t o t he A la is iagae , whose n ames a re g iven , a nd t o t he n u men o f t he Emperor , b y au n it s ty l ing i t se lf n umerus H naudi fr id i . T he a l tar d oes n o t r ecord t he e thn ic o r ig in o f t he u n it , b ut a s a l l f our p roper n a mes o n t he a ltar a re G erman ic, t here c an b e n o d oubt , i n g enera l t erms, where t he u n i t was r ea ised . T he a l tarlike p i l lar i s a lso u nda ted , t hough t he f orm o f s ome o f t he l e t ters s uggests a d a te n o e ar l ier t han t he l ast t h ird o f t he s econd c en tury , a nd p oss ib ly l a ter .

I ti s d ed icated t o Mars Th incsus;

Th incsus i s

d oub t less t he l ower G erman e qu iva len t o f Mars; p robab ly b y c o inc idence, t he n ame s ee ms t o b e a ppropr ia te ly r ef lected i n t he f irst e le men t o f t he modern D utch word f or T uesday .. T he p i l lar i s a lso d ed ica ted t o t he A la is iagae , whose

1 13

n a mes a re g iven i n ad if feren t f orm f rom t hose o n t he f irst a l tar , a nd t o t he n u men o f t he Emperor .

T he n a me o f t he u n i t i s n o t g iven , b u t t he d ed ica tors

d escr ibe t he mse lves a s " Ger man ! e lves T u ihan t i", t ha t i s f ro m a n a rea wh ich h as b een i den t if ied a s Twen te, a d istr ic t i n t he e astern Nether lands, r a ther l ess t han 7 0 mi les f ro m t he Fr is ian c oast .

T he t h ird a l tar i s d ated t o t he

t ime o f S everus A lexander ( A M . 2 21-235) . I ti s d ed ica ted t o Mars, w ho i s n o t g iven h is l ower G erman n a me, a nd , o nce more , t o t he t wo A la is iagae a nd t he n u men o f t he Emperor , b y d ed ica tors who d escr ibe t he mse lves i n t he s a me way a s o n t he p rev ious i nscr ip t ion .

T hey were s erv ing i n t he c uneus F r isio-

r u m ,wh ich c arr ies t he s ubt i t le VER ., p resu mab ly a n a bbrev ia t ion o f t he C e lt ic n a me f or H ousesteads . T hese i nscr ip t ions l eave i ti n n o d oubt t ha t i nt he e ar ly t h ird c en tury, a nd p oss ib ly i n t he l a te s econd , s o ld iers f ro m f ree G er many were s erv ing, a longs ide a n o ld-sty le c ohor t o f t he R o man Army , a t Housesteads.

O n t he

f ace o f i tt here were t wo u n its, t he n u merus Hnaud ifr id i a nd t he c uneus Fr is ioru m , t hough i ti s p ossib le t ha t t hese a re t wo d i f feren t f orms o f t he n a me o f as ing le u n it , f or t he t erms n u merus a nd c uneus were i n terchangeab le o n o ccas ion ( R .I.B . 5 83 a nd S eeck 1 876 , O cc . x i , 5 4 ) . s ona l n a me c ou ld we l l a pp ly t o t he s a me u n it .

An e thn ic t i t le a nd a p er-

T he p rec ise s tatus a nd c haracter o f t he u n it i s d if f icu lt t o a scer ta in , t hough i ti s n o t o ne o f t he o ld-sty le c ohor ts o r a lae . I ti s r eferred t o a s a n u merus, wh ich i s t he s ame t er m a s i s u sed f or t he u n i ts o f Br itons o n t he O denwa ld L i mes i n t he m idd le o f t he s econd c en tury , t hough t h is i s n o t t he d a te o f t he ir f i rst a rr iva l t here . T he G er man u n i t a t Housesteads h ad a t i t le d er ived f ro m t he n a me o f t he f or t , j ust a s t he Br it ish u n its i n G ermany h ad t i t les d er ived f ro m t he n a mes o f t he r ivers n ear wh ich t hey w ere s ta t ioned . T he p ersona l n a me o f t he H ousesteads u n it i s p resu mab ly e i ther t ha t o f i t s c urren t c o m mand ing o f f icer , o r , a s w ith S k inners ' Horse, t ha t o f t he p erson who r a ised a nd f i rst c o m manded i t . I n e i ther c ase i ti s s ign if ican t t ha t h e s hou ld h ave a G erman ic n a me , a nd t ha t h e s hou ld n o t b e aR o man c i t izen , l e t a lone a me mber o f t he e questr ian o rder .

T he s o ld iers s e t u p a ltars, o r p a id

t o h ave t he m s e t u p , t o t he ir own n a t ive g ods, i n t he c urren t Ro man p rov inc ia l f ash ion , u s ing t he L a t in l anguage . T hough i nco mp le te , t hese f ac ts p rov ide s o me i nd ica t ion o f t he u n i t 's c harac ter ; i ti s c lear t ha t i th ad r e ta ined s trong l i nks w i th i t s h o me land , wh i le a t t he s ame t ime i t wou ld s eem t o h ave h ad a d ef ined s tatus i n t he R o man Army , l ower t han t ha t o f t he o ld r egu lar c ohor ts, b ut o ne f or wh ich t here were p receden ts . I n t he c ourse o f e xcava t ions i n t he v icus o f H ousesteads f or t i n 1 931, Professor Er ic B ir ley f ound e xa mp les o f ac a tegory o f p ot tery , i nc lud ing o ne w ide- mou thed j ar o r b ow l w ith a c o mp le te s ect ion , wh ich was marked ly d if feren t b o th f ro m t he a lready we l l-known s tandard Ro mano-Br it ish w ares, a nd t he a s y e t l ess we l l-known l oca l n a t ive wares . T he v esse ls were i n a smooth , l ea thery , b lack o r b rown f abr ic . S o me o f t he v esse ls, t hough n ot t he most c o mp le te , h ad n o tches o r f i ngert ip d epressions o n t he r im , a nd, l ess o f ten , a lso o n t he s hou lder ; t hey were n o t o therw ise d ecorated . A s t he ware h ad t hen b een s een o n ly a t H ousesteads, a nd a s i t was n o t u ncommon t here , i t was t ermed H ousesteads ware . None o f t he p ot tery was p ub l ished s tra igh t away , t hough t he most c o mp le te v esse l was p ub l ished a q uar ter o f a c en tury l a ter a nd a ss igned t o t he f our th c entury ( G i l la m 1 957 , t ype 1 88 ) . 14

I n 1 933 t wo b roken b ut a l most c o mp lete v esse ls, o ne o f wh ich h ad a p edes ta l b ase , were f ound s ou th o f t he Wa l l f or t o f B irdoswa ld ; p ho tographs were p ub l ished b ut n o t s ect ions ( S i mpson a nd R ichmond 1 934, p p .1 22-123 a nd f i g . 1 ) .

T he v esse ls a re H ousesteads ware , t hough t h is was n o t r ea l ised

a t t he t ime .

T hey were d escr ibed a s n a t ive , a nd a ssigned t o t he p re-Ro man

p er iod ; a t t ha t t ime t he s tructura l s equence t o t he s outh o f t he f or t was i mp er fect ly u nderstood . I n 1 960 a Housesteads-ware v esse l, o f ad if feren t f orm , was f ound i n a l a te t h ird-cen tury c on tex t i ns ide H ousesteads f or t ; t h is i s o ne o f v ery f ew s ecure ly s tra t if ied a nd d a ted e xa mp les ( W i lkes, 1 960, f ig . 3 , n o . 1) . I n 1 970 t wo v esse ls were p ub l ished f ro m V indo landa , o ut o f s evera l wh ich h ad b een f ound o ver t he p rev ious t hree y ears, a nd r ecogn ised a s H ouses teads ware . T hey c a me f ro m t he u pper l eve ls o fb u i ld ings o u tside t he f or t ( Bir ley 1 970 , f i g . 5n os . 7a nd 8 ) . B oth v esse ls h ad f ingert ip d ecora t ion , a nd o ne , i fc orrect ly r estored , ap edesta l b ase .

I n 1 977 f ur ther e xa mp les

o f H ousesteads ware w ere p ub l ished f ro m V indo landa ( H ird 1 977 , n os. 4 194 21) . I n 1 974 Mr . J .H . B loe mers s howed me a l arge n ur rb e r o f Fr isian v esse ls, o f t he Ro man p er iod , b ut f ro m b eyond t he Ro man f ron t ier , wh ich c lose ly r ese mb led H ousesteads ware . I n v iew o f t he i nscr ip t ions, t he p ossib i l i ty t ha t Housesteads ware h ad b een d er ived f ro m Fr isia i m med ia te ly s ugg ested i t se lf . I n 1 976 Mr . I .M . J obey i nc luded a s tudy o f H ousesteads ware w ith in a b roader s tudy o f t he n a t ive wares o f S cot land a nd n or thern Eng land .

H e c on-

d uc ted a t horough f irst-hand a utopsy o f a l l t he H ousesteads ware i n Eng land , a nd a lso o f F r isian ware i n t he e xce l len t D utch p ub l ica t ions made a va i lab le b y Mr . B loe mers.

Mr . J obey ' ss tudy w i l l a ppear i n v o lu me V I I o f Archaeo-

l og ia Ae l iana , f i f th s er ies, f or thco m ing i n 1 979, u nder t he t i t le : Housesteads Ware—a Fr is ian Trad it ion o n Hadr ian ' s Wa l l . Mr . J obey h as g enerous ly h e lped me w i th t h is p resen t p aper , t hough t he r eferences a re c on f ined t o mat er ia l a lready p ub lished . I ts ee ms p ossib le , t hough i ti s n o t c er ta in , t ha t , a s a t H ousesteads, i n a dd i t ion t o t he o ld-sty le c ohor ts, t here were , a t s o me t ime, Fr is ian n urner i a t o r n ear B irdoswa ld a nd V indo landa . A s we h ave s een , i th as b een c la i med t ha t R o mano-Saxon p ot tery was made b y Ro mano-Br i t ish p o t ters, wh ich i s a lmos t c er ta in ly c orrect , t o meet t he t astes o f Ang lo-Saxon mercenar ies b rough t i n d ur ing t he f our th a nd e ar ly f i f th c en tur ies, wh ich i s a l most c er ta in ly i ncorrect .

Q u i te a par t f rom t he

f ac t t ha t t here i s n o r ea l ly s o lid e v idence t hat t here were a ny Ang lo-Saxon mercenar ies, i n t he R o man p er iod , i n t he p ar t o f Eng land where Ro manoS axon p ot tery i s u sua l ly f ound , t he e v idence f ro m t he n or th p la in ly s hows t ha tt he who le c oncep t o f s pec ia l s upp l ies i s e rroneous . The n umerus o f F r is i i d oubt less u sed o rd inary Ro mano-Br it ish p o t tery , wh ich i s more a bundan t a t H ousesteads t han i s Housesteads ware, t hough t here i s n o means o f t e l ling wh ich o f t he v esse ls h ad b een h and led b y Fr isi i , a nd w h ich b y t he c urren t me mbers o f t he T ungr ian c ohor t wh ich h ad b een

15

r a ised w i th in t he Emp ire g enera t ions b efore .

A lmost c er ta in ly t he F r isians

were a lso u s ing H ousesteads ware, s im i lar t o t he p ot tery o f t he ir h ome land . Wha t t hey were n o t u sing was a k ind o f p ot tery wh ich h ad b een s pec ia l ly made f or t he m , R o man i n f abr ic a nd t echn ique, b u t i n f luenced b y t he s hapes a nd d ecora t ive s ty les o f t he ir h o me land .

C lose t hough H ousesteads ware i s t o

Fr is ian p ot tery , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t i t was a ctua l ly i mpor ted f ro m Fr is ia .

I t

was p robab ly made i n t h is c oun try b y F r isian p ot ters, s erv ing i n o r w i th t he n u merus, a nd work ing i n t he ir own t rad i t ion , j ust a s most p agan Ang lo-Saxon p ot tery wou ld s ee m t o h ave b een made h ere r a ther t han i mpor ted . Dr . G reene h as d rawn my a t ten t ion t o a n i n terest ing g roup f ro m wha t i s n ow t he G erman De mocra t ic R epub l ic ( Sch let te, 1 972 ) . I ti s ag roup o f o b jects f ro m a s ing le g rave e xcava ted a t L euna , i n K re is Merseburg , i n S axony . I n t he r epor t t he g roup i s a ss igned t o t he f our th c en tury, a nd t here i s n o r eason t o q uest ion t h is . I tc o mpr ises f or ty-four o b jects. There a re s even teen p la in g a ming c oun ters, wh ich c ou ld we l l b e Ro man , f our b e lt-ends a nd f our b uck les, wh ich c ou ld b e G erman ic ; t wo R o man s purs, t wo c ircu lar b rooches, wh ich c ou ld b e e i ther l a te-Ro man o r G erman ic ; t wo German ic l ance o r a rrow h eads; t hree l a te-Ro man s egmen ta l me ta l b ow ls; me ta l s k i l le t w ith i t s a t tendan t s tra iner ;

o ne R o man

o ne c y lindr ica l Ro man g lass v esse l ;

f i ve p ot tery v esse ls, s i mp le i n f orm a nd l ack ing i n d ecora t ion , p robab ly Roman-per iod G erman ic ; o ne f unne l-neck i nden ted R o man b eaker f ro m t he Rh ine o r t he Mose l; a nd a h em ispher ica l s i lver b ow l wh ich t he a uthor r egards, d oub t less c orrect ly , a s Ro mano-Gau lish . T he n a t ive p o t tery , l i ke t ha tfro m Fr is ia , i s p la in a nd s i mp le . i s a n a bsence o fb osses, d epressions a nd z ig zags . a s a ncestra l t o R o mano-Saxon p ot tery .

T here

I tc ou ld n ot b e r egarded

Nobody o f c ourse wou ld c la im t hat

i th ad a p a terna l r e la t ionsh ip , b u t i td oes n ot e ven s ee m t o h ave h ad a n a vunc u lar r e la t ionsh ip . O n t he o ther h and , t he s i lver b ow l m igh t we l l b e r egarded a s r e la ted t o R o mano-Saxon p ot tery .

There a re t r iangu lar g roups o f d i mp les, a nd t here

a re l arge f l a t b osses, w i th c en tra l d epress ions.

T he who le a ir o f t he v esse l

i s t he s a me a s t ha t o f s evera l o f t he Ro mano-Saxon v esse ls i l lustrated b y Myres .

O ne o f t he v esse ls i n t he h oard o f l a te-Roman Chr ist ian s i lver , f ound

n ear P e terborough s o me l i t t le t ime a go -,wh i le o f d i f feren t f or m f ro m t he Merseburg e xamp le, a lso h as b osses a nd p endan t t r iang les o f d i mp les . I ti s i n terest ing , t hough n o t n ecessar i ly s ign i f ican t , t ha t P e terborough i s n o t f ar f ro m t he ma in c oncen tra t ion o f R o mano-Saxon p o t tery . Myres d oes o f c ourse r efer t o t he p oss ib le i n f luence o f s i lver v esse ls o n R o mano-Saxon p ot tery . A t o ne p o in t h e s uggests t ha t t he i n f luence was i nd irect— tha t Ro man s i lver v esse ls i n f luenced p uta t ive f ree-German ic v esse ls, wh ich , i n t he ir t urn , i n f luenced R o mano-Saxon p o t tery .

Iwou ld p refer t o b e l ieve t ha t t he i n f luence

was more d irect , a nd e n t ire ly w i th in t he Emp ire . R o mano-Saxon p ot tery c er ta in ly e x ists. I ti s a n i n terest ing , i fs omewha t h e terogeneous, c o l lect ion o f R o mano-Br it ish p o t tery s ty les i n e astern Eng land .

I ti s wor thy o f s tudy , a nd t he t erm wh ich h as b eco me a t tached t o i t

migh t we l l c on t inue t o b e u sed , b u t t h is s hou ld n ot b e t aken t o i mp ly t ha t i ti s i n a ny s ense a h ybr id b e tween Ro man a nd S axon p ot tery .

1 16

B IBL IOGRAPHY B ir ley , R .E., 1 961.

" Housesteads c iv i l s et t le men t , 1 960".

Archaeo l .

Ae l iana 4 th s er ies, 3 9, 3 01-319 B ir ley , R .E ., 1 962 .

" Housesteads V icus, 1 961".

Archaeo l . Ae l iana 4 th

s er ies, 4 0 , 1 17-133 . B ir ley, Robin , 1 970 .

" Excava t ions a t Chesterho l m-V indo landa , 1 967-1969".

Archaeo l . A e l iana 4 th s er ies, 4 8 , 9 7-155 . C o l l ingwood , R .G . a nd Wr igh t , R .P ., 1 965 .

The R o man I nscr ip t ions o f

Br i ta in ( R .I .B .) ( Ox ford ) . D ick inson , Tan ta M . , 1 978 . " Br i t ish An t iqu i ty 1 976-7 . Pagan Ang lo-Saxon ." G i I la m , J .P . ,1 957 . Br i ta in".

P ost-Ro man a nd

Archaeo l . J . 1 34, 4 04-418 .

" Types o f Ro man c oarse p ot tery v esse ls i n n or thern

Archaeo l . Ae l iana 4 th s er ies, 3 5, 1 80-251.

G i l la m , J ohn P ., 1 976 . " Coarse f u med ware i n n or th Br i ta in a nd b eyond". G lasgow Archaeo l . J . 4 , 5 7-80 . Harden , D .B ., e d ., 1 956 . H ird ,

L ou ise, 1 977 .

H urst , J .G . ,1 976 . J ones, M .U., 1 968 .

" Dark Age Br i ta in"

V indo landa , t he p re-Hadr ian ic p ot tery " The P ot tery"

( Bardon M i l l)

i n W i lson 1 976, 2 83-348 .

w ith c on tr ibu t ions b y Ev ison , V .I . a nd Myres, J .N . L .

" Crop- marks a t Muck ing , E ssex". M ike t , Roger a nd Max f ie ld , Va ler ie, 1 972 . ( Coesike)".

( London )

An t iq . J . 4 8 , 2 10-230 . " The Excava t ion o f T urre t 3 32 1

Archaeo l . Ae l iana 4 th s er ies, 5 0 , 1 45-178 .

Myres, J .N .L ., 1 956 .

" Ro mano-Saxon P ot tery" i n Harden 1 956, 1 6-39 .

Myres, J .N . L ., 1 969 .

Ang lo-Saxon P o t tery a nd t he S et t le men t o f Eng land

( Ox ford ) . Myres, J .N . L ., 1 977 . ( Ca mbr idge ) .

A C orpus o f Ang lo-Saxon P ot tery o f t he P agan P er iod .

P eacock , D .P .S . e d . 1 977 , P o t tery a nd Ear ly C o m merce R .I .B .

C f .

( London )

C o l l ingwood a nd Wr igh t , 1 965 .

R ich mond , I.A . a nd Hodgson , K .S ., 1 938 . " The Ro man F or t a t Bewcast le" . Trans . C umber land a nd Wes t mor land An t iquar ian a nd A rchaeo l . S oc . 2 nd s er ies, 3 8 , 1 95-237 . R odwe l l, Warw ick , 1 970 . " So me Ro mano-Saxon P o t tery f ro m E ssex". An t iq . J . 5 0, 2 62-276 . S ch let te , Fr iedr ich , 1 972 .

G ermanen zw ischen Thorsberg u nd Ravenna ( Le ipz ig ) 1 17

S eeck , O t to, 1 876 .

No t i t ia D ign itatu m

( Frank fur t a .M . )

S i mpson , F .G . a nd R ichmond , I .A ., 1 934 . " Excava t ions o n Hadr ian ' s Wa l l" . I , " B irdoswa ld" T rans . C umber land a nd Wes t mor land An t iquar ian a nd Archaeo l . S oc . 2 nd s er ies, 3 4, 1 20-130 . V ierck , H ., 1 976 . " Noe l Myres u nd d ie Bes ied lung Eng lands". s che Z e itschr if t , 5 1, 4 3-55 . Wi lkes, J ohn , 1 960 .

" Excava t ions a t Housesteads i n 1 959".

P räh istor i-

Archaeo l .

A e l iana 4 th s er ies, 3 8 , 6 1-72 . W i l l iams, D .F ., 1 977 . " The Ro mano-Br it ish B lack-Burn ished I ndustry" i n Peacock 1 977 , 1 63-220 . W i lson , R . M . e d ., 1 976 .

The Archaeo logy o f Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ( London )

Young , Chr istopher , J ., 1 977 . Reg ion

The Ro man P ot tery I ndustry o f t he O x ford

( Ox ford ) .

1 18

POTTERY PRODUCTION AND TRADE AT THE END OF ROMAN BR ITAIN : THE CASE AGAINST CONTINU ITY b y Michael Fu l ford

INTRODUCT ION The p urpose o f t h is p aper i s t o t ry t o e xp la in w ha t may h ave h appened t o t he l a te Ro mano-Br i t ish p o t tery i ndus try i n t he e arly 5 th c en tury. The s tate o f t he p o t tery i ndustry i nt he 4 th c en tury ; t he e v idence f or c on t inu i ty o r d iscont inu i ty i n p roduc t ion ; i n • t he u se o f p o t t ing ma ter ia ls a nd t echn iques a nd i n t he i n terna l a nd o verseas t rade o f p o t tery i n t he 4 th-5th c en tury w il l b e e xam ined . Po t tery a nd o ther c lasses o f a r tefac t h ave a n e nor mous c on tr ibu t ion t o make t o o ur u nderstand ing o f t he e nd o f Ro man B r ita in , s ince t hey h ave t he p ot en t ia l t o i n for m u s o f c hanges i n t he d ynam ics o f p roduct ion , t rade a nd c u lt ura l l inks. Po t tery , i np ar t icu lar b ecause o f o ur a b i l i ty t o r ecogn ise a l arge n umber o f i t s s ources i n l a te Ro man Br ita in c o mb ined w i th t he q uan t i t ies i n wh ich i ts urv ives, i s a most v a luable s ource o f e conom ic a nd s ocia l b ehav iour. As a s ource o f e v idence f or u nderstand ing market a c t iv i ty i ti s o bv iously c ruc ia l t o o ur a pprec ia t ion o f t he l inks b e tween t own a nd c oun try a nd t he d ec l ine o f t owns a s markets d ur ing t h is p er iod . I nt he r ecen t p ast d iscussion o f t he e nd o f l ate Roman p o t tery i n B r i ta in h as c oncen tra ted f i rs tly o n e stabl ish ing t he l eng th o f t ime Ro man p o t tery c ont inued t ob e manu factured a nd u sed a f ter c . A .D. 4 00 ( Rah tz 1 974 ) , a nd s econd ly o nt he r ela t ionsh ip b e tween l ate Roman a nd S axon i nt er ms o f s ty le , t echn ique a nd d ecora t ion ( Myres 1 956; 1 969 , 6 6-70 ).

Argumen ts f olow ing Myres i n

f avour o f c lose c onnec t ions b etween Ro man a nd S axon p o t tery ( Rodwel l 1 970 ) h ave b een c oun tered b y e qua l ly s trong a rgumen ts f or k eep ing t he t wo a par t ( Brown 1 974 , 1 8 ).

I ts ee ms t o h ave b een u n iversa l ly a ccep ted t hat Romano-

Br i t ish p o t tery manu facture h ad c eased b y c . A .D. 4 50 , a t t he l atest.

T h is

i s t he c ase f or s ou thern Br ita in w ith in a nd w i thou t a reas o f p r i mary S axon s et t le men t , a l though i nt hose a reas d ependen t e conom ica l ly o n t he p resence o f t he Roman a r my , a n e nd c an r easonably b e c orrela ted w i th t he r e mova l o f Ro man f orces.

Ro man p o t tery c an , o f c ourse , b e u sed i ndef in i tely o nce i th as

b een made. I n r ecen t y ears t he t endency h as b een t o s ee t he p er iod f rom c . A .D. 4 00-10 a s t he s tar t ing p o in t o f d ecl ine i n l ow land B r ita in b u t , a s w e s hal l s ee , ac ons idera t ion o f t he p er iod f ro m a bou t A .D . 3 50 i s l ikely t o a f fec t o ur u nderstand ing o f w ha t , e ven tua l ly , amoun ts t o t he t o ta l e cl ipse o f Ro manoBr i t ish p o t tery t rad i t ions. O bv iously t he a rea t ha t i s o f most c oncern i s l owl and B r ita in s ince t h is a rea l acks t ha t k ind o f e conom ic d ependence o n t he f ron t ier f orces w h ich i s s o e v iden t i n t he n or th a nd Wa les.

1 20

Romano-Br it ish Po ttery i nt he 4 th C en tury An e xa m ina t ion o ft he p o t tery-produc ing c en tres o f t he 4 th c en tury r eveals t he s tr ik ing f ac t t ha t o ft he ma jor k i ln g roups wh ich w ere i n o perat ion i nt he midd le o f t he 4 th c en tury , t he ma jor ity , i fn o t a l l , w ere s t il l i n p roduc t ion C . A .D . 4 00. The A l ice Ho l t , Dorset b lack-burn ished , Hadha m , N ene Va l ley; N ew F orest , Ox fordsh ire, t he s hel l-te mpered wares, e tc. w ere a l l , o n t he b asis o f c o in a ssoc iated f inds b e ing p roduced a bou t A .D. 4 00. N o o ne h as s er iously v en tured t o s uggest t hat a ny o ne o f t he m was s t il l i n p roduct ion b etween c . A .D. 4 50 a nd c . A .D . 5 00. The p o t tery i ndustry a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury was s t i l l p roduc ing a f a ir ly w ide r ange o f f abr ics, f or ms a nd f in ishes. Wheelt hrown a nd h and- made t ypes a re a l most e qua l ly c o m mon i n s ome a reas o f l owl and B r ita in . S l ips, p a in ted d es igns , b urn ish ing , s cor ing , s tabb ing , s tamp ing , r ou let t ing a nd b arbo t ine d ecora t ion c an a l lb e f ound o n Ro mano-Br i t ish p o t tery o f c . A . D. 4 00.

Proble ms im med ia tely a r ise when c o ins c ease t o a rr ive i n

Br i ta in a nd t he c h ief s ource o f d a t ing p o t tery d r ies u p . With c o ins a va ilable t o c ons truct a c hrono log ica l f ra mework f or t he p o t tery w e a re a l most r educed t o g uesswork t o u nderstand wha t h appens i nt he e arly 5 th c en tury .

I n t hese c ir-

c umstances i ti s n ecessary t o r ev iew t he who le p rocess o f Ro mano-Br i t ish p o t tery p roduc t ions f rom t he m id-4th c en tury . I fw e c an f irst t est t ha t a s a s pr ingboard , w e may t hen b e a ble t o t ake a more c on tro l led d ive i n to t he 5 th c en tury q uag m ire. During t he s econd h a l f o f t he 4 th c en tury t here i s a ccumu la t ing e v idence o f d ec l ine i nt he p o t tery i ndustry .

Wh ile t here i s n o c hange i n t he n umber o f

p roduc t ive k i ln g roups , t here i s a n a pprec iable d ecrease i nt he r ange o f d ecorat ion a nd v essel f or m.

Wi th b oth c o lour-coa ted a nd g rey N ew Forest w ares,

i ti sp ossible t o d etect a p os i t ive d ecrease f rom c . A .D . 3 50 i n t he v ar ie ty o f d ecorat ive t rea t men ts a s w el l a s i n t he o vera l l r an ge o f v essel v ar ia t ion ( Fu lf ord 1 975(a ) , 1 12-18 ).

Young c an d etect n o a dd i t ion t o t he t ypo log ical o r d ecora-

t ive r eperto ire o f Ox fordsh ire wares a f ter c . A .D. 3 50 ( 1977 , 2 40 ). On ly a l ack o f s u i tably-da ted g roups h as p reven ted e xa m ina t ion f or a n a c tua l d ecrease i n t h e r ange. Thus a ne lderly p erson i n s ou thern Br ita in c . 4 00 wou ld h ave h ad a pprec iably l ess c ho ice i nt he p o t tery h e c ou ld b uy t han when h e was i s i n h is y ou th . Further more, w ith N ew Forest p o t tery i ti s p ossible t o i so la te a n umber o f t ypes w ith a l im i ted l i fespan w i th in t he t o ta l r ange o f N ew Forest p roduc t ion . The e v idence o f t hese i nd ica tes t ha t t he a c tua l o u tpu t f ro m t he k i lns a lso d ec reased c . A .D. 3 50-400 ( Fu l ford 1 975(a ), 12-18 ).

For o ther i ndustr ies w e

a re n o t y et i n ap os i t ion t o a ssess o u tpu t d ur ing t he 4 th c en tury , a l though t here i s o ther e v idence o f t ypo log ica l f oss il isat ion ( s ee b e low , p . 1 22 ) .

O n ly t he

f or tu i tous c o mb inat ion o f al a te c e me tery , ak i ln g roup a nd a s i te w i th r easona b le s tra t if ied g roups e nab led t he e stabl ish men t o f ac hrono logy f or t he l a ter N ew Forest Wares. O bv iously c hrono log ies a nd t ypo log ies w il l c on t inue t o emerge f or o ther i ndustr ies i nt he r ight c ircumstances b u t t he d isturb ing r esu l t o f t he N ew F orest s tudy w as t o f ind t ha t t he ma jor ity o f t he l a ter t ypes w ere s im i lar t o e arl ier f or ms a nd e ither p la in o r more s i mp le i n

d ecorat ion .

Thus

t hey c ou ld b e u nrecogn ised a nd d is m issed a s r es idua l o n s i tes w i th o ccupa t ion t hroughou t t he l a te Roman p er iod .

1 21

Regard ing t ypo log ical f ossil isat ion i ti s u sefu l t o r eca l l Frere 's c o m men ts o nt he Veru la m ium p o t tery t o t he efec t t ha t l evels w h ich d ate t o a bou t t he s econd q uarter o f t he 5 th c en tury c on ta ined n o r ecogn isab ly d if feren t p o t tery f ro m l evels h a lf a c en tury o r more e arl ier ( 1967 , 3 72 ).

S evera l o ther s i tes s uggest t he

s a me p a t tern : Rah tz h as s hown t ha t , i n t he w est c oun try , p o t tery f rom e arly 5 th c en tury c on tex ts a t Brean Down a nd P agans H i l l i s n o t r ecogn isab ly d iferen t f ro m e ar l ier 4 th c en tury p o t tery i n t he r eg ion ( 1974, 9 6-7 ). A t Ga tcome, S o mers et , B ran igan h as n oted t ha t t he n umber o f t ype f abr ics i n t he l ast p hase o f t he o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te ( s . A .D. 3 67+ ) i s much l ess t han i n t he ma in p hase o f o ccupa t ion ( 1977 , 8 9 ). Even i ft here w ere f ewer p eop le o n t he s i te i td oes n o t f o l low t ha t t he r ange o f t ype a nd f abrics w il l b e more l im i ted , merely t ha t t o ta l n umbers w il lb e r educed.

A t Porchester a nd L ankh il ls a d ecrease w as n o ted

i nt he amoun t o f s l ip a nd d ecora t ion a pp l ied t o t he c ook ing a nd t able-wares r each ing t he s i tes c . A .D. 3 50-400 ( Fu l ford 1 975(b ) ; Fu l ford , i n p ress ).

A l ice

Ho l t wares w ere a n i mpor tan t c o mponen t , b u t l ack o f e v idence p reven t ed t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t rends w i th in t he p er iod A .D. 3 50-400. I n s u m mary d ef in ite e v idence o f d ecl ine c an b e t raced b ack t o o ne p o t tery i ndustry , while more c ircumstan t ia l e v idence s uggests t he i nclusion o f t wo o thers; a l arger n u mber o f o ccupa t ion s i tes s how , c o l lect ively , ad ecrease i n t he r ange o f f abr ic , f or ms a nd d ecora t ion o ver t he s econd h a l f o f t he c en tury . I n a dd i t ion t o more e v idence o f t he t ype j ust d escr ibed f ro m 4 th c en tury s i tes , w e u rgen t ly n eed i n for ma t ion o n t he q uest ion o f a c tua l n umbers a nd t heir r ela t ive c hanges; p rogress i n t h is d irec t ion c an b e a ch ieved b y c ons ider ing t he r at io o f s o il r e moved f ro m a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts t o p o t tery a nd t he r a t io o f p o t tery t o o ther ma ter ia ls s uch a s b one ( c f . Brad ley , f or thco m ing; V ince 1 977 ). Con t inen ta l Ev idence Presen ted w ith t he e v idence o f p ot tery d ecl ine i n Br ita in b etween c . A .D . 3 50 a nd c . A .D. 4 10 , w e m igh t c on te mp la te a d ive f ro m t he s pr ingboard , bu t b efore c lO ing s o , i ts ee ms u seful t o c on s ider 4 th a nd e ar ly 5 th c en tury c e metery e v idence f ro m Ga l l ia B e lg ica a nd Ger man ia S uper ior.

The i mpor tance o f t h is

i s t ha t t here i s n o c o mparable ma ter ia l f ro m B r ita in i t sel f .

A t p resen t i ti s

o n ly t hrough t he a ssoc ia t ions p rov ided b y f urn ished g rave-groups t ha t i ti s p oss ible t ob u ild u p d a ted a rtefac tu al t ypo log ies f or t h is p er iod. The Gau l ish a nd Ger man ic c e me tery e v idence t hus e ncapsu la tes s o me o f t he p rocesses o f c hange i n ma ter ia l c u l ture i n t he e arly 5 th c en tury . S ince s uch e v idence i s l ack ing f ro m l ow land B r ita in i n t he e arly 5 th c en tury i ti s e x tre mely d if icu l t t o d ef ine a r tefactua l c hange ; h ence t he r elevance o f t he c on t inen ta l c e me ter ies. Two i mpor tan t s tud ies c oncern u s: t ha t o f Wi lmer o f t he Tr ier r eg ion ( 1958 ) a nd t ha t o f P ir l ing o f t he K re feld-Gel lep c e meter ies ( 1966- 1 974 ). O ne o f t he l a t ter c e meter ies r uns t hrough f rom t he l a te 3 rd t o t he 7 th c ent ury . F urn ished g raves ( wh ich a re o ur p resen t c oncern ) a re f ew f rom t he m id-4th c en tury i n c o mpar ison w ith u n furn ished b ur ia ls o f p robably c on te mp orary d a te.

B ear ing i n m ind t ha t t he c haracter o f t he g rave-goods i n t he

f urn ished g roup may n o tb e r epresen ta t ive o f t he a r tefacts a va i lable t o t h e who le p opu lat ion a nd t ha t t he d a t ing i s n o t u n iversa l ly a ccept ed ( c f. J anssen 1 976, 4 9-50 ), s evera l p o in ts s hou ld b e c ons idered .

Whereas 4 th c en tury

f urn ished g raves a re r ich ly p rov ided w i th wheel-thrown p o t tery , t hose o ft he

1 22

f irst p ost-Ro man p hase ( Per iod 1 , A . D. 4 00-50 ) o n ly p roduced p ot tery i n 1 0/ 2 7 g raves.

On ly o ne g rave h ad more t han o ne v essel .

1 12 g raves h ave o ne v essel p er b ur ia l.

Four t rans it ional p er iod

I n p er iod 2 ( A.D. 4 50-525) t he p opu la-

t ion o ff urn ished g raves w ith p o t tery i ncreased ;

n ow t wo-th irds o f t he g raves

( 20/ 31 ) h ave v essels , amongst wh ich o ne h as t hree a nd t wo h ave t wo e ach. n ine t ransi t ional p er iod 2 -3 g raves f our h ad p o ts —one w i th t wo v essels.

O f

I n

p er iod 3 ( A. D . 5 25-600 ) g raves f urn ished w ith p o t tery a re c orrespond ing ly more p len t iful .

Thus t he 5 th c en tury , p art icu larly t he f i rst h a l f , w hen t here

i s an o t iceable p overty i n p o t tery g rave-goods , s hows a marked c on trast w ith t he 4 th c en tury .

I nh er s econd r epor t P ir l ing a lso c oncluded t ha t whereas

Ro man p ot tery was a va ilab le t o c . A .D. 4 00 , t he s ources h ad d r ied u p b y A .D . 4 20 a tt he l a tes t ( 1974 , 1 97 ).

There i s t hus a s trong s uggest ion o f as udden

c o l lapse e ar ly i n t he 5 th c en tury .

I n a dd i t ion t he p o t tery i n t he l a ter 5 th c en-

t ury K re feld-Ge l lep g raves s how a t rend t owards i ncreas ing t ypo log ica l v ar ie ty : whereas b ur ia ls o f p er iod 1 h ad o n ly f i ve t ypes o f v esse l , t hose o f p er iod 1 /2 a nd 2 h ad t we lve t ypes o n P ir l ing 's c lass i f ica t ion .

O f t hese e igh t ( exc lud ing

o ne R o man v essel ) a re d i f feren t f ro m t hose i n P hase 1 .

I n p hase 3 t here i s

a lso a no ther i ncrease i n t ypo log ica l _ v ar ia t ion . For t he f abr ics t he mselves, B t fhner is e v idence f ro m t he Tr ier r eg ion i s r elevan t ( 1958 ).

A t ten t io r ti s d rawn t o t he c on t inuous u se o f t e mper ing mater ia l

f rom v o lcan ic d eposits i n t he E ifel moun ta ins, wh ich i s c on f ir med b y p etro log ica l a na lys is ( Frechen 1 958 , 6 3-68 ). A l though E ifelkera m ik o r Mayen w are i s c o m mon i n t he l a te Ro man p er iod , Böhner 's s tudy d oes n o t make i tc lear whether t he d aaracter o f t he f abr ic a nd t he i nclusion s u sed i n 5 th-6th c en tury p o t tery i s s im i lar t o t ha t u sed i n t he 4 th c en tury .

A s k i ln e v idence i s n o t a va i lab le t o

c lar ify t he p osi t ion , w e o ught t o c onsider whe ther t here i s aq uest ion o f d i f feren t p o t ters a nd p roduc t ion s ites mak ing u se o f t he s a me t e mper ing ma ter ial wh ich , a f ter a l l , i s a va ilab le o ver a c onsiderable a rea.

To s um mar ise :

t he G er man

e v idence s hows p over ty i n c era m ic t ypo logy a nd a va ilab il i ty d ur ing most o f t he 5 th c en tury p art icu larly t he f irst h a l f . There i s a lso e v idence o f t he c on t inuous u se o f t he s a me t e mper ing ma ter ia ls t ha t w ere u sed i n t he Ro man p er iod a s w el l a s o f wheelthrow ing t echn iques , b u t n o t n ecessar ily t he s a me workshops. Fabr ic , For m a nd Decorat ion Any c onsidera t ion o f p o t tery a t t he e nd o f Ro man Br ita in must i nclude t he e v idence f or c on t inu i ty i n f abr ic , f or m a nd d ecora t ion . J ohn G il la m 's p aper ( pp . 1 03-118 ) p rov ides a d eta iled a na lysis o f t he p roble m o f Ro mano-Saxon p o tt ery . Regard ing f abr ics t wo g roups a re n ew i n Br ita in i n t he p ost-Ro man p er iod :

g rasste mpered a nd g rass- marked wares.

Excep t a s b r iquetage t he

l a t ter a re n o t f ound i n l s t-4th c en tury c on tex ts i n l owland Br ita in , b u t t hey d o a ppear w idely i n 5 th c en tury a nd l a ter d epos i ts, a l though t he ir d evelop men t i s b y n o means s i mu ltaneous a cross t he c oun try .

Two o r ig ins h ave b een s uggested ;

o ne i n I reland f or t he g rass- marked wares; t he o ther i n n orth Ger many a nd t he J u t land p en insu la f or t he g rass- o r c ha f fte mpered wares ( Tho mas 1 973; 1 974 ; Hurst 1 976, 2 94 ). Fow ler 1 971 ).

Brown

L oca l i nnova t ion a lso r e ma in s ap ossib il ity ( e .g.

The f act t ha t t hese k inds o f p o t tery a ppear w i th in a nd w i ihou t

t he a reas o f S axon s et t le men t d ur ing t he 5 th c en tury i nd ica tes t hat w e c i,n not u n iversal ly a t tr ibu te i t s i n troduct ion t o c u l tural f actors o r c orrela te i tw ith e thn ic g roups. Whereas a t Muck ing g rass-te mpered wares may b e a ssoc ia ted 1 23

w ith i mm igran t s et t lers;

a t Cadbury Congresbury a nd o ther w est c oun try

s i tes o ther e xp lana t ions f or t he a ppearance o f t h is w are must b e s ough t ( Jones 1 968 ; Fow ler , Gardner a nd Rah tz , 1 968 ).

N evertheless, i n t er ms o f t echn ique ,

i fn o tf or m , i td oes mark a s ign if ican t d epar ture f rom l a te Roman t rad i t ions. On t he o ther h and g r it ty o r s and-te mpered wares a re c o m mon t o b o th R o manoBr i t ish a nd e arly S axon p o t t ing.

Th is c ou ld s uggest t echno log ica l c on t inu ity o r

s i mp ly t he u b iqu i ty o f o bv ious t e mper ing ma ter ia ls ( Hurst 1 976, 2 93 ).

One i s

t e mp ted t o t h ink t he l a t ter o nt he b asis o f o ther , c ommon t e mper ing t rad i t ions wh ich d isappear i n t he 5 th c en tury .

Wi th l im i ted r eg iona l e xcep t ions ( e .g.

S hakenoak ( Ber isford 1 972 ) , s hel l a nd c a lc itete mpered wares a s wel l a s t he g rog-te mpered wares o f t he s ou th d isappear , d esp ite t heir f or m ing a s ubstan t ia l p ropor t ion o f l a te 3 rd-4th c en tury a sse mblages s pread o ver a w ide a rea. As f or v essel-for m ing t echn iques , wheel-thrown f abr ics d isappear i n t he 5 th c ent ury , a s d o a l l t he methods u sed t o p roduce s l ipped/co lour-coa ted wares. Pagan S axon o r C el t ic p o t tery f or ms a re e xclusively h and- made, a l though t h is i s n ot at echn ique n ew t o Ro man Br ita in . I nt he s ou th , h al f o r e ven more o f t he p ott ery a sse mblages i n s o me a reas was h and- made i nt he 4 th c en tury ; a lbe i t s o me o f i tv ery s k i lfu l ly ( Fu l ford 1 975(b ) ) . S ome Ro mano-Br i t ish h and-formed v essels ( e .g. BB1) w ere among t he most p opu lar a nd w idely t raded o f a l l p ott ery t ypes i n Br i ta in f ro m t he e arly 2 nd c en tury o nwards ( W il l ia ms 1 977 ). F ir ing c ond it ions f or b o th S axon a nd Ro mano-Br i t ish h and-for med p o t tery were a l most c er ta in ly t he s a me , w ith e ach r equ ir ing b on f ire me thods. The q uest ion o f c on t inu ity i n d ecora t ion i s d iscussed i n d eta il b y J ohn G il la m ( p p . 1 03-118 ) . Argumen t h as c en tred o n an umber o f v essels i nw heelt hrown ' Ro man ' f abr ics whose o rna men ta t ion o fb osses a nd d i mp les c an b e p ara l leled o nS axon p o t tery . Th is Ro mano-Saxon p o t tery a s Myres d ef in ed i t i s c oncen tra ted i n Ca mbr idgesh ire, E ssex , Her t fordsh ire a nd S u ffo lk ( Myres 1 956, 3 6 ; 1 969 , 6 7 ; Hurst 1 976, 2 90-2 ). There i s n o p art icu lar emphas is o n t he S hore F orts o r s ou th o f t he Tha mes a s was o nce t hough t. Many o ft he e xa mp les c an n ow b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he Hadham k i lns i n H er t fordsh ire w h ich p roduced a w ide r ange o f v essels o f wh ich t he d ecora ted e xa mp les f orm o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion .

A l though Myres p resen ted a l a te 3 rd c en tury e xamp le

f ro m Ca istor ( Myres 1 956, 3 1), t he s tra t if ied v esse ls o therw ise b elong t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he 4 th c en tury . S im ilarly d ecora ted w ares a lso o ccur o ccasiona l ly e lsewhere , b u t t he ma in d istr ibu t ion i s l oca l ised t o t he a rea j us t d ef ined. These wares a re t hus c on te mporary w ith t he s ta mp-decorated v essels f ro m t he N ew F orest a nd O x fordsh ire k i lns , t he N ene Va l ley a nd t he P evensey r eg ion . These i nt he ir t urn a re more o r l ess c on te mporary w i th t he e ar l iest s ta mped wares o f Tun isia a nd t he e ast Med i terranean ( Hayes , 1 972 ), a nd t hey may t hus b e c onsidered a s o ne r eg iona l v ar ian t o f al a te imper ia l t rad i t ion . Wi th o p in ion mov ing away f ro m t he p oss ib il i ty o f o rgan ised S axon s e t t lemen t b efore C . A .D. 4 00 ( and e xclud ing p ossible mercenary g roups b rough t i nf ro m o ther r eg ions b eyond t he f ron t ier a par t f rom n or th G er many ) , t he a ppearance o ft he ' Ro mano-Saxon ' wares o ccurs s o me h a lf-cen tury o r more b efore t he a rr iva l o f t hose p eop le who w ere t hought t o i nsp ire i t .

I n a ny c ase t he S axon

v essels wh ich h ave s ta mped a nd b ossed d ecora t ion d o n o t b eco me c o mmon u n t il much l a ter , t ha t i s t owards t he e nd o f t he 5 th a nd d ur ing t he 6 th c en tury ( Myres 1 969 , 3 1-5 ).

I nt he s a me way , t he r o l ler-stamped d ecorat ion o n

Merov ing ian p o t tery r eca l ls t he o rna men ta t ion o f4 th c en tury A rgonne w ares, 1 24

bu t t h is d oes n o tb eco me c o m mon u n t il t he 6 th c en tury , al ong t ime a f ter t he e nd o f t he A rgonne p roduct ion wh ich i t sel f i s p u t n o l a ter t han c . A .D. 4 25.

Cons-

i der ing w ha t i s n ow k nown a bou t t heir d a te t here i s n o r eason t o make a s pec ia l c ase o f Ro mano-Saxon wares a nd a rgue f or a p ro longed p er iod o f manu fac ture b ecause o f t he s ty l ist ic c onnec t ions w i th l a te 5 th-6th c en tury S axon p o t tery . I fw e c an n ow d is m iss a ny s ign if ican t t echn ica l o r s ty l ist ic c onnect ion b etween Ro mano-Br i t ish a nd S axon p o t tery , w e s t i l l n eed t o e xa m ine a nd e xp la in t he a ssoc ia t ion o fS axon a nd Ro mano-Bri t ish v essels o n i nd iv idua l s i tes. The c la im f or S hakenoak i n Ox fordsh ire h as e f fect ively b een d is m issed b y A lcock ( 1973 ) a nd t ha t f or R ivenhal l i n Essex h as a lso b een d iscoun ted ( Brown 1 974 , 1 8 ). I n t he s a me p aper Brown a rgued t ha t when b arbar ians w ere s et t led w i th in t he emp ire o r h ired a s mercenar ies t hey a dop ted t he Ro man mater ial way o f l i fe. Th is i s amp ly b rough t o u t b y t he e v idence f ro m Br ita in . I n t he L ankh i l ls c e me tery C larke c la i ms t o h ave i den t if ied a f oreign e le men t o n t he b asis o ft he c haracter a nd d ispos i t ion o f g rave f urn i ture , b u t i n t hose g raves Ro mano-Br it ish ma ter ia l , i nclud ing p o t tery , i s p resen t ( Clarke 1 975 ).

The

c on t inen ta l e v idence f or t he b arbar ian a dop t ion o f Ro man a rtefac ts i s o verwhelm ing.

Cu l tura l t rad it ions ( such a s p o t- mak ing ) imported f ro m t he h ome-

l and o n ly b eca me n eeded i nt he a bsence o f Ro man g oods.

I n t he c ase o f t he

e arly 5 th c en tury i n Br ita in n ew ly a rr ived s e t t lers f ound a s i tua t ion w here , a s s uggested a bove ( p . 1 12 ) ,t rad it iona l Ro mano-Br it ish g oods , s uch a s p ot tery , were b eco m ing s carce a nd l ess e asy t o a cqu ire.

Thus w e wou ld e xpect , a s

s ee ms t ob e t he c ase a t Muck ing , t ha t t he f ore ign c o mmun ity wou ld p roduce t he ir o wn o b jects w hen t hey c ou ld n o t o bta in w ha t t hey n eeded f rom l oca l r es ources. Th is imp l ies t ha t i ti s p er fect ly a ccep table t o f i nd a ssocia t ions a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury w i th b o th Romano-Br i t ish a nd p agan S axon p ot tery , a l though e ach a ssoc ia t ion must b e t rea ted c areful ly i n t he r ea l isa t ion t ha t t here w il lb e a s many g roups w here t he Ro mano-Br it ish p o t tery i s r es idua l a s w here i ti s g enu inely c on te mporary w ith t he S axon ma ter ia l .

I n o rder t o

d ist ingu ish b etween t he t wo a n a pproach c an b e s uggested wh ich t rea ts t he a sse mb lage i nq uest ion a s aw ho le. The o b jec t ive h ere i s t o a ssess w hether t he o verall p ropor t ion o ft ypes a nd f abrics f i ts i n to t he p a t tern s uggested b y t he c omposi t ion o f t he l a ter c o in-assoc ia ted g roups o f t he r eg ion o r s i te. From d eter m in ing t he c hanges i nt he o vera l l c o mpos it ion o f p o t tery a sse mblages d ur ing t he s econd h al f o f t he 4 th c en tury i ts hou ld b e p ossible t o s ee whether t he 5 th c en tury g roups f i t t he e xpec ted t rends o r n o t. I f , o n a na lys is, t he p ercen tages o f t ypes a nd f abr ics l ook a s i ft hey b elong w i th in t he 4 th c en tury , o r i ft h ey r evea l am ixed c o mpos it ion r ef lect ing t he p resence o f e ven e arl ier p o t tery , t he a sse mblage c an b e c lassed a s r es idua l . Aq uan t i f ied a pproach o f t h is k ind i s e ssen t ia l ; t he s i mp le a ssoc ia t ion o f Ro mano-Br it ish a nd S axon s herds , h owever f resh t he b reak s , i s , i n i t self , n o t e nough. The D istr ibu t ion o f Po t tery i n l a te Ro man Br ita in A l though w e a re n ow o bta in ing c o mpos ite d istr ibu t ion maps o f4 th c en tury p o t tery , we a re n ot y et i n ap osi t ion t o c ompare many d istr ibu t ion a reas w i th in t he c en tury a s a whole. Th is i s e xacerbated b y t he l ack o f t ypo log ical c hange d ur ing t he p er iod . We c an h owever , d e tec t r e la t ive c hange : O x fordsh ire p o t tery i s r ela t ive ly more i mpor tan t t han N ew F ores t wares a t P or tches ter a f ter c . A . D. 3 50 ( Fu l ford 1 975(b ) ) ; A l ice Ho l t/Farnha m i s r elat ively more 1 25

impor tan t t han o ther c ook ing wares i n L ondon a f ter c . A .D . 3 50 o r c . A . D. 3 70 ( Or ton , 1 977 ). The l a te Ro man s hel l-te mpered wares a re a lso more i mportan t i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he 4 th c en tury ( e .g. S hakenoak ( Brodr ibb , Hands a nd Wa lker , 1 972, 5 4 ) ) . B lack-burn ished w are f rom Dorset , o n t he o ther h and , i s l ess impor tan t i nt he l a ter 4 th c en tury a nd Wi l l iams a rgues f or t he emergence o f l oca l c o mpet i tors ( W i l l ia ms 1 977 , 2 06 ).

N one o f t h is e v idence c an , h owever ,

s uggest a ny th ing a bou t t he a bso lu te n umbers o f v essels d ur ing t h is p er iod. Re la t ive c hanges may b e t ak ing p lace a ga inst ab ackground o f o vera l l d ecl ine , b u t t h is i s d i ff icu l t t o p rove. Wha t i s s ign if ican t i s t ha t n o n ew ma jor i ndustr ies emerge a t t h is t ime t o t ake t he p lace o f t hose t ha t a re a pparen tly l ess i mpor tan t. I n a dd it ion , t here i s n o th ing t o s uggest f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t ha t t hose i ndustr ies wh ich w ere more i mpor tan t i n t he l a te 4 th c en tury e ver c o mp letely e xcluded t he d ecl in ing c o mpe t i tors. The c hanges t ha t we a re most aware o f t ook p lace i n s ou thern Br ita in , where t he i nvasions o f 3 65-7 wh ich c ou ld b e i nvoked a s ap ossible e xp lana t ion d o n o t s ee m t o h ave c rea ted much d is turbance. S o me c orrela t ion c an b e made b etween t he c hanges i n p o ttery s upp ly a nd t he e v idence f or t he d isrup t ion o f c o m mun ica t ions i n t he s econd h a lf o ft he 4 th c en tury . Boker ly Dyke , b lock ing t he r oad b etween Dorchester a nd O ld S aru m ( Rahtz 1 961), t he c u t t ing o f t he ma jor r oads a t East An ton i n Ha mpsh ire ( S tar t in , f or thco m ing ), t he s i t ing o f t he e ar thwork s o n t he S i lchester-Dorchest er-onTha mes r oad ( Boon 1 974 , 7 9-80 ) , a l l t hese i nd ica te i n terference, p erhaps o n ly t e mporary , w i th c o m mun icat ions.

Where w e h ave t he e v idence o f d at e , i t

p o in ts t o t he l ater 4 th c en tury f or t hese a ct iv i t ies.

D isrup t ion i n c ommun icat ions

i s l ike ly t o afec t t rade a nd marke t ing ; i ndeed t he d ec l ine o f t he N ew F orest i ndustry may r ela te t o t he e v idence o f b lock ing c i ted f or Wessex.

D esp i te i t ,

Ox fordsh ire ware s t i l l r eached t he s ou th , b eyond t he a reas where b lock ings h ave b een n o ted , i nt he l ast q uarter o f t he 4 th c en tury , t hough n ot n ecessar ily i n t he s a me amoun ts a s b efore c . A .D . 3 50 ( Young 1 977 , 2 40-1). N ew F orest wares a lso t ravel led a s f ar a s t hey h ad a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he c en tury , b u t i n r educed n umbers ( Fu l ford 1 975(a ), 1 18-26 ). Imported Wares The e v idence o f i mpor ted w ares b ears o u t t he l ast p o in t t ha t , e ven i n smal l q uan t i t ies, p o t tery was s t i l l r each ing a d istan t marke t a f ter A .D . 3 50. A s d iscussed e lsewhere , imports f ro m t he E ifel , t he Argonne a nd Aqu i tan ia s ee m t o h ave a rr ived ma in ly i nt he s econd h a lf o f t he 4 th c en tury , a l though a l arge p ropor t ion o f k nown e xa mp les a re f ro m u nstra t i f ied o r p ost-Roman c on tex ts ( Fu l ford 1 977 ). Med i terranean i mpor ts a lso r eached Br i ta in i n t he 4 th c en tury i n sma l ler n umbers ( Bird 1 977 ; P eacock 1 977 ( a-b ) ) . Among t hese a re Tun is ian amphorae a nd r ed-sl ipped wares. Impor tan t t o t he q uest ion o f c on t inu i ty i s whether t he Med iterranean t rade c arr ied o n t hrough t he 5 th c en tu ry t o l i nk u p w i th t he A a nd B wares o f t he l a te 5 th a nd 6 th c en tur ies ( Tho mas 1 959 ).

H ere , t he e v idence o f B c lass w ares o r

amphorae i s i nconclus ive. I tc an n ow b e s hown f rom t he Med i terranean t ha t t hose t ypes o f amphorae f ound o nw estern Br it ish s i tes i n a ssoc iat ion w i th l a te 5 th-6th c en tury f ine wares were a lready b e ing t raded f ro m t he 4 th c en tury . I n t he c ase o f Tun isian amphorae a nd j ars o f B iv t ype t rade b egan e ven e ar l ier ( Peacock 1 977 ( a-b ) ) . D esp i te t he l ength o f t ime d ur ing wh ich t hese amphorae

1 26

were b e ing p roduced a nd t raded n o t ypo logy h as y et ben e stabl ished wh ich s hows a pprec iable c hanges d ur ing t he ir o vera l l l i fespan .

S ince t hey a re mos tly

r ecovered i nco mp lete a nd a s b ody s herds i ti s n o t p oss ible t o ofer d a tes f or t he amphorae f inds o nt he ir o wn e xcep t w i th in t he b roadest d a te b rackets , i .e. 3 rd/ 4th-7 th c en tur ies. However , p ess im is m o ver d a t ing amphorae c an n ow b e t e mpered w i th t he more p osi t ive i n for ma t ion t ob e g a ined f ro m t he Med i terranean t able wares. These s ee m t o c on f ir m t ha t l a te Ro man f inds, s uch a s Mrs B ird h as c a ta logued , a re c hrono log ica l ly d ist inct f ro m t he ' western B r it ish ' f inds o f t he l a ter 5 th6 th c en tury. Tha t t here i s a n i n terva l b e tween t he t wo g roups i s r e in forced b y t he r ev ised a nd c loser d a t ings o b ta ined f or Med iterranean t able-wares o f t h is p er iod a s ar esu l t o f t he c urren t p rogra m me o f e xcava t ion i n Carthage ( Hayes 1 976; 1 977 ; Fu l ford a nd P eacock , f or thco m ing ). One r esu l t o f t he n ew work h as b een t o s how t ha t t hose A fr ican Red S l ipped f orms t ha t a re t yp ica l o f t he m idd le d ecades o f t he 5 th c en tury c an n ow b e s hown t ob elong t o t he e nd o ft he 4 th c en tury .

Th is c an n ow b e s een t o b e t he p er iod o f

g rea tes t t ypo log ica l c hange r a ther t han t he

p er iod a f ter t he Vanda l c onquest o f

N or th A frica. Changes i n d a t ing h ave a lso o bv iously a f fec ted o ur v iew o ver t he c hang ing d istr ibu t ion p a t terns o f t hese wares. Once more i tc an b e s hown t ha t t he d ecl ine a nd s hr inkage i nt he t raded p a t tern o f ARS c an n ow b e p u t b ack t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c entury , r a ther t han c orrela ted w i th t he Vandal i ncurs ions. Thu s i ti s l ikely t ha t t he v o lume o ft rade p ass ing o u t o f t he Med iterranean wou ld b e d ecl in ing f ro m a s e ar ly a s c . A .D . 4 00. One o f t he c o m mon est Med iterranean t able-ware f i nds i n w estern Br ita in i s f orm 3 o f Hayes ' l a te Ro man C ware f ro m t he e ast Med i terranean . The e ar l iest d a te t ha t Hayes s uggests i s f ro m c . A .D . 4 60/75 o n t he b asis o f c o in a ssoc ia t ions a t A thens ( 1 972 , 3 36-8 ).

A t Car thage t he f or m o ccurs i n l evels

o f t he e arly 6 th c en tury , b u t i ti s u ncom mon .

A t Cadbury-Congresbury ( Fow ler ,

Gardn er & Rah tz , 1 968 ) , T in tagel ( Rad ford 1 956 ) a nd Con i mbr iga i n Portuga l ( De lgado , Mayet a nd Mart inho d e A lar ä -a o 1 975 ), s i tes w ith c o mpara t ively l arge p ub l ished c o l lect ions o f Med iterranean f ine wares e ven i fl ack ing i n w el l-da ted s tra t igraphic c on tex ts , t h is f or m ( wh ich i s t he most c o m mon o f t he a ssoc ia ted c on te mporary i mpor ts ) a ccompan ies t he ARS d a ted n ow t o t he e nd o f t he 5 th , b eg inn ing o f t he 6 th c en tury .

A t Con i mbr iga , i n v iew o ft he s ize o f t he a sse m-

b lage , i tc an b e s tressed t ha t , o n t he b asis o f r ev ised d a t ings t here a ppears t ob e al ack o f Med iterranean wares f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury t o t he a ppearance o f t he l a te Ro man C f or m 3 .

On ly a f ew s herds c ou ld b elong t o

t he i n terven ing p er iod. Further more , n one o f t he t ypo log ical ly l a ter g roup o f f inds n eed b elong a f ter t he m id-6th c en tury . Th is a lso s ee ms t o b e t he c ase w i th a l l t he l a te-per iod i mpor ted t able wares f ro m Br ita in ; a l l s herds a re f rom v essels w h ich were a va ilab le f ro m t he e nd o ft he 5 th o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he 6 th c en tury .

N one o f t he l a test ARS f or ms n or o ther t ypes , b esides f or m

3 , o fl a te Ro man C h ave b een f ound i nB rita in . i nP or tuga l t hus e choes t he Br i t ish s i tua t ion .

The a sse mblage a t Con imbr iga

Wh ile i ti s n o t t he p lace t o d iscuss t he s ign if icance o f t he ' l a te ' , western B r i t ish f inds i n d eta i l i ti s wor th emphas is ing t ha t , a t p resen t , i tl ooks a s i f t here was o n ly a c o mpar t ively b r ief p er iod o f i mpor ta t ion f ro m t he Med i terr an ean , l ast ing f ro m c . A .D. 4 75-c. A .D . 5 50 a t t he most. 1 27

Wh ile , o n t he

amphorae e v idence a lone , o ne c ou ld a rgue f or a c on t inuous ' t r ick le-trade ' f ro m t he l a te Ro mano-Br i t ish p er iod o nwards , t he f ac t t ha t t here i s ac lear i n terval i n t he impor ta t ion o f t he t able wares , s trong ly s uggests t ha t t he s a me i st rue f or t he amphorae. I ft he w estern Br it ish f inds c an n ow s tand a s as epara te g roup o f impor ts o fb r ief d urat ion , t hen t here may w el lb e as ign if ican t l i nk w ith t he p eace a nd p rosper i ty t ha t G i ldas n oted i n B r ita in i nh is t ime ( De Excid io , Ch. 2 6 ). CONC LUSIONS A l though t he s tudy o f impor ted wares h as t aken u s f ar f ro m t he l a te Ro man Br i ta in where t h is p aper b egan , i th as b een impor tan t t o s how t he e v idence f or ab reak i n l ong-d istance p o t tery t rade f ro m c . A .D . 4 00.

The r eason s f or t h is

r est a s much w i th c ircumstances o b ta in in g i n t he Med i terran ean a nd o n t he c ont inen t a s w ith c ond i t ions w ith in Br ita in . I nt he e arl ier p art o f t h is p aper t he e v idence f or a t ypo log ica l a nd q uan t it a t ive d ecl ine i n Ro mano-Br i t ish p o t tery f ro m c . A .D. 3 50 w as d iscussed . The r easons f or t h is a re e lusive; f ewer c usto mers , g rea ter c osts , i n terference w ith d is tr ibu t ion a nd market ing , a l l t hese a nd o ther e xp lana t ions c ou ld b e c on tribut ory f actors.

N evertheless, whatever t he c auses , d ecl ine , i n i t self , d oes n o t

n ecessar ily l ead t o a n e nd ing.

I n t heory t he e v idence s t il l s ee ms t o p resen t u s

w i th a c ho ice b e tween f urther g radua l d ec l ine a f ter c . A .D. 4 00 a nd a n a brup t e nd .

Wh ile , i ts ee ms t o me , t he we ight o f t he e v idence p o in ts t o t he l a t ter ,

f urther e xp lana t ion i s n ecessary t o s et o u t why t h is i sb o th f eas ible a nd v ery l ikely . One o f t he most o bv ious p o in ts i s t ha t o ne wou ld n o t e xpec t ap o t tery o r g roup o f p o t ters t o c on t inue mak ing a nd s el l ing p o ts o nce t he r eturns n o l onger s a t isf ied t he m o r t he ir masters , i ft hey w ere n o t f ree.

I n t he 4 th c en tury

p o t tery- mak ing was a s pec ia l ised a ct iv ity v ery l argely c on f ined t o l arge c en tres l ike t he A l ice Ho l t , N ene Va l ley , a nd Ox fordsh ire g roups. These h ad d eveloped a s ar esponse t o ar is ing d e mand a nd t heir s ize a nd l ocat ion a t c . A .D . 4 00 i s ar ef lec t ion o f as i tua t ion w h ich p ar t icu lar ly d eveloped a t t he e nd o f t he 3 rd c en tury . The ir l oca t ion a nd marke t ing p erfor mance c ou ld n o t , i ts ee ms r easona ble t o a rgue , c ope when d e mand h ad f a l len b elow t he l evel w h ich h ad p romp ted t he ir e xpans ion i nt he f i rst p lace.

Thus w e c an e xpec t af a ir ly c en tra l ised

p ot t ing i ndustry t ob e a ble t o s usta in i t sel f d ur ing a p er iod o f d ecl ine s uch a s t he s econd h a l f o f t he 4 th c en tury , j ust a s i th ad f l our ished d ur ing e ar l ier e xpansion .

Once d e mand f e l lb elow a c er ta in l evel s uch i ndustr ies were s urely

n o l onger i n av iable p osi t ion .

The ir e nd i s , t herefore , l ikely t o b e s udden ,

r a ther t han g radual w i th o u tpu t a nd t henumber o f p roduc t ive p o t ter ies d ropp ing s harp ly . An a brup t e nd s t il l l eaves u s w ith a n umber o f p eop le w ith p ot t ing s k il ls. These c ou ld e i ther move f reely t o ab et ter l i v ing o r b e f orc ibly r edep loyed b y t he ir masters. The ir s k il ls a s p o t ters c ou ld o bv iously b e ma in ta ined o n a l ocal b as is , b u t ap rev iously ' cen tral ised ' i ndustry i s u n l ikely t o h ave p roduced e nough p o t tery a t t he t ime o f i t s c o l lapse t o ma in ta in a nd d isperse RomanoBr it ish p o t t ing t rad i t ions t hroughou t Br i ta in . p o t tery t r iumphed .

Th is i s s urely w hy Pagan S axon

Manu fac ture was l ess s pec ia l ised f rom t he s tar t a nd v i l lage

o r c ra f t-pot t ing was c usto mary. S axon p o t t ing f l our ished b ecause migra t ion 1 28

d id n o t d estroy a ny d ependence b y t he c o m mun i ty o n ar ela t ively smal l p oo l o f s pec ia l ists wh ich was c er ta in ly t he s i tua t ion i n l a te Roman Br i ta in . A ssoc ia ted g roups o f Ro mano-Br i t ish a nd p agan S axon p o t tery c ou ld t hus e as ily o ccur a t t he t ime when t he s upp ly o f Ro man g oods d r ied u p , t hus e ncourag ing S axon p ot tery t o f i l l t he v acuum . I n t he 4 th c en tury b arbar ians w ith in t he emp ire w ere c on ten tt o r ely e n t irely o n t he s upp ly o f Ro man g oods. By t he s econd q uar ter o ft he 5 th c en tury t he n a t ive Ro mano-Br iton , i nh is t urn , c ou ld w el l h ave b een d ependen t o n t he S axon f or h is s upp ly o f p o t tery i n t he s ou th-east . S ub-Ro man p ot tery w ill b e t he work o f t hose p o t ters w ho c on t inued p o t t ing a f ter t he p er iod o f t he c o l lapse o r who p assed o n t he ir s k i l ls. I t may b e t he work o f s uch p eop le w h ich s urv ives a t s i tes w ith l a te 5 th-6th c en tury o ccupa t ion s uch a s Cadbury-Congresbury ( Rah tz 1 974 , 9 7-8 ). S ub-Ro man may b e a n a ppropr ia te d escr ip t ion f or s o me o ft he 5 th c en tury p o t tery i n t he c e meter ies d iscussed a bove . The c haracter o f t he p ot tery v esse ls i n 5 th c en tury g raves s eems t o s ugges t t he s ame p rocess o f d is in tegra t ion o f t he p o t tery i ndus try i n n or thern Gau l a nd G ermany a s a dvoca ted f or B r i ta in . The e nd o ft he ma jor i ndustr ies i nclud ing t he i mpor tan t h and- made wares whose f abr ics d o n o t r ecur i nt he e ar l iest S axon v essels p robab ly o ccurred w ith in a d ecade o f A .D. 4 02.

The s hadowy e ven ts o f A .D. 4 07-10 s uggest a n

a ppropr iate c on tex t f or t he d isrup t ions t ha t a ppear t o h ave b rought t he ' f ina l ' e nd .

I ti s n o c o inc idence t ha t t he c hosen d a te o f A .D. 4 02 i s t he y ear w hen

b ronze c o inage was l ast i mpor ted i nb u lk t o Br i ta in .

Wh i le p o t tery c an c ircu late

w ide ly w ithou t t he med ium o f ac o in-using e cono my ( and n o d oubt w e s ha l l s oon h ave s o me d istr ibu t ions o f S ub-Ro man wares ( c f. Rahtz 1 974 , 9 9 ) ) , w e s hou ld r e member t ha t t he l a te Ro man p ot ter ies d eveloped w ith in a c o in-using e cono my . I t i s t hus f a ir t o a rgue t ha t t he d isappearance o f c o in a s a med ium o f e xchange wou ld e rode t he b asis f or t he c on t inued e x istence o f t hose p o t ter ies. A s t here was ah igh a nd a l ow-va lue c o inage i n Br i ta in b efore A . D. 4 3, a s im ilar a rr ange men t wou ld s urely h ave d eveloped a f ter A .D. 4 02-10 , u n less t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic s i tua t ion n o l onger j ust if ied o ne. O ne m ight a sk w hy t he p o t ters d id n o t a d just t o as i tua t ion wh ich was g radua l ly c hang ing o ver a l ong p er iod a nd t hus a vo id a s udden b reak .

However

t here i s n o e v idence a t a l l t ha t t he a nc ien t world was c apable o f a pprec ia t ing t he c hanges t ha t h ave b een d escr ibed b ecause t hey t ook p lace o ver s uch a l ong p er iod . When t he s i tua t ion e ven tua l ly b eca me c r it ica l a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury , i t was t oo l a te f or a ny th ing b u t r ad ica l c hanges. Af ew y ears a go i t wou ld h ave s ee med u nreasonable f or a nyone t o h ave s uggested a n e nd t o l arge-sca le p o t tery p roduc t ion a nd market in g w i th in a f ew y ears o f A .D. 4 02. Th is was ma in ly b ecause t he y ears b e tween c . 3 67 a nd C . 4 10 were s een a s ap er iod o f r ecovery a nd c o mpara t ive p rosper i ty . The y ears b etween c . A .D. 4 00 a nd c . A .D . 4 10 s ee med t o b e t he b eg inn ing o f t he e nd a s f ar a s t rade a nd i ndustry w ere c oncerned.

The b ehav iour o f t he l a t ter

s ee med t o b e i ndependen t o f t he h istor ica l ly a t tested p o l it ica l e ven ts o f t he l as t y ears o f Ro man B r ita in .

With t he s tar t o f d ecl ine p ushed b ack t o t he m id-

4 th c en tury , o ur v iew o ft he p o t tery i ndustry i n t he e arly 5 th c en tury i s r ad ica l ly a l tered.

1 29

B IBL IOGRAPHY

A lcock , L ., 1 973 .

Rev iew o f Brodr ibb, H ands a nd Wa lker ( 1972) , Med ieva l

Archaeo l . 1 7 ( 1973) , 1 89-90 . Ber isford , F ., 1 972 .

The Ang lo-Saxon P ot tery ', i n Brodr ibb, H ands a nd

Wa lker 1 972, 5 6-66 . B ird , J ., 1 977 .

A fr ican Red S l ip Ware i n Ro man Br i ta in ' ,i n Dore a nd

Greene ( 1977 ) , 2 69-78 . Böhner , K ., 1 958 .

D ie f rank-i schen A lter tü mer d es Tr ierer L andes, 2v o ls .,

Ber l in , 1 958 . Boon , G . C ., 1 974 .

S i lchester : The Ro man Town o f Ca l leva , New ton Abbo t ,

1 974 Brad ley , R . J ., f or thco m ing .

Excava t ions a t Dorchester-upon-Thames,

Oxon iensia , f or thco m ing . Bran igan , K ., 1 977 .

G a tco mbe , The Excava t ion a nd S tudy o f a Ro mano -

Br i t ish v i l la e sta te, 1 967-76, Ox ford , 1 977 . Brodr ibb, A . C . C ., Hands, A . R . a nd Wa lker , D . R ., 1 972 . a t S hakenoak Far m , n ear Wi lcote , Ox fordsh ire Par t I I :

Excava t ions S ite F .

O x ford 1 972 . Brown , P . D . C ., 1 974 .

'Prob le ms o f C on t inu ity ' i n T . Row ley ( ed .) ,

Ang lo-Saxon S et t le men t a nd L andscape, Ox ford ( 1974) , 1 6-19 . C larke , G ., 1 975 .

'P opu lar move men ts a nd l a te R o man c e meter ies ',

Wor ld Archaeo l . 7( 1975) , 4 6-56 . De lgado, M ., Maye t , F ., a nd Mout inho d e A lar ' Cao , A ., 1 975 . C on i mbr iga .

Vo lu me I V .

Fou i l les d e

L es S ig i l lees, Par is, 1 975 .

D ore , J ., a nd Greene , K ., ( eds .) , 1 977 .

Ro man P ot tery S tud ies I n Br i ta in

a nd Beyond , Ox ford , 1 977 . F ow ler , P . J ., 1 971.

I n J . S . Grac ie , 'Frocester C our t Ro man V i l la ',

Trans . Br isto l &G loucestersh ire Archaeo l . S oc . 8 9 ( f or 1 970 ) , 5 02 . F ow ler , P . J ., G ardner , K . S . a nd Rah tz , P . A ., 1 968 .

Cadbury C ongres-

b ury , S o merse t , 1 968 , Dep t . o f Ex tra- Mura l S tud ies, Un ivers i ty o f Br isto l, 1 968 . Frechen , J ., 1 958 .

D ie Petrograph ische Un tersuchung d er K era m ik u nd

I hre Ergebn isse ' ,i n Böhner ( 1958 ) , 6 3-8 . Frere, S . S ., 1 967 .

Br i tann ia , ah istory o f Ro man Br ita in , L ondon , 1 967 .

1 30

Fu l ford , M . G ., 1 975a .

New Forest Ro man Pot tery :

Manufacture a nd D is-

t r ibut ion w ith a C orpus o f t he Pot tery Types, Ox ford 1 975 . Fu l ford , M . G ., 1 975b .

'The Pot tery ', i n B . W. Cun li f fe, Excava t ions a t

P or tchester C ast le, Vo l . 1 , L ondon ( 1975) , 2 70-367 . Fu lford , M . G ., 1 977 .

P ot tery a nd Br i ta in ' s Fore ign Trade i n t he l a ter

Ro man P er iod ' ,i n P eacock ( 1977c) , 3 5-84 . Fu lford , M . G ., i n p ress . The Ro man Pot tery , i n G . C larke, The Ro man C e me tery a t L arkh i l ls, Winchester S tud ies 3 ( 2 ) , i n p ress. Fu lford , M . G ., a nd P eacock , D . P . S ., f orthco m ing . t i ons a t Car thage :

The Avenue Bourgu iba S i te :

The Br it ish Excava-

The Vanda l a nd Byzan t ine

P ot tery , f or thco m ing . G i ldas .

G i ldae S ap ien t is d e e xc id io e t c onquestu Br itann iae i n T . Mo m msen

( ed .) C hron ica M in .ora S aec . I V .V .V I .V I I , I I , ( Monu men ta G erman iae H istor ica Auc toru m An t iqu issoru m , X I I I ) Ber lin ( 1898 ) , 1 -85 . Hayes, J . W., 1 972 .

L a te Ro man P ot tery , Br i t ish S choo l a t Ro me, L ondon ,

1 972 . Hayes, J . W ., 1 976 .

'Pot tery :

S tra t if ied Groups a nd Typo logy ', i n J . H .

Hu mphrey ( ed .) Excava t ions a t C ar thage 1 975 c onducted b y t he Un iversi ty o f M ich igan I , T un is ( 1976) , 4 7-123 . Hayes, J . W ., 1 977 .

Nor th A fr ican f langed b ow ls: A p rob le m i n f if th-

c en tury c hrono logy ' i n Dore a nd G reen ( 1977 ) , 2 79-88 . Hurst , J . G ., 1 976 .

'The Pot tery ', i n D . M . Wi lson ( ed .) , The Archaeo logy

o f Ang lo-Saxon E ng land , L ondon ( 1976) , 2 83-348 . J anssen , W., 1 976 .

'S o me Ma jor A spects o f Frank ish a nd Med ieva l S et t le men t

i n t he Rh ine land ' ,i n P . H . S awyer ( ed .) , Med ieva l S et t le men t : C on t inu ity a nd Change , L ondon ( 1976) , 4 1-60 . J ones, M . U ., 1 968 . e t a l .

Crop - mark s i tes a t Muck ing , E ssex ' ,An t iq . J .

4 8 ( 1968 ) , 2 10-37 . Myres, J . N . L ., 1 956 .

' Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery ', i n D . B . Harden ( ed .) ,

Dark-Age Br i ta in , L ondon ( 1956) , 1 6-39 . Myres, J . N . L ., 1 969 .

Ang lo-Saxon P ot tery a nd t he S et t le men t o f Eng land ,

Oxford , 1 969 . O r ton , C ., 1 977 . R o man Po t tery ( exc lud ing s am ian ) ' i n T . R . B lurton , Excava t ions a t Ange l C our t , Wa lbrook , 1 974, Trans. L ondon a nd M idd lesex Archaeo l . S oc ., 2 8 ( 1977 ) , 3 0-53 . P eacock , D . P . S ., 1 977a .

'Ro man Amphorae :

Typo logy , F abr ic a nd,

Or ig ins ' I n , Me thodes C lassiques e t Me thodes F or me lles d ans 1 'E tude d es Amphores, C o l lect ion d e l ' Eco le Franca ise d e Ro me 3 2, Ro me ( 1977 ) , 2 61-78 . P eacock , D . P . S ., 1 977b .

L a te Ro man amphorae f ro m C ha lk , n ear

Gravesend , K en t ' ,i n Dore a nd Greene ( 1977 ) , 2 95-300 .

1 31

Peacock , D . P . S .. ( ed .) , 1 977c .

P ot tery a nd Ear ly C o m merce : C harac-

t er isa t ion a nd Trade i n Ro man a nd L a ter C era m ics, L ondon , 1 977 . P ining , R ., 1 966 .

Das Rö m isch-Fränk ische Graber fe ld v on Krefe ld-Ge llep ,

G erman ische Denk mä ler d er Vö lkerwanderungsze i t , S er ie B , 7i i i, Ber l in , 1 966 . Rad ford , C . A . R ., 1 956 .

Impor ted p ot tery f ound a t T in tage l, C ornwa ll '

i n D . B . Harden ( ed .) , Dark-Age Br i ta in , L ondon ( 1956) , 5 9-70 . Rah tz, P . A ., 1 961.

An Excava t ion o n Boker ly D yke, 1 958 ' ,Archaeo l . J .,

1 18 ( 1961) , 6 5-99 . Rah tz, P . A ., 1 974 .

'P ot tery i n S o merse t A .D . 4 00-1066 ' ,i n V . I . Ev ison ,

H . Hodges a nd J . G . Hurst ( eds.) , Med ieva l P ot tery f ro m Excavat ions, L ondon ( 1974) , 9 5-126 . Rodwe l l, W., 1 970 .

S o me Ro mano-Saxon p ot tery f ro m E ssex ' ,A n t iq . J .,

5 0 ( 1970) , 2 62-76 . S tar t in , D . W. A ., f or thco m ing .

Excava t ions a t East An ton , Han ts .,

f orthco m ing . Tho mas, A . C ., 1 959 .

Impor ted p ot tery i n d ark-age western Br i ta in ' ,

Med ieva l Archaeo l ., 3 ( 1959) , 8 9-96 . Tho mas, A . C ., 1 973 .

I r ish c o lon ists i n s outh-west Br ita in ' ,Wor ld

Archaeo l ., 5 ( 1973 ) , 5 -13 . V ince, A . G ., 1 977 .

'S o me A spects o f P ot tery Q uan t i f ica t ion ' , Med ieva l

C era m ics 1 ( 1977 ) , 6 3-74 . Wi l l ia ms, D . R ., 1 977 .

The Ro mano-Br i t ish B lack-Burn ished I ndustry :

An E ssay o n Character isa t ion b y Heavy Minera l Ana lysis ' ,i n P eacock ( 1977c) , 1 63-220 . Young , C . J ., 1 977 .

Ox fordsh ire Ro man P ot tery , Ox ford , 1 977 .

1 32

THE NORTH BR ITONS , THE P ICTS AND THE S C OTS b y L esl ie A lcock

The g eograph ica l s cope o f t h is p aper i s l im i ted , t o t he s ou th , b y t he p resen t Ang lo-Sco tt ish b order.

To t he n or th , l ike Ro man m i l itary efor t i t self ,

i tt apers g radua l ly a way b efore r each ing t he Moray F ir th a nd t he Grea t G len . I td el ibera tely i gnores t he t er m ina l s tages o f Ro man m il i tary i n sta l la t ions, o n t he g rounds t ha t t hese a re q u ite a dequa tely d ea l t w ith b y t he p ro fess iona l s tuden ts o f Ro man Br ita in .

F ina l ly , i tc on f ines i t se l f , s o f ar a s p oss ib le , t o

s i tes wh ich i l lustra te s o me g enera l p r inc ip le.

The w ider b ackground , o fb oth

a rchaeo logy a nd h istory , i s w el l c overed i n t he s urveys o f Chadw ick ( 1 949 ), Duncan ( 19 75 ), J ackson ( 1955 ), Wa inwr ight ( 19 55 ) a nd t he I nven tor ies f or P eebles, Roxburgh , S e lk irk a nd S t irl ing. Two q uest ions o f p r inc ip le a r ise a t o nce :

w hen i s p ost-Ro man n o t p ost-

Ro man , a nd i t s c onverse , when i s Ro man n o t Ro man .

The f i rst i s we l l-

i l lustra ted b y t he h il l-for t o f Ruberslaw ( Roxburgh I nven tory , n o. 1 45 ).

Th is

i s a t yp ica l n a t ive c onstruct ion o f d ry s tonework ; b u t among i t s s tones a re many d ressed w i th d ia mond b roach ing i n t he Ro man manner ( Cur le 19 05 ) a nd e ven w i th t races o f mor tar o n t heir f aces.

These a re a ssu med , v ery r eason-

a bly , t o h ave b een q uarr ied f ro m a Ro man s tructure—a l leged ly a masonry s igna l s ta t ion—on t he h il l-top .

The d ry s tone f or t i s , t herefore , l a ter t han a

Ro man b u ild ing ; t herefore , s o t he a rgumen t r uns, i ti s p ost-Ro man . S ince i n p lan i tc on sists o f ac i tadel w ith p endan t e nclosures, i tc on for ms t o S tevenson 's t ype o f n uclear f or t ( 19 49 );

a nd f or t hese , ad ark a ge d a te i s a ssured .

Two

l ines o f a rgu men t t hus c onverge t o e stabl ish i t s p ost-Ro man d a te. Bu t i n t h is b a ld s ta te men t o f t he c ase , t he r eader c anno t h ave f a i led t o n ot ice t ha t t he o n ly c erta in ty i s t ha t t he Ruberslaw f ort i s l ater t han a R oman b u i ld ing o f u nknown c haracter a nd u ncer ta in d a te.

G iven t ha t S tevenson 's

h ypo thes is o f t he d ate o f n uclear f or ts h as n o t b een w ho l ly a ccep ted ( Feache m 1 966, 8 5 ); g iven , moreover , t ha t i ti s n o t c er ta in whe ther t he n uclear p lan r ea l ly e x ists a s at ype , o r i s mere ly o ne way o fb u ild ing o n ac raggy h i l l-top ; i tb eco mes e v iden t t ha t ap ost-Ro man d a te f or Ruberslaw— in t he s ense o f 5 th t o 8 th c en tury A .D . —is b y n o means e stabl ished.

I tc ou ld a s we l l h ave b een

3 rd o r 4 th c en tury . The c onverse p roble m i s p osed b y f inds o f ma ter ial o f u ndoubted ly Ro man d a te —co ins, b rooches, p o t tery , a nd s o o n—on n at ive s i tes i n S co t land. I n h er r ecen t mag ister ia l s urvey o f t he e v idence , Pro fessor Rober tson c learly b el ieves t ha t t hese o b jects d a te t he s i tes o n wh ich t hey o ccur t o t he Roman c en tur ies ( 1970 ). Bu t i ti s c harac ter ist ic o f t he e v idence t ha t ma ter ia l o f a s o mewha t l uxur ious n a ture —brooches, s am ian p o t tery— is n o t s uppor ted b y more h u mdru m p ieces —coarse p o t tery f or i ns tance.

J ust s uch a b a lance o f

f inds l ed A lcock t o a rgue, i n t he c ase o f D inas Powys i n G la morgan , t ha t t he

1 34

f or t w as n o t o ccup ied a t a l l i n t he Ro man p er iod , a nd t ha t t he Ro man o b jec ts w ere a l l i n troduced i n t he 5 th t o 7 th c en tur ies A . D. ( 1963 , 2 2-5 ).

S tevenson

h as l ong ma in ta ined t he s a me w i th Ro man ma ter ia l f ro m n a t ive s ites i n S co t land ( 1955 ).

I t wou ld c learly b e u nreasonable t o a rgue f or a b lanke t i n terpre ta t ion ,

w he ther Ro man o r p ost-Ro man , f or a l l c ases.

Each s i te n eeds t o b e j udged

i nd iv idua l ly , i n r ela t ion b o th t o f inds a nd t o s tructures.

Bu t a t l east i ti s c lear

t ha t t h is c anno t b e d one w i th in t he f ra mework o f t abu la ted l i sts a nd p er iod d ist r ibu t ion maps. Hav ing p ropounded t he c avea t , t hen , t ha t a l l i s n o t wha t i ts ee ms, we c an p roceed t o d iv ide o ur p ost-Ro man s ites i n to t wo ma jor c a tegor ies :

t he o ld

o rder —sites , t hat i s , w h ich d e monstra te c on t inu ity w i th t he Ro man p er iod ;

a nd

t he n ew o rder—si tes wh ich h ave n o a pparen t Ro man a n teceden ts, a nd wh ich a re d is t ingu ished b y n ew t ypes o f e v idence. I n t he o ld o rder , p r ide o f p lace must g o t o Trapra in L aw , r ight ly r egarded a s a n o pp idu m , at r iba l c en tre , o f t he Vo tad in i ( Jobey 19 76 ).

F inds ( Hogg 19 51;

Bur ley 19 56 ) s how t ha t t h is f lour ished t hrough much o f t he Ro man p er iod , u nderg o ing v ar ious c hanges o f d efens ive p lan ( Feache m 1 956 ).

The l ast o f t hese t ook

t he f or m o f a3 0-acre e nclosure, d efended b y as tone-faced wa l l w ith a t ur f c ore. T h is h as b een a t tr ibu ted t o t he r estora t ion o f Theodos ius ( Feache m 19 56, 2 89 , f o l low ing R ich mond 1 955, 6 3 ), b u t t he e v idence i s f l i msy ( Jackson 19 55, 7 9-80 ). Wha tever t he d a te , t he c harac ter o f t he n a t ive meta lwork , e spec ia l ly z oo morph ic p ins a nd p enannu lar b rooches, a rgues t ha t Trapra in L aw was s t il l f l our ish ing i n t he e ar ly 5 th c en tury ( Fow ler 1 963 ); b u t t here i s n o e v idence f or o ccupat ion b eyond c.4 50 A .D . Thus f ar i s r ece ived d octr ine ; b u t an ew e le men t h as r ecen t ly b een a dded t o t he l a te-Ro man h istory o f Trapra in L aw b y F ow ler 's r ecogn it ion t here o f a b ronze b el t b uck le o f Hawkes ' t ype IA ( Hawkes 19 74 ).

Hawkes h as p o in ted o u t

t ha t s uch b uck les c a me f ro m b ronze- moun ted b e l ts, c ingu la , ' worn a s ab adge o f o f ice i n t he 4 th c en tury , a nd t he s p lendour o f t he f i t t ings must h ave v ar ied a ccord ing t o r ank '.

I ft h is i s t rue o f b ronze f i t t ings, h ow much more s p lend id

i s t he r ank imp l ied b y t he s i lver f i t t ings f ro m a t l east t wo b e l t s u i tes, l ong k nown a nd l ong n eg lec ted , f ro m t he f a mous Trapra in s i lver h oard i t se lf ( Cur ie 1 923;

Koch 1 967 ;

Bu l l inger 1 969 ).

S ince o ne o f t hese b ears a p o in t ing A lpha

a nd Omega mo t if , i ti s t e mp t ing t o t h ink t ha t i s h ad b een made f or ab ishop ; b u t o f c ourse , i n aL a te Ro man c on tex t , t h is wou ld n o t p reclude m i l itary l eadersh ip a s wel l . The Trapra in h oard h as t rad i t iona l ly b een r egarded a s l oo t f ro m t he w estern p rov inces. Bu t a s l ong a go a s 1 954, Gr i inhagen r ela ted i tt o as er ies o f c on t inen ta l t reasure h oards , a nd s uggested t ha t i tr epresen ted n o t l oot a t a l l , b u t ad ip lo ma t ic g if t o r b r ibe f ro m t he Ro man a u thor i t ies t o ab order p eop le , t he Vo tad in i.

Desp i te B ir ley 's e n thus iast ic r ecep t ion o f t h is v a luab le

s uggest ion ( 1955 ), i th as b een r egret tab ly i gnored i n Br i ta in .

I n t he w ider

i n su lar c on tex t h owever , w e m igh t c o mpare t he c on te mporary s i lver h oards f rom I reland ( Ba teson 1 973 ) , where t he p resence o f s ta mped i ngo ts must s urely imp ly Ro man a u thor i ty ( Pa in ter 19 65 ) a nd where, t herefore , b r ibery s ee ms a more l ikely e xp lana t ion t han l oo t ing.

To s ay t h is i s n o t n ecessar i ly

t o s ay t ha t t hese t reasures c a me n or th a nd w est a s b u l l ion o r h ack-s ilver ( t o u se t he V ik ing-age t er m ).

The Trapra in s i lver v esse ls m ight w el l h ave 1 35

g raced t he b oard o f a Vo tad in ian c h ief , a nd m igh t w el l h ave b een r eme mbered t wo h undred y ears l a ter w hen t he Gododd in p oe m ( Jackson 1 969 ), was c omposed . Wha tever t he l i kel ihood o ft h is, w e c an o n ly o bserve t ha t , a s i ti s k nown t o u s, t he Trapra in h oard i s u ndoubted ly h ack-s ilver. Bu t i ft he Vo tad in i , i n t he l a te 4 th c en tury , w ere r ece iv ing d ip lomat ic g if ts o rb r ibes f ro m t he Ro man a u thor it ies, w ha t p rec isely w as t he c haracter o f Ro man i n f luence among t he m? Were e i ther t he s i lver- moun ted o r t he b ronzemoun ted b el ts f ro m Trapra in e ver p resen t o n t he h i l l a s s ymbols o f t h e r ank a nd s ta tus o f Ro man o r a t l east r oman ized of ic ia ls ? O r d id t hey a l l c ome t here a s h ack- meta l? I ft he f or mer w as t he c ase , t hen w e m ight h ave t o t ake t he o ccurrence o f Ro man-der ived n a mes i n t he Vo tad in ian d ynasty more s er iou sly t han J ackson wou ld a l low . We wou ld h ave t o c ons ider t he p ossib il i ty t ha t t he c h ief ta in d ist ingu ished b y ar ed r obe o f o f ice wore a lso ab ronze- o r s i lvermoun ted c ingu lum. And i fs o , t hen Theodos ian i n f luences o n t he f ina l d efences o f Trapra in m ight o nce a ga in s ee m p robable. O ther f or t if ied s i tes s how c on t inu i ty i n v ar ied manners a nd d egrees. A t t he n or th e nd o f t he Grea t G len , t he t imber-laced f or t o f Cra ig Phadr ig , b u il t i n t he 3 rd o r 2 nd c en tur ies B .C., p robably l ay d erel ict t hrough t he e ar ly c ent ur ies A . D. Bu t p o t tery , a mou ld f or a h ang ing-bow l e scu tcheon , a nd a r ad ioc arbon d a te s how t ha t i tw as r eoccup ied , a pparen t ly w ithou t a ny r efurb ish ing o ft he d e fences , i n t he 5 th-7 th c en tur ies A .D . ( Sma l l a nd Co t ta m , 1 972 ). I n t he w est , s o me o f t he sma l l c ircu lar o r o va l d ry s tone f or ts k nown a s d uns, f i rst b u il t i n t he p re-Ro man i ron a ge , p roduce f inds o fb o th Ro man a nd l a ter d ate ( Maxwel l 1 969 ). On a ny o ne s i te, t he f inds a re i n ter m it ten t ; b u t t h is d oes n o t n ecessar ily p rove t ha t o ccupat ion was d iscon t inuous, o n ly t hat d a tab le f inds o f a ny p er iod a re r are. Good e xa mp les a re K ilda l lo ig ( Argy l l I nven tory , n o. 2 19 ) a nd K ildonan ( Fa irhurst 1 939 ), b o th i n t he K in tyre p en insu la. I n t he s ou th-east , t he p ost-Roman p er iod s aw t he c on t inuance, o r more p robably t he r ev iva l , o f p a l isaded f or ts. The i dea i t self w as a nc ien t ( P iggo tt 1 966 ), b u t t he l a ter e xa mp les a re c haracter ized b y ad ist inct ive p lan i nw h ich t wo w idely s paced p ara l le l f ences a re l i nked a t t he e n trance b y abu lbou s

t er m ina l , e nclosing a r ectangu lar b u ild ing s erv ing a s al ook-ou t t ower a nd g uard-post.

The most s pectacu lar e xa mp le i s t he t imber f or t a t Yeaver ing ,

p resumably a Br i t ish work o f t he 6 th c en tury A .D . ( Co lv in 1 963 , 1 -4 ). T he o ther e xcava ted e xa mp le i s a t Harehope , P eeblessh ire ( Feache m 1 960 ). Admit ted ly , t h is h as b een d a ted n o t l a ter t han t he b eg inn ing o f t he I st c en tury A .D . b y t he e xcava tor ; b u t t he s upposed t ypo logy a nd c hrono logy o f h ouse f or ms a nd p a l isade t ypes, o n w h ich t h is d a te i sb ased , r equ ire f ar more e v id ence b efore t hey c an b e a ccep ted. The o n ly d a table f i nd f rom Harehop e , a v ery b a t tered b eeh ive q uern , wou ld i t self a rgue f or a l a ter d a te ; a nd t he f unct i ona l a na logy b e tween t he v ery u nusua l g a te-p lan a t Harehope , a nd t he e qua l ly u nusua l o ne a t Yeaver ing , d e monstra tes t hat t he d a te f or Harehope I a t l east s hou ld b e p ost-Ro man .

Al i nk i s p rov ided b y ac rop- mark s i te a t Hogbr idge

where a s im ilar b u lbous l oop h as b een i n ferred b e tween t he i nner a nd o u ter p a l isades , a nd where a ' dark -age ' d a te i s a rgued o n o ther g rounds ( Peeb les I nven tory , n o. 2 01 ). Turn ing n ow t o u n for t if ied s i tes , i th as l ong b een r ecogn ized t ha t among t he s ou thern P icts s ou terra ins —stone-bu il t u nderground c hambers o f u ncerta in 1 36

p urpose —were u sed d ur ing t he e ar ly Ro man p er iod .

L ater , b u t s t il l w ith in t he

3 rd-4th c en tur ies, t he s ou terra ins t he mselves w ere f i l led i n .

D esp i te t h is,

t he a ssoc ia ted g round l evel o ccupa t ion c on t inued , a l though t he f or m o f t he h ouses was mod if ied ( Wa inwr igh t 1 963 ).

More r ecen t ly , e xcava t ions i n K incard ine-

s h ire a nd Per thsh ire h ave s hown t ha t s o me s ou terra in s et t le men ts c on t inued i n to t he 6 th a nd l a ter c en tur ies A .D . ( 23 i n f . T . Wa tk ins ).

I t was p resu mably

o u t o f i nnocuous-see m ing v i l lages l ike t h is t ha t t here swar med t he P ict ish r avagers o f Ro man Br ita in . Among t he Br i tons o f s ou th-east S co t land , t he c haracter ist ic s e t t le men t i n t he Ro man p er iod h ad b een t he h am le t o f t wo o r more c ircu lar h ouses , e nc losed by a s l igh t b ank o f r ect il inear o r c urv i l inear p lan ( Jobey 19 66 ).

Under

t he R oman p eace , t he p opu la t ion o f t hese e nclosed h o mesteads w as a pparen t ly i ncreas ing ( Jobey 1 974 ).

The a bsence o f ma ter ia l r ecogn isably o f t he 5 th a nd

l ater c en tur ies s uggests t ha t most o f t he m w ere a bandoned a t t h is t ime , a nd i ft h is i s r ea l ly t he c ase , i t wou ld h ave c ons iderab le imp l ica t ions f or t he p opu la t ion o f p ost-Ro man a nd Angl ian N or thu mbr ia. e ver , c on t inu ity may b e i n ferred :

I n a t l east t wo c ases , h ow-

a t Howna m R ings , a n i ron k n ife o f 5 th-7 th

c en tury t ype s uggests t ha t t he Phase I V h o mestead may h ave h ad a n e x tended l i fe ( P iggo t t 1 948 , f i g. 1 4 ), wh ile a t Crock C leuch , Roxburghs, ab ronze a nn u lar b rooch w i th i ron p in s hows t ha t t he h o mestead was s t il l o ccup ied w hen Ang l ian-sty le j ewe lry w as a lready a va ilab le ( S teer a nd K eeney 1 947 , f i g. 7 , 8 ) . E lsewhere among t he Br i tons o f s ou thern S co t land , c rannogs —ar t if icia l i slands s ur moun ted b y c ircu lar wooden h ou ses —were a n i mpor tan t c lass o f dwe l l ing a t at ime w hen Ro man p o ttery a nd t r inke ts were c ircu la t ing ( Munro 1 882; P iggo t t 1 953 ).

Even a t Mil ton L och , where c a l ibra ted r ad iocarbon

d a tes f ro m t he t imber s ubstructure g ive a t er m inus p ost q ue m f or t he c onstruct ion o f t he c rannog i n t he 1 -s ig ma r ange 6 80-360 B .C. ( Gu ido 1 974 ), t here i s n o th ing i nco mpa t ible a bou t t he 2 nd-cen tury A .D . o ccupa t ion s uggested b y a n e name l led b ronze d ress f astener ( W ild 1 970 ). Tha t c rannog-houses w ere s t i l l b e ing o ccup ied , a nd v ery p robably b u il t a s w e l l , i n t he p ost-Ro man p er iod i s w el l d e monstra ted b y t he f inds f ro m Bu is ton i n Ayrsh ire ( Munro 1 882, 1 90-239 ).

These i nclude a c on te mporary

f orgery o f aS axon g o ld c o in o f t he l a te 7 th o r 8 th c en tur ies;

p o t tery o f t he

6 th-8 th c en tur ies A .D.; a nd c harac ter ist ic i ronwork , e spec ia l ly k n ives.

The

o u ter wa l l o f t he Bu iston h ouse was a c ur ious m ix ture o f d ry s tonework a nd t imber , r ough ly o va l i n p lan , w i th d ia meters o f 1 8.5 a nd 1 7.0 m.

Th is g ives

af l oor a rea o f a bou t 2 50 s quare me tres.

I nsofar a s t he f loor a rea o f a dwe l-

l i ng may b e aq uan t if iab le i ndex o f s oc ia l

s ta tus, i ti s i n terest ing t o c o mpare

t h is t o t he a reas o f t he s upposed ly a r istocra t ic t imber h a l ls a t Doon H i l l , E . L o th ian , a nd Cadbury -Ca me lo t , S o merset ( Reyno lds 1 978 ):

r espec t ively

3 30 m2 a nd 1 90 m 2 . I ts ee ms r easonab le t o t h ink t ha t Bu iston was t he h o me o f ap erson o f i mportance , a nd b y e x tens ion t he c en tre o f as izeable a gr icu lt ura l e sta te , i n t he 6 th a nd l a ter c en tur ies A .D . Th is makes i tp oss ible t o c onnec t i tw i th e v idence f or f ores t c learance , p resu mably a p relude t o a rable f ar m ing , i n t he v ic in ity .

I th as b een c la i med

t ha t ap o l len d iagra m f ro m B loak Moss i n Aysh ire p rov ides e v idence f or ' ex tensive ( f orest ) c learance , d a ted b y r ad iocarbon , a t a bou t A . D. 4 50 ' ( Turner 19 70 , 1 06;

1 975 ).

There a re d if f icu l t ies a bou t t he s i mp le a ccep tance

1 37

o f t h is d a te :

n o tably t he p resen ta t ion o f t he c en tra l d a te o f ap robab i l i ty b racke t

a s t hough i t was a n a bso lu te d ate ;

a nd t he marked d iscrepancy b etween t he

amoun t o f p ea t d epos i ted f ro m 4 25 B .C. t o A . D. 4 50 a nd t ha t f ro m A .D . 4 50 t o A .D. 5 80.

N one t he l ess, i td oes s ee m t ha t t here was f orest c learance

a round B loak Moss i n , o r more p robably a f ter , t he 5 th c en tury A .D .

What h as

n o t p rev iously b een r e marked i s t ha t Bu iston c rannog i s a bou t 6 km S E o f t he c en tre o f B loak Moss.

I ti s t herefore r easonable t o s pecu la te t hat t he c rannog

may h ave b een t he c en tre f ro m w hich t he c learance was o rgan ized. Bu iston c rannog d isp lays t he d yna m ic c on t inuance o ft he o ld o rder, p reRo man a nd n a t ive Ro man , i n to t he p ost-Ro man p er iod .

Bu t t he s ites w h ich

a t trac t most a t ten t ion i n t h is p er iod i n S co t land a re n ew f ounda t ion s, t urn ing t he ir b ack o n I ron Age t ypes , i n many c ases l ook ing f i rm ly t owards t he Midd le Ages , a nd e ven d ated b y n ew t ypes o f e v idence.

I n p art , t ha t e v idence i s p ro-

v ided b y p o t tery i mported f ro m t he e ast Med i terranean o r n or th A fr ica , where i ti s d a ted b y i t s o ccurrence i n h istor ica l , o f ten c o in-da ted , c on tex ts ( Tho mas 1 976; Hayes 1 972 ).

Bu t t he r ea l r evo lu t ion i n e v idence i s t he a ppearance f or

t he f i rst t ime o f l oca l s ources o f wr it ten e v idence , w hether i n L at in o r v ernacu lar l anguages.

With t h is, we move f ro m t he p ost-Ro man t o t he Ear ly H istor ic

p er iod. The s i tes o f t he n ew o rder a re p r inc ipa l ly f or t if ica t ions , men t ioned i n c on te mporary a nna ls b ecause o f s o me m il i tary i nc iden t—a s iege , b urn ing o r d estruct ion ( Banner man 1 974, 9 -26 ).

T hey w ere d ea l t w ith a t s o me l eng th i n

t he Con ference v ersion o f t h is p aper , b u t i t was v ery e v iden t t hat t hey w ere l arge ly i rre levan t t o i t s t he me , e xcep t i n s o f ar a s t hey d e monstra ted t ha t 6 thc en tury S co t land o wed n o th ing t o Ro man Br ita in . h ere i n a more s u m mary f ash ion .

They a re t herefore t rea ted

( For a p rel im inary l i st , A lcock 1 976;

f u l ler

t rea t men t i n A lcock f or thco m ing.) Among t he S co ts t he l ead ing s i tes a re Dunadd a nd Duno l l ie.

Dunadd ,

s tra teg ica l ly s i ted o n ap or tage a cross t he A rgy l l p en insu la , w as u nder s iege i n A .D . 6 83 , a nd was c ap tured t e mporar i ly b y t he P icts i n A .D. 7 36.

Ac las-

s ic n uclear f or t i n S tevenson 's t er m ino logy ( 1949 ), i t was e xcava ted b ad ly i n 1 905 a nd 1 929 ( Chr ist ison 1 905; Craw 1 930 ), p roduc ing a bundan t p o t tery a nd me ta lwork o f t he 6 th-8th c en tur ies, a nd e v idence o f metalwork ing.

D uno l l ie ,

o n ah ead land o ver look ing t he n arrow a pproach t o af ine n a tura l h arbour , was b urned i n 6 85 a nd 6 98 , d estroyed a ga in i n 7 01, a nd r ebu il t i n 7 14.

L im i ted

e xcava t ions i n 1 978 p roduced me ta lwork ing e v idence c o mparable t o t ha t f ro m Dunadd , a nd a p o t w el l p ara l leled a t B u iston .

I n t he M idd le A ges, t he h eadland

h ad a c o mp lex h istory a s ac ast le o f t he MacDouga l ls. Among t he P icts, t he c h ief h istor ical ly-da ted s i te i s Dundurn , b es ieged , l ike Dunadd , i n A . D. 6 83. A n uclear f or t , b u t much l arger t han Dunadd , Dundurn c on tro l led t he a pproaches t o t he e cono m ic h ear t land o f t he s ou thern P icts i n l ower S tra thearn ( For tev io t ) a nd S tra thtay ( S cone ).

F eache m h as

s uggested t ha t b o th Dunadd a nd Dundurn were i ron-age f or ts, r e-used i nh ist or ic t imes ( 1966, 8 5 ) b u t a t Dundurn t he e v idence o f f inds a nd r ad iocarbon d a tes i s d ec is ively a ga inst t h is a nd i n f avour o f a7 th c en tury f oundat ion . Bu t Dundurn d oes e xh ib it o ne p oss ible Ro man l egacy.

T he e arl iest d efence , ad ry

s tone c itadel , w as r e in forced b y h azel wa t t l ing ,a nd o ak b ea ms, h eld t oge ther b y i ron n a ils.

These a re k nown a t o n ly o ne o ther f or t i n Br i ta in : 1 38

t he mass ive

P ic t ish s trongho ld , o f t he 4 th a nd l a ter c en tur ies A .D ., a t Burghead o n t he Moray F ir th ( S ma l l 1 969 ; Hogg 1 975 ).

The n a ils f ro m Dundurn r ese mble t hose

f rom t he wel l-known c ache a t I nch tu th il ( RB 1 960 , 1 60 ) s o c losely a s t o s uggest t ha t t he ir u l t i ma te s ource was s o me l ong-abandoned Ro man f ort . A lt C lu t , C lyde Rock , o r Cast le Rock , Du mbarton , d escr ibed b y B ede a s c iv i tas Bret tonu m mun it iss i ma , was t he p r inc ipa l e arly h istor ic s trongho ld o f S tra thclyde.

I td rew i t s s tra teg ic s ign if icance f ro m i t s n a tura l s treng th , a nd

i t s p os it ion o n ag rea t wa terway , j ust b elow t he h ighest p o in t n av igable b y s eag o ing s h ips.

N o t s urpr is ing ly , t he e arly f or t if ica t ions were o ver la id b y a

med ieval a nd Hanover ian c ast le , a nd t he Rock r eta ined a m i l itary r o le t o 19 45. Ear ly h istor ica l d ocumen ta t ion i s r ich , a nd f inds i nclude p o t tery a nd g lass o f t he 5 th-8th c en tur ies, c on te mporary i ron k n ives, a nd e v idence o f me ta lwork ing. The o n ly t race o f e ar ly d efens ive work r ecovered b y e xcava t ion i n 19 74-75 was at imber-laced t errace, o verlook ing t he t ida l i s th mus wh ich g ave t he o n ly l andward a pproach.

Th is was r ad iocarbon d a ted t o t he l a te 5 th , o r more p robably

l a te 6 th , c en tury A .D ., o r l a ter ( Alcock 19 76 ). N one o f t hese s i tes owe a ny th ing t o Ro man i n f luences.

Even t he s tray

s herds o f s am ian p o t tery a t Dunadd a nd A l t C lu t c anno t p oss ibly a dd u p t o a n a t ive Ro man o ccupa t ion . Bu t a s at a i lp iece, o ne may ofer t he c ase o f Ra th inv era lmond. Two S co t t ish k ings d ied a t Ra th inuera mon i n A .D . 8 62 a nd i n A . D. 9 95 ( Anderson 19 73 , 2 67 ) . The n a me means ' t he e ar then f or t a t t he mou th o f t he A l mond ' , t hat i s , w here i tf l ows i n to t he Tay.

Crawford l ong a go s uggested

t he R o man a ux i l iary f or t o f B er tha a s t he most l ikely c and idate ( 19 49 , 59 -61 ). Had t h is s erved a s ad efended a dm in is tra t ive c en tre o ver s even o r more c ent ur ies?

Had i tb een f reshly r efurb ished i n t he l a te 9 th c en tury?

Were t he

e ven ts o f A . D. 8 62 a nd 9 95 p urely f ortu itous ? O r was t he ' ear then f or t a t t he mou th o f t he A l mond ' s o mewhere o ther t han B ertha? Wh ichever t he c ase , Ra th inveral mond d oes l i t t le t o a l ter o ur p icture o f at o ta l d isloca t ion b e tween Roman Br i ta in a nd e ar ly h istor ic S co t land .

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( 1929-30 ), 11-46. Crawford , 0 . G . S ., 1 949.

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S teer , K . A . a nd K eeney , G . S ., 1 947.

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Crock C leuch , Roxburghs , Proc. S oc. An t iq. S co t land , 8 1 ( 1946-47 ), 1 38-57. S tevenson , R . B . K ., 1 949.

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1 41

S t irl ing I nven tory .

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1 42

HADR IAN 'S WALL : THE LAST PHASES b y J . C . Mann

The p roble ms c onnected w ith t he e nd o f t he m il itary o ccupa t ion o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l were f i rst s harp ly b rought i n to f ocus b y t he p ubl ica t ion o f J . B . B ury 's a r t icle o n t he N o t it ia D ign ita tu m i n J . R.S . f or 1 920 .

S ince i ts ee med n ecessary

t o d a te t he l a test m il itary u n it l i sted i n t he N o t it ia t o s o me t ime a f ter A .D . 4 25 o n t he g rounds t ha t i t was n a med a f ter Va len t in ian I I , t he who le d ocumen t was c la i med t o r epresen t t he s ta te o f t he emp ire a f ter t ha t d ate , i nc lud ing B r ita in . Bury was h owever , aware t ha t ac ons iderable amoun t o f a rchaeo log ica l w ork o n Hadr ian 's Wa l l c ou ld n o t s uppor t t he v iew t hat t he Wa l l was s t il l o ccup ied b y am i l itary f orce a t s uch a l a te d a te , a nd a dm it ted t ha t " there i s...so me r eason f or t h ink ing t hat t he Wa l l c eased t o b e manned b y t roops d ur ing t he r e ign o f Honor ius".

Th is o f c ourse d estroyed Bury 's h ypo thesis t ha t t he N o t i t ia was

ac oheren t d ocu men t o f u n ifor m d a te , a l though B ury d id n o t a pparen t ly a pprecia te t h is. The v iews o f t hose who h ad worked o n t he Wa l l were g iven e xpress ion t wo y ears l a ter i n J .R .S. f or 1 922, b y R . G . Co l l ingwood.

Un for tunately , t he e v i-

d ence t hen a va i lab le, more p rec isely t he n um is ma t ic e v idence, f or t here was n o o ther o f a ny v a lue , l ed Co l l ingwood t o s uggest t ha t t he Wa l l was g iven u p i n A . D. 3 83 o r v ery s hor t ly a f ter.

Apar t f ro m a l a te c o in f ro m Heddon-on -the-

Wa l l , wh ich was e xp la ined a way , n one o f t he c o ins k nown t o Co l l ingwood d a ted l ater t han t he r e ign o f Grat ian , who d ied i n 3 83.

The c onsequences o f t h is v iew

a re wel l-known a nd p erhaps d o n o t n eed t o b e r ehearsed i n d eta il h ere—the r ea l isa t ion t ha t aw i thdrawal o f t he m il itary f orces f rom t he Wa l l i n 3 83 w ou ld l eave a g rea t g ap i n t he n orthern d efences o f t he Br i t ish d iocese.

A t te mp ts

were made t o b r idge t h is g ap—f irst b y Co l l ingwood 's c la im t ha t a f ter 3 83 t he d efence o f t he n or th was e n trusted t o t he n umer i a nd e qu i tes l i sted i n t he f i rst p ar t o f t he c hap ter o f t he Duke o f t he Br i ta ins i n t he N o t it ia , t he s ect ion p er l i nea m v a l l i b e ing r e jected a s o u t-o f-da te , t hen b y R ich mond 's c la im t ha t a t s o me d a te i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he f our th c en tury t he d efence o f t he n or th h ad i n a ny c ase c o me t o b e a ss igned t o n a t ive k ingdo ms l y ing n or th o f t he Wa l l , more s pec if ica l ly t ha t o f t he Da mnon i i o f S tra thc lyde a nd t ha t o f t he Vo tad in i i n s ou th-eas t S co t land . A l l t hese e f for ts t o b r idge a n i mag ined g ap i n t he n or thern d efences b e tween 3 83 a nd a ny l a ter d ate were h owever r endered u nnecessary b y t he p ubl ica t ion s o f J ohn K en t 's a r t ic le i n C . & W. Transact ions f or 1 951, w h ich s howed t ha t c o ins d a t in g a f ter A . D. 3 83 , a nd i n f act r each ing d own t o t he f i rst d ecade o f t he f i f th c en tury , were k nown f ro m Wal l s i tes.

There was n o s ign if i-

c an t b reak i n t he c harac ter o f t he e v idence i n 3 83; t he c o in e v idence was c onsi s ten t w i th a n o ccupa t ion o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l d own t o t he e nd o f Ro man r u le i n A . D. 4 10 , o r a t l east t o s uch d a te s l ight ly b efore t hen when t he g arr ison c eased t o b e e ffec t ive ly c on tro l led b y Constan t ine I I. 1 44

B u t i ft he Wa l l was h e ld i n s o me f orm d own t o t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury , t here w as n ever theless p len ty o fe v idence t ha t i ts u f fered v ar ious v ic iss itudes i n t he l a st 1 50 y ears o r s o o f i t s e x istence. Th is l ed me t o c ompose t he p aper wh ich a ppeared i n t he G lasgow Archaeo log ical J ourna l f or 1 974, t o w h ich I must r efer y ou f or f u l l d e ta i ls o f t he e v idence. Wha t f o l lows c an o n ly b e a g enera l a ccoun t o f t he d evelopmen t o f t he n or thern f ron t ier i n i t s l a ter s tages. T he l i terary s ources f or t he t h ird c en tury a re a dm it ted ly v ery p oor , b u t a t l east i tc an b e s a id t ha t t hey g ive n o h in t o f m il i tary o pera t ions o n t he n orthe rn B r i t ish f ron t ier. I n Er ic B ir ley 's words, t he n or thern f ron t ier b ecame a "m i l itary b ack wa ter" i n t he t h ird c en tury . Th is i s t he p er iod wh ich s ee ms t o s ee t he g rea t e xpans ion o f t he c iv il s e t t le men ts c lustered a round e ach o f t he n or thern f or ts.

The r eset t le men t w h ich f o l lowed o n t he a bandonmen t o f S everus 's

s che me t o c onquer t he w ho le i s land n o d oubt d epended o n ac omb ina t ion o f d ipl o macy a nd m il i tary f orce , a nd t he s yste m w h ich e f fec t ively ma in ta ined t he p eace o n t he n or thern f ron t ier i n t he t h ird c en tury c an b e s een a s as er ies o f l ayers. T he o u ter l ayer i s r epresen ted b y t he s tr ing o fb u ffer-sta tes w h ich l ay b eyond Hadr ian 's Wa l l . There s ee ms l i t t le r eason t o d oub t t ha t R ich mond c orr ec t ly i den t if ied t he l oca w h ich t he Ravenna Cos mography d evelops n or th o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l , w i th t he r ecogn ised meet ing p laces o f t hese d ependen t t r ibes , c o mpar ing t he s yste m w ith t ha t e stabl ished a cross t he u pper a nd m idd le Danube a f ter t he wars o f Marcus.

A l though o n ly f i ve o f t he e ight l oca l i sted c an b e

l oca ted o n t he g round , t he e x tens ion o f t he s yste m a s f ar n or th a s t he Tay s ee ms we l l a t tested. S uch d ip lo ma t ic s urve i l lance a nd c on tro l o f t err i tor ies i mmed ia te ly b eyond t he l im its o f a c tua l m i l itary o ccupa t ion w as o f c ourse a n orma l f ea ture o f Ro man f ron t ier o rgan isat ion . Bu t t he b u ffer z one w i l l n o t h ave b een l ef t emp ty o f Ro man p resence. N o t o n ly i s i tp robable t ha t mee t ings o f t he l oca l p opu la t ion a t t he l oca w ere s uperv ised b y Roman o f f icers , a s o n t he Danube , b u t t he a rea w i l l h ave b een s ub ject t o d irec t m i l i tary s uperv is ion b y t roops f ro m t he s econd l ayer o f t he d efen sive s yste m. Th is s econd l ayer c on s is ts o f t he o u tpost f or ts n or th o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l , t wo n or th o f t he e astern h a l f o f t he Wa l l , o n D ere S tree t , a t H igh Rochester a nd R is ingha m , t wo n orth o f t he w estern h a l f , a t N ewcast le a nd N e therby . h ave a cted a s af ur ther w estern o u tpost.

B irrens may a lso f or a t ime

T he p o ten t ia l f or a ct ion w h ich i s r epresen ted b y t he o u tposts i sb est i l l ustra ted b y H igh Rochester a nd R is ingham w here t here i s t he b e t ter e v idence f or t he c o mpos it ion o f t he ir g arr isons. m i l l iary c ohors e qu i ta ta.

E ach was g arr isoned p r i mar ily b y a

The f i rst p o in t t o n o te h ere i s t hat H igh Rochester

a nd R is ingham a lone , w i thou t r ecourse t o a ny o ther u n i t , c ou ld p u t 1 6 t ur mae o f c ava lry i n to t he f i eld i .e. t he e qu iva len t o f aq u ing inary a la. One w ay t o i mag ine t he m i l itary p o ten t ia l o f s uch a c ava lry s tr ik ing f orce i s t o w a tch o ne o ft he more s pectacu lar Western f i l ms i nvo lv ing t he U .S. C ava lry .

S ho ts

r are ly l ast l ong e nough t o a l low o ne t o c oun t more t han 3 0 h orse men , b u t t ha t r epresen ts t he e qu iva len t o f aRo man t urma. Mu l t ip ly t ha t b y e ight t imes a nd y ou h ave t he c ava lry p o ten t ia l o fH igh Rochester a nd R isingha m.

I tr epresen ts

ar ea l ly f orm idable p rospect. I tw as o f c ourse b acked u p b y a n e qua l ly f or m ida b le f orce o f i n fan try . Wha tever t he p rec ise i n fan try c omp le men t o f ac ohors m i l l iar ia e qu i ta ta , t he c o mb ined i n fan try f rom H igh Rochester a nd R isingha m

1 45

a lone w i l l h ave amoun ted t o a t l eas t 1 ,500 men—aga in a f or m idab le f orce. P o ten t ia l ly , many q u i te s er ious mi l i tary s i tua t ions c ou ld h ave b een d ea l t w i th b y t he o u tpos t g arr isons a lone w i thou t c a l l ing o n t he Wa l l g arr ison .

I n a dd i t ion

t here w ere o f c ourse t he e n ig ma t ic Raet i Gaesa t i c er ta in ly a t tested a t R isingh am .

The ir p rec ise f unct ion i s n o t c lear , b u t t hey wou ld p resu mab ly b e a va i l-

a b le t o r e in force t he r egu lar u n i ts w hen n ecessary . Af ur ther a nd i mpor tan t e le men t was o f c ourse p resen t i n t he e xp lora tores. S cou t ing was a lways a n i mpor tan t e le men t i n Ro man m i l itary o pera t ion s.

I n

t he Republ ic a nd e ar l ier p r inc ipa te , s cou t ing w as s i mp ly o ne o f t he d u t ies e xp ected o f a l l t roops , b u t b y t he e nd o f t he s econd c en tury w e f ind s pec ia l u n i ts o f e xp loratores b e ing o rgan ised o n t he f ron t iers , s pec if ica l ly t o c oncen trate o n s cou t ing work .

Poss ibly u sing o u t-sta t ions a s w el l a s t he ir ma in b ases t hey

c ou ld h ave o perated o ver t he who le o f t he b u f fer z one. t ha t Ro me r el ied o n ly o n u n ifor med s cou ts.

Bu t w e n eed n o t c onclude

Undoub ted ly c iv i l ian a gen ts w il l

h ave o pera ted a lso f ar t o t he n or th , k eep ing t he ir e ars t o t he g round a nd a ler ti ng t he m i l i tary c o m mand t o p o ten t ia l d angers.

I ti s s o met i mes c la i med t hat

t h is r el iance o n l ong r ange i n tel l igence work was s ome th ing n ew i n t he t h ird c en tury .

Th is i s o f c ourse n o t s o.

Ar ead ing o f C aesar 's Ga l l ic War , f or e x-

amp le , w i l l s how t ha t t he Ro man A r my a lways r e l ied o n e f f ic ien t a nd w el l o rg an ised i n tel l igence s erv ices.

Iam s ure t ha t l ong-range i n tel l igence w as j ust

a s i mpor tan t a nd a s w el l o rgan ised , w hen Hadr ian 's Wa l l was f irs t b u i l t , a nd e ar l ier s t il l a lso. Our t endency t o o bsess ion w ith p hysical s tructures , l i ke Hadr ian 's Wa l l , h as p erhaps o bscured t h is v i ta l e le men t i n t he work ing o f t he Ro man a r my. T he s econd l ayer t hen c onst itu ted a n i mpor tan t e stabl ish men t i n i t s own r igh t , c apab le o f d ea l ing w ith many p rob le ms o n i t s o wn .

The t h ird l ayer was

c ons t i tu ted b y t he f orces o n t he wa l l i t sel f , r eady t o move o u t r ap id ly i n to t he c oun try t o t he n or th .

T he f our th l ayer c ons is ted o f t he u n i ts s ta t ioned i n t he

h in ter land o f t he Wa l l , ma in ly o n t he t wo ma in r ou tes l ead ing u p t o t he f ron t ier , t he S ta inmore-Eden Va l ley r ou te t o t he w est a nd t he l i ne o f D ere S tree t a cross Co . Durha m t o t he e ast.

The f i f th e le men t i n t he s che me was o f c ourse p ro-

v ided b y t he l eg ion i t sel f a t t he p rov inc ia l c ap i ta l a t York . S uch a w el l-organ ised s yste m i s e v idence o f ah ea l thy r espect f or t he p o ten t ia l d anger wh ich t he p eop le o f t he H igh lands r epresen ted .

The e f f ic iency

o f t he s yste m w as n o d oub t t he p r i me r eason w hy t he n orthern f ron t ier r e ma ined p eace fu l d ur ing most o f t he t h ird c en tury .

Bu t t he v ery s uccess o f t he s yste m

s ee ms t o h ave l ed t he Ro mans i n to s o me s ense o f c o mp lacency , a nd a t at ime when o ther f ron t iers, n o tab ly t he Rh ine-Danube l ine a nd t he e astern f ron t ier , were u nder s er ious t hrea t t here must h ave b een g rea t p ressure t o r educe t he e stabl ish men t i n N . Br i ta in s o t ha t o ther f ron t iers c ou ld b e r e in forced. I b el ieve t ha t t h is a ccoun ts f or t he d isappearance f ro m o ur r ecords o f s o many o f t he u n i ts s ta t ioned i n t he h in ter land .

The o u tpost s yste m r e ma ined i n tact ,

a nd t he Wa l l i t sel f c on t inued t o b e h eld , b u t t he h in ter land was a pparen t ly l argely e vacua ted.

The o ppor tun ity w as t aken t o o rgan ise a t l east o ne c iv i tas,

t ha t o f t he Carvet i i i n t he l and t hus r e moved f ro m m i l i tary o ccupat ion . F ur thermore , wh i le t he Wa l l a s aw ho le c on t inued t o b e h eld , d e tach men ts a t l east s ee m t o h ave b een s en t f ro m s o me o f i t s f or ts a lso .

Is uggest t hat t he i rregu lar

f or ma t ion s a t tested a t Housesteads a nd e lsewhere r epresen t t e mporary r ep lacemen ts , s o me r ecru ited f rom f ree G er many , t ak ing t he p lace o f s uch d e tach men ts r e moved t o t he c on t inen t. 1 46

B u t e ven ts a t t he e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury s howed t ha t t he n or thern f ron t ier e stab l ish men t h ad b een r educed b eyond a s afe l im it.

Whe ther o r n o t t here was

a n a ctua l i nvas ion i n 2 97 , t he o bl ique words o f t he Panegyr ist i n t ha t y ear imp ly a t t he l east a s er ious t hrea t t o t he Ro man h o ld o nt he n orth.

Th is impression

i s r e in forced b y t he c a mpa igns o f Constan t ius Ia ga inst t he P icts.

I ti s h igh ly

improbable t ha t s uch a c a mpa ign wou ld h ave b een p oss ible a t t h is t ime u n less i tw ere i n r esponse t o av ery r ea l o u ts ide t hrea t.

More i mportan t s t i l l , t he

i n troduct ion o f n ew u n i ts a s a more mob ile r e in force men t f or t he Wa l l g arr is on— I r efer o f c ourse t o t he n umer i a nd e qu ites l i sted i n t he c hap ter o f t he Duke o f t he Br i ta ins i n t he N o t i t ia —suggests t ha t t he Ro mans r ea l ised t hey h ad o ver-weakened t he n or thern f ron t ier , a nd t ook s teps, i n e f fect , t o r ep lace t he ' f our th l ayer ' o f t he d efensive s yste m a s i th ad b een c on st i tu ted i n t he e ar ly t h ird c en tury .

Th is r ein force men t o f t he n or thern f ron t ier may w el l h ave t aken

p lace u nder t he p ersona l s uperv ision o f Constan t ine h i msel f .

My c o l league

J ohn C asey i s work ing o n e v idence wh ich s uggests t ha t Constan t ine r ev is ited Br i ta in o n p erhaps t wo o ccas ions —the more i mpor tan t p erhaps t ha t w h ich r es u l ted i n h is b e ing c red i ted w ith t he t i t le B r i tann icus Max imus i n 3 15 . A t a ny r a te , t he n orthern f ron t ier s ee ms t o h ave p resen ted n o s er ious p roble m b efore t he 3 40s.

Bu t t he f act t ha t Am m ianus h ad men t ioned t he a rean i

i n c onnect ion w ith t he v isi t o f Constans i n t he w in ter o f 3 42-3 —and i ti s n o tewor thy t ha t t he emperor 's v is it t ook p lace i n t he w in ter i mp ly ing a c ons iderable c r is is —sugges ts t ha t s o meth ing h appened o n t he n or thern f ron t ier t hen . i t w as w e c anno t t el l.

Wha t

Bu t t he f ron t ier s ee ms t o h ave r e ma ined q u iet u n t il t he

3 60s : t he e ar ly b ooks o f t he e x tan t p or t ion o f Am m ianus 's work c er ta in ly g ive n o h in t o f t roub le b e tween 3 53 a nd 3 60. I n h is d escr ip t ions o f t he e ven ts o f 3 60 a nd o f 3 67 , Am m ian ius n otes t ha t t he f i e ld a r my c o m mander who c rossed t o Br ita in t o d ea l w i th t he s i tua t ion o n b o th o ccas ions b rough t w i th h im u n i ts o f t he f i eld a r my .

L up ic inus i n 3 60 b rought

t he H eru l i a nd Ba tav i , a nd t wo o ther u n i ts d escr ibed a s Moes iac i.

Theodos ius

i n 3 67 a lso b rought f our f i e ld a r my u n i ts, t he Heru l i a nd B a tav i a ga in a nd t he I ov i i a nd V ic tores.

On p rev iou s o ccas ions when a c r is is h ad a r isen o f s u ff ic i-

e n t p ropor t ions t o r equ ire t he a ss istance o f t roops f ro m o u ts ide Br i ta in , i th ad u sua l ly r equ ired t he p resence o f t he emperor a lso . The s i tua t ion i n t he 3 60s s hows wel l t he work ing o f t he n ew s yste m o f r eg iona l f i eld a rm ies, a nd o f c ourse , r em inds u s t ha t t he c oncen tra t ion o f t he e l ite t roops o f t he n ew f i eld a rm ies away f ro m t he f ron t iers was i nev itably a cco mpan ied b y , a nd n ecessar ily o ccas ioned , ar educt ion i n t he e fect iveness o f t he f ron t ier f orces, i n p art icu lar i n t he ir a b il ity t o d ea l w ith c r ises o n t he ir own.

Fur ther more, t here may w el l

h ave b een r educ t ions i n t he a c tua l n u mbers o f t roops i n f ron t ier g arr isons.

A

f ea ture o f t he f or ts o n Hadr ian 's Wa l l i n t he f our th c en tury i s t he r ep lace men t o fb arrack b locks b y i nd iv idua l c ha let-l ike s tructures.

I ti s worth c onsider ing

whe ther t h is d oes n o t r epresen t t he p rov ision o f a cco m moda t ion f or s epara te f am i l ies, i .e. t ha t s o ld iers were n ow a l lowed t o l i ve i ns ide t he f or ts w ith t he ir f am i l ies.

I fs o , t h is w ou ld imp ly a c ons iderable r educ t ion i n t he n umber o f

t roops i n i nd iv idua l f or ts, t he ir r o le n ow r educed t o t ha t o f mere f ron t ier p at ro l l ing a nd p o l ice work .

They w il l n o l onger h ave b een e ffect ive f i gh t ing f orces.

However , t h is may b e , i ti s s ign if ican t t ha t a f ter 3 67 Ro me s ee ms t o h ave a t l ast l ost c on tro l o f a ny t err i tory b eyond t he Wa l l i t self .

1 47

The o u tpost f orts

were c er ta in ly n o l onger o ccup ied a f ter 3 67 a nd t he a bsence o f t he l a test t ypes o f p o t tery , r epresen ted i n a bundance o n s i tes o n a nd s ou th o f t he Wa l l , f ro m a ny s i te t o t he n or th , s trongly s uggests t ha t Theodos ius c ou ld d o n o more t han r e-establ ish c on tro l o n t he l ine o f t he Wa l l i t se lf .

I t must b e s ign i f ican t t ha t

Am in ian ius, whose a ccoun t o f t he o pera t ion o f 3 67 i s l i t t le more t han a l ong p anegyr ic o f Coun t Theodosius, f a ils t o g ive t he s l ightest i nd ica t ion o f a ny p un it ive c a mpa ign b y t he l a t ter a ga inst t he P icts. The Wa l l must n ow h ave b een u nder g rea ter p ressure t han i te ver h ad b een b efore. Ye t Ro me managed t o h o ld o n t o t he Wal l l ine.

The p ressure may h ave

b een e ased s o mewha t b y t he v ictory c red ited t o Magnus Max i mus o ver b o th P ic ts a nd S co ts i n t he 3 80s , a nd t he P icts a nd S co ts w ere n o t a pparen t ly i nv o lved i n t he e ven ts wh ich l ed t o t he c o l lapse o f Ro man r u le i n Br ita in i n 4 10 . The d ecl ine i n t he m il itary e f fect iveness o f t he f ron t ier f orces c onsequen t o n t he o rgan isa t ion o f c en tra l a nd r eg iona l f i eld a rm ies h as a lready b een ment i oned , a s h ad t he p er iod ic n eed t o c orrect t he i nba lance b y t he a d h oc d espa tch o f u n i ts o f t he Tr ier f i e ld a r my t o Br ita in , a s i n t he c ase o f L up icinus a nd Theodosius. Towards t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury , a n a t te mp t t o c orrect t h is i mba lance o n a more p ermanen t b as is was made b y t he c rea t ion o f sma l ler f i e ld a rm ies, more o r l ess o n ad iocesan b as is.

Un l ike t he l arger f i e ld a rm ies,

wh ich w ere c o m manded b y mag istr i , t hese sma l ler f i eld a rm ies were p u t u nder men w i th t he n ex t l ower r ank , t ha t i s o f c o mes r e i m il i tar is.

Thus t he Coun t

o f t he Br ita ins makes h is a ppearance. The e v idence s uggests t ha t t h is n ew d ev elop men t was t he work o f S t ilocho a f ter 3 95. c ou ld t hus n o t h ave l asted v ery l ong.

The p ost o f Coun t o f t he Br ita in s

The l oss o f B r ita in a t s uch a n e arly d a te

a f ter t he c rea t ion o f t he p ost p reven ts u s f ro m s ee ing h ow f ar t h is n ew d evelopmen t m igh t h ave g one i n e nsur ing a more e ffect ive d efence o f Br ita in a ga inst i t s e ne m ies. Bu t t h is b r ings u s o n t o a n i mpor tan t a spec t o f t he h istory o f Roman r u le i n Br i ta in , a nd t ha t i s , w ha t k now ledge c an w e g a in f ro m t he l i terary s ources o f t he f orces w h ich o pposed Ro me i n Br ita in?

The d isposi t ion o f f orces i n

Br ita in t hroughou t t he g rea ter p ar t o f t he Ro man p er iod s hows q u i te c lear ly t he q uarter f ro m w h ich c a me t he ma in t hrea t t o Rome 's h o ld o n t he i s land . The ma in t hrea t c a me c lear ly f ro m t he H igh lands o f S co t land , s upp le men ted b y t he e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury b y r a iders f ro m N or thern I reland.

A s tudy o f

t he l i terary s ources d oes i n f act t hrow s o me l i ght o n t h is s ub ject . The e ar l iest e v idence we h ave f or t he p eop les l i v ing n or th o f t he Ro man o ccup ied a rea i s p reserved b y t he g eographer P to le my .

A l though h e w as wr i-

t ing a bou t t he m idd le o f t he s econd c en tury , i ti s w e l l k nown t ha t most o f t he i n for ma t ion h e c onveys was d er ived f ro m t he l a te f i rst c en tury g eographer Mar inus o f Tyre , a nd i n t urn i ti s g enera l ly a greed t ha t t he ma ter ial w h ich was t aken b y P to le my f ro m Mar inus c oncern ing t he H igh lands o f S co t land was d er ived f ro m i n for ma t ion ma in ly g leaned d ur ing t he e xped it ions o f Agr ico la. P to le my l i sts a c ons iderable n umber o f p eop les l i v ing t o t he w est o f t he Grea t G len , b u t o n ly f or t he a rea e ast o f t hat l ine d oes h e g ive l a t i tude a nd l ong itude f or i nd iv idua l s i tes —prec isely t he a rea i n w h ich Agr ico la i s k nown f or c erta in t o h ave o pera ted. Wha t emerges i s t ha t an umber o f d if feren t t r ibes i nhabi ted t he a rea.

One o f t hese t r ibes was t he Ca ledones, l i v ing s o mewhere i n t he a rea

o f t he Grea t G len i t se l f .

Yet Tac i tus r efers t o t he w ho le o f n or thern S co t land

1 48

a s Ca ledon ia.

S ince Ca ledon ia i s n o t a pparen t ly a C el t ic n a me, i t may b e t ha t

ap re-Cel t ic p eop le k nown a s t he Ca ledones h ad o nce d om ina ted n or thern S co tl and b u t h ad b een r educed i n impor tance b y i n trud ing C el t ic g roups.

Yet t he

n a me C a ledon ia s urv ived f or t he a rea wh ich t hey h ad o nce d om ina ted . However t h is may b e, wha t w e h ave i s ap icture o f s evera l t r ibes, d isu n ited a nd n o d oubt i n ter m i t ten t ly i n c on f l ict , p rec isely l ike t he s i tua t ion i n t he H igh lands b efore t he ' 4 5, a nd a lso p rec isely l ike t he s i tua t ion w h ich Tac i tus p or trays i n Br ita in a s aw ho le ; h e n o tes h ow g rea t ly t he Ro man c onquest was a ided b y t he l ack o f u n ity among t he p eop les o f Br ita in .

He f urther n o tes t he

e ffec t o f Agr ico la 's a pproach t o t he H ighlands —tha t t he t r ibes s ank t he ir d iff erences o n ly i n t he f ace o f t he t hrea t t ha t Agr ico la p osed .

The t e mporary

u n i ty g a ined i s l ike ly t o h ave waned i n t he a f ter ma th o f Agr ico la 's r eca l l , b u t n ot n ecessar ily a t o nce.

S ome u n i ty o f p urpose may h ave l asted l ong e nough

t o h ave b een r esponsible f or t he Ro man r etrea t s ou thwards t o t he Tyne-So lway l ine. We h ave t o wa i t af ur ther c en tury f or o ur n ex t u sefu l s ource , b u t h e i nd ic a tes a s ign if ican t d eve lop men t .

Th is i s Cassius D io .

I n a t te mp t ing t o d escr ibe

t he e ne m ies t ha t f aced S ep t im ius S everus i n t he c a mpa igns a t t he e nd o fh is r eign , h e s ta tes " There a re t wo p r inc ipa l t r ibes o f t he Br itons, t he Ca ledon ians a nd t he Maeatae , a nd t he n a mes o f t he o thers h ave b een merged i n t hese t wo. The Maeatae l i ve c lose t o t he Wa l l wh ich d iv ides t he i s land i n t wo , a nd t he Caledon ians b eyond t he m".

Here t he s ign if ican t s ta te men t i s t ha t " the n a mes

o f t he o thers h ave b een merged i n t hese t wo".

I ts ee ms t o me t ha t t h is c an

o n ly mean t ha t t he Ca ledon ian s a nd t he e n ig ma t ic Maea tae h ad a bsorbed o ther t r ibes t o c rea te l arger u n i ts. t r ibes n ear t he m. h ere.

The Ca ledon ians h ad p resu mably a bsorbed o ther

The Vaco mag i a nd t he T aeza l i a re p robab ly t o b e i ncluded

The l ocat ion o f t he Maea tae i s an o tor ious p roble m .

My own v iew i s

t ha t t hey a re t o b e l oca ted i n t he a rea o f t he Tay , t he a rea l a ter r eferred t o a s F or tru i. Bu t w he ther t ha t i s s o o r n o t , t he i mpor tan t p o in t i s t he p rocess o f a bsorp t ion o f sma l ler u n its i n to l arger g roup ings. I n o ur l a ter s ources w e f ind t h is p rocess b e ing c arr ied f ur ther. p anegyr icist o f 2 97 c an r e fer s i mp ly t o t he P icts.

The

How f ar h is a ud ience k new

wha t h e mean t b y P icts i s d eba table, b u t t he f act t ha t h e u ses t he word f or t he n or thern e ne m ies o f Ro me s hows t ha t i n s o me s ense t hose n orthern e ne m ies c ou ld b e r egarded a s au n i ty . Th is i s c on f ir med b y t he Panegyr ic ist o f 3 10 , who r efers t o " Ca ledon ians a nd o ther P ic ts" .

I ti s d if icu l t t o b e l ieve t ha t t he

" o ther P icts" r eferred t o h ere a re n o t t he Maea tae o f Cass ius D io.

Th is v iew

i s r e in forced when w e c o me t o t he e v idence o f Am m ianus, who d escr ibes t he P ic ts a s ap ower w ith t wo e le men ts, t he D ica ledones a nd t he V er tur iones .

The

D i- e le men t h as a n i n tensive f orce, s o t ha t D ica ledones s ee ms t o mean t he ' Grea ter Ca ledones ' —presu mably t he Ca ledones o f P to le my e nhanced i n p ower by t he p rocess o f e xpansion r eferred t o b y Cass ius D io. And j ust a s t he Ca led ones s ee m t o r ank a s t he p recursors o f t he n or thern d iv is ion o f t he P ict ish K in gdo m , s o Is uggest t ha t t he Ver tur iones ( and p resu mably t he Maea tae b efore t he m ) r epresen t t he s ou thern d iv is ion . Thus t hroughou t t he Ro man p er iod , we c an g l i mpse s o mething o f ag rowi ng u n ity a t l east among t he p eop les o f t he e as tern H igh lands. And Is uggest t ha t t h is i s n o t f ortu itous.

Is uggest t ha t t h is g row th o f u n i ts was a g radua l

1 49

b u t d irec t r esponse t o t he m il itary p resence o f Rome t o t he s ou th.

I ts ee ms

t o me a p rocess s tr ic t ly a na logous t o t ha t w h ich o bta ined o n t he c on t inen t. There we may n o te t ha t Tac itus i n t he G er man ia d escr ibes a bou t t wo d ozen d if feren t G er man t r ibes, o f ten h igh ly i nd iv idua l ist ic i n t he ir o rgan iza t ion a nd w ay o f l i fe , d isun ited a nd o f ten a t l oggerheads w ith e ach o ther.

When we c ome t o t he

l a te Emp ire , w e f i nd t ha t t hese t r iba l n a mes h ave d isappeared.

I ns tead we

f ind l arge f edera t ions s uch a s t he A le mann i o r t he Goths o r S axons. The b arb ar ian t r ibes r ea l ised t ha t Ro me p reven ted t he m f rom r each ing t he ir f ul l p ot en t ia lb y k eep ing t he m d isun i ted , b y d ip loma t ic a nd o ther means, a nd c oun tered t h is b y f using i n to l arger g roup ings wh ich c ou ld a nd d id b ecome s trong e nough t o c hal lenge Ro me a nd t o move i n t o t ake o ver w ho le s tretches o f i mper ia l t err itory . It h ink t he s a me s i tua t ion a pp l ies i n S co t land .

H ere , a t l east i n t he e as t-

e rn H igh lands , t he a rea most v u lnerable t o Ro man p enetra t ion , t he t hreat f rom Rome b rought a bou t t he s low b u t p rogress ive p rocess o ff us ion which c u lm ina ted i n t he f orma t ion o f t he P ic t ish K ingdo m. u n ifor m.

The move men t t owards u n ity was n o t

The c a mpa igns o fS everus a nd t he s ubsequen t o rgan isa t ion o f e f fect-

i ve c on tro l i n s ou thern S co t land must h ave i mpeded t he d evelop men t w h ich D io a t tests h ad a lready b egun . Bu t t he w eaken ing o f t he d e fensive s ystem i n t he l a ter t h ird c en tury g ave r enewed i mpetus wh ich r esu l ted i n t he u n ity a t tested b y t he a ppearance o f ar eference t o t he P icts i n 2 97. The P ict ish K ingdo m was s trong e nough i n t he 3 60s t o e l im ina te t he b uf fer z one a nd a ny h o ld o n t he l and n or th o f t he Wa l l. Therea f ter i ti s t rue t ha t P ict ish p ower s ee ms s o mewha t t o h ave waned. I n t he c on fused s i tua t ion a cco mpany ing t he e nd o f Ro man r u le i n Br i ta in , t he Br i t ish s peak ing p eop les o f s ou thern S co t land s ee m t o h ave f reed t hemselves f rom P ict ish r u le , a nd t o h ave b een a ble t o c rea te t he p owerfu l K i n gdoms who w ere r e me mbered a s t he Gwyr y Gogledd , t he g rea t h eroes i n l ater We lsh t rad it ion , o f t he r esistance t o t he a dvance o f t he Engl ish. The h istory o f t he Wa l l , a nd n o t l east t he h istory o f i t s l a ter o ccupa t ion , must b e s een a ga inst t he b ackground o f w hat w e c an g lean o f t he d evelop men t i n t he f orces i t was r anged a ga inst .

I t must a lso , o f c ourse, b e v iewed a ga ins t

t he b ackground o f d evelopmen t i n t he emp ire a s aw ho le. d id n o t f a il Ro me.

The f ron t ier s yste m

I t was Ro me w h ich f a i led Br i ta in , a nd w ith i ti t s w ho le d e-

f ens ive s yste m , l eav ing t he Br itons t o f end f or t hemselves a s b est t hey c ou ld , w ha tever t he s oc ia l t ens ion t ha t may h ave b een e ngendered w hen t ha t f a ilure t ook p lace. I ti s wor th t urn ing i n c onclusion t o l ook a t t he e f fect o f t he e nd o f Ro man c on tro l o n t he Wa l l s i tes t he mse lves. P erhaps t he most i mportan t a spec t o f t he Roman m i l itary o ccupa t ion o f w hat i s n ow n orthern England was t he s i mp le e cono m ic i mpact o f t he s ta t ion ing o f s uch a l arge n umber o f t roops i n s uch a sma l l a rea.

I ti s i mportan t t o n o te t he c on trast b e tween t he l ow land o r c iv il

z one o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he h ighland , o r m il i tary z one o n t he o ther. Throughou t t he Ro man p er iod , t he o rgan iza t ion o f c i t ies i n t he l ow land z one must h ave mean t an e t t o u tf low o f r evenue f rom t ha t a rea t o t he R oman a u thor it ies.

The ma in t axable r esources o f Br i ta in l ay i n t he l ow land z one,

a nd c i t ies were o rgan ised t here p rec isely t o e nsure t ha t t he max i mum r evenue

1 50

was e x tracted a t t he m in i mum o f c ost t o Ro me : t he c i t ies h ad t o o rgan ise t he c o l lec t ion o f t axes t o Rome a t t he ir o wn e xpense. l ow land z one was m in i ma l .

Ro man e xpend iture i n t he l ow-

I n t he m i l itary z one , t he s i tua t ion w as p rec isely t he r everse. The c on t inu ou s p ay men t o f t roops i n t he f ron t ier a rea b y Rome r epresen ted i n e fect a c ont inu ing s ubsidy o f t he a rea. t he a rea.

There w as a n e t t c on t inu ing i n f low o f c ap ita l i n to

The r esu l t ing e cono my was c omp letely a r t if ic ia l , a nd must h ave b een

a ccompan ied b y a n e qua l ly a r t if ic ia l i ncrease i n p opu la t ion . Thr iv ing s e t t lemen ts g rew u p a t e very f or t , e conom ica l ly d ependen t o n t he p ay o f t he t roops. Once t he p aymen t o f t roops e nded w ith t he e nd o f Roman c on tro l , s o t he who le a rt if ic ial e cono my c o l lapsed . I n t he c ase o f s ome c om mun i t ies, s uch a s t hose a t t he f or ts i nt he c en tra l s ector o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l l ike Housesteads a nd Great Chesters, t here must h ave b een a r ap id d w ind l ing i n t he ir p opu la t ions. Even c o mmun it ies i n more f er t i le a reas, s uch a s O ld Carl isle o r C hester-le-Stree t , c an o n ly h ave s urv ived a t am in i mum s ubsistence l evel. There was n o f ra mework h ere f or t he s urv iva l o f v iable o rgan isa t ions t o f i l l t he v acuum w hen Roman p ower c o l lapsed . The o n ly c o mmun i ty i n t he a rea wh ich may p oss ibly h ave s urv ived t o f orm t he n ucleus o f av iab le p ower c ou ld p erhaps b e Car l isle. Bu t t ha t i s o n ly s pecu lat ion . The Roman m i l i tary o ccupa t ion o f t he f ron t ier a rea , w i th i t s d isp ersed a nd u nconnected c o m mun it ies, c o l lapsed , l eav ing n o v iab le t race b eh ind .

N o s ense o f c om mun i ty c an h ave d eveloped o r s urv ived i n t he Wa l l a rea.

I nstead , t he f u ture l ay w i th t hose K in gdoms w h ich , a l though ma in ta ined a nd s uperv ised b y Ro me i nt he t h ird c en tury , a nd t he e ar ly f our th , h ad b een swa mped b y t he P icts i n 3 60 a nd 3 67.

A bandoned b y Rome t hey h ad t o t hrow

o f f P ic t ish r u le , b u t t he s trugg le t o d o t h is i s , Is ugges t , t he s ource o f t he ir s ense o f u n i ty a nd p urpose a nd t he o r ig in o f t he ir i mportance i n t he p ostRoman wor ld .

1 51

RO MAN S ETTLE MENTS AND POST-RO MAN ESTATES I N SOUTH-EAST WALES b y Wendy D av ies

T h is p aper h as a t wo-fo ld p urpose .

I n i t , Is hou ld l i ke t o s uggest t ha t

t he p ost-Ro man e sta tes a nd c oncep ts o f l andho ld ing o f wh ich we h ave e v idence i n s ou th-east Wa les a re t he d irect s uccessors o f t hose o f R o man Wa les, a nd f ur ther , Is hou ld l i ke t o r a ise t he p rob le m o f t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween t hose e sta tes a nd t he Ro man s e t t le men t p at tern .

T he a rea c o mpr ises t he e ar ly

med ieva l k ingdo ms a nd l a ter med ieva l a dm in istrat ive u n its o f Ergyng ( southwest Hereford ) , Gwen t ( Monmouthsh ire , n ow Gwen t a ga in ) , a nd G ly v vysing/ Morgannwg ( G lamorgan ) 1 ,b ut most o f i ta ppears t o h ave b een i nc luded w ith in t he s ing le c iv itas o f t he S i lures i n t he R o man p er iod .

Agr icu ltura l ly , a l though

much o f G lamorgan i s d om ina ted b y moun ta in , t he p o ten t ia l o f t he l ands s outh a nd e ast o f t h is i su nusua l ly h igh a nd h as l ong b een r ecogn ised a s s uch . A s a who le, R o man Wa les was s carce ly c haracter ised b y i n tens ive f ar m ing o rb y t he v i l la b u i ld ings wh ich s ee m t o b e a cco mpan ied b y l arge e sta tes i n Br i ta in .

T he S outh E ast was d i f feren t , h owever , a nd a l though we may n ote

t he n etwork o f f or ts a round a nd a cross t he moun ta in , we must a lso n o te t ha t p ermanen t mi l i tary o ccupa t ion a ppears t o h ave e nded i n t he s econd c en tury . T he l eg ionary f or tress a t C aer leon s ee ms t o h ave l ost i t s l eg ion ( Leg io I Augusta ) , b y t he l a te t h ird c en tury ( Br itann ia i( 1 970) , 2 72) , a nd o n ly C ard if f c on t inued t o p er form a s ign if ican t m i l itary f unct ion w ith in t he R o man d efensive s yste m i n t he f our th c en tury ( Nash- W i l l ia ms 1 969, 7 0 ; S i mpson 1 964 , 1 71) . T here was s o me s ort o f o ccupa t ion a t s evera l f or ts i n t he f our th c en tury , h owe ver - ? Abergavenny , YG aer n ear Brecon , C aer leon , G e l l igaer , L oughor , U sk 2 -b ut t he n ature o f t ha t o ccupa t ion i s u ncer ta in ; we c anno t c on f iden t ly s ay i fa l l o f t hese w ere f or t if ied o r d efended i n t he f our th c en tury , n or i ft hey were t he o n ly s i tes s o u sed .

V i l las t here were i n p len ty , h owever , b y c o m-

p ar ison w i th most o ther a reas o f Wa les .

Ik now o f a t l east f if teen , a nd a

f ur ther p oss ib le e igh t , o n t he b as is o f r epor ts p f h ypocausts, mosaics a nd s tructures.

T here i s i n a dd it ion more f ragmen tary e v idence wh ich m igh t

s uggest s o me f orm o f s et t le men t , a nd p ossib ly more v i l las, a t af ur ther t wen ty s i tes . 3 Th is n u mber i nc ludes s i tes w i th s uch p ot tery a nd c oin s cat ter a s t o s uggest s o me s or t o f h ab ita t ion b ut n o t , o f c ourse , w ith t he i so la ted c o in , sma l l f i nd o r h oard , n or t he s cat tered e v idences o f R oman i ronwork ing l i ke t hose a t M isk in ; i ti nc ludes c aves, i n wh ich p ermanen t o ccupa t ion i su nd oubted ly a rguab le .

T he most d oubtfu l o f t hese s i tes i s H ereford , f ro m wh ich

t he amoun t o f R o man ma ter ia l i s r a ther sma l l; e ven s o , c oin f i nds a re s o f requen t a nd s o s ca t tered i ts ee ms u n like ly t ha t t here was n o s et t le men t o f a ny s or t h ere .

1 53

T he e v idence o f c iv i l s et t le men t c oncen tra tes v ery o bv iously i n t he a gr ic u ltura l ly p roduct ive a rea , a nd e spec ia l ly i n c oasta l o r r iverside s i tes ( Fig . 5 ) .

I ti s an o t u nreasonab le p resu mp t ion , t herefore , t ha t t he b est l and was

e xp lo i ted a nd t ha t t he s et t le men t p a t tern b ears s o me r e la t ion t o l and u se . F ur ther , i fw e c on t inue t o s uppose t ha t v i l la s i tes i n Br ita in i nd ica te f ar ms a nd n o t mere ly c oun try h ouses, t hen w e must a lso s uppose t he e x istence o f f arms o r e sta tes a ppur tenan t t o t he m ( R ive t 1 969 , 1 99f f , 2 14f ) .

H ence, t he

n u mber o f v i l las i n t he S ou th East must i nd ica te c onsiderab le a gr icu ltura l e xp lo i ta t ion b y owners o f r e la t ive ly l arge e sta tes, l arge e nough , t ha t i s , t o r equ ire t he l abour o f more p eop le t han t he owner a nd h is f am i ly . s et t le men t i n t he a rea i s v ery l im i ted :

Urban

C aerwen t w as t he c iv itas c ap i ta l

a nd K enchester a nd Weston-under-Penyard l ay a cross t he Wye ;

o therw ise

t here were o n ly t he u rban s et t le men ts a round t he f or ts a t C ard if f , C aer leon a nd U sk , a nd j ust p ossib ly s o me u rban o r p ro to-urban s et t le men t a t p laces l i ke Mon mouth , C hepstow , a nd o ne o r t wo c oasta l s i tes s uch a s Redw ick . Product ion i n t he f our th c en tury , t herefore , i n t he a bsence o f a r my a nd w ith f ew t owns, may we l l h ave b een f or l ong-d istance r a ther t han l oca l d istr ibut ion , a nd t he p rox im ity o f ma jor s i tes t o c oast a nd r iver may b e s ign if ican t i n t h is r espect . T he s i tes men t ioned a bove s upp ly ma ter ia l f ro m most p er iods, a nd t hey a re n o t n ecessar i ly s ign i f ican t i n a ssess ing t he p rob le m o f t he 'e nd ' o f Ro man Br i ta in .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence i s n o t e spec ia l ly s uggest ive o f t he f a te o f

s ou th-east Wa les .

Most s i tes p roduce n o c onc lus ive e v idence o f u se a f ter t he

m id-four th c en tury , a nd s o me v i l la s i tes, n o tab ly E ly a nd Hun tsha m , s uggest t he p os it ive d isuse o f s evera l b u i ld ings .

Equa l ly , t he s i tes p rov ide n o e v idence

o f s udden e nd a nd we h ave n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t t he u se o f a l l o f t he m s udden ly s topped i n t he mid-four th c en tury .

T here i s a n u nusua l ly l arge amoun t

o f T heodosian c o inage a t C aerwen t , l arge ly c om ing f ro m h oards, b u t t he u se o f t h is l a te c o inage i n ar e la t ive ly f ar western a rea i s s uppor ted b y f i nds f ro m C aer leon , C ard if f , H ereford , I f ton , K en f ig , N ewpor t a nd S t . Arvans .4 A f ter t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury , a l though L lan tw i t v i l la h as p roduced a c ruc ib le l i d ( Br itann ia v ( 1974) , 2 40 ) , p ost-Ro man p o t tery o r meta lwork o ccasiona l ly o ccurs i n c aves, l i ke L esser G ar th o r M inch in H o le , a nd s o me p ost-Ro man i nscr ip t ions a re t o b e f ound o n Ro man s i tes ( La ing 1 977 , 5 7 f f ) , t hese s carce ly p rov ide c onc lus ive e v idence o f o ccupa t ion , a nd e ven l ess o f a ny c on t inu i ty o f o ccupa t ion f ro m t he l a te R o man p er iod .

O ne m igh t j ust make a c ase f or t he

K en f ig a rea , w i th i t s m isce l lany o f R o man a nd med ieva l ma ter ia l, i t s d ark a ge me ta lwork a nd e ar ly ( ?s ix th-cen tury ) i nscr ip t ion , b u t e ven s o p rovena nces a re n o t s uf f ic ien t ly p rec ise t o t i e d own a ny o ne s i te .

O n ly t he h i l l for t

a t D inas P owys ( A lcock 1 963 ) p rov ides a ny r easonab le p hys ica l e v idence o f l i fe a nd s e t t le men t i n t he i m med ia te p ost-Ro man p er iod , a lthough t he s er ies o f r ad io-carbon d a tes f ro m t he c e me tery o utside C aerwen t s uggests u se o f t he b ur ia l p lace i n t he f i f th/six th a nd e igh th/n in th c en tur ies .

5

A t p resen t,

t herefore, t he ma ter ia l e v idence i s t oo s parse a nd f rag men tary t o s uggest wha t h appened t o s i tes i n t he l a te f our th a nd f i f th c entur ies: o ne wou ld c ert a in ly e xpect s o me c hanges i n p roduct ion w i th c hanges i n t he market , a nd i t i s n o t u nreasonab le t o s uppose c hanges i n t he u se o f s i tes, i n p opu la t ion , a nd e ven i n t he s e t t le men t p at tern , b ut t he p rec ise r a te a nd p er iod o f t ha t c hange a re u ncer ta in . 1 54

1 55

V i l la 4 th c en tury

RO MAN S ETTLE ME NT

4 .

s 4

C . )

_ C

T1

t n.

A lthough ma ter ia l e v idence i s s parse i n t he p ost-Ro man p er iod , wr i t ten e v idence—o f ten o f ad e ta i led a nd l oca l ised n a ture—beco mes more p len t ifu l . T he L landa f f c har ters p rov ide a c orpus o f r ecords a bout p roper ty i n s outhe ast Wa les, s tretch ing f ro m t he l a te s ix th t o t he e leven th c entur ies, a nd o thers f ro m L la .ncar fan a nd L lande i lo F awr a dd f ur ther ma ter ia l ( LL ; Dav ies 1 973a , 1 979 , a nd f or thco m ing ) .

6

These c har ters r ecord t he t ransfer o f

ownersh ip o f p roper ty a nd e sta tes, u sua l ly a s d ona t ion , o f ten i n t erms wh ich g ive c onsiderab le d eta i l a bou t t he l ands wh ich c hanged h ands.

The e s tates

were l arge, o ccasiona l ly o f t housands o f a cres b u t more u sua l ly o f h undreds: i n t he 1 58 L landa f f c har ters, o n ly e igh t e sta tes a re k nown t o h ave b een sma l ler t han 1 25 a cres .

No t o n ly were t hey l arge, t hey w ere worked : b oth p astora l

a nd a rab le u se i s i nd ica ted , more e spec ia l ly a rab le , a nd e xp lo i tat ion d epende d o n t he l abour o f d ependan ts a nd o n manage men t b y t enan ts ; d ependan ts w ere a l iena ted a long w ith a n e sta te .

s o me t imes

T he c har ters d o n o t , t here-

f ore , r ecord g ran ts o f t rack less wastes b u t g ran ts o f l ands i n work ing a gr ic u ltura l o rder , a nd t hey a l low u s t o p erce ive t he e x istence o f e sta tes i n s ou th-east Wa les a t a n e ar ly p ost-Ro man p er iod . Not o n ly c an we n o t ice e sta tes a t a n e ar ly p ost-Ro man p er iod, w e c an a lso t race c hanges i n t he ir n a ture a nd d eve lop men ts a f ter t ha t . e ar ly g ran ts were d if feren t f ro m l a ter o nes:

F irst ly , t he

e sta tes were much b igger , b e ing

s evera l h undreds o r t housands o f a cres r a ther t han a f ew h undreds; t hey t ended t o b e o n t he

b e t ter ' l ands, b y modern c lass if ica t ion s tandards ; t he

c haracter ist ic p roper t er m u sed t o d escr ibe t he m w as a ger , a nd t he c harac teri s t ic u n it o f measure men t was t he u ncia ; t he g ran ts w ere o n ly made b y k ings. [ .A l though modern c lassi f ica t ion may b e m is lead ing , b ecause o f t echno log ica l i mprove men t , i ti s n otab le t ha t whereas o ver t he w ho le s ix th- t o e leven thc en tury p er iod e sta tes t end t o o ccur o n l and o f g rades 2 a nd 3 , t he e ar l iest e sta tes h ave a c ons iderab le p ropor t ion o f g rades 1 a nd 2 ; a nd t he b est l ands i n a ny a rea t end t o b e i nc luded i n t he e ar l iest g ran ts .

Par t icu lar ly n o tab le

c ases o ccur a round B ishopston i n G ower , a nd P encoed , L iand inabo, B a l l ingh am , D orestone , D ore Va l ley , B e l l i moor a nd . Mad ley i n Ergyng .]

S econd ly ,

c hanges f ro m t he e ar ly p at tern a re o f ten p rec ise ly c on f inab le t o t he e igh th c en tury : p eop le o ther t han k ings b egan t o make g ran ts f ro m c . 7 00, a nd b etween c . 7 35 a nd t he e leven th c en tury t he n on-roya l l a i ty made a bou t t w ice a s many g ran ts a s k ings ;

a f ter c . 7 60 t here were o n ly s ix g ran ts l arger t han

2 50 a cres, a nd 1 25 a cres b eca me t he n or ma l s ize—even f or r oya l g ran ts ; mod ius ( at we lf th o f a n u nc ia) r ep laced u nc ia a s t he n orma l u n i t o f measuremen t a f ter c . 7 80 ;

i n Gwen t a nd Ergyng u i l la b ecame more c o m mon t han a ger ,

a s f ro m c . 7 22 , a nd a ger e ven tua l ly s topped b e ing u sed ; f ur ther , t he n ew e sta tes h ave a r e la t ion t o t he p resen t s e t t le men t p a t tern wh ich t he o lder a gr i d id n o t ; u i l la b ounds a re much e asier t o t race t han t hose o f a gr i, a nd a l most i nvar iab ly e nc lose o ne p r inc ipa l modern s e t t le men t , o f ten w ith c hurch , a nd o u t ly ing f ar ms.

H ence , t he c hanges wh ich p • roduced a n ew sma l ler e sta te,

p oss ib ly d ependen t o n o ne ma in s et t le men t , c o inc ided w ith c hanges t o n ew t erms, t hose t erms t he mse lves b e ing c o ined i n r e la t ion t o s et t le men t .

7

I ti s .

f ur ther , wor th n o t ing t ha t t he p er iod o f c hange c o inc ides w ith a p er iod i n wh ich t wo p ecu l iar t ransact ions o ccurred : g ran ts made b y ak ing i n a ssoc iat i on w i th a man c a lled h eres o r h ered itar ius, c .6 60-770 ;

a nd p urchases o f

p roper ty f ro m k ings b y n on-roya l l a ity , f or t he p urpose o f mak ing s ubsequen t 1 56

1 57

gr an ts, c . 7 05-65 .

T he p ecu l iar i ty o f t he t ransact ions a nd t he ir r estr icted

p er iod o f o ccurrence s uggests t ha t t hey were mechan is ms f or i nvo lv ing t he n on-roya l l a ity i n t he n ew a nd u nusua l b us iness o f t ransferr ing p roper ty .

8

N ow , i ti s u n th inkab le t ha t t he l anguage a nd c oncep tua l a ppara tus o f p roper ty t ransfer i n t hese c har ters d er ives f ro m a ny th ing o ther t han a l ate R o man t rad it ion .

I ti s t oo s im i lar t o t he l anguage o f imper ia l r escr ip ts a nd

o f e ar ly med ieva l c har ters a nd l aws, o f R o man i n f luence , f ro m t he c on t inen t ; i ti s t oo d if feren t f ro m t he l a ter med ieva l a nd v ernacu lar c oncep ts w h ich b ec a me p redo m inan t . T he d ist inct ive ly e ar ly a ger a nd u nc ia a re Ro man t er ms f or l and u n its, t he f ormer u sed i n g enera l o f r ura l l and w ithout b u i ld ings a nd s pec if ica l ly a s at erm f or e sta tes, t he l a t ter a s t he p roper t er m f or a n h e ir ' s p or t ion ( Dav ies 1 973b, a nd f or thco m ing ) .

No t mere ly t he l anguage b u t t he

t enur ia l s tructure wh ich t hey d escr ibe i s s tr ik ing ly r em in iscen t o f t he t enur ia l c o mp lex it ies o f Merov ing ian F rance where t hose a re c ond it ioned b y t he Ro man p ast :

ownersh ip wh ich i s l ess t han t ota l, mu l t ip le r igh ts i n s ing le p arce ls o f

l and , l im ita t ions o n a l iena t ion , a l l r eca l l t he c on fusion b e tween d om in iu m a nd p ossess io wh ich c haracter ises much o f Vu lgar L aw i n t he West ( Levy 1 951, 1 9f f ) .

The v ery mechan is m o f d ona t ion , i nvo lv ing c har ter wr i t ing a nd t he

me t icu lous r ecord ing o f w itnesses a s p roof o f t he a ct a nd a s s anct ion , h as a l a te Ro man o r ig in i n t he i ns istence o n r eg istra t ion o f p roper ty t ransfers i n i t ia ted b y C onstan t ine ( Levy 1 951, 1 3Of f ) .

The C e lt ic c har ter—a d ist inct ive

c lass o f c har ters, t o wh ich t hese e xa mp les b e long—has n o l ess o f aR o man o r ig in t han o ther European c har ters a nd h as a n i ndependen td eve lop men t , o f e ar l ier emergence t han a nd u n in f luenced b y Eng l ish p ract ice .

9

Fur ther , i n

a wor ld i n wh ich t he a l iena t ion o f p roper ty was n o t as i mp le mat ter f or t he i nd iv idua l, t he r oya l monopo ly o f d ona t ion i n t he s ix th a nd s even th c en tur ies i sb est u nderstood i n t he c on tex t o f l a te Ro man p owers o ver p roper ty : t he c apac ity o f k ings t o o ver-r ide l im i ta t ions o n a l iena t ion ( wha tever t he r eason f or t hose l im itat ions) r eca l ls b o th imper ia l p owers i n t he l a te Emp ire a nd o ther r oya l a t te mp ts t o i m ita te t hose p owers i n t he p ost-Ro man k ingdo ms wh ich r ep laced t he Emp ire i n t he West .

L anguage , i nst itut ions, mechan is m

o f d ona t ion , a nd t he r oya l monopo ly o f i ta l l r eturn t o t he l a te Ro man p ast ( Dav ies, f or thco m ing ) . B oth t he n ature o f r igh ts i n p roper ty , t herefore , a nd t he t ransfer o f t hose r igh ts i n e ar ly med ieva l s ou th-east Wa les, b e long t o al a te Ro man t rad it ion .

The b usiness o f p roperty h o ld ing a nd own ing—a t l east i n t he p ro-

p er t ies whose c onveyance was r ecorded i n t hese c har ters— is a l a te Ro man d er iva t ive . t h is a rea .

Th is i s i n i t se lf s o me c o m men t o n t he e nd o f Ro man Br ita in i n Bu t t here i s af ur ther c onsidera t ion .

Wha tever t he Ro man i n-

f l uence o n p roper ty r igh ts, t here i s n o n ecessary i mp l ica t ion t hat t he a ctua l p roper t ies c onveyed i n t he s ix th a nd s even th c entur ies r epresen t u na ltered e sta tes o f t he f our th c en tury .

One w ou ld n o t e xpect a c o mp le te ly u nchang ing

p at tern o f e sta te b oundar ies w ith in t he Ro man p er iod i t se lf , g iven t he f ragmen ta t ion o ccasioned b y i nher itance a nd t he e f fects o f s a le a nd p urchase ,and i tw ou ld t herefore b e u nreasonab le t o e xpect a t ota l ly f ossi l ised f our th-cen tury p a t tern o f p roper ty b oundar ies t o s urv ive i n to t he e igh th c en tury .

Never the-

l ess, t here must b e as trong p robab i li ty t ha t s o me e sta tes r eta ined t he ir f our th-century s hape , a nd t ha t many o f t he o thers w ere t he d irect s uccessors o f f our th-cen tury p roper t ies .

G iven t he o bserved t endency f or p roper ty b oun1 58

S et t le men t

GEOGRAPH ICAL V i l la 4 th c en tury

d ar ies t o r e ma in i n u se o ver many c en tur ies, d esp ite c hanges i n o wnersh ip ( Sawyer 1 976, 7 2 f f , 8 3 f f ) ;

g iven t he c orre la t ion b e tween t he b est l ands a nd

t he e ar l iest med ieva l e sta tes, a long w ith t he k nown R o man p at tern o fv i l la e xp lo ita t ion ; g iven t he n a ture o f t enur ia l r igh ts, r eserv ing t enancy o r a s hare o f p ro f i ts i n p erpetu i ty t o t h ird o r f our th p ar t ies, o r r eferr ing t o s uch r eserva t ions ; g iven t he f ac t o f ma jor c hange i n t he s tructure o f e sta tes a nd a pparen t ly i n t he ir r e la t ionsh ip t o t he s et t le men t p a t tern i n t he e igh th c en tury , a nd a bsence o f s uch f unda men ta l c hange a t a ny o ther p er iod b efore t he e leven th c en tury ; t hen , i ti s h istor ica l ly i mprobab le t ha t t here was a t ota l c hange i n t he u n i ts i n w h ich t he p roper ty r igh ts were h e ld i n t he l a te f our th o r f i f th c ent ury , f o l lowed b y t he e stab l ishmen t o f n ew , l arge , worked u n its, d esp ite t he c on t inua t ion o f t he c onceptua l a pparatus s urround ing s uch r igh ts. We s hou ld e xpect , t herefore, t ha t s o me e sta tes h ad a c on t inuous p hysica l e x istence, t hough me thods o f work ing a nd i n tens ity o f e xp lo i ta t ion m igh t we l l h ave c hanged .

I ft here i s ah igh p robab i l ity t ha t t he e ar ly med ieva l e sta tes w ere t he s uccessors o f l a te Ro man o nes, t hen t he r e la t ionsh ip o f R o man s et t lemen t p a t tern t o t he o ccurrence o f e ar ly med ieva l e sta tes i s o f s o me i nterest .

The

most s tr ik ing a spects o f a map wh ich r ecords k nown R o man s et t le men t a nd k nown e ar ly e sta tes i s t he l ack o f a ny e xact c orre la t ion b etween t he i nc idence o f t he t wo , e xcep t i n t he a reas o f Monmou th , C hepstow a nd Mer thyr Mawr ; a nd s econd ly t he o ccurrence o f v i l las i n a reas where t here a re n o e sta tes, a nd v ice v ersa ( F ig . 6 ) .

I ts hou ld b e r e me mbered , h owever , t hat n o t a l l

e ar ly e sta tes c an b e i den t if ied , a nd t hough t here i s of ten a n i nd icat ion o f t he s ize o f t he e ar ly g ran ts, t here i s o n ly r are ly a f u l l p era mbu la t ion o f e state b oundar ies ; 1° e qua l ly , we c anno t b e c on f iden t t ha t e very t race o f Roman s et t le men t h as b een r ecovered .

Moreover , i n an u mber o f a reas Roman

s et t le men ts, o f v ar ious t ypes, a re v ery n ear b ut a pparen t ly n ot w ith in t he b ounds o f l a ter e sta tes .

T hese i nc lude t he v i l las a t Hun tsham, Coed y g rafe l,

L lanbe thery , L lan frynach , Bu l more, E ly a nd p oss ib ly Wh it ton/ Mou l ton ; s et t le men ts a t C owbr idge , East G ower , West G ower , t he l ower Wye a nd P oston ; a nd n o tab ly a nd p erhaps c ur iously t he f or ts o f A bergavenny , Y Gaer , C ard if f , C lyro a nd L oughor ( Fig . 7 ) . Av ery h igh p ropor t ion , t hough n ot a l l, h ave p roduced e v idence o f f our th-cen tury o ccupa t ion . The p rob le m l i es, t herefore , n o t s o much i n t he l ack o f e xac t c orre la t ion b ut i n t he p rox im ity o f R o man s i te a nd l a ter e sta te .

I s t he ir g eograph ica l r e lat ionsh ip s ign i f ican t o r

mere ly a c o inc idence? I ti s e spec ia l ly n otab le i n t hose a reas wh ich p roduce f ew s e t t le men ts a nd f ew e sta tes—Y G aer , C lyro , L lan frynach , L oughor . Must we s uppose t ha t av i l la s i te was n ecessar i ly l oca ted w ith in i t s a ppur tenan t u n it o f a gr icu ltura l p roduct ion , e ven i n t he R o man p er iod? I n s o me c ases, a s i n t he l ower Wye a rea , t he v i l la l i es o n al imestone r idge wh i le t he n earby e sta te l i es o n t he b e t ter s o i ls .

C ou ld t he r e la t ionsh ip i mp ly a s h if t i n s e t t le-

men t t owards t he e sta te , o r s i mp ly t ota l c hange o f s e t t le men t a nd e sta te p at tern?

F ur ther , ar e la t ionsh ip b e tween f or t a nd e sta te i s n o t s o i ncred ib le

a s i t migh t a t f i rst a ppear : i f we a l low a c hange i n t he u se o f s uch s i tes, n ona rmy r es iden ts m igh t we l l h ave b een s uppor ted f rom d ependen t e states. We 1 60

h ave s uff ic ien t e v idence o f h ab i ta t ion i n h i l lfor ts, w ith in t h is a rea a nd e lsewhere , b oth i n t he l a te R o man p er iod a nd a f ter , t o k now t ha t r es idence i n f or t if ied o r f or t if iab le p laces b eca me more c om mon t han i th ad b een i n t he e ar ly Empire ( s ee c on tr ibu t ions i n t h is v o lume b y Burrow a nd T om l in , a n te ) . S uch p eop le n eed n o t h ave b een w i thou t l anded r esources , e ven i ft he ir l eve l o f ma ter ia l c u l ture h as o f ten b een d escr ibed a s s qua l id . T he w e l l-inves t iga ted c ase o f f i f th- t o s even th-cen tury D inas P owys amp ly makes t he p o in t , a nd i mp l ies a ccess t o r esources f ro m w e l l b eyond t he i m med ia te n eighbourhood o f t he h i ll for t ( A lcock 1 963 , 5 3 f f ).

We k now f ro m t he c har ters o f t he emer-

g ence b y 6 00 o f u nexpec ted ly many k ings a nd k ing ly f am i l ies i n t he a rea , a nd t hese mus t b e c and ida tes f or t he o ccup iers o f s ome f or t i f iab le s i tes .

I f my s uggest ions a bou t t he p ost-Ro man c har ters o f s outh-east Wa les a re c orrect—or e ven p ar t ly c orrect— t hen t hey h ave impor tan t i mp l ica t ions f or a n u nderstand ing o f p ost-Ro man s oc ie ty i n t h is a rea a nd r a ise d i f f icu lt b u t i n terest ing q uest ions a bou t i t s r e la t ionsh ip w ith t he R oman p ast . A f ter a l l, R o man ised h ab i ts c on t inued i n t he u se o f mor tar ia a nd i mpor t wares a t D inas P owys ( A lcock 1 963 , 5 0) .

I ti s d i f f icu l t t o s ee t he c oncep tua l a pproach

t o p roper ty r igh ts a nd t he mechan is ms o f t he ir d ona t ion i n t he s ix th , s even th a nd e igh th c entur ies a s a ny th ing o ther t han a R o man ( or R o mano-Br i t ish ) l eg acy , a nd i ti s h igh ly l i ke ly t ha t s o me e sta tes c on t inued t o o ccupy t he s a me l ands a s, a nd t ha t o thers were t he d irect s uccessors o f , t he ir R oman f orer unners.

I ft h is was s o , wha t l i gh t d oes i tt hrow o n s e t t le men t p at terns ?

-

There i s c lear ly n o s ing le , s i mp le o r c o mprehensive a nswer , b ut i ft he e igh th-cen tury c hange i n t erms f or l and u n i ts r igh t ly i mp l ies t ha t t he n o t ion o f s et t le men t i n r e la t ion t o e sta te h ad b eco me more importan t , t hen we m igh t e xpect s o me s h if t i n s et t le men t s i tes, a s we l l a s e ven tua l c hange i n t he s hape o f e sta tes . F or t a nd h i l lfor t e v idence s uggests t h is h ad a lready b egun i n t he f ourth c en tury ; t he c har ter t erm ino logy s uggests t ha t i th ad n o t e nded b y t he s even th c en tury .

T he c o mb ina t ion o f R o man a nd p ost-Ro man e v idence, t hough

v ery d if feren t i n t ype , s uggests c hange, b u t c hange t ha t was g radua l . I t was t herefore t he n in th c entury b efore c hanges i n o wners, i n s et t le men t , i n t he r igh ts o f owners a nd t enan ts, i n t he s hape a nd s tructure o f e sta tes, a nd i n l eve ls o f p roduct ion , h ad c o mb ined t o p roduce a r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s et t lemen t , l and u n it a nd t he work ing o f i t wh ich was n o l onger a r ecogn isab ly R o man i nher itance .

1 61

NOTES 1 .

T he t erm

Morgannwg ' b egan t o r ep lace 'G lywysing ' i n t he l a te t en th

c en tury a nd e ven tua l ly s uperseded i t ; b efore t ha t , 'G lywysing , was s o me t i mes c on f ined t o G la morgan b u t a t o ther t imes was u sed o f t he who le o f t he S outh East ; s ee D av ies 1 978 , 9 1f . 2 .

S ee Append ix f or r eferences .

3 .

S ee Append ix f or d e ta i ls o f s i tes a nd r eferences.

4 .

C aer leon : BBCS 1 ( 1 923-5) , 9 8f f ; C aerwen t : BBCS 1 ( 1923-5) , 9 2 f f , i v ( 1927-9) , 1 00, v i ( 1931-3 ) , 1 79f ; x i i i ( 1948-50 ) , 5 8 , x iv ( 1950-2 ) , 2 48 ; C ard i f f : BBCS 1 1 ( 1926-7 ) , 7 7 ; H ereford : JRS x xx i i i ( 1 943 ) , 7 4 ; I f ton : BBCS i v ( 1927-9) , 2 64 ; K en f ig : BBCS x iv ( 1950-2 ) , 8 7 ; N ewp or t : BBCS i i ( 1926-7 ) , 7 7 ; S t . Aryans: L ee 1 862 , 8 2 .

5 .

T here was c er ta in ly a ma jor monastery i n C aerwen t b y t he t en th c ent ury ; s ee Dav ies 1 978 , 1 36 .

T he r ad io c arbon d a tes a re, a s f ar a s I

c an a scer ta in ,u npub l ished ; Iam g ra te fu l t o P h i l ip Rah tz f or t he i n forma t ion . 6 .

T he c har ters a re c orrup t i n t he f orm i n wh ich t hey s urv ive i n t he manus cr ip t ; Ih ave d ev ised a c r it ica l a ppara tus a nd a ssigned d a tes t o t he m i n t he works c i ted .

7 .

A lthough b oth u i l la a nd i t s v ernacu lar e qu iva len t t ref a re t erms u sed t o d escr ibe l and u n its, t hey b o th h ave a p r i mary mean ing o f 'h ouse , r esid ence '; i .e . l and u n its were d ef ined i n r e lat ion t o s et t le men t r a ther t han l and u se , a s i n t he c ase o f a ger . A l though i ti s n ot c o inc idence t ha t we u se t he s a me word , v i l la , t o d escr ibe c er ta in r ura l b u i ld ing c o mp lexes i n Ro man E urope , i tc an b e mis lead ing a nd we must n o t f orge t t ha t c lass ica l, med ieva l a nd modern u sages a re d i f feren t ; wha t w e c a l l aR o man v i l la , t herefore ,h as n o n ecessary c onnect ion w ith a l and u n it c a l led u i l la , at erm c om mon ly u sed o n t he c on t inen t i n t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod , a nd i n Br ita in t oo , b u t n o t i n t he c lassica l R oman s ense .

8 .

Ih ave d iscussed t he e sta tes i n d e ta i l i n Dav ies 1 978 , 3 2-59 .

9 .

Ih ave a rgued i n The L a t in c har ter t rad i t ion i n e ar ly med ieva l Br i ta in , Br i t tany a nd I re land ' t ha t t h is c har ter t rad it ion i s i ndependen t ; t ha t t he s im i lar it ies b e tween c har ters f ro m S co t land , I re land , Wa les a nd Br i t tany a nd t he ir e cc les iast ica l c on tex ts must i mp ly a n e ar ly d er ivat i on , when t he ir r espect ive c hurches were s t i l l i n c on tact . Any p er iod i nt he f i f th a nd s ix th c en tur ies i s p oss ib le, b ut t he u se o f f ormu lae wh ich b orrow f ro m imper ia l r escr ip ts w ou ld f avour s ynods o f s ome western p rov ince o f Br i ta in , a nd t he d ist inct ive f orm o f t hese migh t d er ive f ro m t he f orms o f r eg istra t ion u sed b y b ishops when a t te mp t ing

1 62

t o s ecure t he ir e ndowmen ts b y r eg ister ing w ith t own c ounc i ls .

The

f i f th c en tury i n western Br i ta in i s p erhaps more l i ke ly . 1 0 .

L ong p era mbu la t ions were n o t a dded t o t he c har ters u n t i l t he n i e c en tury o r l a ter ; s o me e ar ly c har ters h ave v ery s hor t ( ear ly ) s ta temen ts o f ma in b oundary p o in ts, h owever ; s ee Dav ies 1 979, App .I .

1 1.

S tructures h ave b een i nvest iga ted a t B urrows We l l, b ut t here i s aw ide s cat ter o f f inds f or more t han a m i le i n t he s urround ing Warren , a nd t he v i l las o f C ae a nd New ton N ot tage a re n o t f ar d istan t .

The sma l l -

f i nds may b e long t o t he B urrows We l l s et t le men t o r t he v i l las, o r t o y et a nother s et t le men t .

1 63

APPEND IX

L IST OF S ITES T here f o l lows a h an .d l ist , i n a lphabe t ica l o rder o f modern p lace-na me , t o t he s i tes marked o n F ig . 3 -5 .

I n A , R o man e v idence , t he c a tegory

s et t le-

men t ' r efers t o s i tes a t wh ich h ab ita t ion s ee ms h igh ly l i ke ly , g iven t he n u mber a nd s ca t ter o f sma l l f i nds a nd c o ins, b ut wh ich c annot b e c lassif ied a s t own o rv i l la o r f or t . ( On ly t hose f or ts wh ich a re r e levan t t o t he t he me o ft he p aper a re i nc luded . ) Da tes r efer t o t he d a tes o f ma ter ia l f ro m t he s ite ; , t herefore , d oes n o t n ecessar i ly i mp ly t ha t t he s i te was c on t inuously o ccup ied f ro m t he f i rst t o t he f our th c en tury . n o d a te c an b e s uggested .

I n s o me c ases, r eferences a re s uch t ha t

The b ib l iography i s n o t i n tended t o b e c omp lete,

a nd i n t he c ase o f we l l-known a nd much e xcava ted s i tes Ih ave o n ly r e ferred t o ,r ecen t n o t ices. Ih ad t he g ood f or tune t o h ave a ccess t o O rdnance S urvey r ecords; t hese a re s o me t i mes my s o le s ource s ince t hey i nc lude r ecords o f u npub l ished f i nds .

I n B , L landaf f e sta tes,

n a me o ft he n earest modern s e t t le men t .

modern n ame ' r epresen ts t he

S o me t i mes t wo g rants were made

i n t he n e ighbourhood o f t he s a me p lace , s o me t i mes t he s a me e state c hanged h ands more t han o nce, s o me t i mes a n o r ig ina l g ran t r ece ived l a ter c on f ir mat i on ; h ence, t here i s o ccas iona l ly more t han o ne r eference t o e ach p lacen ame , wh i le s o me c har ters r ecord t he g ran t o f more t han o ne e sta te . ? ' i nd ica tes u ncer ta in i den t if ica t ions, a nd a ster isks i nd ica te t hose c har ters wh ich a re c orrup t . Ih ave i nc luded e sta tes wh ich o ccur i n c orrup t c har ters f or t wo r easons: e i ther t he c orrup t ion i s m inor , i nvo lv ing t he a dd it ion o f a f ew w itnesses, a nd d oes n ot a f fect t he e ssence o f t he r ecord ; o r , more s er ious ly , t he c orrup t ion c oncea ls t he c ircu mstances o f t he t ransfer b u t t here i s n ever the le ss n o d oubt o f t he e x istence o f t he e sta te . t h is p aper , t he l at ter i s wha t mat ters.

F or t he p urposes o f

S ee LL f or t he t ex ts, a nd Dav ies 1 979

f or f u l l d e ta i ls o f c r i t icis m , a nd o f t he s ize a nd s hape o f e sta tes.

1 64

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ABBREVIATIONS AND REFERE NCES

A lcock 1 963. An thony 1 958.

L . A lcock , D inas Powys, 1 963. I . E .

An thony , The I ron Age Ca mp a t Poston , Here fordsh ire ,

Hereford . Arch.

Archaeo log ia.

Arch. Ca mb.

Archaeo log ia Ca mbrens is.

Arch. J ourn .

A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l .

BBCS.

Bul let in o f t he Board o f Cel t ic S tud ies.

Boon 1 962.

G . C . Boon , I sca

Card if f , 1 962.

Bradney 1 932. J . Bradney , AH istory o f Monmou thsh ire, i v , p t. 2 , L ondon . Br it.

Br i tann ia.

Coxe 1 801.

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1 73

THE LATEST OCCUPAT ION OF THE S ITE OF THE BATHS BAS IL ICA AT WROXETER b y P .A . Barker

The r esu lts o ft he f irst n ine s easons ' work o n t he s i te o f t he b a ths b as i l ica a t Wroxeter h ave b een s u m mar ized i n Br i tann ia , V I , 1 975, 1 06-117 . T he s ubsequen t f our s easons ' e xcava t ions h ave n ot s ubstan t ia l ly a l tered t he i n terpreta t ion o ut l ined t here , t hough s o me m inor mod if ica t ions h ave b een made t o t he o vera l l p lan ( Fig . 9 )a nd many d eta i ls h ave b een a dded t o t he s uppor t ing e v idence . I tw i l l b e more h e lpfu l, t herefore , i ft h is p aper i s ac o m men tary o n t he Br itann ia p aper , u pda t ing r a ther t han r epea t ing i t . The ma in o u t l ines o f t he l ast p hases o f o ccupa t ion o f t h is a rea o f t he c i ty a re n ow c lear .

A f ter t he d estruct ion o f t he b asi l ica , i t se lf a p iecemea l

o perat ion , d escr ibed b e low , as er ies o f wa t t le a nd d aub b u i ld ings was c ons tructed w i th in a nd a ga inst t he r e ma in ing wa l ls.

E lsewhere, o utside t he

i mmed iate b as i l ican a rea t o t he e ast , s tood a g roup o f l arge s toreroo ms o r b arns, ( V I , XX IV e tc .) wh i le c lose t o t he n or th-south s tree t as er ies o f e long a ted wat t le a nd d aub b u i ld ings ( I , I , I I , I V)*s uggested a n i ndustr ia l c o mp lex . A l l t h is was swep t away a nd r ep laced b y ap lanned s equence o f c lass ica l lyinsp ired t imber-fra med b u i ld ings ( Fig . 6 ) , ad rast ic r eorgan isa t ion , e n t ire ly u nexpected i nt he h istory o f t he c i ty , al ast b urst o f Roman o r s ubR o man p ower , b efore t he who le l o t was d emo l ished , a pparen t ly d e l ibera te ly , o n t he a bandonmen t o ft he c i ty c en tre . The e xcava t ions o f t he l ast f our s easons h ave s hown , a l most i nev itab ly , t ha t t he s equence i s l onger a nd more i n tr ica te t han was a t f i rst t hough t . A t t he e astern e nd o f t he s i te, i ti s n ow p robab le t ha t B u i ld ing Ia nd i t s a ssoc ia ted o u thouses 1 0 h ad g one o ut o f u se when c istern 9 was c onstructed . L arge f la t p ad-stones o n t he e astern e dge o f t he n or th-south s tree t h ere s uggest f acades o fb u i ld ings s uch a s t hose o f V I I , V I I I a nd X M I . I ft h is i s s o t hen t he l ast g rea t r ep lann ing o ft he c i ty c en tre e x tended i n to t h is i nsu la ( nu mb ered 6 i n t he M in istry s i te g u ide ) a lso . I ti s p robab le t herefore t ha t i n t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he l ast ma jor p er iod t he s pace b e tween t he n or th-south b a ths p rec inct wa l l a nd t he n or th-sou th s treet was g rassed o ver , w i th t he c istern a s t he o n ly s tructure . H owever , t he c istern i t se lf h ad b een b ack-f i l led ( ra ther t han s i lted n a tura l ly ) s o t ha t i n t he f ina l p er iod t he who le s pace may h ave b een g rassed . Fur ther e xcava t ion i n t h is a rea h as t hrown more l i gh t o n t he s er ies o f e longated wa t t le a nd d aub b ui ld ings I , I , I I a nd I V wh ich p receded t he c istern . I nt he e ar l iest p hase y e t e xcava ted t hree s er ies o f i n ter-connected t anks r an *

I , I I a nd I V , l y ing b e low I , a re n o t i l lus tra ted 1 75

d iagona l ly a cross t he western p ar t o f t he a rea b e tween t he b u i ld ings a nd t he p rec inc t wa l l . T here i s s o me e v idence t ha t t he t anks were o f l ead , i n terc onnected b y woodenl ined g u l l ies wh ich e nded i n s oakaways a ga inst t he wa ll . H owever , t he p icture i s more c o mp l ica ted t han t h is s ince a t l east o ne o f t he t anks h ad a c o mp lex h istory , i ncorpora t ing a mass ive t i led h ear th i n i t s f i lli ng .

T he c h ief e v idence f or t he u se o f t hese t anks c o mes f ro m d og c opro l ites

a nd f ragmen ts o f c o mm inuted b one f ound i n t he p r imary s i l t o f t he s oakaways T hough t h is a nd o ther s im i lar e v idence h ave y etto b e f u l ly a ssessed , t he p robab i l i ty i s t ha t t he t anks were u sed f or t ann ing . T he t anks were b ackf i l led a t a n e ar ly s tage , b ut t he c o mp le te l ack o f s lags o r a ny o ther i ndustr ia l d ebr is f ro m t he r est o f t he a rea s uggests t ha t i tw as g iven o ver v ar ious ly t o l ea ther-work ing , f u l l ing , d ye ing o r o ther c lo thf in ish ing t rades.

T he h ear ths

a nd sma l l h ard-stand ing a reas o f Bu i ld ing Is uppor t t h is s uggest ion . T he l eng th o f t ime o ccup ied b y t h is s equence , a s a t p resen t e xcava ted , i s n o t y e t c lear , t hough t he most s outher ly o f t he s oakaways c on ta ined t wo wh i le p ots, o ne p er fora ted , o f t he s econd c entury . H owever , s ince t he l eng th o f e ach o f t he s ubsequen t s ix p hases i s q u i te u ncer ta in a d a te i n t he f i f th c ent ury f or t he l ast p hase i s n o t imposs ib le . T he i n terpretat ion o f t he s equence o f s toreroo ms o rb arns ( VI , XX IV) w ith in t he b a ths p rec inct h as b een t he s ub ject o f p ro longed d eba te a nd a c ons iderab le n u mber o f a l terna t ive s che mes i s p ossib le .

However , i ts eems

p robab le t ha t V I i s t he l a tes t b u i ld ing , f o l lowing XX IV . A ccess f ro m V I t o t he n or th was t hrough a g ap , k , i n t he s t i l l-s tand ing wa l l o f t he p rec inc t , wh i le a no ther o pen ing , j,l ed i n to t he e as tern a nnexe o f t he b as i l ica . There was a ccess f ro m t h is a nnexe n or thward b y means o f c onverg ing p a ths a t m t hrough a no ther o pen ing , n , wh i le a f our th g ap , i , l ed i n to t he sma l l r oo m XXX I . r oo m X. XX I . T he e v idence f or t he e x istence o f t h is r oo m i sf rag men tary, s ince t h is e nd o ft he b as i lica h as b een e x tens ive ly a nd d eep ly e xcava ted i n e ar l ier t imes. H owever , as hor t s tretch o f av ery l a te wa l l , K , ( i l lustra ted i n K enyon , 1 940 , p la tes LXV , d , a nd LXV I , c ) may b e a ssoc ia ted w i th a n e n trance, h , a nd a s pread o f r oof-s la tes n earby . I ft h is i n terpreta t ion i s c orrect , t h is r oo m p erpetua tes t he impor tance o f t he e astern e nd o f t he b as i l ica e ven a f ter t he d estruct ion o f t he ma in p ar t o f t he b u i ld ing . There i s e v idence t ha t t h is e x tre me e astern e nd o f t he b u i ldi ng h ad a s pec ia l s ign if icance f ro m t he v ery b eg inn ing s ince t he o r ig ina l f l oor h ere was d if feren t , a nd a l ong s er ies o f s ubsequen t r e f loor ings f o l lowed b y t he e nc losure o f t h is a rea , a f ter t he ma in b ody o f t he n ave h ad g one, s uggests t ha t t here were c u lt s tatues o r a l tars h ere .

Th is h ypo thesis i s g iven s ome

c o lour b y t he d iscovery o f an umber o f h u man s ku l l f ragmen ts i ncorpora ted i n t he r ubb le p la t for m wh ich f orms t he f ounda t ion o f t he l arge t imberframed b u i ld ing X . These f rag men ts, wh ich awa it d eta i led e xa m ina t inn , r epresen t b etween e igh t a nd t en i nd iv idua ls, a t l east t wo o f t hem s uf fer ing f ro m d e formi t ies.

S ince n o h u man l ong b ones h ave b een r ecogn ised among t he mass o f

a n i ma l b ones a lso p resen t i ta ppears t ha t t he s ku l ls a re n o t f ro m d isturbed b ur ia ls, b ut a re more l i ke ly r e l ics o r t roph ies, p erhaps d ispersed o n t he a dven t o f C hr ist ian ity ( f or wh ich , i t may b e n oted , t here i s a s y e t n o a rchaeol og ica l e v idence f ro m Wroxeter ) . [ See Addendu m ]. 1 76

T he c u lt o f t he h ead i n C e lt ic s oc ie ty i s w e l l a t tested ( Ross, 1 967 , p p . 6 1-126) a nd i t s e choes c on t inue i n to Chr ist ian t imes ( i b id ., p p . 1 04-126) b u t e v idence o f s uch r e l ics f ro m R o man c on tex ts, e xcep t i n a ssocia t ion w ith s pr ings a nd we l ls, i s c o mpara t ive ly r a re .

T he p resence o f t hese s ku l ls i n

o ur b as il ica ( or p a laestra) s uggests t ha t i t was more t han a ne xerc ise h a l l ( o r t ha t e xercise was t aken v ery s er ious ly ). A lso f ro m t he n ibb le a nd mor tar p la t forms wh ich make u p t he f oundat i ons f or t he t imber b u i ld ings o f t he l ast p hase c a me a r e markab le s er ies o f more t han 3 5 p laster e yes, t ha t i s , f rag men ts o f p laster f ro m t he w a l ls o f t he r u ined b u i ld ings wh ich h ave b een c ut , s o me s k i lfu l ly , s o me v ery c rude ly , i n to e ye s hapes, u sua l ly w ith emphas is o n t he p up i l a nd t he t ear-duc t . A f ea ture wh ich d ist ingu ishes t hese e yes f rom t he many t housands o f r ando m f rag men ts o f p laster f ound o n t he s i te i s t ha t t he b acks a re a l most a lways r ounded s o t ha t t hey s i t c om for tab ly i n t he h and .

T he e yes v ary i n l eng th

f ro m c . 8cm t o c . 4 cm , b u t t here i s o ne v ery sma l l a nd a l most p er fect e xa mp le o n ly 1 .5 cm l ong , p erhaps r epresen t ing a n i n fan t ' se ye . T hese p laster e yes a re g iven a dded s ign if icance b y t he d iscovery i n 1 967 o f ap a ir o f e yes i n s hee t g o ld f ound b y work men t rench ing t he b as i l ican a rea t o l oca te t he e ast-west r oad .

T h is r are f i nd , wh ich h as b een p ub l ished ( Pa in ter , 1 971) ,

i s i den t if ied a s a n e x-vo to , o f fered b y s o meone w i th a n e ye-co mp la in t , a nd p ara l le led i n g o ld n o n earer t han t he T e mp le o f Ar te m is a t E phesus i nt he mid-s ix th c en tury B .C . However , t here a re c loser p ara l le ls i n s hee t b ronze f ro m G au l ( i b id , 3 31) . O ur p laster e yes a re a l toge ther c ruder , b u t t he ir s heer q uan t ity s uggests t ha t t here may h ave b een a c u lt c en tre s pec ia l is ing i n e ye-hea ling a t Wroxeter . S o me o f t he e yes a re v ery c lums i ly made ( t o t he p o in t o fb e ing d ubious) a nd s ince t hey a re o f many s i zes , i ts ee ms t hat t here may h ave b een s o me v ir tue i n c arv ing y our o wn , r a ther t han b uy ing o ne r eady made , a s n o th ing wou ld h ave b een s i mp ler t han f or a n e n terpr ising o ppor tun ist t o h ave s tar ted a sma l l p laster-eye t rade . T he d istr ibut ion o f t hese e yes c en tres o n t he n ave o f t he b asi l ica a nd o n t he a rea n or th o f t he p rec inct wa l l, o ver t he s i te o f t he p or t ico wh ich r an t o t he who le l eng th o f t he i nsu la ( p o n p lan ) . A rea p i t sel f h as a c o mp lex a nd i n terest ing h istory .

A f ter t he d estruc-

t i on o f t he p or t ico c o lonnade, t he s ty loba te a nd t he s tone d ra in wh ich r an t he l eng th o f t he p ort ico i n f ron t o f i t were r obbed o u t a nd t he t rench b ack-f i l led . A wat t le b u i ld ing w ith p ebb le f l oors a nd a c en tra l h ear th made o f av ery l arge t i le was b u i lt a ga inst t he p or t ico wa l l . A f ter t h is b u i ld ing was d e mo l ished a l ong s er ies o f h ear ths a nd o vens was b u i l t o ver i t s f l oors . T he h ear ths w ere u sua l ly b u i l t o f r e-used t i les a nd h ad n o f l oor l eve ls a ssoc ia ted w ith t hem , b ut s tood o n mounds o f e ar th a nd n ibb le wh ich g radua l ly g rew a s t he h ear ths were r enewed .

T he most l i ke ly e xp lana t ion f or t hese c ook ing p laces s eems

t o b e t ha t t hey were u sed b y t he workmen—carpen ters, j o iners a nd l abourers — engaged i n t he g rea t r ebu i ld ing o f t he l ast p hase . T h is v iew i s r e in forced b y t he d istr ibu t ion o f whe tstones, wh ich c en tres o n t h is a rea. I th as b een s hown e xper i men ta l ly t ha t h ear ths s uch a s t hese a re s u i table f or c ook ing j apa t t ilike l oaves, a nd i ti s n o t t oo u nrea l ist ic t o i mag ine t he c raf ts men s harpen ing t he ir t oo ls d ur ing mea lt i mes . S ubsequen t ly , t he a rea b ecame c overed w ith e ar th a nd r ubb le , a nd , d ur ing t he o ccupa t ion o f t he l ast p er iod , was p robab ly a g rassy b ank . 1 78

T he d issect ion o f t he r ubb le p lat for ms wh ich make u p t he f ounda t ion o f b u i ld ing X s howed c onc lus ive ly t ha t t hey w ere p urpose fu l a nd n o t mere ly r and om r ubb le s preads. I n p ar t icu lar , t he e astern p la t form marked c o n F ig . 6w as c o mposed o f r ubb le l a id i n p i tched r ows a nd p acked w i th p a in ted wa l l p laster . S ince t he p a in t ings s ee m t o b e o f o ne d ecora t ive s che me, o f l arge c irc les c on ta in ing s ty l ized f l owers w i th g reen l anceo la te l eaves s urround ing t he c irc les, a l l a bove a r ed d ado, i ti s p robab le t ha t t he wa l l f ro m wh ich t he r ubb le was d er ived was s tand ing , s t i l l c arry ing i t s p a in ted p laster , u n t i l j ust b e fore t he l ast p er iod b u i ld ings were b egun . T he ma jor mod if ica t ion t o t he p rev ious ly p ub l ished i n ter im p lain i s t o B u i ld ing X I .

T he f ormer l ong t h in p lan , b ased o n s hor t s trea tches o f e v idence

l e f tb e tween e x tens ive e ar l ier a rchaeo log ica l t renches, n ow a ppears t o b e o ver-si mp l if ied .

Two l arge p ost-ho les, u , t he o n ly t wo i n t he who le b asi l ican

a rea , s epara te b u i ld ing X f ro m a n ow s hor tened b u i ld ing X I wh i le a v ery s hor t s urv iv ing s tre tch o f al a te wa l l, v , s uggests a sma l l r ectangu lar a dd i t ion t ucked b etween t he western e nd o f X I a nd t he s urv iv ing west e nd o f t he b as i l ica . T he t wo p ost-ho les a ppear t o h ave b een d ug a nd t hen p acked r ound w i th s tones a nd o ld mor tar i n o rder t o h o ld p osts wh ich w ou ld o therw ise n o t s tand , b ecause, u n l ike t he o ther c onstruct ions o n t he s i te , t hey were n o t f ra med i n t hree d i mens ions . I ti s s uggested t herefore t ha t t hey a re p osts f or a g a te wh ich l ed f ro m t he s tree t t o t he n or th , b etween b u i ld ings X a nd X I , i n to t he ? g arden t o t he s ou th . A t s , ad iagona l s tr ip o f h eav i ly worn s tones, b ounded o n t he s outh s ide b y sma ll p ost-socke ts, l ed t owards t he g ap i n t he b asi l ica ' se nd wa l l where t he d oor h ad b een , b u t p assed t hrough a t al eve l h a lf a me tre a bove t he o r ig ina l t hresho ld .

O u ts ide t he west e nd o f t he b asi l ica a sma l l r ectangu lar

b u i ld ing , 8 , l ean t a ga inst t he s urv iv ing wa l l . Ar ange o f sma l l l eanto b u i ld ings XV I-XX I , a nd XXV I I-XXD ( h ad b een c ons tructed a ga inst t he s outh a isle wa l l o f t he b asi l ica , wh ich n eed n o t , a t t h is p er iod , h ave s urv ived t o i t s f u l l h e igh t .

I ti s u n for tuna te t ha t T ho mas

Wr igh t ' se xcava t ions o f t he 1 850s d estroyed t he e v idence f or t he l a test p er iods b o th i ns ide a nd o utside t he f r ig idar iu m o f t he a d jo in ing b a ths, a s h e f ound c harred g ra in o n t he f l oor o f t he f r ig idar iu m , wh ich s uggests t ha t i t may f i n a l ly h ave b een u sed a s ag ranary . F or t h is i t wou ld b e v ery s u itab le , s ince i t s w a l ls were mass ive , a nd i t was c omparat ive ly s e lf-con ta ined h av ing a n e ast-west r oof r idge i n c on trast t o t he warm r oo ms t o t he s ou th wh ich h ad a v au lt r unn ing n or th-south . Un l ike t he m , t oo , i th ad a s o l id f l oor n ot a h ypoc aust .

I t may t herefore h ave s urv ived a l most i n tact i n to t he l ast p er iod .

T h is wou ld a lso h e lp t o a ccoun t f or t he a ston ish ing s urv iva l o f t he u pstand ing f rag men t k nown a s t he O ld Work . N or th o f t he e ast-west s tree t t ha t b ounds t he b a ths i nsu la o n i t s n or thern s ide s tood a r ow o f p or t icoed b u i ld ings o f wh ich V I I , V I I I a nd XX I I p roduced t he most d e ta i l, t he r est b e ing i n ferred f ro m t he v ary ing r ubb le p la t forms w h ich h ad b een s pread westwards a long t he f ron tage .

These mass ive ly p or-

t i coed b u i ld ings, t he s ize o f whose t imbers i mp lies t ha t t hey a re t wo- i fn o t t hree-storeyed , were t he mse lves o f more t han o ne p er iod , t hereby e x tend ing t he l eng th o f t h is l ast r ebu i ld ing b y a n u nknown n u mber o f y ears .

1 79

T he most e x traord inary a nd u nexpec ted f eature o f t he who le s i te was t he 'g rave l ' s treet wh ich r ep laced t he n orma l c obb led s tree t a long t he c en tra l s tre tch o ft he e ast-west r oad .

T he c obb led r oad h ad b een d ug o ut a lmost t o

i t s b ot to m a nd r ep laced w i th a mix ture o f g rave l, s i f ted r ubb le a nd t opso i l . D issect ion o f t h is s treet i n 1 978 s howed t ha t i th ad b een b u i l t f ro m w est t o e ast , b y s pread ing sma l l l oads, p robab ly b aske t fu ls, o f v ar ied ma ter ia l i n s tr ips a cross t he w id th o f t he s tree t .

When t h is ma ter ia l i s wet, i ti sv ery

s of t , b u t when d ry i ti s a s h ard a l most a s c oncre te .

When i ti s e xposed t o

r a in , a s i th as b een b e tween d igg ing s easons, r unne ls d eve lop i n i tw h ich d ry i n to 'wad 's ' .N o s uch

wad is ' were f ound when i t was f irst t rowe l led , a nd

i ti s a ssu med t herefore t ha t t he s tree t was n ot e xposed t o e rosion b y w a ter b ut was c overed a t a l l t imes, when i t wou ld b e d ry a nd h ard .

However , i t

h ad b een e roded i n to a s ha l low ly c oncave s ur face , p resu mab ly b y w a lk ing a nd s weep ing , a nd , i n al a ter p hase , sma l l s tructures ( 1 -7 , X I I ) h ad e ncroached o n i t s s ou thern s ide, wh i le t here was s ome e v idence o f ab oarded s idewa lk b e ing b u i lt o n i t s n or thern h a lf .

S ince i t wou ld h ave b een i mpossib le f or

whee led t raf f ic t o h ave g o t o n to t h is s tree t f ro m e i ther e nd , i ta ppears t o f orm wha t we wou ld n ow c a l l ap edes tr ian p rec inct , l a ter p ar t ly o ccup ied b y sma l l b u i ld ings wh ich may h ave b een s hops o r b oo ths. T h is s uggest ion i s r e in forced b y t he d iscove r y , o n t he f l oor o fb u i ld ing XXV I ( wh ich a cts a s a g uard-roo m ' t o t he s treet , l im i t ing a ccess t o f ootpa th w id th ) o f al ead s tee lyard w e igh t , i mp ly ing c on tro l o f g oods i n a nd o ut . I ti s n ow a pparen t t ha t t he b as i l ica was n ot s yste ma t ica l ly d e mo l ished i n o ne o pera t ion -t he s urv iva l o f t he O ld Work a lone p roves t h is -b u t t ha t i t c o l lapsed o r was t aken d own p rogressive ly . T he p rov isiona l s equence wh ich t he p resen t e v idence s uggests s eems t o b e ( 1 ) t he c o l lapse o r d e mo l i t ion o f t he n ave r oof , w ith c on t inued o ccupa t ion o ft he a is les, b u t w ith a s o i l d eve lop ing o n p ar ts o f t he n ave f l oor ; ( 2 ) r e mova l o ft he p or t ico a nd r obb ing o u t o f i t s s tyloba te ;

( 3 ) d emo l i t ion o f t he n or th wa l l

o f t he b as i lica w ith wa t t le a nd d aub b ui ld ings s tradd l ing t he s i te o f t he w a ll ; ( 4 ) t he d e mo l i t ion o f t he s ou th c o lonnade . T h is l eaves t he s ou thern wa ll o f t he b as i l ica more o r l ess i n tact a long i t s l eng th , t oge ther w ith t he western e nd , w i th t he r e ma ins o f i t s c en tra l d ouble d oor . The p recinct wa l l a nd t he wa l ls o f t he e astern a nnexe s ee m a lso t o h ave b een s tand ing t o av ery l a te d a te . T he s tone d ra in o f t he p or t ico w as r obbed o u t e astwards t o ap o in t c lose t o t he western c orner o f t he l arge t imber-fra med b u i ld ing X , b u t may h ave b een r e ta ined h ere t o d ra in w a ter westwards f ro m t he l arge r oof o f t h is b u i ld ing . T he n or thern wa l l o f t he b as i l ica was r obbed o ut b efore b u i ld ing X w as c onstructed , b u t t he s ty loba tes o f t he t wo c o lonnades w ere r e moved a f ter t he s i te was a bandoned .

Am id-n in th-cen tury s trap-end f ound i n t he b ack-f i l l

o f t he s ou thern c o lonnade r obber t rench s uggests v ery s trong ly t ha t t he s ty lob a tes were b e ing r ecovered f or b u i ld ing o ne o f t he e ar ly c hurches i n t he n e ighbourhood , p robab ly A tcha m o r Wroxe ter i t se lf , b o th o f wh ich h ave c o mp lete wa l ls b u i l t o f s ty loba te-s ized s tones . T he o ther s t i l l-stand ing wa l ls, wh ich were b u i l t o f much sma l ler s tones, were p robab ly r obbed a t i n terva ls o ver t he s ucceed ing c en tur ies f or c ot tages, b arns a nd f arm wa l ls. 1 80

T he d a te o f t he l ast o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te i s s t i l l u ncer ta in a nd w i l l p rob ab ly r e ma in s o . C o ins p rov ide a t erm inus p ost q ue m w i th in t he l ast q uar ter o f t he f our th c en tury , b u t , w ith f ew e xcep t ions, t he c o in s equence f ro m t he c ity e nds t here a nyway a nd t he s ea led p ot tery a nd o ther f inds c anno t b e d a ted c lose ly e nough t o p rove t ha t t he l ast r ebu i ld ing was l a ter t han c . 4 00 . F or e xamp le, f ro m t wo s ha l low p ost-ho les a t w c a me a n u mber o f amphora s herds wh ich a re s a id b y Dr . D av id Peacock t o b e s im i lar , t hough n ot i den t ica l t o l ate 4 th - e ar ly 5 th c en tury s herds f ro m Pa lest ine .

However , t he f ina l p er iod

c an n ow b e s ubd iv ided a nd c onsequen t ly s hown t o l as t ag ood d ea l l onger t han was a tf i rs t t hough t , s o t ha t i ti s l i ke ly t o s tre tch we l l i n to t he 5 th c en tury , i f n o t t o i t s e nd . References Barker , P . A ., 1 975 .

'E xcava t ions o n t he s i te o f t he Ba ths Basi lica a t

Wroxe ter , 1 966-1974 : An I n ter im R epor t ., Br itann ia V I , 1 975, 1 06-117 . K enyon , K . M ., 1 940 . 'Excava t ions a t V irocon iu m , 1 936-7 ' Archaeo log ia , LXXXV I I I , 1 940 , 1 75-224 . Pa in ter , K ., 1 971 . AR o man g o ld e x-vo to f ro m Wroxeter , S hropsh ire ' An t iquar ies J ourna l, L I , p ar t I , 1 971, p . 3 29 . R oss , A ., 1 967 . Wr igh t , T .,

Pagan C e lt ic Br ita in , L ondon , 1 967 .

V irocon ium , 1 872 .

A ddendu m S ince t he c o mp le t ion o f t h is p aper a n a na lys is o f s ur faces o f t he s ku l ls i ncorpora ted i n t he r ubble p la t form wh ich f orms t he f ounda t ion o f Bu i ld ing X . h as b een c omp le ted . T he a na lys is s ugges ts t ha t t hey h ad b een c overed ( or s oaked i n ) b y ay e l low v egetab le o i l , p erhaps s a f f lower o i l . T hese f i nd ings s trong ly r e in force t he r i tua l i n terpre ta t ion o f t hese d epos i ts o f fered i n t h is p aper .

1 81

THE END OF ROMAN TE MPLES I N THE WEST OF BRITAIN b y Ph il ip Rahtz a nd L orna Wa t ts

I n c onsider ing t he f a te o f Ro man t e mp les i n t he west , w e may b eg in b y d ef in ing d if feren t k inds o f t e mp les, o r a c t iv it ies a ssoc ia ted w ith t he m , a nd v ary ing modes o f s urv iva l o r o therw ise.

On ly r arely i s t he e v idence f or s ur-

v iva lb eyond t he e arl ier f i f th c en tury o f ap os i t ive k ind ;

a nd i n n o c ases a re

t here a ny c lear i nd ica t ions o f p ost-Ro man f unct ions. There h as a lways b een a d ist inct ion d rawn b e tween t he f ew f u l ly c lass ica l bu i ld ings i n t h is c oun try , s uch a s Ba th a nd C o lches ter , a nd t he w ider r ange o f s o-ca l led Ro mano-Ce l t ic t e mp les whose a rch i tecture a nd o r ig ins h ave r ecen t ly b een d iscussed b y Wilson ( 19 75 ) a nd Muckelroy ( 19 76 ).

A more f unda men ta l

d iference, wh ich i s e spec ia l ly r elevan t i n t h is p aper , i s b e tween t he R o manoCe l t ic t e mp les, wh ich h ave s o me a rch itectura l p re tensions , o f ten i n p art ly o r who l ly mortared s tone c onstruct ion ;

a nd t hose o f h u mbler c onstruct ion , e ither

who l ly o f t imber , o r w i th n o more t han a l i ght s tone f oo t ing s uppor t ing a s upers truc ture o f t imber , c ob , wa t t le a nd d aub o r o ther ma ter ia l.

The s econd g roup

a re o f ten c a l led s hr ines r a ther t han t e mp les ( c f . L ew is 19 66, 3 3 ), b u t d o n ot n ecessar ily h ave a ny d i fferen t f unc t ion i n t he s oc ie ty t hey s erve.

I n p lan t hey

h ave many f ea tures i n c o m mon w i th Ro mano-Cel t ic t e mp les, s uch a s ac ircu lar o r p o lygona l p lan , t hough e xa mp les o f r ec t il inear p lan o r o f c oncen tr ic e le men ts a re r are. The d if ferences b e tween t hese t wo ma in c lasses o f t e mp le may b e s een a s o f av ary ing d egree o f Ro man isa t ion , af actor c o m mon t o a l l Ro man b u ildi ngs i n t h is c oun try ( c f . L ew is 19 66 );

o r t here may b e a more f unda men ta l

d iference —tha t t he s hr ines may b e r e la ted much more t o i nd igenous e le men ts i nR o mano-Br it ish s oc ie ty ;

a nd t ha t s o me d e monstrably h ave t he ir o r ig ins i n

p re-Ro man ised c on tex ts. We h ope t o s how t ha t t here i s ac hance t ha t t hese s o-ca l led ' na t ive ' s hr ines may s urv ive t he e nd o f Ro man Br ita in l onger t han t he ir more Ro man ised c oun terpar ts;

n o t o n ly b ecause t hey were a rch i tectura l ly

l ess p re ten t ious a nd c ou ld t herefore b e ma in ta ined w i th a l ess s oph ist ica ted t echno logy , b u t p erhaps b ecause t hey m in istered t o t he n eeds o f as oc iety wh ich c on t inued i n ways i ndependen t o f t he s urv iva l o f Ro man ised i nst itu t ion s.

We

s ha l l s uggest n o t o n ly t ha t Ro man e xa mp les d id s urv ive b eyond t he f ourth c ent ury , bu t t ha t n ew o nes may h ave b een b u i l t i n t he f i f th o r s ix th c en tur ies. The ir s urv iva l a nd r enewa l must b e s een a ga inst t he b ackground o f C hr ist ian ity . I n t he f i rst p lace , Chr ist ian i ty i n t he f our th c en tury h as b een s een a s a n u pper c lass a nd u rban r el ig ion ( Bar ley a nd H anson e ds .

1 96 8 ,

F rend 19 55, Pa in ter 1 971, Tho mas 19 71 a nd Toynbee 19 53 ) —or t ha t i s where t he e v idence i s mos t e asi ly d e monstra ted—whereas t he ' shr ines ' may h ave a ppea led t o t he l ower o rders, t o wh ich i nd igenous e le men ts i n s ociety t end t o b e long.

S econd ly , a rchaeo log ica l o r h istor ica l e v idence f or c on t inu ing 1 83

Chr ist ian ity i n t he f i f th a nd s ix th c en tur ies i s t o s ay t he l east amb iguous. H istor ica l e v idence f or p agan is m i s e qua l ly s parse , t hough w e m igh t c onsider wha t s or t o f p agan is m i sb e ing r eferred t o b y Gregory o f Tours o r B ede, a nd p ar t icu lar ly t he e x ten t t o wh ich i th ad e le men ts o f s ub-Romano-Cel t ic r a ther t han G er man ic r el ig ion . Convers ion o f t he Br it ish o r Eng l ish w as n ever o f ak ind t o e l im ina te a l l p agan p ract ices; t he Church o f ten p referred i n tegra t ion t o s uppress ion . The v ic tory o f Chr ist ian ity may b e r egarded a s s ubstan t ia l ly s uccessfu l o n ly when p roh ib i t ions a ga inst p agan c usto ms c ease t o b e made , wh ich i s i n t he e arl ier d ecades o f t he e ighth c en tury ( Young 1 975, Append ix 1 ) . We h ave t hus t o c ons ider a m in i mu m o f t hree c en tur ies a f ter t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury d ur ing wh ich p agan c u l ts w ere a ble t o f l our ish e i ther i n a s ub-Ro mano-Cel t ic f or m , o r i n aG er man ic f orm b ased o n t he n or thern p an theon . I n t he west t hese t hree c en tur ies e nd n o t o n ly w ith t he s pread o f C hr ist ia n ity , b u t w ith t he e stabl ish men t o f Eng l ish s upre macy , a t l east i n S omerse t , t he a rea w i th w h ich t h is p aper i s p r inc ipa l ly c oncerned ; t he d a te may o f c ourse b e r a ther e ar l ier.

i n G loucestersh ire

I ndeed t he t wo e ven ts a re s ynony mous

t o s o me e x ten t i n t h is a rea , i nt he s ense t ha t i ti s t he Eng l ish who s et u p t he b ishopr ics a nd t he mach inery o f c onversion , w ha tever t here may h ave s urv ived o ft he Romano-Br it ish Church o r o f w estern Br it ish monaster ies e stab l ished a t a ne ar l ier d a te. We may t hus p ostu la te t ha t i n t he West c on t inu ing o r r enewed p agan is m i s more l ike ly t o b e r ela ted t o l a te Roman r e l ig ions t han t o t he Ger man ic ' hea then is m ' o f a reas f ur ther e ast . The s econd d ist inc t ion t ha t must b e made i s t ha t b etween d iferen t modes o f s urv iva l , a nd t hese may n ow b e c lass if ied ( F ig . 7 ) . F irst ly t here i s t he s urv ival o f a Roman ised c u l t s i te i n to t he f i f th c ent ury o r l a ter w ith a ct iv i t ies a nd b u ild ing ma in tenance v ir tual ly u na l tered f ro m ap a ttern s urv iv ing i n to , o r b e ing d eveloped d ur ing , t he l a ter y ears o f t he f our th c en tury.

S econd ly t he s urv iva l o f ' na t ive ' c ul ts i n to t he p ost-Roman p er iod

whose e x istence o r c on t inu ity d epends l i t t le o n Roman isat ion o r t he e nd o f i t . Th ird ly t he c rea t ion o f n ew s i tes a f ter c . A .D . 4 00 , e i ther a s r ev ivals o f o ld s i tes, n ew ' i nd igenous ' s i tes, o r o f i n trus ive p eop le s uch a s t he I r ish. A l though d eve lop ing i n wha t may b e r egarded a s an ew s oc ie ty , t here a re c lear ly l i kely t ob e Ro man r es idues i n e very r espect o f t hese s i tes , n o t l east t he c on t inu ing u se o f Ro man a r tefac ts. Those o nh i l l for t s i tes o ver lap w i th Mr B urrow 's p aper a nd a re d iscussed b y h im o n p p . 2 12 t o 2 29. F our th ly t he c on t inu ing s urv iva l o f p agan r e l ig ious s i tes, whe ther t e mp le o r s hr ine , i n w ays wh ich w ou ld h ard ly i fa t a l lb e r ecogn ized b y t he o r ig ina l p r iests o r d evo tees o f t he c u l t i n i t s h eyday .

Th is i ncludes t he ir u se a s c e meter ies.

S uch a s urv ival may i n-

v o lve t rans mu ta t ion i n to a n ew f or m , o r e ven w i th a n ew r el ig ion , s uch a s t he t ake-over b y C hr ist ian s o f e ar l ier p agan s i tes; o r s ome th ing t ha t i s h ard ly more t han t he s tu f f o f f o lk- me mory , t he s urv iva l o f a n a ura o f s anct ity o r f ear , t he i mp l icat ions o f s uggest ive p lace-na mes, o r c on t inu ing p ract ices b y p eop le f or who m t hey h ave l i t tle mean ing , s uch a s t he d rap ing o f r ags o nb ushes a round w e l ls. F if th ly a nd l ast , t here i s t he p hysica l s urv iva l o f t e mp le b u i ld ings o r t he ir e nclosures w h ich a f fect s ubsequen t l and-use o r e ven o fer o pportun i t ies 1 84

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s uch a s s hel ter. H igg i t t ( 1973 ) h as d ea l t w i th s uch s urv ival o f Ro man b u ildi ngs i n to med ieva l o r l a ter c en tur ies, a nd r ecen t work a t York h as d e monstrated t he c on t inu ing u se o f a n i n tact Ro man b u ild ing i n to t he n in th c en tury . S uch i s t he a genda f or a ny d iscuss ion o f t e mp le s urv iva l i n t he West ; t here i s , n o t s urpr is ing ly , l i t t le e v idence o f a ny o f t hese f ive c lasses o f s urv ival . The ir p oten t ia l may b e s een n o t s o much i n t he e v idence, a s d iscern ible i n t he h ypo theses wh ich w e s ha l l s uggest i n c onsider ing i nd iv idua l s i tes. We may n ex t s uggest a r elat ive c hrono logy o f s urv iva l , ( over lapp ing w ith c oncep tua l modes o f s urv iva l a s i n F ig. 7 ) w ith in wh ich t he c hang ing f ortunes o ft he t e mp le s i tes may b e d iscussed .

P er iod Imay b e d ef ined a s mos t o f t he

f our th c en tury , u p t o s ay 3 60 , w hen s evera l o f t he t e mp les w ere d e monstrably f l our ish ing , w ha tever t he ir e ar l ier o r ig in s. Per iod I wou ld b e t he l ast d ecades o ft he f our th c en tury a nd t he e ar l ier d ecades o f t he f i f th. A t l east t wo o f o ur s i tes d id n o t b eg in u n t il t h is p er iod ; o thers w ere r ev ived t hen o r w ere c on t inu ing. Where i n e i ther c ase t he c o ins e x tend t o Theodos ian i ssues , t hen w e c an s afely c arry t he m i n to t he f i f th c en tury t o a n u ndef ined p o in t i n t ime —perhaps a s l a te a s c . 4 40. U n t il t h is t ime w e may a ssu me t ha t e very th ing w en t o n i n Roman f ash ion , a lbe it w ith s o me g loom a nd d espondency . P er iod I I may b e s een a s t he r est o ft he f i f th c en tury , w hen i ft here was c on t inu ing u se o f t e mp les i t may h ave b een s t il l i n a Ro man ised m il ieu i n t he West , e ven t hough i n d ecay , a nd p ossibly w ith s evere l im ita t ions o r mod if ica t ions. Beyond 5 00 t h is wou ld b e more q uest ionable ; a nd w e must t herefore t h ink o f ar a ther d iferen t s oc iety i n o ur P er iod I V , wh ich w il l e ncompass t he s ix th 1 85

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Per iod V w i l l b e d ef ined a s t he s even th-e igh th

c en tur ies, i n c on tex ts o r p laces where p agan p ract ices o r b u ild ings c on t inued unmo lested b y C hr ist ian m iss ionar ies o r b ishops.

Per iod V I w il l b e i n t he

e igh th a nd l a ter c en tur ies , t he p er iod o f p hysical s urv iva l o f s i tes. The p aper s hou ld r ea l ly b e c oncluded a t t h is p o in t , where a l l s orts o f e xc i t ing o p t ions a re p oss ible , b efore t he a ctua l e v idence s pr ink les u s w ith t he u nho ly wa ter o f r ea l ity.

Te mp les o r s i tes i n t he West a re s hown i n F ig . 1 0 . s ites h ave b een l i sted b y L eech ( 1977 ).

F ur ther p oss ible

Th is p aper w il l c ons ider o n ly t hose

f or w h ich t here i s e v idence r elevan t t o t he t he me o f t he p resen t d iscuss ion . The r e markable c oncen tra t ion i n S o merse t may b e c o mpared w ith t he e qua l ly n o tab le g ap i n maps o f e v idence o f Ro man Chr ist ian ity ( Frend 1 955, p l. 1 a nd Thomas 1 971, f i g. 1 ) . P er iod I ( f our th c en tury u p t o C . 3 60 ). Many o f t he s i tes s hown i n F ig . 1 0 were f lour ish ing i n Constan t in ian t imes.

The n o table e xcep t ions a re L ydney ( Wheeler

a nd Whee ler 1 932, 2 9-33 ), t hough t he p ubl ished e v idence i s c urren t ly b e ing q ues t ioned ( i n f . e x J . C asey ); Ma iden Cast le ( Wheeler 1 943 ); b ury ( Fow ler e t a l . 1 970 ;

f u l l monograph i n p repara t ion );

n ing ton ( Rah tz i n p repara t ion ;

Cadbury Congres-

a nd p robably Can-

c f. Rahtz 1 977 , 5 6-59 a nd Rahtz f orthco m ing ).

A c haracter ist ic c o mp lex h ere i s P agans H il l ( Rahtz 1 951, Rahtz a nd Harr is 1 956-57 ), a d ouble o ctagona l t e mp le b u i l t i n t he l a ter t h ird c en tury , w ith a l l i t s b u ild ings a nd we l l c on t inu ing i n to t he 3 40s; 1 95 ), p robab ly b u i l t i n t he e ar ly 3 40s. a re wel l r epresen ted.

o r Brean Down ( ApS i mon 1 965 ,

On t he o ther s i tes, Constan t in ian c o ins

The o n ly t e mp le t o s how e v idence o f d isrepa ir i n t h is

p er iod i s N e t t le ton S hrub ( V Ved lake f or thco m ing ); Wed lake c ons iders t ha t p agan worsh ip c eased h ere c . 3 30 , t o b e s ucceeded b y t he r e-use o f t he t e mp le a s a C hr ist ian c hurch , t ho u gh t here i s e v idence d ur ing t he p er iod a f ter c . 3 30 o f i ndustr ia l a c t iv i ty , i nc lud ing c ast ing i n p ew ter a nd b ronze.

The e v idence f or

t he C hr ist ian c hurch i s p r inc ipa l ly o f t he b lock ing o ff our a r ms o f t he o c tagona l t e mp le t o make a c ruc ifor m b u i ld ing. P er iod I ( l a ter f our th-ear th f i f th c en tury ). Bran igan h as d iscussed t he e x ten t t o w h ich I r ish r a iders i n A .D . 3 67-8 c aused d a mage o r e ven a bandonmen t o f s i tes i n t he Br isto l C hannel a rea ( Bran igan 1 972, a nd Bran igan 1 976, 1 36-141). T h is may b e t he c on tex t f or t he e nd o f t he f irst p hase o f o ccupa t ion a t Pagans H i l l—the c o ins f ro m t he d o mest ic r ange i n t he NE c orner a nd f ro m t he w e l l d o n o t e x tend i n to Va len t in ianic t imes ( Rah tz 1 951, 17 a nd Rah tz a nd Harr is 1 9565 7 , 2 7 ). Boon h as s uggested t ha t t he u se o f Brean Down may a lso h ave e nded a t t he t i me o f t hese r a ids, b e ing i n a n e spec ia l ly v u lnerable p os i t ion o n t he c oast ( ApS i mon 1 965, 2 33 ).

Bo th s i tes h owever s how c on t inu ing o ccupa t ion .

A t B rean Down o ne o f t he a nnexes was g iven o ver t o i ron-s me l t ing , a nd t here i s a lso a l a te b ur ia l ; b u t t h is p ossibly s ecu lar u se o f t he t e mp le c eased c . 3 80 , t he c o in s er ies e nd ing w ith 1 8 o f Va len t in ian I ; t here t hen s ee ms t o h ave 1 87

LAMYATT BEACON

z \ \

\

L \\\\

2

U )

4

M

-

t o

b een a t e mporary d eser t ion u n t il c . 3 90 , when a no ther b u ild ing was b u il t a longs ide t he t e mp le a nd p ar t ly o u t o f i t s ma ter ia l , a nd o n ad if feren t o r ien tat ion . The n ew bu i ld ing h ad Va len t in ian a nd worn Theodosian c o ins wh ich Boon b el ieves c an c arry i t s l i fe t o c . 4 25 ( ApS i mon 1 965, 2 32-233 ). The c haracter o f t h is s econdary b u i ld ing i s u ncer ta in . ApS i mon , i n t he p ub l ished r epor t ( ApS i mon 1 965, 2 24 ), was u nw i l l ing t o s pecu la te o n i t s f unc t ion b e ing o ther t han d o mest ic —there a re b ones , p o t a nd a h ear th.

I t i s h owever a n

e xposed s po t i n w h ich t o l i ve , a nd we may a t l east c onsider t he p oss ib il ity t hat i tw as a no ther t e mp le o r s hr ine o f ap ersuas ion d iferen t f ro m t hat o f t he o r ig ina l t e mp le. We may n o te t hat n o t f ar away i n t he s and-cl if f a t Brean Down i s aw est-east f ind less c e me tery w i th a s ingle r ad io-carbon d a te c en tr ing i n t he s ix th c en tury ( Rahtz 1 977 , 5 5 ). We may c o mpare Brean Down w ith t he r e markably s im ilar c o mp lex a t L amya t t Beacon ( Leech 1 977 , Br i tann ia 5 ( 1974 ), 4 52 ) , i n terv is ible w ith Brean Down , whose p lan was r escued b y Roger L eech a f ter s canda lous d epreda t ions b y l oca l d iggers.

The p r inc ipa l b u ild ing i s o f ap lan v ery s im ilar t o Brean Down

( F ig . 1 1) t hough t he a nnexes a re i n ad i fferen t p os i t ion—those a t Brean a re a t t he b ack o f t he b u ild ing , t hose a t L a mya t t Beacon f l ank ing t he e n trance ;

a nd

t here i s as unken r oo m o n t he s ou th s ide e n tered d own s teps f ro m t he s ou thern ambu la tory.

There i s a lso a s econdary b u ild ing , s im ilarly r e-or ien ta ted w i th

r e la t ion t o t he t e mp le , a nd w i th i t s e n trance i n t he e ast s ide. The d a t ing o f t he p r inc ipa l t e mp le b u ild ing a t L a mya t t Beacon i s g iven b y L eech a s p robably o f t he l a ter t h ird c en tury , a nd h e r egards i ta s t herefore p oss ibly s o me d ecades e ar l ier t han Brean .

The o n ly s ecure d a t ing h owever i s

t ha t o f ac o in s ea led i n t he u nderbedd ing o f t he NE a nnexe , wh ich g ives a t erm inus p ost q ue m o f 2 87 f or t h is a nd p robably t herefore f or t he who le t e mp le c omp lex a nd t h is c ou ld o f c ourse a l low f or a much l a ter d a te , n earer t o t ha t o f B rean Down .

The d a te o f t he sma l ler r e-or ien ta ted b u i ld ing a lso h as a

t erm inus p ost q ue m o f 2 87 , b u t t here i s n o t h ere t he s ecure e v idence a s a t Brean o f a ssoc ia ted Theodos ian c o inage t o s how t ha t t h is was i n u se i n t he f i f th c en tury . There i s ac e me tery t o t he NE o f t he t e mp le c o mp lex o f s ix teen west-east f ind less g raves w ith , a s y e t , n o d a t ing e v idence; i ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t a Chr is t ian c haracter f or s uch c e me ter ies c anno t b e s uppor ted o n p resen t e v id ence ( Rah tz 1 977 , 5 4 a nd Rahtz f or thco m ing ). A t o ther s i tes, i nclud ing Bath ( Cun l if fe 1 969 , 4 ), t here was r ev iva l o f p agan worsh ip i n t he l a ter f ourth c en tury .

A t N e tt leton S hrub , t he C hr ist ian

c hurch h ad l asted o n ly a s hor t t ime , a nd C . 3 70 t he b u ild ing c o mp lex w as a dap ted f or u se a s ah o mestead. Abou t t he s a me t ime h owever a sma l l p art o f t he f or mer c en tra l s hr ine was s e t u p a nd u sed f or a s hor t r esurgence o f p agan worsh ip.

Dur ing t he l a ter f our th c en tury t here was f ur ther d e ter iora t ion ,

a nd e v idence o f t wo p er iods o f a ttack . Con te mporary w i th t h is l a test p hase o f N e t t leton was a c e metery o f w este ast f ind less c ist g raves, wh ich s uggested t o Wed lake t ha t Chr ist ian i ty h ad r esumed i t s s way o ver t he s i te. men t c a me t o a n a brup t e nd ;

A t s o me t ime a f ter c . 4 00 , t he t e mp le s e t t le-

many h uman b ones were f ound i n t he

l evels w ith e v idence o f sword s lash ing a nd d ecap i ta t ion . 1 89

u l t i mate

I ti s p oss ible t ha t

t hese l ast p hases o f N e t t le ton e x tended i n to o ur p er iods I I o r I V , b eyond c . 4 40 ( Wed lake f or thco m ing ). A t P agans H il l t he l a ter f our th c en tury s aw t he b u ild ing o r r ebu i ld ing o f as ub-structure i nt he c en tre o f t he t e mp le , p oss ibly a s creen b eh ind a c u l ti mage , wh ich s ea led a c o in o f Gra t ian ( Rah tz 1 951, 15 ). The c o ins f ro m t he t e mp le a nd l ong b u ild ing r ange i nc lude Theodos ian i ssues, a nd a v ery worn c o in o f F lav ius V ic tor , wh ich t ake t he u se o f t he t e mp le a nd t he l ong b u i ld ings ( t hough n o t t he wel l o r d o mest ic r ange ) i n to t he f i f th c en tury ( Rah tz 1 951, 18 ). I ti s t oo d ur ing t hese l ast d ecades o f t he f ourth c en tury t ha t t wo o f o ur t e mp les were f ounded ; t he Ro mano-Ce lt ic t e mp le a nd p r iest 's h ouse a nd i t s p rec inc t a t Ma iden Cast le were d a ted t o l a ter t han 3 67 b y s ea led c o in e v idence , a nd r epa irs w ere d a ted t o l a ter t han 3 83 b y s ea led c o ins o f Theodos ius. The c o in r ange e nds w ith g o ld o f Arcad ius a nd Honor ius a nd t akes t h is b u i ld ing i n to t he f i f th c en tury ( Wheeler 1 943, 7 2-78 ). L ydney w as a lso b u i l t a f ter 3 64 a nd a f ter a c o l lapse was r ebu i l t a f ter 3 67 ( bu t s ee n o te o n p .2 03 ). The v o lume o f ma ter ial i ncluded t housands o f c o ins, i nc lud ing i ssues o f Arcad ius a nd H onor ius. Ev idence o f s truc tural a l tera t ions, a nd p a tch ing o f mosa ics , l e f t Whee ler i n n o d oubt t ha t t he t e mp le s e t t le men t f l our ished e xceed ingly i nt he l a test y ears o f t he f our th c en tury a nd c on t inued , t he c lass ic s i te o f o ur p er iod I , s o i n to t he f i f th ( Whee ler a nd Whee ler 1 932 , 2 9-33 ).

Bu t f or h ow l ong?

F or o ur p er iod I I t here i s o n ly o ne b rooch , as o-

c a l led ' Go th ic ' t ype , w h ich Wheeler d a ted t o l a ter t han 4 00 ;

t here i s f or i ns-

t ance n o r ecorded h andmade p o t tery a par t f rom ' s hel l '-te mpered wares , o r a ny p ost-Ro man i mpor ted ware. Ye t s o me th ing was h appen ing t here , w h ich Whee ler d idn 't f u l ly u nderstand a nd p erhaps d idn 't w an t t o , r egard ing t he s hadowy a ct iv i t ies o ff i fth o r s ix th c en tury Br itons a s n ot wor thy o f s er ious c ons idera t ion . Ev idence o f t he l a test p hases o f L ydney c o mes n o t f rom t he b u ild ings , o r t he s tone p rec inct wa l l , b u t f rom t he r amparts b eyond t h is wa l l , w h ich e nclose a n a rea o fg round b eh ind t he t e mp le p rec inct , a nd o r ig ina ted a s p art o f t he I ron Age p ro mon tory f or t . The q uest ions wh ich may b e c on sidered i n a ssess ing h ow l a te L ydney w en t o n a nd i n w ha t f or m a re ( a ) w ha t t here was o n t he p ro mon tory b efore t he e xcava ted t e mp le , f ro m t he I ron A ge o nwards; a nd i n p ar t icu lar w hether i t may h ave b een a r el ig ious s i te , t hough o f ak ind l ess s pectacu lar t han t he g rea t l a te f our th c en tury c omp lex ;

( b ) wha t were t he d a tes o f t he t wo p er iods

o f a dd it ion t o t he I ron Age r a mpar t a nd ( c ) wha t was t he n a ture o f t he o ccupat i on r epresen ted b y t hese r a mpar t a dd it ions ? On ly r e-excava t ion c an h ope t o a nswer t hese q uest ions, b u t t he p ubl ished e v idence i s n o t a l together c ons isten t ( Append ix I ) . These r a mpar t a dd i t ions a re o f c ourse o ne o f t he most p os it ive e xamp les o f Ro man o r l a ter r efurb ish men ts o f I ron A ge d efences t hat w e k now. Wheeler n o t s urpr is ingly i n terpreted t he m a s h av ing a m il itary f unct ion , t he o u ter b ank ' expos ing t he a dvanc ing e ne my o n al onger f orward s lope w here t hey w ou ld b e u nder f i re f ro m t he ma in r ampar t ' ( Wheeler a nd Whee ler 1 932, 6 ). Bu t wha t e ne my , a nd who w ere t he d efenders?

a nd when?

Wheeler b el ieved t ha t t he

r ampar ts r epresen ted m i l itary d efence b y l oca l p eop le d efend ing t he mse lves a ga inst a t tack i n t he s a me w ay a s h ad t he p eop le u sing t he e ar l ier I ron A ge

1 90

I9 1

e ar thworks, a nd b y i mp l icat ion t ha t t hey h ad n o th ing t o d o w i th t he e ar l ier r el ig ious a c t iv ity o n t he s i te, e xcep t p erhaps a s p eop le l ef tb eh ind a f ter a ll t he t e mp le a c t iv i ty h ad c eased , ap hrase o f ' r ecrudescen t b arbar is m '. ( Whee ler a nd Wheeler 1 932, 6 4 ). Wheeler 's a t t itude t o t h is p hase o f L ydney i sw elle xpressed i nh is f a mous d escr ip t ion , ' I n t he l a tter d ays, t herefore , t he c hara c ter o f t he o ccupa t ion o f t he L ydney p ro mon tory r ever ted s ubstan t ia l ly t o i t s a bor ig ina l t ype. The i n ter med ia te p hases o f Roman isa t ion h ad f or a t ime g iven t he n a t ive p opu la t ion much t ha t o therw ise l ay b eyond i t s g rasp ; b u t i ng iv ing t h is, t hey h ad a t t he s a me t ime t aken f ro m t ha t p opu la t ion s uch c u l tura l i n it iat i ve a s i th ad p ossessed b e fore t he c om ing o f Rome.

The p over ty o f p ost-Roman

r el ics u pon t he s i te i s e loquen t o f ap opu lat ion w h ich , b eh ind i t s r efurb i s hed , s econd-hand e ar thworks , e ked o u t as or t o f s econd-hand e x istence e n t ire ly l ack ing i n c u l tura l i n i t ia t ive ' ( Whee ler a nd Whee ler 1 932, 6 4-65 ). S uch a n a t t i tude t o o ur p ost-Roman ' na t ives ' i s h ard ly a ccep table t oday f rom e th ica l , p o l i t ical o r h istor ica l s tandpo in ts; n or i s t he e asy a ccep tance o f am i l itary e xp lanat ion f or t he l a test p hases o f t he L ydney e nclosure.

We c an

a t l east s uggest t he p oss ib il ity t ha t s omewhere o n t he p romon tory , p erhaps i n t he n or thern o pen a rea wh ich Wheeler d id n o t e xp lore v ery much , w il lb e f ound s truc tures o r e v idence o f ar el ig ious c haracter w h ich s ucceeded t he d estruct ion o ft he Ro man ised b u i ld ings, wh ich c ou ld n o t a dequa tely b e ma in ta ined ; a nd t ha t t he e ar thwork a dd it ions a re t he e qu iva len t o f t he e arl ier t e menos;

o r , i f we

i nvoke a n ew r e l ig ion , t ha t t hey a re t he v a l lum monaster i i o f a Chr ist ian s ite ; i n d iscussing t hese l a test p hases o f L ydney w e a re p ossibly t respass ing i n to o ur p er iod I V i fn o t V . F or a c omparable s i tua t ion w e may n ow r e turn t o Ma iden Cast le i n o ur p er iod 1 T I.

On ly 1 2 metres a way f rom t he Romano-Cel t ic t e mp le ( Fig . 1 2 ) was

ap enannu lar s l igh t ly o vo id b u ild ing c a l led b y Whee ler ' ah u t ' , 8 .5 x 8 metres, w ith f ounda t ions o f u nmor tared l imestone b locks ( Wheeler 1 943, 7 4 a nd 1 35 ). Wheeler d escr ibed i ta s f o l lows : ' A l ine o f c on te mporary p ost-ho les a long t he ma jor a x is s uggested s o me s or t o f r idge-roof , a nd t he n umerous b roken Ro man r ooft i les o f n or ma l Ro man t ype amongst t he d ebr is i nd ica ted t he n ature o f t he c over ing. The f l oor h ad b een p aved w i th s tone s labs a nd w ith r eused h exagona l r oof'sla tes ' ; a nd a p ivo t-stone a t t he s outhe astern e nd marked t he p osit ion o f t he d oorway .

F our f ee t o u ts ide

t he d oor , i n ar oughly p aved a rea , was a p i t-hearth l ined w i th f our c o mp lete c lay r oof ing-t iles a nd f i l led w i th wood-ash. W ith in t h is b u ild ing were 1 71 Roman c o ins, most ly o f t he f ourth c en tury a nd e x tend ing t o Honor ius... I n t he s ide o f o ne o f t he Ro man p ost-ho les l ay a f rag men tary p igeon 's e gg , a worn c o in o f Tetr icus I , al eaden s teelyard w e ight , a nd a n o rna men ted b ron ze p edesta l b ear ing t he i mpr in t o f t he f ee t o f as ta tue tte. E lsewhere i n t he d ebr is o n t he f l oor was t he b as is o f as ta tuet te , o f I t a l ian marble , a nd d oub t less o f I t a l ian workmansh ip , b ear ing t he f ee t o f D iana a nd ah ound '

( Wheeler 1 943, 1 35 ).

' The a bundan t a nd c onsisten t ly l a te p o t tery ,

a nd t he c o in r ange , l ef t n o d oubt

i n whee ler 's m ind t ha t t he b u ild ing 's ma in o ccupa t ion s ynchron ised w ith t he u se o ft he t e mp le a f ter 3 67.

Wheeler t hought t ha t t he ' hu t ' m ight i ndeed b e 1 92

s l igh t ly e ar l ier t han t he t e mp le b ecause i ty ie lded a f ew e ar l ier c o ins, a nd may h ave s erved a s a workmens ' s hel ter o r a s t he p redecessor t o t he p r iest 's h ouse ( Whee ler 1 943 , 1 35 ). Th is i s d if f icu l t t o b e l ieve , i fo n ly b ecause o f t he n umber o f t he c o ins a nd t he r el ig ious f inds a nd s ta tuary ; a n i n terpre ta t ion a s as hr ine s ee ms much more p robab le , a nd was i ndeed a ssu med many y ears a go b y L ew is ( Lew is 1 966, 3 ) . Whee ler d id i ndeed h in t i nh is p reface ( Wheeler 1 943, 7 6-77 ) t ha t t he h u t was i nf ac t r e l ig ious, b u t r egarded s uch a s uggest ion a s n o more t han a ' pass ing f an tasy '. More s ign if ican t ly f ro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f t h is p aper i s t he p roble m o f d ate. Whee ler was t rapped i n t he g reat c o in f a l lacy o f a ssum ing c on te mporanei t y o f o ccupa t ion b y as im i lar c o in r ange ; w e o n ly h ave t o t urn t o t he A ng loS axon v i l lage o f West S tow a nd i t s Ro man c o in h istogra m t o d r ive h o me t h is p oin t y e t a ga in ( Wes t 1 969 , f ig . 1 1 ). I ti s d if f icu l t t o b e l ieve t ha t t h is s tructure a nd t he Ro mano-Ce l t ic t e mp le were i n s i mu l taneous u se a s r e l ig ious b u i ld ings; a nd s ince i ti s u n l ike ly t o b e e ar l ier i t must t herefore b e l a ter , a f ter t he t e mp le h ad c eased t o b e u sed , a n e ven t t ob e d a ted a t s o me t ime i n t he f i f th c en tury . I ft h is a ssump t ion i s c orr ec t , t hen h ere we h ave a s hr ine , wh ich i s e arly e nough t o b e mak ing e x tensive u se o f Ro man p o t tery , w here Ro man c o ins a re i n a bundan t u se i n s ome way , a nd w here t here i s n o e v idence o fp ost-Roman ma ter ia l ; ad a te f or i t s c onst ruct ion a nd p robably f or i t s o ccupa t ion w ith in t he f i f th c en tury s ee ms i nescap able ; a nd n o t , a s Whee ler s ays, ' s tand ing i n t he s hadow o ft he f our-square t e mp le ' i n ' a l most o sten tat ious b arbar is m ' ( Whee ler 1 943, 7 6 ). I n terest ingly e nough , i tl i es d irec t ly o ver t he i n ter ior o f ap re-Ro man p enannu lar b u i ld ing ( F ig . 1 2 ) o f s im ilar o r ien ta t ion t hough o f l arger s ize ( 1 1 m d iameter ) ( no t 1 5 f t , a s s ta ted i n Wheeler 1 943, 1 27 ).

Th is h ad a n I ron A ge

s tree t l ead ing d irec t ly i n to i t s d oorway , a nd t h is w as t raced a s f ar a s t he e astern e n trance o f t he h il lfor t . I td oes i ndeed s ee m p ossible t ha t i ta lso was ar el ig ious b u i ld ing. L esl ie A lcock f ound a nI ron Age b u i ld ing a t S ou th Cadbury o f r ectangu lar f orm , wh ich h e i n terpreted a s at e mp le ; i n an arrow z one b es ide t he a pproach t o t he s hr ine were a bou t 2 0 b ur ia ls o fy oung a n i ma ls, p igs, l a mbs, b u t p r inc ipa l ly c alves ( Alcock 1 972, 8 1 a nd 8 4 ). I ft he Ma iden Cast le b u ild ing was i nd eed a n I ron Age s hr ine ( t hough t here i s n o s uppor t ing e v idence s uch a s t ha t f ro m S ou th Cadbury ) , t hen w e a ppear t o h ave a r e markable e xa mp le o f r el ig ious c on t inu ity f ro m p re-Roman t imes t o t he f i f th c en tury , t he more s tr ik ing i n t ha t f or s o me d ecades i t was r ep laced b y o r p erhaps s upp le men ted b y a much g rander Ro man ised e d if ice. Was t he Romano-Cel t ic t e mp le i n f act a n i n terr up t ion o f t he e ssen t ia l ly i nd igenous s equence , wh ich a f ter f l our ish ing f or a wh i le , d id n o t s urv ive t he g enera l b reakdown o f Ro man isat ion , a nd w hose s tat uary , p erhaps a lready b roken , p assed i n to t he h ands o f t he ' o ld r el ig ion '? There was s ome mater ia l i nb e tween t he t wo p hases;

t he u pper l evels o f

t he p re-Ro man b u ild ing y ielded s herds o f C laud io-Neron ian S am ian , a nd s ome s econd-th ird c en tury p o t tery . Whee ler d id i nf ac t c ons ider t he p oss ib i l ity o f c on t inu ity b e tween t hese t wo b u ild ings, w i thou t t he i l np l ica t ions w e h ave j ust s uggested . He was n o t , i t s ee ms, v ery k een o n e xp lor ing t he s i tua t ion ; t o q uo te , ' Here i tw i l l s u f f ice t o 1 93

n o te t he c o inc idence o f t he l a te p re-Roman a nd t he c ur iously a rcha ic f ourthc en tury s tructures w ithou t e n ter ing u pon t he d angerous b usiness o f a t te mp t ing t o e xp la in i t ' ( Wheeler 1 943, 1 35 ). There may i ndeed h ave b een c on t inu ity o f s tructure , i fn ot o f worsh ip. O r w e may i mag ine t ha t e ven i ft here was n o t , t he p rec ise l oca t ion o f t he e ar l ier s hr ine h ad b een marked o r r e me mbered u p t o t he t ime when i t was t e mporar ily r ep laced b y t he g rand Ro man t e mp le , s o t ha t i t was p rec isely o n i t s s i te t ha t an ew s hr ine w as b u il t w hen t he p hase o f Roman isa t ion h ad p assed. There a re o ne o r t wo o ther p oss ibly r el ig iou s f ea tures a t Ma iden Castle. The e n try t o t he p rec inc t w as marked b y a n e labora te g a teway o f s tone, a nd a r oadway w i th o ne metre w ide r u ts a nd h orseshoes. a way a sma l l f ounda t ion w as b u il t i n to t he r oad.

I ns ide t he g a te s ome 5 m

A l l t hese a ppear t o h ave b een

o f t he t e mp le p er iod b u t t here i s n o h in t o f t he ir f i f th c en tury o r l ater h istory ( Whee ler 1 943, 7 7 ). There were a lso s evera l e ast-west f ind less b ur ia ls ( F ig. 1 2) , w hose h igh l eve l , a nd t he i nclus ion o f aN ew F orest s herd i n o ne , s uggested t o Wheeler t ha t t hey were c on te mporary w ith t he ma in t e mp le a nd i ndeed w ere p erhaps b ur ia ls o f p eop le c onnec ted w i th t he c u l t , o r o f i t s a dheren ts ( Wheeler 1 943, 7 7-78 ). These b ur ia ls w ere o n ly a cc iden ta l ly l ocated i n t renches, a nd a re c lear ly o n ly p ar t o f al arger c e me tery.

Th is may b e o f l a te Ro man d a te,

b u t , o n t he a na logy o f o ther c e meter ies o f t h is c lass i n t he West may b e much l a ter ( Rah tz 1 977 , 6 2 ), a nd may b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t he r el ig ious u sage o f t he s i te c on te mporary w i th t he o va l s hr ine o r e ven l a ter. Was i ta lso t he c on t inua nce o f ar el ig ious s ign if icance a t Ma iden C ast le wh ich l ed t o t he b ur ia l t here o f a t l east t wo Ang lo-Saxons? Th is may o f c ourse h ave b een merely t he c ont inuance o f t he s a me c e me tery , b u t w e w i l l c ons ider t h is p o in t a nd r e turn t o Ma iden Cast le i n o ur p er iod V . A t Hen ley Wood t he t e mp le a lso h ad s ome e ar ly a n teceden ts; t here i s s o me f i rst c en tury p o t tery , a Dobunn ic c o in , a nd a r e markable s ta tuet te o f n on-Ro man a ppearance ( Br itann ia 1 ( 1970 ), 2 96 a nd p l . XXXVD ). Un for tunately n o p lan i s a va i lable; b u t t he b u ild ing w en t t hrough s evera l s tructura l p hases b e tween t he f irst a nd f ourth c en tur ies. s quare p lan .

I n i t s l a test p hase i t was o f d oub le

I t s e n trance was t o t he e as t , a nd t he a pproach t o t h is c rossed a

r ock-cu t t e menos d i tch , c u t t ing o f t he p romon tory.

T he c o ins e x tend t o t he

e nd o f t he f our th c en tury ; a t s o me t ime a f ter c . 4 00 t he t e mp le w as d e mo l ished a nd a bou t 5 0 w est-east f ind less g raves were c u t t hrough i t . Th is c e metery e x tended t owards t he e ast , o ccupy ing t he s pace b etween t he t e mp le a nd i t s t e menos d i tch , a nd f i l l ing t he d i tch i t self a nd t he a rea b eyond i t .

N o d a te i s

y e t a va ilable f ro m t h is c e metery , b u t i t may p oss ibly b e a ssoc ia ted w ith t he s ix th c en tury o ccupa t ion o f C adbury C ongresbury , wh ich i s o n ly a f ew h undred me tres a way ; we s ha l l c ons ider t he r el ig ious man ifesta t ions o f t h is s i te , w ith in s igh t o f Hen ley Wood , i n o ur p er iod I V . A t B la ise Cast le t he e v idence f or a t e mp le i s s t i l l s pecu la t ive; t he c o inr ange g oes o n l a te a nd s o me g raves a ppear t o b e o f l a te o r p ost-Ro man d ate. L a ter t here was a med ieva l c hape l d ed ica ted t o S t B las ius . I ti s s t i l l u ncer ta in whe ther t he b u i ld ing e xcava ted i n 1 918 was i n f act a t e mp le o r whe ther i tw as t he med ieva l c hapel—or was i tb o th? O n ly r e-excava t ion h ere c an d ecide ( Rah tz a nd B rown 1 959 , 1 49-150 ). 1 94

T he e x istence o f at e mp le a t Woodya tes i s s t il l u nproven . o f a n e nc losed c e metery h ere

The e x istence

i s s uggest ive , a s a lso i s t he v ery l arge n u mber

o f c o ins ( Pit t R ivers 1 892, 6 2-71, p lan o pp . 7 0 a nd 2 04-212; 6 0-62 ) , a nd a s ta tue t te o f V enus Anadyo mene ( Rahtz 1 963 ).

c f . P iggo t t 1 968 , R ichard Brad ley

h as s uggested ( f l ) . l i t. ) t ha t i ft here i s ar el ig ious s i te h ere i ti s d irect ly a ssoc iat ed w i th t he i mpor tance o f Boker ly Dyke a s a ma jor b oundary , p oss ibly f ro m a t l east B ronze Age t imes. The p resence o f at e mp le, p erhaps w i th a f a ir, a t t he c rossing-po in t im mor ta l ised b y P i t t-R ivers a s Boker ly J unct ion wou ld n o t b e s urpr ising. We n eed n o t h ere r ecap i tu late

t he s equence o f t he Dyke , b u t

merely s tress t ha t ma jor e arthworks were b e ing c ons truc ted h ere a f ter 4 00. I t i s p oss ible t herefore t ha t t he r e l ig ious s i te h ere e x tended t oo i n to t he f i f th c en tury , p erhaps e nd ing o n ly when t he Ro man r oad was f ina l ly a nd i rrevocably c u t b y t he d itch o f t he F ore Dyke.

Th is i s a n e ven t wh ich w e c anno t y et d a te,

t hough Brad ley s ees i ta s ar e-asser t ion o f t he i ndependence, p o l it ica l ly a nd e conom ical ly , o f t he Cranborne Chase a rea. We t urn n ow t o t he most r ecen t ly d iscovered o f o ur t e mp les, a nd a lso ( apar t f ro m ApS i mon 's f ine e xcava t ion o f Brean Down ) t he f irst t o b e e xcava ted b y modern me thods o f t o ta l d a ta r ecovery.

Th is i s a t West H il l U ley , n ear t he

wel l-known He t ty Peg ler 's Tu mp .1 Dr Ann E l l ison , who h as e xcava ted t h is s i te i n 1 976-7 , b el ieves t ha t t here may b e e v idence i n t he a rea o f c on t inu i ty o f r el ig ious o bservance f ro m N eo l i th ic t imes t o t he f i f th c en tury o r l a ter.

Fo l low-

i ng I ron Age a nd e ar l ier Ro man f ea tures, wh ich may b o th h ave h ad a r e l ig ious f unct ion , t he l a te Ro man c o mp lex c o mpr ises a s quare Ro mano-Cel t ic t e mp le a nd t wo s ets o f mu l t i-roo med mass ive s tone-wa l led s tructures, p robably d o mes t ic q uarters f or p r iests o r v is itors, o r s hops s e l l ing v o t ive o b jects.

The

t e mp le h ad a t i t s c en tre a l arge h o le wh ich may h ave h eld a s acred t ree , a l arge p ost o r a wa ter c on ta iner ;

i tc on ta ined a bou t 5 40 c o ins.

The t e mp le

c o mp lex was a pparen t ly b u il t i n o ur p er iod Ii n t he s econd q uarter o f t he f our th c en tury .

There a re many v ot ive o f fer ings i nclud ing t wo f i gur ines o f Mercury ,

ab ust o f S o l , ab ucke t- moun t i n Ce l t ic s ty le d ep ic t ing Mercury w i th k nobbed h orns , m in ia ture b ronzes o f ag oa t a nd a c ockerel , a nd a c aduceus i n s i lver w ire ; t here was a lso a sma l l d efaced a l tar w i th a r epresen ta t ion o f Mercury w ith ag oa t a nd c ockerel . o f s acr if ices.

The 1 50 ,000 a n i ma l b ones a re p robably a l l r e ma ins

9 4% a re g oa t o r s heep , p robably t he f or mer ;

a nd 6% a re o f

c ockerel a nd o ther a n i ma ls. The most i mportan t f inds a re 1 83 r o l led s heets o f l ead , s o me o f wh ich a t l east a lready s how i nscr ip t ions i n c ursive L a t in ; t hey a re b est p ara l le l led b y t he w el l k nown c urses f ro m Ba th a nd L ydney ; t he impor tance o f t h is mass ive c orpus o f e p igraph ic ma ter ia l c annot b e o vers tressed , b u t i tw il l b e s o me y ears b efore i ti s r ea l ised. The t e mp le was s yste ma t ica l ly d e mo l ished a t s o me t ime i n t he l a te f our th c en tury , a f ter t he d e mo l i t ion o f t he a ssoc ia ted l ong b u i ld ing.

A l l b u ild ing s tone

was r e moved f ro m t he a rea e xcava ted a nd t he d eposits a ssoc iated w ith t he t e mp le , e ither i ns ide i to r i n m iddens o u ts ide —were s pread o u t o ver t he r ema ins o f t he o ther b u i ld ings i n al evel l ing o pera t ion .

The t e mp le f ounda t ions

were t hen c overed w i th s o il o r t urf—they a re q u ite u nwea thered . P ost-te mp le s truc tures were

t hen e rec ted o ver t he t e mp le f oundat ions,

t hough n o t u t i l ising t he m t o a ny e x ten t. a l tar a nd a s ta tue f rag men t was r eused.

1 95

S o me t e mp le ma ter ia l , i nc lud ing a n Dr E l l ison b e l ieves t ha t t he

Theodos ian c o inage among t he 2 ,254 c o ins r ecovered may b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is p hase.

Bu t u se o f t hese p ostte mp le s truc tures may c on t inue i n to o ur

p er iods I I o r I V ( the l a ter f i f th a nd s ix th c en tur ies ) :

t here i s g rasste mpered

p o t tery , o ther h and- made s herds a nd a s i lver p in w i th r ing-and-do t d ecora t ion . There a re t hree o r f our p hases o f p ost-te mp le s tructures, o ff i f th c ent ury o r l a ter d a te;

o n ly p arts h ave s o f ar b een e xa m ined , b u t more w ork i s

p lanned f or 19 78. The s tructures s o f ar d ef ined i nclude t he f o l low ing : I I.

F our s ides o f a sma l l h exagonal s tructure , p oss ibly t he s urround

f or a r i tua l f ocus. V I.

3p ara l lel r ows o f l arge f l a t s tones p oss ib ly s uppor t ing a t imber

s tructure. V I I.

5 ma jor p ost-p i ts , f or m ing a r ec tangu lar c ore t o as truc ture , b u i l t

d irec t ly o ver t he t e mp le , p ossibly w ith a isles, a nd p oss ibly a ssoc ia ted w i th a n a ps ida l e x tension a t t he w est e nd ;

i ti s f ro m t he v ery worn s tone f l oor o f t he

l a t ter t ha t t he d efaced i nverted a l tar o f Mercury was r ecovered ;

t he p ack ing

o f t he s tones o f t h is a ps ida l e nd c ons isted o f r e-used Ro man mor tar a nd wa l l p laster ;

a par t f ro m t he o r ien ta t ion , i t s p lan c ou ld b e c o mpared w i th t ha t o f

s o me e arly Chr ist ian c hurches. V I I I.

A sma l l masonry b u ild ing 6 x 4 .2 metres.

may h ave s upported a t ower-l ike s tructure;

I t s d eep f ounda t ions

a n a ssoc ia ted r ubble r a f t a nd p ost-

p i t may h ave b een c onnected w ith a s ta irturret.

D r E l l ison d raws c o mpar i-

s on s b etween t h is a nd t he sma l l e ast-west b u ild ings d iscussed a bove a t Brean Down a nd L a myat t B eacon ( t hough o r ien ta ted NE-S W );

o r w i th t ower-l ike s truc-

t ures, s uch a s t ha t a dded i n t he l a te f our th c en tury t o C hr ist ian bu i ld ings b elow Tr ier Ca thedra l ( Bar ley a nd Hanson e ds. 19 68 , 3 1). U ley i s t hus a s i te o f c onsiderable i n terest i n i t s p ost-Ro man p hases a nd f ur ther e xcava t ion may h elp t o d ec ide whether a ny o f t he l a test s truc tures a re i ndeed Chr ist ian , o r whe ther t hey r epresen t c hanges i n p agan c u l t p rac t ices. We s hou ld f ina l ly , i n o ur p er iod I I , n o te t he l ack o f p ost-Ro man e v idence a t t he g rea t t e mp le o f S u l- Minerva a t Ba th , wh ich Cun l if fe t h inks may h ave b een a bandoned b ecause o f wa ter logg ing , p erhaps d ue t o l ack o f ma in tenance o f d ra inage s yste ms ( Cun l if fe 1 969 , 3 4-35 ).

We may o bserve h owever t ha t a n

Anglo-Saxon r el ig ious s i te was b u il t d irect ly o ver t he t e mp le/ba th c o mp lex . We h ave s een t ha t t he d a t ing o f t he l a test p hases o f s evera l o f o ur s i tes i s i nsecure , s ince Ro man d at ing e v idence e f fect ively e nds i n Theodos ian t imes. To e x tend t he c hrono logy f urther , w e n eed e i ther r ad io-carbon d ates , w h ich a re n o t y et a va ilable f or most o f t hese s i tes , o r f inds s uch a s me ta l-work wh ich c an b e d a ted i n n on-Ro man c on tex ts.

F ro m t he l a ter f i f th c en tury o n-

wards , i n o ur p er iod I V, t here i s i n t h is a rea p o ten t ia l d a t ing e v idence i n t he f or m o f i mpor ted ma ter ia l f ro m t he East Med iterranean , N orth A fr ica a nd Gau l/ Iber ia. Th is i s f ound a t S ou th Cadbury f or e xamp le, b u t i s n o t a ssociated b y L esl ie A lcock w ith a ny c on t inua t ion o f t he Ro man t e mp le t here, b u t r a ther w ith a m i l itary o ccupa t ion , w h ich i nvo lved a dd i t ions t o t he e x ist ing mass ive I ron A ge d efences ( Alcock 19 72, 17 5-1 7 7 ).

There i s a lso s o me o f t h is p o t tery

a t G lastonbury Tor , where a p agan r el ig ious s ite i s o ne o f t he p ossible i n terp re ta t ions f or t he s truc tures e xcava ted i n t he l a te 1 960s ( Rah tz 19 71, 19 -21). 1 96

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M E T RE S

Th is ma ter ia l e x ists , h owever , i n r easonab le q uan t ity a t Cadbury Congresbury , a nd w e may e xa m ine t he p oss ib il i t ies h ere o f p agan r el ig ion i n t he s ix th c en tury , wh ich , a s w e h ave s een , may n o tb e who l ly d ivorced f ro m t he f a te o f t he Ro man t e mp le a cross t he v a l ley a t H en ley Wood. The b u i ld ing c o mp lex s o f ar e xcava ted h ere i s d a ted t o t he l a ter f i f th o r s ix th c en tury b y i mpor ted p o t tery a nd o ther f inds , s uppor ted b y r ad io-carbon d a tes. A l though t he s i te h as b een s uggested t o b e a n e arly C hr ist ian monast ic s i te b y Professor A lcock b ecause o f t he a ssocia t ion w i th S t C ongar ( t h is b eing h is ' bury ' ) ( Alcock 1 971, 2 19 ) , t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i s n o t y et c onclusive , t hough t here a re s o me p o t tery s herds w h ich b ear C hr ist ian s y mbo ls.

Among

t he many models c urren t ly b e ing d iscussed i n t he i n terpreta t ion o f Cadbury Congresbury o ne i s i ndeed t ha t i ti s ap agan r el ig ious s i te ( wh ich may n o t o f c ourse a pp ly t o a l l o f i t s a rchaeo log ica l p hases ).

Two f eatures o r c on tex ts

may b e d iscussed f or t heir p o ten t ia l r elevance t o t h is model .

The f irst i s a

p enannu lar r ock-cu t t rench , i n terpreted a s t he f oun ta in t rench o f a wooden b u ild ing w i th t he p osts o f i t s w a l l s e t i n t he t rench ( F ig . 1 3 ) .

I th as a l arge

S E e n trance , a round wh ich , o u tside a nd i nside, a re s evera l s epara te p os tho les s uggest ing a n e labora te e n trance o r p orch.

The b u i ld ing i s d ated t o t he l a te

Ro man p er iod o r l a ter b y as herd o f l a te Ro man p o t tery s ealed i n t he p ostp ack ing , a nd b y t he u se o f Ro man s tone r oo f-t iles a s p ost-pack ing.

I ta ppears

t o h ave b een i n u se d ur ing t he s ix th c en tury a s i t s a rea i s av irtua l ly n ega t ive o ne i n t he d istr ibu t ion p lans o f s ix th c en tury a r tefac ts ( Fow ler e t a l . 1 970 , 1 4-18 a nd f ig. 3 ). The o n ly a r tefacts f or w h ich a ' r i tual ' i n terpre ta t ion m igh t b e p u t f orward were f ound i n t wo o f t he e n trance p os tho les.

I n o ne w ere t wo f rag men ts o f t wo

d if feren t p ost-Ro man Med i terranean amphora h and les i n a n a rea o therw ise s parse i n t h is c era m ic.

Th is i n terpreta t ion c ou ld o n ly b e v a l id i f we e x tended

Tho mas ' a rgu men t a bou t t he i nheren t Chr ist ian f unc t ion o f t h is p o t tery ( Tho mas 1 971, 2 7 ), t o i t s a cqu ir ing t hereby s o me v ot ive v a lue o r t a l is man ic p roper t ies. The o ther f inds a re t wo b one p endan ts o r l eaves wh ich may b e c o mpared w i th s im ilar meta l o b jects f ro m s o me p agan s hr ines, s uch a s t hose f ro m B r igstock ( F ig . 1 3 ) , a nd n ow U ley , p oss ibly f ro m wrea ths a round t he c u l t-i mage.

The

e v idence i s t h in , t o s ay t he l east , b u t may b e a l l w e s ha l l g et f or s ix th c en tury s hr ines. I n F ig. 1 3 I an Burrow h as s uggested p ara l lels i n s ize , f or m a nd o r ien tat ion w ith o ther s hr ines, i nclud ing n o t o n ly t he w el l-known Ro man e xa mp les a t Br igstock a nd F r il ford , b u t a lso t he Ma iden Cast le s truc ture w e h ave a lready d iscussed.

Th is a s w e h ave s een may w el l b e as uccessor t o a n I ron A ge

s truc ture , a nd t h is i s t rue a lso o f Br igstock 2 a nd F r i l ford 1 . I n t hese t hree c ases we may p ostu la te a n i nd igenous I ron Age r el ig ious o r ig in , ac on t inuance t hrough t he Ro man p er iod ( when s uch s hr ines c o-ex ist w ith t he more Ro mani sed t e mp les ) a nd a s urv iva l i n to t he p ost-Ro man c en tur ies;

o r i fw e a re r ight

a bou t t he Ma iden Cas t le a nd Cadbury Congresbury s truc tures , t he t ype was e ven b e ing b u il t d e n ovo i n t he f i f th a nd i n t he s ix th c en tur ies; i n t he C adbury Congresbury c ase t h is i s o n an ew s i te , t hough n o t f ar f ro m i t s Ro man a nd I ron Age p redecessors a t H en ley Wood ; i t may e ven h ave r ep laced t he Hen ley Wood t e mp le a s t he p agan r e l ig ious f ocus o f t he a rea , i n t he p er iod when t he o ld t e mp le s i te w as g iven o ver t o b ur ia l . 1 98

The s econd p oss ib le s hr ine a t C adbury Congresbury i s ap i t , o r r a ther ar ock-set t ing a round ah o le , o n t he e dge o f t he h il l l ook ing a cross t o Hen ley Wood. Th is may h ave h eld ab ig p ost o r t o te m p o le, o r wooden c ross; o r p erh aps more p rec isely ab ig b au lk o ft imber l ike a t ree-bu t t i n to w h ich s ome u pr igh t f ea ture was mor t iced ; o r i t may h ave h eld s o me c on ta iner o r l i n ing f or l i qu id . The v ery d ark f i l l o f t h is c on ta ined a r e markab le g roup o f f inds , wh ich w ere e i ther d ropped a round o r o n wha tever s tood h ere, f ind ing t he ir way i n to t he h o le when t he f ea ture was p u l led o u t o r r o t ted away ( t he l a t ter s ee ms most p robable );

o r were d eposited i n t he c av ity e i ther a s ah omogeneous g roup , o r

p er iod ica l ly , a t al a ter d a te. They i nclude r epresen ta t ive i t e ms o f a l most a l l t he a r tefact c lasses p resen t o n t he s i te, i nclud ing p reh istor ic a nd Ro man f l in t , meta l , s lag , g lass a nd p o ttery ; t he p ost-Ro man ma ter ia l i ncludes a s herd o f N or th A fr ican c rosss tamped t able-ware d a ted t o t he s ix th c en tury . I tl ooked a l most a s i fs omeone d el iberately w en t a round t he s i te p ick ing u p p ieces o f e very th ing l y ing a round -ra ther l ike a t ime c apsu le—and c arefu l ly d epos ited t he m i n t h is p lace.

Can

o ne c i te a ny e thno-archaeo log ica l r el ig ious a na logue t o t h is d isposa l o f ag roup o f a pparen tly h ouseho ld r ubb ish? One s uch i s ac o l lec t ion o f ma ter ia l l y ing a round a h o ly wel l i n Donega l , o f w h ich a n i nven tory i s s hown i n F ig. 1 2 a nd d escr ibed i n Append ix I .

The f unct ion o f t hese o b jects may b e s een e i ther a s

h ea l ing o b jects , c on ta iners f or h o ly wa ter , s hr ine f i t t ings , v o t ive o f fer ings o r i t e ms a ssoc ia ted w i th p ersons who i tw as h oped t o h ea l , o r w ho h ad b een h ea led.

Whether t h is a na logue p rov ides c onv inc ing e v idence t ha t t he C adbury

Congresbury g roup i s f ro m a s hr ine i s a ma t ter f or d eba te. The o ther p oss ible s hr ine o f t he f i f th o r s ix th c en tury i s t ha t o f Cann ingt on , n ear Br idgwa ter ( Rah tz 1 977 , 5 7 ) ( F ig . 1 3 ).

I tl i es o n t op o f a sma l l h il l ,

o n t he s ou thern s lopes o f w h ich i s ac e metery o r ig ina l ly o f 2 ,000-5,000 g raves o fw h ich a bou t 5 00 s urv ived q uarry ing t o b e e xcavated. G rave-goods a nd r ad ioc arbon d ates s uggest a d ate r ange f ro m m id- o r l a te-Ro man t o t he e ighth c ent ury , a nd t here a ppear t o h ave b een t wo n ucle i.

One o f t hese i s as lab- marked

g rave o f ay oung f e ma le a pproached b y ap a th ; t he s ke leton h as a r ad io-carbon d eter m ina t ion c en tr ing o nA . D. 6 20

( c f. Rah tz 1 977 , 5 8 a nd f oo tno te 4 ).

Wha t

i s p robably t he e ar l ier n ucleus i s ar ock-cu t t rench s im i lar t o t ha t a t C adbury Congresbury b u t sma l ler ( 7 me tres i n d iameter ) , w ith a k erb o r o u ter wa l l o f n onlocal r ed s andstone b locks.

I n terpre ta t ions o ther t han ab u ild ing a re o f

c ourse p oss ible —the p r inc ipa l o ne i s t ha t o f a mauso leum , s ince i ti s a t l east p oss ib le t ha t t he g rave i n side i t , w i th t wo r ad iocarbon d a tes c en tr ing o n A .D . 4 68 a nd 5 18 ( c f . Rahtz 1 977 , 5 8 a nd f oo tnote 4 ), i s d irec t ly a ssoc ia ted .

I ti s

h owever wel l a way f ro m t he p r inc ipa l a rea o f t he c e metery , a nd c ou ld b e t he p os t-Ro man l oca l h il l top s hr ine l ike t hose a t Ma iden C ast le o r C adbury Congresbury . There may e ven b e I ron Age a n teceden ts h ere t oo ; t here a re p reh istor ic b ur ia ls o n t he s i te , a nd t he o ccupa t ion a rea f or a l l t he p er iods r epresen ted i n t he c e metery i s l ikely t ob e t he a rea i nclud ing t he a d jacen t h i l lfor t o f C ann ington Park . The c e me tery a t l east i fn o t t he s hr ine c on t inues u n t i l t he e igh th c en tury , p robably e nd ing o n ly w i th Eng l ish p enetra t ion o f t he a rea a nd t he e stabl ish men t o f C ann ing ton C hurch i nt he v a l ley b elow .

1 99

P oss ibly a lso i n o ur p re-Engl ish p hase o f p er iod V o r c onceivab ly a t t he b eg inn ing o f p er iod V I , a f ter t here h ad b een c ons iderable Eng l ish p enetra t ion , i s ar e markable g roup o f f inds f ro m Pagans H il l d a ted t o a bou t t he m idd le o f t he s even th c en tury , w h ich a re v ir tual ly t he o n ly k nown f inds o f t h is d a te i n S o merset . We h ave a lready s een t ha t t he t e mp le t here e xper ienced s o me r ev iva l i n t he l a ter f our th c en tury wh ich e x tended i n to t he f i f th , a nd t ha t t h is was l im ited t o t he t e mp le i t self a nd t he e astern l ong r ange o fb u ild ings. The r ev iva l d id n o t e x tend t o t he N E o r n or thern r anges o f b u ild ings , n or t o t he wel l , t he l a test Ro man f inds i n w h ich w ere o f Constan t in ian d a te.

A bove t he Ro man r ubb ish i n

t he w el l was a l ayer o f s ter i le o rgan ic ma ter ia l i nc lud ing b rushwood , w h ich was i n terpreted a s r epresen t ing a p er iod o f a bandonmen t. I n t he e ven t t h is c ou ld b e s hown t o h ave b een o f s o me t hree c en tur ies ' d ura t ion , s ince a bove t h is ma ter ia l w ere t he s even th c en tury f inds, 8 m a bove t he b o t tom o f t he 1 7 m d eep w el l , a nd s o me 1 0 m f ro m t he s ur face ( Rahtz e t a l. 1 958 , 1 04 a nd f i g. 2 0 ) b u t s t il l b elow a t l east t he w in ter wa ter t ab le. An i ma lb ones o f s heep a nd c a t t le l a y among s tones , a nd w ith t hese w ere t wo d a table o b jects , a n i ron b ucke t i n f rag men ts a nd a n a l most c o mp le te b lue g lass j ar.

The b ucket , o f Anglo-Saxon t ype , h ad p resumab ly b een u sed t o l i f t

wa ter f ro m t he w e l l , a nd t h is a nd t he b ones i mp ly o ccupa t ion o f t he h i l l . The g lass j ar h owever i s a n a l together e xcep t iona l f ind . I ti s a Rhen ish i mpor t o f Harden 's c lass o f s qua t j ars, b u t u n ique i n i t s f orm ( Rah tz e t a l . 1 958 , 1 041 08 ). The g rea t ma jor ity o f t hese p ost-Ro man g lasses c ome f ro m Ang lo-Saxon g raves, e spec ia l ly i n K en t.

The o n ly e xcep t ions a re sma l l f rag men ts p robably

u sed a s r aw ma ter ia l f or j ewel lery- mak ing wh ich h ave b een f ound o n w estern p ost-Ro man s i tes s uch a s D inas Powys , D inas Emrys a nd Cadbury Congresbury a nd t h is p iece f ro m t he t e mp le wel l .

There h as n o t s urpr ising ly b een much

s pecu la t ion a s t o h ow s uch a n e xo t ic p iece f ound i t s way i n to t he wel l , i nt he 2 7 y ears t ha t h ave e lapsed s ince t he me morable S ep te mber d ay i n 1 951 w hen i t was f ound .

S uggest ions h ave r anged f ro m t he g lass b e ing p ar t o f l oo t f ro m

aB r it ish p ar ty r a id ing i n to a n Ang lo-Saxon a rea , t o ar ich Anglo-Saxon p aus ing f or a d r ink o nh is w ay t o G lastonbury.

Bu t s uch s uggest ions a re n o

more c red ib le t han t ha t i tw as i n s o me way a ssoc iated w ith r el ig ious u se o f t he s i te , a nd p oss ibly o f t he t e mp le. We k now t ha t t h is was s t il l s tand ing i n t he s even th c en tury , f or r easons t ha t w e s ha l l c ome t o l a ter , a nd i ts ee ms c lear t ha t t he s even th c en tury u se o f t he h i l l was more t han a c asua l v is i t , a nd i nvo lved d ispersa l o f a n i ma l b ones a nd l i f t ing o f w a ter. We d o n o t k now e nough a bou t t he p er iod t o d o more t han s pecu la te o n t he ways i n wh ich t he t e mp le m ight s t il l h ave b een i n u se , h ow t h is u se i nvo lved a n e xpensive g lass j ar , a nd h ow t h is c a me a t l ast t o b e d ropped o r h idden d own t he w el l . Was t h is a l oca l Br it ish o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te o r t e mp le, o r h ad t he a rea o r h i l lb y n ow p assed i n to Engl ish h ands ? Was t here s t il l s o me r es idue o o f t he o r ig ina l c u l t a t tach ing t o t he t e mp le o r h i l l , o r s o me d iferen t a nd p erh aps Eng l ish h ea then is m?

O r h ad t here b een a n a t te mp t t o c onvert i tt o

C hr ist ian u se ? We s ha l l n ever k now , t hough w e may h ope t o f ind a na logous e v idence. We may a dduce o ne l ast o bserva t ion , t ha t i n i t s s tr ipwork t he g lass h as ( unusua l ly i nt hese f or ms ) e ight s ides; a nd s o h ad t he t e mp le ! ( Rah tz e t a l . 1 958 , f i g. 2 1 ).

2 00

A lso i n o ur p er iod V w e s hou ld i nclude t he Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls

( F ig . 1 2 )

c lose t o t he t e mp le a t Ma iden Cast le , wh ich a s w e h ave s een may r epresen t t he c on t inua t ion o f t he l a te o r p ost-Ro man c e metery o f w est-east f ind less g raves. One o f t hese g raves was r ecogn ized b y Wheeler a s o f s ix th-seven th c en tury d ate , b ecause i th ad i ron b el t-f i tt ings a nd a s cra masax a nd k n ife , t hough i t was i n terred west-east. He d id n o t a ssoc ia te i tw ith t he o ther p ost-Roman g raves , f rom wh ich i ti s s o me d istance a par t , b u t d id b el ieve t ha t t he t e mp le ( wh ich i s c loser t o t h is g rave t han t o t he o thers ) was s t il l s tand ing a t t h is t ime. To q uo te Whee ler , 'Th is s o l itary h i l l-top b ur ia l , w ith in t he s hadow o f t he Roman t e mp le, i s u n l ikely t o r epresen t more t han s o me b and o f p ioneers o r b rigands w ho may h ave s hel tered mo men tar ily i n t he r u ins a nd t here h ave i n terred a c asua l ty i n ac lumsy a nd s ha l low g rave ' ( Whee ler 1 943, 7 8 ). I t was n o t h owever s o s o l itary a s Whee ler b el ieved ; c lose b y w as t he f a mous mu t ila ted b ur ia l , w hose s ku l l h ad b een h acked a bou t t o e x tract t he b ra in . Wheeler b el ieved t h is t o h ave b een s ea led b y t he N eo l i th ic L ong Mound , a nd i ndeed t o h ave b een a p r i mary f ea ture a ssoc ia ted w i th i t . I tc anno t h owever h ave b een s o s ea led ( i f t he mound was N eo l ith ic — i t was c er ta in ly c rossed b y aRoman t rack ( Wheeler 1 943, 2 2 ) ) , s ince more r ecen t r esearch h as s hown t ha t t he s ku l l c u ts w ere d one w ith a me ta l c u t t ing e dge , a nd a r ad io-carbon d eter m ina t ion s uggests t he b ur ia l i s i n f act Ang lo-Saxon ( Bro thwel l 1 971). S o t oo may h ave b een t he t wo c h i ldren 's c rouched b ur ia ls c lose b y ; t hey w ere n o t s ecurely s tra t if ied , a nd w e s hou ld p erhaps c heck t ha t t he sma l l p o t tery c up f ound b y t he s hou lder o f o ne o f t he m w as i ndeed N eo l i th ic a nd n o t Ang lo-Saxon ( Whee ler 1 943, f i g. 2 9.50 a nd 1 50 ). These g raves a re t he o n ly e v idence w e h ave t ha t t he Ma iden Cast le t e mp le , o r t he p ost-Ro man s hr ine, wh ich i n f act l i es much n earer t o t he A ng lo-Saxon g raves, s t i l l h ad s o me s ign if icance, a t l east a s af ocus f or b ur ia l , i n t he p er iod o f t he Ang lo-Saxon a rr iva l i n t he a rea , af ocus wh ich may h ave b egun i n t he N eo l ith ic p er iod. For o ur f ina l p er iod V I i n t he e igh th c en tury o r l a ter , w e o n ly h ave e v id ence f ro m Pagans H il l , ( apart f ro m t he p ossible Ro man t e mp le a nd t he C hapel o f S t B la is ius a t B la ise C as t le ,

a nd t he a ssoc iat ion o f t he Ro man r e l ig ious

c omp lex a t Bath w i th t he Anglo-Saxon monastery ).

Med ieva l p o t tery w as f ound

i n t he t e mp le a t Pagans H il l d irect ly o n t he ambu la tory f l oor b enea th a l ayer o f f a l len Ro man r oof ing s la tes , wh ich s hows t ha t t he b u ild ing was s t il l r oofed a t t ha t t ime , a nd o f fered a t l east s hel ter f or s ome med ieva l p eop le ; t he amoun t o f p o t tery s uggests r a ther more t han a v isi t b y t he o ccas iona l s hel ter ing s hepherd ( Rah tz 1 951, 1 23 ). The b u i ld ing was i n f act p robably n o t d estroyed f i na l ly u n t il t he e ar ly n ine teen th c en tury , when S k inner s aw much s tone b e ing t ak en away f or b u ild ing e lsewhere ( Rah tz 1 951, 14 ). Meanwh i le t he w el l h ad c on t inued t o f i l l u p . A t ad ep th o f 7 m was t he s ta tue o f a n a n i ma l , wh ich D r R a legh R ad ford

d a ted t o t he s ix teen th c en tury A .D., a nd i den t if ied a s a

h era ld ic b east o f t he k ind s een o ng a teposts ( Rah tz e t a l . 1 958 , 11).

O dd ly

e nough i th ad a h o le r igh t t hrough i t s b ody wh ich c ou ld h ave b een f or a w el l w ind lass s haf t—was wa ter s t il lb e ing d rawn a s l a te a s t h is ? I fs o , d id t he u se o r r e-use o f t h is s tr ik ing w ind lass s uppor t h in t t ha t t he wa ter was s t il l ' spec ia l '? F ina l ly t wo o ther f inds c a me f rom t he t e mp le r ubble; o ne was aV ictor ian model h a lf-sovere ign , t he o ther w as a sma l l b lack f i gur ine. A t t he t ime we

2 01

b el ieved t he l a t ter t ob e av ot ive o f fer ing , a nd w ere e ncouraged i n t h is b e l ief b y t wo v ery f a mous Ro man a rchaeo log ists.

One i den t if ied t he f igure a s a

v ei led Ro man p r iest w ith a n a l tar a nd p a tera ; t he o ther was r em inded s trongly o f t he p rov inc ia l s cu lp ture o f NW Gau l . I t was l e f t t o t he l ate M. R . Hu l l t o p o in t o u t t ha t i t was t he k nob f ro m t he l i d o f ab lack b asal t Wedgwood t ea-po t , r epresen t ing t he w idow a nd h er c ruse.

Bu t where w as t he r est o f t he t ea-po t?

As im ilar p iece, s a id t ob e o fj e t , was r ecen t ly p ubl ished i n Br i tann ia ( 6 ( 1 975 ) , 2 16-8 ) f ro m L evens Park i n West mor land , a lso f ro m a s upposed p agan r el ig ious s i te.

I ti s t here a t tr ibu ted t o t he t h ird-four th c en tury , a nd

r egarded a s t he r epresen ta t ion o f as ea ted mourn ing f i gure , o ccurr ing s pecif i ca l ly i n t he i conography o f Aphrod i te a nd D e me ter , o r a s o ne o f Dr Anne Ross 's I r ish g oddesses ' i n c harge o f av a t o f p ure w a ter '.

I n v iew o f i t s c lose

s im i lar ity t o o ur Wedgwood p iece i ts hou ld b e r e-exa m ined . Bu t e ven i fi t w ere a Wedgwood t ea-po t l i d f i gur ine o n at e mp le s i te where a ga in was t he r est o f t he t ea-po t? Th is p aper c ons ists o f e v idence o f v ery m iscel laneous k ind a nd q ua l ity , n o t much o f i t more t han s pecu la t ive i n i t s v a lue f or t he f a te o f Ro man t e mp les i n t he West. Bu t i t may d o s o meth ing t o e stabl ish a c oncep tua l f ra mework f or t he ir modes a nd c hrono logy o f s urv ival a nd t rans mu ta t ion , i n to wh ich a ny s ubsequen t f inds o f s uch e n ter ta in ing c harac ter may a ppropr ia tely b e f i t ted.

2 02

APPE NDIX I — LYD NE Y

I ron A ge ma ter ia l was f ound i n s evera l p laces, b u t t he o n ly s tructure wh ich may b e c onsidered i n t h is c on tex t i s t ha t b enea th t he t e mp le, a t imbers lo t 8x 0 .6 me tres. Wheeler c onsidered t h is t o b e I ron Age , i n s p i te o f t he f ac t t hat i t s f or m was p reserved b y Ro man mortar wh ich h ad p oured d own i n to i t— th is s ounds more l ike a n im med ia tely p rete mp le f ea ture r a ther t han a n I ron Age s tructura l f ea ture.

There w ere a lso a reas o f r ubble h ere , ap ost-

h o le a nd a p ivo t s tone b el ieved t o b e o f I ron Age d a te ( Whee ler a nd Whee ler 1 932 , 2 5-26 ). The f irst p hase o f t he r a mpar t a cross t he b ack o f t he p ro mon tory i s c er ta in ly I ron Age.

Th is was f o l lowed b y p robably c on t inuous Ro man o ccupa-

t i on ; t h is i nc luded e v idence o fb rooch- mak ing a nd i ron- m in ing a pparen t ly i n t he t h ird c en tury ; t he m ine was f i l led i n a f ter 2 87 ( t here was a c o in o f Carausius o n t he f i l l ) a nd i n t he l a te t h ird c en tury o r l a ter h u ts w ere b u i l t o n t op , w ith c o ins i n t he f loors o f t he l ater t h ird c en tury .

Above t hese h u ts, wh ich a pparen t ly

w ere i n u se a f ter 2 87 , o ccupa t ion s o i l a ccu mu lated w ith c o ins , n one o f w h ich n eed b e l ater t han 3 37. I ti so dd t ha t h ere a s i n t he r a mpar t l ayers t o b e d iscuss ed s hort ly , t here was n o ma ter ia l c er ta in ly c on te mporary w i th t he t e mp le 's o ccupa t ion f ro m 3 64 i n to t he f i f th c en tury ( Wheeler a nd Wheeler 1 932, 4 -11). The t e mp le c o mp lex , a f ter s evera l s truc tura l a l tera t ions a nd p atch ing o f mosa ics a nd o ther f l oors, may h ave b een d estroyed b y f ire.

A l l c o ins c on-

t e mporary w i th i t s l i fe , t ha t i s o f Va len t in ian a nd Theodos ian t ypes, w ere r ec overed f ro m t he a rea w ith in i t s p rec inct wa l l .

N one was f ound i nt he a rea

b eyond t h is b e tween t he p rec inc t wa l l a nd r a mpar t , n or i n t he r a mpar t a dd i t ions. These , a bove t he p r i mary I ron A ge r a mpart , were i n t wo p hases a s Wheeler b e l ieved.

The f irst ( i n t wo s ub-phases ) y ielded l a te Ro man p o t tery , a nd c ons is-

t ed o f ad ump r a mpar t h eld b y ar ough c urb o f l arge s tones.

Th is was e n larged ,

a nd c apped i n S ec t ion I b y d ebr is o f y el low c e men t a nd t esserae w ith much b urn t ma ter ia l , ' ev iden t ly ' , a s Whee ler s ays ' t he s po i l f ro m s o me Ro man b u i ld ing c lose b y '.

I n t he s econd p hase t he r a mpart w as r a ised t o 3 me tres

h igh a nd 1 1 me tres w ide ;

i n t he ma ter ia l w ere n a ils , t i le , c e men t , p laster ,

a nd more l a te Ro man p o t tery , b u t w i th n o c o ins l a ter t han Tetr icus, t hough t here was a worn G lor ia Exerc i tus i n t he d i tch f i l l .

The o u ter b ank a lso b elongs

t o t h is p er iod ( Wheeler a nd Wheeler 1 932 , 4 -10 , 6 3-65 ).

Wheeler s upposed

t ha t b o th p hases o f t he r a mpar t a dd it ions b elonged t o ap er iod l a ter t han t he d es truct ion o f t he t e mp le c o mp lex , a nd t ha t t hey m igh t e x tend i n to t he m idd le o r l a ter f i f th c en tury o r b eyond .

Y et t here i s n o ma ter ia l i n t he r a mpar ts

t ha t i s d e monstrably a s l a te e ven a s t he i ncep t ion o f t he t e mp le c o mp lex. Wheeler was aware o f t h is, b u t a ccoun ted f or t he l ack o f l a ter f ourth c en tury ma ter ia l b y a ssu m ing t ha t t he r a mpar t ma ter ia l h ad b een s craped u p f ro m t he n or thern a rea o u tside t he p recinc t wa l l ( Wheeler a nd Whee ler 1 932, 6 3-6 4) . Bu t i n t h is c ase why w ere t here c e men t , t esserae a nd p laster?

2 03

I ft hese d id

i nf act c o me f ro m t he t e mp le s et t le men t , t hen w hy w ere t here n o c o ins o f Va len t in ian o r Theodos ian d ate amongst i t , s ince t hey a re p ro l if ic i n t he b u ildi ng a rea? Th is i s p robab ly i n f act b ecause o f t he l im ited s ize o f t he c u t t ings. Fur ther e xp lora t ion m ight w el l f i nd l a te d a t ing e v idence i n t he r a mpar t l ayers , a nd p lace t he m s a t isfac tor ily i n t he p ost-te mp le d estruc t ion p hase.

2 04

APPEND IX I—A MODERN S HRINE I N DONEGAL

I n 19 76 t he wr i ters v isi ted a c o mp lex o f s acred s i tes i n Co. Donegal . They w ere o n ap en insu la i nden ted b y as er ies o f t i da l i n le ts o r l oughs , wh ich g ave a s heltered a pproach b y b oa t t o a ny p ar t o f t he p en insu la .

On r ocky g round ,

r ising f ro m t he h igh-wa ter mark o f t hese i n le ts a re l arge a nd sma l l r a th-l ike s truc tures a nd a C hr ist ian c omp lex . There i s ar u ined c hurch , d ed ica ted t o a s ix th c en tury s a in t , a nd t wo h o ly w el ls. The c hurch was , u n t il a bou t 19 64 , t he s cene o f a n a nnua l p i lgr i mage o n t he S a in t 's d ay .

Th is i nvo lved a p rocess ion

a round ' s ta t ions o f t he c ross ' wh ich i ncluded t he t wo h o ly w el ls a nd a sma l l ' cave ' (a lso c lose t o t he c hurch ) , d escr ibed b elow.

One o f t he w el ls i s a bou t a

k ilome tre away f ro m t he c hurch ; a round i ta re a f ew v o t ive o fer ings , i nclud ing r ags.

T he o ther , t oge ther w i th t he ' cave ', w h ich t ogether f or m t he s ub jec t o f

t h is n o te , i s o n ly c . 5 0 metres f ro m t he c hurch , n ear w h ich a rea t here i s a lso wha t may b e a n o va l o ra tory o r c el l , c . 6 x4 m , b u il t o f l arger b ou lders. T he ' cave ' i s f or med b y t wo ( probab ly n a tura l ) b ou lders o n a sma l l h il lock . The g ap b etween t hese i s f i l led w ith sma l ler s tones t o make a ' roof ' o ver a c ave w h ich i s j ust l arge e nough f or a c h ild t o c raw l i n to a nd l i e i n ac rouched p os i t ion . The n earby w el l was r ea l ly n o more t han a c lef t i n t he r ock wh ich c ol lec ts water.

Around i t was a h orseshoe-shaped c a irn , t he g ap i n i t s a r ms

l ead ing t o ah o le i n t he a pex o f t he h orseshoe w i th ab ou lder a bove i t , a round wh ich t he s tones o f t he c a irn w ere p i led . i nclude s o me b each p ebb les a nd q uar tz.

They a re most ly o f l oca l s tone b u t The o b jects l i sted i n F ig. 1 4 wh ich

a re t he s ub jec t o f t h is n o te were v is ib le among t he s ur face s tones o f t he l ower i nner s lopes o f t he c a irn ; af ew w ere a round t he h o le b u t most w ere f ur ther away , s o me p ar t ia l ly c oncea led b y s tones.

There were a lso o b jects i n t he

c ave , i nclud ing a h ea l ing s tone. I nt he c on tex t o f t he p resen t p aper , t he i n terest o f t he g roup o f o b jects l i sted i nF ig. 1 4 i s t ha t t hey p rov ide a n e thno-archaeo log ica l a na logue t o a g roup o f what may s ee m a t f i rst s igh t l ike a c o l lect ion o f h ouseho ld r ubb ish , f ound i n ap it-l ike f ea ture i nt he s ix th-cen tury c on tex t o f Cadbury C ongresbury , wh ich may b e as hr ine o f p agan o r C hr ist ian a dherence ( p . 1 99 ) . T he o b jec ts f rom t he c a irn a nd w el l ( wh ich were merely l i sted a nd n ot r e moved ) a re g rouped u nder v ar ious h ead ings i n F ig. 1 2, a nd s ome o f t hese a re c l ear ly ' more r el ig ious ' t han o thers.

The g lass f rag men ts w ere a l l p re-

s u mab ly b roken i n t he c ourse o f c o l lec t ing h o ly w a ter , af unc t ion f or t he w el l which m ight h ave b een a ssumed , b u t i s made e xp l ic i t b y t he t rac ts. S o me more t han f unc t iona l u se i s , h owever , i mp l ied b y t he f act t ha t o ne b o t t le c ont a ined w ith in i t s u nbroken p ar t ar el ig ious s ta tue t te. Ano ther c o mp lete a nd c orked b ot t le , w ith l i qu id w h ich w as p resumably w ater f rom t he w el l , was f ound i n t he c ave , s tand ing c lose t o t he h ea l ing s tone. Was t h is g iv ing ' s treng th ' t o t he s tone , o r g a in ing f ro m t he s tone? The n umber o f o b jects a ssoc iated w ith h a ir may i mp ly t ha t i t was d isorders o ft h is p art o f t he b ody t hat w ere

2 05

O C ,

Chr ist ian

C 0

T ( 1 )

0

C

j

Ö j

W *

C D

•

T . ( ! 2

c C

onc /

I

( f )

C

P L A S TI C

0

0

of s ite

0

0 Z

< E r u _

M E DI CI NE

Glass

bottles

2

1— 0

L J

z

0 z

—J < 0




j


4-3 -2 %

1 3 2 .1 %

111 11 -

•••O O OOO

( le 1 2 1 11

F ig . 1 8

CADBURY CONGRESBURY: D istribution o f R oman p ottery i n r elation t o t he main p ost-Roman f eatures(Outlined)

2 23

C adcong 1 9 68 -73 A & B Ware s

i NO 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 4--

1 0 0 182

mA z F IND sPOT

r

02% 0

1

2

3

4

- -

5

DENS !T y

o f t o ta l

PER

SO

METRES

- 0 -6 -I, %

1 0.“

-

-2 1%

1 1 1 11 10 11

F ig . 1 9

CADBURY CONGRESBURY:

D istribution o f A a nd B W ares

t o t he m ain p ost-Roman f eatures(outlined)

2 24

in r elation

C adcong 1 9 68-7 3 OF P ART n o

OF

Y ELLO W

S I MPLIF IED

STRAT IF ICAT ION

T ABLE

CUTT ING if

f inds

*411

2 sherds

P re h ist . o n ly

I

RB

A& B

t r ie41i

ii

o n ly

o n ly

1 05b *40 i 1 9 0 i 1

RB & A& B *

1

F eatures w i th s herds f ro m v esse ls o n

p lan

1 04 f

f

1 29c ,

1 05d

*40 1

1 3

/

1 3 2a

4 0 1 6

1 32b I

12b

*h i 4 3 9 i i 3 O i 1 9 1 , 1

*4 i 1

1 2d

4 0 i 7

I1 50a I 1 50b 1 5 1 I 1 50d 1 Y 5

( no f inds i n

1of

a rea

d iagra m)

B EDROCK

I CG 8'75

F ig . 2 0

CADBURY C ONGRESBURY: o f s ite,

S tratigraphic d iagram,

n orth-east part

s howing v ertical d istribution o f Roman and

wares.

2 25

i mported

2 26 D istribution of selected Roman pottery vessels

the remaining parts of these vessels may obviously lie in the remaining 95% of the site, a great deal of dispersal and breakage must be envisaged if this idea is to be accepted, and it may be that some at least of this pottery was brought to the site as sherds and dropped or deposited with other material. The Samian ware, of which about 60 sherds were found, shows certain differences from the remainder of the Romano-British pottery. There are no decorated sherds. The frequency with which this material occurs on post­ Roman sites, and its possible medicinal or cosmetic uses have been noted else­ where (Alcock 1963, 22-23; Rahtz 1974, 97). The distribution of the Samian at Cadbury Congresbury is somewhat more agglomerated than the remainder of the·Roman pottery, there being a concentration at the N. W. corner of the excavated area, and the possibility of some special use for the material as sherds must be considered here. Conclusions drawn from this 5% of a site whose precise nature is still unclear can only be tentative. It can at present be postulated, however, that Roman coarse ware vessels were in use here very considerably beyond A. D. 4 00, and certainly beyond the cultural 'End of Roman Britain' in the Bristol Channel area. The presence of other types of Roman material on the excava­ tion does however indicate that the ransacking of nearby Roman sites for usable items may be involved here, rather than any real continuity of cultural traditions. The image of a Romano-British population clinging to the material expressions of its cultural heritage and looking wistfully out to sea for the first sign of ceramic r einforcements from the Mediterranean is an appealing one, but is only one of a number of alternative interpretations to which this data is susceptible. The models discussed above were only designed to facilitate discussion of the evidence from one site, and by no means exhaust the possibilities even the there. It would be unwise at this stage to attempt to assess the evidence from other sites in the same terms, since stratigraphic conditions, techniques of excavation and geographical factors all render direct comparison s invalid. The intention here has been to show firstly how this p roblem can be approached and secondly to raise the possibility that 'late Roman' hillfort occupations may be_very late indeed. POSTSCRIPT The later fifth or sixth-century dating of some North African red wares has recently been challenged by Hayes (1977), who suggests that the material was in production as early as the fourth century. The stratigraphic associa­ tion of a sherd of this general type with late Roman coarse wares at Cadbury Con�esbury may not therefore have the chronological and other implications outlined in the preceding discussion. While some reassessment of the speci­ fic site data may therefore ultimately prove to be necessary, the writer re­ mains unrepentantly attached both to the methodological principles outlined here, and to the specific hypothesis put forward.

227

REFERENCES Alcock, L., 1963. Dinas Powys , Cardiff. Alcock, L., 1972. By South Cacfuury is That Camelot .••, London. Bartlett, J. A., 1919. 'Report on a Search for the Site of the Chapel of St . Blasius, Henbury', Trans. Bristol Gloucester Archaeol. Soc. 41 (2), 163-169. Newton Abbot. Branig.an K. & Fowler, p. J., 1976. The Roman West Country, Burrow, I. C. G. (in prep.), Aspects of Hillfort and Hilltop Settlement in Somerset, A.D. 0-700 (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Birmingham).

Burrow, I. C. G. and Bennett, J., forthcoming. 'A Romano-British Relief

from Cacfuury Camp, Tickenham (Avon), in Rescue Archaeology in t he Bristol Region, Bristol. Crawford, O. G.

s.

and Keiller, A., 1928. Wessex from the Air, Cambridge.

Cunliffe, B., 1974. Iron Age Communities in Britain, London. Curwen, E. C. and Williamson, R. P. R. , 1930. 'The Date of Cisbury Camp', Antig. J. 11, 14-36. Davies, J. A. and Phillips, C. W., 192 7. ' •.••Excavations at Bury Hill Camp•••• '. Proc. Univ. Bristol Spelaeol. Soc. 3 (1), 8-24. Farrar, R. A. H•, 1973 • 'The Techniques and Sources of Romano-British Black-Burnished Ware' in Current Research in Romano-British Coarse Pottery (CBA Res. Rep. 10), 67-103. Feachem, R. W., 1956. 'The Fortifications of Traprain Law'. Proc. Soc. A;ntig• Scot • 89, 284-289 • Fowler, P. J., 1971. 'Hillforts, A.D. 400-700' in Jesson, M. and Hill, D. (eds.) The Iron Age and Its Hillforts, 203-213, London. Fowler, P. J. and Rahtz, P. A. , 1970. 'Cadcong 1970'. Current Archaeology 23, 337-342. Fowler, P. J. et al. 1970. Cacfuury Congresbury•••1968, Bristol. Gardner, W. and Savory, H. N., 1964. Dinorb n, C

diff.

Gray, N. St. G.,' 1924. 'Excavations at Ham Hill'. Proc. Somerset Archaeol. Nat. Hist. Soc. 70, 104-116. Gray, H. St. G., 1930. 'Excavations at �ngsdown Camp•••.' . Archaeologia 80, 59-96.

Guilbert, G., 1977. 'The Northern Welsh Marches:

ome Recent Developments'

- i _Collis, J. (ed.) The Iron Age in Britain, 41-50 , Sheffield. Guilber�, G., 1978. 'Dinorben 1977-7 8: An Interim Summary' (typescript). Haldane, J. W., 1975. 'Excavations at StokeleighCamp, Avon'. Proc. Univ. Bristol Spelaeol. Soc. 14 (1), 29-63.

228

Hayes, J. W., 1977. 'North African Flanged Bowls: A Problem in Fifth­ Century Chronology' in Dore, J. and Greene, K. (eds.), Roman Pottery Studies in Britain and Beyond (British Archaeological Reports, Oxford). Hogg, A. H. A., 1966. 'Native Settlement in Wales' in Thomas, C. (ed.) Rural Settlement in Roman Britain (CBA Res. Rep. 7), 28-38. Musson, C. R., 1972. 'Two Winters at the Breiddin' Current Archaeology 33, 263-267. Musson, C. R., forthcoming. The Breiddin Excavations. Cambrian Archaeo­ logical Association. Mtlsty, J., 1964. in Wilts. Archaeol. Mag. 1964, 141. O'Neil, B. St. J. 1937. 'Excavations at BreiddenHill Camp••.'. Archaeologia Cambrensis 92, 86-128. Petrikovits, H. V. , 1971 • 'Fortifications in the North-Western Roman Empire from the Third to the Fifth Centuries A.D.'. J. Rom. Stud. 61, 178-218. Raftery, B., 1969. 'FreestoneHill, Count Kilkenny •••'. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 68C, 1-108. Rahtz, P. A. , 1969. 'CanningtonHillfort 1963'. Proc. Somerset Archaeol. Nat.Hist. Soc. 113, 56-68. Rahtz, P. A., 1974. 'Pottery in Somerset A. D. 400-1066' in E vison, V. I. et al. (eds.) Medieval Pottery from Excavations 95-126, London. Rahtz, P. A. and Fowler, P. J., 1972. 'Somerset A.D. 400-700'. in Fowler, . P. J. (ed.) Archaeology and the Landscape 187-221, London. Savory, H. N., 1971. Excavations at Dinorben, 1965-9, Cardiff. Seaby, W. A., 1950. 'The Iron AgeHillfort onHamHill'. Archaeol. J. 107, 90-91. Simpson, G., 1964. 'TheHillforts of Wales and their Relation to Roman Britain' in Gardner and Savory, 1964, 209-220. Thomas, C., 1959. 'Imported Pottery in Dark-Age Western Britain'. Medieval Archaeol. 3, 89-111. Thomas, C., 1971. The Early Christian Archaeology of North Britain, Oxford. Usher, G. and Lilly, D., 1964. 'A Romano-British Kiln at V enus Street, Congresbury'. Proc. Somerset Archaeol. Nat.Hist. Soc. 108 , 172-174. 4 Wheeler, R. E . M., 1922. 'Roman and Native in Wales: An Imperial Frontier Problem'. Trans. Soc. Cymmrodorion 1920-21, 40-96. Wheeler, R. E. M., 1943. Maiden Castle, Dorset, London. Wheeler, R. E. M. and T. V ., 1932. Report on the Excavatio Park, Gloucs., London•

at Lydney

Wain�right, G. J., 1967. 'The Excavation of an Iron AgeHillfort on Bathampton Down, Somerset'. Trans. Bristol Gloucester Archaeol. Soc. 86, 42-59.

229

CLI MATE , NUTR IT ION AND D ISEASE: AN HYPOTHES IS OF RO MANO-BR ITISH POPULAT ION b y M ichae l E . J ones

The e nd o f R o man B r i ta in h as b een a scr ibed t o , among o ther t h ings , a d ec l ine i n t he p opu la t ion o f l a te R o man Br i ta in wh ich was e xacerba ted b y d ec l in ing a gr icu l tura l y ie lds a nd t he o nse t o f e p ide m ic d iseases .

Th is p aper ,

w i thou t s eek ing t o j udge b e tween t hese c a tac lys m ic p ropos i t ions , a t te mp ts t o e s t ima te t he p opu la t ion o f B r i ta in a s an ecessary b as is f or a ssess ing t he i mp ac t o f a ny i nco m ing g roups o f m igran ts o n t he r es iden t i s landers .

A lso e x-

am ined a re t he a t tes ted e f fects o n h is tor ic p opu la t ions o f e p ide m ics a nd t he e f fec ts o f c l i ma te o n a gr icu l tura l y ie lds a s we l l a s t he t heore t ica l c o mb ined e f fec ts o f c l i ma te , d isease r es is tance , a nd n u tr i t iona l l eve ls o n t he p opu la t ion o f R o man Br i ta in . P rev ious e s t i ma tes o f p opu la t ion f or R o man B r i ta in v ary e normous ly , r ang ing f ro m 3 00 , 0 00 t o 3 ,0 00 , 0 00 1

The l ack o f a gree men t o ver t h is f igure

r e f lec ts t he d i f f icu l ty o f t ry ing t o e s tab l ish v i ta l s ta t is t ics , g ross p opu la t ion e s t ima tes a nd t he d ynam ic o r t rend o f p opu la t ion a t ag iven t ime o r o ver a ny s peci f ic p er iod o f e ar ly Br i t ish h is tory .

The s urv iv ing e v idence , h owever

i ngen ious ly i ti s t or tured , i s i nadequa te t o s uppor t more t han t heory a nd s pec u la t ion .

S ir Mor t i mer Whee ler wro te t he e p i taph f or a l l s tud ies o f R o mano-

B r i t ish p opu la t ion when a t te mp t ing t o r econc i le t wo mu tua l ly e xc lus ive e s ti ma tes ,

"One g uess i s a s b ad a s a no ther . "2 Whee ler 's warn ing n o tw i ths tand

ing , t he q ues t ion o f p opu la t ion i s s o f undamen ta l ly i mpor tan t t o u nders tandi ng t he h is tory o f R o man B r i ta in t ha t i td eserves p er iod ic r ev iew . C urren t c hanges i n d e mograph ic t heory h ave a l tered p ercep t ion o f t he u nder lying c auses o f t he g row th o r c on trac t ion o f p opu la t ion i n p re-indus tr ia l Europe . The imp l ica t ions o f t he n ew t heor ies h ave n o t y et b een worked o u t f or t he e ar ly p er iods , i nc lud ing R o man B r i ta in .

A l though much r e ma ins o b-

s cure a bou t t he c harac ter is t ics o f e ar ly p opu la t ion , b as ic d e mograph ic f ac tors s uch a s f er t i l i ty , e xpec ta t ion o f l i fe a nd mor ta l i ty a ssoc ia ted w i th d a i ly l i fe were e viden t ly s im i lar t hroughou t t he who le p re-indus tr ia l p er iod .

3

Th is

s im i lar i ty s hou ld a l low t he a pp l ica t ion o f t heor ies d eve loped f ro m t he b e t ter d ocumen ted p re-indus tr ia l p er iods t o p oor ly d ocumen ted e ras t o e s tab l ish t he g enera l t rend o f e ar ly p opu la t ion . T h is s tudy w i l l b e a n e xam ina t ion o f c urren t g enera l t heor ies o f p opu lat i on c hange a nd t he ir a pp l ica t ion t o t he s pec i f ic c on tex t o f R o man B r i ta in . The t heore t ica l f ind ings o f t h is c o mpar ison w i l l t hen b e t es ted a ga ins t t he pia t tere •of d is tr ibu t ion a nd d ens i ty o f s e t t le men t i n R o man B r i ta in s ugges ted b y r ecen t f i e ld s tud ies .

F ina l ly , p rev ious e s t ima tes o f R o mano-Br i t ish p op-

u la t ion w i l l b e c r i t iqued a nd a n ew e s t i ma te made i n l igh t o f t he a bove f indi ngs .

2 31

Theor ies o f Popu la t ion Change The t rend o f g ross p opu la t ion i n w estern Europe v aried c onsiderably t hroughou t t he p reindustria l p eriod .

L ong i n terva ls o f g row th w ere i n ter-

s persed among p eriods o f d ec l ine a nd s tagna t ion .

I n t he Midd le Ages , f or

e xa mp le, p opu la t ion was g rea t ly r educed b y p lague a t t he b eg inn ing ( c . 5 427 00 ) a nd a ga in

a t t he e nd ( 1 348 ).

I n terva ls o f r ap id g row th o ccurred b etween

C . 7 00-850 a nd 1 000-1300 , wh ile t he y ears 8 50-c. 1 000 a nd t he p eriods b efore t he p lagues w ere t imes o f s low g row th o r s tagna t ion .4 p re -i ndustria l p opu la t ion h ad p o ten t ia l f or i ncrease.

I n g enera l , w estern

A l though morta l i ty was

h igh w i th a h eavy i nc idence o f i n fan t d ea th a nd f e ma le morta l i ty i n t he c h ildb earing y ears ,

ap opu la t ion c ou ld ma in ta in i t sel fe ven w ith t he d ea th o f h a l f

t he c h i ldren b efore t he a ge o f f i f teen .

F or p reindustria l European p opu la t ion ,

h igh morta l i ty was b a lanced b y h igh f ert i l ity. 5 Whe ther o r n o t t he p o ten t ia l f or g row th was r ea l ized i n ag iven p eriod was d eter m ined b y g rea t s w ings i n morta l i ty n ot c harac terist ic o f t he g enera l p a t tern .

6

Bubon ic p lague , f or

e xa mp le, r educed c erta in l oca l p opu la t ions b y a s much a s o neth ird i n a s ingle y ear.

F or s evera l r easons, Dan ish p opu la t ion may h ave d ec l ined b y

o ne-f if th i n t he d ecade 1 650-1660.

7

H istor ica l ly , h u man r eproduc t ive p owers

h ave r anged b etween 1 5 a nd 5 0 b irths/1000 p opu la t ion/year.

A c a tastroph ic

i ncrease i n morta l i ty t o 2 00 o r more d ea ths/1000 p opu la t ion/year c ou ld o bv iously p reven t p opu la t ion g row th o r r educe p opu la t ion f or a t ime .

Ag iven

p opu la t ion s u f fering r epea ted morta l ity c rises wou ld r equ ire a l ong p er iod t o r ecover .8 F luc tua t ions i n Morta l i ty F luc tua t ions i n morta l i ty s ee m t o e xp la in t he d ynam ic o f p opu la t ion g rowth ; h owever, c onsiderable c on troversy s urrounds t he e xp lana t ion o f p er iod ic p eaks i n morta l i ty i n e arly European h istory .

The most v enerable h ypo thesis ,

t he Ma l thusian t heory , l i nks morta l i ty t o p opu la t ion s ize a nd a va ilab le f ood r esources.

I fp opu la t ion g row th o u tstr ips f ood s upp ly , a morta l ity c r is is

r esu l ts a t s o me p o in t d ue t o s tarva t ion a nd f am ine o r t he a c t ion o f d isease o n aw eak ened , u ndernourished p opu la t ion .

I n as i tua t ion where t he q uan t ity

o f f ood i s f ixed a nd t he p opu la t ion i ncreasing , a ny n a tura l c a la m i ty s uch a s h arvest f a i lure o r p lan t a nd a n i ma l murra in w il l r esu l t i n s tarva t ion o f n u mbers o f p eop le.

Ende m ic d iseases b eco me e p ide m ic among a n u ndernour ish ed

p eop le, o r n ew v ariet ies o f s ickness i nvade w i th c onsequen t i ncreases i n morta l i ty.

I fp opu la t ion i ncreases a nd t he i ncrease i s ma in ta ined , t he f ood

s upp ly ' must f i rst h ave b een e xpanded.

Accord ing t o Ma l thusian t hough t , a

p opu la t ion 's f a te i s ar ef lec t ion o f i t s a grarian e cono my .

9

The l og ic b eh ind t he Ma l thusian t heory i s c o mpel l ing , b u t t he f undamen ta l r ela t ionsh ip i td raws among p opu la t ion c hange, morta l i ty a nd f ood s upp ly h as b een i ncreasingly c ri t ic ized i n r ecen t s tud ies.

Modern ex .per ience o f r ap id

p opu la t ion i ncreases i n A fr ica a nd L a t in Amer ica , w h ich h ave o ccured d esp i te a .stagnan t o r e ven d ec l in ing f ood s upp ly ( ca lcu la ted o n ap er c ap i ta b asis ) , i nd ica tes t ha t a n i ncreased f ood s upp ly i s n o t an ecessary p rerequ isi te f or p o p u la t ion g row th .

1 °

Improved med ica l c are a nd h yg iene r a ther t han

i ncreased f ood r esources a nd b et ter n u tr i t ion h ave made t he p opu la t ion g row th p oss ible.

1 1

Th is r a ises t he q uest ion o f whether o r n o t p opu la t ion g row th i n 2 32

e arl ier p eriods was n ecessarily r ela ted t o f ood s upp ly , o r, c onversely , i f mor ta l i ty c r ises w ere b rough t a bou t b y p opu la t ion p ressure o n l im i ted a grari an r esources. 4

The p opu la t ion i ncrease i n w estern Europe i n t he 1 850 's h as b een a t trib-

u ted t o c hanges i n p ubl ic a nd p riva te h yg iene, n o t e cono m ic c hange .1 2 S im i larly , t he p opu la t ion e xp losion b eg inn ing c . 1 750 d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een c losely l i nked t o e xpanded f ood s upp l ies : A c o mparison o f t he move men t o f p opu la t ion w ith t he p a ttern o f g ra in p rices, t he b est a va ilable c lue t o t he ' s um * o f f ood , f a i ls t o s how c onsisten t c orrela t ion b etween a bundan t f ood ( c heap g ra in ) a nd p opu la t ion g row th o r, c onversely , s carc i ty o f f ood ( expensive g ra in ) a nd i ncreased morta l ity.13 c has ing p ower

I nsofar a s r ea l wages r ef lec t t he f ood p ur-

o f p eop le a nd t he ir p o ten t ia l d iet , t he l ack o f a ny e v iden t

r ela t ionsh ip b etween c hanges i n r ea l wages a nd v aria t ion i n p opu la t ion i s s ign if ican t . " F or t he t hree p er iods d iscussed , p opu la t ion i ncreases w ere e v iden t ly t he r esu l t o f f a l l ing morta l ity a nd s table b irth-ra tes, b u t t he c hanged morta l i ty d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave b een c losely r ela ted t o f ood s upp ly o r d iet. The Ma l thus ian e xp lana t ion o f c hanges i n p opu la t ion a nd morta l i ty t hus s ee ms i nsuf f ic ien t. Fa m ine, n evertheless, c ou ld c ause g rea t morta l i ty.

The f am ine-pest i-

l ence o f 1 315 i s a n e xamp le o f s erious p opu la t ion l oss f ro m s tarva t ion .1 5 Hunger s hort o f f am ine c ond i t ions a nd ma lnu tri t ion d uring c h i ldhood p robably c on tributed t o t he c harac ter ist ica l ly h igh morta l i ty o f p re-industria l s oc iet ies i ng enera l.

Fa m ines o n t he s ca le o f 1 315, h owever, w ere i n frequen t i nw est-

e rn Europe, a nd u n less c onsecu t ive h arvest f a i lures o ccurred , morta l i ty f ro m i so la ted f am ines t ended t o b e c oncen tra ted among t he v ery o ld a nd t he v ery y oung. 1 6 I n s o me s ense f am ine o f t h is k ind merely h astened t he d ea th o f t hose who wou ld i n a ny c ase h ave s oon d ied . The y ear f o l low ing a n i sola ted f am ine wou ld e v idence d ecreased morta l i ty ; r ecovery o f t he p opu la t ion w ou ld b e r ap id , s ince p eop le o f c h i ld-bear ing a ge w ou ld h ave s u f fered f ew l osses. F e ma le i n fert il i ty i nduced b y h unger , ame morrhoea , d oes n o t p ersist l onger t han ay ear a f ter f am ine c ond i t ions l apse, a nd b arrenness i s o f ten f o l lowed b y t e mporari ly i ncreased f ert il i ty. 1 7 S im ilarly , e ven e x tre me, t hough n onf a ta l , ma lnu tr i t ion i n c h i ldhood e v iden tly d oes n o t a f fec t t s v ic t im 's r eprod uc t ive c apab i l it ies.18 C o mparison b etween d iet a nd n u tri t iona l r equ ire men ts f or d if feren t p laces o r p eriods i s d if f icu l t , b u t t he l evel o f n u tri t ion i n p ast European p opu la t ions wa s e v iden t ly a s g ood a s , o r s uper ior , t o t ha t o f r eg ions c urren t ly e xper ienc ing r ap id d e mograph ic g row th .1 9 Even i n p eriods o f r ela t ively d ense s et tle men t , s uch a s t he f ourteen th c en tury , t he a verage h old ings o f l and f or Eng l ishmen w ere s ee m ing ly more t han s uf f ic ien t t o s upport l i fe. 2 ° The s keleta l e v idence f ro m t he Br i t ish I ron A ge o nward , r ef lec ted i n t he q ua l i ty o f t eeth a nd b one , s uggests a h ea l thy a nd s u f f ic ien t d iet .2 1 L ife e xpec tancy o f t he p oorer c lasses i n m ed ieva l a nd e arly modern England e v iden tly d if fered l i t t le f ro m t he u pper c lasses.

Th is s ee ms t o s uggest a n a dequa te f ood s upp ly s ince t he r ich c ou ld

p urchase f ood e ven d ur ing f am ines a nd , u nder n or ma l c ond i t ions, a f ford more t han s u f f ic ien t q uan t i ty o fb et ter q ua l i ty f ood .2 2 On t he whole, f am ine a ppears t o h ave r esu l ted f ro m v aria t ions i n w ea ther o r p lan t a nd a n i ma l d iseases r a ther t han o verpopu la t ion . The e f fec ts o f 2 33

w ea ther o n d i fferen t g eograph ica l a reas v ar ied c onsiderably , a nd t he c ons equences a nd f requency o f f am ine w ere n o t e qua l ly d istribu ted t hroughou t w estern Europe.

Vu lnerable r eg ions, i nc lud ing n orthern England , r el ied

more o n marg ina l f ood p roduc ing l ands s ub jec t t o w ea ther-rela ted h arvest f a ilute a nd w ere l ess w el l e qu ipped w i th i nst i tu t ion s t o a dm in ister f am ine r el ief .2 3

Wea ther i s t he s hort-ter m e xpression o f c l i ma te , wh ich i s f re-

q uen tly v iewed a s a n i ndependen t i n f luence o n p opu la t ion g row th .2 4 D isease ,and N u tr i t ion The c onnec t ion b etween morta l i ty a nd f am ine i n Ma l thusian p r inc ip le h as a lready b een o u t l ined .

The t heory 's o ther a ssu mp t ion i s t ha t ma lnu trit ion

l owers men 's r esistance t o i nfec t ious d isease, t hereby i ncreasing morta l i ty. Th is i dea h as b een c ha l lenged b y r ecen t s tud ies.

S tarv ing p eop le i n t he

Warsaw g het to b etween 1 941 a nd 1 943 a nd i n H ol land i n 1 945 s ee m t o h ave h ad as urpr isingly l ow i nc idence o f d ef ic iency-rela ted d iseases ( scurvy , r ickets ) a nd i n fec t ious d iseases

2 5

These f ind ings r eceive c onf ir ma t ion i n A ndrew

App leby 's e xa m ina t ion o f t he B il ls o f Morta l i ty f or p reindustria l L ondon. 26 Th is s tudy a t te mp ted t o r ela te g ra in p rices t o f ood s upp ly f or t he L ondon p oor, I f App leby was c orrec t i n c onc lud ing t ha t g ra in p r ices were a n i nd ica t ion o f f ood s upp ly a nd n u tri t ion , t hen , o f t he e p ide m ic d iseases, o n ly t yphus e v id enced a h igher i nc idence o f t imes o f h unger.

T yphus was a lso t he e xcep-

t i on i n t he c ase s tud ies f ro m t he S econd World War.

Bubon ic p lague a nd

sma l lpox d id n ot s how a c orrela t ion w i th f ood s upp ly . 27

There was ad if f i-

c u l ty , h owever , i n t he i den t if ica t ion o f t yphus-rela ted d ea ths.

Peop le p ro-

b ably d el ibera tely m isreported p lague d ea ths a s t yphus t o e scape q uaran t ine measures e nac ted a ga inst p lague.

I n a ny c ase, t hroughou t t he p eriod s tud ied ,

t he q uan t i ta t ive impac t o f t yphus o n morta l ity , w i th t he e xcep t ion o ft he y ear 1 665, was n o t i mportan t.

The o ther c a tegor ies o f d isease i n t he B i l ls o f

Morta l i ty , " ague a nd f ever" ( i n f luenza a nd ma lar ia? ) a nd " consu mp t ion a nd t i ssick" ( t ubercu losis? ) r ef lec ted o n ly a s l igh t a nd q uest ionable c orrela t ion w i th g ra in p r ices. The r esu l ts o f t h is s tudy a re s urpr ising , a nd must b e t rea ted w i th a n e le men t o f c au t ion .

The l og ica l c onc lusion f ro m t h is e v idence i s t ha t d isease

may h ave t o b e c onsidered a n i ndependen t i nf luence o n p opu la t ion g row th . I n o ther w ords, f ood s upp ly a nd p opu la t ion s ize m igh t h ave h ad l i t t le i n f luence o n t he p a t tern o f d isease a nd c onsequen t morta l i ty i n e arly Engl ish h istory. 28 Econo metr ic a na lysis, a s tudy u sing a c o mp letely d if feren t i nvest iga t ive method , r eached a s im ilar c onc lusion . 29 The l a te J .D . Chambers c onc luded f ro m h is s tud ies o f e p ide m ics a nd h arvest c yc les i n p reindustria l England t ha t f luc tua t ions i n morta l i ty , t he k ey t o p opu la t ion g row th o r d ecl ine, d id n o t a u to ma t ica l ly r ef lect t he r ela t ions h ip b etween p opu la t ion a nd f ood s upp ly , b u t w ere c aused b y i ndependen t , n on-econo m ic c hanges i n t he i nc idence o f e p ide m ic d isease. 3 ° Chambers ' t heory i s r ea l ly a n i nvers ion o f Ma l thusian t hough t .

Far f ro m d eter m in ing

t he l evel o f p opu la t ion , e cono my i s t o s o me e x ten t ar ef lec t ion o f p opu la t ion c hange.

2 34

Cha mber 's f ind ings w ere s uppor ted b y t he r esu l ts f ro m a c o mparable s tudy o f p reindustr ia l S cand inav ia .3 1

A s im ilar t heory h as b een p roposed

t o e xp la in c hanges i n a grar ian p rac t ices.

Ra ther t han v iew ing p opu la t ion i n-

c rease a s t he r esu l t o f p rogress i n a gr icu l tura l t echn iques a nd i ncreased f oöd s upp ly ,

Boserup a nd Gr igg h ave a rgued t ha t c hanges i n p opu la t ion f orced

c hanges i n f ar m ing p rac t ice. 3 The Ma l thusian emphasis o n p opu la t ion d ensi ty a nd f ood s upp ly h as b een l argely d isp laced i n r ecen t t heory.

Var ia t ions i n p opu la t ion g row th a re n ow

s een t o b e ac onsequence o f v ar ia t ions i n morta l ity . e xogenous f ac tors a ccoun t f or c hanges i n morta l i ty :

Wha t m igh t b e t er med med ic ine, h yg iene, t he

a c t ion o f p ubl ic a u thor i ty , c l i ma te a nd most i mportan t o f a l l , e p ide m ic d ise ase.

These f ac tors h ave b een u sed t o e xp la in c urren t p opu la t ion g row th i n

A fr ica a nd L a t in Amer ica a s w el l a s t he e arl ier European e xpansion .

The

n ex t s ect ion w i l l b e ac ase s tudy o f Ro man B ri ta in u sing t he t heoret ica l f ra mework o f e xogenous f ac tors t o d eter m ine p opu la t ion a nd morta l i ty. Med ic ine Med ic ine i s u n l ik ely t o h ave b een v ery i mportan t i n d eter m in ing t he l evel o f p opula t ion i n Ro man B ri ta in .3 3

F ro m c lassica l t imes u n t i l 1 750 A . D., o r

l a ter , med ic ine h ad n o s ign i f ican t i mpac t i n e i ther s er ious ly modi fying t he r avages o f e p ide m ic d isease o r i n c oun tering t he h igh morta l i ty u sua l i n p rei ndustria l European s oc iety. 3 4

Ro man med ic ine i n c o mpar ison t o Anglo-

S axon a nd med ieva l med ic ine was p robably more e f fect ive.

S ince p opu la t ion

i ncreased r ap id ly i n t he med ieva l p eriod d esp i te i nef fec t ive med ic ine , Ro man med ic ine s hou ld h ave p rov ided n o s ign if ican t b arrier t o p opu la t ion g row th a nd p erhaps e ven a s l igh t e ncourage men t .

Morta l i ty r ela ted t o med ica l p ract ice

s hou ld h ave b een n o w orse a nd p robably b etter i n Ro man B r i ta in t han i n t he s ucceed ing p er iods . 3 5 Hyg iene I n c on trast t o med ic ine, h yg iene was p robably a n importan t i n f luence o n morta l i ty i n Ro man B r i ta in , p art icu larly i n a n u rban c on tex t . p ortan t a spec t o f h yg iene was wa ter s upp ly .

The most i m-

A l though t he l ack o f a n e f fect ive

t est f or wa ter p ur ity o ther t han c lar i ty a nd t aste mean t t ha t Ro mano-Br i t ish wa ter s ources may h ave b een n o h ea l th ier t han t hose o f l a ter p er iods , mun ici pa l wa ter s upp l ies w ere u sua l ly p len t ifu l , p erhaps a s p len t ifu l p er c ap i ta a s i n modern European c i t ies. 36

The p ract ice o f f requen t b a th ing i n t he Ro man

p er iod p robably i ncreased t he e ffect iveness o f p ersona l h yg iene b y r educ ing t he l evel o fb ody d irt a nd v er m in .

S ince l i ce a nd f l eas w ere v ec tors o f t yphus

a nd p lague , a nd d ysen tery was a ssoc ia ted w i th b ody d irt a nd s o i led c lo thes, f requen t b a th ing s hou ld h ave r educed morta l i ty a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese d iseases. 37 Publ ic h yg iene b enef i t ted g rea t ly f ro m Ro man d ra in s yste ms a nd s uf f ic ien t wa ter f or f lush ing s ewers a nd c lean ing s treets. Pr ide i n mun ic ipa l b u i ld ings, t he f avoured u se o f t i le a nd b r ick a s b u i ld ing ma teria ls, a nd e spec ia l ly p aved f l oors a nd s treets s hou ld h ave r educed t he p roble m o f d ir t a nd g arbage a s w el l a s t he n u mbers o f p ests, s uch a s f l eas , l i ce, r a ts a nd m ice, c ohab i ta t ing w ith men .

The a dvan tage i n p ubl ic h yg iene e n joyed b y Ro man t owns i n c on-

t rast t o med ieva l t owns, t yp if ied b y al ack o f d ra in s, o pen c en tra l s treet g u t ters, t ha tched r oof s a nd s traw c overed f l oors i s o bv ious. 2 35

Another a dvan tage o f Ro man h yg iene o ver med ieva l c ond i t ions was t he a t t i tude t oward s ickness a nd c lean l iness.

The h ab it o f f requen t ba th ing h as

b een men t ioned . I n t he Ro man p ercep t ion , s ickness was g enera l ly a n imba la nce o fb asic e le men ts o r h u mours i n t he v ic t im 's b ody o r e nv iron men t. I n c on tras t , Chr ist ian med ieva l e th ic p erceived s ickness a s ap un ish men t f or p ersona l s in o r e ven at est o f f a i th . B od i ly a f f l ic t ion , i nc lud ing d irt a nd p riv a t ion , p aved t he way f or s a lva t ion a nd h eaven ly r eward .

The r eward o n

e arth o f s uch c ond i t ions was p robably i ncreased mor ta l i ty t hrough s ickness. 3 8 The c hurch d iscouraged b oth b a th ing a nd n ak edness.

S o me Bened ic t ine

o rders w ere r estr ic ted t o t wo b a ths a y ear a nd , a l though d ir t b eca me l ess c losely i den t if ied w i th t he C hr ist ian e th ic i n t he l a ter m idd le a ges, u nhelpfu l a t t i tudes p ersisted t owards s ickness a nd i t s c auses.

The t h ir teen th c en tury

" Glorif ica t ion o f D isease a nd D ea th" p leaded , " Oh L ordt o f t hy c ourtesy S end me i l l h ea l th : L et me h ave q uartan f ever The c on t inuous a nd t he t er t ian..." The work l i sts a f ur ther t wen tytwo d iseases

3 9

.Th is e xa mp le n o d oubt r e-

f l ec ted a n e x tre me v iewpo in t , a nd i ti s d if icu l t t o p enetra te b eh ind t he a t titude o f t he l earned c lasses t o t he o p in ions o f t he g enera l p opu lace , b u t s uch a tt itudes t oward d isease a nd d irt a nd t he d ec l ine o f s tandards o f p ersona l a nd p ubl ic h yg iene must h ave i ncreased morta l i ty.

S ince p opu la t ion g rew i n p er iods o f

t he med ieva l e ra d esp i te s uch h and icaps, t he more efect ive h yg iene o f t he Ro man p er iod must r educed mor ta l i ty a nd p er m i t ted a h igher d ensity o f p opul a t ion . Publ ic Au thor i ty I n a dd i t ion t o e xert ing a p osi t ive i n f luence o n h yg iene , p ubl ic a u thor ity r educed t he l evel o f war , c iv i l war , b rigandage a nd r iot ing , a nd t he d ea ths a ssoc ia ted w i th s uch v iolence.

Prov inc ia l a dm in istra t ion a lso c urta i led t he

move men t o f t he most e f fect ive p urveyors o f d isease a nd d isorder :

f l eeing

r efugees, s tarv ing p easan ts a nd march ing a rm ies. " Br i ta in e n joyed t he s a me a dvan tages a s o ther p rov inces i n t he Ro man Emp ire, a nd t h is i nc luded a r educ t ion o f morta l i ty f ro m s tarva t ion a nd ma ln u tr i t ion a ssoc ia ted w i th f am ine a nd n a tura l c a la m i ty.

The s torage o f t axes

p a id i n k ind i n imper ia l g ranar ies p rov ided a p oten t ia l c oun ter t o y ears o f l ean h arvests.

The p ossib il ity o f i mport ing f ood i n to s tr ick en a reas f ro m

imper ia l t err i tor ies t oo l arge t o b e a f fec ted b y as ingle n a tura l o r p o l i t ical c risis a nd mov ing r el ief s upp l ies a long a g ood s ys te m o f c o m mun ica t ions was aRo man r esource u nava i lable t o med ieva l a nd e arly modern a u thori t ies.

The

s h ip men t o f l arge q uan t i t ies o f g ra in f ro m Ro man B r i ta in t o Gau l a nd G er many i n J u l ian 's r e ign i s ar elevan t e xa mp le. 4 1

Presu mably g ra in impor ta t ion i n to

Br i ta in w ou ld h ave b een p ossible i f Br ita in h ad s u f fered d isaster.

B o th t he

r egu lar g ra in t rade b etween Ro man A fr ica a nd t he c ap i ta l a nd t he s torage o f s evera l y ears' f ood s upp ly f or Ro me 's i nhab itan ts a re e xa mp les o f t he p otent ia l f or f am ine r el ief p ossessed b y i mper ia l a u thor i t ies.

The s k il ls, r esources

a nd o rgan iza t ion o f p rov inc ia l a dm in istra t ion must h ave e xerted a p os i t ive

2 36

i n f luence i n r educ ing t he mor ta l i ty a ssoc ia ted w i th f am ine, n a tura l c a la m i ty a nd v iolen t d isorder , t hereby f urther ing t he g row th o f p opu la t ion i n Ro man B r ita in . C l i ma te I n g enera l c l i ma te a fec ts morta l i ty i n t wo s ign if ican t ways, d ea ths r el a ted t o f am ine a nd s tarva t ion a nd d ea ths r ela ted t o d isease.

I n B r i ta in , f or

e xa mp le, a n i ncrease o f o ne d egree C en t igrade o r o ne a nd a h a lf d egrees F ahrenhei t c an p ro long t he g row ing s eason b y t wo w eek s.

I n I celand a o ne

d egree C . d rop i n a verage t e mpera tures w il l r educe h ay y ields b y 1 5 t o 17 % . 42 Besides a f fec t ing f ood s upp ly , c l i ma te i s a n i mpor tan t a spec t o f t he c o mp l ica ted i n terac t ion o f e nv iron men ta l c ond i t ions t ha t d eter m ine t he s cope a nd v iru lence o f c erta in d iseases.

Resp iratory i l lnesses a nd g astr ic d isorders

a re r ela ted t o w et s easons a nd t o c old a nd p rolonged w inters. ma laria i s a ssoc ia ted w i th war mer a verage t e mpera tures.

The s pread o f

The p lague b ear ing

f l ea i s most a c t ive w i th in a f a irly r estr ic ted r ange o f t e mpera ture a nd h um id i ty ( 20-25 C , 0 .03-0.3 h um id ity ).

The r ela t ion among c l i ma te , mor ta l i ty a nd

p opu la t ion c an t hus b e v iewed a s ac o mp l ica ted i n terac t ion o f h arves t s i ze , f ood s upp ly a nd d isease.

Th is i n terac t ion i s r ef lec ted i n t ota l p opu la t ion e s-

t ima tes t ha t f or v ar ious t imes s ee m t o p ara l lel s uggested p a tterns o f g rosss ca le c l i ma t ic s h if t. 4 3 The p er iod o f Ro man r u le i n Br i ta in e v iden t ly c o inc ided w i th a p er iod o f w ea ther f avourable f or man a nd a gr icu l ture.

The w ea ther o f t he p re-Ro man

I ron Age was b o th c older a nd w et ter t han t he Ro man p eriod a nd may h ave h ad d isastrous e f fec ts o n p opu la t ion a nd f ar m ing. The Ro man p er iod was p art o f wha t h as b een c a l led t he L i t t le C l i ma t ic Op t i mu m ( end ing c . 10 00 A .D.). Wea ther was p robab ly d r ier a nd war mer t han t oday , p erhaps b etween 1 a nd 2° F war mer a t t imes. 44

A l though t here i s s o me e v idence t o s uggest t ha t t he

w ea ther worsened f or a t ime a t t he e nd o f t he Ro man p er iod , t he k nown w ea ther c ond i t ions f or Ro man B ri ta in s hou ld h ave b een u nusua l ly b enef ic ia l t o a gr icu lt ure a nd f ood s upp ly. Morta l i ty r ela ted t o w ea ther c ond i t ion s was p robably n o g rea ter t han u sua l i n t he d r ier , war mer Ro man c l i ma te, a nd p erhaps e ven r educed .

I n g enera l , t he c l i ma te o f Ro man B r i ta in s hou ld h ave p roven

f avourable t o p opu la t ion g row th . D isease Ep ide m ic i n fec t ious d iseases a re t he s ingle most i mpor tan t c o mponen t i n t he t heoret ica l e xp lana t ion o f v ary ing morta l ity a nd p opu la t ion g row th o ff ered i n t h is p aper.

Un fortuna tely , f or e arly p er iods o f European h istory ,

i n fect ious d iseases a re a lso t he most d if f icu l t a spec t o f morta l i ty t o a na lyze. D esp ite e t iolog ica l s tudy , s carlet f ever , i n f luenza , t ubercu losis, c holera , mu mps, sma l lpox , mea lses a nd b ubon ic p lague r e ma ins l argely u nexp la ined . D isease h as b een c a l led a n " au tono mous" i n f luence i n t he p a t tern o f mor ta l i ty. 45 There i s d isagree men t c oncern ing t he i n i t ia l e n try o f t he g rea t d iseases i n western Europe.

Cholera , s carlet f ever a nd i n f luenza w ere e v iden t ly u n-

k nown i n w estern Europe b efore t he e ar ly modern p er iod .

Bubon ic p lague,

sma l lpox a nd measles h ave b een p laced i n t he s ix th c en tury A .D. 46

2 37

Th is i s

c erta in ly a s uggest ive g roup ing w i th r espect t o mor ta l i ty i n t he e arly m iddle a ges, b u t i den t if ica t ion o f p a t terns o f d isease f ro m i nco mp lete d escr ip t ions i n p er iods w i th f ew s urv iv ing s ources must b e c on jec tura l .

Add ing t o t he

p roble m o f i den t if ica t ion , t he v iru lence a nd s y mp to ms o f s pec if ic d iseases s ee m t o h ave a l tered o ver t ime a nd i ti s p ossible t ha t d iseases c i ted i n e arly s ources may n ot h ave r ecurred.

C erta in ly l ong i n terva ls o f t i me s epara te

r ecorded p er iods o f a ct iv i ty o fb ubon ic p lague a nd c erta in s tra ins o f i n f luenza . 47 The o n ly e f fec t ive way t o t rea t d iseases a s ac o mponen t o f morta l i ty f or a ny s pec if ic h istor ica l p er iod i s t o r ecord t he p resence o f d iseases i nsofar a s p oss ible f ro m c on te mporary r ecords a nd t ry t o d eter m ine t heir i den t i ty , v iru lence a nd e x ten t . Sma l lpox may h ave o ccurred i n t he e astern Med iterranean a s t he p lague o f Thucyd ides i n A thens i n 4 32 B .C.

S im ilarly t he An ton ine p lague o f A . D.

1 65-180 a s w el l a s t he p lagues o f A . D. 2 51-256 a nd 3 12 may h ave b een sma l lp ox . 48

As econd-hand d escr ip t ion o f ad isease i n the e arly Chr ist ian p eriod

m igh t p lace b ubon ic p lague i n North A fr ica a nd S yr ia a t a n e arly d a te. 49

I t

i s p ossible, t herefore, t ha t t hese e p ide m ic d iseases o ccurred i n t he Med iterr anean l ong b efore s pread ing i n to n orthwest Europe. Cast igl ion i o rgan ized t he h istory o f t he l a te c lassica l w orld i n to f i ve g rea t p er iods o f p est ilence :

1 .

A .D. 7 9 ;

2 .

A .D . 1 25 ( The P lague o f O ros ius);

3 .

A .D. 1 64-180 ( The An ton ine p lague ) ;

5 .

A .D . 3 12. " The n ex t g rea t p ande m ic s ee ms t o h ave b een t he b ubon ic

4 .

2 51-266 ( The p lague o f C ypr ian ) ;

p lague o f J ust in ian s r eign ( „ 5 42 A . D.) , a nd t h is l eaves a s izable g ap o f o ver t wo h undred y ears i n t he c hronology o f g rea t e p ide m ics.

C onclusion s d rawn

f ro m n ega t ive e v idence a re d angerous, a nd i n ferences must r e ma in e spec ia l ly s pecu la t ive when d ea l ing w i th a p oorly d ocu men ted p er iod .

The b reak b etween

r ecorded e p ide m ics may merely r ef lec t ag ap i n s urv iv ing s ources.

Enough

s ources e x ist f ro m t he l a te c lassica l p er iod , h owever , t o make t he om ission o f a ny men t ion o f ag rea t p ande m ic o r s er ies o f e p ide m ics i n t he Ro man world e x tre mely s ign if ican t .

The s i lence w ith r egard t o g rea t mor ta l ity f ro m d is-

e ase b efore t he p lague o f J ust in ian i s p art icu larly s ign if ican t when c o mpared t o t he more f rag men tary s ources o f t he e arly m idd le a ges.

D esp ite t he d is-

o rgan ized a nd p recar ious s ta te o f g overn men t , r ecords a nd w rit ing , t he l i st o f e arly med ieva l e p ide m ic d isease i n Gau l

a nd B r i ta in i s e x tensive a nd im-

p ressive. 5 1 I n c on trast t o l a te a n t iqu i ty , t he m idd le y ears o f t he s ix th c en tury a nd t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he s even th c en tury s ee m t o h ave b een e spec ia l ly s evere p er iods o f p est ilence f or w estern Europe. 5 2 On b a lance, t he p ossib i l i ty must b e s er iously c onsidered t ha t t he p er iod o f t he l a te f our th , f i f th a nd e arly s ix th c en tur ies r epresen ted a g enu ine h iatus i n t he a c t iv i ty o f s evere e p ide m ics.

C onversely , t he p ossible c onvergence o f

b ubon ic p lague, sma l lpox , a nd measles i n t he s ix th c en tury i n western Europe may r epresen t a n i mportan t i ncrease i n t he d ead l iness o f e p ide m ic i n fect ious d isease.

I ft h is i s s o , a n i ncrease i n p opu la t ion m igh t b e e xpec ted i n t he l a tter

h a l f o ft he Ro man p er iod i n Br i ta in , b etween t he p er iods o f s evere a nd f requen t e p ide m ics .5 3 The e xa m ina t ion i n aRo man Br i t ish c on tex t o f t he e xogenous f actors t ha t t heoret ica l ly d eter m ine mor ta l i ty a nd p opu la t ion g row th r evea ls a c ons istent p a t tern .

The i n terac t ion o f t he p os i t ive i n f luences o f p ubl ic a u thor i ty , med i-

2 38

e in e , a nd h yg iene, c o inc id ing w i th a p er iod o f f avourable c l i ma te a nd t he e v iden t a bsence f or t wo c en tur ies o f t he g rea t i n fect ious e p ide m ic d iseases, i n t h eory s hou ld h ave p er m i tted a nd e ven e ncouraged p opu la t ion g row th .

Th is

b lue-pr in t o f h ypo thet ica l p opu la t ion g row th c an b e b est t ested b y ac o mpar is on w ith t he most r elevan t e v idence f ro m r ecen t f i eld s tud ies. At heoret ica l p opu la t ion w i thou t t he s upport o f l i terary o r p hysica l e v id ence r ese mbles t he c h icken w i thou t b ones a nd t he c herry w i thou t as tone i n t he f a mous " Ridd le S ong". Un fortuna tely , t he p hysica l e v idence f or Ro manoB r i t ish p opu la t ion i s o f l im i ted q uan t i ty a nd t he p roble ms o f i n terpreta t ion a re a cu te. Relevan t l i terary e v idence i s v ir tua l ly n on-ex isten t. F ield s tud ies o f t h e s et t le men t p a t terns, h owever ,offer v a luable a nd i ndependen t e v idence f or t est ing t he r esu l ts o f d e mograph ic t heory. 5 4 S et t le men t Pa t terns The e v idence d er ived f ro m t he p a ttern o f s et tle men t c an b e c onven ient ly b rok en d own i n to t hree p ar ts: t he t o ta l g eograph ica l e x ten t o f t he s et t led a rea ; t he s pec ia l p hysica l c harac ter ist ics o f t he s et t le men ts, s uch a s a l t itude, e xposure a nd s o i l t ype ;

a nd t he d ensi ty o f s et t le men ts w i th in a g iven l oca t ion .

The n u mber o f c on te mporary s et tle men ts i n a measurable a rea p rov ides a n o bv ious c lue t o p opu la t ion d ensi ty.

The e x ten t o f t he r eg ion s et tled i n ag iven

p er iod o f fers a l ess d irec t measure o f p opu la t ion , b u t t he s pread o f s et tle men t i n to marg ina l a gr icu l tura l s oi ls a nd t he c learance o f w ood land a re g ood i nd ic a t ions o f i ncrease.

I n a dd it ion , t he u ncer ta in ty o f t he s ize o f p opu la t ion a s-

s oc ia ted w i th e arly s et t le men t p a t terns c an b e r educed b y ac o mpar ison w ith l a ter p a t terns o f k nown p opu la t ion . The o lder c onven t iona l p ic ture o f t he s et t le men t p a t tern i n Ro man Br i ta in was o f aRo man ized e astern a nd s ou thern c ore s urrounded b y t h in ly p opu la ted , l i t t le d eveloped f ron t ier d istric ts i n t he n orth a nd w est . Even i n t he s ou the astern l ow lands, a gr icu l ture, i t was t hough t , was c on f ined t o t he l i gh ter s o i ls. I n tensive e xp lo i ta t ion o ft he h eav ier s o i l a nd e x tensive w ood land c leara nce b egan w i th t he A ng lo-Saxon c onquest a nd i ncreased s low ly a cco mpan ied b y p opu la t ion g row th .5 5

Th is p icture i s n o l onger g enera l ly a ccep ted .

The c ruc ia l a ssump t ion i n t he e arly v iew o f Ro man s et tle men t a nd a gr ic u l ture was t ha t t he s urv iv ing e v idence was r epresen ta t ive o f g enera l p rac t ice. I n r etrospec t t h is s ee ms t o h ave b een a f a l lacy.

The e v idence o f Ro man a g-

r icu l ture i n t he s ou thern c ha l ldands a nd u p lands p robably s urv ived b ecause i tw as a t yp ica l , a s marg ina l i n R o man t imes a s i n t he r ecen t p as t . T races r e ma ined b ecause t he l and was s ubsequen t ly p astured o r o n ly l i gh t ly w ork ed . Roman a gr icul ture must h ave v a lued t he r ich , h eavy l ow land s o ils a s d id t he A ng lo-Saxons, b u t am il lenn iu m a nd more o f i n tensive p lough ing d estroyed t he t races o f Ro man f ar m ing i n t hese a reas. 5 6 Th is r ev ised i n terpreta t ion i sb orne o u t b y a n e xp losion i n t he n umber o fR o man s i tes d iscovered i n r ecen t f i eld s tud ies. The t echn iques o f a er ia l p hotography a nd s yste ma t ic f i eld-wa lk ing , a pp l ied i n i n tensive l oca l s tud ies , h ave p roduced e v idence o f d ense Ro man s et tle men t l oca ted o n ab road r ange o f s o ils a nd s i tua t ions :

g ravels, l imestones, ba rns, c lays, a nd s andy s o ils .57

P erhaps t he most d rama t ic e xa mp le o f t he c hanged p ercep t ion o f Ro man s et-

2 39

t l e men t i s t he N ene v a l ley a rea o f N or tha mp tonsh ire a nd Hun t ingdonsh ire. The 1 931 O rdnance S urvey map s howed 3 6 Ro man s i tes i n t he a rea ( 1/25 s q . km ). I n t he 1 956 e d it ion o f t he map , 1 30 s et t le men ts w ere i nd ica ted ( 1/7 s q. k in ).

Early i n 1 972 , 4 34 d ef in i te s et tle men ts h ad b een f ound ( 1/ 2. 3 s q. km ) ,

3 00 n ew s et tle men ts i n 1 6 y ears. 5 8

S tud ies i n C umberland a nd N orthu mbr ia

a s w el l a s s i tes r evea led t hrough t he e x tension o ft he M-5 motorway i n G loucest ersh ire i nd ica ted a s im i lar p rol ifera t ion o f R o man s i tes. 59

With t he e xcep-

t i on o f Cambr idgesh ire, f i eldwork i nd ica tes a s urpr ising ly d ense s et t le men t i n t he F ens, S o merset , Wi l tsh ire , Warw icksh ire , a nd Buck inghamsh ire. I n c erta in e v iden t ly a t tract ive a reas, Ro man s et tle men t d ensi ty e xceeded 4/ s q. km . 60 F ew o f t he s i tes l oca ted b y a er ia l p ho tography o r f i eld-wa lk ing h ave b een e xcava ted , a nd , s ince t he Ro man o ccupa t ion l asted s o me f our c en tur ies, i t i su n l ikely t ha t t he g rea t n umber o f s et t le men ts w ere c on te mporary . c au t ion wou ld r educe t he d ensi ty f or a ny g iven p er iod .

Th is

On t he o ther h and , a s

i nvest iga t ions a re i n tensif ied , more s i tes w i l l p robably b e d iscovered.

There

i s l im ited e v idence f or t he p rolonged o ccupa t ion o f t he whole r ange o f s oil t ypes i nt he l a ter Ro man p er iod ; t l e men ts w ere c on te mporary.

t h is s uggests t ha t many o f t he u nda ted s e t-

The b otan ica l e v idence c orrobora tes a p a t tern

o f d ense s et t le men t s ince p ol len a na lysis i nd ica tes t ha t a n e x ten sive p eriod o fw ood land c learance o ccurred i n t he l a ter Ro man p eriod. 6 1

Even i ft he

n u mber o f i nhab i ted s i tes c a lcu la ted f or a g iven p er iod i s i nf la ted b y t he i nc lusion o f a bandoned s et t le men ts o r o ther d up l ica t ion , at en-fold i ncrease i n t he n umber o f Ro man s i tes, i nc lud ing a reas s o i nhosp i table t ha t o n ly s evere p opu la t ion p ressure w ou ld p robably h ave f orced t heir c u l t iva t ion , j us t if ies a g rea t i ncrease i n p rev ious e st i ma tes o f p opu la t ion . To c onver t n u mbers o f s et tle men ts i n to a p opu la t ion e st i ma te , a mul t ip l ier , r epresen t ing t he a verage n umber o f p ersons/set t le men t , mus t b e a pp l ied .

The s ize o f t he mu l t ip l ier i s g rea t ly d ispu ted , w i th e st i ma tes r ang ing

f ro m 3 .5 t o 9p ersons/household f or s et t le men ts i n t he l a te c lass ica l a nd e arly med ieva l p er iod .6 2

The a pp l ica t ion o f a mu l t ip l ier i n s tud ies o f t he

Ro man F en land a nd C ornwa l l , a l though s ub jec t t o ag rea t p ossible e rror , i nd ica tes a d ensi ty o f p opu la t ion r ough ly c o mparab le t o t he l evels o f t he Do mesd ay S urvey i n 1 086. 6 3 I n t he a bsence o fd a tes p rov ided b y e x tens ive e xcava t ion , t he b es t way t o r ough ly d a te t he s et t le men t p a t tern i s t hrough v egeta t iona l h istory . Under c er ta in c ond i t ion s, u sua l ly i n p ea t d eposi ts a nd b ogs, t he y early d eposi t o f p ol len g ra ins f ro m ag iven a rea i s p reserved b y a ccu mu la t ion o ver t ime i n as eries o f l evels t ha t c an b e d a ted b y t he Carbon-14 p rocess o r a ssoc ia ted f i nds. F or e ach l evel p ol len g ra in s o f d iferen t p lan t g roups c an b e i d en tif ied a nd c oun ted a nd a c o mpar ison o f t he v ary ing r a t ios o f p lan ts a t d if feren t l evels a l lows a r econstruct ion o f t he e colog ica l h istory o f t he a rea .6 4 Ad ec l ine i n t he t ree p ol len r ela t ive t o c er ta in k inds o f w eeds o r c erea l g ra ins i s ag ood i nd ica t ion o f f orest c learance a nd e xpansion o f s et tle men t wh ich i n t urn i s u sua l ly a n i nd ica t ion o f p opu la t ion g row th w i th c onsequen t p ressure o n t he a gricu l tura l a reas. Un for tuna tely , t he p hysica l c ond i t ion p reserv ing p ol len s tra ta a re c onc en tra ted i n t he n or th a nd w est , s o t ha t t he p a t tern r evea led i s r eg iona l. 2 40

The v a lue o f a na lysis f or ag iven s i te v ar ies g rea t ly w i th l oca l t opograph ica l c ond i t ions.

An e le men t o f e rror i s a lso a ssoc ia ted w i th t he i den t if ica t ion

a nd c oun t ing o f p ol len g ra ins a s w el l a s t he Carbon-14 d a t ing. N ever theless, t he r esu l ts o f p ol len a na lyses s ee m f a irly r el iable, a nd t he p a t tern o f w oodl and c learance t hey r evea l i s c onsisten t t hroughou t t he a reas s tud ied . The o vera l l r esu l ts i nd ica te t ha t t he a rea o f c leared l and was a s g rea t i n Ro man t imes a s i n A nglo-Saxon a nd med ieva l England .6 5 I n many p ar ts o f n orthern England t he f i rst g rea t p er iod o f c learance b egan l a te i n t he Ro man p er iod . I n s o me a reas t here i s e v idence o f r eforesta t ion d uring t he Dark A ges. The p a t tern o f t he b o tan ica l e v idence t ogether w i th t he s ca tter o f a bandoned Ro man s i tes o n marg ina l l ands s uggests t ha t p opu la t ion i n t he n or th b egan t o g row s ign if ican t ly i n t he s econd c en tury A .D . a nd p eaked i nt he l a te Ro man a nd e arly p ost-Ro man p er iod , d ec l in ing t herea f ter f or s o me t ime. 6 6 The s ign if icance o f t he p a t tern o f f orest c learances a nd s pread o f s et t le men t i n t he n orth a lso a pp l ies t o s ou thern Eng land , f or i ti so n ly l og ica l t o a ssu me t ha t t he r icher more Ro man ized s ec t ions o f Br ita in wou ld h ave b een f u l ly e xp lo i ted b efore s et t le men t a nd a gr icu l ture s pread t o t he l ess f er t i le a reas o f t he n or th . I ti s i n terest ing i n t h is c on tex t t o o bserve t ha t e xpansion i n t he n umber o f s et t le men ts i n p arts o f s ou thern Eng land a nd t he F ens e v iden t ly b egan i n t he s econd c en tury , a l though i ti s u n l ikely t ha t t he p a t tern o f d e mograph ic d evelopmen t w ou ld h ave b een t he s ame a l l o ver Br i ta in .6 7 The q uan t i ta t ive e xp losion i n k nown s et t le men ts, l oca ted o ver t he whole s pec tru m o f s oi ls a nd s i tes , a dded t o ab otan ica l r ecord t ha t s hows t he c leared , e xp lo ited l ands o f Ro man Br i ta in t o b e e qua l t o t hose o f med ieva l Eng land , n ecessi ta tes a d rast ic u pward r ev ision i n p rev ious e st i ma tes o f Ro manoBr i t ish p opu la t ion . L i terary Ev idence The l i terary e v idence i s s l igh t a nd o f l i t t le v a lue i n e st i ma t ing p opu la t ion . The e arly G reek a nd Ro man s ources i nd ica te l i t t le more t han t ha t B r ita in was v iewed a s ap oten t ia l s ource o f s laves, g ra in , a nd t axable t rade. 6 8 Ro man e xpec ta t ions m igh t b e ar ef lec t ion o f s ubstan t ia l p re-Ro man p opu la t ion a nd a gr icu l ture. The o n ly n u mera t ion o f c iv i l p opula t ion i n t he s ources i s ac asua l ty f i gure f ro m Boud icca ls r ebel l ion . Tac itus s ta ted t ha t 7 0 ,000 d ied i n t he s ack o fC olchester , L ondon a nd Veru la m iu m . D io w rote t ha t t wo c i t ies h ad b een d estroyed w i th 8 0 ,000 Ro man a nd a l l ied c asua l t ies.

Tac i tus Is e st i ma te h as

b een v ar iously j udged a s aw orth less e xaggera t ion o r a n i n for med o p in ion d er ived f ro m o f f ic ia l s ources .69

The c asua l ty f i gures a re u sua l ly c onsidered

a s i n f la ted , a l though t rad i t iona l ly , p ar t isan a ccoun ts o verest i ma te t he e ne my 's n umbers wh ile u nderest i ma t ing t heir own l osses. A lso , V eru la m iu m a nd L ondon w ere a t l east p ar t ia l ly e vacua ted , s o ag rea t p ropor t ion o f t he d ea ths mus t h ave b een f ro m t he C olchester massacre. A l low ing f or e xaggera t ion o f t hese f i gures, Frere e st i ma ted L ondon 's p opu la t ion a s C . 3 0 ,000 w ith 1 5 ,000 e ach f or C olchester a nd Veru la m iu m . "

2 41

Th is a dm it ted ly s pecu la t ive f i gure f or L ondon c an b e f urther man ipu la ted t o e st i ma te a t ota l p opu la t ion f or t he Ro man p rov ince.

Accord ing t o t he t heory

o f r ank-size, a c ap i ta lb ears a r ough ly f ixed r ela t ionsh ip t o i t s p rov inc ia l h in terland .

Th is t heory h as b een h eav i ly c r i t ic ized , b u t f or wha t t he e v idence

i s.w orth , L ondon r epresen ted a pprox i ma tely 1 .5% o f t he Eng l ish-Welsh p opu la t ion i n 1 086 a t Do mesday S urvey a nd a ga in i n 1 37 7 , t he t ime o f t he p oll t ax .

These a re v irtua l ly t he o n ly o ccasions when t o ta l med ieva l p opula t ion

7 1

c an b e a pprox i ma ted f or England b ecause o f t he u n ique c harac ter o ft hese s ources.

I f1 .5% w ere a lso t rue o f t he p re- med ieva l e ra , F rere's f i gure o f

3 0 ,0 00 f or L ondon wou ld y ield 2 ,0 00 ,0 00 a s a n a pprox i ma te t ota l p opu la t ion . Th is i s as ubstan t ia l p opu la t ion f or t he f i rst c en tury A . D. Two o ther k inds o f l i terary i n for ma t ion , e nu mera t ions o f c i t ies a nd m il i tary s ources, p rov ide s o me i nsigh t i n to t ota l p opu la t ion a nd t he t rend o f i t s d evelopmen t.

A method u sed t o c a lcu la te Ch inese p opu la t ion a t a n e arly

p eriod may b e r elevan t t o Ro man Bri ta in .

7 2

S ince Ch inese c i t ies w ere f or t-

i f ied m i l i tary a nd a dm in istra t ive c en ters, a n i ncrease i n t he n u mber o f c it ies was t hough t t o imp ly a n i ncrease i n i nhab i tan ts.

Ro mano-Br i t ish wa l led

t owns w ere a lso a dm in istra t ive a nd m i l i tary c en ters a t t he e nd o f t he Ro man p er iod .

The i ncrease i n t he n u mber o f c i t ies o ver t he whole Ro man p eriod

t o t wen ty-eigh t , i fG i ldas c an b e t rusted , p robably r ef lec ted a n i ncrease i n p opu la t ion .

The i ssue i s c louded b ecause t owns i n t he e arly p eriod o f Ro man

r ule w ere c rea ted a s a n a c t o f p ol icy a nd t he l a ter i ncrease i n t he n umber o f t owns may a lso h ave r esu l ted f ro m p ol icy r a ther t han p opula t ion g row th . The s ize o f ac oun try 's a r my i s ar ough i nd ica t ion o f g ross p opu la t ion , a nd m i l i tary s ources h ave b een u sed t o e st i ma te p opu la t ion f or e arly p eriods .7 3 The o bv ious d if f icu l ty w i th t h is t ype o f e st i ma te, a side f ro m p roble ms o f i nt erpret ing s pec if ic s ources, i s i n d ec id ing wha t p ercen tage o f t he t o ta l p opu lat i on i s r epresen ted b y t he a r my .

I n g enera l , b efore mass c onscrip t ion o f

modern h istory , a rm ies u sua l ly r epresen ted l ess t han 5% o f t he p opu la t ion , ar ela t ively sma l l p roport ion—the more s pecia l ized t he t ra in ing a nd e qu ip men t , t he sma l ler t he p ercen tage o f p opu la t ion r epresen ted b y t he s erving a r my. The a r my i n Ro man Br i ta in i s u sua l ly e st i ma ted a t a pprox i ma tely 60 ,000 men . Th is p robably v ar ied o ver t ime, h owever , a nd t he n umber 6 0 ,000 i s d er ived l argely f ro m s econd c en tury e v idence. f igure was mere p aper s treng th .

I ti s d if f icu l t t o k now h ow much o f t h is

Using t he f igure 6 0 , 0 00 , Ha l l c a lcu la ted

t ha t s uch a n u mber must h ave b a lanced t en t imes i t s s treng th i n h ost i le n at i ves.

7 4

A l low ing f i ve d ependen ts f or e ach n a t ive a du l t ma le o f mil i tary a ge,

t h is l og ic c rea tes a n a t ive p opula t ion o f a bou t t hree m i l l ions. t i ons o ft h is e qua t ion a re q uest ionable.

Many a ssu mp-

C onsidera t ion o ther t han mi l i tary

n ecessi ty may h ave i n f luenced t he l oca t ion o f Ro man g arr isons a t d i f feren t t imes. r u le.

C er ta in ly , t he whole p opu lace c anno t h ave r e ma ined h ost ile t o R o man A 10 : 1 r a t io

o f n a t ives t o Ro mans i s a tb est a c rude a pprox i ma t ion .

U sing a d if feren t a pproach t o t he p roble m , i fi ti s a ssu med t ha t t he h igh ly p rofessiona l Ro man a r my r epresen ted a t most 5% o f t o ta l p opu la t ion , a nd t ha t i n t he l a ter s tages t he g arrison i n Br i ta in was l argely l oca l ly r ecru i ted , t hen a6 0 , 0 00 man a r my wou ld s uggest a Br it ish p opu la t ion o f 1 ,2 0 0 , 0 00, p ro m ise f igure f or s econd c en tury p opu la t ion m igh tb e t wo m il l ion .

Ac o mI n teres-

t ingly , t h is n umber c o mpares c losely t o p opu la t ion d er ived f ro m r ank-size t heory u sing Tac i tus's n u mbers. 2 42

Funerary i nscr ip t ions f ro m Ro man Br i ta in f or m p art o f al arger c orpus c o l lec ted f ro m t he who le Ro man w orld. The i nscrip t ions r epresen t t oo n arrow as oc ia l a nd e cono m ic c lass t o p rov ide a s ure b asis f or g enera l iza t ion a bou t p opu la t ion t rends a nd , i n a ny c ase , a re o f l i t t le h elp i n f i gur ing t o ta l p opu lat i on . They h ave b een u sed t o e st i ma te c er ta in v i ta l s ta t ist ics s uch a s a ge a t d ea th , l i fe e xpectancy , morta l ity r a tes a nd e ven a ge a t marr iage :7 5 Phys ica l Ev idence Two t ypes o f p hysica l e v idence a re r elevan t t o t he q uest ion o f p opu la t ion : r esu l ts f ro m t he a pp l ica t ion o f p a laeode mograph ic t echn iques t o s kel ta l r ema ins a nd t he s urv iv ing f eatures o f r u ined Ro mano-Br it ish t owns. S keleta l e v idence c an y ield v a luable i n for ma t ion c oncern ing t he s ex r a t io. a ge a t d ea th , l i fe e xpectancy , morta l i ty r a tes a nd e ven f ert il i ty r a tes o f e arly p opu la t ions.

Many o f t he t echn iques o f i nvest iga t ion a re i nexac t , h owever ,

a nd t he a cc iden t o f d iscovery , v ar ia t ions i n s o i l c ond i t ions, b uria l p rac t ices, a nd d i fferences i n s oc ia l c usto m a fect t he r epresen ta t iveness o ft he e v idence. Resu l ts f ro m p a laeode mograph ic s tud ies must b e u sed w i th c au t ion , p ar t icul arly i n Br i ta in where f ew c e meter ies h ave b een s tud ied a nd t hose o f c o mparat i vely sma l l s ize. 7 6 The most i n tensive s tud ies f or t he Ro man p er iod h ave b een p erfor med i n c en tra l Europe , b u t t he B r i t ish e v idence s ee ms t o b e c ons is ten t w i th t ha t o f o ther a reas:7 On t he whole, p opu la t ions o f t he Ro man p er iod d o n ot s ee m t o h ave b een s ign i f ican t ly d if feren t i n e i ther t heir p hysica l c haracterist ics o r v i ta l r a tes f ro m l a ter med ieva l p eop les .7 8

Th is c onc lusion

s upports t he l im i ted e v idence d er ived f ro m f unerary i nscrip t ions a nd s uggests t ha t v ar ia t ions i n p opu la t ion s ize o ccur ing t hroughou t t he whole p er iod w ere c aused b y t he a ct ion o f t he e xogenous f actors a lready d iscussed r a ther t han a ny p hysica l c hanges i nh u man p opu la t ion . The e xcava ted r e ma ins o f Ro mano-Br i t ish t owns ofer s evera l c lues t o u rban p opu la t ion .7 9 The s ize o f p ubl ic b u i ld ings s uch a s b a ths, amph i thea tres , a renas a nd b asil icas may b e r ela ted t o t he n umbers o f i nhab i tan ts i n at own . The amph i thea tre a tS i lchester , f or e xamp le, s ea ted a bou t 2 ,700 p eop le. I f t h is n u mber c orresponded t o t he t own 's a du l t i nhab i tan ts, t hen i t s p opu la t ion w ou ld b e b etween t wo a nd t hree t imes 2 ,700. 8 0

A c arefu l measure o f t he

a rea o f e ach h ouse i n ac i ty w ou ld b e t he b est i nd ica t ion o f p opu la t ion c a lcul a ted f ro m l i v ing a rea .

8 1

h as b een t h is i n tens ive.

Un fortuna tely n one o f t he e xcava t ions c onduc ted Ac ruder measure o f u rban p opu lat ion c an b e made

b y c o mpu t ing t he a rea e nclosed b y ac i ty 's wa l ls, o r , f or a n u nwa l led t own , t he b oundry marked o u t b y b ur ia l s i tes a nd i ndustr ia l w orks , t hen mu l t ip ly ing t he e st i ma ted a rea b y a n a verage p opu la t ion d ensi ty. A s tandard ized v a lue f or p re-industr ia lu rban p opu la t ion i s 1 00-200 p ersons/hec tare. 8 2 There a re, h owever , a l most a s many e xcep t ions t o t h is s tandard v a lue a s t here a re p roven e xa mp les.

I n Ro man Br i ta in t he e xcava t ion e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t

h ousing d ensi ty v ar ied s ign if ican t ly f ro m c i ty t o c i ty. Even w i th in ag iven c i ty b oth p opu la t ion a nd a rea o f o ccupa t ion c hanged o ver t ime. Med ieva l York , f or e xa mp le, d oubled i t s p opu la t ion d ur ing a p er iod o f p ro m inence b u t t hen d ec l ined t o af ract ion o f i t s f or mer p opu la t ion w i thou t a l ter ing t he c ircu i t o f i t s Ro man wa l ls. 8 3 G enera l ized p opu la t ion e st i ma tes c o mpu ted f ro m measuremen ts o f a rea a nd s tandard ized p opu la t ion d ensit ies mus t b e t rea ted w i th g rea t c au t ion . 2 43

C o mparisons b etween t he a reas o f wa l led t owns o f Br i ta in a nd Gau l a nd b etween Br i t ish a nd Gau l ish p ubl ic b u i ld ings i nd ica te t ha t t he t wo p rov inces w ere b road ly s im i lar i n t hese r espec ts.

Th is s im i lari ty may e ventua l ly

a l low t he c au t ious a pp l ica t ion o fe v idence f ro m Gau l t o h elp e xp la in c ond it ion s i n Br i ta in .

Ro mano-Br i t ish t owns may a lso b e ma tched a ga inst e arly modern

Engl ish t owns b ounded b y Ro man wa l ls.

Where k nown,, t he n u mber o f i nhab i-

t an ts o ft he l a t ter may b e ac lue t o Ro man p opu la t ion .*4 C onsider ing t he d if f icu l t ies i nvolved , Frere h as made a n a dm irable e st ima te o f t he u rban p opu la t ion o f Ro man Br i ta in :

17 ,000 f or t he l arger t owns

a nd c iv i tas c ap i ta ls, 4 0 ,000 f or t he l arge s et t le men ts o f t he c iv il z one , a nd 4 0 ,000 f or t he i nhab i tants o f t he v ic i —a t o ta l p opu la t ion o f a bou t 2 00 ,000.

8 5

There a re s evera l ways t he f igure f or u rban p opu la t ion may b e u sed t o g enera te a n e st i ma te o f t ota l p opu la t ion .

The u rban p opu la t ion o f B r i ta in i n

t he e arly modern p er iod p robably n ever g rea t ly e xceeded 5% o f t he t o ta l , s o i ts ee ms u n l ikely t ha t t he u rban i nhab i tan ts o f Ro man Br i ta in c o mpr ised more t han 5% o f t he t o ta l p opu la t ion .

8 6

U sing Frere's f igures a nd a l low ing u rban

p opu la t ion t o r epresen t 5% o f t he t o ta l i nhab i tan ts g ives f our m ill ion a s a n o vera l l p opu la t ion ( 200 ,000 = 1 /20 o r 5% o f t o ta l p opu la t ion ).

Even i ft he v ic i

p opu lace i s s ubtrac ted f ro m t he u rban f i gure , t he t ota l p opu la t ion w ou ld b e 3 ,200 ,000 p eop le. Another way t o c a lcu la te t ota l p opu la t ion u sing t he u rban s ta t is t ic i s t o e st i ma te a t o ta l f or n on-agrar ian p opu la t ion a nd e st i ma te t he n u mber o f a grar ian work ers n ecessary t o f eed t h is p opu la t ion .

I ft he a r my a nd i t s d ependen ts

( 70 ,000 ) a re a dded t o t he u rban p opu la t ion ( 200 , 0 00 ) a nd a n e st i ma te f or p eop le i n t rade a nd i ndustry i s a lso i nc luded ( 50 ,000 ) , a n a pprox i ma te n on-agrarian p opu la t ion o f 3 20 ,000 i s i nd ica ted .

F rere c a lcu la ted t ha t ar ura l p opu la t ion

o f 1 ,700 ,000 c ou ld h ave f ed t he n on-agrar ian s ec tor.

8 7

Th is f i gure makes

n o p rov ision f or g ra in e xpor ted , a nd t he r a t io o f n on-agrar ian t o a grar ian p opu la t ion wou ld b e 1 /5 , a n e x tre mely h igh r a t io c o mpared t o o ther p reind ustr ia l e cono m ies.

Th is imp l ied ef ic iency o f Ro mano-Br i t ish a gr icu l ture

i s t oo o p t im ist ic a nd t he o vera l l r ura l p opu la t ion p robably i s u nderes t i ma ted. The a t te mp t t o u se t he v ar ious i l l-assor ted a nd i nadequa te s ources o f l i terary a nd p hysica l e v idence t o c a lcu la te t ota l p opu la t ion h as b een a t ask ' rep lete w i th imponderables.' The r esu l ts a re p red ic tably d iverse a nd s ub jec t t o aw ide marg in o f e rror.

Rang ing b etween t wo m il l ion a nd f our m i l l ion ,

h owever , t he e st i ma tes f or t o ta l p opu la t ion e xceed t he f igures o f e ar l ier s tud ies. Prev ious E st i ma tes o f Ro mano-Br i t ish P opu la t ion Ag rea t v ar iety o f e st i ma tes h ave b een p roposed o ver t he p ast e igh ty y ears. These a re l i sted i n c hronolog ica l o rder b y a u thor : F oord ( 1925 ) 3m i l l ion ; m il l ion ; wood );

Wheeler ( 1930 ) 1 .5 m il l ion ; Russel l ( 1958 ) 0 .3 mi l l ion ;

1m i l l ion .

8 8

Ha l l ( 1895 ) 3 mi l l ion ;

C ol l ingwood ( 1929 ) 0 .5 m i l l ion ;

Randa l l ( 1 930 ) 1 .5

Usher ( 1930 ) 0 .5 m i l l ion ( a f ter Coi l ingF rere ( 1967 ) 2m il l ion ;

Hen ig ( 1975 )

The work o f Frere a nd Ha l l was d iscussed i n a n e arl ier c on tex t

H en ig 's f igure f or Ro man Br i ta in was d educed f ro m a n e st i ma ted t ota l p opulat i on o f t he e n t ire Ro man emp ire.

Russel l 's c a lcu la t ion was b ased o n r ank-size 2 44

t heory a nd t he d ensi ty o f h ousing a nd c i ty a reas. e va lua ted e arl ier.

Both t hese methods w ere

The r e ma in ing e st i ma tes a re b ased o n c erta in c o m mon

a ssu mp t ions, a nd c an b e c onven ien t ly a ssessed a s ag roup . These e arly s tud ies ( CoR ingwood , Foord , Randa l l , Wheeler, Usher ) r el ied h eav i ly o n t he 1 928 Ordnance S urvey map o f Ro man B ri ta in wh ich s howed a p a t tern o f s e t t le men t d istr ibu t ion wh ich h as s ince b een g rea t ly a l tere d . The e xp losion i n t he n umber o f r ecorded s i tes i n t he l ast f ew y ears h as a l ready b een d iscussed.

Th is i ncrease a lone j ust if ies a n u pward r ev ision i n

t he e arly p opu la t ion e s t i ma tes.

Equa l ly i mportan t , h owever, i s t he r e jec t ion

o ft he s et t le men t p a t tern e ndorsed b y t hese e arly s tud ies.

They b el ieved

Ro man s et t le men t t o h ave b een l im i ted i n i t s e x ten t a nd c onf ined t o an arrow r ange o f s o i ls.

The T va l leyward t o r ' f orestward t move men t o f t he Anglo-

S axon , i t was t hough t , f i rst made p ossible g rea ter a gr icul tura l e xp lo i ta t ion a nd p opu la t ion g row th .8 9 B otan ica l e v idence p laces t he i f ores tward , movemen t f i rm ly i n aRo man c on tex t a nd t he g row th i n p opu la t ion a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is move men t s hou ld , t herefore, a lso h ave o ccurred i n t he Ro man p er iod . R o man s et t le men t must n ow b e s een t o h ave w idely e xp lo i ted t he a va ilable l and , a nd t h is c hanged p ercep t ion r equ ires a n i ncrease i n t he p rev ious p opu la t ion e st i ma tes. The e arl ier s tud ies l i nked t he q uest ion o f p opu la t ion t o a gr icu lture b y a rgu ing t ha t Ro mano-Bri t ish f ar m ing p rac t ices p laced a l ow c eil ing o n p otent i a l p opula t ion g row th . Ro man a gr icu l ture h as b een more f avorably c onsidered o f l a te, b u t more i mpor tan tly , d e mograph ic t heory n o l onger c losely l im i ts p opu la t ion s ize b y t h is Ma l thusian l og ic. " On e i ther c oun t , t he e arly p opu lat i on p ro jec t ions s hou ld b e r a ised . Th is r ev iew o ft he o lder e s t i ma tes o f p opul a t ion s uggests t ha t t he h igher t o ta ls w ere more n early c orrec t t han t he l ower f i gures, a nd t ha t t hree m i l l ion p eop le b et ter r epresen ts t he p eak o f Ro manoB r i t ish p opu la t ion t han 3 00 ,000 o r e ven o ne-and-a-ha l f m il l ion . G iven t he r ecen t c hanges i n e v idence a nd t heory , h owever , e ven t he h ighest f i gure may b e b e a n u nderest i ma te. I ndependen t ly o f p rev ious i nvest iga t ions, t he f i nd ings o f t h is s tudy c ons i s ten tly p o in t t o at o ta l p opu la t ion o f more t han t wo m il l ion p eop le f or Ro man B r i ta in . Ca lcu la t ions made f ro m t he l i terary a nd p hysica l s ources , t he b otan ic a l e v idence a nd f i eld s tud ies o ft he s et tle men t p a t terns a l l s upport t h is c onc lusion . The i mp l ica t ions f ro m t he a pp l ied d e mograph ic t heories a re e qua l ly s ign if ican t . A s f ar a s c an b e d eter m ined , t he e xogenous f ac tors c on trol l ing morta l i ty w ere u nusua l ly a usp ic ious i n t he Ro man p eriod f or p opu la t ion g row th . Ap opula t ion w i th e ven t he v ery modest g row th r a te o f4 / 1000 p ersons/year w ou ld d ouble i t s s ize i n 1 75 y ears.

The p osi t ive i n f luence o f h yg iene a nd

p ubl ic o rder , c o inc id ing w i th a n e ra o ff avorable c l i ma te a nd most s ign if ican t o f a l l , ap eriod l argely f ree f ro m g rea t e p ide m ic d isease, w ou ld h ave p rov ided c ond i t ions i n wh ich t he p opu la t ion o f Ro man B ri ta in s hou ld h ave g rown . I t s ee ms r easonable t o c onc lude t ha t f or mer e st i ma tes o f p opu la t ion w ere t oo l ow , a nd t ha t a t i t s p eak , Ro mano-Br i t ish p opu la t ion n umbered b etween t hreg a nd f our m i l l ion p eop le.

2 45

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2 .

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3 .

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9 .

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8 .

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1 3. 1 4.

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2 46

Econ . H ist. Rev ., 2n d

1 5.

H . S . L ucas, ' The Grea t European Fa m ine o f 1 315, 1 316, 1 317 ' , l um 5 ( 1930 ) , 3 43-377 ;

S pecu-

I . K ershaw , ' The Grea t Fa m ine a nd a grarian

c risis i n England 1 315-13 2 2 ', Past a nd Presen t 5 9 ( 1973) , 3 -50. 1 6.

Russel l , ' The Prep lague Popu la t ion o f England , 8 .

1 7.

E . L e Roy L adurie, ' Fa m ine Amenorrhea ( Seventeen th —Twen t ieth Cent uries )' , i n B io logy o f man i n h is tory ( ed . R . Forster a nd 0 . Ranu m : Ba lt i more, 1 975 ) , 1 63f f .

1 8.

I . McGregor, ' Hea l th a nd c o m mun icable d isease i n ar ura l A frican e nv iron men t ' ,

O ikos 2 7

( 1976) , 1 80-92;

Z . S tein , M. S usse, G:Saenger ,

F . Marol la , Fa m ine a nd h u man d evelop men t .

The Du tch h unger w inter

o f 1 944-45 ( New York , 1 975). 1 9 .

N . S cri mshaw , V . Young , ' The r equ ire men ts o f h u man n u trit ion , S cien t if ic American 2 53 ( 1976 ) , 5 0-64;

W. Bonser, The Med ica l Back-

g round o f Anglo-Saxon England ( London , 1 963 ), 3 49-65; c i t., 1 75; 1 969 ).

D . Brothwel l , P . Brothwel l ,

K rause , o p.

F ood i n An t iqu i ty ( London ,

Th is work c i tes a t ota l f i gure o f 2 00 r ecorded f am ines i n England

B etween A . D. 1 0-1850.

J . C. Dru m mond , A . Wi lbraha m , The Engl ish-

man 's Food , AH istory o f F ive Cen turies o f Engl ish D iet ( London , 1 958 ). 2 0 .

Russel l , Prep lague P opu la t ion o f England , 1 8-21.

2 1.

Bonser, o p . c i t., 3 90 ;

C . Wel ls, Bones, Bod ies a nd D isease ( London ,

1 964), 5 67 , 2 2.

Russel l , Prep lague Popula t ion , ' 5 ff .

2 3.

A . App leby , ' D isease o r Fa m ine ? Morta l ity i n Cu mberland a nd West morel and 1 586-1640 ,

Econo m ic H istory Rev iew 2 6 ( 1973) , 4 03-31;

i n Tudor a nd S tuart England 2 4.

( t rans. B . Bray :

E . L e Roy L adur ie, T i mes o f

A H istory o f C l i ma te S ince t he Year 1 000

N ew York , 1 971);

Agricu l ture a nd S et tle men t 2 5.

( S tan ford , 1 978 ).

Wrigley , Popu la t ion a nd H istory , 7 9 ; F east T i mes o f Fa m ine :

Fa m ine

M. L . Parry , C l i mat ic Change

( Ha mden , Conn ., 1 978 ).

A . K eys, The B iology o f Hu man S tarva t ion ( Minneapol is, 1 950 ) , Nol . 1 011.

C ited i n A . App leby , ' Nu trit ion a nd D isease :

The Case o f L ondon ,

1 550-1750 ', J ourna l o f I n terd isc ip l inary H istory V I ( 1975), 1 -22, p .2, n ote 3 . 2 6. 2 7 .

App leby , ' Nu tri t ion a nd D isease,

1 -22.

A , App leby , ' Fa m ine, Morta l i ty , a nd Ep ide m ic D isease :

A Co m men t ,

Econo m ic H istory Rev iew , 2 nd s er. XXX ( 1977 ) , 5 08-12, 5 11. 2 8.

Cha mbers, Popula t ion , Econo my, a nd S oc iety i n Preindustria l England , 8 2;

2 9 .

App leby, ' Nu tri t ion a nd D isease ', 1 9.

R . L ee, ' Popu la t ion I n PreIndustr ia l England :

An Econo metric Ana lysis,

Quarterly J ourna l o f Econo m ics 8 7 ( 1973) , 5 81-607 , 6 06. 3 0.

Cha mbers, 2 p . c i t., c h. 4 .

2 47

3 1.

G . U t terstro m , ' So me Popu la t ion P roble ms i n Preindustr ia l S weden ', S cand inav ian Econo m ic H istory Rev iew , 2( 9 154 ) , 1 03-165, 1 05f f .

3 2.

D . B . Grigg , ' Popu la t ion p ressure a nd a gr icu l tura l c hange', P rogress i n G eography 8 ( 1976) , 1 33-76 ;

Gr igg , ' Es ter Boserup 's t heory o f

a grarian c hange' , Progress i n Hu man G eography 3 ( 1979 ) , 6 4-84 ; E . Boserup , The c ond i t ions o f a gr icu l tura l g row th :

t he e cono m ics o f

a grarian c hange u nder p opula t ion p ressure ( London , 19 65 ); ' The impac t o f p opu la t ion g row th o n a grar ian o u tpu t ',

B oserup ,

Quarter ly J ourna l

o f Econo m ics 8 9 ( 1975 ) , 2 57-70 . 3 3.

J . L iversidge, B rita in i n . t he Ro man Emp ire ( London , 1 973 ) , 3 23f f ; Bonser, o p . c it ., 3 4 f . Bonser c on ta ins a g ood b ibl iography. C f .

3 4.

Russel l , ' Prep lague P opu la t ion ' , 5 ;

McK eown , o p . c it ., 8 1f f ;

b orough , Ro man Med ic ine ( London , 19 69 ) ; Med ic ine 3 5.

J . S car-

S . Rub in , Med ieva l E ngl ish

A . D. 5 00-1300 ( New York , 1 974 ).

H . S . Wel lco me, Anglo-Saxon L eechcra f t

( London , 1 912) , 1 1, There

a re a n umber o f a rt ic les i n Med ica l H istory i n t he med ica l s erv ice o f t he Ro man a r my , 1 01-6;

R . W. Dav is , ' So me Ro man Med ic ine ', 1 4 ( 1970 ) ,

J . S carborough , ' Ro man Med ic ine a nd t he L eg ions:

s idera t ion ', Vol . 1 2 ( 1968 ) 2 54-61; Ar my : 3 6.

AR econ-

V . N u t ton , ' Med ic ine a nd t h e Ro man

af ur ther r econsidera t ion ' , Vol . 1 3 ( 1969 ), 2 60-270.

L ord Amu lree, ' Hyg iene C ond i t ions i n Anc ien t Ro me a nd Modern L ondon ' , Med ica l H istory 1 7 ( 19 73) , 2 44-55;

F . F . Cartwr igh t , D isease a nd

H istory , 3 7.

Bonser , o p . c i t ., 3 69f ., 5 3;

E . T . Renbourn , Ma teria ls And C loth ing

I n Hea l th And D isease H istory , Physiology And H yg iene 1 3-16.

( London , 19 72) ,

Hyg iene must h ave ofset t o s o me e x ten t t he i ncreased r isk o f

c on tag ion a ssoc ia ted w i th t own a nd v i l lage l i fe a nd a n i ncreasing ly d ense p opu la t ion .

C f . T . A . Cockburn , ' I n fec t ious d iseases i n a nc ien t p opu la-

t i ons' , Curren t An thropology 1 2 ( 1971). 3 8.

B onser, The Med ica l Background o f A ng lo-Saxon England , 3 69 f f ; Ta lbot , Med ic ine i n Med ieva l Eng land

3 9.

C . H .

( London , 1 967 ) , 1 44-58.

Quoted i n L .J . Bruce-Chwa t t , ' A Med ieva l G lor if ica t ion o f D isease a nd D ea th ' , Med ica l H istory 1 6 ( 19 72 ) , 7 6 ff .

4 0.

App leby , ' Fa m ine , Morta l ity , a nd Ep ide m ic D isease ', 5 12;

W. H . Mc-

N ei l l , P lagues a nd P eop les ( New York , 1 976 ) , 19-24. 4 1.

Am m ianus Marcel l inus.

XVIT I ., 2 , 2 -4;

R ickman ,Ro man Granar ies

( Ca mbr idge, 1 971). 4 2.

4 3.

H . H . L amb , The B iolog ica l S ign if icance o f C l i ma t ic Changes i n B ri ta in ( London , 19 65 ) , 5 ; M .L . Parry , o p . c i t ., 7 3. Parry , o p . c i t ., 1 43;

H . H . L amb , C l i ma te P resen t ,

Past a nd Future,

I ( London , 19 77 ) 4 72f. 4 4.

H . H . L a mb , C l i ma te Presen t Past a nd Fu ture, I , 4 24-35.

4 5.

Chambers, o p . c i t ., 8 2;

App leby , t Nu tr it ion a nd D isease', 1 9 . 2 48

4 6.

C . F . Mu l let , The Bubon ic P lague i n England ( Lex ing ton , K y., 1 956), 1 2f ;

R . Hare, ' The An t iqu i ty o f D isease Caused b y Bacteria a nd V iruses.

A Rev iew o f t he Proble m f ro m a Bacteriolog ist 's p oin t o f v iew ' , i n D iseases i n An t iqu i ty ( ed . D . Brothwel l , A . T . S and ison , C . Tho mas, S pringf ield , I1., 1 967 , 1 15-31. 4 7 .

Mc Keown , o p . c i t ., 8 2;

McNeil l , o p . c i t ., 1 23;

Hare, o p. c it ., 1 17 ;

Cartwr igh t , o p. c i t., 1 13-36. 4 8.

Ada m Pa trick , ' D isease i n An t iqu ity :

Anc ien t Greece a nd Ro me ' i n

Brothwel l , o p. c i t ., 2 38-46. 4 9. .

Pa trick , o p. c i t., 2 45f.

5 0 .

A . Cast igl ion i, A H istory o f Med ic ine ( t rans.

E . B . K ru mbhaar :

L ondon ,

1 947 ). 5 1.

J . N . B iraben , J . L e Gof f , ' The P lague i n t he Early Midd le Ages' i n Forster a nd Ranu m , o p. c i t., 4 8-80 ;

Bonser, o p. c i t ., 5 1-94.

The

e xcep t ion i n Brita in i s t he f i f th c en tury p lague men t ioned b y G ildas, De Exc id io 2 2. j ere m iad .

Accuracy a nd c hronology a re d if icu l t t o a ssess f or t h is

I ft he e p ide m ic e x isted , i t was e v iden tly n ot s evere e nough

t o mod ify t he Bri tons a c t ions. e vents ( Ec. H ist . 1 . 1 4).

B ede l i nks t he p es t i lence t o C on t inen ta l

I t may h ave b een a p ande m ic.

I fs o, t he p lague

f ree p er iod f or t he west must b e r educed t o ac en tury. C f . I sa iah ) (XI I , 1 2, 1 3. 5 2.

Bonser, The Med ica l Background o f Anglo +axon England , 5 1.

5 3.

J . C . Russel l , ' Recen t Advances i n Med ieva l De mography ' , S pecu lu m 4 0 ( 1965) , 8 4f f , 8 7.

5 4.

P . J . C . A tk inson , ' The De mograph ic Imp l ica t ions o f F ieldwork ' , ( P . Fowler :

5 5.

F ield S urvey i n Bri t ish Archaeology , 1 971).

H . R . L oyn , Anglo-Saxon England a nd t he Nor man C onquest ( London , 1 962), 3 6.

5 6.

Ordnance S urvey , F ield Archaeology i n Grea t Br ita in 5 th e dn . ( Sou tha mpt on , 1 973), 1 06f .

5 7 .

C . Taylor, ' Ro man S ett le men ts i n t he N ene Va l ley :

t he impac t o f r ecen t

a rchaeology' , i n Recen t Work i n Rura l Archaeology ( ed . P . Fow ler, Bradford-on-Avon , 1 975), 1 07-19 , 1 17. 5 8. 5 9 .

Taylor, o p. c i t., 1 13. i bid

1 18;

N . J . H igha m , ' Con t inu ity S tud ies I n The F irst Mil len iu m

A . D. I n North Cu mbria ' , N orthern H istory XIV ( 1978 ) 1 -17 ;

G . J obey,

' No tes o n s o me Popu la t ion Proble ms i n The Area Between The Two Wa l ls' , Arch , Ael iana , 5s er. 2 ( 1974 ), 1 7-26;

G . J obey , r Ho mesteads a nd

S et tle men ts o f t he f ron t ier a rea ' , i n Rura l S ett le men t i n Ro man Br ita in ( ed. C . Tho mas, L ondon , 1 966 ) , 1 -13. 6 0 .

Taylor, ' Ro man S ett le men t i n t he N ene Va l ley ' , 1 16.

2 49

6 1.

D . D . Bart ley , r Pa laeobotan ica l Ev idence' i n Med ieva l S et t le men t Cont i nu i ty a nd Change ( ed. P . S awyer, L ondon , 1 976 ) , 2 26-235. al arge l i tera ture o n t h is s ub jec t.

There i s

Trans. I nst itute o f Brit ish G eographers

N ew Phy tolog ist a nd t he J ourna l o f Ecology f requen tly c arry a rt icles. 6 2.

* Russel l , Popu la t ion i n Europe 5 00-1500' , 2 6f .

6 3.

S . J . Ha l la m , ' Set tle men t Round t he Wash ' , i n The F en land i n Ro man T i mes R . G . S . Research S eries: 1 970 ) , 2 2-113, 7 if f.;

n o. 5 ( ed . C . W. Ph il l ips, L ondon ,

C . Tho mas, ' The Charac ter a nd Orig ins o f

Ro man Du mnon ia ', i n Tho mas , o p. c i t., 7 4-98. 6 4.

• Brian K . Roberts, Rura l S et t le men t i n Brita in ( London , 1 977 ) , 2 9-31.

6 5.

P . H . S awyer, Fro m Ro man Br ita in t o Nor man England ( London , 1 978 ) , 1 48.

6 6.

H igha m , o p. c i t ., 5 ff ;

M. L . Fau ll , ' Ro man a nd Ang l ian S et t le men t

Pa t terns i n Yorksh ire' , N orthern H istory D ( ( 1974) , 6 ;

H . T insley ,

' Cul tura l i n f luences o n Penn ine v egeta t ion w i th p art icu lar r eference t o N orth Yorksh ire'

I nst . Brit. Geog., 1 ( 1976 ); 3 10-22.

67.

Ha l le m , o p. c it ., 7 1,

6 8.

Caesar c a l led Bri ta in d ensely i nhab i ted i n h is d escr ip t ion . 4 , 2 0-38 a nd 5 , 1 -23.

Ga l l ic War

The o ther e arly r eferences i nclud ing C icero a nd

S trabo a re c onven ien tly c ol lec ted i n t ransla t ion i n ( eds ) J . C . Mann , R . G . Pen man , L i terary S ources For Ro man Br i ta in ( L ondon , 1 977 ). 6 9.

The L oeb e d i tor a d judges t he f i gure worth less. h ad u se o f a n o f f ic ia l s ource. L ondon , 1 974), 2 97 ;

7 0.

i b id ., 2 97 ;

F rere t h inks Tac itus

S . Frere , Br i tann ia ( Card inal e dn .,

Tac i tus, Anna ls, 1 4, 2 9-39 ;

D io , 6 2, 1 , 1 -2.

H . H . S cu l lard , Ro man Br i ta in Ou tpost o f t he E mp ire ( Lon-

d on , 1 979 ) , 9 7f f . 7 1.

J . C . Russel l , Med ieva l Reg ions a nd t heir C it ies ( I nd iana , 1 972 ) , 1 21f f. For a c rit ique o f t h is method s ee T . H . Hol l ingswor th , H is tor ica l De mog raphy ( Cornel l , 1 969 ), 2 67.

7 2.

C . P . F itz Gera ld , ' A N ew Est i ma te o f t he Ch inese Popula t ion u nder t he T 'ang Dynasty i n 6 18 A .D.

The Ch ina J ourna l 1 6 ( 1932) , 5 -14, 6 2-72;

Hol l ingswor th , o p. c i t., 2 55;

I . Hodder , M. Hassa l l , ' The n on-ran-

d om s pac ing o f Ro mano-Br i t ish wa l led t owns ' , Man 6 ( 1971), 3 91-407; M. Mil let ' The n a t ive t o wns o f Ro man Br i ta in ', Curren t Archaeo logy 5( 1975/76 ), 1 34-8. 7 3.

Hol l ingsworth , o p. c it ., 2 27f f .

7 4.

A . Ha l l , ' Popu la t ion o f Ro man Bri ta in ' , Notes a nd Quer ies s er. 8 , 8 ( 1895), 1 48.

7 5.

Hol l ingsworth , o p. c i t., 2 72f f .

7 6.

G . Ascad i , J . N e mesleri , H istory o f Hu man L ife S pan a nd Morta l i ty ( Budapest , 1 970 ).

2 50

7 7 .

D . R. Brothwel l , Ta laeode mography i , i nB iolog ica l Aspects o f De mog raphy ( ed. W. B rass , L ondon , 1 971) , 1 11-3 0 ;

Brothwel l , Pa laeode mo-

g ra phy a nd e arl ier Brit ish p opu la t ions' , World Archaeology 4 ( 1972/73 ), 7 5-87. 7 8.

J . S zilagy i , ' Bei trage z ur s ta t ist ik d er S terbl ichkeit i n d er Westeuropa isc hen Prov inzen d es Ro m ischen Imperiu m ,, Acta Arch. Acad . S c ien t iaru m Hungaricae 1 3 ( 1961) , 1 26-56;

G . A scad i , 2E . c i t

2 25ff ;

C ipol la ,

Econo m ic H istory o f World Popu la t ions, 8 7. 7 9.

For a g ood i n troduc t ion s ee, R . P . Duncan-Jones, ' Ci ty Popu la t ion i n Ro man A frica ' , J ourna l o f Ro man S tud ies 5 3 ( 1963) , 8 5-100.

8 0.

F rere, o p. c it., 2 97.

8 1.

For c o mparison s ee, R . Narol l , ' Floor a rea a nd s et tle men t p opu lat ion ', American An t iqu i ty 2 7 ( 19 62) , 5 87f f.

8 2.

J . C . Russel l , L a te Ancient a nd Med ieva l Popula t ion ( Trans. Amer. Ph ilosoph ica l S oc.

8 3.

4 8 ( 1958 ) , 6 8.

A . L . F . R ivet , Town a nd C oun try i n Ro man Bri ta in , 2 nd e dn. ( London , 1 964), 8 9 ;

J . N . Bartlet t , ' The e xpansion a nd d ecl ine o f York i n t he

l ater Midd le Ages ' , Econo m ic H istory Rev iew 1 2 ( 1959-60 ), 1 7-33. 8 4.

S . Frere, ' Verula m iu m a nd t he t owns o f Brita in ', i n Au fst ieg u nd N iederg ang d er Ro m ischen Wel t , I ( 3 ) , ( ed. H . Te mporin i , Berl in , 1 975), 2 90 3 27 .

8 5.

F rere, Britann ia , 3 48f .

8 6.

C . Pla t t , The Engl ish Med ieva l Town ( Pa lad in e dn ., L ondon , 1 979 ) , 1 9 ; J . Cornwa ll , ' Eng l ish c oun try t owns i n t he f if teen t wen t ies ', Econo m ic H istory Rev iew , 2 nd s er. 1 5 ( 1962-63) , 6 1.

8 7.

Frere, o p. c it ., 3 50.

8 8.

Hal l , o p. c it ., 1 48 ; 1 925), 6 6-8 ;

E . Foord , The L ast Age o f Ro man Bri ta in ( London ,

R . G . Col l ingwood , ' Town a nd Coun try i n Ro man Br ita in ',

An t iqu i ty 3 ( 29 ) , 2 61-76. a lso Ro man Brita in a nd t he Engl ish S ett le men ts ( w ith J . N . L . Myres, Ox ford , 2 nd e dn., 1 937 ), 1 74ff .

C ol l ingwood a dds

0 .5 mi l l ion n a t ives t o t he r o man ized p opu la t ion t o t o ta l 1 mi l lion .

H . J .

Randa l l , Popu la t ion a nd Agr icu l ture i n Ro man Brita in , A Rep ly ', An t iqu i ty 4 ( 1930 ) , 8 0-90 ; Mr. Randal l :

R . E . M. Wheeler, ' Mr. Col l ingwood a nd

an ote ', An t iqu i ty 4 ( 1930 ) , 9 1f f .;

A . P . U sher ,

A N ew

Est i ma te o f t he Popula t ion o f Brita in i n Ro man T i mes ', The Geograph ica l Rev iew 2 0 ( 19 30 ) , 6 74-76; Popula t ion 8 5ff .;

J . C . Russel l , L a te Anc ien t And Med ieva l

Frere, Br itann ia , 3 50 ;

M. Hen ig , ' Archaeology a nd

t he C lassica l Mind ', i n The Or ig ins o f Europe ( ed. D . Col l ins, N ew York , 1 976 ) , 2 17-80 , 2 30. 8 9 .

Coll ingwood , Ro man Br i ta in a nd t he Engl ish S et tle men ts, 17 8.

9 0.

A . L . F . R ivet , ' The Rura l Econo my o f Ro man Bri ta in ', i n Te mporin i , o p. c i t., 3 29-363.

2 51

MEAN WHILE I N NORTH I TALY AND CYRE NAICA ..* b y R . S . 0 . To m l in

Fro m n or thern Br i ta in , t he l eg ion wh ich c urbs t he S co ts And r eads t he t a t toos d y ing o n aP ict ish c orpse was d ra f ted t o n or thern I t a ly , t o r esist t he V isiogo th ic i nvas ion o f4 01.

Iam

n o t g o ing t o d iscuss wha t t roop move men t , i fa ny , i s i nd ica ted b y C laud ian 's l ines. 1 I nstead , Iam g o ing t o f ol low t hat ' l eg ion ' t o N or th I t a ly , t o s ee wha t o ther p rov inces f el t d ur ing t he e ven ts w h ich b rought Ro man Br ita in t o a n e nd . Iam t ak ing t h is mo men t t o b e —conven t iona l ly—dur ing 4 08/9 , when t he S axons f irst t r ied t o s et t le b y f orce , a nd t he l oca l p opu la t ion t hrew o f f i t s a l leg iance t o t he c en tra l g overnmen t , whether t ha t o f Constan t ine I I o r Honor ius ( or b o th )• 2 Th is i s a mo men t when b arbar ian i nvas ions i n s o me a reas w ere s t il l a n u np leas an t n ove l ty , a nd o btrude i n t he s er mons a nd c orrespondence o f a r t icu late c ont e mporar ies . 3 Ih ope t h is i s at r ip wor th mak ing , a cross t he Emp ire i n t he f i rst d ecade o f t he f i f th c en tury , u nder t he g u idance o f ab ishop o f Tur in , a nd a n ama teur p h i losopher who b eca me a rchb ishop o f L ibya.

N o t w i th t he i n ten t ion o f e scap ing

f rom R o man Br ita in , b u t t o s uggest w ha t w e m igh t f ind was h appen ing t here , i fo n ly w e p ossessed c on te mporary r ecord.

Was Br ita in t oo r e mo te t o p roduce ,

a nd k eep , e duca ted men ( I am t h ink ing o f Pe lag ius ) who m igh t h ave c o m men ted o n e ven ts a s t hey o ccurred?

Can we l ook e lsewhere f or f ac tors i n t he c o l lapse

o f Roman a u thor ity i n Br i ta in—the g row ing a u thor ity o fb ishops;

a pa thy a nd

e ven c o l labora t ion i n t he f ace o f i nvas ion ; e ven , p erhaps, ama teur r es istance ? I f r es istance, t hen h ow c ou ld i tb e o rgan ised , a nd wha t were i t s p rospects o f s uccess?

Iwou ld l ike t o s uggest p ara l lels; b u t p ara l lel l ines n ever meet , a nd

Iam a fra id Iw i l l o n ly p o in t , b y c on trast , t o t he p overty o f o ur r ecord i n f i f thc en tury Br ita in .

The s pec ia l ist whose i n terest i n Ro man Br ita in d oes n o t e x-

t end b eyond t he i s land c an s a fely i gnore wha t f o l lows :

Ib eg in w ith N or th I ta ly ,

when t ha t ' l eg ion ' a l leged ly a rr ived f rom Br ita in . A t Tur in , . t he b ishop , whose n a me was Max i mus, was r eassur ing h is f lock : You may b e t roubled , my b rethren , t ha t w e k eep h ear ing o f t u mu lts o f war a nd i nvas ion ; a nd y our d evo t ion may b e t roubled why t h is s hou ld h appen i n o ur t ime.

Th is i s t he r eason :

t he n earer w e a re

t o t he End o f t he Wor ld , t he n earer w e a re t o t he S av iour 's k ingdo m. For t he L ord H i msel f s ays : " In t he l ast d ays , n a t ion s ha l l r ise a ga inst n a t ion , a nd k ingdo m a ga inst k ingdo m. And when y e s ee wars a nd e ar thquakes a nd f am ine , k now y e t ha t t he k ingdo m o f God i s n igh a t h and".

4

2 53

More t han a h undred o f Max i mus ' s er mons s urv ive , c arefu l ly c o mposed i n L a t in o f a l most c lassica l p ur ity ;o n ly n ine o f t he m a l lude t o b arbar ian i nvasion , wh ich i s t ha t o f t he V isigo ths i n4 01/2, o r p erhaps o f t he O strogo ths i n4 06. Though t he p roble m was r ea l e nough , o ne c anno t h e lp f eel ing t ha t s ome n orth I t a l ian b ishops r egarded i ta s ap ass ing n u isance. Max i mus ' c on te mporary , Gauden t ius, who was b ishop o f Bresc ia i n t he p er iod 3 96/406, makes o n ly t wo a l lusions t o t he i nvasions i nh is t wen ty-one s urv iv ing s er mons.

I n d ed ica t ing

an ew c hurch , h e r egret ted t hat t he t i reso me b arbar ians h ave r obbed u s o f most o f o ur a ud ience t h is d ay , s ince t hey h ave k ep t a way t he o ther b ishops w ho m we e xpected t o a t tend .5 These m igh t a l most b e t he words o f t he v icar a t av i l lage r ete , r egret t ing t ha t r a in h as made t he g o ing d if icu l tf or t he e gg a nd s poon r ace. And wha t d o we make o f Chro ma t ius, b ishop o f Aqu ile ia , o n t he d irect l ine o f t he V is igo th ic i nvas ion? Here h e i sb e ing a ddressed b y o ne o f h is c lergy , t he s cho lar Ru f inus : When d angerous e p ide m ics a re a broad , t hey s ay e xper ienced d octors p rescr ibe r e med ies. You t oo , Reverend F a ther , h ave s ough t a r e medy f or t h is p lague o f Go ths wh ich h as p oured i n to I taly t hrough i t s s ha t tered d efences, a nd d evasta ted t he c oun trys ide ; t o c ure y our c ongrega t ion 's o bsession w i th t he ir c urren t e v ils, a nd t o e ncourage b et ter i n terests, y ou h ave g iven me t he t ask o f t ransla t ing E useb ius ' Church H istory f ro m t he Greek .

My r eaders w i l l b e s o e ager t o

f ind wha t h appens n ex t , t ha t t hey w il l s omehow f orget t he ir o wn t roubles .6 S o mehow.

Bu t why d id Ru f inus f a il t o t ransla te t he e ncourag ing—or o ver-

o p t im ist ic ?—pred ic t ion f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he H istory? When t he a dven t o f o ur S av iour J esus Chr ist r ecen t ly s hed i t s l i ght o n a l l men , i t was a dm it ted ly a n ew p eop le—no t sma l l o r w eak o r e stabl ished i n s o me r e mo te c orner o f t he e ar th , b u t t he mos t n u me rous a nd God-fear ing o f a l l p eop les, i ndestruct ib le a nd i nv inc ible i nt ha t f or a l l t ime i tr ece ives God 's h e lp—tha t a t t he myst ica l ly a ppo in ted t ime a l l a t o nce a ppeared , ap eop le h onoured b y a l l w ith t he n a me o f Chr ist .7 Bu t t o r eturn t o t he s er mons o f Max i mus. r ea l a nx iety .

Th is w as c learly a t ime o f

Apar t f ro m g eneral r eferences t o as ta te o f f ear , h e r e fers i n

p ar t icu lar t o r ich p eop le p repar ing t o f l ee; a nd o thers r esor t ing t o w itchcraf t , i n t he b e l ief t ha t t he e ne my 's v ic tor ies were d ue t o t he b lack a r ts .8 T here was a n e cl ipse o ft he moon , a nd i ti s o bv ious t ha t p opu lar a stronomy h ad n o t a dv anced s ince t he mu t iny o f t he Pannon ian l eg ions f our c en tur ies b efore : S o me d ays a go , w hen Ih ad r epr i manded y ou f or y our a var ice a nd c up id i ty , t here w as a n o ise t ha t e ven ing , w hose b lasphe my r eached Heaven i t se lf . Iwas t o ld y ou w ere s hou t ing t o h elp t he moon i ni t s l abour , a nd Ism i led a t y our v an ity , t ha t b el iev ing C hr ist ian s c ou ld s uppose God n eeded t h is h elp. 9

2 54

E f for ts w ere made t o r estore t he c ity 's d efences ( t o wh ich Is ha l l r eturn ), b u t s o me p eop le a c tua l ly c o l labora ted w ith t he i nvaders.

I n d enounc ing Avar ice ,

Max i mus h ad t h is t o s ay : " You s ha l l n o t t ouch wha t i s t orn w ith b easts".

S o t el l me , Chr ist ian ,

why y ou p resu me t o t he p lunder o f t he r a iders.

You h ave n o t b ought

i t :

c onsider who t he v endor i s , a nd wha t y ou h ave p a id , a nd y ou w i l l

s ee y ou a re a n a cco mp l ice i n t hef t , n o t ap urchaser. b arbar ian f ind g o ld , a nd j ewe l n eck laces? s laves?

Where d oes a

Where d oes h e g et Ro man

They b elong t o y our f e l low-c i t izens , a nd i ti s y our d u ty a s

a Chr ist ian a nd c i t izen t o b uy t he m—and g ive t he m b ack . 1° I n t h is s er ious momen t , Max i mus c ou ld f ind c onso la t ion : Th is l i fe i s f u l l o f s uch e v i ls, t ha t d ea th b y c o mpar ison must b e c on s idered a r e medy , n o t ap un ish men t .

God made t h is l i fe b r ief ,

t ha t i t s t roub les s hou ld b e t er m ina ted b y i t s b rev ity , s ince b y mor ta l p rosper ity t hey c anno t .

1 1

I n a ny c ase , a s w e h ave s een , t hese t roubles i nd ica ted t he a pproach ing End o f t he Wor ld. To h ave r eserva t ions, mean t h av ing r eserva t ions a bou t t he Herea f ter.

One s hou ld t urn o ne 's t houghts f rom s e lf-defence t o t he p rospec t o f

t he L ast J udge men t : The w ise man , wh i le h e wa tches t he c ity a u thor it ies i n t h is t ime o f g enera l p an ic p repar ing t o d efend t he wa l ls , h im self i s a d mon ished h ow t o p repare d e fences f or Chr ist ian s ou ls.

We a re s ee ing t he c ity

g ates b e ing s et i n r ead iness, a nd we o ugh t f i rst t o s e t u p t he g a tes o f J ust ice w i th in u s... . There i s n o s ense i n p ro tec t ing o urse lves w i th b ast ions a nd b a t t le men ts, w hen we p rovoke God w ith o ur s ins. For t hey a re t h ings o f i ron , s tone , a nd t imber ; b u t J ust ice i s a r med w i th mercy , i nnocence , a nd c hast ity ; t hey a re g uarded b y weapons, b u t s he b y p rayer. S o , my b re thren , l e t u s a rm o urse lves w ith h eaven ly a r mour a ga inst t he c om ing J udge men t o f t he Wor ld ; l e t u s p u t o n t he b reastp la te o f F a i th a nd t he h el met o f S a lva t ion , a nd l e t u s p ro tect o urs e lves w ith t he sword o f t he S p ir it , wh ich i s t he word o f God .

He

who i s a r med w ith t hese weapons n eed n o t f ear p resen t t roubles, n or t he J udge men t t o c o me. 1 2 The b ishop c o mb ines t wo d if feren t i deas : o ne , t ha t c onven t iona l s el fd efence i s p o in t less, b ecause t he l ast J udge men t a nd t he c hance o f Heaven a re wha t ma tters; a nd t he o ther , t ha t ' mora l r ear ma men t ' must a cco mpany t hese p ract ical measures —and t ha t God w i l l o n ly s ave a c i ty wh ich i s v ir tuous a nd r ep en tan t. Ih ave o f ten s a id , a s Ir e me mber , t ha t w e n eed n o t f ear t hese t u mu l ts o f war , n or d read t he e ne my 's n u mbers, h owever g reat , s ince t hus s ays t he L ord : wor ld".

" Grea ter i s h e t ha t i s i n y ou , t han h e t ha t i s i n t he

Th is i s t o s ay :

Chr ist i s more a ble t o s ave H is s ervan ts 2 55

t han t he D ev i l t o r ouse u p t he ir a dversar ies.

Even t hough t he D ev il

c o l lects h is mobs a nd a r ms t he m w ith f renzied c rue l ty , y et a re t hey e asi ly d estroyed , s ince t he S av iour s urrounds H is p eop le w i th b etter a ids. F or t he p rophe t s ays : " The Angel o f t he L ord e nca mps a round t he m t ha t f ear H im , a nd h e w il l s ave t hem" . And i ft he Ange l o f t he L ord s aves t he m , t hen h e who h as f eared t he L ord c anno t f ear t he b arbar ian ; a nd h e who k eeps t he t each ing o f Chr ist w il l b e k ep t f ro m t he e ne my 's o nslaugh t. For t he t each ing o f C hr ist i s a Chr ist ian 's a r ms : p rayer , mercy , f ast ing. t han a wa l l ;

For f ast ing i s ab et ter p ro tec t ion

mercy l i bera tes u s; p rayer s tr ikes f ur ther t han a n

a rrow .1 3 You f ind t he s a me i deas i n t he e nd less v erses o fS t. Pau l inus, b ishop o f N o la , a sma l l t own n ear N ap les. Pau l inus was a Ga l l ic l andowner who r enounced ag l it ter ing world ly c areer , t o s erve t he s hr ine o f a n o bscure mar tyr , S t . F el ix .1 4

On t he S a in t 's Day i n F ebruary 4 02, a t as afe d istance f ro m n or th

I t a ly , h e c o mfor ted h is f l ock : Th ink o f o ur s a in ted a ncestors, w ho s uf fered The l ash o f war f or t he ir s ins : t hey d id n o t t h ink O f a rm ing t he mse lves, o r b u i ld ing wa l ls t o p ro tec t t he m. To h ope f or s afety i nh uman h elp i s u nsafe ; Mor ta l weapons d o n o t f end o f f d ea th.

O thers, who d o n o t t rust i n Chr ist 's s a lva t ion May t rust i n l eg ions a nd r e furb ished wa l ls; We s ign o urselves w ith t he Unconquered Cross. We may s ee m u nar med , b u t we a re a rmed a ga inst S p ir i tua l e ne m ies. We n eed God o ur h elper , Withou t w ho m , a rms f a il ; w i th whom , t hey a re s treng thened , H i msel f o ur c i tade l , o ur wa l l i n o pen c oun try . S t. F e l ix w i l l i n tercede f or N o la : Pray f or u s, t ha t Chr ist b e o n o ur s ide : He i s t he God who a rrested s un a nd moon f or J oshua. When God b lesses t he Ro man Emp ire f or y ou , F el ix , Make t he e le men ts s erve u s; l eng then d ay l ight , Make s un a nd moon s tand s t il l , t he s tars i n t he ir c ourses, Un t i l Ro me 's v ic tory i s a ccomp l ished. Th is was e asy f or S t. Fe l ix .

He h ad a lready c ast o u t ad ev il , a nd d iver ted a

moun ta in s trea m t ha t t hrea tened t o w ash away h is c hurch : Turn t he r iver o f war f ro m o ur h o mes, a nd s acr i leg ious h ands F ro m y our s acred p rec inct , whose r a mpar t i s y our Grace. A s t he d e mons d o , l e t t he e nemy f ear y our c hurch. L e t n o tb lood s ta in wha t f i re a nd wa ter s pare. 1 5 2 56

I t m igh tb e e asy t o a rgue f ro m t h is t ha t t he Ro man p opu la t ion was d e mora l ised , a pa the t ic i n t he f ace o fb arbar ian i nvas ion , t aught b y i t s b ishops t o e xpect d iv ine a id , o r e ven , t ha t t hese wor ld ly e ven ts d id n o t ma t ter. Th is wou ld b e t oo s i mp le . An i dea l o f Chr ist ian p a tr io t is m d id e x ist. A f ew y ears e arl ier , S t. Ambrose , i n wr it ing t o t he b ishop o f n earby N ap les, made t he p o in t t ha t Chr ist ian c on te mp la t ion was p oss ible o n ly f ar a way f ro m b arbar ian t umu l t : Your c oast l ine i s f ar r e moved f rom d anger , e ven t he s ound o f i t , a nd i n fuses t ranqu i l l i ty i n to t he s enses .. f or a m ind wh ich i s f ree f ro m b arbar ian i ncursions a nd t he b i t terness o fb a t t les, i s a va ilable f or p rayer a nd t he s erv ice o f God .. Bu t we a re e xposed t o b arbar ian move men ts a nd t he s tor ms o f war , we a re t ossed o n as ea o ft roubles; a nd f ro m o ur p resen t t roubles a nd d angers f or m a g loo m ier p icture o f t he d angers o f t he f u ture. 1 6 For Ambrose , c ourage w as among t he c ard inal v ir tues : h is e xamp les i nclude t he d e fence i n war o f o ne 's c oun try f ro m b arbar ians .1 7

One h ad a p osi t ive

d u ty t o d efend o thers, r a ther t han e n joy a s el f ish s ecur ity : N a tura l a f fec t ion p ersuades u s t o wa tch o ver o thers, t o e ndure h ards h ip a nd l abour.

I ti s g lor ious f or t he i nd iv idua l t o s eek t he c om mon

p eace a t h is o wn r isk ; a nyone wou ld r a ther s ave h is c oun try f rom d estruct ion , t han h i mself ; a nd h e wou ld t h ink i tb e t ter t o s erve h is c oun try , t han t o l i ve a l i fe o f p leasure i n r et ire men t. 1 8 Max i mus c o m mended a p a tr io t i fh e was p ious.

One o f Honor ius ' g enera ls

h ad b u i l t ac hurch : Th is of icer i s aw ise man a nd r el ig ious, who s o ld iers f or t he S av iour i n p eacet i me a s much a s f or t he Emperor i n war ;

h is z ea l i n r escu-

i ng e ne my c ap t ives i s n o g rea ter t han h is z ea l t o l i bera te t he D ev il 's c ap t ives f rom t he ir b lasphe my.

He h as k i l led t he e ne m ies o f o ur

e ar thly k ing , a nd p ursues t he a dversar ies o f t he L ord o f Heaven .

He

v anqu ishes b arbar ians —and d e mons. A w ise man , It e l l y ou , t o b e ag enera l o ft he Emperor a nd t o l ong t o b e ag enera l o f Chr ist . 19 The s a me mo t if r ecurs o n ag rander s ca le i n a no ther s ermon , i n a n i mp l ic it c ompar ison b e tween a t r iumphan t emperor , a nd E l i jah a scend ing t o Heaven i n h is f i ery c har iot : He was t he c onqueror , n o t o fb arbar ian p eop les, b u t o f wor ld ly p leasures, s ince im mora l h ab its a re more d ead ly t han o pen e ne m ies. We s hou ld r ea l ise t ha t a t t h is t ime i ti s more e asy t o o verco me o ur e ne m ies ' ma l ice , t han o ur own i m mora l i ty . 20 The a ccen t i s a lways o n s p ir i tual a rmamen t.

The man who t r ies t o d efend

h is c i ty w ithou t t he G race o f God i s l ike a f ox s cra tch ing i t s h o le , w h ich p romp ts a no ther image :

2 57

F oxes l i e i n wa it f or h en a nd c h icks, s na tch ing a ny t ha t s trays t oo f ar f ro m i t s mo ther. J ust s o d o h eret ics l i e i n wa it f or Mo ther Church a nd h er c h ildren , a nd i ft hey c a tch o ne u nawares, t hey c arry h im o f i nh is f o l ly .

S o , my b rethren , l e t u s a rm o urselves t h is

w eek b y f ast ing , p rayer , a nd v ig il , t ha t b y t he mercy o f God i n terv en ing , w e may r epel t he s avagery o f t he b arbar ians, a nd b ea t of t he ambushes o f t he h ere t ics . 2 1 The importance o f f ast ing i s af avour ite t he me o f Max i mus, a nd a s n ear a s h e g e ts t o p osit ive a ct ion .

The O ld Testamen t o f fers v a luable i nstances.

He r eco m mends L en t i n t he imagery o f Exodus : We must c o mp lete t he F orty Days ' j ourney w e h ave s e t b efore u s, a nd f or t ify o urse lves w ith d evo t iona l f ast ing a s w ith a f or tress.

For

o ur f asts a re a f or tress, t o d efend u s f rom t he Dev il 's a ssau l t . Fast ing i s t he f or tress o f t he C hr ist ian : i fh e d eser ts i t , h e w i l l b e c aught b y t he K ing o f Egyp t , o r e a ten a l ive i n t he d esert o fS in . 22 F ast ing i s t he f ounda t ion o f as uccessfu l o fensive t oo .

Before a c ruc ia l e n-

g age men t , K ing S au l made h is a r my f as t , b u t v ic tory was d elayed b ecause, i n t he h ea t o fb a t t le , h is s on J ona than t asted a h oneycomb h e f ound . 23 Max i mus d raws t he mora l : My b re thren , l e t u s k eep t he f ast w e h ave r eso lved , i n e very p ar t icul ar , t o o verco me o ur e ne m ies o f t he s p ir it a nd o f t he f lesh. F or we h ave , a s y ou k now , e ne m ies t oo o f t he f l esh. a r my may v anqu ish t he m l ike S au l ; e schew t he h oneyco mb.

L et u s f ast , t ha t o ur

a nd i n o ur a bst inence, l e t u s

For t he h oneycomb i s t he p leasures a nd

v ices o f t h is world , wh ich , i ti s wr it ten , " del igh t t he t hroa t f or a t ime , b u t a t t he l ast a re more b i t ter t han g a l l". 24 Fast ing , f or r easons w h ich may s ee m o bscure , w i l l h e lp t he Roman a rmy t o v ictory . A t l east i tw il l d iver t t he wra th o f God , a s i s c lear f ro m J onah : I nt ime o f t r ibu la t ion , t he w ho le o f N ineveh f asted. And Imean ' t he who le ' : f or we r ead t ha t e ven t he c a t t le f asted.

A m iracle i ndeed :

t hey f asted f or t he s ins o f t he c i ty , t hough t hey w ere n o p ar ty t o t he m . S o we t oo , my b rethren , i nt h is t ime o f n eed , s hou ld f ast t oge ther , a nd b y o ur a bst inence s eek t he mercy o f God . L et u s f ast w i thou t i n ter m ission , t ha t we may o vercome o ur e ne m ies b y p rayers a nd a bst inence . 2 5 Pr ince J ona than o b jected ( and t he a r my a greed ) t ha t t he v ictory w as i nc o mp lete b ecause t he I srael ites were ' v ery f a in t ' a s ar esu lt o fh is f a ther 's t act ics.

I t may s ee m a lso t ha t Max i mus — in r ebu i ld ing wha t was p la in ly ad e-

mora l ised c ongrega t ion—was i gnor ing t he r ea l i t ies o f t he p roble m ; b u t s omet h ing c an b e s a id f or f ast ing i n at i gh t c orner , i fo ne d oes s o w ith c onv ic t ion . The F irst Crusade , i n J une 1 098 , was i n s evere s tra i ts a s i tt r ied t o h o ld An t ioch a ga inst Turk ish c oun ter-a t tack .

The Cru saders w ere a lready s tarv ing ,

when Pe ter Bar tho lo mew ( t ha t med ieva l a rchaeo log is t w ho u near thed t he H o ly 2 58

L ance a f ter h is c o l leagues h ad l ost h ope ) r epor ted a v is ion o fS t . Andrew , who o rdered t he m t o f ast f or t hree d ays. Then t hey a t tacked t he Turk ish c a mp , a nd t he r esu l t was a d ec isive v ictory . The f o l low ing s um mer , t he s iege o f J erusa le m was d ragg ing o n , a nd a n Egyp t ian a r my was a bou t t o i n tervene , w hen t he Crusaders r ece ived a no ther v is ion—th is t ime o f t he Papa l L ega te w ho h ad d ied a f ter t he c ap ture o f An t ioch. c are foo t c ircu it o f t he w a l ls.

He d e manded a t hree d ays ' f ast a nd a

With in a week , t he Crusaders h ad s tor med

J erusale m , a nd massacred i t s Mosle m a nd J ew ish i nhab i tan ts. 2 6 The Crusades may s ee m t oo f ar f rom t he End o f Ro man B r ita in , i n t ime a nd p lace , b u t t here i s o f c ourse a n e xa mp le c lose t o h and i nS t . Ger manus o f Auxerre.

Th is r u th less a sce te a te s i mp ly a t t he b est o f t imes, n ever b efore

e ven ing, s o met i mes n o t u n t i l t he e ven ing o f Wednesday o r S a turday. Wine h e t asted ( we l l-d i lu ted ) t w ice a y ear. The a r my i n Br ita in t o w h ich h e was a t tached a s s p ir itua l a dv iser t ra ined d ur ing L en t ; o n Easter Day most o f t he m w ere b ap t ised , a nd wen t i n to a ct ion s t il l d a mp f rom t he f on t. They s corned t he p rot ec t ion o f w eapons , a nd were c on f iden t o f d iv ine a id . The e ne my t hought i t was g o ing t o w in a ga inst a n a r my wh ich was v irtua l ly u nar med. Bu t w ith t hree c r ies o f A l le lu ia , Germanus ' a r my f el l u pon t he P icts a nd S axons, a nd d rove t he m i n p an ic i n to t he r iver. 27 My own s y mpa th ies, h owever , i f Imay i n trude t he m a s ah istor ian o f t he f our th c en tury , l i e w ith Pr ince J ona than . Fast ing o f as or t p receded b o th t he s e t-p iece b a t t les i n t he g rea t H istory o f Am m iarms Marce l l inus. The Roman a rmy e ngaged t he A la manns a t S trasbourg ( 357 ) a nd t he Go ths a t Adr ianop le ( 378 ), o n ly a f ter a l ong t h irsty march i n t he h ea t o f t he d ay . I n t he ir e agerness, t hey d id n o t s top t o r est.

A t S trasbourg , u nder t he c o mmand o f t he c ryp to-

p agan J u l ian Caesar , t hey were b r il l ian t ly s uccessfu l , a nd d rove t he Ger mans i n to t he Rh ine ; a t Adr ianop le , d esp i te t he ir Chr ist ian g enera ls, t hey p lunged t o t he g rea test Ro man d efea t s ince Cannae s ix c en tur ies b efore. 28 Ev iden t ly , i nvo lun tary f ast ing d oes n o t c oun t.

Abou t t he t ime w hen

Max i mus was i nf l ict ing t he L en ten f ast u pon h is c ongregat ion , a Greek i n tell ectua l c a l led S ynes ius , who c ame f rom af am ily i n Cyrene wh ich c la i med d escen t f ro m t he k ings o fS parts , was t h ink ing o f t he Odyssey a s h e p icked l impe ts o f f t he r ock i n ad eso la te L ibyan b ay . He h ad j ust e scaped s h ipwreck . He k new f rom Ho mer t ha t i ft here was a ny f a te worse t han d rown ing , i tw as s tarva t ion , w ith e a t ing f i sh a c lose t h ird.

Th is was t he c l i max o f a n a ppa l l ing

v oyage h o me t o Cyrene f ro m t he i mper ia l c our t a t Constan t inop le , where h e h ad s pen t s evera l y ears n ego t ia t ing o n h is c i ty 's b eha lf . The b oa t r an a ground a s t hey l ef t A lexandr ia. When t hey r eached o pen s ea , i t was h it b y as qua l l , a nd t hey c ou ld n o t s hor ten s a il b ecause t he r opes h ad swo l len a nd s tuck i n t he b locks. The c ap ta in h ad p awned t he s pare s a i l , a nd s o ld t he s econd a nchor. The c rew n umbered t h ir teen . They were a l l c r ipp les , h a lf o f t he m J ew ish , ' w i th a miss ion i n l i fe t o d estroy a l l Greeks '. I t was a lso Fr iday , a nd a t s uns e t t he J ew ish h elms man d ropped t he t i l ler t o o bserve t he S abba th. There h appened t ob e ad etach men t o f Arab s o ld iers o nboard , a nd o ne o f t he m t hrea tened t o c u t t he man 's h ead o ff , b u t h e wen t o nr ead in g h is B ible.

A t l ast ,

a t m idn ight , w hen t he b oa t was t ossing w ild ly , h e s a id : " The L aw a l lows i t , s ince we a re a l l c lear ly i n d anger o f d ea th" , a nd t ook t he t i l ler a ga in . By n ow , t he w o men p assengers w ere wa il ing , a nd S ynes ius c ou ld s ee p eop le s tr ing ing

2 59

t he ir v a luables r ound t he ir n ecks, t o p ay f or b ur ia l w hen t he ir b od ies w ere washed u p. The A rabs were s tand ing o n d eck , swords d rawn , t o c u t t he ir own t hroats r a ther t han d rown .

On ly t he c ap ta in w as s erene—at t he t hought o f

e scap ing h is c red itors. S o mehow t hey r eached t he c oast , a nd were s tranded i n t he b ay Ih ave men t ioned . They w ere r escued f rom s tarva t ion b y t he l oca l L ibyan wo men , Iam a fra id f or a s o mewha t i nde l ica te r eason—though n o t t he o ne y ou m ight s uppose —wh ich S ynesius r e la tes a t l ength. The L ibyans h ave e nor mous b reasts, h e t e l ls u s, whose n ipp les p o in t u pwards, s o t ha t t hey f eed t he ir b ab ies b y s l ing ing t he m a cross t he ir s hou lders. The s igh t o fE uropean wo men i n tr igued t he m , a nd t hey b rought t he m f ood , i n t he h ope t hey w ou ld b e a l lowed a c loser i nspect ion . There was a s lave-g ir l f ro m Pon tus, ' who m a rt a nd n a ture c o mb ined ' ( says S ynes ius ) ' h ad g iven t he f i gure o f a n a n t. S he was p ar t icu lar ly amenab le , a nd t hey p assed h er f rom o ne t o t he o ther '. 2 9 I n t h is way , t he d escendan t o f Heracles r e turned t o h is n a t ive c i ty . Here h e f aced n ew p roble ms. The f er t i le a nd wel l-wooded p la teau o f Cyrena ica , w here S ynes ius owned a n e sta te a nd i n h app ier t imes e n joyed h un t ing , w as b ei ng r avaged b y t he r a ids o f an o mad ic p eop le , t he ' Ausur ians ' , f rom t he d eser ts t o t he s ou th-west .

They wou ld s ee m t o b e t he ' Austur ians ' w ho h ad r a ided

western L ibya , Tr ipo l itan ia , f if ty y ears b efore , i n as er ies o f r a ids d escr ibed b y Am m ianus Marce l l inus. On t h is o ccas ion , t he p eop le o f L epc is h ad b arr ic aded t he mse lves i n t he ir c i ty a nd a wa ited t he h e lp o f t he Coun t o f A fr ica—wh ich , f or v ar ious r easons, was n o t f or thcom ing. 3 ° I n t he l e t ters o f S ynes ius w e h ave af i rst-hand n arra t ive o f t hese Ausur ian r a ids, where we c an s ee h ow a r e mo te a nd u n i mpor tan t p rov ince was d efended b y i t s r egu lar t roops , a nd w ha t ( i f a ny th ing ) t he l oca l p opu la t ion c ou ld d o a bou t i t . The p roble m was n o t q u i te t ha t o f Br i ta in :

t he Ausur ians w ere h it-and-run r a iders, who were n ot s eek ing l and

f or s e t t le men t ; t he l oca l p opu la t ion , t hough d issa t isf ied w ith t he of icers a nd men p rov ided b y t he c en tra l g overnmen t ,3 1 h ad n o t hought o f c ast ing o f f a lleg iance. The l andowners a nd c lergy p rov ided a n a c t ive l ead i n r esis tance, t hough i ti s h ard t o s ay h ow f ar S ynesius was t yp ica l :h e h ad a lready b een c hosen a s t he p rov ince 's r epresen ta t ive a t Cour t , a nd u l t i ma tely was f orced b y p opu lar p ressure i n to a ccep t ing c onsecra t ion a s t he metropo l itan b ishop o f P to le ma is.

Bu t i ti s worth l ook ing a t s o me o f h is l e t ters, t o s ee h ow a l ead-

i ng c i t izen c ou ld o rgan ise a n ama teur ish r es istance ; a nd h ow ab ishop c ou ld p rov ide more p ract ica l l eadersh ip t han Max i mus. The t rouble s ee ms t o h ave b egun i n 4 04, o r s hor t ly a f terwards , s ince S ynes ius a l ludes t o t h is c onsu lsh ip i n d escr ib ing t he a t tack . The way i n wh ich h e d oes s o s hews h ow f ar a way t he w estern Cour t w as t o a Greek : ' Ar is taenetu s w as c onsu l ' , s ays S ynes ius;

' Id on 't k now who h is c o l league was '. 3 2

I t was i n

f act t he w estern emperor , Honor ius. Bu t t hen , a ccord ing t o S ynesius , t he r ura l p ar ts o f L ibya d id n o t k now who t he ir o wn emperor was. They k now q u i te w el l t here i s a lways a n emperor ( t he t ax-co l lectors r em ind t he m e very y ear ), b u t w ho h e i s , t hey d on 't r ight ly k now ; h owever , s o me o f u s t h ink i t may s t i l l b e Aga me mnon ... 3 The i nvaders o verran t he o pen c oun tryside , a pparen t ly w ithou t r es ist ance , a nd t he s urv ivors, i nclud ing S ynes ius, r etrea ted t o t he v ar ious f ort if ied t owns a nd s trongpo in ts.

These w ere n umerous e nough : 2 60

s ome y ears l a ter ,

S ynes ius a s a rchb ishop o f L ibya h ad t o r eso lve a d ispu te b etween t wo b ishops o ver ad erel ic tf ort w h ich o ne o f t he m h ad c onsecra ted a s ac hurch.

The c on-

s ecra t ion was i nval id : The f ac t t ha t c rowds o f men h ave p rayed t here i n t he p as t , b ecause t hey were t ak ing r efuge f ro m i nvasion , d oes n o t c onsecra te t he p lace, f or a t t ha t r a te , e very moun ta in a nd r av ine wou ld b e ac hurch , n o f or t c ou ld e scape b e ing a p lace o f p ubl ic worsh ip , f or i n a l l s uch p laces t he Ho ly Myster ies a re c e lebra ted , w hen t he e ne my i s a broad. 3 4 The i nvas ion was p ar t ly d ue t o t he c orrup t ion a nd i nco mpe tence o f t he Duke , t he Roman m i l itary c o m mander , t he Dux L ibyarum Cerea l ius : He a cted o n t he p r inc ip le t ha t s o ld iers ' p roper ty b e longs t o t he ir g enera l . He t ook a l l t hey h ad , a nd i n r e turn a l lowed t he m t o g o o n l eave wherever t hey t hought s o meone wou ld f eed t he m. Th is h e d id t o t he n a t ive t roops , s ince i t was n o t p oss ible t o make money o u t o f t he f ore ign t roops ;

a nd h e e x tor ted money f ro m t he t owns , b y

p ost ing men n o t a ccord ing t o m il itary a dvan tage , b u t f or h is o wn p rof i t.

The t owns p a id , n o t t o h ave t roops b il leted o n t he m.

T h is i n for ma t ion p assed f rom t he s em i-barbar ians w ith in t he p rov ince t o t he p ure b arbar ian s, w ho ' descended l ike t he l eaves a nd f l owers o f s pr ing '. We s owed o ur c rops, f or a n e ne my t o b urn . We h ad o ur wea l th i n f locks , c a mel h erds, a nd h orses. They h ave al g one. Iam w r it ing b eh ind wal ls , u nder s iege. myself .

Ic an s ee b eacon f i res, a nd Il i gh t t he m

Hun t ing , w h ich Il oved , h as h ad t o g o.

Horses a re v i tal :

t he e ne my d om ina te t he o pen c oun try , a nd Ih ave t o f i ght s leep o n t he b a t t le men ts . Imake my b read w ith my s pear b es ide me; Il ean o n my s pear a s Id r ink w ine. Meanwh i le , Cerea l ius w as i n a merchan t b oa t o n t he o pen s eas, l oaded w i th h is i l l ic i t g a ins. H is o rders c a me b ack , t e l l ing t he m n o t t o l eave t he s hel ter o f t he f ort if ica t ions : ' t he Duke i s n o t a t t he b a t t le men ts, l i ke S ynes ius t he p hi losopher , b u t a t h is o ar '. 3 5 E ven u nder s iege , S ynesius r eta ined s ome i ngenu ity . He t o ld o ne c orr esponden t : Ih ave n o t h ad t ime t o w r ite , b ecause Iam b usy mak ing a mach ine t o f i re s tones , r ea l ly h eavy s tones , l ong r ange , f rom t he t owers. And i fh is f r iend wan ted t o g ive h i m ap resen t : S end me s ome th ing m il i tary , a rrows, p referably h eads a nd a l l.

I

c an b uy b ows, a nd r epa ir w ha t w e h ave , b u t a rrows a re d i f f icu l t , s erv iceable o nes a t l east .

The Egyp t ian a rrows we h ave , b u lge a t

t he k no ts a nd t aper i nb e tween , s o t hey d on 't f l y s tra ight .

Bu t y ours

[ he i s wr it ing t o ar ich f r iend i n S yr ia , w ith c on tac ts a t C ourt ] a re 2 61

l ong a nd wel l-turned , wh ich i s v i ta l f or f l y ing s tra igh t.

p lease s end

me s o me , a nd s o me d ecen t h orse-br id les. 36 S o mehow , Ic anno t imag ine t he Br it ish mun iceps Gra t ian wr i t ing t o a f r iend a t t he c our t o f Ravenna f or a l oad o f a rrows t o s hoo t a t S axons. There i s a n e ngag ing ama teur ishness a bou t S ynesius e for ts —and y et , i fy ou r ead h is l e t ters, y ou c anno t h e lp s ee ing h e was a man o f i n f luence w i th in t he p rov ince , who h ad p ower fu l f r iends o u ts ide i t .

He wr ites many l e t ters o f r ecommenda t ion :

f or h is b ro therin-law , ac our t o ff ic ia l , w hose c ase was b e ing h eard b y t he p rae tor ian p refect An the m ius : f or h is s econd c ous in , t he s on o f ac our t of ic ia l , f or who m h e wro te t o af r iend o f An the m ius; a t est i mon ia l f or a r et ired Duke o f t he L ibyas , a ddressed t o t he p rov inc ia l g overnor. 37

S o meone was p ressing

h im t o g e t l e t ters wr it ten t o t he m i l itary c om mander a nd t he c iv il g overnor o f t he p rov ince : My f r iends , b o th p r iva te a nd o f ic ia l , w ho h ave g r ievances, a re f orc ing me t o c la im l oca l i n f luence, f or w h ich Iam n o t s u i ted , a s t hey k now a s wel l a s Id o. Bu t i n t he ir o wn i n terest t hey a re f orc ing me t o d o s o meth ing , e ven a ga inst my w i l l .38 O u ts ide t he p rov ince , S ynes ius h ad t o t e l l t he Pre fect o f Egyp t h e was b e ing p estered b y p e t i t ioners b ecause t he Prefect was s hew ing h im s uch f avour. 39 And i nh is f eud w i th t he v ic ious g overnor o f Cyrena ica , Andron icus, h e was a ble t o a pproach a f r iend o f An the m ius ; 4° h e w ro te t o a no ther f r iend , w ho h appened t ob e t he t u tor o f t he emperor Arcad ius t c h ildren : I fy ou h ave a ny i n f luence, p lease u se i t , a s i s o n ly r ight , o n my b eh a lf , n o t Andron icus ', a nd s ave P to le ma is f ro m d isgrace— the c ity w h ich made me i t s b ishop a ga inst my w i l l .4 1 For S ynes ius was n ow b ishop , a nd h is t hrea t o f e xcom mun ica t ion r educed Andron icus t o ah um il ia t ing p ro m ise t o mend h is w ays. When t he p rom ise was n o t k ep t , Andron icus was d isgraced , a nd S ynes ius h ad t he p leasure o f w r i t ing t o t he p a tr iarch o f A lexandr ia , a sk ing h im t o u se h is i n f luence t o modera te h is e xcess ive p un ish men t. 42 These l e t ters a re o f ak ind f am i l iar i n t he c orrespondence o f t he l a te Ro man Emp ire : w r it ten b y men o f c lassica l e duca t ion , i n a nd o u t o f o f f ic ial p os i t ions, f orward ing t he ir p ro tege s, i nf luenc ing t he d ec is ions o f g overnmen t .4 3 For a l lh is c o mp la in ts, S ynes ius wou ld r e ma in l oya l t o A lexandr ia a nd C onst an t inop le , a nd i n r eturn , m ight h ope t o i n f luence t he a dm in istrat ion o fh is own p rov ince. D id s uch l i nks s t il l e x ist i n Roman Br i ta in a t t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury?

O r was i ta dm in istered n o t o n ly b y i ncompe ten ts —bu t b y a l ien s?

We h ave s een S ynes ius wr i t ing o f f or h is p r iva te s h ipmen t o f a rrows. He a lso b egan t o manufac ture h is o wn a r ms : Ih ave t hree h undred s pears a nd t hree h undred c hoppers, b u t o n ly t en p roper s words ( t hey a re n o t made l oca l ly ). w i l l b e more efect ive. i s g ood w i ld o l ive.

Bu t t he c hoppers

I fn ecessary , we c an h ave c lubs, s ince t here

S o me o f u s c arry h a tche ts a t o ur b el t , t o k nock 2 62

d own t he ir s h ields a nd p u t u s o n l evel t er ms ( s ince we h ave n o d e fensive a r mour ). 4 4 Th is w as t echn ica l ly i l lega l , a nd i n a no ther l e t ter ( obv iously i n tended f or p ubl i c c onsu mp t ion ) S ynes ius j ust if ied h imse l f t o h is b ro ther : You must b e j ok ing , t o s top u s manu factur ing a r ms, when t he e ne my i s o u t l oo t ing a nd k i l l ing c rowds o f p eop le e very d ay , a nd t here i sn 't as o ld ier t ob e s een .

Do y ou mean t o s ay i t 's i l lega l f or c iv il ians t o

c arry a r ms, b u t l ega l f or t he m t o b e k i l led?

Does t he g overnmen t

o b jec t t o s omeone t ry ing t o d efend h i mse l f? 45 The r egu lar g arr isons w ere i ne f fect ive , a nd i n a no ther l et ter t o h is b ro ther , wr i t ten v irtua l ly f ro m t he s add le , S ynes ius c omposed a man ifesto o fh ighminded r esistance. ( Such d ocumen ts , i t must b e emphas ised , a re e xcess ively r are f ro m t he p er iod o ft he g rea t i nvasions.) The e ne my was a t l arge. They h ad d evasta ted t he c oun tryside ( Synes ius ' own e sta te was o ccup ied ) 46 a nd were e nslav ing t he wo men t hey c ap tured: N o t t ha t we o b jec t. We s i t a t h ome , wa it ing f or f u t i le m i l itary a id . We g ru mble a bou t s o ld iers ' r a t ions a nd t he ir g reed i n p eace t i me , a s i fw e o ugh t t ob e h o ld ing c our ts- mar t ia l i nstead o ff i ght ing o f f i nvasion . Why d on 't w e s top wast ing t ime , a nd c o l lec t t he p easan try a nd s e t o u t a ga inst t he e ne my—for o ur c h ildren 's s akes, o ur w ives a nd o ur c oun try , i fy ou l ike , f or t he s o ld iers t he mselves? When p eace c omes , i tw il lb e n ice t o s ay we f eed o ur s o ld iers a nd s ave t he ir s k ins. 47 Meanwh ile , S ynes ius h ad mustered c ompan ies a nd a ppo in ted o ff icers f ro m t he l oca l p opu la t ion .

He h ad a rranged a r endezvous, where h e h oped more wou ld

j o idh i m. The n ex t l e t ter t o h is b ro ther was w r it ten o n t he e ve o fb a t t le. H is s cou ts h ad f a l len i n w ith s o me o f t he r a iders, who c hased t he m o f , a nd s hou ted a f ter t he m : t hey wou ld b e wa i t ing ; a nd t hey wan ted t o k now who w e c ou ld b e , t o v en ture s o f ar f ro m h o me , o n t he c hance o f mee t ing warr ior n o mads , who l i ved p er manen t ly t he s ort o f l i fe we l ed o n ly o n c a mpa ign . 48 The b at tle, i fi to ccurred , i s n o t d escr ibed . Bu t i n t he s a me p er iod ( s ince h e r e fers t o t he c orrup t Duke , Cerea l ius ), S ynes ius was o n p a tro l w ith a r egu lar u n i t o f moun ted a rchers. Fro m t h is a nd o ther l e t ters, i ta ppears t ha t t he s ta t ic g arr isons c ou ld h o ld o n ly t he t owns a nd f or ts, b u t t ha t smal l u n its o f c ava lry h ad s o me s uccess i n c on ta in ing t he e ne my : Every d awn [ h e t o ld h is b ro ther ] , Ir ide o u t a s f ar a s p ossible , p eer ing a nd l i sten ing f or t hese c a t t le-rust lers, f or o ne c anno t c a l l t he m ' t he e ne my ' —they a re b and i ts o r h ighway men , o r s ome s uch p e jora t ive word , s ince t hey won 't f ace ab o ld a t tack , b u t make v ict ims o f t he f a in t-hear ted ...If Ih ave t o d ie , t he g ood t h ing a bou t b e ing a p h i losopher i s t ha t I 'm n o t worr ied a bou t l eav ing t h is b ag o ff l esh b eh ind.49 2 63

When S ynes ius b eca me ab ishop , s o me y ears af ter wr it ing t h is l e t ter, h e e xpressed h is d oubts a bou t t he Resurrect ion o f t he Body . 5° However , i t was n o t y e t t ime t o l eave h is b elong ings a t t he L e f t L uggage o ff ice. T hey s pen t f i ve d ays o np a tro lb efore a ny th ing h appened. ( The Ausur ians were s t i l l d o ing d a mage f ur ther t o t he s ou th.) Then o ne e ven ing , f our p easan ts a ppeared , c hased b y men o nh orseback : We s aw s o me v i l la ins o nh orses, a pparen t ly d r iven b y h unger , a nd p er fect ly r eady t o l ose t he ir l i ves f or o ur p roperty .

When t hey s aw

u s, t hey d is moun ted t o f i gh t , a nd s o s hou ld we h ave d one , b ecause t he g round was u nsu itab le f or c ava lry .

Bu t J ohn i nsisted o n r id ing ;

h e swerved a side , a nd f l ogged h is h orses o ver d i tches a nd t hrough t he u ndergrow th , u p h il l a nd d own d a le .. J ohn s ee ms t o h ave b een a c iv il ian of ic ia l who t r ied t o u surp c o m mand , much d isl iked b y S ynes ius f or h is f ine h ead o f h a ir.

S ynes ius was p re ma ture ly b a ld ,

a nd h ad wr it ten a p h ilosoph ica l t rea t ise o n t he s ub jec t.

They f ound J ohn t hat

e ven ing , ' cower ing i n ac ave o n t he moun ta in , l ike a f i eld- mouse i n i t s h o le '. Bu t meanwh ile : We d rew u p l i ne o fb at t le , a nd s o d id t hey , b u t n e i ther s ide w an ted t ob eg in .

F ina l ly t hey e dged a way t o t he l ef t , a nd we t o t he r ight ,

n e i ther o f u s i n ah urry , b u t a t a wa lk ing p ace , s o a s n ot t o a ppear t ob e i n r etrea t. 5 1 O dd ly e nough , S ynes ius n ever d escr ibes a n e ngage men t i n wh ich h e t ook p ersona l p art : t h is may b eb ecause t he Ausur ians , a s h e s ays, a vo ided r egu lar f i gh t ing , b u t s ure ly a lso b ecause s uch a n arra t ive w ou ld j ar w i th t he mockh ero ic t one o f t hese l e t ters.

On ly o nce d oes h e d escr ibe i n d eta il a n e p isode

o f l oca l r esistance—a m in ia ture e ngage men t : Good f or t he c lergy o f A xo m is ;

Wh i le t he s o ld iers h id i nh o les i n

t he moun ta ins t o s ave t he ir n ecks, t hey c o l lected t he c oun try fo lk , a nd l ed t he m s tra igh t f ro m c hurch a ga inst t he e ne my , a nd a f ter p rayers , won ab a t t le i n at h ick ly-wooded r av ine c a l led Myr t le Va l ley . The e ne my were c augh tb y s urpr ise.

The h ercu lean F austu s , a

d eacon , s e ized a s tone a nd s truck t he f i rst man a cross t he f ace l ike ab oxer. Then h e t ook h is a rms, a nd k i l led more o f t he m. ..I w ish Ic ou ld d ecora te t he m a l l , b ecause t hey were t he f irst h eroes t o s hew t he f a in t-hear ted t ha t t hese a re n o t d erv ishes o r d emons, b u t men w ho c an b e wounded o r k i l led l ike o urselves. h ad b een more t han f i f teen s uch warr iors...52

I fo n ly t here

Ih ave q uo ted f ro m t hese l e t ters —on ly e igh t o f t he m , f rom a t o ta l o f 1 60 —as i ft hey b elonged t o as ing le c a mpa ign i n C . 4 05. There i s n o i n terna l i nc ons istency , b u t we h ave t ob ear i n m ind S ynes ius ' s ta te men t i n c . 4 12, t ha t t here h ad b een s even y ears o f warfare. 5 3

A t a ny r a te , t here were i n terva ls o f

p eace , s ince among t he s acr if ices S ynes ius made w hen h e a ccep ted c on secrat ion i n C . 4 10 was t o g ive u r h is h ounds, a nd t o l eave h is b ow t o t he woodworm :

2 64

Il ove h un t ing , a nd e ven a s ac h ild Iwas c r it ic ised f or b e ing mad a bou t weapons a nd h orses...bu t Iw il lb e r eso lu te , i ft h is b e t he w i l l o f God .54 Dur ing t hese y ears h e h ad b een c onverted t o C hr ist ian ity—or r a ther , h e h ad r econc i led i tw ith h is p h ilosophy . H is c onsecra t ion a s b ishop h e r econc iled w ith h is marr iage : h e d id n o t d o wha t Germanus d id , a nd make h is w ife a ' s ist er '—he i n tended t o h ave more c h ildren b y h er , a nd s a id s o. 5 5 A fter S ynes ius h ad b eco me ab ishop , t he Ausur ians s truck u nexpec ted ly , a nd o verran t he o pen c oun try.

There i s n ow ( 2 . 4 11) a n o te o f Chr ist ian p es-

s im is m i n t he l e tter h e w ro te t o h is s uper ior , t he p a tr iarch o f A lexandr ia : A l l i s l ost. t o morrow.

O n ly t he c i t ies a re l e f t. P ray f or u s.

God k nows w ha t w i l l h appen

Ih ave k ep t p ray ing , i n p r iva te a nd i n p ub-

l i c , b u t t o n o e f fect—for o ur s ins a re h eavy .5 6 Bu t t h is t ime t he g arr ison was e f f ic ien t.

The q uar ter master o f t he Da l ma tae ,

t he r eg i men t a t P to le ma is ( ' I l ove t he m a l l l ike s ons ' ), r ece ived a l e t ter o f c ommenda t ion . 57

S ynesius h i msel f t ook n o a ct ive p art i nt he f i ght ing:

My h app iness h as e nded. Iam a p ubl ic f i gure i n ac oun try a t war , a nd Ih ave t o c omm isera te w ith e veryone 's p r iva te d isas ter. And Ih ave t o k eep c l i mb ing t he b a t t le men ts , a s i f Iwas b e ing p a id t o b e as o ld ier , n o t ab ishop .

5 8

A t f irst , t he mob i le f orces h ad s ome s uccess. s aved S ynes ius ' o ld t own o f Cyrene f rom s iege ,

5 9

An o f f icer c a l led Anys ius

a nd a t t he h ead o f ac avalry

u n i t c al led t he Unn igardae d efea ted t he Ausur ians. Then t hey p a tro l led t he p la teau e ast o f P to le ma is ' l ike s heepdogs '. Bu t d esp i te t he ir s uccess, s o meone d ec ided t o d e mo te t he m t o l im itane i , w hen t hey wou ld l ost t he ir d ona t ives a nd h igher r a te o f p ay , n o t t o men t ion f resh h orses, a nd t hey a sked t he b ishop t o p e t i t ion t he Cour t o n t he ir b eha lf . 6° S ynes ius wro te a s hor t p anegyr ic o f t he m a nd t he ir c om mander : Ip rayed t o God f or t he d estruct ion o f t he a ccursed b arbar ians , a nd i tw as a ch ieved t hrough God a t t he h ands o f Anys ius. More t han a t housand o f t he m c a me , a nd l ess t han a f i f th a re l e f t , a ccord ing t o t he ir own s urv ivors;

a nd t h is w as a ch ieved , n o t b y ag rea t a r my ,

b u tb y t he f or ty men u nder h is c o mmand .6 1 I tc omes a s as urpr ise t o f ind t here were o n ly f or ty Unn igardae ; a nd t ha t S ynes ius was a sk ing f or 1 60 more , b y who m h e t hough t t he war c ou ld b e c arr ied i n to t he e ne my c oun try . He s ee ms t o h ave f orgo t ten h is e ar ly e xper ience i n r a is ing r ough-r iders t o d e fend t he p rov ince ' and i t s g arr ison ' ; l e t a lone t he i deas wh ich made h im f a mous, when h e t o ld t he emperor Arcad ius i n h is p anegyr ic On K ingsh ip t ha th e s hou ld r ecru i t Roman s ub jects o n ly , a nd make t he b arbar ian s s er fs . b 2 Th is c hange may b e d ue t o h is c onsecra t ion a s b ishop , w i th i t s w ider r espons ib il it ies; b u t h is o p t im is m may h ave d ied i n s ix y ears o f war fare , where l oca l r es istance was a wear iness a nd w ithou t l ast ing e f fect.

2 65

N ex t y ear t he Ausur ians c ame a ga in , a nd S ynes ius l a men ted t he c onseq uences i n ar he tor ica l c o mp la in t d es igned f or ' t he r u lers o f t he Romans, a nd t hose w ho c an c arry w ord t o t he i mper ia l Cour t , a nd t o t he a dm in is tra tors i nclud ing An the m ius, who h as s een o ur l oya l ty t o t he emperor '. The Ausur ians h ad d efea ted Ro man u n i ts , t he Thrac ians a nd t he Marcomann i ; t he Unn igardae ( s t il l o n ly f orty s trong ) h ad n o tb een a l lowed t o f i gh t p roper ly , a nd w ere u nsupp or ted b y i n fan try . I nstead , a s i n t he d ays o f C erea l ius , t he g arr isons were d ispersed a nd u nab le t o c oopera te. The Ausur ians were d r iv ing of c a t tle a nd s heep ; t hey h ad l oaded t he ir l oo t o n f i ve t housand c ame ls ( i nc iden ta l ly , t he l argest t ota l a t tes ted f ro m a n t iqu ity , a nd a n i ndex o ft he l ong-range mobil ity o f t hese b af f l ing r a iders ) 6 3 S ynes ius i s p ess im ist ic a nd war-weary : Iw ish Ic ou ld s leep w i thou t wak ing t o t he s ound o fb ugles.

When

w il l Is top c l i mb ing t he r a mppr ts , a nd w a tch ing b e tween t he t owers? Iam e xhausted b y n ight-wa tches, g uard ing a nd b e ing g uarded i n s h if ts, s leep lessly wa tch ing t he s tars.

We s leep b y t he c lock ;

a nd

t he s leep a l lo t ted t o me i s o f ten b roken b y t he s igna l-trumpe t—and when Id o s leep , i ti s t o d rea m o f s lavery . " Perhaps t hese a re h is l ast w ords; p erhaps i ti s t he t est i mon ia l h e wrote f or a r e t ir ing

Duke c al led Marce l l inus

w ho f ound t he c i t ies b ese tb y c rowds o f r ag ing b arbar ians , a nd i nt erna l ly b y m il i tary i nd isc ip l ine a nd t he g reed o f t he ir o f f icers, a nd was l ike a g od man ifest. He d efea ted t he e ne my i n as ing le b at t le , a nd b yh is d a ily c are made o ur s ub jects more o bed ien t , a nd g ave o ur c i t ies p eace o nb o th a ccoun ts. 6 5 The l e t ter was wr it ten w hen S ynes ius was b ishop , b u t c anno tb e d ated more e xac t ly . I fi ti s t he l ast S ynesius wro te , t hen Iwou ld l ike t o f in ish o n a n o pt im ist ic n o te , b u t s ure ly , t he p rospects w ere g loomy . S ynes ius h i mse l f d ied i n c . 4 12, i nh is e ar ly 4 0 's. N o a nswer h ad b een f ound t o Ausur ian r a ids. The g arr isons c ou ld h o ld o n ly t he t owns; t he mob i le f orces were i nadequa te , i n n u mbers i fn o th ing e lse , t o p ro tect t he o pen c oun try a nd t he a gr icu l ture o n wh ich t he p rov ince 's wea l th d epended . Even c o m merce a nd c om mun ica t ions wou ld b e d isrup ted ;

i nh app ier d ays S ynesius w ro te :

We c augh t s o me b ig o str iches i n h un t ing d ur ing p eace-t i me , b u t i t was i mposs ible t o g e t t he m t o t he c oast t hrough t he e ne my ; a nd n o th ing e lse c ou ld b e l oaded f ro m t he wharves e i ther. 6 6 When h e b eca me b ishop , t he man w ho b rough t t he p a tr iarch 's Easter L et ter , a nd S ynesius h i msel f w hen a d jud ica t ing t he d ere l ict f or t a t t he o ther e nd o f t he p rov ince , o n ly c rossed t he o pen c oun tryside a t t he r isk o f t he ir l i ves. 67 I n Cyrena ica , a t l east , Ro man r u le c on t inued : t he Ausur ians , u n l ike t he Arabs i n t he s even th c en tury , w ere o n ly i n ter m i t ten t ( and u nwelco me ) v isitors. I n Br ita in , t he Ger mans c a me t o s et t le. Iam d raw ing n o e xp l ic i t a na log ies: i fy ou wan t t o s ee Anys ius a s Ar thur ( a f ter a l l , t here w ere o n ly 1 50 s ea ts a t t he Round Table ), a nd S ynes ius a s Merl in , y ou a re w elco me.

Io n ly h ope a

g l i mmer o f l i ght f ro m a no ther p rov ince w il l n o t d arken t he t w il ight a round u s a t t he End o f Ro man Br ita in . 2 66

NOTES

T h is p aper h as a cqu ired a t i t le a nd f oo tno tes, b u t o therw ise r e ma ins a l mos t a s d el ivered.

The s er mons o f Max i mus, b ishop o f Tur in i n t he p er iod

3 95/415 , were t rans m it ted u nder t he n a mes o f more f a mous c on te mporar ies , bu t h ave been c o l lected a nd e d i ted ( w i th d iscussion o f t he ir d a t ing , wh ich i s a ccep ted h ere ) b y A . Mu tzenbecher , Corpus Chr ist ianoru m , s er ies L a t ina 2 3 ( Turnhou t , 19 62 ).

The l e t ters o f S ynesius o f Cyrene , b ishop o f P to le ma is

c . 4 10/2, a re e d i ted b y R . Hercher , i n Ep isto lograph i Graec i ( Par is, 1 873 ), 6 38f .

There i s ag ood t ransla t ion b y A . F i tzgera ld , The L et ters o f S ynes ius

o f Cyrene ( London , 1 926 ). The t ex t o f Ca tastas is Ic an b e f ound i n Migne , Patro log ia Graeca 6 6 ( Par is, 1 864 ) 1 565f ., a nd i s t ranslated b y F i tzgera ld i n The Essays a nd Hy mns o f S ynes ius o f Cyrene ( London , 19 30 ), v o l . I , 3 63-8. Catastas is I ( or Const i tu t io ) i s i n Migne , 1 575f ., a nd t ransla ted b y F itzgera ld , Essays , v o l. I , 3 60-2. A l l p assages q uo ted ( excep t f or t ha t c i ted i n n . 7 ) a re i n my o wn t ransla t ion , wh ich i s s o me t i mes c ondensed o r s i mp l if ied , b u t w ithou t ( Ih ope ) d istor t ing t he o r ig ina l .

The p assages f ro m Max i mus , Iwas t o ld

af terwards, s hou ld h ave b een i nfused w ith i rony ; b u t t h is It h ink i s a dequa tely s upp l ied by t he c on tex t. 1 .

C laud ian , The Go th ic War , 4 16-8.

D . Hof f mann , Das s pä trö m ische

B ewegungsheer ( Dusse ldor f , 19 69-70 ), v o l . I , 1 59 n . 4 74, h as l i sted a dheren ts o f t he v iew t ha t t h is i s e v idence o f aw ithdrawal o f t roops f ro m B r ita in i n4 01/2, a nd h as b r ief ly s ta ted t he o b ject ions : ' Br ita in ' i s s i mp ly a r hetor ica l/ poe t ica l way o f s ay ing ' f ro m t he f ur thest p ar ts o f t he western emp ire ';

i n a ny c ase , Br i ta in 's mob ile f orces were t oo f ew

a nd t oo r e mo te t o p rov ide p rac t ica l r e in force men t f or n or th I t a ly ; l eg io d oes n o t mean a s pec if ic u n it.

a nd

These o b ject ions a re c ogen t , a nd

m ight b e r e in forced , b u t a t t he c ost o f d iscussing t he v ery d if f icu l t q uest ion o f t he d a te o f N ot i t ia D ign ita tu m , O cc. 5 a nd 7 , wh ich wou ld b e i nappropr ia te h ere.

I t may , h owever , b e wor th p o in t ing o u t t ha t t here

a re o n ly t wo l eg iones p seudoco m ita tenses ( l a te-pro moted f ron t ier u n i ts ) i n t he e l i te a r my o f I ta ly , o ne f ro m t he J u l ian A lps ( Occ. 5 .257 ), t he o ther f ro m t he v a l ley o f t he I nn ( i b id ., 2 63 ).

I t wou ld b e h azardous s t i l l

t o a ssu me w ithou t a rgumen t t ha t C laud ian i s e v idence o f w i thdrawa l , w hether o f l im i tane i i n l arge n u mbers ( S . Frere , Br itann ia [ 2nd e d ., L ondon 1 974 1 , 2 69 , 4 07 ) o r o f ma in ly mob ile t roops ( D . J . Breeze a nd B . Dobson , Hadr ian 's Wa l l [ London , 1 976 ] , 2 29-30 ). 2 .

E . A . Tho mpson , ' Br ita in , A .D . 4 06-410 ', Br itann ia 8 ( 1977 ), 3 03f .

3 .

They s oon b eca me a d is ma l f ac t o f l i fe.

The who le s ub jec t h as b een

b r il l ian t ly h and led b y P . Cource l le , H isto ire L it tera ire d es Grandes I nvasions Ger man iques ( 3rd e d ., Par is, 1 964 ). 4 .

S er mon 8 5.1 ( c it ing L uke 2 1.10-11, 3 1).

5 .

Tract. 1 7.1 ( t he p hrase i s ' impor tun itas b arbaroru m ' ) , e d i ted b y A . G lueck i n Corpus S cr ip torum Eccles iast icoru m L at inorum 6 8 ( V ienna , 1 936 ).

The o ther a l lusion d e tec ted b y G lueck i s i n Tract. 1 3.21: ' i n ter

p er icu la im m inen t ium b arbaroru m ' God w il l t urn a d eaf e ar t o C hr ist ians who h ave b een u nchar itable. 2 67

6 .

Pro logus t o t he Church H istory , e d ited b y T . Mo m msen , i n D ie g r iechi sche c hr ist l iche S chr if tstel ler d er e rsten d re i J ahrhunderte D (.2 ( Le ipz ig , 1 908 ), 9 51, r epr. i n Corpus Chr ist ianoru m s er ies Lat ina 2 0 ( Turnh ou t , 1 961), 2 67.

7 .

Euseb ius, H istor ica Ecclesiast ica 1 .4, 2 ( t ransla ted b y G . A . Wil l ia mson , Pengu in C lassics [ 1965] ).

The om ission i s n o ted b y Courcel le ( see n . 3 ) ,

3 8 , n . 6 . 8 .

S er mon , 8 2;

9 .

S er mon 3 0.2.

1 0.

s er mon 7 2.2. c f . Taci tus, Ann . 1 .28.

S er mon 1 8.3 ( c it ing L ev it icus 2 2.8 ).

Th is was a c r im ina l ofence :

Theodosian Code V I I.1 . 1. ( 323 ). 1 1.

S er mon 7 2.1.

1 2.

S er mon 8 5.2-3 ( c f . Ephesians 6 .13-17 ).

The a l l itera t ion o f ' n ih il p rodest

muros mun ire p ropugnacu l is e t d eu m p rovocare p eccat is' i s an ice e xamp le o f t he c are w i th wh ich Max i mus c o mposed h is s er mons. 1 3.

S er mon 8 3.1 ( c it ing IJ ohn 4 .4. a nd Psa lm 3 4.7 ).

1 4.

W. H . C . Frend , ' The Two Wor lds o f Pau l inus o f No la ', i n J . W. B inns ( ed .), L a t in L itera ture o f t he Fourth Cen tury ( London , 1 974), 1 00f .

An

importan t c on tr ibu t ion t o t he s tudy o f why t he western Emp ire c o l lapsed. 1 5.

Pau l inus, Car men 2 6, e d ited b y W. d e Harte l , i n Corpus S cr ip toru m Ecclesiast icoru m La t inoru m 3 0 ( Vienna , 1 894 ), 2 46f. q uo ted a re l ines 8 0-85;

1 6.

1 03-14;

The p assages

2 46-54; 4 25-9.

L et ter 5 9.2-3 ( Migne , Pa tro log ia L a t ina 1 6 [ Par is, 1 845] 1 182 ) , wr it ten c . 3 93.

1 7.

De of ici is m in istroru m 1 .27 ( 129 ) ( Migne , Pa tro log ia L at ina 1 6, 6 1), ' f or t itudo q uae v e l i nb el lo t ue tur a b arbar is p a tr ia m...' .S ee Courcel le ( above , n . 3 ) , 2 3-4.

1 8.

De o f f ici is m in istroru m 1 1.3(23).

1 9.

S er mon 8 7.2.

2 0.

S er mon 8 4.1 ( c f. I K ings 2 .11).

2 1.

S er mon 8 6.2-3.

2 2.

S er mon 6 9.1.

2 3.

IS a mue l 1 4.24-46.

2 4.

S er mon 6 9.4 ( adap t ing Proverbs 5 .3-4, t he l ips o f al oose wo man ).

2 5.

S er mon 8 1.4.

2 6.

S . Runc i man , AH istory o f t he Crusades, Vo l. I( Ca mbr idge, 1 951 r epr.

The word c o mes mean b o th ' general ' a nd ' co mpan ion '.

1 962), 2 41-9; 2 84-6. 2 7.

Constan t ius o f Lyon , L ife o fS t. Ger manus, e d ited b y I L Bon us , S ources Chret iennes 1 12 ( 1965 ), e sp . 3a nd 1 7-18.

2 68

2 8.

Am m. Marc. 1 6.12, e sp . 8 f . a nd 3 1.12, e sp . 1 1 a nd 1 3.

2 9.

L e t ter 4 .

3 0.

Am m. Marc. 2 8.6. N o t much i s k nown a bou t t he Austur ians :

J . Desanges,

Ca ta logue d es t r ibus a fr ica ines d e Pan t iqu ite c lass ique ä Pouest d u N il ( Dakar , 19 62 ), 8 2. 3 1.

There i s a n e xcel len t s urvey b y A . H . M. J ones, ' Fron t ier D efence i n Byzan t ine L ibya ' , i n F . F . Gada l lah ( ed .) , L ibya i nH istory ( Papers o f ac on ference a t Benghazi , 1 968 ), 2 89-97.

3 2.

L et ter 1 33.

3 3.

L et ter 1 48.

3 4.

L e t ter 6 7.

The f or t was Hydrax o n t he e astern e dge o f t he p la teau , a nd

i t was d ispu ted b e tween t he b ishops o f Ery thru m a nd Darn is o n t he c oast ; s ee R . G . Goodch i ld , Tabu la Imper i i Ro man i : 3 5.

L et ter 1 30 ;

Cyrene ( Ox ford , 1 954 ).

t he q uo tat ions a re f ro m Odyssey 9 .51 ( aggr ieved n a t ives who

a t tacked Odysseus ) a nd f ro m a l ost p oe m o f Arch ilochus ( M. L . West , ( ed .) I amb i e t E leg i Graec i I( Oxford , 1 971 ), Arch ilochus f r. 2 ). The ' na t ive t roops ' ( ep ikhör io i ) a re l im i tane i ; t he ' f ore ign t roops ' ( xeno i ) a pparen t ly mob i le u n its o f c om i ta tenses l ike t he Unn igardae ( see b elow , n . 6 0 ) :

s ee A . H . M. J ones ( above , n . 3 1).

a ppropr iate p ar t o f t he ir men 's p ay : Emp ire ( Ox ford , 1 964 ), 6 44-5.

O f f icers were l i ab le t o

A . H . M. J ones, The L a ter Ro man

The a buse o f e x tor t ing money i n r e turn

f or n o tb i l let ing t roops was o f c lassic a n t iqu i ty :

C icero , To A t t icus 5 .21.7

( Feb. 5 0 B .C., p ract ised i n Cyprus ). 3 6. 3 7.

L e t ter 1 33. L et ters 7 5;

1 18 ; 6 2 ( see f ur ther , b elow , n . 6 5 ).

An the m ius , p rae tor ian

p re fec t o f t he East 4 05-14, b u ilder o f t he L and Wal ls o f Constan t inop le ( 4 13 ), was v ir tua l r egen t f or t he i n fan t Theodos ius l a f ter Arcad ius ' d ea th i n4 08. 3 8.

L e t ter 1 44.

3 9.

L e t ter 2 9.

4 0.

L e t ter 7 3.

4 1.

L et ter 7 9.

4 2.

L et ters 7 2;

4 3.

S ee , f or e xa mp le , t he a cu te a nd s y mpa thet ic s tud ies b y J . H . W. G .

For h is a ppo in t men t , s ee L e t ter 2 2. 9 0.

L iebeschuetz, An t ioch ( Ox ford , 19 72 ), e sp. 1 7-23 ( f or L iban ius ); J . F . Ma t thews, ' The L e t ters o f S y m machus

i n J . W. B inns ( ed.),

L a t in L i tera ture o f t he Four th Century ( London , 19 74 ), 5 8f . 4 4.

L e t ter 1 08 , 7 07c.

4 5.

L e tter 1 07.

4 6.

L e t ter 9 5 , 6 95d.

2 69

a nd

4 7.

L e t ter 1 25.

4 8.

L e t ter 1 08 , 7 07a.

4 9.

L e t ter 1 32.

5 0.

I , e t ter 1 05, 7 05b.

5 1.

L e t ter 1 04.

5 2.

L et ter 1 22.

5 3. _ Ca tastas is I , 1 568A. 5 4.

L e t ter 1 05, 7 06a.

5 5.

i b id., 7 05d , c f . Constan t ius ( above , n . 2 7 ), L i fe o f Ger manus, 2 .

5 6.

L e t ter 6 9.

5 7.

L e t ter 8 7.

5 8.

L e t ter 8 9.

5 9.

L et ter 9 4.

6 0.

L et ter 7 8.

The f or ma l s ta tus o f t he u n it i s o bscure , s ince , a l though n on-

Ro mans, t hey were p a id a nd e qu ipped b y t he Ro man g overnmen t , a nd u nder Ro man c o m mand , s o n o t s i mp ly f edera t i.

They a re n o t i n t he

N o t i t ia D ign i ta tum , whose e astern l i sts r eached t he ir p resen t f or m i n 3 94/6.

Th is may mean t ha t t hey were r ecru ited s ubsequen tly , p erhaps

a s av ex i l la t io c om ita tens is ( when t he ir sma l l s ize wou ld b e r e markable, c f. Am m. Marc. 1 8.8.2 ), o r t hey may h ave b een a c uneus e qu i tum l ost w ith most o f t he c hap ter ( Or. 3 0 ) o f t he Dux L ibyarum. 6 1.

Ca tastas is I , 1 576 AB.

6 2.

Pen iBas ile ias 1 9-21, e d ited b y N . Terzagh i , S ynes i i C yrenens is O puscu la ( Ro me , 1 944 ), 4 3f ., a nd t ranslated b y A . F i tzgera ld , E ssays ( e tc.) v o l. I , 1 41f.

6 3.

Ca tastas is I , c f . Am m. Marc. 2 8.6.5, t he C oun t o f A fr ica d e manded 4 ,000 c a me ls t o c oun ter-a t tack t he Austur ians , a n imposs ibly l arge n umber :

C . Courto is, L es Vanda les e t l 'A fr ique ( Par is, 1 955 ), 1 00 ,

e sp . n . 6 . 6 4. 6 5.

Ca tastasis I , 1 572 C . L e t ter 6 2, a ddressed t o t he h ege mon ( = p raeses ).

Marce l l inus i s c learly

t he d ux , e ven t hough h e i s d escr ibed o n ly a s l a mpro ta tos ( = v ir c lar iss i mus ). By t h is d a te , ad ux h ad t he h igher r ank o f v ir s pec tabi l is ; a nd e lsewhere S ynes ius r efers t o h im b y t he t i t le s tra tZgos o r d oux ( Let ter 1 30 , c f . 9 5 ), o r e ven c o mes ( 144 ). 6 6.

L et ter 1 34.

6 7.

L e t ters 1 3; 6 7.

2 70