Flooring. Volume 2 Flooring Volume 2: Design, Life cycle, Case studies 9783955533144, 9783955533137

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∂ Practice

Flooring Volume 2 Architecture and Design

Design Life cycle Examples of projects

José Luis Moro

Edition Detail

Author José Luis Moro, Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Architekt University of Stuttgart, Institute for Design and Construction – IEK Assistant: Julia López Hidalgo

Publisher Editorial services and editorial assistants: Steffi Lenzen (Project Manager) Jana Rackwitz Editorial staff: Carola Jacob-Ritz, Sophie Karst, Heike Messemer Drawings: Ralph Donhauser, Simon Kramer; Alexander Araj, Martin Hämmel, Kwami Tendar Translation into English: Übersetzungsbüro I Translation Agency Antoinette Aichele-Platen, Munich www.antoinetteaichele.com Übersetzungen Gründing I Gruending Translations Dr. Yasmin Gründing (Univ. Lond.) www.gruending-translations.de Copy Editor: Übersetzungsbüro I Translation Agency Antoinette Aichele-Platen, Munich Proofreading: Stefan Widdess, Berlin

© 2016 Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Munich An Edition DETAIL book ISBN 978-3-95553-313-7 (Print) ISBN 978-3-95553-314-4 (E-Book) ISBN 978-3-95553-315-1 (Bundle) Printed on acid-free paper made from cellulose bleached without the use of chlorine. This book is protected by copyright. All rights are reserved, specifically all rights to the translation, reprinting, citation, re-use of illustrations and tables, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other ways and storage of material from the book in databases, in whole or in part. Any reproduction of this book or parts of this book is permissible only within the limits imposed by current valid copyright law and shall be subject to charges. Violations of these rights shall be subject to the penalties imposed by copyright law. This textbook uses terms applicable at the time of writing and is based on the current state of art, to the best of the author’s and editor’s knowledge and belief. All drawings in this book were made specifically by the publisher. No legal claims can be derived from the contents of this book. Typesetting & production: Simone Soesters Printed by: Grafisches Centrum Cuno GmbH & Co. KG, Calbe 1st edition, 2016 This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 978-3-95553-282-6). Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek. Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the internet at http://dnb.ddb.de. Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG Hackerbrücke 6, 80335 Munich, Germany Tel: +49 89 381620-0 www.detail.de

Contents

5

Preface

8

Historical development of flooring

14

Flooring as an architectural design element

24

Sustainability of flooring

50

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

72

Examples of projects

116 118 119

Appendix Author, literature, standards Image credits Index

∂ Practice Flooring is published in two volumes. Volume 1 is primarily concerned with function and technical construction. It serves as a planning aid for designing flooring constructions and coverings. In addition to sound basic theoretical principles, it provides background information and decision-making aids for various flooring types, materials as well as constructive connections and transitions. Volume 2 is dedicated to historical development, architectural effect and life cycle – including renovation or modernisation – and the ecological balance of flooring. It contains a comprehensive project part with successful execution examples. Volume 1 – Function and Technology Volume 2 – Architecture and Design

Preface

Flooring plays an important part in the overall architectural impression of a place – in particular of interior spaces – which is significantly influenced by its materiality and appearance. The aesthetic potential is however often underestimated, assuming a subordinate ranking in the design process. This is partly due to the fact that flooring generally has to fulfil particularly tight functional constraints that do not immediately seem to allow any major creative leeway. Users are in constant physical contact with the floor and reliant on free and safe accessibility within the construction as well as strict fulfilment of the associated functions. Flooring has to meet the demands on a building component subjected to extreme use. To allow unrestricted usability, flooring should be flat, even and – as far as possible – free of excessive inclines, steps or other interruptions. As far as shape is concerned, the scope of design is therefore relatively restricted. Irrespective of this, flooring constitutes an essential element of architectural design and can have a strong visual impact. By making up a relatively high proportion of the visible surfaces, the influence on how interior spaces are perceived is significant. Flooring can contribute considerably to the architectural appearance of a building through its material, colour and ornamental design. Graphical treatment of the flooring surface can set visual accents in a room and – by reflecting the rhythm of the building structure – powerfully support the effect of architectural composition. The substantial impact of flooring is also attributable to its physical proximity to the perceiver. As opposed to walls and ceilings, users are in direct contact with the surface, and therefore immediately exposed to a constant haptic

impression of the nature of the material making up the floor, its texture as well as its warmth or coldness. The aim of this two-volume publication is to give an overview of flooring with regard to aesthetics, function and construction. Due to the broadness and complexity of the topic, which is increasing on account of the constantly rising requirements in the building industry, this publication focusses exclusively on interior flooring. Volume 1 is primarily concerned with function and technical construction. It serves as a planning aid for designing flooring constructions and coverings. In addition to sound theoretical principles, it provides background information and decision-making aids for various flooring types, materials as well as constructive connections and transitions. Volume 2 is dedicated to historical development, architectural effect and life cycle – including renovation or modernisation – and the ecological balance of flooring. It contains a comprehensive project part with successful execution examples offering inspiration for individual application in practice. José Luis Moro

8 9 9 10 10 11 12

14 14 15 15 17 18 18

Historical development of flooring Terrazzo floors and lime-bound screeds Mosaic flooring Stone plate coverings Flooring made of ceramic stones and plates Wood flooring Elastic floor coverings Textile floor coverings Flooring as an architectural design element Physical proximity to flooring Sensory perception of flooring Visual impression and spatial aesthetics Relation between flooring and ceiling Colour design Graphic design Texture and formal design

7

Historical development of flooring

Although a full reconstruction of the origins of flooring in permanent housing in terms of archaeology is not possible, various findings dating back to the Stone Age indicate that floorings of houses already had different types of coverings even then. These included flat wooden planks laid parallel to each other directly on the floor [1], flat fieldstones or pebbles as well as bonded screed coverings made in various ways [2] using diverse binding agents. Waterbound coverings were fashioned as compacted loam floors much like some still found in old farmhouses today. This

was achieved using wooden sticks to beat the surface, which could be made firmer by addition of straw or chaff as well as various organic substances such as ox blood or urine. Such loam floors presumably represent the oldest flooring execution method. Corresponding findings from prehistoric caves date back to around 20 000 BC [3]. Gypsum is one of the oldest binding agents used in flooring. The oldest gypsum screeds made in the 14th century BC were found in Egypt [4]. Even though gypsum flooring is very sensitive to abrasion and mechanical damage, it

was used for a relatively long period of time. Reasons for this include an appearance that is not unlike natural stone, the fact that gypsum floors feel warmer to the feet and are cheaper than stone floors, and that they can be painted and decorated with inlay work. The Italian scagliola technique [5] developed in the Baroque period is considered to be the peak of craftsmanship and artistic finish of gypsum flooring. This high-quality decorative marbleimitation flooring is made using gypsum material with different colours. Terrazzo floors and lime-bound screeds In addition to gypsum, burnt lime was also used as a binding agent to make lime-bound screed flooring. This material (calcium oxide) was already found at the building site as quicklime or air lime for making lime mortar. Terrazzo is the most well-known version of lime screed floors. The lime screed is finished by special means in this originally Italian method. Aggregates consisting of small crushed stones – or alternatively hydraulic aggregates – are embedded in the lime-mortar matrix. This serves to create a continuously flat surface of great durability and strength. Terrazzolike lime screeds dating back to the Neolithic Age have been found [6]. Various mixing ratios for making lime-bound screeds are quoted by Vitruvius in the 1st century BC [7]. The ultimate perfection of terrazzo floors with regard to craftsmanship and artistic design took place during the Italian Renaissance, particularly in Venice (Fig. 1). Craftsmen and architects explored the design options arising from selection, arrangement and distribution of the aggregates as well as from modification of the proportion of mortar contained in the mixture.

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8

Historical development of flooring

2

3

A wide range of surfaces could be created in this way, either of a single colour, shimmering tone-on-tone or richly ornamented decorative designs with geometric or floral patterns. Terrazzo floors were – the simpler versions at least – relatively economical, easy to clean and durable. Even though excellent craftsmanship could be demonstrated in these floors, they could be made out of simple basic materials, such as lime, sand and crushed stone or brick, available at every building site. Terrazzo floors experienced a revival in the 19th century thanks to the new binding agent cement. This permitted a significant decrease in the curing time coupled with a further increase in strength and durability.

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dences can still be admired today (Fig. 2). In later antiquity, mosaics were also used in early Christian churches [10], although this declined significantly with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Mosaics played an important role in art and religion in 5th and 6thcentury Byzantine architecture, though located on walls and ceilings rather than flooring. Using the same original design principle, a completely new visual language emerged for the design and content of these (e.g. vault mosaics of early Christian churches in Ravenna). This flooring technique is currently experiencing a sort of revival in the shape of prefabricated industrial dry-fit mosaic sheets. Stone plate coverings

Mosaic flooring Ornamental terrazzo floors represent a kind of transition to mosaic floors. The latter are composed of small studs, stones or plates of approximately the same size embedded in the mortar. In terrazzo flooring, the irregular crushed stones are strewn more or less randomly across the surface, while in mosaic flooring differently coloured material is installed in the shape of regular ornaments or figures. This artistic sculptural component is already expressed by the name “mosaic”, originating etymologically from the Latin “musaicum” describing a work of the Muses [8]. Mosaic floors may have originated as simple pebble floors. Mosaics became very widespread and experienced a remarkable technical development in Greek and particularly Roman antiquity, when they were referred to by the most commonly used mosaic technique “opus tesselatum” [9]. Many remnants of complicated and grand antique mosaic flooring from representative buildings as well as private resi-

Plate coverings were initially made of natural stone, later of artificial stone such as ceramic. The oldest flooring of this type consisted of flat irregular polygonal stone plates (flagstones) as obtained by cleaving rocks in quarries. Normally left uneven at the edges and with a rear split-face finish, the upper side was often worked slightly for more evenness (Fig. 3). Such coverings proved to exist in Ancient Egypt at around 2500 BC [11] and simple versions can still be found in old farmhouses today. Considerable quarrying skill was required for cleaving the material to obtain relatively thick regular cuboid plates for high-grade antique stone coverings (Fig. 4). Stricter laying patterns consisted of regular rectangular or square shapes, while a less labourintensive design was composed of rows of different widths, allowing installation of plate material with minimal waste. An important further technical development of these floors was achieved with the invention of stone-sawing technology that permitted fabrication of plane-parallel

slabs with a thickness of only a few centimetres. Roman sources date the occurrence of this technology to the 4th century BC [12]. The basic geometry of the material – the square, rectangular or polygonal plate – led to the typically “tiled” look of stone-covered surfaces. Impressive geometric patterns could now also be created by using natural stone with different colours [13]. Such plate coverings are still relevant today. Ornamental stone floors with intarsia work represent the most artistic level of this flooring type [14] (Fig. 5). Cosmati floors

Although the basic technology required for stone plate coverings remained extensively unchanged in the period after antiquity, a significant development with regard to craftsmanship and artistic quality can be observed for platecovered floors over time. One milestone in this development are the Medieval Cosmati (or cosmatesque) floors made using elaborate mosaic or inlay work [14] (Fig. 6). They are a derivation of ornamental Byzantine stone coverings that featured round porphyry discs. Their basic pattern consists of framed square fields containing a large main circle bordered by diagonally arranged smaller circles. The earliest example of this intricate mosaic work found in the abbey church of Monte Cassino south-east of Rome dates back to the 11th century. From there, Cosmati floors spread all the way to Rome [15].

1 2 3 4

Venetian terrazzo floor, Sala del Senato in the Doge's Palace in Venice (I), 14th century Late Roman floor mosaic in the Villa La Olmeda, Palencia (E) Coarse, irregular stone slab covering Heavy, worked stone panel covering with rectangular formats, Forum Romanum, Rome (I)

9

Historical development of flooring

5

Flooring made of ceramic stones and plates Similar to coverings made of natural stone plates, ceramic flooring is also composed of small basic elements in the form of fired clay plates or bricks laid to create modularised tile-like floor patterns. Industrial mass production of the basic modules however means that regular geometric laying patterns are standard for this material. Similar to natural stone flooring, the idea of using differently coloured clay material resulted in the possibility of creating flooring with ornamental designs. There is evidence of the fact that clay has been used as a building material since about 3000 BC. Numerous remnants of ceramic flooring from Roman antiquity exist. Some of these were designed as elevated heated hypocaust floors [16] (Fig. 9). The relatively low cost of material, good heat insulation capacity and durability makes unglazed terracotta tiles a popular covering material even today. In contrast to these simpler versions, ceramic flooring can also be executed at a very high artistic standard. One of the most magnificent examples is the floor of the Biblioteca Laurenziana in Florence [17] (Fig. 7). Glazing the clay material – of limited variability in terms of colour as such – opened up a completely new dimension with regard to design, at the same time improving the abrasion resistance of tiles. Glazing techniques were developed in Egypt in the 4th millennium BC and perfected by the Persians in the 6th century by introduction of tin oxide to create a white opaque glazing base [18]. The white background gave the coloured glazing high brilliance and made it possible to paint figures directly on it. With the spread of Islamic architecture via Morocco and Moorish Spain, highly elaborate floor patterns made of tiles or little pieces of clay finished with multicoloured

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7

8

10

glazing reached Europe (Fig. 8) and were further developed in Italy and Spain, e.g. majolica and faience (very decorative fine tin-glazed pottery). Wood flooring The oldest type of exposed wood flooring is probably the upper planking covering wooden beam floor-ceiling constructions. The earliest versions were made of long tapered boards reflecting the geometry of the stem. These were accordingly laid in alternation and butting against each other laterally. Flooring could either be made of single boards about 5 m in length or had to be joined end to end. The floorboards were fixed with visible forged metal or wood nails. Floor surfaces that felt warm to the feet could already be created back in the Middle Ages in this way. The butt joints were not connected to start with, so that single boards of the free spanning construction sagged under point loads, allowing dust to enter the open gaps. This was remedied by half-lap splice joints or tongue-and-groove connections. Precise processing of boards with parallel edges became a matter of course with the introduction of industrial manufacturing methods between the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. This type of floorboarding can still be found in simple buildings today. The first stage in the development of simple wood floors to decorative floors can be regarded as a reaction to the endto-end joints of the boards often being regarded as aesthetically displeasing. This involved arrangement of the boards in rectangular fields enclosed by a hardwood frieze of a different colour. It was possible to lay the boards without any end-to-end joints within these compartments. This basic pattern of structured floorboarding – partly with inclusion of

Historical development of flooring

9

decorative inlay work – persisted until the 18th century [19]. Based on this already ornamentally structured version and possibly in imitation of tiled ornamental stone floors, first examples of Versailles panel parquets evolved in the 17th century (Fig. 10) [20]. The classical form of this wood flooring consists of relatively small panels (up to 1 m in length) normally laid and nailed diagonally on a rough floor. Various decorative patterns, sometimes with inlay work, are included in the visible hardwood frame. Instead of an orthogonal panel structure, other types of parquet are based on repeating patterns com-

10

posed of diverse basic modules. The introduction of parquet flooring to middleclass living spaces was made possible by the spread of industrialisation in the 19th century. These mechanically fabricated parquets made of short narrow strips of oak arranged in ship deck or herringbone patterns are still common today. Elastic floor coverings Elastic floor coverings are products of modern industry. In the pre-industrial age, no materials suitable for fabrication of comparatively thin and flexible layers

were available apart from carpets. Linoleum is considered to be the oldest elastic floor covering [21], which finally asserted itself against other first efforts (floorcloth 1763, kamptulicon 1820) [22]. In the early 1860s, the Briton Frederick Walton developed a material made of linseed oil, cork flour and various resin substances. These assumed a leatherlike viscous consistency on account of the oxidation of linseed oil. A floor covering with many attractive qualities – hardwearing, easy to clean and install, heatand sound-insulating – could be obtained by rolling this mixture onto a substrate. He derived the name of his discovery from the Latin for linseed oil (oleum lini). Plain-coloured linoleum coverings are still referred to as Walton today (Fig. 11). Initially manufactured by industrial mass production in Great Britain, the floor covering also became widespread in other European countries from about 1880 onwards thanks to its positive properties and attractive price. Linoleum coverings were originally only available in greybrown tones. New methods developed around 1890 onwards permitted the manufacture of many different colours as well as inclusion of multicoloured abrasion-resistant patterns by printing or inlay work. At one time almost completely pushed out of the market mainly by synthetic competitor products such as

5 Decorative intarsia-work floor in San Miniato al Monte, Florence (I), 1207, representation of the zodiac 6 Cosmati floor in Santa Croce in Gerusaleme, Rome (I), 12th century 7 Floor of the Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence (I), 16th century, made of inlaid unglazed terracotta pieces of two colours 8 Glazed multicoloured tile floor (Morocco), matching with wall and column decoration 9 Remains of a hypocaust floor, Palatine, Rome 10 Classical Versailles panel parquet composed of diagonally laid individual square panels in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles (F), 17th century

11

Historical development of flooring

elastomer flooring or carpeting, linoleum is very popular again today, chiefly due to its favourable ecological and toxicological properties. The oldest elastic floor coverings include those made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [23]. Developed in the middle of the 19th century, the material was patented and industrially produced in the early 20th century. The method of making foamed PVC coverings developed towards the end of the 1950s (cushioned vinyl or CV coverings) permitted the manufacture of surfaces with various structures and colours, commonly also of imitations of other covering types. Synthetic rubber, developed by the chemical industry around 1936, served as a substitute for natural rubber that was scarce and expensive at the time. Its technical properties were superior to those of natural rubber, particularly its resistance to fats [24]. Since then, synthetic rubber or elastomer coverings are manufactured on the basis of this synthetic material. They are hardwearing, easy to look after and inexpensive. Elastic coverings made of synthetic materials became unpopular in the

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1980s because of suspected healthdamaging components or emissions (asbestos-containing backing coatings, emissions due to plasticisers). PVC-free polyolefin coverings were introduced to the market as safe alternatives around 1989, but these did not persevere [25]. Health risks of synthetic coverings have been extensively eliminated by exclusion of questionable components. Elastic floor coverings have become very popular again on the whole, due to their low cost, durability, resistance and ease of installation and care. Textile floor coverings As loosely laid rugs, textile floor coverings have a very long history, the origins of which can hardly be reconstructed today [26]. The oldest preserved carpet is about 2,500 years old and originates from Central Asia (Fig. 12), but the art of rug making is probably much older. Carpets were always associated with a lot of manual work, often considered as precious and characterised by richly coloured patterns or figurative representations. Laid on hard floors, they make a room feel more comfortable and can

act as a special eye-catcher. They additionally served as wall hangings or furniture coverings. Of an oriental origin, carpets were widely spread in Europe through the old trade routes, particular through medieval Moorish Spain. Examples such as the Bayeux Tapestry [27] illustrate the significance that carpets already had in Europe in the Middle Ages. Further development of textile floor coverings is mainly characterised by an increasing rationalisation, mechanisation and industrialisation of the fabrication method. At the beginning of the 17th century, the French king Henry IV granted a license for the production of carpets, which is why he is considered to be the founder of the Savonnerie manufactory that supplied mansions throughout Europe with knotted pile carpets. Almost 200 years later, in 1784, the Briton Edmund Cartwright invented the mechanical loom operated by a steam engine and hence rationalised the manufacturing process of textile products, making these also affordable to middleclass citizens. In 1805, Joseph-Marie Jacquard developed a method in France for mass-producing patterned fabrics. A further important step in the development was marked by the provision of synthetic yarns. The chemical industry introduced the synthetic material nylon 6 (PA-6, Perlon) to the market in 1938. In addition to other nylon or polyamide yarn materials, this tough, elastic material with a shiny lustre was particularly used as pile or nap in textile floor coverings in the 1950s. Technical developments such as tufting or the needledpile method represented a significant simplification of the more complex process of carpet weaving, finally turning textile coverings into industrial, generally affordable mass products. This technique is based on the old European method of carpet stitching brought

Historical development of flooring

12

to North America by emigrants, where it was further developed industrially [28]. In the process of tufting (from to tuft: to provide with a cluster of short fluffy threads or tufts) pile yarns are not simultaneously woven with the weave and weft threads of the ground fabric, but needled or pierced into a prefabricated carpet backing. A secondary backing is additionally applied to strengthen this textile structure that is looser than real fabric (see Volume 1, p. 108). This simplified method allows an enormous acceleration and rationalisation of the manufacturing process. Patented in the USA in 1943, it was used in industrial mass production towards the end of the 1950s and is the most common manufacturing method of textile floor coverings to this day. Methods that are more rational were also used for creating patterns and colouring carpeting. These included printing techniques in which coloured patterns are applied to a raw white substrate using movable spraying nozzles (chromojet printing) [29]. Since the middle of the 20th century, industrially fabricated generally inexpensive carpets are often laid as wall-to-wall carpeting rather than as customised individual rugs. To obtain larger sizes, sheets of carpeting were initially sewn together and attached to the bases of walls (fitted carpets). The ubiquitous wall-to-wall carpeting came to exist in this way. Textile floor coverings were later mainly installed by gluing them to the substrate fully, which is the standard laying method used today.

11 Floor of an apartment in a residential building by Le Corbusier in the Unité d'Habitation style from 1957 fitted with original Uni Walton DLW (Deutsche Linoleum Werke) linoleum, Berlin (D) 12 Oldest preserved rug. Pazyryk Carpet, Central Asia, 5th or 4th century BC

Notes [1] Scheidegger, Fritz: Aus der Geschichte der Bautechnik. (From the history of building technology.) Vol. 1 Grundlagen. (Fundamentals.) Basel and others 1990, p. 125 [2] Noteworthy are concrete-like screeds found in Lepenski Vir (Serbia) that are approximately 7,500 years old in which hydraulic binding agents were already used. In this regard, see Sinn 1973, p. 38ff. [3] Wihr 1985, p. 14 [4] Ibid. p. 16 [5] Scagliola (from the Italian “scaglia”, meaning chips) is a marble-like material (also referred to as “marmorino”) made of a mixture of anhydrite, water and various additives such as organic glues and pigments. [6] From Çayönü Tepesi (Turkey), approx. 7000 BC Wihr 1985, p. 26f. [7] Vitruvius, Book 7, chapter 1 and 4 [8] Wihr 1985, p. 44 [9] The term “opus tesselatum” is derived from the Latin words for work (opus) and cube (tessera) i.e. tessellated (tesselatus). [10] Such as in the basilica of Aquileia (314 – 319), according to Wihr 1985, p. 53 [11] Ibid. p. 142f. [12] Pliny cites the Mausoleum at Halikarnassus (351 BC) in Book 36, 30 – 31, of the Naturalis Historia as the first example of the stone-sawing technique, according to Wihr 1985, p. 210. Indications of a significantly older origin, such as Egyptian findings from the 26th / 27th century BC can however be found in other sources. See Arnold, Dieter: Building in Egypt. Pharaonic Stone Masonry. New York and other 1991, p. 266f.; Goyon, Jean-Claude et al.: La construction pharaonique du Moyen Empire à l‘époque gréco-romaine. Contexte et principes technologiques. Paris 2004, p. 79f. [13] A famous example of such floors is that of the Pantheon in Rome made of large square and round natural stone plates (114 –118). [14] The name is derived from a skilful Roman family of craftsmen active in Rome and Latium between the 12th and 14th centuries. The name Cosmas is frequently mentioned in historical sources. In contrast to the already considered mosaics of a uniform colour composed of an arrangement of many finger-length pieces, the figures of an ornament in a Cosmati floor are made of small, specifically cut (opus sectile) pieces. With the intarsia technique, these thin flat stone pieces are either applied to a base plate full face or inserted in special recesses made in this, with the base plate material hence forming either the fore- or background of the inlay work. [15] Kier 1970, p. 16 [16] A hypocaust (from Greek hypókauston: heated from below) is a system for heating raised floors composed of stone plates by hot air in the hollow space. The hypocaust of Roman antiquity is comparable to modern underfloor heating systems.

[17] The flooring made of small pieces of clay of two different colours was presumably completed between 1549 and 1554 on the basis of drawings by Michelangelo. It reflects the remaining design of the room, in particular the ceiling that has been proved to be attributable to him. Kier 1976, p. 65; Wihr 1985, p. 96 [18] Wihr 1985, p. 100; Kiengel, Horst: Nabopolassar, Nebukadnezar und Nabonid: Das Neubabylonische Reich. (Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar and Nabonidus: The Neo-Babylonian Empire) In: Welt- und Kulturgeschichte. Epochen, Fakten, Hintergründe in 20 Bänden. (World and Cultural History in 20 Volumes) Volume 2. Hamburg 2006, p. 171 [19] Kier 1976, p. 16 [20] Ibid. p. 10 [21] On the historical development of linoleum http:// www.baunetzwissen.de/index/Boden-belaegeLinoleum_32952.html (Die Erfindung des Linoleums, Die geschichtliche Entwicklung des Linoleums im 19. Jahrhundert, Die geschichtliche Entwicklung des Linoleums im 20. Jahrhundert) (The invention of linoleum, The historical development of linoleum in the 19th century, The historical development of linoleum in the 20th century) [22] A floorcloth is an oil or wax cloth laid out to protect precious flooring (patented in 1763). See Simpson, Pamela H.: Comfortable, Durable, and Decorative: Linoleum’s Rise and Fall from Grace. APT Bulletin 30, 2/3, 1999, p. 17– 24; Michaelsen 2010, p. 446. Kamptulicon was made of a leather-like mixture of cork and rubber (developed in 1843 and patented in 1848). See Meyers Großes KonversationsLexikon in 16 volumes. Vol. 9. Leipzig 1885, p. 430; http://www.fussboden.com/Geschichte accessed 01.10.2015 [23] http://www.fussboden.com/Geschichte accessed 01.10.2015 [24] Ibid. [25] Ibid. [26] http://www.antron.eu/en/carpet_history.html As on 15.12.2015; Stoessel, Marleen: Auf dem Teppich bleiben. (Keep your feet on the (carpeted) ground) In: Der Tagesspiegel dated 5.12.2009, http://www.tagesspiegel.de/-kultur/ geschichte-auf-dem-teppich-bleiben/ 1643402. html accessed 15.12.2015; Brockhaus-Enzyklopädie in 24 volumes. Vol. 22. Mannheim 1993, p. 6 [27] The wall-hanging tapestry of Bayeux originates from the 11th century and is 68 m long and 0.50 m wide. It depicts numerous events related to the Battle of Hastings (14 October 1066). It is regarded as one of the most significant examples of figurative representational art in the High Middle Ages. See Wilson, David M.: The Bayeux Tapestry. London 2004 [28] http://www.anker-teppichboden.de/fileadmin/ user_upload/Pdf/Broschueren/150_jahre_ anker_D.pdf, p. 66ff. [29] Ibid. p. 81ff.

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Flooring as an architectural design element

The space-creating and defining enveloping areas of interior rooms include flooring as well as the walls and ceiling. The linguistic differentiation between floor, wall and ceiling already gives an indication of the dominance of the cuboid or prismatic basic geometry of buildings anchored in the building tradition and hence also in our consciousness [1]. A building envelope essentially consists of two generally horizontal (floor and ceiling) components and a vertical (wall) one. Ceilings may certainly deviate in the form of inclinations, curvatures or other uneven variations, while walls can have a sloping or non-linear appearance. Flooring, on the other hand, is subject to limitations that are far more stringent. Isolated attempts to experiment with deviating floor shapes do exist, but the special functional requirements that floors have to fulfil mean that almost all of them are even and horizontal, ideally even step-free (see Volume 1, “Usage functions”, p. 11ff.). Inclinations may only be realised to a very limited extent, since these make it difficult or impossible to set up classical items of furniture. Walking or rolling objects on uneven floor surfaces are problematic. Above a certain height, offsets in the plane of the floor

cannot be overcome while walking normally and represent a falling hazard. This means that flooring design is not associated with the same degree of freedom as wall and particularly ceiling design. Curvatures, relief-like ornaments or faceting cannot be realised for the above-mentioned reasons. This formal discrepancy between walls and ceilings on the one hand and flooring on the other is particularly noticeable in Baroque interiors, where an ostentatiously designed “room shell” composed of ceiling and walls often contrasts with formally relatively restrained flooring (Fig. 1). This helped to direct the observer’s attention upwards to appreciate the opulent decor and illusionist ceiling frescoes. Physical proximity to flooring Of the internal boundary surfaces of a room, flooring is the only one with which the user is in direct physical contact almost continuously, mostly through the feet. This fact has consequences on the durability of flooring. Depending on the particular use, floors are exposed to greater or lesser abrasion effects as well as to a constant danger of mechan-

ical damage, such as through stilettos. As horizontal surfaces lining the bottom of a room, floors must also endure damage caused by falling objects. Walls and ceilings are not exposed to such an extent. The room-enclosing surfaces with the shortest intervals between periodic replacements within the life cycle of a building are therefore the floors – disregarding simple wall and ceiling makeovers. Sensory perception of flooring Flooring significantly determines the way a room is perceived, on the one hand because the user is in direct physical contact with it, and on the other because of the relative proximity of the most important human sensory organs such as the eye and ear. A person walking on specific flooring, for example, receives acoustic feedback depending on the hardness, elasticity or dead weight of the floor surface. Creaking sounds are typically associated with wood flooring, hard thumping with stone flooring, clanging with metal flooring or dull soft thuds with carpeted floors. Flooring can also stimulate the sense of smell, e.g. waxed oak, cedar

1

2

1

2

14

Baroque “spatial shell” composed of magnificent walls and ceilings above a restrained floor; Picture Gallery, Berlin City Palace (D) 1945 (destroyed) Uniform design of room-enclosing surfaces (flooring, walls and ceiling) using the same material (pinewood); Observation and Research Centre near Lake Furnas, São Miguel (P) 2010, Aires Mateus

Flooring as an architectural design element

or linoleum floors. The thermal effects of a flooring surface are directly perceivable, especially by the feet and legs and particularly intensely when walking barefoot or standing still, which is why warmness or coldness to the feet of a floor is often considered to be an important quality. In contrast to high ceilings for example, flooring is always in the field of vision, since the user is necessarily in direct contact with the flooring and must keep an eye on it for safety reasons. Hence, the view axis of the observer is normally horizontal or pointing slightly downwards, which is why floors have a strong impact on the visual perception of a room. Visual impression and spatial aesthetics Depending on the individual focus of the planner, aesthetic aspects play a decisive role in the visual perception of rooms. The architectural impression of an interior space is gained mainly, if not entirely, through its visual perception. The specific interaction of the room-enclosing surfaces – ceiling, walls and flooring – is of special significance in particular from a spatial-aesthetic point of view. A room may be strictly orthogonal in shape or realise integrating spatial concepts that – in an extreme case – may merge all the room-enclosing surfaces to a continuum (Fig. 2). The focus may also lie on big contrasts (Fig. 10, p. 18). Rather than through its shape, the visual impression of flooring is primarily determined through other factors such as colour, graphic design and texture. Since flooring makes up a considerable proportion of the visible envelope of a room, these aspects play an important role in the design process.

Relation between flooring and ceiling The relationship between flooring and ceiling is special and intense, not least because of the fact that they are generally parallel and symmetrical, irrespective of the shape of the ceiling. This dialogue is sometimes also expressed through congruence in structure and design, such as in a matching segmentation of the floor and ceiling areas according to a common pattern or through a uniform finish [2]. The relationship is particularly intense when ceilings are flat and room heights are low – a constellation in which both floor and ceiling assume a powerful room-defining character. This corresponds to the specific objective-neutral spatial concept of classical modernism, manifested paradigmatically in the “Plan Libre” (free or open plan) propagated by Le Corbusier. It is diametrically opposed to the “heroic” spatial concepts of pre-modern monumental architecture that aimed to create dramatic three-dimensional spatial effects instead. Classical-modern space is a more “two-dimensional” flat projecting space that – enclosed in the floor-ceiling sandwich – spills out to the exterior laterally through glazed facades and which can be subdivided at will by means of adjustable partitioning walls (Fig. 3). Its composition follows the strict logic prescribed by the stackability of storeys, while its configuration is primarily derived from a two-dimensional floor plan design. High-tech modernism, an epigone of classical modernism in this respect, treats both surfaces – floor and ceiling – as potential suppliers of media necessary for operation of the building. It does this by pervading the two with supply lines, subjecting them to a strict modular arrangement dictated by aspects of industrial manufacture and maximum flexibility of use (Fig. 4). An interesting 15

Flooring as an architectural design element

3

4

deviation to this spatial concept is the meandering floor landscape of the Rolex Learning Centre of the EPFL (École Polytechnique Fédérale) Lausanne (Fig. 5; see project example p. 106f.). Although the building is composed of a classical flat modern space enclosed between parallel floor and ceiling surfaces opening up laterally, the established principle that flooring must be flat is not observed. A hybrid space has been created, retaining its modern origin and abstract character on the one hand, while at the same time inviting romantic associations with the landscape. Conceptions of modern space in science fiction filmography are also worth considering, especially with regard to space stations offering conditions of weightlessness. Annular rooms with long curved

5

16

floors are a direct result of the radial centrifugal force generated artificially through rotation as a substitute for the gravity of Earth (Fig. 6). Glass floors, as increasingly encountered in recent years thanks to the technical development of glass products, also break with a taboo: the fundamental trust in the safety of a floor is confounded by the transparency of glass (Fig. 7). Dizziness, thrill and vertigo are accepted – sometimes even intended – by architects in the design of glass floors. Transparent walls and ceilings or roofs do not exhibit a corresponding effect, which in turn emphasises the special significance of flooring for our elementary sense of security. An alternative to the neutral architectural space of the “Plan Libre”, is the

“Raumplan” (spatial plan) developed by Adolf Loos in 1910. In contrast to Le Corbusier’s objectively sober space, this is characterised by intentional accentuations by means of a specific differentiation of areas. The floor assumes an important role here: space-defining effects of staggered floor heights contribute to a finely differentiated spatial concept by targeted development of levels [3] (Fig. 8). Adolf Loos writes: “I had something that would have been worth showing (in Stuttgart), namely a solution for the organisation of living rooms in three dimensions, not two, from one storey to the next, as has been the case up to now. This invention of mine would have saved humanity much time and labour in its development.” [4]

Flooring as an architectural design element

A similar segmenting effect can also be achieved by a specific graphic design of floors marking special symbolic areas (Fig. 16 a, p. 20). Cave- or cocoon-like spatial designs forming a continuous or undulating structure are prevalent in Baroque grotto architecture with its typical rough, abrasive stalactite-covered surfaces, as well as in the experimental room concepts of the 1960s and 1970s. Contemporary parametric designs also reflect these spatial concepts by denying the rigid verticality prescribed by gravity or the strict horizontality resulting therefrom and creating a spatial environment in which gravity appears to be absent. Spatial concepts of this kind may be interpreted as a reminiscence of the security offered by a cocoon or womb, but they are sometimes

3 “Plan Libre” (open plan) with continuous room areas on the same level merging with each other, floor plan of upper storey, Mill Owners’ Association Building, Ahmedabad (IND) 1954, Le Corbusier 4 Neutral space sandwiched between floor and flat, low ceiling, opening up to exterior on sides. Follows the principles of classical modernism and is designed as a high-tech, media-supplying usable area. Sectional view of an office storey, Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, Hong Kong (HK) 1979 –1986, Norman Foster 5 Meandering interior defined by the floor and parallel ceiling calls to mind a hilly landscape, Rolex Learning Centre at EPFL (École Polytechnique Fédérale) Lausanne (CH) 2010, SANAA 6 Horizontal flooring loses its significance in the absence of gravity. Astronaut training in weightlessness. 7 Transparent glass flooring at great height, Skydeck, Willis Tower (former Sears Tower), Chicago (USA) 1974, SOM 8 Living space with various flooring areas at different heights according to Adolf Loos’ “Raumplan”. Moller House, Vienna (A) 1928, Adolf Loos

also the products of successfully breaking a taboo. In a more derogatory manner, they could also be regarded as manifestations of technophile cultural epochs with a naive enthusiasm for the future. Colour design Colour is an important factor in the design of enveloping areas and correspondingly contributes to the appearance of a room. The spatial envelope should always be considered as a whole. The question regarding the extent to which flooring harmonises or contrasts with the walls and ceilings plays a decisive role in the visual perception (Fig. 9 and 10, p. 18). Surface contrasts are of primary significance in this respect. These may be differentiated in terms of colour and brightness. Both physiological and aesthetic factors should be taken into consideration. Minor brightness contrasts between the enveloping areas of a room are desirable from a physiological point of view [5]. To prevent glare effects, luminance contrasts should be kept to a minimum, i.e. the brightness of floor, wall and ceiling surfaces should be adapted accordingly. In view of the daylight available in rooms, especially in spaces located deeper within a building, enveloping areas in white or very light colours are generally found to be favourable, with lighter coloured flooring resulting in a physiologically positive effect. Scientific studies have shown that a brightness contrast in the central visual field of humans, that is – for a horizontal sightline – between a wall close to the observer and distant floor areas, should not exceed 1: 3 [6]. Stronger contrasts are less unfavourable in the peripheral areas of the visual field, with rations up to 1:10 considered acceptable (Fig. 15, p. 19). Strong colour contrasts, as well as strong colours in general, are regarded critically

6

7

8

17

Flooring as an architectural design element

by most physiologists, because “of the one-sided strain on the retina by such colour fields, which is manifested in the generation of after-images” [7]. There is also an extensive consensus on the psychological effect of colours, which may have an impact on the general mood of the observer. This should not be ignored in the process of colour selection. An illustration of the general effects is provided in Fig. 14. Luminous flooring represents a special case: the accustomed direction of illumination from the top (as prescribed by nature outdoors) or the side (as in covered free spaces or through windows in closed rooms) is replaced by a strange and unusual source of lighting emanating from below. This is generally found to be unsettling and disturbing.

in formally aligned suites of rooms – socalled enfilades – parqueted throughout in Baroque palaces [8]. On the other hand, there are floors with clearly visible structuring based on colour or graphic design. This may or may not harmonise with the architectural structure of the building [9]. Graphic design of flooring therefore makes it possible to visualise the architectural structure of a room (Fig. 17 a), to formulate a room or an area in conjunction with the other enveloping wall and ceiling areas (Fig. 17 b), or to reflect and support the basic geometrical structure of a room (Fig. 18 a). Certain areas can also be emphasised (Fig. 16 a) or zoned (Fig. 16 b) by the floor surface design, which is often associated with a change in material. Floors can furthermore serve for orientation in a building, in which case wayfinding elements dominate the design of the floor surface (Fig. 21).

Graphic design As in the colour design of flooring, the extent to which flooring is intended to represent an integrating moment or to purposely contrast the surroundings also plays a role in its graphic design. The floor surface can either have a neutral texture and contribute to a continuous unsegmented spatial impression, such as

Texture and formal design The aesthetic effect of a room not only develops through the space-defining and -forming interaction of floor and ceiling, or through room-segmenting height offsets, or the colour and graphic design – the

10

9

18

texture and formal design of the flooring itself also play an important role. A particularly strong influence on the appearance of the room is attributed to the texture of the surfaces enclosing the room, especially the flooring. Materials such as textile wall or ceiling hangings or textile floor coverings feel warm to the touch while at the same time offering thermal insulation and sound-absorbing effects. Adolf Loos recognised a fundamental principle of architecture in this type of covering: “Even if all materials are of equal value to the artist, they are not equally suited to all his purposes. The requisite durability, the necessary construction often demand materials that are not in harmony with the true purpose of the building. The architect’s general task is to provide a warm and liveable space. Carpets are warm and liveable. He decides for this reason to spread out one carpet on the floor and to hang up four to form the four walls. […] In the beginning was cladding. Man sought shelter from inclement weather and protection and warmth while he slept.” [10]. Extreme examples of the way soft materials influence the character of a room are the – again cave-like – spatial concepts of the 1960s. The

9 Uniform design of space-enclosing surfaces. Tiled interior in shop, Berlin (D) 2013, Weiss-– heiten Design 10 Parquet floor with dominant colour a opposed to walls and ceiling. Green corner cabinet, New Palace, Potsdam (D) 1763 –1769 11 Platonic parqueting of surface with a equilateral triangles b squares c regular hexagons 12 Archimedean parqueting with two regular basic elements of equal sides: regular octagon and square. This pattern with plate and filling element is frequently found in ceramic flooring. 13 Rectangular pattern with cross joints 14 Psychological effect of different colours, according to Grandjean 1973 15 Permissible contrast of surface brightness in field of vision, according to Grandjean 1973

Flooring as an architectural design element

c

modern wall-to-wall carpeting made of synthetic material that was new on the market at the time played a major role in these. Continuous composition of a surface Apart from jointless poured flooring, floor areas are normally composed of individual parts, e.g. plates, tiles, panels or boards. For reasons of functionality, the covering elements must fill the entire plane of the surface without any gaps. Deviations from this general rule are rare, but include, for example, penny round mosaics in which the remaining gaps are filled with material such as mortar. Laying a surface with as few as possible identically shaped elements – ideally of only one shape – is furthermore advantageous for manufacturing and practical reasons. The associated geometric distribution, which is more complicated than apparent at first glance, is mathematically analysed within the scope of the so-called tessellation of the area (also referred to as tiling or paving). Tessellation in a strictly mathematical sense (regular tessellation) involves identical regular polygons as basic elements. Only equilateral triangles, squares and regular hexagons come into consider-

14

12

13

ation for this (Fig. 11). Triangles are rather rare in flooring (probably because of the pointed tips that break off easily especially when panels are thin), while squares are the most common formats, with hexagons also used occasionally. Less restrictive interpretations of tessellation allow combinations of two or more regular polygons with equal edge lengths (semi-regular or Archimedean tessellation, Fig. 12) or even patterns composed of non-polygonal shapes or free shapes (e.g. by M. C. Escher). An important irregular polygonal shape is the rectangle. With its different edge lengths – either compact and almost square or long strip-like plates – this element can also fill a plane without any gaps (Fig. 13).

ically charged element of expression. Significant examples include the mosaic floors of classical antiquity with their iconographic representations of mythology and everyday life as well as the sacred buildings of medieval Christianity [11]. Graphically and pictorially, flooring was regarded as an open book, with the reader moving from image to image while walking (Fig. 19), which is in turn a consequence of the relative proximity of the eye to the floor. Full pictorial treatment was however reserved for the ceilings. Their relative distance from the eye of the observer offers the necessary visual angle for effective illusionary spatial representations such as of the heavens. Floors on the other hand often feature a carpet-like ornamental design with a constantly repeating pattern. Pictorial representations, especially of figures, must be restricted to the closer environment of the observer, perceivable with little perspective distortion and not obstructed by items of furniture. Interesting examples of a combination of ornamental and spatial graphic effects are decorative floorings with a so-called trompe-l’∞il effect creating the optical illusion of three-dimensionality (Fig. 20). The close proximity of floors to the observer makes them ideal

Ornament As already described in the context of the historical development of floors (p. 8ff.), the assembly of a floor surface using individual components almost necessarily led to the manifestation of different structures. Emergence of a variety of techniques such as mosaic, inlay (intarsia) and parquetry permitted the development of sophisticated ornamentation in flooring, making it a visual and symbol-

Colour

Distance effect

Temperature effect

Mental effect

Blue

Further away

Cold

Restful

Green

Further away

Very cold to neutral

Very restful

Red

Closer

Warm

Very stimulating and not restful

Orange

Much closer

Very warm

Exciting

Yellow

Closer

Very warm

Exciting

Brown

Much closer, confining

Neutral

Exciting

Violet

Much closer

Cold

Aggressive, unrestful, tiring

3:1

b

1 : 10

11 a

1 : 10

15

19

Flooring as an architectural design element

for emphasising special areas of a room, such as in Byzantium, where a large, preciously coloured porphyry disk marked the space reserved to the emperor in the audience room of the palace [12]. Altar areas in churches often also have a special floor design [13]. In their heroic period, the architects of modernity declared the ornament taboo in a historically unique act. The dogma of ornament-free abstraction is

still a powerful factor in flooring design today. Ornamental decorative flooring is practically non-existent in contemporary architecture for this reason. In order to meet the modern requirement of sober objectivity, ornamentation is limited to elementary, repetitive, ornament-like geometric patterns such as chequerboard (provided this is small enough to appear planar). Although ornaments do appear to crop up every now and then

a

a

16 b

17 b

20

in current architecture, often in the form of parametrised biomorphic patterns, Adolf Loos‘ words still essentially apply: “We have outgrown ornament, we have struggled through to a state without ornament. Behold, the time is at hand, fulfilment awaits us. Soon the streets of the cities will glow like white walls! Like Zion, the Holy City, the capital of heaven. It is then that fulfilment will have come.” [14]

a

18 b

Flooring as an architectural design element

16 Marking and zoning a room a Square field with large round granite disk for liturgical identification of the “omphalion” (navel of the earth) on the flooring. Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (TR) 6th or 8th / 9th century b Shop, Frankfurt am Main (D) 2013, DESIGN IN ARCHITEKTUR, Ingo Haerlin 17 The main building axes are traced as distinct bands on the floor. a San Miniato al Monte, Florence (I) from 1013 onwards b Office and commercial building, Shanghai (CHN) 2006, A-ASTERISK and A-I-SHA architects 18 Emphasis of central character of a room by

19

20

21 22

19

20

21

22

point-symmetrical floor design a Marble Hall in Sanssouci Palace, Potsdam (D) 1745 –1747 b Shop in Luxembourg (L) 2015, KLAB architecture Successive reading of the floor while walking, similar to an open walk-on book, marble flooring with epitaphs, in San Miniato al Monte, Florence (I) 1207 Parquet flooring with three-dimensional trompel’∞il effect. Marble Palace, Potsdam (D) 1787– 1793 Office and commercial building, Shanghai (CHN) 2006, A-ASTERISK and A-I-SHA architects Modern terrazzo tiles with 3-D effect

Notes [1] See in this regard more on the derivation of the dominating cuboid geometry in Moro, José Luis: Baukonstruktion – vom Prinzip zum Detail. (Building Construction – from Principle to Detail.) Volume 5: Prinzipien (Principles) (expected publication, Heidelberg 2017) [2] A prominent example is a demand made by Pope Leo X handed down through history that the ornamentation and structure of the floor of the Biblioteca Laurenziana should match the ceiling decorated by Michelangelo. See Wihr 1985, p. 96 [3] Worbs 1984 [4] Adolf Loos: Josef Veillich (1929). In: Loos 2010, p. 698f. or in English: Loos, Adolf. On Architecture. Ed. Adolf and Daniel Opel. Riverside, California: Ariadne Press, 1995 [5] Grandjean 1973, p. 243ff. [6] Ibid. p. 244 [7] Ibid. p. 264 [8] For some examples of neutral textured floors, see Kier 1976, p. 49f. [9] Examples of a lacking agreement of the floor structuring with the general building order are early Cosmati floors, such as the one in the abbey church of Monte Cassino (1070), in which there is no relation whatsoever to the pillar position (Kier 1985, p. 167f.); or the flooring of the Pantheon in Rome, which was even “quoted as an example of a badly fitting floor in a circular building” by the architectural theorist C. A. Daviler in 1691 (Kier 1976, p. 55). [10] Adolf Loos: Das Prinzip der Bekleidung (1898). In: Loos 2010, p. 138 or in English: Raumplan Versus Plan Libre: Adolf Loos [and] Le Corbusier. Ed. Max Risselada, 2008 [11] Further literature in this regard: Stefanou 2006; Zettler 2001; Barral i Altet 2010; Ungruh 2013; Weigel 2009 [12] Wihr 1985, p. 167 [13] Kier 1976, p. 58 [14] Adolf Loos: Ornament und Verbrechen (1908). In: Loos 2010, p. 365 or in English: Loos, Adolf. Ornament and Crime: Selected Essays. Ed. Adolf Opel. Riverside, California: Ariadne Press, 1998

21

Flooring life-cycle

24 29 35 37 45 46 48

50 50 51 51 52 54 54 68 69

Sustainability of flooring Ecological consideration Economic consideration (life-cycle costs) Consideration of sociocultural impact Flooring life-cycle assessment data Recycling and disposal Summary assessment of sustainability Overall assessment according to certification systems Flooring in renovation and modernisation Construction measures in building stock Renovation of old buildings compared to new constructions Active protection of building stock Status analysis Energy-efficient and thermal protection renovation Damage in old buildings Renovation measures with regard to various functions Renewal of subfloors Material-specific characteristics of floor coverings in renovation

23

Sustainability of flooring

Constant physical contact of users and furnishing items with flooring makes it one of the components of a building that is most subjected to wear. The period of use – from installation to removal for the sake of renewal – is relatively short, particularly in comparison with primary components such as the support structure or building envelope. This means that flooring may have to be replaced several times in the course of a significantly longer total lifetime of the building itself. In addition to costs resulting from repeated replacement, this is also associated with an expenditure of relevant material and energy resources, as well as environmentally compatible reuse or disposal at the end of its service life. The sensitivity and maintenance intensity of flooring moreover give rise to a relatively high expenditure and cost for care and upkeep during its service life. In addition to local effects on living space and the environment in general, more extensive aspects such as the contribution of flooring manufacture to global warming should also be taken into consideration. Flooring has a decisive effect on the general wellbeing, health and safety of users. All these factors can be summarised in terms of the three essential dimensions of sustainability – ecological, economic and sociocultural – which should be included in every architectural design of a building (Fig. 1). Ecological consideration Like other components of buildings, flooring also has a considerable impact on the environment, caused by processes involved in production, laying, use and recycling or final disposal. In former times, these ecological effects were considered at most on a local level in the immediate vicinity of the construc24

tion, but a more comprehensive consideration – also on a global level – is required today. This is mainly due to the considerable share of the overall consumption of resources and energy (including the resulting polluting emissions) attributable to the building industry in most national economies, particularly in the industrialised countries. Figures lie between 40 and 50 %. Responsible planning can therefore make a major contribution to environmental protection. All life-cycle phases of a technical product must accordingly be taken into consideration for this purpose. These encompass supply of raw materials, processing, manufacture, use, recycling and disposal. Resource consumption as well as impact on the environment and on health must be taken into account in this regard. Life-Cycle Assessment, LCA

Life-cycle assessment is one of a variety of evaluation methods (in addition to risk assessment, evaluation of environmental performance, environmental audits and environmental compatibility testing) used to assess the environmental compatibility of a product. It takes into account ecological but no economic or social aspects. The perspective of consideration is global, i.e. local effects on the environment or users are not considered. A number of the alternative methods mentioned are suitable for this. According to DIN EN ISO 14 040, lifecycle assessment is based on “compiling and evaluating the inputs and outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system in the course of its life” [1]. In this respect, the examined technical object – in this case flooring – is considered as a system that is virtually separated from the environment, while interacting with it and giving rise to ma-

terial and energetic inputs and outputs throughout its entire lifetime and hence resulting in environmental impact. Directly quantifiable material and energy flows (input and resource consumption; output or waste and emissions) are mainly recorded in the life-cycle inventory phase, while indirectly quantifiable environmental effects are recorded in the impact assessment phase. Analysed system A comprehensive evaluation of the environmental compatibility of a product requires inclusion of material and energy flows not only in the course of manufacture of the actual product, but also in the fabrication of any preliminary products or in obtaining and processing raw materials. Various processes causally related to the product must therefore be taken into account, which however need to be limited for practical reasons in order to prevent excessive data collection. For this reason, only inputs and outputs directly connected to the actual use or function of the product are taken into consideration. A so-called functional unit, i.e. a “quantified use of a product system for employment as a comparative unit” is defined for this purpose [2]. This also allows material and energy flows to be recorded on a uniform basis and a meaningful comparison of alternatively available products is therefore possible during planning. A functional unit in this context would, for example, be 1 m2 of floor covering with unambiguously defined properties with regard to resistance to wear, slip resistance, maintainability etc. considered over a specific service life. System boundaries Proper record of this data requires definition of suitable system boundaries and in turn formulation of corresponding

Sociocultural aspects

Sustainability in general

• Natural resources • Natural environment

• Capital / values • Economic achievement potential

• Human health • Social and cultural values

Sustainable building

• Natural resources • Global and local environment

• Capital / values

• • • •

Sustainability in general

• Protection of natural resources /economic and sparing use of natural resources • Increase in efficiency • Reduction of pollutant load/environmental impact • Protection of the earth’s atmosphere, soil, groundwater and water bodies • Promotion of environmentally compatible production

• Reduction of life-cycle costs • Reduction of subsidy expenditure • Reduction of debts • Promotion of responsible entrepreneurship • Creation of sustainable consumption habits • Creation of dynamic and cooperative international economic framework conditions

• Protection of human health promotion • Reinforcement of social cohesion and solidarity • Retention of cultural values • Equal opportunities • Securing earning capacity and work places • Fighting poverty • Education / vocational training • Equal rights • Integration • Safe/liveable environment

Sustainable building

• Protection of natural resources • Protection of ecosystem

• Minimisation of lifecycle costs • Improvement of economic efficiency • Retention of capital / value

• Preservation of health, safety and comfort • Safeguarding functionality • Securing quality of design and urban development

1

Health User satisfaction Functionality Cultural value

Definition of target and scope

Life-cycle inventory

Impact assessment

Interpretation

Phase 4

Phase 1

Life-cycle assessment framework

Phase 2

Phases The life-cycle assessment procedure is generally divided into the following phases (Fig. 2): • Phase 1 – Goal and scope definition • Phase 2 – Life Cycle Inventory, LCI: This encompasses “the compilation and quantification of inputs and outputs of a given product in the course of its life [3]. Input is resource consumption, while output includes emissions and waste. • Phase 3 – Life Cycle Impact Assessment, LCIA): This serves “to recognise and evaluate the extent and significance of potential environmental impact of a product system in the course of the life of the product” [4]. Material flows of the life-cycle inventory give rise to environmental effects. These are evaluated in the lifecycle impact assessment in terms of their (global, not local) consequences.

Economy

Phase 3

cut-off criteria for these. The system boundary represents the interface between the technical system of the analysed product and the environment or other product systems. Associated cut-off criteria differentiate between relevant and non-relevant factors. This commonly takes place using quantitative threshold values (e.g. through definition of a minimum percentage of the environmental impact of the respective factor or material and energy flow; figures below this limit are considered irrelevant).

Ecology

Targets of protection

Subjects of protection

Sustainability of flooring

Direct applications: • Development and improvement of products • Strategic planning • Political decision-making processes • Marketing • Other

2

Greenhouse effect, ozone hole, summer smog, acidification, overfertilisation, environmental toxins etc.

Impact assessment

Emissions, waste

Life-cycle inventory

Output

Output

Output

Output

Output

Input

Input

Input

Input

Input

Use

Disposal Utilisation Dumping

Use stage

End-of-life stage

Resources 1 2 3

Subjects and targets of protection of sustainability (general and related to the building industry) Life-cycle assessment phases according to DIN EN 14 040 Phases and structure of life-cycle assessment: A life-cycle inventory encompasses inputs and outputs in the production, use and disposal / recycling of a product. Life-cycle impact assessment identifies the resulting influences on the environment. 3

Life-cycle steps

Life-cycle stages

Raw material exploitation and processing

Production of preliminary products

Production stage

Production

25

Sustainability of flooring

Parameter

Unit (expressed as functional /declared unit)

Parameters for describing utilisation of resources Utilisation of renewable primary energy, excluding carriers of renewable primary energy used as raw materials

MJ, lower heating value

Utilisation of renewable primary energy carriers used as raw material (material use)

MJ, lower heating value

Total utilisation of renewable primary energy (primary energy and carriers of renewable primary energy used as raw materials (energetic + material use)

MJ, lower heating value

Utilisation of non-renewable primary energy, excluding carriers of renewable primary energy used as raw materials

MJ, lower heating value

Utilisation of non-renewable primary energy carriers used as raw material (material use)

MJ, lower heating value

Total utilisation of non-renewable primary energy (primary energy and carriers of non-renewable primary energy used as raw materials) (energetic + material use)

MJ, lower heating value

Use of secondary material

kg

Use of renewable secondary fuels

MJ, lower heating value

Use of non-renewable secondary fuels

MJ, lower heating value m3

Net use of freshwater resources Other environmental information describing various waste categories Hazardous waste disposed

kg

Non-hazardous waste disposed (urban settlement waste)

kg

Radioactive waste

kg

Other environmental information describing material outputs Components for further use

kg

Materials for recycling

kg

Materials for energy generation 4

MJ per energy carrier

Impact category

Parameter

Shortage of abiotic resources – materials

Potential for shortage of abiotic resources – nonfossil resources (abiotic depletion potential, ADP – materials) 1)

kg Sb equiv

Shortage of abiotic resources – fossil energy carriers

Potential for shortage of abiotic resources – fossil energy carriers (abiotic depletion potential, ADP – fossil energy carriers) 1)

MJ, lower heating value

Acidification of ground and water

Acidification potential of ground and water, AP

Ozone depletion

Potential of depletion of stratospheric ozone layer, ODP

Unit (expressed as functional / declared unit

kg Sb equiv kg CFC-11 equiv, or kg R-11 equiv

Global warming

Global warming potential, GWP

Eutrophication

Eutrophication potential, EP

kg (PO4)3- equiv

Photochemical ozone creation

Photochemical ozone creation potential, POCP

kg ethene equiv

1)

5

kg

Exported energy

kg CO2 equiv

The potential for shortage of abiotic resources is calculated using two different calculated and declared indicators: • Potential for shortage of abiotic resources – materials: includes all non-renewable, abiotic material resources (i.e. excluding fossil energy carriers) • Potential for shortage of abiotic resources – fossil energy carriers: includes all fossil energy carriers

26

• Phase 4 – Interpretation: Here “the results of the life-cycle inventory or impact assessment or both are evaluated with regard to the defined goal and scope […], in order to reach conclusions and make recommendations” [5]. Life-cycle assessment indicators The indicators considered below are taken into account in both data acquisition phases, i.e. life-cycle inventory and impact assessment (Fig. 3). Life-cycle inventory The life-cycle inventory is “part of the life-cycle assessment, encompassing compilation and quantification of inputs [resources] and outputs [waste, emissions] of a product in the course of its life”. Each of these material and energy flows transgresses the system boundary. Associated data represent “the starting point of a life-cycle impact assessment” [6]. The relevance of resource consumption differs depending on whether the particular resource is scarce or adequately available. In the latter case, utilisation is primarily considered in terms of energy consumption for provision of the resource or in terms of the environmental impact elicited thereby. As far as scarce resources are concerned, the consumption itself also has to be accounted for and evaluated. Resources may be biotic or abiotic, finite or renewable. The aggregated, i.e. summarised life-cycle inventory indicators include: • Primary energy consumption, not renewable [in MJ]: finite abiotic energy resource (petroleum, coal, natural gas, uranium) • Primary energy consumption, renewable [in MJ]: wind power, water power, solar energy • Water use [in kg]: comparison of con-

Sustainability of flooring

Life-cycle inventory results allocated to impact categories

Individual life-cycle inventory parameters defined in DIN EN 15 804 are shown in Fig. 4. The way their environmental impact is recorded using impact indicators is shown in Fig. 6. Life-cycle impact assessment Impact assessment analyses potential environmental effects by mathematical modelling. So-called equivalents are used to record the harmful effects of the various environmental factors (Fig. 7) and relate these to generally applicable reference values allowing mutual comparison. The effect of a specific greenhouse gas emitted during manufacture of a product can for instance be measured by means of the effect of a kilogramme of carbon dioxide (CO2) and expressed in kg of CO2 equivalents (CDE). The following indicators are included in the analysis (Fig. 5): • Abiotic Depletion Potential – Elements, ADPE [kg Sb equivalent]: Shortage of abiotic resources, in relation to nonfossil resources; Abiotic Depletion Potential Elements – Fossil Fuels, ADPF [MJ]: Shortage of abiotic resources, in relation to fossil resources. Reference for ADPE is antimony (Sb). • Acidification Potential, AP [kg SO2 equivalent]: Acidification of soil and water bodies in result to transformation of air pollutants such as sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides to acids such as sulphuric acid and nitric acid (pH reduction). Damage to ecosystems and building structures. Reference is sulphur dioxide (SO2). • Ozone Depletion Potential, ODP [kg CCI3F equivalent]: Depletion of vital

Example SO2, HCI etc. (kg, functional unit)

Life-cycle inventory results

Impact category

Acidification Emissions with acidifying effect (NOX, SO2 etc., allocated to acidification)

Characterisation model

Release of protons (H+ aq)

Impact indicator Environmental relevance

Environmental impact mechanism

sumption with local or regional regeneration rate • Utilisation of natural space • Waste: output of final waste after treatment (waste incineration, appropriate landfilling)

• Forest • Vegetation • etc.

Impact endpoint(s) 6

Term

Example

Impact category

Climate change

Life-cycle inventory results

Amount of greenhouse gas per functional unit

Characterisation model

Baseline scenario over 100 years by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Impact (category) indicator

Increased infrared radiation (W/m2)

Characterisation factor

Global warming potential (GWP100) for every greenhouse gas (kg CO2 equivalents / kg gas)

Impact (category) indicator value

kg CO2 equivalents per functional unit

Impact (category) endpoints

Coral reefs, forests, harvests

Environmental relevance

The increase in infrared radiation is representative of possible effects on the climate that depend on the integrated absorption of thermal energy by the atmosphere caused by emissions and distribution over the course of the heat absorption.

7

4

5

Parameters for describing the utilisation of resources within the scope of a life-cycle inventory as well as other environmental information on waste categories and on material outputs according to DIN EN 15 804 Parameters for describing environmental impact

6

7

(LCA indicators) according to DIN EN 15 804 Concept of impact indicators within the scope of impact assessment according to DIN EN ISO 14 004 Specific examples of impact assessment terms according to DIN EN ISO 14 004

27

Sustainability of flooring

stratospheric ozone that protects from UV radiation effects. Responsible are chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). This gives rise to greater atmospheric warming and harmful action of increased UV radiation. Reference is trichlorofluoromethane (CCI3F). • Global Warming Potential, GWP) [kg CO2 equivalent]: Greenhouse gas effect due to emitted anthropogenic, i.e. caused by humans, greenhouse gases (CO2, methane, CFC). This gives rise to increased atmospheric warming. Reference is carbon dioxide (CO2). The residence time of the gases in the atmosphere must also be taken into account. This takes place through referencing a specific integration period, generally 10 years (GWP 100). • Eutrophication Potential, EP [kg (PO4)3equivalent]: Accumulation of nutrients in soil and water bodies through the action of air pollutants, waste water and agricultural fertilisation. Also referred to as overfertilisation potential. Hence “dying” of soils or water bodies. Reference is phosphate (PO4)3-. • Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential, POCP [kg C2H4 equivalent]: In contrast to ozone in the stratosphere, ozone near the ground (tropospheric ozone) is harmful to humans, plants and materials. Also referred to as summer smog potential. Reference is ethene (C2H4). Environmental product declarations (EPD) and designations

Environmental product declarations are data sets available to planners for use in practice. They form the basis of data for ecological assessment of buildings according to DIN EN 15 978. Compliance with international ISO standards [7] and the European standard DIN EN 15 804 ensures international harmonisa28

tion (see “Flooring life-cycle assessment data”, p. 37ff.). EPDs provide quantified comparable environmental information on building products or services that have been standardised on a scientific basis. They encompass parameters both of the life-cycle inventory and the impact assessment and include information on health-relevant emissions in indoor air, ground and water during the use stage of a building. This helps to allow planners to make sound decisions regarding the selection of building products with maximum environmental compatibility [8]. EPDs are supplied by the manufacturers. Publication of verifiable and consistent product-related technical data for the ecological quality of buildings, components or materials by the manufacturers – for which they assume responsibility and liability – is safeguarded by core Product Category Rules (core PCR) (see “Environmental product declarations (EPDs) of flooring”, p. 38ff.). EPDs can include information [9] on the: • production phase: raw material supply, transport, manufacture and associated processes (from cradle to gate) • production phase and individual other life-cycle phases (from cradle to gate with options) • complete life cycle according to the defined system boundaries (from cradle to grave): installation, use and inspection, maintenance and cleaning, exchange and replacement, demolition, waste treatment for reuse, recovery and disposal The corresponding information modules are divided, depending on the life-cycle phases considered, as follows (A 1 to A 3 are compulsory modules for fulfilment of standard DIN EN 15 804 and all others are optional):

A 1– A 3 Production stage, information modules: A 1 Raw material supply and processing as well as processing of secondary material input (e.g. recycling processes) A 2 Transport to manufacturer A 3 Manufacturing A 4–A 5 Construction stage, information modules: A4 Transport to building site A5 Installation in building B1–B5 Use stage, information modules related to building fabric: B 1 Use or application of the installed product B 2 Inspection, maintenance, cleaning B 3 Repair B 4 Exchange, replacement B 5 Improvement, modernisation (refurbishment) B 6–B 7 Use stage, information modules related to operation of the building: B 6 Energy used for operation of the building (e.g. operation of a heating system and other technical building equipment) B 7 Water used for operation of the building C 1–C 4 End-of-life stage, information modules: C 1 Deconstruction, demolition C 2 Transport to waste processing C 3 Waste processing for reuse, recovery and /or recycling C 4 Disposal D

Benefits and loads beyond the system boundary, information modules: reuse, recovery and /or recycling potentials, stated as net flows and credits

Sustainability of flooring

The estimated or assumed lifetime of a product is an important parameter influencing the calculation of life-cycle costs. In the context of a life-cycle assessment, this is primarily estimated at the design stage, rather than being determined at the end of a service life. The forecast allows quantification of expected building operation expenditures and evaluation of the environment-related quality. It is assumed that individual subsystems – such as the flooring – have to be exchanged a number of times in the course of the service life of the whole building, which generally lies between

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en

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p al

hc

wit

i

oc

ss

a sts

d ate

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d

ycle-optimise

ted with life-c

Costs associa planning

Influenceab

Up to 80 – 85 % of total costs

Lifetime

the building fabric. The effective service life can on the other hand also be longer than the technical lifetime. Proper and sufficiently frequent care of the product (in this case the flooring) has a decisive impact on its life expectancy. Fine grain-like dirt on hard flooring can for instance quickly lead to scratching and signs of wear and hence to premature ageing. The following definitions of the lifetime of a building component or product are differentiated [12]: • Reference service life (RSL): average technical lifetime of components or RSL is the “service life that can be expected for a specific (i.e. reference) series of conditions of use for a product, which can also form the basis for estimation of the service life under other conditions of use” [13] • Estimated service life (ESL): expected/ assumed lifetime of components • Economic service life of components: end of service life not on account of wear but for economic reasons • Calculated service life (CSL) of components according to VDI 2067 • Reference study period (RSP) which should be agreed with the client

Potential saving after end of life cycle

One of the aims of sustainable building is also to keep the long-term overall costs of a building measure as low as possible (Fig. 8). Until recently, planners merely took into consideration the initial investment (in the form of building costs) required for a new construction, while ignoring the subsequent costs of operation and deconstruction at the end of the service life. Nowadays it is also necessary to record costs arising from the use stage and final utilisation or disposal of building structures and products. This should take place during the planning stage in the form of a sound prognosis and can be carried out using Life Cycle Costing (LCC) / Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA). The result is also referred to as life-cycle success [10]. Life-cycle costs are “costs arising through a building or component over the entire life cycle by fulfilment of the technical and functional requirements” [11].

50 and 100 years. This means that several renewal cycles occur, which are much shorter than the total lifetime of a construction (Fig. 19 –22, p. 37f.). The estimated or expected lifetime of a product can be determined according to technical, economic as well as sociocultural criteria. The technical lifetime is the period in which a product can completely fulfil its allocated functions, assuming that it was manufactured in compliance with accepted rules of building technology, and that cleaning, care and maintenance was adequate and in line with customary standards. The product is subjected to an ageing process in the course of this, which results in replacement of the product at the end of the technical lifetime, i.e. the beginning of a new use cycle and its definitive disposal. The effective service life of a product is not necessarily identical to its technical lifetime. It may turn out to be shorter if the product is exchanged although it still functions, such as for economic reasons (end of economic lifetime), because it is considered to be old-fashioned (obsolescence), or because of particularly intensive use, negligence by the building operator or deliberate acceptance of deterioration of

Cumulated costs

Economic consideration (life-cycle costs)

ility of cost

8

Life-cycle costs and how these can be influenced during the different phases of life

8

Concept

Planning

Creation

Use

s

Demolition

Time

29

Sustainability of flooring

Ageing Ageing is the loss or reduction of properties (load-carrying capacity, tightness, transparency, elasticity etc.) through physical, chemical and biological influences such as mechanical effects, vibrations, light, microbiological processes etc. or also (natural) catastrophes or accidents [14]. Ageing of building products is recorded numerically by means of various methods, e.g. by depreciation curves (Fig. 9), illustrating different ageing processes depending on wear, quality, age, exposure and maintenance [15]. Durability on the other hand is the capacity to “retain the demanded technical quality over a service life, which is subject to specific maintenance under the influence of foreseeable processes” [16]. Obsolescence Obsolescence differs from ageing. This also gives rise to a loss in value, but for different reasons [17]: • Functional: a component still functions but cannot properly fulfil new functions allocated to it • Physical: a component is no longer compliant with requirements due to lacking maintenance • Technical: a component is no longer compliant with current standards • Legal: a component is no longer compliant with current legal regulations • Economic: a product is no longer cost-efficient; e.g. the earning capacity of the building no longer corresponds to the development of land prices • Formal: the product is no longer considered to be adequately modern An obsolete product may therefore be replaced much earlier than would have been necessary because of ageing. 30

Life cycle

A life cycle is a complete sequence of phases through which a product system passes, beginning with conception and ending with disposal [18]. Four main lifecycle phases are differentiated: new construction, use, renewal and deconstruction (Fig. 10). Phase 1: New construction The aim of a new construction is to create a function-compliant structure, taking into account consumption of resources and environmental impact. Production is preceded by a conception and planning phase, during which future effects of the building measure must be estimated as accurately as possible. Good planning can exert a major influence on resource efficiency and environmental compatibility of the building project. Planning decisions set the course with significant impact on later life-cycle phases. Phase 2: Use Use is defined as “use of a unit as intended and in accordance with the generally accepted rules of technology, while services and/or objects may have to be provided with depletion of the wear margin” [19]. Prerequisite for use is proper fulfilment of the function of the respective component. Operation describes the combination of all technical, administrative and management measures (with the exception of maintenance measures) permitting the unit to fulfil its function. A failure occurs when a unit loses the ability to fulfil a necessary function [20]. Failure is attributable to wear when “the likelihood of occurrence increases with operating time or the number of times the unit is used and the associated operational demands” [21]. It is ageing-related when its “likelihood of occurrence increases with the passage of time” [22]. Degradation occurs in case

of negative “alteration of the physical state due to the time factor, use or external causes” [23]. Maintenance Maintenance is the “combination of all technical, administrative and management measures during the life cycle of the unit that serve to retain or restore its functional condition allowing it to fulfil the required function” [24] (Fig. 12). Basic maintenance measures according to DIN 31 051, 4.1 (Fig. 11) include: • Servicing: measures intended to delay depletion of the existing wear margin • Inspection: measures for determination and assessment of the actual state of a unit including determination of the causes of wear and derivation of necessary subsequent action for future use • Repair: physical measure to restore the function of a defective unit • Improvement: combination of all technical, administrative and management measures for increasing reliability and / or maintainability and/or safety of a unit without changing its original function The following terms are relevant in association with maintenance: • Revision: “extensive number of preventive maintenance measures for retention of the required degree of functionality of a unit” [25] • Major overhaul: “measure after disassembly of the unit and repair or replacement of subunits nearing the end of their service life or requiring regular replacement” [26] • Maintainability: “ability of a component, an assembled part (building part) or a construction to retain a condition in which its functional requirements can be fulfilled or returned to such a condition in the event of deficiencies” [27]

Sustainability of flooring

Phase 4: Deconstruction The following target hierarchy applies to deconstruction at the end of the use stage (end of life) of a building structure [30]: • Further use on an elemental level (e.g. raised access floor) • Further use on a component level (e.g. parquet) • Recycling of building material at the highest possible level, minimisation of downcycling (e.g. PVC)

Inspection, maintenance, cleaning / repair

5

Further inspection, maintenance, cleaning / repair 1

Technical and functional quality

1 Technical and functional quality

2

3

4 5

2 3

RSL b

RSL

• • • •

Deconstruction stage

• Deconstruction plan • Deconstruction • Utilisation / Disposal

Use stage Maintenance Operation Management /Administration Usage

Modernisation stage

• Conversion • Repair • Modernisation

Use stage Maintenance Operation Management /Administration Usage

Building stage

• • • •

Planning stage

• Construction • Putting into service

9a

• Project development • Planning

Phase 3: Renewal Renewal encompasses “modifications and improvements of an existing building with the aim of putting it in an acceptable condition” [29]. The main aim of renewal is to retain or increase value if constant adaptation of the building fabric to continuously increasing demands is intended. Several consecutive renewal and use cycles may occur in the course of a building life-cycle (Fig. 9 b). Due to its generally short service life, most flooring is subjected to relatively short renewal cycles in the course of the operating phase of a building, i.e. flooring is replaced a number of times after losing its functionality.

4

Original quality Average quality Minimum quality

Any other modernisation and use stages, if applicable

1 2 3

• Wear margin: “margin of possible functional fulfilment under specified conditions inherent in a unit on account of manufacture, repair or improvement” (Fig. 13) [28]

Raw material supply /manufacture, transport 10

Maintenance

Servicing

Inspection

Repair

Improvement

11

9 Types of designated a technical / functional performance and reference service life (RSL) b technical / functional performance, repair and inspection, maintenance, cleaning / repair (multiple) during a reference service life (RSL) according to DIN EN 15 804 10 Simplified life-cycle representation 11 Basic maintenance measures according to DIN 31 051 12 Maintenance – total overview according to 12 DIN EN 13 306, Annex A

Maintenance

Preventive maintenance

Corrective maintenance

Condition-based maintenance

Prescheduled maintenance

Planned, on request or continuous

Planned

Postponed

Immediate

31

Wear margin

Sustainability of flooring

Original condition after manufacture Original condition after repair or rectification of weakness

Wear limit Failure 13 0

Time

• Thermal utilisation (e.g. wooden floor) • Landfill (e.g. linoleum covering) The following terms are relevant in association with deconstruction: • Reuse: “Process through which products or components that are not waste are reused for the same purpose they were made for or for other purposes, without reconditioning.” [31] • Recovery: “Treatment of waste with the purpose of replacing other resources or processing waste for this purpose.” [32] • Recycling: “Recovery process through which waste materials are reprocessed into products, materials or substances that either serve their original purpose or other purposes” [33]. A differentiation is made between recycling organic materials that are not used as solvents (including composting and other bio-

logical transformation processes), recycling metals and metal compounds and recycling other inorganic materials. The recycling potential of a building product is equivalent to the saving potential in the primary expenditure needed for a future secondary production, i.e. in a production in which a certain quantity of recycling (or secondary) material is used. A secondary material is “material recovered from earlier use or from waste that replaces a primary material” [34]. Manufacturing and the recycling potential are therefore considered jointly in a life cycle and set off against each other. This may however only be included in the balance once. A product fully composed of secondary, i.e. recycled, material possesses no further recycling potential. • Downcycling: Downcycling also involves a recovery process, but at a

lower quality level (e.g. use of crushed construction concrete as filling material in earthworks) • Waste: Waste is a “material or object which the owner gets or intends to get rid of, or is legally compelled to get rid of” [35] and the disposal of which is in the interest of the general public or necessary for environmental protection reasons. The effects of waste treatment, i.e. the associated emissions, must be included in the life-cycle inventory and are hence contained within the system boundaries. Life Cycle Costing (LCC) / Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)

The following aspects and effects relevant for flooring should be taken into account in the calculation of lifecycle costs over a specified life time (Fig. 14) [36]:

Building assessment information

Supplementary information beyond the life cycle

Life-cycle-related building information

Pre-use stage

Use stage

Post-use stage

A1– A 3

A4

A5

B2

B3

B4

B5

B 6 Operational energy use B 7 Operational water use

14

32

Disposal

A0

B1

Waste processing for reutilisation, recovery and /or recycling

Benefits and loads beyond the system boundaries

Transport

End-of-life stage

Deconstruction

Use stage

Refurbishment

Set-up stage

Replacement

Production stage

Repair

Planning stage

Maintenance

D

Use

C1– C4

Construction / installation stage

B1– B7

Transport

A4 – A5

Raw material supply Transport Manufacture

A1– A3

Plot and associated charges / consultation

A0

C1

C2

C3

C4

Reutilisation /recovery / recycling options

Sustainability of flooring

Type of floor covering

Quality / Comment

Building component costs [€/m2] 1)

Building upkeep costs [€/m2] 1)

Textile coverings Needle-punched non-woven “Class 33, Commercial Heavy” (EN 1470)

PA wear layer, weight of wear layer according to EN 984

24

32

Tufted “Class 32, Commercial General” (EN 1307)

Velour or fine loop

23

31

Tufted “Class 33, Commercial Heavy” (EN 1307)

Velour or fine loop

31

39

Linoleum

Off the roll, 2.5 mm thickness

25

33

Linoleum, PU-finished

Off the roll, 2.5 mm thickness, various PU formulations possible depending on manufacturer

26

34 10 / 3.50 2)

PVC, heterogeneous

Off the roll, 2.0–2.5 mm thickness

32

40

PVC, homogeneous

Off the roll, 2.0–2.5 mm thickness

24

32

Off the roll, 2.0–2.5 mm thickness, various PU formulations possible depending on manufacturer

27

35 10 / 3.50 2)

27

35

Off the roll, 2.0 mm thickness, smooth surface

29

37

Non-textile floor coverings

• Economic aspects and effects in the pre-use stage (modules A 0, A1–A 3 and A4 –A5) – costs of ready-to-use ex-works building products – costs incurred between factory and building site – preparative work and temporary building site set-up: measures for clearing and preparing the site for construction activities and provision of infrastructure and supply lines (gas, electricity, water) on the plot – erection of the building: all procurement and construction aspects related to the building, including directly associated parking spaces on the building site – first equipment of a building: equipment or conversion of new buildings – any subsidies and financial incentives

PVC, PU-finished, can be renovated PVC, PU-finished, cannot be renovated Elastomer/rubber Polyurethane covering

Off the roll, 2.0 mm thickness

34

42

Laminate

Laid floating, wood fibreboard carrier

43

56

Parquet

Sealed or impregnated with oil

65

15

78

8

Natural stone product (polished) Natural stone product (ground)

Ground with abrasive grit size C 120

Natural stone product (split-face) Cast stone (polished)

76

0

78

0

70

8

Cast stone (ground)

Ground with abrasive grit size C 120

65

0

Ceramic tiles

Format 30 ≈ 30 cm

49

0

1)

All prices quoted without statutory VAT, rounded to whole numbers; all prices are average prices of different manufacturers for various designs 2) Renovation by full-face grinding and full-face application of a polyurethane sealant after 5 years (10 €/m2); 15 this is followed by partial renovation at 5-year intervals (3.50 €/m2) Floor covering

Standard

Needle-punched non-woven “Commercial Heavy” (EN 1470)

Vacuum /vacuum brush cleaning Stain removal Combination procedure

Tufted “Commercial General” (EN 1307) Tufted “Commercial Heavy” (EN 1307) Linoleum

Modern

Costs depending on cleaning quality [€/m2] 1) high medium low

1.00

8.93 2)

4.98 2)

2.57 2)

1.00

8.78

4.83

2.42

1.00

8.78

4.83

2.42

20.68

12.19

6.80 5.34

1.00

19.51

10.83

Linoleum, PU-finished, can be renovated

1.00

18.68

10.19

4.80

PVC, heterogeneous

1.00

21.50

11.58

5.35

PVC, homogeneous (without factory surface finish)

13 Depletion of wear margin and restoration of original condition by repair or improvement according to DIN 31 051 14 Information modules according to DIN EN 15 643-4 that are used for assessment of the economic quality of a building 15 Rough orientation values for cost of creation of floor coverings including material costs as well as wage costs and ancillary labour costs. The right column shows building upkeep costs with regard to flooring coverings according to the Research and Test Institute for Facility Management (Forschungs- und Prüfinstitut für Facility Management GmbH – FIGR) 16 Rough orientation values (average values for Germany) for the cost of cleaning floor coverings depending on the cleaning quality according to FIGR 16

Conventional

Equiv. number

Conventional Modern

1.00

20.68

12.19

6.80

19.51

10.83

5.34

PVC, PU-finished, can be renovated

1.00

18.68

10.19

4.80

PVC, PU-finished, cannot be renovated

1.00

19.14

10.46

4.97

Elastomer (smooth)

1.00

21.50

11.58

5.35

Elastomer (structured)

1.15

24.73

13.32

6.15

Polyurethane covering

1.00

19.14

10.46

4.97

Laminate

1.00

19.14

10.46

4.97

Parquet (sealed)

1.00

19.14

10.46

4.97

Parquet (impregnated with oil)

1.00

19.14

10.46

4.97

Natural stone product (marble, polished)

1.00

18.68

10.19

4.80

Natural stone product (ground)

1.00

18.68

10.19

4.80

Natural stone product (split-face)

1.15

21.48

11.72

5.52

Cast stone (polished)

1.00

18.68

10.19

4.80

Cast stone (ground)

1.00

18.68

10.19

4.80

Ceramic tiles (without surface structure, glazed)

1.00

18.68

10.19

4.80

1) 2)

All prices quoted without statutory VAT More complicated stain removal, therefore + 0.15 €/m2

33

Sustainability of flooring

• Economic aspects and effects during operation in the use stage (modules B1– B 5), except those affecting building operation itself (B 6, B 7) – repair and exchange of smaller components and areas – exchange or renewal of larger systems and components – adaptation or retrofitting of a building – equipment or alteration of existing buildings – cleaning – care of facilities – renovation – planned processing or planned renewal of the used asset • Economic aspects and effects in the end-of-life stage (modules C1–C 4 and D) – deconstruction /dismantling, demolition – all transport costs associated with the deconstruction process and disposal of the built asset – charges and taxes – costs and/or earnings through reuse,

recycling and energy recovery in the end-of-life stage Creation costs as well as costs of deconstruction and disposal Creation and deconstruction costs are regulated in DIN 276-1. Flooring-relevant cost groups in this standard include cost group 300 (for building construction) and cost group 400 (for technical systems). 300 Building – Building constructions: • 320 Foundation – 324 Subfloors and floor slabs (subfloors and floor slabs not serving as foundation) – 325 Floor coverings (coverings on floor and foundation slabs, e.g. screeds, sealing, insulation, protection or wear layers) • 350 Floor-ceiling constructions – 352 Floor-ceiling construction coverings (coverings on floor-ceiling constructions including screeds, sealing, insulation, protection or wear layers; sprung and raised access floors)

– 359 Ceilings, other (covers, duct closures, grids) • 390 Other measures for building constructions – 394 Demolition measures (demolition and dismounting work including intermediate storage of reusable parts, transport of demolition material, if not included in other cost groups) – 395 Maintenance (measures for restoration of a condition suitable for the intended purpose, if not includable in other costs groups) – 396 Material disposal (disposal of material and substances incurred in the course of demolition, during disassembly and removal of components or during a building service for the purpose of recycling or dumping) – 397 Additional measures (additional measures during creation of building constructions, e.g. for the protection of persons or objects, cleaning before putting into service; measures required for water, landscape, noise and vibration protection during the building

Building life-cycle stages

Effect on / Participation of

Pre-use / Production stage

17

34

Planning / Design / Putting into service

Production of building products and components

Transport (of products to building site)

Construction

Building users (including janitor etc.)

• Comprehensive planning methods • Participation of users • Inclusion of involved parties

–

–

–

Neighbourhood

• Participation of neighbourhood • Inclusion of involved parties

–

• Traffic, noise

• Traffic and noise • Social standards governing construction sequence (safety, protection of neighbourhood)

Society

Urban development planning procedure (stakeholder dialogues etc.)

• Social standards / working conditions during extraction and processing of raw materials and during manufacture of products • Procurement of materials • Regional economic impact and effects on employment

• Traffic (noise etc.) along transport routes

• Social standards of companies involved (CSR) • Social responsibility standards of companies and reporting • Social facilities at building site (toilets, kitchen etc.) • Inclusion of involved parties

Sustainability of flooring

period; bad weather and winter construction protection, heating the building, snow removal – 398 Provisional building constructions (costs of creation or removal of provisional constructions, adaptation of the building until the final structure is put into service) – 399 Other measures for building constructions, others (building constructions concerning several cost groups) 400 Building – Technical systems: • 410 Waste water, water, gas systems – 411 Waste water systems (drains, waste water pipes, waste water collection systems) • 420 Heating supply systems – 422 Heat distribution networks (pumps, distributors, pipelines for room-heating surfaces, indoor airconditioning systems and other heat consumers, e.g. underfloor heating systems or pipes in element floors) – 423 Room heating surfaces (radiators

• • • •

such as e.g. underfloor heating structures, surface heating systems, underfloor heating) 430 Air-conditioning systems 440 High-voltage power systems 450 Telecommunication and IT systems 490 Other measures for technical systems (demolition measures, repairs, material disposal, additional measures, provisional technical facilities)

Usage costs According to DIN 18 960, the following cost groups regarding flooring should be taken into account for the use stage: 300 Operating costs: • 310 Supply • 320 Disposal • 330 Cleaning and care of buildings (Fig. 16) • 350 Operation, inspection and servicing 400 Repair costs: • 410 Repair of building constructions • 420 Repair of technical systems

Use / Operation

Building upkeep costs Building upkeep costs are costs of work and material incurred for replacement of a worn product at the end of its technical service life, i.e. in this case, of flooring (Fig. 15). They include costs of disposal as well as substrate preparation for the new flooring [37]. Consideration of sociocultural impact Sociocultural effects of a product, in this case flooring, involve a “society-related change or a change in the quality of life”, whether negative or positive, which is “completely or partly caused by social aspects” [38] (Fig. 17). As a significant component of the space-enclosing areas in buildings, flooring has an obvious influence on the user’s visual, acoustic and haptic perception, the thermal comfort experienced, spatial orientation, as well as on health and safety. Adaptation of a 17 Sociocultural aspects of the life-cycle stages of buildings according to DIN EN 15 643-3

Post-use / End-of-life stage

Building-related specifications regarding building fabric in use stage including maintenance, repair, renewal and replacement

Specifications related to users and control technology regarding operation of the building and its elements in use stage

Deconstruction

Transport of waste

Disposal

• • • • •

• Health and comfort • Safety and protection • Maintenance

• Hazardous substances, accidents, noise, dust

• Noise and traffic, dust

–

• Strain on neighbourhood

• Strain on neighbourhood

• Hazardous substances, accidents (barriers), noise, dust

• Noise and traffic, dust

–

• Infrastructure (public transport etc.) • Social and economic feasibility • Inclusion of involved parties

–

• Hazardous substances, accidents, dust with regard to construction workers • Disassembly-friendly design

• Traffic along transport routes

• Health aspects of products and components • Design for reuse or recyclability

Accessibility Adaptability Health and comfort Maintenance Safety and protection

35

Sustainability of flooring

18

Accessibility

• Barrier-free: Movement within a building (flush access via appropriate internal thresholds, ramps and stairs with suitable inclination and width, tactile / visual /acoustic orientation systems in flooring) • Access to technical systems / services of a building - Provision of communication systems within a building (e.g. guiding and information systems in flooring)

Adaptability

• • • •

Health and comfort

• Acoustic properties - Sound insulation against impact and airborne sound from inside a building or from a neighbouring building (flanking sound transmission) - Room acoustics - Sound absorption in closed rooms (according to EN 12 354-6) - Reverberation time; to be determined (according to EN 12 354-6 or EN ISO 3382-2) - Room acoustic parameters of open-plan offices (according to EN ISO 3382-3) - For airborne and impact sound measures (as far as relevant and used in the local situation) a single-digit sound insulation rating should be used for assessment: airborne sound according to EN ISO 7171-1; impact sound according to EN ISO 717-2. • Quality of indoor air - Assessment of stated emissions of substances from building materials used, if relevant indoor air quality according to CEN/TS 16 516 - Assessment of danger of mould development on the basis of inside surface temperatures and relative humidity (according to EN ISO 13 788) - Assessment of danger of radon radiation [Bq/m3] • Visual comfort - Artificial light (light brightness according to EN 12 464-1, 6), flooring reflection influence - Illuminance [lx] - Unified glare rating – UGR - Colour rendering index – RA - Daylight (flooring reflection influence) - Daylight factor [%] - Glare through assessment object • Electromagnetic properties, freedom from electrostatic discharge • Spatial characteristics - Influence of nature, graphical design and colour of flooring on visual appearance of room • Thermal behaviour - Building-fabric-related - Operative temperature [°C or K] (radiation temperature of surfaces, air temperature and its distribution) - Humidity [% or g/kg]; (e.g. influence on sorption capacity of flooring) - Adaptation to type of activities in a room - Adaptation to user behaviour (e.g. activities, clothing) - User- and control-related - Ambient temperature can be controlled in the building [yes/no] (e.g. with underfloor heating). - Ambient temperature can be controlled in individual rooms (if yes: manual or automatic) [yes / no] (e.g. underfloor heating).

Pollution of neighbouring areas

• Noise (e.g. when flooring surfaces are sound reflecting) • Emissions to outside air

Maintenance

• Maintenance work (incl. health and comfort aspects for building users and pollution effects on neighbourhood) - Frequency and duration of regular inspection / maintenance/cleaning, repair, exchange / replacement and /or improvement / modernisation - Effects on health and well-being of users during maintenance (e.g. effects on air quality, noise, scope and duration) - Safety of users during inspection /servicing / cleaning /repair - Usability of a building during conduction of inspection /servicing /cleaning and repair work (e.g. relation between duration of expected maintenance and cleaning work causing interruption and normal use period)

Safety / Protection

• Resistance to climatic changes - Resistance to solar radiation (flooring: thermal storage mass, UV resistance, lightfastness) - Temperature resistance • Resistance to exceptional effects - Earthquake - Explosion - Fire (fire protection beyond statutory requirements) - Higher fire resistance classes than demanded - Use of materials and products with superior response regarding classification of their fire behaviour (EN 13 501-2, -3 and -4) than demanded by existing regulations, assessed according to EN 13 501-1 - Utilisation of fire protection approaches for optimising the building’s constructive design and fire alarm systems - Chemicals (e.g. in research or industrial constructions) - Vehicle impact - Provision of physical barriers in flooring (e.g. in garages or industrial constructions) - Reinforcement of areas subject to a possible risk • Personal safety as well as protection against break-in and vandalism - Well-illuminated footpaths with free sightlines (e.g. in corridors) • Protection from supply interruptions - Flooring - Unhindered and safe movement within a building as well as building evacuation in case of power failure

Procurement of material and services

• Responsible procurement and traceability of products and services

Stakeholder involvement

• Opportunity for interested parties to participate in the decision-making process for manufacture of a product system

36

Ability to take into account individual user requirements Ability to take into account changes in user requirements Ability to take into account technical changes Ability to take into account changes in use - Simple disassembly or separation of internal building elements (flooring) - Accessibility /demountability of pipes and cables (in flooring) - Provision of space for additional pipes and cables that may be required for a change in use (e.g. in floor duct, hollow cavity or raised access floor) - Specifications for possible future equipment items (e.g. additional floor utility boxes for later activation)

Sustainability of flooring

Coverings of floor-ceiling constructions Floor structure

Floor coating

Floor covering, normal use

building to a change in use can furthermore be easier or more difficult by the specific execution of the flooring. Significant factors with an influence on the sociocultural quality of flooring are considered in detail in Volume 1 (“Usage functions” and “Protective functions”). Fig. 18 presents the individual parameters relevant for social sustainability aspects of flooring. Applicable calculation methods are specified in DIN EN 16 309.

Floor covering, heavy use 19

Service life (years) Standard High quality

Cementitious screed, bonded

80

80

Cementitious screed, floating

50

70

Anhydrite screed, floating

40

60

Raised access floor system

30

50

Wood/parquet impregnation (oil)

5

5

Wood/parquet sealing

12

12

Plastic coating, outdoor

5

5

Plastic coating, indoor

8

8

Parquet

30

50

Textile covering

8

12

Linoleum

25

40

Natural /cut stone, soft

50

80

Ceramic floor covering

60

80

Synthetic covering

10

15

Laminate flooring

10

15

Parquet

20

30

Textile covering

5

10

Category

Component / Material

Subfloors and floor slabs

Floor slab

Waterproofing of building

Waterproofing against water exerting no pressure

Floor-ceiling constructions

Concrete floor-ceiling constructions: solid concrete, reinforced hollow core concrete, aerated concrete

Floor-ceiling construction coverings

Flowing screeds: cementitious, mastic asphalt, anhydrite, magnesite

≥ 50

0

Dry screeds (systems): wood-based material panels, gypsum fibreboards, gypsum plasterboards

≥ 50

0

Screeds as wearing floor

≥ 50

0

Impact sound insulation

≥ 50

0

Flooring insulation, incl. insulation of uppermost floor-ceiling construction between storeys

≥ 50

0

Natural stone coverings

≥ 50

0

Artificial stone coverings

≥ 50

0

Ceramic tiles and plates: fine stoneware, stoneware, earthenware, split-face plates, glass mosaic

≥ 50

0

30

1

Flooring life-cycle assessment data Following an introduction of the major terms used in the life-cycle assessment of constructions and building products, information and data required for determination of the sustainability of flooring are provided below.

Cast floors: synthetic resin Life time of flooring

Cast floors: terrazzo

Maximum precision in the estimation of the expected lifetime of specific flooring is an important prerequisite for correct calculation of the life-cycle costs, which in turn forms the basis of planning and selection of the flooring type. There are big differences between the various

0

35

1

≥ 50

0

0

Textile coverings: cotton, wool, synthetic fibre, sisal, natural fibre mixture, jute, coconut

10

4

Linoleum, laminate, PVC, synthetic parquet, cork, rubber, sports hall coverings

20

2

≥ 50

0

40

1

Protective wood coatings for floor coverings: wood varnish

8

6

Protective wood coatings for floor coverings: wood sealing

40

4

Protective wood coatings for floor coverings: wood impregnation, wood oil / wax

5

9

Raised access floors and hollow cavity floors

≥ 50

0

Raised access floor supports and hollow cavity floor supports: steel

≥ 50

0

45

1

Multilayer wood parquet

18 Social sustainability aspects of flooring in interior spaces according to DIN EN 15 643-3, 1. and DIN EN 16 309, 7. 19 Use periods of floors according to König et al. 2009, p. 86 20 Use periods of floor slabs and floor-ceiling construction add-ons for life-cycle analyses according to the Sustainable Building Assessment System (Bewertungssystem Nachhaltiges Bauen – BNB) of the Federal Institute for ReFloor-ceiling search on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial constructions, Development (Bundesinstitut für Bau-, Stadtother und Raumforschung – BBSR) 20

≥ 50

≥ 50

Solid wood parquet, wooden floorboards, wood paving

Floor-ceiling construction coverings, other

Years Replacement in 50 years

Sprung floors: wood, plastic Skirting boards: natural stone, artificial stone, clinker, ceramic, wood

≥ 50

0

Dirt trapping coverings: synthetic fibre, plastic, cotton, sisal, jute, coconut

8

6

Surface treatment: sealing

12

4

Surface treatment: synthetic-based coating

10

4

Surface treatment: wax- or oil-based coating

8

6

≥ 50

0

40

1

Railings, grids, gratings, ladders: steel, aluminium, wood, woodbased material, wrought iron Grids and gratings: plastic

37

Sustainability of flooring

Building component classification

Recommendation by BTE working group from

MV

until

Statistical evaluation of survey BTE analysis from MV until

existing publications from MV until

Floor-ceiling constructions Construction Concrete

100

68

88

113

53

Softwood

65

52

63

90

73

Hardwood

75

62

77

105

85

Steel

80

68

81

103

75

Stone structure, barrel vault

90

64

84

103

88

50

40

54

71

45

60

82

100

90

60

75

87

69

Floor-ceiling construction coverings Screed, floating Floor coverings Natural stone

60

Natural stone, soft Cast stone, artificial stone

80

100

80

50

71

78

Hardwood, ceramic, parquet

50

70 80

80

44

61

82

64

Softwood, solid wood parquet

60

30

42

53

42

PVC

25

21

28

37

28

Linoleum

30

23

29

41

20

Textile

15

6

12

16

13

Laminate

20

9

17

17

20

Parquet, prefabricated parquet

40

36

61

79

80

32

55

63

51

8

Tiles

30

40

60

Natural stone tiles

30

40

60

Sealing, varnish

5

7

10

6

8

11

Impregnation, oil, wax

5

7

10

2

5

6

3

32

46

52

48

components of the construction as well as between different execution types. For instance, the lifetime of conventional concrete floor slabs of industrial buildings without further add-ons is usually equivalent to that of the building itself. Subfloor life times, e.g. screeds, generally range between 50 and 100 years. Floor coverings, most exposed to wear as the uppermost layer, generally only have relatively short lifetimes, with significant differences depending on the type of covering or material used. The span lies between 10 years for textile coverings and 100 years for high-quality natural stone coverings (Fig. 19 –22).

Floor protection

Surface heating systems

50

21 MV = Mean Value

Non-textile floor coverings

Textile coverings

Floor covering

1)

Needle-punched non-woven “Class 33, Commercial Heavy” (EN 1470) Tufted “Class 32, Commercial General” (EN 1307)

Lifetime [years] if use is heavy

moderate

slight

10

15

20

8

12

17

Tufted “Class 33, Commercial Heavy” (EN 1307)

10

15

20

Linoleum

20

30

40

Linoleum, PU-finished, can be renovated

20

30

40

PVC, heterogeneous

15

20

25

PVC, homogeneous (without factory finish)

20

30

40

PVC, PU-finished, can be renovated

20

30

40

PVC, PU-finished, cannot be renovated

5

7

10

Elastomer / Rubber (smooth, structured)

20

30

40

Polyurethane covering

20

25

30

Laminate

10

15

20

Parquet (sealed, impregnated with oil)

> 50 1)

Natural stone product (marble, polished)

> 50 2)

Natural stone product (granite, ground)

> 50

Natural stone product (Solnhofen limestone plates, split-face)

> 50

Cast stone (polished)

> 50 2)

Cast stone (ground, structured)

> 50

Ceramic tiles

> 50

Renovation of surfaces by grinding and resealing/impregnation with oil if subjected to heavy use: 9 years; moderate use: 12 years; slight use: 15 years 2) Renovation of surfaces by mechanical processing with special diamond pads if subjected to heavy use: 22 10 years; moderate use: 15 years; slight use: 20 years

38

Environmental product declarations (EPDs) of floorings

Fig. 25 (p. 40 ff.) illustrates exemplary environmental product declarations (EPDs) of some representative flooring materials and coverings. Datasets of this kind are available in publicly accessible databases. As far as the German market is concerned, these include ÖKOBAUDAT (www.oekobaudat.de), the Institut für Bauen und Umwelt (IBU, www.bauumwelt.de) or WECOBIS (www.wecobis. de). International sites include the European reference Life-Cycle Database (ELCD, http://eplca.jrc.ec.europa.eu) or the US Life Cycle Inventory Database (www.nrel.gov/lci/). An example of a commercial database is GaBi (www.gabisoftware.com). EPDs on further flooringrelevant building products are available through these sources. Summary and comparative assessment The data tables on the following pages (Fig. 25, p. 40ff.) provide detailed information on the ecological quality of several selected floorings, categorised according

Sustainability of flooring

Primary energy demand (fossil) [MJ]

Global warming potential [kg CO2 equivalent] 0

-200

[kg CO2 equivalent] 800

200

400

600

2000

4000

6000

Parquet Laminate Laminate direct print Carpeting Linoleum PVC Tiles 0

-2000

8000 [MJ]

a [%]

to relevant parameters and life-cycle stages. Fig. 26 (p. 44) shows cumulative values of the entire lifetime of various flooring types. Fig. 23 offers a diagrammatic overview of the primary energy demand and global warming potential (Fig. 23 a) as well as of summer smog, ozone depletion, acidification and eutrophication potential of some common flooring materials (Fig. 23 b) and gives an indication of the order of magnitude of the respective parameters. The negative global warming potential of parquet, also applicable for other comparable wood floors, is due to the ability of wood to bind CO2 from the atmosphere. The values of floor coverings made of petroleum-based synthetic materials (carpet, PVC) are conspicuously high. Notable with regard to the environmental indicators presented in Fig. 23 b are the high values for PVC and the very low values for ceramic tiles.

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50

24

POCP

ODP

21 Statistically recorded and recommended lifetime of floor-ceiling constructions and flooring according to the Association of Technical Experts (Bund Technischer Experten e. V. – BTE) (MV = Mean Value) 22 Technical lifetime of flooring coverings depending on use according to the Research and Test Institute for Facility Management (Forschungsund Prüfinstitut für Facility Management GmbH – FIGR) 23 Simplified comparative overview of the a primary energy requirement (PE) and the global warming potential (GWP) of various floor coverings b environmental indicators photochemical ozone creation (summer smog) potential (POCP), ozone depletion potential (ODP), acidification potential (AP) and eutrophication potential (EP)

AP

PVC

Tiles

Linoleum

Laminate

Carpeting

Parquet

PVC

Tiles

Linoleum

Laminate

Carpeting

Tiles

Parquet

PVC

Linoleum

Carpeting

Laminate

Tiles

Parquet

PVC

Linoleum

Carpeting

Parquet

23 b

Laminate

0

EP

of various floor coverings, each in relation to the values for parquet (= 100 %) 24 Vertical finger lamella parquet. Parquet and other wood flooring are characterised by negative global warming potentials attributable to the ability of wood to bind CO2 from the atmosphere 25 Environmental product declarations (EPDs) of some selected flooring materials according to ÖKOBAUDAT, p. 40 – 43 a Screed mortar: cementitious screed (A – D) b Dry screed: gypsum fibre boards (A1– A 3) c Floor insulation: mineral wool (A1– A 3) d Natural stone plate, hard (A1– A4) e Unglazed stoneware tiles (A1– A 3) f Elastic rubber covering (A – D) g Solid wood parquet (A – D) h Corkboards (A1– A 3)

39

Sustainability of flooring

Screed mortar: cementitious screed; reference unit: 1 kg cementitious screed (mass) Indicator

Direction

Unit

Production A 1– A 3

Transport Installation A4 A5

Use B1

Disposal C4

Recycling potential D

Parameters for describing resource use and other environmental information Use of renewable primary energy (PERE)

Input

MJ

0.0794

–

–

–

–

–

Use of renewable primary energy resources used as raw materials (PERM)

Input

MJ

0

–

–

–

–

–

Total use of renewable primary energy resources (PERT)

Input

MJ

0.0794

0.00634

0.000113

0

0.0152

-0.00108

Use of non-renewable primary energy (PENRE)

Input

MJ

1.7

–

–

–

–

–

Use of non-renewable primary energy resources as raw materials (PERM)

Input

MJ

0

–

–

–

–

–

Total use of non-renewable primary energy resources (PENRT)

Input

MJ

1.7

107

0.00153

0

208

-0.0138

Use of secondary material (SM)

Input

kg

0

–

–

–

–

–

Use of renewable secondary fuels (RSF)

Input

MJ

0

0

0

0

0

0

Use of non-renewable secondary fuels (NRSF)

Input

MJ

0

0

0

0

0

0

Use of net fresh water (FW)

Input

m3

0.000231

0.00000611

0.000154

0

-0.000392

-0.000003

Hazardous waste disposed (HWD)

Output

kg

0.0000203

0

0.0000078

0

0.000149

-1.59 E-7

Non-hazardous waste disposed (NHWD)

Output

kg

0.000567

0.0000212

0.0000245

0

1.7

-0.00000795

Radioactive waste disposed (RWD)

Output

kg

0.0000363

1.54 E-7

0.00000669

0

0.0000037

-5.99 E-7

Components for reuse (CRU)

Output

kg

–

–

–

–

–

–

Materials for recycling (MFR)

Output

kg

–

–

–

–

–

–

Materials for energy recovery (MER)

Output

kg

–

–

–

–

–

–

Exported electric energy (EEE)

Output

MJ

–

–

0.0019

–

–

–

Exported thermal energy (EET)

Output

MJ

–

–

0.00459

–

–

–

kg Sb eq.

1.72 E-7

3.6 E-10

6.01 E-11

0

5.34 E-9

-2.84 E-8

199

-0,0123

Parameters for describing environmental impact Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (non-fossil resources) (ADPE) Abiotic resource depletion potential of fossil fuels (ADPF) Acidification potential of ground and water (AP) (Stratospheric) ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) Global warming potential (GWP) Eutrophication potential (EP) 25 a Photochemical (tropospheric) ozone creation potential (POCP)

MJ

984

107

0.00137

0

kg SO2 eq.

0.000217

0.0000351

3.22 E-7

0

kg CFC-11 eq.

1.3 E-11

1.63 E-13

4.05 E-14

0

1.14 E-11

-2.05 E-13

kg CO2 eq.

156

0.00781

0.00159

-0.00132

0.0149

-0.000978

kg (PO4)3 eq.

0.00004

0.0000085

7.11 E-8

0

0.0000124

-2.02 E-7

kg ethene eq.

0.0000127

-0.000012

4.33 E-8

0

0.00000948

-2.48 E-7

0.00000907 -0.00000209

Dry screed: gypsum fibreboard; reference unit: 1 m2 dry screed gypsum fibreboard, weight per unit area 20 kg/m2 Indicator

Direction

Unit

Production A 1– A 3

4.0039

Parameters for describing resource use and other environmental information Use of renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PERE)

Input

MJ

Use of renewable primary energy resources used as raw materials (PERM)

Input

MJ

0

Total use of renewable primary energy resources (PERT)

Input

MJ

4.0039 111.7

Use of non-renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PENRE)

Input

MJ

Use of non-renewable primary energy resources as raw materials (PERM)

Input

MJ

0

Total use of non-renewable primary energy resources (PENRT)

Input

MJ

111.7

Use of secondary material (SM)

Input

kg

13.98

Use of renewable secondary fuels (RSF)

Input

MJ

0

Use of non-renewable secondary fuels (NRSF)

Input

MJ

0

Use of net fresh water (FW)

Input

m3

0.01891

Hazardous waste disposed (HWD)

Output

kg

1

Non-hazardous waste disposed (NHWD)

Output

kg

0.7745

Radioactive waste disposed (RWD)

Output

kg

0.0026

Components for reuse (CRU)

Output

kg

–

Materials for recycling (MFR)

Output

kg

–

Materials for energy recovery (MER)

Output

kg

–

Exported electric energy (EEE)

Output

MJ

–

Exported thermal energy (EET)

Output

MJ

–

kg Sb eq.

0.000359

Parameters for describing environmental impact Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (non-fossil resources) (ADPE) Abiotic resource depletion potential of fossil fuels (ADPF) Acidification potential of ground and water (AP) Ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) Global warming potential (GWP) Eutrophication potential (EP) 25 b Photochemical (tropospheric) ozone creation potential (POCP)

40

MJ

111.7

kg SO2 eq.

0.00939

kg CFC-11 eq.

9.35 E-10

kg CO2 eq.

7.0021

kg (PO4)3 eq.

0.0016

kg ethene eq.

0.000982

Sustainability of flooring

Floor insulation: mineral wool; reference unit: 1 m3 mineral wool floor insulation (volume) Indicator

Direction

Unit

Production A 1– A 3

Use of renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PERE)

Input

MJ

161.7

Primary energy renewable, materials (PERM)

Input

MJ

0

Total use of renewable primary energy resources (PERT)

Input

MJ

161.7 1.78 E+3

Parameters for describing resource use and other environmental information

Use of non-renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PENRE)

Input

MJ

Use of non-renewable primary energy resources as raw materials (PERM)

Input

MJ

0

Total use of non-renewable primary energy resources (PENRT)

Input

MJ

1.78 E+3

Use of secondary material (SM)

Input

kg

24.96

Use of renewable secondary fuels (RSF)

Input

MJ

0.775

Use of non-renewable secondary fuels (NRSF)

Input

MJ

9.99

Use of net fresh water (FW)

Input

m3

0.4123

Hazardous waste disposed (HWD)

Output

kg

0.0004944

Non-hazardous waste disposed (NHWD)

Output

kg

20.85

Radioactive waste disposed (RWD)

Output

kg

0.04689

Components for reuse (CRU)

Output

kg

0

Materials for recycling (MFR)

Output

kg

0

Materials for energy recovery (MER)

Output

kg

0

Exported electric energy (EEE)

Output

MJ

11.23

Exported thermal energy (EET)

Output

MJ

0

kg Sb eq.

0.002633

Parameters for describing environmental impact Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (non-fossil resources) (ADPE) Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (fossil resources) (ADPF)

MJ

1662

kg SO2 eq.

0.6228

kg CFC-11 eq.

3.425 E-9

Acidification potential of ground and water (AP) Ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) Global warming potential (GWP)

25 c

kg CO2 eq.

138.8

Eutrophication potential (EP)

kg (PO4)3 eq.

0.09192

Photochemical (tropospheric) ozone creation potential (POCP)

kg ethene eq.

0.04485

Natural stone panel, hard; reference unit: 1 m2 natural stone panel (area) Indicator

Direction

Unit

Production A 1– A 3

Transport A 4

4.045

Parameters for describing resource use and other environmental information Use of renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PERE)

Input

MJ

71.05

Primary energy renewable, materials (PERM)

Input

MJ

0

0

Total use of renewable primary energy resources (PERT)

Input

MJ

71.05

4.045 126

Use of non-renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PENRE)

Input

MJ

484.2

Use of non-renewable primary energy resources as raw materials (PERM)

Input

MJ

0

0

Total use of non-renewable primary energy resources (PENRT)

Input

MJ

484.2

126

Use of secondary material (SM)

Input

kg

0

0

Use of renewable secondary fuels (RSF)

Input

MJ

0

0

Use of non-renewable secondary fuels (NRSF)

Input

MJ

0

0

Use of net fresh water (FW)

Input

m3

0.2591

0.004571

Hazardous waste disposed (HWD)

Output

kg

0.0001828

0.00001721

Non-hazardous waste disposed (NHWD)

Output

kg

8792

0.01006

Radioactive waste disposed (RWD)

Output

kg

0.03209

0.001453

Components for reuse (CRU)

Output

kg

0

0

Materials for recycling (MFR)

Output

kg

0

0

Materials for energy recovery (MER)

Output

kg

0

0

Exported electric energy (EEE)

Output

MJ

0

0

Exported thermal energy (EET)

Output

MJ

0

0

kg Sb eq.

0.000003054

4.812 E-7

MJ

403.5

122,3

kg SO2 eq.

0.2236

0.2371

kg CFC-11 eq.

7.759 E-9

1.256 E-10

Parameters for describing environmental impact Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (non-fossil resources) (ADPE) Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (fossil resources) (ADPF) Acidification potential of ground and water (AP) Ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) Global warming potential (GWP) Eutrophication potential (EP) 25 d Photochemical (tropospheric) ozone creation potential (POCP)

kg CO2 eq.

37.75

9058

kg (PO4)3 eq.

0.02323

0.02445

kg ethene eq.

0.01687

0.01327

41

Sustainability of flooring

Stoneware tiles unglazed; reference unit: 1 m2 stoneware tiles unglazed Indicator Parameters for describing resource use and other environmental information Use of renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PERE) Primary energy renewable, materials (PERM) Total use of renewable primary energy resources (PERT) Use of non-renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PENRE) Use of non-renewable primary energy resources as raw materials (PERM) Total use of non-renewable primary energy resources (PENRT) Use of secondary material (SM) Use of renewable secondary fuels (RSF) Use of non-renewable secondary fuels (NRSF) Use of net fresh water (FW) Hazardous waste disposed (HWD) Non-hazardous waste disposed (NHWD) Radioactive waste disposed (RWD) Components for reuse (CRU) Materials for recycling (MFR) Materials for energy recovery (MER) Exported electric energy (EEE) Exported thermal energy (EET)

Direction

Unit

Production A 1– A 3

Input Input Input Input Input Input Input Input Input Input Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output

MJ MJ MJ MJ MJ MJ kg MJ MJ m3 kg kg kg kg kg kg MJ MJ

4.894 0 4.894 113.6 0 113.6 0 0 0 0.01351 0.0000206 0.01371 0.001781 0 0 0 0 0

kg Sb eq.. MJ kg SO2 eq. kg CFC-11 eq. kg CO2 eq. kg (PO4)3 eq. kg ethene eq.

5.759 E-7 109,1 0.01109 1.263 E-10 7.029 0.001208 0.0007476

Parameters for describing environmental impact Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (non-fossil resources) (ADPE) Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (fossil resources) (ADPF) Acidification potential of ground and water (AP) Ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) Global warming potential (GWP) Eutrophication potential (EP) 25 e Photochemical (tropospheric) ozone creation potential (POCP) Elastic rubber covering; reference unit: 1 m2 rubber covering (area) Indicator Parameters for describing resource use and other environmental information Use of renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PERE) Primary energy renewable, materials (PERM) Total use of renewable primary energy resources (PERT) Use of non-renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PENRE) Use of non-renewable primary energy resources as raw materials (PENRM) Total use of non-renewable primary energy resources (PENRT) Use of secondary material (SM) Use of renewable secondary fuels (RSF) Use of non-renewable secondary fuels (NRSF) Use of net fresh water (FW) Hazardous waste disposed (HWD) Non-hazardous waste disposed (NHWD) Radioactive waste disposed (RWD) Components for reuse (CRU) Materials for recycling (MFR) Materials for energy recovery (MER) Exported electric energy (EEE) Exported thermal energy (EET)

Direction

Unit

Input

MJ

6.1

Input

MJ

6.9

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Input

MJ

13

47

0.75

0.19

0.14

0.0043

1.3

-2.6

Input

MJ

126.5

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Input

MJ

43.5

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Input

MJ

1.0700

2.3

1 E+01

5.2

0.85

0.11

28

-35

Input Input

kg MJ

0 –

0 –

0 –

0 –

0 –

0 –

0 –

0 –

Input

MJ

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Input Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output

m3 kg kg kg kg kg kg MJ MJ

– – – – – 0.13 – 0 0

– – – – – 0 – 0.4 1.2

– – – – – 0.11 – 0 0

– – – – – 0 – 0 0

– – – – – 0 – 0 0

– – – – – 0 – 0 0

– – – – – 0 – 5.8 17

– – – – – – – – –

kg Sb eq

0.00015

5.4 E-9

0.000008

2.2 E-7

6.6 E-9

3 E-10

5.2 E-7

-1.6 E-7

MJ

1.0600

2.3

1 E+01

4.8

0.55

0.11

26

-29

kg SO2 eq 34 kg CFC-11 eq. 0.0000016 kg CO2 eq 9.4 kg (PO4)3 eq 0.0031

0.0032 2.2 E-12 0.17 0.00037

0.0021 8.2 E-8 0.85 0.0002

0.00071 7.7 E-11 0.3 0.00018

0.00023 0.000036 3 4.3 E-11 1.4 E-13 1.1 E-9 48 8 5 0.000012 0.0000083 0.00035

-5 -7.9 E-10 -2.1 -0.00034

kg ethene eq.

0.000044

0.00041

0.00014

0.000013 -0.000012

-0.00041

Parameters for describing environmental impact Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (non-fossil resources) (ADPE) Abiotic resource depletion potential of fossil fuels (ADPF) Acidification potential of ground and water (AP) Ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) Global warming potential (GWP) Eutrophication potential (EP) Photochemical (tropospheric) ozone creation 25 f potential (POCP)

42

Production Transport A 1– A 3 A4

0.0069

–

Installation A 5

Maintenance B 2

–

–

Demoli- Transport Disposal Recycling tion C 1 C2 C4 potential D

–

–

–

0.00074

–

Sustainability of flooring

Solid wood parquet; reference unit: 1 m2 solid wood parquet (area) Indicator

Parameters for describing resource use and other environmental information Use of renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PERE) Use of renewable primary energy as raw materials (PERM) Total use of renewable primary energy resources (PERT) Use of non-renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PENRE) Use of non-renewable primary energy resources as raw materials (PENRM) Total use of non-renewable primary energy resources (PENRT) Use of secondary material (SM) Use of renewable secondary fuels (RSF) Use of non-renewable secondary fuels (NRSF) Use of net fresh water (FW) Hazardous waste disposed (HWD) Non-hazardous waste disposed (NHWD) Radioactive waste disposed (RWD) Components for reuse (CRU) Materials for recycling (MFR) Materials for energy recovery (MER) Exported electric energy (EEE) Exported thermal energy (EET)

Transport Production Production A2 A3 A 1– A 3

Recycling Recycling Transport Waste C2 process- potential D potential D Thermal util- Material ing isation (stand- utilisation C3 ard scenario)

Direction

Unit

Raw material supply A1

Input

MJ

71.98

0.000003836

436.5

508.5

0.0002033

0.07906

200.8

-0.05519

Input

MJ

208.9

0

0.2056

209.1

0

-209.1

0

0

Input

MJ

280.9

0.000003836

436.7

717.6

0.0002033

-209

200.8

-0.05519

Input

MJ

17.66

0.00291

113.7

131.4

0.1542

1.512

-175.5

8.417

Input

MJ

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Input

MJ

17.66

0.00291

113.7

131.4

0.1542

1.512

-175.5

8.417

Input Input Input Input Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output

kg MJ MJ m3 kg kg kg kg kg kg MJ MJ

0 0 0 0.06001 0.0001258 0.001206 0.002016 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 5.457 E-8 0 0 5.123 E-9 0 0 0 0 0

0 0.2515 0 4.029 0.0001166 0.0003798 0.01686 0 0 0.01067 0 0

0 0 0 0 5.267 0.2515 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.089 0.000002892 0.05606 0.08893 -0.002216 0.0002424 0 0 0.03729 0.00003671 0.001586 0 0 0.000001133 -1.055 E-7 0.01888 2.715 E-7 0.0002613 -0.02617 -0.0002025 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11.71 0 -11.71 0.01067 0 11.71 -11.72 -0.01067 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Parameters for describing environmental impact Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements kg Sb eq. 0.00002856 4.368 E-12 0.0000145 0.00004305 2.315 E-10 2.035 E-9 -1.593 E-7 -1.145 E-8 (non-fossil resources) (ADPE) Abiotic resource depletion potential MJ 11.96 0.002886 67 78.96 0.153 0.7882 -103.5 -4.541 of fossil fuels (ADPF) Acidification potential of ground kg SO2 eq. 0.01078 0.000001507 0.03582 0.0466 0.0000467 0.0001082 -0.009455 -0.001284 and water (AP) (Stratospheric) ozone layer depletion kg CFC-11 1.623 E-7 4.101 E-13 0.000001353 0.000001516 2.174 E-11 2.073 E-8 -0.000002099 -3.036 E-8 eq. 25 g potential (ODP) Corkboards 6 mm; reference unit: 1m2 corkboard (area) Indicator Parameters for describing resource use and other environmental information Use of renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PERE) Primary energy renewable, materials (PERM) Total use of renewable primary energy resources (PERT) Use of non-renewable primary energy (as energy carrier) (PENRE) Use of non-renewable primary energy resources as raw materials (PERM) Total use of non-renewable primary energy resources (PENRT) Use of secondary material (SM) Use of renewable secondary fuels (RSF) Use of non-renewable secondary fuels (NRSF) Use of net fresh water (FW) Hazardous waste disposed (HWD) Non-hazardous waste disposed (NHWD) Radioactive waste disposed (RWD) Components for reuse (CRU) Materials for recycling (MFR) Materials for energy recovery (MER) Exported electric energy (EEE) Exported thermal energy (EET) Parameters for describing environmental impact Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (non-fossil resources) (ADPE) Abiotic resource depletion potential for elements (fossil resources) (ADPF) Acidification potential of ground and water (AP) Ozone layer depletion potential (ODP) Global warming potential (GWP) Eutrophication potential (EP) 25 h Photochemical (tropospheric) ozone creation potential (POCP)

Direction

Unit

Production A 1– A 3

Input Input Input Input Input Input Input Input Input Input Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output

MJ MJ MJ MJ MJ MJ kg MJ MJ m3 kg kg kg kg kg kg MJ MJ

18.13 55.08 73.21 21.46 0 21.46 0 0 0 0.002615 0.00001035 0.007386 0.0004211 0 0 0 0 0

kg Sb eq. MJ kg SO2 eq. kg R-11 eq. kg CO2 eq. kg (PO4)3 eq. kg ethene eq.

8.325 E-8 19.22 0.006202 1.162 E-10 -3.976 0.001358 -0.000755

43

Sustainability of flooring

Screeds [1 m2 screed] Production, maintenance and deconstruction Reference study period: 50 years

PEI Primary energy intensity, nonrenew. [MJ]

PEI Primary energy intensity, renew. [MJ]

GWP Greenhouse gases [kg CO2 eq.]

ODP Ozone depletion [kg R-11 eq.]

AP Acidification [kg SO2 eq.]

EP Overfertilisation [kg PO4 eq.]

POCP Summer smog [kg C2H4 eq.]

1 Cementitious screed (thk = 7.5 cm)

300

9

23.5

5.3 E-7

0.055

0.0088

0.0055

2.2 E-8

0.097

0,0117

0.0044

2.3 E-8

0.032

0.0045

0.0133

Cementitious screed (5.5 cm); PE separating layer (0.01 cm); mineral wool impact sound insulation 25-5 (2 cm) 2 Anhydrite screed (thk = 6 cm)

310

15

16.3

Anhydrite screed (4.0 cm); PE separating layer (0.01 cm); mineral wool impact sound insulation 25-5 (2 cm) 3 Mastic asphalt screed (thk = 5.25 cm)

365

16

9.2

Mastic asphalt screed (3.0 cm); ribbed cardboard (0.25 cm); mineral wool impact sound insulation 25-5 (2 cm) 4 OSBs (thk = 5.2 cm)

230

445

-26.7

8.3 E-7

0.050

0.0077

0.0054

8

8.9

9.4 E-9

0.025

0.0046

0.0019

8.6 E-9

0.022

0.0036

0.0016

OSB 2 ≈ 16 mm (3.2 cm); mineral wool impact sound insulation 25-5 (2 cm) 5 Gypsum plasterboards (thk = 4.5 cm)

145

Dry screed construction board 2 ≈ 12.5 mm (2.5 cm); mineral wool impact sound insulation 25-5 (2 cm) 6 Gypsum fibreboards (thk = 4.5 cm)

120

6

7.5

Gypsum fibreboard (2.5 cm); mineral wool impact sound insulation 25-5 (2 cm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 26 a

-30 -15

250 500 750 non-renewable PEI [MJ] renewable

0 15 30 GWP [kg CO2 eq.]

0 0,25 0,5 0,75 1 ODP [mg R-11 eq.]

0

0,05 0,1 AP [kg SO2 eq.]

0

5

15 10 EP [g PO4 eq.]

0

15 5 10 POCP [g C2H4 eq.]

Floor coverings [1 m2 floor covering] Production, maintenance and deconstruction Reference study period: 50 years

PEI non-renew. [MJ]

PEI renew. [MJ]

GWP [kg CO2 eq.]

ODP AP EP POCP [kg R11 eq.] [kg SO2 eq.] [kg PO4 eq.] [kg C2H4 eq.]

7 Natural stone

172

13

13.6

1.5 E-7

0.166

0.016

0.0103

0.012

0.001

0.0010

-2.9 E-7

0.065

0.009

0.0086

Limestone plates 30.5 ≈ 30.5 cm (1 cm); joints, mortar group II, 2 % share of area (0.9 cm); thin-bed mortar (0.3 cm) 8 Stoneware tiles

96

4

6.8

6.2 E-9

Stoneware plates 30 ≈ 60 cm (0.8 cm); joints, mortar group III, 2 % share of area (0.7 cm); thin-bed mortar (0.3 cm) 9 Prefabricated parquet, laid floating 1) 2)

161

1)

638

-5.2

2)

Parquet varnish ; prefabricated parquet 1.25 cm (2.5 mm oak wear layer, 10 mm glulam bearing layer); PE foil 10 Long-strip parquet, glued 3)

87

612

-8.0

-3.1 E-7

0.072

0.009

0.0137

259

671

-16.2

9.5 E-7

0.120

0.033

0.0279

Wood oil 3); oak wear layer (2.25 cm); acrylic dispersion 11 Laminate 4)

Laminate with melamine resin coating 4); MDF carrier material (0.8 cm); PE underlay, foamed 4) 12 Linoleum 5)

178

144

7.3

1.1 E-6

0.116

0.022

0.0059

984

13

54.5

1.5 E-6

0.271

0.016

0.0169

1,630

44

93.7

3.8 E-6

0.437

0.030

0.0314

5)

Linoleum sheet (0.25 cm) ; acrylic dispersion (0.4 kg) 13 Rubber 6) Rubber sheet (0.2 cm) 6); acrylic dispersion (0.4 kg) 14 PVC, off the roll 7) 7)

Off-the-roll PVC (0.225 cm) ; wear layer 0.07 cm with glass reinforcement; acrylic dispersion (0.4 kg) 15 PU coating 8) Polyurethane coating (0.25 cm)

1,106

13

45.8

2.1 E-6

0.168

0.014

0.0195

1,036

20

78.7

2.4 E-6

0.202

0.035

0.0238

8)

16 Needle-punched non-woven carpet 9)

Carpet, needle-punched non-woven (2 cm) 9); acrylic dispersion (0.4 kg) Replacement cycles in years: 1) Parquet varnish 10; 2) Parquet 40; 3) Wood oil 5; 4) Laminate + PE foil 20; 5) Linoleum 25; 6) Rubber 25; 7) PVC 20; 8) PU 30; 9) Carpet 10 (all other materials 50) 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0 26 b

44

500 1,000 1,500 2,000 non-renewable PEI [MJ] renewable

-50

0

100 50 GWP [kg CO2 eq.]

1 2 3 4 -1 0 ODP [mg R-11 eq.]

0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 AP [kg SO2 eq.]

0

10

20 30 40 EP [g PO4 eq.]

0

10 20 30 40 POCP [g C2H4 eq.]

Sustainability of flooring

27

Recycling and disposal The recycling potential of flooring varies significantly depending on the type of floor covering. Practices with regard to recycling or definitive disposal at the end of the service life of various floor coverings are considered below [39]. Natural stone, artificial stone and ceramic coverings

It is rarely possible to remove plate coverings composed of natural and artificial stone or ceramic material without destroying them in the process, which means that these can only rarely be reused in new coverings. Downcycling is more common, i.e. the plate material is crushed and used as aggregate, normally as a substitute for gravel or sand. Final disposal involves dumping on a building debris tip. Wood coverings

Wood coverings, especially glued strip or multilayer parquets, are not normally reused. Final disposal is often in the form of utilisation of the calorific value of the wood by burning the old material in special firing systems. Such combined heat and power generation systems permit efficient energetic utilisation. Most wooden coverings are disposed of in this way. Dumping is also possible. The natural material is fully compostable and does not give rise to any pollution of the landfill soil. The expenditure required for deconstruction of wood coverings at the end of the service life is high when these are installed by full-face adhesion. It is much less for floating installations and least for flooring fitted with spring clips or click systems.

Linoleum is primarily composed of natural raw materials, which means that disposal at the end of the service life is unproblematic. The material is compostable, decomposes at the dumping site and has no negative effects on the environment. Thermal utilisation by combustion makes use of the calorific value of the material. No environmentally harmful emissions, apart from CO2, are generated in the process. Although linoleum coverings can in principle be reused, this is currently not common practice because of the high transportation costs [40].

glue residues in a hammer mill. These are then separated from usable material in a sieving machine. This is followed by fine grinding. The material has to be embrittled for this, which takes place by cooling to -40 °C with liquid nitrogen. The particles of the resulting milled material have a maximum diameter of 0.4 mm (Fig. 28, p. 46f.). This is used for production of new PVC floor coverings at the end of the recycling process. The backing of some older coverings (CV coverings) contains asbestos, which means that these have to be disposed of separately [43].

Rubber coverings

Textile floor coverings

Elastomer or rubber coverings have a high recycling potential. After removal of most adhesions consisting of filler, glue or screed, old coverings are combined with scrap obtained from new installations and crushed. The resulting granulate is processed into impact protection, industrial or sport coverings. Thermal utilisation in waste incineration plants is also possible, where the calorific value of the material is made use of. Filler materials in the coverings are further used as aggregates in cement clinker. Modern rubber coverings do not contain any plasticisers (phthalates) or halogens (chlorine). Old coverings therefore do not represent a groundwater hazard and can be landfilled without any problems [41].

Recycling textile floor coverings requires correct sorting of old material. For this, remnants are placed on a conveyor belt manually and the wear layer material is determined using a quick identification system based on infrared spectroscopy. This is followed by sorting the pieces in separate containers. Separation is according to the materials polyamide-6 (PA-6), polyamide 6.6 (PA-6.6), wool /propylene, blended fabric and polyester. The polyamide material PA-6 and PA-6.6 can be converted back to its chemical constituents followed by depolymerisation. The result is identical to the primary material of new products. Wool fibre can be processed to ecologically compatible insulation panels with a yield between 30 and 60 % and is considered as an alternative to foam materials and mineral wool. In combination with polypropylene fibres, wool fibre can alter-

Linoleum

PVC coverings

PVC coverings have a high recycling potential. The proportion of recycling material contained in new material today is as high as 35 % [42]. Old coverings are collected at special collection points (Fig. 27), sorted and cut into small pieces (chips < 30 mm). After separation of metals, the chips are freed from any remaining screed or

26 Life-cycle assessment parameters over 50 years for a various screeds b various floor coverings 27 PVC covering remnants for recycling

45

Sustainability of flooring

natively be processed into firm mats by thermobonding. The calorific value of fibre mixtures and polypropylene can also be utilised by use as a surrogate fuel in the cement industry. The chalk proportion contained may be used as aggregate for cement clinker. About 95 % of the textile floor coverings are recycled and about 5 % are dumped or incinerated. The deconstruction effort at the end of the service life of a covering is high when this is glued full face. It is less if an easily detachable glue or adhesive tape is used and least when installed loosely as a fitted carpet [44]. Summary assessment of sustainability Analogous to the recycling potential, there are also large differences between various flooring types with regard to their sustainability. Natural/artificial stone and ceramic coverings

Since most basic mineral raw materials of natural/artificial stone and ceramic coverings are generally adequately available locally or regionally, long transport routes are not necessary. An exception are rare rocks (e.g. special marble 28 Schematic representation of the recycling process of old PVC coverings

Manual sorting

types) that are needed for specific applications. Processes such as sawing, cutting and drilling rock are associated with an increased requirement of nonrenewable primary energy (PE). This may be particularly high for hard rocks. The same goes for firing of ceramic material (particularly high temperature processes) and cement. A certain quantity of harmful substances is emitted when processing mineral material, e.g. dust during sawing and drilling or fluorosilicates during treatment of synthetic surfaces with such solutions. Once installed, no harmful substances are practically emitted, although minor radioactive radiation may be detectable for granite or ceramic tiles. Stone or ceramic coverings do not generally require any special surface treatment that could result in emission of harmful substances. The current standard installation method involving solvent-free thinbed mortar or adhesive is not associated with any further emissions during the service life of the material. The lifetime of floor coverings made of mineral materials is normally over 50 years (Fig. 20 –22, p. 37f.), which often corresponds to the life time of the building – a big advantage of this type of covering in terms of lifetime assessment. Worn or scratched surfaces can be

Shredder

Metal separator

Hammer mill

28

46

renewed by grinding, while damaged or fractured plates can only be replaced [45]. Wood coverings

As a natural material, wood is fully compostable in landfills without giving rise to any pollution of the soil of the landfill. Thermal utilisation alternatively makes use of the calorific value of wood. The CO2 released in the process – as in composting – has already been bound from the atmosphere in the growing phase of the wood and hence does not represent an additional environmental burden. The otherwise negative global warming potential of wood is therefore effectively set to zero. Since it is a renewable material, the availability of wood is sufficient, while that of some of the chemical substances used for installation and surface treatment is limited, since their manufacture is based on petroleum. Processing steps such as sawing, milling, grinding and planing give rise to a moderate consumption of renewable primary energy, which increases with the hardness of the type of wood processed. Harmful substances are created in the form of wood dust in the course of processing. Beech and oak wood dusts are considered carcinogenic and dusts of other wood types are also rightfully suspected to have this

Foreign material screening

Intermediate silo

Sustainability of flooring

effect. Harmful emissions during installation, operation and disposal can in particular be produced by using specific adhesives during installation (e.g. formaldehyde) as well as through sealing and impregnation materials for surface treatment or possibly even during the use stage. For this reason, only appropriately certified products should be used, e.g. according to the Blue Angel (RAL-UZ 38), Ecoline certificate, Stiftung Warentest, Öko-Test, EU Ecolabel or the US-American Green Seal. Environmentally relevant harmful emissions of solvents no longer have to be feared today, as questionable substances have been replaced by safe alternatives (solvent-free varnishes, waxes and oils). Wooden coverings, especially when made of solid wood and containing a low proportion of adhesives and other chemical substances, are generally considered to be very favourable ecologically [46]. Multilayer parquet (the most common type of parquet) with a wear layer of at least 4 mm permits renewal by means of a number of grinding cycles. This prolonged lifetime results in classification as environmentally friendly. A particularly long lifetime can be expected for wear layers composed of hardwood such as beech, oak or ash. Wear effects are least for solid hardwood parquets or

Metal separator

floorboarding, since these offer the thickest wear layers. The lifetime of parquets may be 50 years or longer subject to adequate care and surface treatment. Suitable (fine and coarse) dirt trapping systems in buildings are effective in prevention of soiling and scratching of the floor surface. Elastic floor coverings

In terms of ecological friendliness, linoleum (see “Linoleum”, p. 45) and cork are the most favourable elastic coverings, since they are mainly made of natural products. Modern linoleum products also do not include any heavy-metalcontaining solids. The use of synthetic rubber (styrene-butadiene rubber, SBR) and vulcanisation agents in the manufacture of elastomer coverings is considered critically on account of their toxicity. Being a petroleum-based material, the availability of synthetic rubber is limited and the non-renewable primary energy demand is considerable. PVC also consumes large quantities of non-renewable primary energy (Fig. 23 a, p. 39). Natural rubber, associated with a much lower primary energy requirement, comes into consideration as an alternative. Plastic and PVC coverings contain additives such as plasticisers, stabilisers and flame retardants that may also be classified

Filter system P

as questionable. The fire behaviour of PVC coverings, which emit dangerous hydrogen-chloride vapours during combustion, is regarded as unfavourable. Positive, on the other hand, are the low investment costs and ease of care. Elastic coverings made of synthetic materials that are not particularly environmentally friendly otherwise are however extensively recyclable (see “Recycling and disposal”, p. 45f.) [47]. Textile floor coverings

About 80 % of textile floor coverings are synthetic petroleum-based products, which means that they are made of a material with a limited long-term availability. Their manufacture consumes a relatively large amount of non-renewable primary energy. Even carpeting made of wool often contains a certain proportion of synthetic fibres in the backing and carrier material. Textile coverings composed of natural raw materials such as new sheep’s wool, coconut or sisal fibres are however generally ecologically more favourable than synthetic ones. Their backings can alternatively also be made of natural latex, jute or hemp. Environmentally harmful emissions are not expected in this case. Polyamide wear layers, polyethylene adhesives and polypropylene textile

Control screening

Dosing Silo 1

N2

Silo 2

Fine screening

Drop shaft Cooling coil

Balance 1

Fine mill Air separation

Balance 2

Oversize grain screening machine

47

Sustainability of flooring

backings are also considered to be environmentally safe. Textile coverings can generally be used thermally in the course of deconstruction. Heavy-metalfree synthetic acid dyes, anti-static fibres in synthetic carpets as well as impregnations of light synthetic carpets are also not considered to be problematic. Most consumer associations however reject polyamide carpets with an intermediate layer and foam backing made of SBR, because this is suspected to emit harmful substances (see Volume 1). The same applies to combinations of synthetic and natural fibres, SBR or PVC adhesives and textile backing. Finishing for various purposes (e.g. flame-retardant or insectrepellent etc. see Volume 1) may however involve potentially environmentally harmful components. These can also be emitted during thermal utilisation (e.g. vulcanised SBR backing material such as zinc, fluorocarbon resins for hydrophobing). Solvent-free adhesives are predominantly used for installation of floor coverings nowadays, which means that no harmful emissions need to be expected from this source. Ecologically advantageous is the generally high recycling potential of textile floor coverings. Recycling of polyamide material (see “Recycling and disposal, p. 45f.) is particularly efficient. The effort required for deconstruction of textile coverings glued full-face is particularly high. It is moderate when these are fixed with easy-to-detach adhesives and minimal when installed as a fitted carpet without any glue at all [48].

48

Overall assessment according to certification systems A methodical overall evaluation of the sustainability of flooring can be carried out on the basis of a certification system, e.g. DGNB (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen / German Sustainable Building Council), BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology) or LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design). The main four (out of a total of six) criteria groups or topics of the DGNB system that are relevant to flooring include: • ecological quality • economic quality • sociocultural and functional quality • technical quality The first three criteria groups correspond to the discussed ecological, economic and social factors. The prerequisites for technical quality as far as fire protection, sound protection, cleanability and maintainability of the building structure are concerned, are considered in Volume 1, while deconstruction and recycling compatibility are dealt with in the section ”Recycling and disposal” (p. 45f.). A significance factor is allocated to individual criteria, which reflects their relevance in a building context (Fig. 29). A percentage of the total assessment is derived in this manner. The corresponding certificate issued depends on the overall degree of fulfilment by the building (bronze, silver, gold or platinum). Sustainability of flooring can therefore be evaluated though implementation of a comprehensive assessment system in an overall building context.

Notes [1] DIN EN ISO 14 040:2009-11, 3.2 [2] DIN EN 15 804:2014-07, 3.12 [3] DIN EN ISO 14 040:2009-11, 3.3 [4] DIN EN ISO 14 040:2009-11, 3.4 [5] DIN EN ISO 14 040:2009-11, 3.5 [6] DIN EN ISO 14 044:2006-10, 3.24 [7] DIN EN ISO 14 020, 14 021, 14 024, 14 025 [8] DIN EN 15 804:2014-07, 5.1 [9] DIN EN 15 804:2014-07, 5.2 [10] König et al. 2009, p. 59 [11] DIN EN 15 643-4: 2010-12, 3.36 [12] König et al. 2009, p. 37 [13] DIN EN 15 643-1, 3.53 [14] König et al. 2009, p. 32 [15] Ibid. p. 34 [16] DIN EN 15 643-1: 2010-12, 3.18 [17] As Note 14 [18] DIN EN 13 306, 4.13 [19] DIN 31 051:2012-09, 4.3.5 [20] DIN 31 051:2012-09, 4.5.7 [21] DIN 13 306:2010-12, 5.4 [22] DIN 13 306:2010-12, 5.5 [23] DIN 13 306:2010-12, 5.6 [24] DIN 31 051:2012-09, 4.1.1 [25] DIN 13 306:2010-12, 8.6 [26] DIN 13 306:2010-12, 8.14 [27] DIN EN 15 643-1:2010-12, 3.40 [28] DIN 31 051:2012-09, 4.3.4 [29] DIN EN 15 643-1:2010-12, 3.55 [30] König et al. 2009, p. 32 [31] DIN EN 15 643-1:2010-12, 3.59 [32] DIN EN 15 643-1:2010-12, 3.50 [33] DIN EN 15 643-1:2010-12, 3.51 [34] DIN EN 15 643-1:2010-12, 3.61 [35] DIN EN 15 643-1:2010-12, 3.75 [36] DIN EN 15 643-4:2010-12, 5.4.2. Some of the following cost factors are not exclusively related to flooring and are included in the cost calculation proportionally. [37] Martin 2010, p. 8 [38] DIN EN 15 643-1: 2010-12, 3.65 [39] Information mainly from: Forum Nachhaltiges Bauen, http://nachhaltiges-bauen.de/baustoffe/ Textile%20Bodenbel%C3%A4ge (accessed: 19.02.2016) [40] Armstrong DLW Flooring GmbH: Recycling von DLW Bodenbelägen – Ökologisch bis zum Lebensende. (Recycling of DLW Floor Coverings – Ecological to the End of Life.) Press information dated 25.10.2012, p. 1 [41] http://www.nora.com/de/nachhaltigkeit/recycling/ (accessed: 16.02.2016) [42] As Note 40 [43] Arbeitsgemeinschaft PVC-Bodenbelag-Recycling (AgPR, Association for the Recycling of PVC Floor-Coverings) – Broschüre PVC-Bodenbelag-Recycling (PVC Floor-Covering Recycling Brochure), p. 2 [44] Information mainly from: www.ingenieur.de/ Branchen/Maschinen-Anlagenbau/RecyclingRolle (accessed: 16.02.2016) [45] As Note 39 [46] Ibid. [47] As Note 40 [48] As Note 39

Sustainability of flooring

29 Assessment criteria relevant for flooring (without the topics “Process quality” or “Location quality”) of the certification system of the German Sustainable Building Council (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen – DGNB) for the sustainability of buildings; the significance factors of the individual criteria and the derived percentages of the total assessment are shown on the right New construction of office and administration buildings, version 2015 Topic

Criteria group

Criteria designation

Significance factor

Percentage of total assessment

Ecological quality

Effects on global and local environment

Life-cycle assessment – emission-related environmental effects

7

7.9 %

Risks for local environment

3

3.4 %

Environmentally compatible material procurement

1

1.1 %

Life-cycle assessment – resource consumption

5

5.6 %

Drinking water demand and wastewater quantity

2

2.3 %

Area requirement

2

2.3 %

Life-cycle costs

Building-related costs during life cycle

3

9.6 %

Development of value

Flexibility and change-of-use capacity

3

9.6 %

Marketability

1

3.2 %

Thermal comfort

5

5.4 %

Indoor air quality

3

3.2 %

Acoustic comfort

1

1.1 %

Visual comfort

3

3.2 %

User influence

2

2.1 %

Indoor / outdoor quality for users

2

2.1 %

Safety

1

1.1 %

Barrier-free

3

3.2 %

Utilisation options for the public

1

1.1 %

Sound protection

2

4.1 %

Protection of building envelope from condensation water

2

4.1 %

Adaptability of technical systems

2

4.1 %

Cleanability and maintainability of building structure

2

4.1 %

Deconstruction and recycling friendliness

2

4.1 %

Immission control

0

0.0 %

Mobility infrastructure

1

2.0 %

Resource requirement and waste quantity

Economic quality

Sociocultural and functional quality

Health, comfort and user satisfaction

Functionality

Technical quality

29

Quality of technical execution

Mobility

49

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

The building stock of a country uses up a large proportion of primary energy and material resources for maintenance, operation, development and deconstruction. At the same time, it represents an enormous storage capacity of these energy and material assets accumulated in the building fabric over generations. Utilisation of this building stock therefore represents a significant saving potential in the fulfilment of current demands on buildings. Improving the energy efficiency of existing buildings can furthermore make a significant contribution to reducing greenhouse gases. A prerequisite for this is an effective modification of the existing fabric, i.e. renovation or modernisation. Any old construction renovated according to current standards saves considerable resources, making both its own deconstruction and an equivalent new construction unnecessary. Germany has a stock of about 18 million residential buildings and 1.5 million nonresidential buildings. Two thirds of these were built before the first Heat Insulation Ordinance issued in 1977. Most were not subjected to energy-efficient refurbishment, which means that they only partly comply with current building standards [1]. Their refurbishment and lifetime extension can hence be considered to represent a major ecological value waiting to be harnessed. Apart from that, old buildings and the established city districts they are often located in have an important identitycreating effect. This concerns both the external appearance (e.g. facades) and the interior spatial design, on which flooring has an impact that is not to be underestimated. This cultural value may at times be in conflict with adequate modernisation, since some renovation measures can alter the appearance of old buildings significantly. This applies in particular to energy-efficient retrofitting 50

of facades, but also to old flooring with a historical value, when considerable modifications are required to meet current standards. Listed buildings represent a particularly critical issue in this context. In these cases, cultural values have to be carefully weighed up against costs, limitations in functionality or safety. Since a major aim of the renovation of old buildings is to achieve the greatest possible adaptation of the building fabric to current standards, the same principles of sustainability – according to the model based on the pillars environment, economy, society – must be applied as for new constructions (see “Sustainability of flooring”, p. 24ff.). Construction measures in building stock Construction measures in existing buildings range from renovation of the whole building to individual interventions such as grinding down a parquet floor or replacing an elastic floor covering. The following measures can generally be differentiated [2]: • Renovation measures: for rectification of considerable structural deficiencies; normally more far-reaching than modernisation; often take place within the scope of a general urban redevelopment or rehabilitation plan [3] • Repair measures: for restoration of the target condition required for use • Modernisation measures: for sustainable increase of the utilisation value of an object, insofar as these are not classified as extensions, conversions or repairs • Conversion measures: for redesign of stock with interventions in the construction, especially changes in the spatial structure • Interior space measures: redesign of interior spaces without significant

intervention in the existing structure • Extension measures: for addition to an existing building, increasing the extent of use (addition of structure or storey etc.) • Change-of-use measures: an alteration of the type of use; these generally involve conversion and modernisation measures Measures for retaining a target condition (repair, maintenance or inspection) are not part of the renovation of old buildings (see “Phase 2: Use”, p. 30f.). With regard to the building fabric in the renovation of old constructions, a differentiation is made between [4]: • Old fabric, in turn divided into old fabric that is: - used further (e.g. renovated flooring) - reused (recycling of components or materials on the building site, e.g. demounted wooden floorboards used for other purposes) - deconstructed (disposal, utilisation or landfilling) • New fabric installed in the existing structure Renovation of old buildings compared to new constructions Although the general aim of renovation is to refurbish the old building fabric to an extent allowing it to fulfil the same requirements and performance standards as new constructions, this can sometimes not be realised or only by means of disproportionate expenditure. This applies in particular to energy-efficient retrofitting of the facades of old buildings. Flooring is normally not subject to such limitations. Exceptions are particularly valuable decorative floors that can either not be replaced because they must be retained for heritage protection reasons, or because renewal would be associated

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

1

with unacceptable costs, or because the original condition cannot be suitably restored due to lacking necessary craftsmanship. It is for instance quite out of the question to renew the floor of the Biblioteca Laurenziana in Florence (Fig. 7, p. 10) in any way. The replacement cycles of conventional flooring are generally between 10 and 50 years, which is, compared to that of the primary structure of the building, rather short (Fig. 19 – 22, p. 37f.). If no major changes are made in the geometry of the load-carrying structure and the utilisation of the building, flooring can often be replaced or renewed with reasonable expenditure in the course of renovation of an old building, much like during continuous maintenance of buildings. This is particularly the case when the surface of the load-carrying construction of the ceiling or floor is adequately even and horizontal. Difficulties may however arise when a technical improvement of the flooring requires an increase in the structural height (e.g. for necessary sound, fire or thermal protection measures). Extensive geometric deviations of the bearing construction from the desired state (e.g. skew position or warping of floor-ceiling constructions) may also necessitate addition of significant heights to create even and functionally compliant flooring. An increase in the height of a flooring surface on account of such constructive requirements often creates further problems, particularly with regard to adjoining components such as doors (may need shortening) or stairs (may be difficult to maintain a uniform ascending gradient without an abruptly different riser height). Similar to flooring design in new building measures, the tasks to be fulfilled by flooring in the renovation of old buildings can only be defined in the context of the complete ceiling or floor construction (see Volume 1, “Flooring in a constructive

Identification of listed buildings in most German federal states

context”). It should therefore be carefully considered whether tasks associated with a considerably higher structural height of the flooring should rather be assigned to other parts of the ceiling or floor construction. A good example of this is thermal protection: installation in or even under a load-carrying beam floor-ceiling construction rather than in the flooring may be more expedient. Active protection of building stock Clear limitations in the renovation of flooring in existing buildings may result from building stock protection requirements. In terms of the building regulations, passive protection guarantees the building owner defensive rights against state interference in the owner’s property. Yet active protection restricts the rights of the owner to interventions in the existing building. The law generally allows such interventions in order to safeguard adequate conservation of the building fabric as well as to adapt the building to new requirements. These interventions have to however take place within the scope of statutory regulations, which, for example, also include measures for the protection of listed buildings. In practice, these are realised through heritage protection and preservation. Heritage protection includes all mandatory measures prescribed by the heritage protection authorities with the aim of long-term conservation of monuments. Heritage preservation is concerned with maintenance and repair of monuments [5]. The objectives of heritage protection are obviously often in conflict with functional and technical refurbishment measures, yet it is generally in the interest of heritage protection to not only permit, but also promote use-related further development of a building. Longterm conservation of a building can only be safeguarded in this way.

1

Status analysis Adequate status analysis is an important prerequisite for proper renovation of an old building [6]. This involves an initial survey of the following characteristics: • Geometry: current planning documents (floor plans, sections) • Building construction and materials: sequences of construction layers in ceiling and floor constructions; building diagnosis test results; review of observation / feasibility of building regulations and legal requirements • Building equipment: heating, ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration, sanitary, electrical installations etc. • History of construction and use: provides information on the influence of the building use phase with demonstrable effects on the existing building, the building period (e.g. economic boom periods such as the “Gründerzeit” in the mid-19th century, or the 1950s), with characteristic technical, economic and political conditions as well as the original usage; includes documentation of any previous conversion, repair or extensions measures as well as a survey of the building history, which makes it easier to identify potential problems or risks (e.g. pollutant risks typical for a specific building period) • Exposure: degree of exposure to external influences such as climate or internal effects due to use (e.g. residential, industrial) The general state of a construction and its components can furthermore be evaluated within the scope of a building diagnosis based on the following criteria: • Energy-related quality: where flooring is part of the building envelope, i.e. floors in contact with soil 51

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

• Harmful substances (Fig. 2): it must be safeguarded that the building does not cause any damage to health or the environment; certain building periods are already known to be associated with the use of unsafe materials (e.g. asbestos in the 1960s /70s); pollutant loads also often occur in association with certain building uses (e.g. industry); legal regulations include occupational safety and health laws, chemicals laws, the social law code and subsequent accident prevention regulations; Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances (Technische Regeln für Gefahrstoffe – TRGSA) as well as recycling work aids issued by the German federation with regard to conduction of pollutant assessments and removal of pollutants are also relevant in this respect • Exposure to moisture and salt: especially in floors in contact with soil; influences the indoor climate and material properties (e.g. thermal conductivity) and forms the basis of secondary damage processes such as development of mould; ingress of damaging dissolved salts (hybrids, sulfates or nitrates) in the building material impairs its properties with structural damage particularly occurring in the evaporation zone close to the surface A sample can be taken for assessment of the building status, e.g. by: • obtaining drill cores (from flooring, concrete floor slabs) • tapping, chipping (e.g. coverings) • removing with a pointed tool (e.g. flooring structures) • scraping (e.g. joints, seals) • wiping (e.g. fine dust) • taking room air samples (e.g. spores, germs) 52

Energy-efficient and thermal protection renovation An important aim of the renovation of old buildings is often to improve the energy efficiency of the building, i.e. to reduce energy consumption and pollutant emission. This primarily affects building components in the outer envelope separating two spaces with a temperature gradient, such as thermally conditioned rooms (heated or cooled) from non-conditioned rooms or the exterior. Flooring in interior spaces therefore always forms part of the outer envelope when located on a floor slab in contact with the soil or on a floorceiling construction above a non-conditioned room. Requirements

The already mentioned thermal protection requirements that flooring on thermally exposed enveloping parts has to meet are defined in the Energy Saving Ordinance (Energieeinsparverordnung – EnEV), as currently amended on 18 November 2013 (EnEV 2014). Relevant for the renovation of old buildings is Part 3 “Existing buildings and systems”, § 9 “Modification, extension and expansion of buildings”. According to EnEV, thermal protection requirements are fulfilled if the component – in this case the flooring – is within the prescribed maximum thermal transmittance (U-values). Alternatively, evidence may be provided to show that specific values of the annual primary energy demand of the entire building as well as maximum values of the specific transmission heat loss of the heat-transmitting enveloping area in residential buildings (or the average thermal transmittance in non-residential buildings) are not exceeded by more than 40 % [7]. The required maximum thermal transmittance values according to the first-

mentioned method (Fig. 3) depend on the specific application case: 1. Replacement or first installation of floorceiling constructions enclosing heated rooms downwards against soil, outside air or unheated rooms 2. Installation or renewal of external cladding or facing, moisture barriers or drainage systems 3. Mounting or renewal of flooring structures on the heated side 4. Attachment of cladding to the cold side of floor-ceiling constructions Cases 1, 2 and 4 concern complete floor-ceiling constructions or floor slabs in contact with the soil, a non-conditioned room or external air. The required thermal protection measures are not integrated in the flooring structure here. Case 3 is directly concerned with the flooring structure. No requirements are set for rooms heated to a lesser extent with interior temperatures ranging between 12 and 19 °C, while a maximum thermal transmittance (U-value) of 0.50 W/m2K is specified for rooms that are heated more. EnEV however allows for exceptions. The specified values do not have to be met, • by components that “that have been constructed or renewed after 31 December 1983 in compliance with the energy saving regulations” [8]. • if the “insulating layer thickness is limited within the scope of this measure for technical reasons”. In these cases, the requirements are considered “as met, if the maximum insulatinglayer thickness according to the recognised rules of technology is installed (with a rated thermal conductivity λ = 0.035 W/mK). “ Otherwise “a rated thermal conductivity λ = 0.045 W/(m · K) must be alternatively observed, if insulating materials are blown into hollow spaces or insulating materials made of

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

renewable raw materials are used” [9]. This exemption takes into account the previously addressed difficulty of realising larger floor structure heights in already existing flooring. • “if the area of the changed components does not affect more than 10 % of the total area of this particular component in the building” [10]. This is often the case with flooring in direct contact with soil, so that many flooring renovations are exempt from requirements already for this reason. • if “in architectural monuments or other special building fabric worth preserving, the fulfilment of the requirements of this ordinance would impair the fabric or appearance or if other measures would lead to a disproportionately high expenditure” [11]. This exemption allows circumvention of an increase in the flooring level in cases when flooring is particularly worth preserving, under protection or located in heritageprotected historical buildings.

3

Description /Definition

Examples

Building-materialrelated (innate)

Harmful substances contained in building products, building materials and installations through production, generally as aggregates or natural raw materials

Asbestos cement boards, asbestos-containing pipe lead-throughs, PCB-containing joint sealing, PCP-containing wood constructions, chrome-containing mortars / concretes, PAH-containing parquet adhesives, heavy metals in wall coatings, PAHcontaining road surfacing, asbestos- or PCB-containing pipe and tank jacketing in exterior areas etc.

Use-related

Harmful materials that enter the building fabric or installations by object-specific use

MOH/ BTEX contamination in workshop areas, PAH-containing soot (heating system operation), storage and use of chemicals (acids / solvents), deposits in pipes etc.

Environment-related

Harmful substances introduced via air as gas, aerosol or dust as well as via the fauna; microbiological damage through constructional defects

Heavy metals, benzenes, PAHs adhering to or penetrating walls /facades, pigeon faeces, mould fungi, dry rot etc.

Special cases (e.g. fire damage)

Harmful substances that entered fire waste or residues through fire damage

Fire residues such as ash and soot with a multitude of toxic substances (e.g. PAH, dioxins/furans)

2

Floorings in renovations of old buildings to which these exemptions apply are instead subject to the stipulations of DIN 4108-2, insofar as these are new building components in existing buildings. The primary aim of this standard is – contrary to EnEV – not to save energy, but to safeguard a hygienic indoor climate as well as lasting protection of the building construction against climate-related moisture effects [12]. The minimum thermal resistance values also apply to the complete ceiling or floor component here. 2

Cause

Harmful substances in buildings according to the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety 3 (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit) Maximum thermal transmittance values for first-time installation, replacement and renewal of components according to EnEV 2014, Anlage 3, Abs. 7 (Energy Saving Ordinance 2014, Annex 3 (7))

Component

Measure according to

Residential buildings and zones of non-residential buildings with inside temperatures of at least 19 °C

Zones of non-residential buildings with inside temperatures of 12 to below 19 °C

Maximum values of thermal transmittance Umax1) Floor-ceiling constructions immediately above soil or unheated rooms

Application case 1, 2 and 4

0.30 W/m2K

No requirement

Flooring structures

Application case 3

0.50 W/m2K

No requirement

Floor-ceiling constructions located immediately above outside air

Application case 1, 2 and 4

0.24 W/m2K

0.35 W/m2K

1)

Thermal transmittance of component taking into consideration the new and existing component layers. DIN V 4108-6:2003-06 Appendix E should be used for calculation of components according to the first two lines and DIN EN ISO 6946:2008-04 should be used for calculation of other opaque components.

53

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

Components

Description

Thermal resistance of component1) R [m2K/W]

Floor-ceiling constructions of heated rooms located

immediately above outside air, underground garages, garages (also heated ones), thoroughfares (also closable ones) and ventilated crawl spaces

1.75

immediately above unheated cellar rooms with the bottom (e.g. base plate) of occupied rooms immediately adjacent to the soil up to a room depth of 5 m

0.90

above a non-ventilated hollow space (e.g. crawl cellar) adjacent to the soil Components between heated rooms 4

1)

Floor-ceiling constructions between apartments or between rooms used for different purposes

0.35

For components in contact with soil: constructive thermal resistance

Depending on the selected constructive solution, a thermal insulating layer may – but does not have to – be integrated in the flooring structure (Fig. 4). The thermal transmittance of U = 0.50 W/m2K, normally required as the maximum value for newly installed or renewed flooring structures in normally heated rooms, necessitates a thickness of 8 to 9 cm assuming an average thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/mK for normal heat-insulating materials. Thermal resistances of any other layers (e.g. a screed) are not taken into account here. The most unfavourable case is therefore assumed. 1 2 3

Upper edge of flooring Flooring structure Height compensation or

1

2

3

4

Damage in old buildings Typical damage to flooring in old buildings includes: • Water damage through exposure from above • Water damage through rising damp, possibly also as a result of water vapour diffusion from below • Skewness due to warpage of the loadcarrying construction • Uneven flooring due to skewness or sagging of the load-carrying ceiling or floor construction • Uneven flooring due to deform-

beam reinforcement Beam of floor-ceiling construction

4

a

1

2

3

4

b

1

5c

2

3

4

1

d

54

2

3

4

ation or wear • Warped wood flooring • Gaping joints or cracks due to shrinkage • Cracked or detached plate or tile coverings, possibly with tripping hazards • Flooring or coverings giving rise to dust • Worn flooring coverings • Holes in flooring Renovation measures in terms of various functions Renovation measures are carried out to rectify considerable structural deficiencies and/or to improve the functionality of a building. This includes for instance improvement of dimensional stability, the load-bearing capacity of the floorceiling construction, the thermal, sound, moisture and sound protection performance as well as creation of barrier-free accessibility. Improvement of dimensional stability

A common problem in old buildings is the lack of evenness or horizontality of flooring. This can have various reasons (Fig. 5): • Skewness of the bearing floor-ceiling construction (Fig. 5 a) • Significant sagging of the bearing floorceiling construction (Fig. 5 b) • Significant uneven wear of the floor covering • Mechanical damage from above • Expansion of the floor covering or the subfloor • Damage to the subfloor construction In case of minor differences in height or deviations from the target position, it may be sufficient to compensate with filler (layers of up to about 1 cm in thickness), preferably composed of gypsum, anhydrite or cement. In case of wooden floorceiling constructions that are subject to

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

relatively strong vibrations, equalisation may be achieved using fillers with synthetic resin additives. Excessive vibration effects in floors may on the other hand be counteracted with other solutions such as fibre reinforcement of the levelling compound or subconstructions made of wood. If a number of filler layers are applied, a drying time of around one day per layer has to be allowed for. Addition of a bonding layer (e.g. chloroprene rubber adhesive) may be necessary for badly bonding substrates such as waxed floors. Covering material can be laid directly on the cured filled surface. Levelling can alternatively be achieved by application of correspondingly greater thicknesses of flowing mortar. Major unevenness or skewness requires special subconstructions, generally made of wood, or insulating layers or levelling fills installed full face on the bearing floor or ceiling construction, or on the existing boards or a rough floor (Fig. 7). Wood subconstructions often result in greater heights, since adequate space for sleepers is required even at the highest points, while insulating layers and fills can taper off to almost zero there. The hollow spaces of the wood subconstruction can be filled with thermal insulation material, 1 2 3 4

5 6

Multilayer parquet Underlay (fibreboard) Boards (existing) Inter-beam space 1

2

7

allowing them to contribute to thermal protection. If the sleepers are elastically mounted (Fig. 8 e, p. 56), a corresponding improvement in impact sound protection may be obtained. Levelling fills are composed of vermiculite, perlite, expanded clay, expanded shale or similar materials and generally processed bound, i.e. in a wet state with added epoxy-resin binders. After curing, they lose most of the impact sound improvement capacity of the loose bulk fill. Improved sound protection can alternatively be achieved using honeycomb void fillers. A cardboard honeycomb corrugated panel is placed on the bearing floor-ceiling construction for this purpose and the hollow spaces completely filled with it. An impact-sound improvement of up to 42 dB can be realised in this way. An alternative to height compensation across the surface of beam floor-ceiling constructions is local beam reinforcement. This method is particularly recommendable when the beam layer has to be strengthened from a structural point of view anyway in order to reduce sagging or considerable vibration (Fig. 5 c), or if damaged parts of the beams need replacing (Fig. 5 d). To this end, various reinforcements are attached to the beam 8 Impact sound insulation plates 9 Cementitious screed 10 Lines

Upper covering Mastic asphalt screed Separating layer (PE foil)

3

5

6b

6

7

8

4

4

a

5

11 Dry screed (gypsum fibre) 12 Levelling fill 13 Trickle protection foil or paper

3

4

7

9 10

7

8

5

11 12 13

3

4

Minimum thermal resistance values of ceilings and floors according to DIN 4108-2 5 Height compensation in existing floor-ceiling constructions, when a skewing b sagging c beam reinforcement is required d damaged beam areas are replaced 6 Renewal of worn but fairly even existing floorboarding with a floating multilayer parquet (1) b floating mastic asphalt screed (6) 7 Renewal of existing flooring on a wooden beam floor-ceiling construction with more pronounced sagging or skewness. Height compensation is achieved through a levelling fill (12), in which lines (10) may be integrated if required. The floating screed is alternatively represented as cement screed (9) on the left and as dry screed (11) on the right.

55

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

1 2 3 4 5 6

of laminated wood Height compensation Stop end panel Polymer concrete Optional flooring structure 11 Veneer layer 12 Wood screws of glued-in rods

Floating dry screed Impact sound insulation Planking Added supplementary beam Under-dimensioned existing beam Support panel made

1

2

3

4

18 Steel fibre concrete 19 Wood screw with spacer ring thk = 7.5 mm 20 Push-in dowel with special design 21 Wood screw 16 /160 mm

13 Boards (existing) 14 Existing beam 15 Planking made of wood-based material thk ≥ 24 mm or boards 16 Elastic material 17 Laminated wood board

7 8 9 10

1

5

2

3

6

5

heads (after removal of the upper planking) which essentially serve as an additional compression flange for the beam. Solutions with full-wood sections (Fig. 8 a), wood-based material panels (Fig. 8 b, d, f) or polymer concrete (Fig. 8 c) are possible. Height adjustment of these added elements above the upper edge of the beams allows creation of a levelled surface or a dimensionally accurate substrate ready for coverage with planking. Improvement of load-bearing capacity of floor-

7

ceiling construction

a

b

1

2

3

8 9 5 10 11

12 14 13

10 15 16 12 14 17

7

A full-face height compensation in combination with structural reinforcement can also be realised by addition of a layer of concrete on top of an existing floorceiling construction, resulting in a woodconcrete composite floor-ceiling construction (Fig. 8 e). Structural bonding between wood and concrete is normally achieved with dowel-like metal parts (screws, bolts or pins) which are introduced to the existing wood construction and cast in the topping concrete. An adequately even and horizontal surface 8

c

d

10 18 13 19 14

10 15

10 13 20 21 14 18

16 17

12

20

7

8e

f

56

6

Reinforcement of a weak existing beam a of wood with additional beams placed on either side b of wood with laminated wood support panels on either side. Height compensation (7) and levelling of the flooring can be achieved by adjustment of the upper edge of the support panels. c of wood with an additional compression flange made of polymer concrete. The joint loadcarrying action of wood beam and compression flange ensures bonding connection. Height compensation (7) is possible. d with attached wood-based material panels, full face on existing boarding on left (13), in strips as additional compression flange on right (17). The shear connection between beam and wood-based material panel is created by a screw or dowel connection (12). e with cast-on steel fibre concrete slab. A composite wood-concrete slab is created. The additional stiffness gained reduces deflection, improves vibration behaviour as well as sound and fire protection from above. The connection between concrete and wood is achieved with wood screws (19, 21). The solution on the right

Sleepers

0.13

8.0

Segmented barrel vaults

0.96

12.0

Steel girders I180

60

18.0

Element

2.0

Sleepers

0.13

5.0

Peat panels

0.047

3.0

Reinforced concrete slab

2.10

16.0

0.87

1.5

0.81

0.30

0.24

0.47

2.0

Wood-wool lightweight 0.09 construction panel

2.5 a 0.81 b 0.84 0.30 19.0 c 0.83 22.5 24.0 16.0

a 0.79 b 0.87 c 0.86 2.10

3 4 5

Renovated

6 7 8 9 10 11 1 12 13 3 14 15

Renovated

includes the action of an additional specially designed dowel (20). c Lime gypsum plaster f with support panels (6). Height compensation (7) is possible. The increased resistance to bending of the floor-ceiling construction reduces both its deflection and vibration behaviour. Renovation of a cellar floor-ceiling construction (U-values of old and renovated floor-ceiling construction, with two alternative insulation layer thicknesses on the left of the table): a from before 1918, composed of masoned segmented barrel vaults on steel girders (insulating layer thicknesses 8 and 12 cm) b from before 1918, composed of a reinforced Element concrete slab with thermal insulation structure (insulating layer thicknesses 8 and 12 cm) Hardwood parquet 0.47 2.0 c from between 1920 and 1950, composed of a 0.09 2.5 Wood boarding steel stone slab with thermal insulation structure 0.04 1.0 Air layer (three types of steel stone floor-ceiling constructions a, b and c with different thicknesses; a 0.06 4.0 Mineral fibre insulating layer thicknesses 8 and 12 cm). b 0.06 6.0 insulation board d from between 1920 and 1950, consisting of a 0.13 2.4 Timber formwork wooden beam floor-ceiling construction with Beams of floorinterior thermal insulation (two types of inter0.13 24.0 ceiling construcbeam space a and b with different thicknesses; insulating layer thicknesses 6 and 8 cm) 9 d tion (proportional)

a 0.63 b 0.54

6 7 8 9 10 11 16 17 18 19 20

0.24

Renovated

Existing U-value with additional insulating layer thk = 12 cm λ = 0.035 W/mK

1.0

U-value with additional insulating layer thk = 8 cm λ = 0.035 W/mK

Steel stone slab

0.04

U-value (existing) [W/m2K]

Layer thickness [cm]

Xylolite

Mineral fibre insulation board

1 2

Existing

Element

λ [W/mK]

9

b Lime plaster

U-value with additional insulating layer thk = 12 cm λ = 0.035 W/mK

2.5

0.70

U-value with additional insulating layer thk = 8 cm λ = 0.035 W/mK

0.13

Sand

0.24

6 7 8 9 10 11

Existing

λ [W/mK]

Flooring-relevant measures for improvement of the thermal protection of a floorceiling construction concern constructions above unheated rooms (e.g. floorceilings constructions in cellars, open crawl spaces) or floor slabs in contact with soil. These may include installation of a thermal insulation layer in the flooring structure that is in turn covered with a load-distributing screed. An alternative execution involves installation of a wood floor directly on the bearing floor-ceiling construction and filling of the hollow spaces with thermal insulation material (Fig. 9). Thickness and thermal conductivity of the additional thermal insulation layer in the flooring have to take into account the heat insulation capacity of the existing floor-ceiling construction. In terms of building physics, a thermal insulation layer located on top of an existing bearing floor-ceiling construction is

0.30

U-value with additional insulating layer thk = 8 cm λ = 0.035 W/mK U-value with additional insulating layer thk = 12 cm λ = 0.035 W/mK

Layer thickness [cm]

Planed boards

Improvement of thermal protection

0.75

U-value (existing) [W/m2K]

λ [W/mK]

is created for the further flooring structure. The associated increase in height must naturally be taken into account.

U-value with additional insulating layer thk = 12 cm λ = 0.035 W/mK

2.5

U-value with additional insulating layer thk = 8 cm λ = 0.035 W/mK

0.13

0.19 8.0 – 20.0

U-value (existing) [W/m2K]

Planed boards Stone coal slag

Element

U-value (existing) [W/m2K]

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

15 Lime cement plaster (existing) 16 Stone wood covering (existing) 17 Wood-wool lightweight construction slab (existing) 18 Mineral fibre insulation mat (existing) 19 Steel stone slab (existing) 20 Lime gypsum plaster (existing) 21 Hardwood parquet 22 Beam (existing) a 23 Air layer 24 Timber formwork

Layer thickness [cm]

6 7

Boards (existing) Stone coal slag fill Sleeper (existing) Steel girder Masoned solid-brick segmented barrel vaults Upper covering Wood board or woodbased material panel Vapour barrier Mineral wool insulation Sleeper Resilient underlay Sand layer (existing) Peat panel (existing) Reinforced concrete board (existing)

Layer thickness [cm]

1 2 3 4 5

λ [W/mK]

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

0.30

0.24

6 7 8 10 11 9 21 1

Existing

22 23 18 24

Renovated

57

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

1 2 3 4

Skirting board Perimeter insulation strip Floor covering Cementitious screed

5 6 7 8

9 Boards (existing) 10 Screed panels, twolayer (gypsum fibre or wood-based material) 11 Butt joints, staggered

Separating layer Impact sound insulation Existing solid slab Beam (existing)

1

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

10 a

2

3

8

10

6

9

11

b

classified as interior insulation. Moisture should therefore not penetrate the floorceiling construction by vapour diffusion from above, since this would condensate on reaching dew point. Installation of a vapour barrier or seal under the screed is recommended for this purpose. Joining the insulating layer of the flooring to that of the outer wall is also desirable from a building physics perspective. If the outer wall is fitted with interior insulation, as is often the case in well-designed facades, a direct connection can be realised without any difficulties. Should the insulation of the outer wall be located externally on the other hand, creation of a thermal bridge is unavoidable. This may be alleviated to some extent by making the thermal conduction path as long as possible, e.g. by extending the exterior insulation down to below the level of the insulation of the floor-ceiling construction. Fig. 9 illustrates thermal protection renovation measures for several common types of floor-ceiling constructions in old buildings by installation of an additional thermal insulation layer. The estimated U-values of the existing construction as well as the U-values resulting after installation of insulating layers of various thicknesses are shown.

1 2 3

Upper covering Dry screed Impact sound insulation

4 5 6

Existing beam Boards (existing) Concrete slabs either loosely laid or glued

Improvement of sound protection

Achieving a better usage quality – often a significant objective in the renovation of old buildings – generally also requires improvement of the sound protection of floor-ceiling constructions between storeys. If these separate two occupied volumes, then the flooring plays an important role in this respect. Buildingacoustic enhancement of flooring improves sound protection of floor-ceiling constructions through two fundamentally different physical effects: • Increase in the mass-per-unit area of the floor-ceiling construction. This is accomplished by introducing an additional screed or specifically applied loading. This measure is particularly effective if the added mass has a low resistance to bending (e.g. loose, unlinked fills, or loosely placed stones or panels that are not bound to each other rigidly). Such constructive solutions are very effective in light floorceiling constructions, i.e. mainly in wooden floor-ceiling constructions (Fig. 11, 12). A prerequisite for this is that the bearing floor-ceiling construction is able to carry the additional load, otherwise appropriate structural reinforcement is required.

7

1

1 2 3 4 5 6

11

12 a

58

to the boarding (5) (but not to each other) thk = 40 mm Sleeper

2 7 8

9

5

8 Cushioning underlay 9 Insulating layer 10 Loading consisting of dry sand

9

b

5

10 4

• Installation of a floating screed using a wet or dry construction method (Fig. 10). Together with the bearing floor-ceiling construction, an oscillating mass-spring system is created in this way. This results in significant improvement of airborne as well as impact sound protection (Fig. 13, 14; also see Volume 1). The effect of the floating screed largely depends on the type of cushioning used for mounting, i.e. particularly the dynamic stiffness of the material making up the impact sound insulation layer (Fig. 14). If wood flooring is mounted on cushioning elastic material (Fig. 12), the impact sound protection is also increased, but to a lesser extent than by means of a floating screed. An estimation of the sound protection quality of the existing floor-ceiling construction is initially required in order to be able to define the necessary contribution of the flooring structure to improvement of airborne sound protection (weighted sound reduction index) and impact sound protection (weighted normalised impact sound pressure level) of the complete floor-ceiling construction. Fig. 13 and 15 are tabular overviews of the orientation values provided in DIN 4109, Sup-

10 Improvement of sound insulation of a floor-ceiling construction between storeys by introduction of a floating screed a by wet construction on an existing solid slab with peripheral connection to wall component b by dry construction on an existing wooden beam floor-ceiling construction with peripheral connection to wall component 11 Improvement of sound insulation of a wooden beam floor-ceiling construction by loose placement of heavy concrete slabs (6). In order to retain the flexibility to bending of the ballasting plate layer, the plates may not be force-locked to each other.

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

Mass per unit area R'w, R [db]1) plementary Sheet 1 for airborne and of slab 2) [kg/m2] Single-shell Solid slab with Single-shell Solid slab with impact sound protection of solid slabs solid slab with floating screed and solid slab, with flexible-to-bendrespectively. Fig. 13 further illustrates floating screed 3) flexible-to-bending directly applied ing subceiling, the improvement in the weighted sound substructure screed and walkdirectly applied on covering screed and walkreduction index resulting from the effect on covering of a floating screed. 500 55 59 59 62 Resilient floor coverings are favourable 450 54 58 58 61 for impact sound protection of flooring. 400 53 57 57 60 They absorb impact sound through their 350 51 56 56 59 acoustically dampening action immedi300 49 55 55 58 ately at the place of origin. Textile cover250 47 53 53 56 ings or elastic coverings with a resilient 200 44 51 51 54 foam layer are particularly suitable. Tile 150 41 49 49 52 coverings laid on elastic tile mortar on 1) Valid for flanking components with a mean mass-per-unit area m'L, mean of about 300 kg/m2. top of recycled rubber mats are also 2) The mass of applied bonded screeds or screeds on separating layers and of the underside plastering has to favourable in this regard. A resilient floor be taken into account. 3) covering may also be recommendable to And other floor-ceiling construction add-ons laid in a floating manner, e.g. floating wood flooring, provided 13 these have an impact sound improvement index ΔLw (V M) ≥ 24 dB obtain better room acoustics. Orientation values for an approximate clasFloor-ceiling construction add-ons ΔLw, R (V MR) [dB] sification of the sound protection quality With hard With resilient floor of wooden beam floor-ceiling construcfloor covering covering 1) L (V MR) tions typically found in old buildings are Floating screeds provided in Fig. 16. Mastic asphalt screeds according to DIN 18 560-2 with a mass-per-unit area m' ≥ 45 kg/m2 on insulating layers made of insulating materials The role of flooring with regard to sound to DIN 18 164-2 or DIN 18 166-2 with a dynamic stiffness s' protection can in principle only be defined according of maximum in the context of the overall floor-ceiling 20 50 MN/m3 20 construction. Further effective measures 22 40 MN/m3 22 3 24 24 30 MN/m for increasing sound protection that do 3 26 26 20 MN/m 3 not concern flooring but may influence 29 27 15 MN/m 3 32 29 10 MN/m its building-acoustic target values when Screeds according to DIN 18 560-2 with a mass per unit area considered as a whole, include: 2 m' ≥ 70 kg/m on insulating layers made of insulating materials according to DIN 18 164-2 or DIN 18 166-2 with a dynamic stiffness s' of maximum

12 Improvement of sound insulation of a wooden beam floor-ceiling construction by floating installation of the wood floor a on an elastic underlay b by additional loading using a loose layer of dry sand 13 Weighted sound reduction index R'w, R of solid slabs (calculated values according to DIN 4109, Supplementary Sheet 1) 14 Impact sound improvement index ΔLw, R (V MR) of floating screeds and wood flooring installed floating on solid slabs (calculated values according to DIN 4109, Supplementary Sheet 1) 14

50 MN/m3 40 MN/m3 30 MN/m3 20 MN/m3 15 MN/m3 10 MN/m3

22 24 26 28 29 30

23 25 27 30 23 34

Subfloors made of wood chipboards on sleepers with insulation strip underlays consisting of insulating materials with a dynamic stiffness s' of max. 20 MN/m3; width of insulation strip min. 100 mm, thickness when installed min. 10 mm; insulating materials between sleepers, nominal thickness ≥ 30 mm, linear flow resistance Ξ ≥ 5 kN ∙ s/m4

24

–

Subfloors made of wood chipboards with a min. thickness of 22 mm, laid full face on insulating materials with a dynamic stiffness s' of max. 10 MN/m3

25

–

Floating wood flooring

1)

It is possible to exchange resilient floor coverings – as in Fig. 46, p. 31 (Volume 1) – subject both to wear and specific requirements of occupants. These may therefore not be included for demonstration of compliance with the requirements of DIN 4109.

59

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

Mass-per-unit area 1) of solid slab without add-on [kg/m2]

Ln, w, eq, R [db]2)

Without subceiling With flexible-to-bending subceiling 3) 135 86 75 160 85 74 190 84 74 225 82 73 270 79 73 320 77 72 380 74 71 450 71 69 530 69 67 1) Mass-per-unit area including any existing bonded screed or screed on separating layer and directly applied plastering 2) Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation and rounding to the nearest decibel. 3) In case of floating screeds with mineral-based binding agents, the values of Ln, w, eq, R specified in the table 15 must be increased by 2 dB. Component

Structure of component

Impact sound protection Ln, w [db] With Raw floor- With dry screed cementitious ceiling screed construction

Dowelled wood beam floor-ceiling construction (approx. 1760) 1 2 3 4

700 Floor-ceiling construction half-filled with wrapped panels (1790 –1870) 1 2

3 4 5 6

7

8

800...900 Floor-ceiling construction with inserted panels (1870 –1930) 1

2

3 4

6

5 8 7 9

800...900 Wooden girder floor-ceiling construction (1930 –1960) 1 2 3

4 5 6

650 16

60

7

8

1 Beam 300/340 mm 2 Daub 40 – 80 mm 3 Beams 200/260 –220/260 mm, fitted close to each other and connected by means of 4 securing dowels (50 mm)

≤ 67

≤ 58

≤ 50

1 Gypsum screed 50 mm 2 Cob approx. 100 mm 3 Beams of floor-ceiling construction 180/240 mm 4 Brushwood approx. 60 mm 5 Loam /straw-wrapped poles 6 Laths 35 mm 7 Formwork of floor-ceiling construction 25 mm 8 Reed plaster 20 mm 1 Boarding 24 mm 2 Hollow space 20 mm 3 Filling approx. 100 mm 4 Bitumen felt board 10 mm 5 Live edge wood slabs 20 mm 6 Laths 60/40 mm 7 Formwork of floor-ceiling construction 20 mm 8 Beams of floor-ceiling construction 200/260 mm 9 Reed plaster 20 mm 1 Screed 25 mm 2 Single-layer bitumen board 3 Anhydrite screed 40 mm 4 Wood-wool lightweight construction panels 30 mm 5 Composite girder 200–260 mm 6 Wood-wool lightweight construction panels 25 mm 7 Composite girder 200 –260 mm 8 Plaster

≤ 66

≤ 57

≤ 49

62 ≤ 70

62 ≤ 70

53 ≤ 61

45 ≤ 53

53 ≤ 61

• Subceilings elastically suspended from the bearing construction • Dampening hollow spaces in floorceiling constructions (e.g. inter-beam cavity) using of resilient insulating materials Improvement of moisture protection

The intensity of moisture and the direction of exposure are decisive for an improvement in moisture protection (Fig. 18). Exposure from below is relevant for floorceiling constructions above rooms with high humidity, e.g. floor-ceiling constructions of cellars or ground floors above open crawl spaces, or for floor slabs in direct contact with damp earth and the resulting capillary rise of soil moisture. In the case of floor-ceiling constructions of cellars, wooden structures – still found in many pre-18th-century buildings – are particularly at risk. In vaulted masonry cellars, a typically damp cellar climate is not problematic on the other hand. Floorceiling constructions of cellars in younger

15 Equivalent weighted normalised impact sound pressure level Ln, w, eq, R of solid slabs in solidconstruction buildings with and without flexibleto-bending subceiling (calculated values) according to DIN 4109, Supplementary Sheet 1 16 Weighted normalised impact sound pressure level of light floor-ceiling constructions in building stock 17 Structure and wall connection of a wet room floor a with waterproof sheeting according to DIN 18 195-5 on an existing floor-ceiling construction (12). Waterproofing (9) is located under the screed and forms a waterproof trough (edges at least 15 cm above the floor surface). Permanent dampness of the screed is expected. Water must be removed by a drainage layer (7), inclination (11) and drains. b with moderate exposure (bathroom in residential buildings) on an existing floor-ceiling construction (12); sealing layer executed as composite waterproofing (CWP) (13) lying on screed 18 Relevant waterproofing methods for flooring exposed to moisture depending on nature of water, installation situation and type of action of water with specification of applicable standards according to DIN 18 195-1

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

1 2 3 4 5

Tile covering Thin-bed mortar Plastering Joint sealant Perimeter insulation strip

6 7 8 9

Cementitious screed Drainage layer Cement mortar joint Waterproofing according to DIN 18 195-5

13 Composite waterproofing (CWP) 14 Priming 15 Sealing tape 16 PE round cord 17 Waterproofing

10 Impact sound insulation 11 Inclined screed 12 Load-carrying substrate (existing)

1

1

2

2 3

3

13 > 15 cm

existing buildings are normally solid structures (e.g. segmented barrel vaults on iron or steel girders, or since the early 20th century also made of solid reinforced concrete slabs). Waterproofing measures integrated in the flooring have no effect on exposure of bearing floorceiling constructions to moisture from below and are therefore completely ineffective for wooden floor-ceiling constructions subject to this type of exposure. Waterproofing attached to the upper side of a wooden floor-ceiling construction may nevertheless be expedient in some cases, insofar as this provides protection from exposure to moisture from above.

14 4

5 1 2 6

7

8

9

10 11

12

15 4

16

1 2 5

13

Exposure to moisture from above Exposure of interior flooring to moisture from above is generally only expected for rooms that are exposed to moisture 17 a b to a moderate extent (e.g. bathrooms or kitchens in a residential setting) or for wet Component Water type Installation situation Type of action rooms with higher exposure (e.g. public of water showering facilities or areas serving Significantly sodden Capillary water Floor slabs in Soil moisture swimming pools. Pursuant to DIN 18 195-1, contact with earth > 10-4 m/s Adhesive water and non-accuSeepage water soil above the mulating water 3.33, a significant difference between the design water Not very with two categories is the lack or existence of 1) level permeable soil drainage a floor drainage system. ≤ 10-4 m/s without Accumulating The flooring structure plays an important drainage 2) water role in these cases, since any required Floor areas Non-drinking Wet rooms 3) Water exerting water-sealing layers must necessarily be 3) in wet rooms water in residential no pressure, integrated. Two methods generally come 4) construction moderate into consideration (see Volume 1, “Wet exposure room floors”). Wet rooms Water exerting Waterproofing according to DIN 18 195 (except no pressure, (Fig.17 a): residential high exposure 4) construction) An impervious level located under the Swimming screed is pulled up at the edges like a pools 5) trough and joined to the waterproofing Water exerting Groundwater Every type of Floor-ceiling of the wall. Various materials can be pressure High water floor, building constructions used for execution (e.g. bitumen, masfrom outside and construcbelow the design tion method water level tic asphalt or elastomers) according to 1) DIN 18 195-5. The screed located above Drainage pursuant to DIN 4095 2) Up to foundation depths of 3 m below the terrain edge, otherwise last line is expected to be subjected to moisture 3) For definition of wet room see DIN 18 195-1, 3.33 effects, since most floor coverings do not 4) For description see DIN 18 195-5:2011-12, 7.2 offer effective and lasting protection from 18 5) Surrounds, shower areas

6 8 17 10

11 12

Type of required waterproofing pursuant to DIN 18 195-4

DIN 18 195-6:2011-12, section 9 DIN 18 195-5:2011-12, section 8.2

DIN 18 195-5:2011-12, section 8.3

DIN 18 195-6:2011-12, section 8

61

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

1 2 3 4 5 6

Wall tile covering Flexible tile adhesive Liquid foil Sealing tape Sealant joint Perimeter insulation strip Tile covering of flooring Composite waterproofing (CWP) Gypsum fibre shower

7 8 9

tray element Bound levelling fill Trickle protection Existing boarding Shower drain Perimeter insulation strip 15 Loosely laid gypsum fibreboard 16 Gypsum fibreboards, two-layer 17 Insulation 10 11 12 13 14

1 2 3 4 6

5

7

2

8

10

9

11 12

a 9 4 15 16 17 2 7 8

13 14

12

19 b 1 2 3 4 5

Upper covering Screed Separating layer Impact sound insulation Thermal insulation

1

2

3

4

6 7 8 9

5

moisture. Only moisture-insensitive materials can be implemented for the screed (cementitious screed). Dry screeds are therefore not suited for this waterproofing method, since the associated materials (wood-based materials, gypsum) do not fulfil this criterion. Entering moisture must be removed to avoid any accumulation. An adequate incline established via application of an additional sloping screed on the bearing construction is required for this purpose as well as a drainage layer on the impervious layer. Alternative waterproofing (composite waterproofing, CWP; Fig. 17 b): The impervious layer is situated immediately under the floor covering and executed as cast waterproofing or waterproof sheeting. It forms a composite with the floor covering made of tiles or plates. The screed is located on the side not facing the water and is therefore not exposed to moisture from above. This waterproofing method therefore also comes into consideration for dry screeds (Fig. 19). The following fluid waterproofing materials are currently included in the scope of the national technical approval procedure: • Mineral sealing slurries (MSS) • Waterproofing materials for wet pro-

Waterproofing according to DIN 18 195 Bitumen primer Equalisation filler, if required Existing solid slab

6

7

8

1 2

3

Outside wall (existing) Subsequently installed wall waterproofing, if required Subsequently installed

4 5

cessing forming a composite with tile and plate coverings (CWP) • Liquid plastics for waterproofing buildings (LP) As an alternative to these two methods, a mastic asphalt screed can also be installed, since this is both water-repellent and moisture-resistant as well as remaining – contrary to cementitious screeds – extensively crack-free. Waterproofing from above can finally also be realised using waterproof elastic floor coverings made of PVC or rubber that however require an even substrate. Thermoplastic welding rods are used to create waterproof butt joints between sheeting elements. Connection to components rising up vertically is achieved by pulling up the impermeable covering perpendicular to the flooring, e.g. through prefabricated wall connection profiles. This solution is however only suitable for rooms which are moderately exposed to moisture, e.g. kitchens or bathrooms in residential buildings. A disadvantage both of composite waterproofing and of floor coverings with a sealing action is that they do not permit upward diffusion of any moisture in the screed. This may be particularly un6 7

horizontal barrier, if required Floor covering Cementitious screed

8 9

1

1

9

2 2

3

3

9 4

21 a

20

62

Thermal insulation Waterproofing of floor slab according to DIN 18 195 Floor slab (existing) Bed joint

5

6

7

8

b

4

5

6

7

8

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

favourable in cement screeds in which residual moisture has to escape upwards over a longer period of time. Exposure to moisture from below For protection of components in contact with soil from exposure to moisture from below, waterproofing measures according to DIN 18 195, such as bitumen or elastomer sheeting installed on the existing floor slab, may be used (Fig. 20). Assuming that the flooring structure is reliably and lastingly protected from moisture by these sealing layers, these permit installation of both wet and dry screeds. DIN 18 195 requirements are not mandatory for “subsequent waterproofing in building maintenance or heritage preservation, unless methods described in this standard can be used for this” [13]. This means that exceptions are possible in the renovation of old buildings. If installation can be realised, the reliability and durability of this measure however makes it recommendable. An important objective for execution of functional waterproofing is specified in DIN 18 195-4: these must “be led towards or glued to the waterproofing of the walls so that no moisture bridges [...] can be created” [14]. Since waterproofing of an

Line

Fire resistance class 1)

Constructional features F 30-A

1

Minimum thickness thk in mm of unclad plates without inclusion of a screed if

4

Minimum thickness thk in mm of unclad plates with screed in building material class A, mastic asphalt screed or rolled asphalt

80 80

100 100

120 120

150 150

thk

150

150

150

150

150

thk

150

200

200

200

200

50

50

50

60

75

60 80

80 80

100 100

120 120

150 150

60 80

60 80

60 80

60 80

80 80

25

25

25

30

40

thk THK

Minimum thickness THK in mm = thk + screed thickness if

Minimum thickness thk in mm of unclad plates with floating screed and an insulating layer pursuant to DIN 4102-4, section 3.4.2.2 if statically determinate statically indeterminate

6

F 180-A

60 80

statically determinate statically indeterminate 5

F 120-A

Minimum thickness thk in mm of point-supported plates independent of inclusion of a screed in floor-ceiling constructions with support head reinforcement floor-ceiling constructions without support head reinforcement

3

F 90-A

thk

statically determinate statically indeterminate 2

F 60-A

Minimum thickness thk1 in mm for screeds made of building materials in building material class A, mastic asphalt screed 1) or rolled asphalt 1)

thk1 thk

7 Minimum thickness thk in mm of 19 Wet room flooring Minimum thickness thk according to line 1 plates according to lines 1 and 3 – 6 a by dry construction on an existing wooden thk and 5, reductions pursuant to DIN 4102-4, with cladding made of plasters beam floor-ceiling construction, laid on fill. table 2 are possible, minimum thickness thk pursuant to DIN 4102-4, sections Wall connection. Waterproofing is composite however not smaller than 50 3.1.6.1 to 3.1.6.5 (CWP). b barrier-free transition in shower area (left) and to drain (right), structure analogous to Fig. 19 a Wood-wool lightweight construction 20 Waterproofing of an existing floor slab in contact panels pursuant to DIN 4102-4, secwith soil according to DIN 18 195 tion 3.1.6.6 also without plaster with 21 Connection of waterproofing installed on a floor 50 50 – – – wood-wool lightweight construction slab in the course of a renovation to a retrospectpanels ≥ 25 mm in thickness ively executed horizontal barrier according to wood-wool lightweight construction 50 50 50 50 50 DIN 18 195 panels ≥ 50 mm in thickness a under the wall b in an elevated bed joint in the masonry Subceilings thk ≥ 50; construction according to DIN 4102-4 22 Minimum thicknesses of reinforced and prestressed concrete slabs made of normal concrete 1) In case of inclusion of mastic asphalt screed, rolled asphalt, when using floating screed with an insulating without voids for classification in a fire resistance layer of building material class B and when using wood-wool lightweight construction panels according class according to DIN 4102-4. Fire-protectionto line 7, wood-wool lightweight construction panels, the designation must be F 30-AB, F 60-AB, F 90-AB, related influence of floor-ceiling construction addons is shown in line 3 –7. 22 F 120-AB and F 180-AB respectively.

63

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3

4

7

2

2

c

c

Concrete Hollow-core slab Plaster Cladding Screed Plaster base accord-

ing to DIN 4102 -4 7 Abutment stones 8 Plaster according to DIN 4102 -4 9 Girder cladding stones 10 Lower bearing

2

9 8

10 3

c

c

6

5

2

6

THK

THK

thk

thk

2

8

8

3 THK

THK thk

Improvement of fire protection

thk thk1

thk1

thk1 23 a

Fire resistance class 1)

Constructional features F 30-A

1

Minimum thickness thk in mm of unclad hollow-core reinforced concrete slabs made of normal concrete

1.1

independent of inclusion of a screed

1.2

with inclusion of a screed in building material class A or a mastic asphalt screed

1.3

2

24

Minimum thickness thk1 in mm in screeds made of building materials in building material class A or mastic asphalt screed

F 60-A

F 90-A

F 120-A

F 180-A

80

100

120

140

170

80

80

80

80

80

80

80

80

80

80

80

100

120

140

170

25

25

25

30

40

thk

thk THK

with inclusion of a floating screed and an insulating layer pursuant to DIN 4102-4, section 3.5.2.2 Minimum thickness THK in mm = thk + screed thickness of screeds according to line 1.2

3

1)

6 thk1

b

Line

thk1 thk

In case of inclusion of mastic asphalt screed and when using floating screed with an insulating layer of building material class B according to line 1.3, the designation must be F 30-AB, F 60-AB, F 90-AB, F 120-AB and F 180-AB respectively.

64

existing floor slab can only be carried out from above for practical reasons, and wall waterproofing is located externally (if existent or applied in the course of renovation), this necessitates penetration of the outer wall with cross-sectional waterproofing. Older existing buildings generally do not incorporate any special waterproofing measures, so that this can only be realised if these are executed retrospectively. The solutions presented in Fig. 21 (p. 62) come into question depending on the height at which horizontal cross-sectional waterproofing is installed.

Changes in the use of existing buildings can lead to higher fire protection requirements for floor-ceiling constructions – and possibly also flooring. This is the case, for instance, when a multistorey residential building classified as one unit before renovation is converted to accommodate individual apartments on each storey. Floor-ceiling constructions between storeys are then required to meet corresponding fire resistance durations that are not fulfilled by the existing floor-ceiling constructions. Appropriate additional measures that may partly also affect the flooring are then necessary. Specifically wooden beam floor-ceiling constructions often require a suitable flooring structure or an appropriate add-on in order to provide the necessary fire protection from above (Fig. 27 and 29, p. 66f.). As for other structural functions partially fulfilled by ceilings or floors, the fire protection role of flooring must always be considered in the context of the whole construction of the component. In this sense, there is an interrelation between the fire protection quality of the flooring and the complete construction of the ceiling or flooring.

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

1

Fire resistance class 1)

Constructional features F 30-A

F 60-A

F 90-A

F 120-A

F 180-A

100

100

100

120

150

10

15

25

30

50

Minimum dimensions of reinforced concrete plates THK

Line

Minimum thickness thk in mm Minimum thickness THK in mm with inclusion of a screed in building material class A, mastic asphalt screed or rolled screed Minimum plaster thickness thk1 in mm above plaster base with a penetration of plaster base ≥ 10 mm and utilisation of plasters

15

in mortar group P IV a or P IV b pursuant to DIN 18 550-2

5

15

25

made of two-layer vermiculite or perlite cementitious plasters or two-layer vermiculite gypsum plasters mixed according to DIN 4102-4, section 3.1.6.5

5

5

5

10

20

120 35

150 50

180 65

200 75

240 90

≥ 160 15

≥ 200 25

≥ 250 35

≥ 300 45

≥ 400 60

Minimum dimensions of floor-ceiling constructions with girders protruding from plates

thk THK

2

in mortar group P II or P IV c pursuant to DIN 18 550-2

Minimum concrete coverage cs2) for a width w in mm of cs in mm

thk1s

for a width w in mm of cs in mm

cs w

Minimum dimensions thk, c and THK Minimum plaster thickness thk1 in mm above plaster base with penetration of plasters ≥ 10 mm Minimum dimensions of segmented barrel vault constructions with subceilings minimum thickness THK or c minimum thickness thk in mm

thk1 thk THK

Minimum dimensions of segmented barrel vault constructions 3), execution options 1 and 2

thk1 thk c

Minimum dimensions thk, c, THK and thk1 3

plaster base

See line 1

See line 1, minimum thickness thk, minimum thickness THK See line 1, minimum plaster thickness thk1

See line 1, minimum thickness THK

plaster base

thk ≥ 50; construction according to DIN 4102-4, section 6.5

1)

In case of inclusion of mastic asphalt screed and when using floating screed with an insulating layer of building material class B, the designation must be F 30-AB, F 60-AB, F 90-AB, F 120-AB and F 180-AB respectively. Linear interpolation in dependence on w of the values stated in the two lines “cs in mm” in line 2 is permitted. 3) 25 The thrust of the arch of the vault must be taken up by corresponding fire-resistant components – e.g. walls – taking into account deformation. 2)

23 Normal and special hollow-core slabs, shown with add-ons below, without add-ons above. Specifications in line 1 of Fig. 25 are applicable for the minimum measurements c and D. The plaster thicknesses thk1 and thk2 have to comply with the minimum values according to DIN 4102-4. Hollow-core floor-ceiling constructions are made of steel or prestressed

concrete girders with brick or concrete hollowcore elements lying on these. A topping concrete layer is placed on top. a Normal hollow-core slabs b Special hollow-core slabs 24 Minimum thicknesses of reinforced concrete hollow-core planks and cellular concrete slabs for classification in a fire resistance class accord-

ing to DIN 4102-4. Fire-protection-related influence of floor-ceiling construction add-ons is shown in line 3. 25 Fire resistance classes of reinforced concrete slabs with embedded steel girders, each with slab add-ons, depending on their dimensions, concrete coverings and cladding thicknesses according to DIN 4102-4

65

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

26 Minimum thicknesses and minimum distances of reinforcement of steel stone slabs for classification in a fire resistance class according to DIN 4102-4. A fire-protection-related influence on the slab add-ons is recognisable. 27 Fire resistance classes and required minimum dimensions of wooden beam floor-ceiling constructions composed of wooden beams exposed to fire on three sides with floating screed or floatLine

Fire resistance class 1)

Constructional features

1

Minimum thickness thk in mm of steel stone slabs

1.1

without taking into account cladding or screed

1.2

1.3

1.4

ing flooring according to DIN 4102-4 28 Wooden beam floor-ceiling construction F 30-B with concealed wooden beams (without add-on) according to DIN 4102-4 29 Fire resistance classes of wooden beam floorceiling constructions with partly exposed wooden beams and floating screed or floating flooring not requiring an insulating layer according to DIN 4102-4

taking into account plastering according to DIN 4102-4, section 3.1.6.3 ≥ 15 mm in thickness

2

Minimum distance uo in mm of support or restraint reinforcement

2.1

without inclusions of screeds

2.2

with inclusion of a screed in building material class A or a mastic asphalt screed

3

Minimum thickness in mm of screed in case of selection of uo according to line 2.2

F 60-A

F 90-A

F 120-A

F 180-A

115

140

165

240

290

u

thk

u

thk

90

115

140

165

240

u

thk

90

90

115

140

165

u

thk

90

90

90

115

140

10

10

15

30

50

10

10

10

15

20

–

–

10

15

30

taking into account a screed in building material class A or a mastic asphalt screed ≥ 30 mm in thickness

taking into account plastering according to DIN 4102-4, 3.1.6.3 in building material class A and ≥ 15 mm in thickness or a mastic asphalt screed ≥ 30 mm in thickness

F 30-A

uO

1)

26

u

In case of inclusion of mastic asphalt screed and when using floating screed with an insulating layer in building material class B, the designation must be F 30-AB, F 60-AB, F 90-AB, F 120-AB and F 180-AB respectively.

thk3 thk2

Floating screed or flooring, flooring on sleepers Mineral fibre insulating layer Intermediate layer of concrete, fill, cork, wood-based material or similar, if required (e.g. for sound protection reasons)

thk1

Formwork

thkTHK

thkTHK

thkTHK

Wooden beam made of glulam or solid wood

Line

Formwork according to DIN 4102 -4

Mineral fibre insulating layer with ρ ≥ 30 kg/m3

Minimum thickness when using

Minimum thickness

wood-based material panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3

boards or planks

Flooring 2) Minimum thickness when using wood-based material panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3

boards, with normal tongue-and-groove joint thk3 [mm]

thk1 [mm]

thk11) [mm]

thk2 [mm]

thk3 [mm]

1

25

28

15

16

21

2

19 + 16 3)

22 + 16 3)

15

16

21

3

45

50

30

25

28

4

35 + 19 3)

40 + 19 3)

30

25

28

1)

Fire resistance class

F 30-B F 60-B

Thickness with thkTHK ≥ thk1 (see drawings) Instead of the flooring stated here, floating screeds or floating flooring with minimum thicknesses specified in DIN 4012-4 (table 56) can also be used. 27 3) The first number applies to the bearing formwork and the second number to an additional room-facing boarding with a thickness of thkTHK ≥ thk1 (see drawings). 2)

66

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

w Cross section

Floorboards or subfloor

THK

Longitudinal section

Inserted floor with arbitrary insulation Reed plaster ceiling or similar THK

Wire plaster ceiling DIN 4121 according to DIN 4102-4

thk1 l

Line

1)

28

l

Minimum thickness of wood beams

Minimum thickness of floorboards or subfloor

w [mm] 120 160

1 2

thk1

Bearing bar

THK

l1 = 750 Permissible span of plaster base for

thk2 [mm]

woven wire cloth l [mm]

expanded ribbed lath l [mm]

28 21

500 500

1000 1000

Minimum plaster thickness1) thk1 [mm] 15 15

Plaster of mortar group P II, P IV a, P IV b or P IV c according to DIN 18 550 Part 2; thk1 measured above plaster base; total plaster thickness must be THK ≥ thk1 + 10 mm – i.e. required plaster penetration of plaster base is ≥ 10 mm. There must be no significant space between reed plastering or similar and wire plastering (see sections).

thk4 thk3 thk2

Floating screed or floating flooring Formwork Insulating layer (not required for fire protection reasons)

THK

Wooden slats ≥ 40/60 mm, attached with nails at two different heights

≥ 60 thk1

Cladding (single- or double-layer) Wooden beam made of glulam or solid wood w

Line

w

Cladding according to DIN 4102-4 made of wood-based material panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3 thk1 [mm]

Formwork according to DIN 4102 -4

permitted made of span7) fire-resistant gypsum boards thk1 [mm]

l [mm]

made of wood-based material panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3 Minimum thickness thk2 [mm]

Insulating layer with ρ ≥ 30 kg/m3

thk3 [mm]

1

19

1)

625

16

2

191)

625

16 2)

15 4)

3

191)

625

16 2)

15 4)

400

19 3)

15 4)

3)

30 5) 15 4)

4

2 ≈ 12.5

2)

Floating screed or floating flooring according to DIN 4102-4

5

2 ≈ 12.5

400

19

6

2 ≈ 12.5

400

19 3)

15

4)

Mortar, gypsum or asphalt

Wood-based material panels, boards or parquet

Minimum thickness thk4 [mm] thk4 [mm]

Fire resistance class Gypsum boards

thk4 [mm]

20 16

F 30-B 9.5

20 25

F 60-B 18 6)

1)

Replaceable through a) ≥ 16 mm thick wood-based material panels (upper) + 9.5 mm thick gypsum plasterboards or fire-resistant gypsum plasterboards (room-facing) b) ≥ 12.5 mm thick fire-resistant gypsum plasterboards with a span of l ≤ 400 mm c) ≥ 15 mm thick fire-resistant gypsum plasterboards with a span of l ≤ 500 mm d) ≥ 50 mm thick wood-wool lightweight construction panels with a span of l ≤ 500 mm e) ≥ 21 mm thick boards (with normal tongue-and-groove joint) 2) Replaceable through boards (with normal tongue-and-groove joint) with thk ≥ 21 mm 3) Replaceable through boards (with normal tongue-and-groove joint) with thk ≥ 27 mm 4) 5) Replaceable through ≥ 9.5 mm thick gypsum plasterboards Replaceable through ≥ 15 mm thick gypsum plasterboards 7) See DIN 4102-4, sections 5.2.3.7 and 5.2.3.8 29 6) Achievable e.g. with 2≈ 9.5 mm

67

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

30

The quality of fire protection of the existing floor-ceiling construction must first be assessed, which is generally only possible through analysis of its structural composition, i.e. by probing or sampling. If the essential components of the construction are known, a rough estimation can be made based on DIN 4102-4. Typical values in floor-ceiling constructions are summarised in the tables shown in Fig. 22 – 29. Possible measures for improvement of fire protection in the renovation of old buildings include [15]: • Fire-retardant coatings: aqueous inorganic salt mixtures and foam-forming (intumescent) substances that are primarily suitable for bearing components, especially steel parts • Fire-retardant cladding: mineral panels or plastering, especially suitable for subceilings • Floor-ceiling construction add-ons made of suitable material (e.g. cement, mastic asphalt, magnesite including associated non-combustible insulating boards in floating screeds). Materials and minimum thicknesses are specified in DIN 4102-4 (Fig. 22 – 29). Creation of barrier-free accessibility

Barrier-free floors without any steps are desirable especially when renovating bathrooms. Special sloping screed elements allow execution of shower areas flush with the floor (Fig. 19 b, p. 62). Arrangement of the drains at given heights may be problematic. In some cases, such as with wooden beam floor-ceiling constructions, these can be integrated in the spaces between the beams. If this is not possible, special drainage systems with heights ranging between 50 and 120 mm are available. Their smaller dimension allows integration in the new floor structure. Heights can be reduced to about 40 mm by using drainage pumps. 68

Renewal of subfloors A variety of construction elements can be used when renewing subfloors in existing buildings. Dry screeds

Dry screeds are generally highly suitable for installation in existing buildings. Some advantages include the fact that no building moisture is introduced to the construction, drying times are unnecessary and both the constructional height and weight of this solution are low, often a significant factor in under-dimensioned existing floor-ceiling constructions. Screed panels may be made of cementbonded wood-based materials (e.g. OSB, particle boards or gypsum fibreboards). The plates are either fitted with tongue-and-groove joints or form-locked and glued by means of stepped rebates. Such floors are ready for laying after one day. If a non-floating installation is required, the screed panels are screwed firmly to the subfloor. It must be ensured that no cross joints are created in the process, since a much stiffer subfloor results with this laying method. Butt joints and screw holes in the panels are finally filled to create a smooth surface for the floor covering. For floating installation, gypsum fibreboards are also available bonded to a rigid foam underlay. The composite element is about 60 mm high. Thanks to their stiffness, dry screed panels can compensate minor unevenness of the old flooring without measures such as levelling fills. Cementitious screeds

These are suitable for the renovation of old buildings to a limited extent for various reasons, such as the introduction of building moisture, a comparatively long drying period of 28 days, sensitivity to crack formation and relatively high

installation heights. This applies in particular to older buildings with wooden beam floor-ceiling constructions. Cementitious screeds can however also prove to be advantageous in smaller areas, e.g. those exposed to moisture. Their good moisture resistance is an important factor especially in wet rooms. Mastic asphalt screeds

The high processing temperatures of mastic asphalt screeds can be problematic in the renovation of old buildings (e.g. development of cracks in combination with specific mineral-based substrates). These screeds however cool off within a few hours and are ready for laying after only one day. Screed thicknesses are around 30 mm. Their considerable weight may however be unfavourable in not adequately dimensioned existing floor-ceiling constructions. Thanks to a good resistance to moisture, mastic asphalt screeds are particularly well-suited for wet rooms. Another advantage – in contrast to cementitious screeds – is that no additional moisture is introduced to the construction. They are also advantageous from a building acoustics aspect, being relatively heavy yet flexible to bending. Heights similar to those of mastic asphalt screeds can also be realised with twocomponent reaction resin screeds. These solidify quickly by setting and require no drying time. Flowing screeds

Self-levelling flowing screeds (e.g. calcium sulfate screeds or special cementitious screeds) are favourable in the renovation of old buildings because of the automatic height compensation associated with the pouring process and the relatively low heights required. The additional moisture introduced to the floorceiling construction is however a negative

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

31 a

aspect. This can be mitigated to some extent by using fast drying cementitious screeds containing less water. Underfloor heating

Modern underfloor heating systems can normally be installed in existing floorceiling constructions without any major problems. A prerequisite is an adequate heat insulation capacity of the flooring in a downward direction, especially with regard to floors in contact with soil. Minimum heights ranging from 60 to 70 mm are required for conventional wet screeds, which sometimes cannot be realised in the renovation of old buildings. Alternatives include thin-layer systems with heights of at least 20 mm or dry systems with heights of 50 mm. In thin-layer systems, heating pipes and plastic carrier elements are laid directly on the old flooring. This is followed by application of a casting compound that creates an even flooring surface ready for laying. Line ducts can alternatively be milled into the existing subfloor, reducing the height build-up (Fig. 30). Minimum screed thicknesses of 40 mm are required. This solution is ideal for renovations since measures such as shortening doors or similar can be avoided. Material-specific characteristics of floor coverings in renovation Primarily material-related features must be taken into consideration when renovating old floor coverings. Screeds and cement-bonded coverings

When properly executed, screeds offer a relatively long service life of 50 – 80 years. Whether it is possible to repair or renovate damaged screed, or if complete renewal is required, has to be decided on a case-to-case basis. Typical repairable damage to screeds includes:

b

• Minor unevenness and local disruptions: These can be levelled by grinding or application of equalisation layers (see “Improvement of dimensional stability”, p. 54ff.). • Larger shrinkage cracks or fracture joints: Cracks or gaps can either be filled with cement (possibly with embedded grit) or synthetic resin. If necessary, cracks may be widened and cleaned before filling. They can also be dowelled by drilling and filling them with synthetic resin, using a type of rivet head if needed. Cracks may also be repaired using wire. This is done by opening up the screed perpendicular to the crack at 20-cm intervals, inserting a wire and filling the slit with synthetic resin [16]. • Voids: Hollow spaces can be filled by injecting synthetic resin. As far as wearing screeds are concerned, it must be taken into account that more extensive repair work of this kind (e.g. filling widened joints) is likely to leave visible traces. Unavoidable minor shrinkage cracks manifested as patterns similar to craquelure are not generally regarded as damage. The surface of wearing screeds can moreover be ground and retreated as required. The same applies more or less to terrazzo. Hairline cracks resulting from shrinkage processes due to excessively large jointing distances as well as minor wear effects can also be filled with a repair compound made of lime, powdered brick or chalk, or synthetic resins with added rock flour. This is then followed by grinding and retreating the surface. Larger gaps can be repaired by trowelling or addition of new grit with a comparable composition in a fresh mortar bed. More extensive repair work of this kind cannot however be carried out without visible signs remaining.

Entire terrazzo surfaces can also be ground and refinished. Oils, polishing waxes, sealing compounds or fluorosilicates for impregnation can be used for this purpose. They increase surface hardness and provide protection against soiling or the action of fats, chemicals, acids etc. [17]. Natural stone coverings

Correctly executed natural stone coverings can last about as long as the whole building. While this is considered to apply fully to hard stones, it is not necessarily true for softer stone materials with a lower resistance. These tend to wear off particularly with intensive use over time. Rising damp may also have a damaging effect on natural stone floors, with binding agents washed out of the mortar layer or salts entering the flooring from below. These can accumulate under the surface, crystallise and lead to spalling [18]. Discontinuities may be filled with mortar or minor faults supplemented with pieces of natural stone (e.g. chipped corners), but the difference between stone and filling generally remains obvious. Isolated imperfect plates can be replaced by new ones, preferably made of the same material from the same source. Minor colour differences between new and old material often correspond to expected variations and are normally acceptable. When renewing individual plates particularly in older coverings, special attention should be paid to the nature of the surface obtained with the particular method used. Handcrafted surface textures and edge geometries for instance differ distinctly from industrially manufactured material, 30 Channels milled into an existing screed to take up pipes of a new underfloor heating system 31 Light terrazzo floor in the basement of the Stachus square (Karlsplatz) in Munich a cracks b repairs

69

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

a

b

32 c

d

often making new elements clearly stand out as such. This can be considered to be a deficiency. In some cases, especially in renovations of listed structures, such contrasts between old and new may on the other hand be desired. Specifically with regard to the renovation of historic buildings, the usually very thick stone plates can be removed, halved and used as two plates. Worn or concave plates can similarly be installed upside down, provided they are thick enough and the rear is in good condition [19]. Older and more sensitive coverings, especially those made of porous natural stone, can be strengthened – analogous to ceramic coverings – using synthetic resin. Voids under plates can be filled with acrylic resin, which is supplemented with stone flour and injected when larger cavities need to be filled. After hardening, cracks and areas repaired with synthetic resin are polished and finally sealed with acrylic resin [20].

the diffusion characteristics of the clay. Synthetic resins can be used alternatively, although this is associated with pore closure and loss of diffusion [22]. Damaged joints can be scraped clean and refilled with mortar. The entire floor may be removed in case of more extensive damage. The component plates are then subjected to special treatment and laid again. A particularly radical method is full impregnation with acrylic resin. This significantly improves resistance of plates to pressure, breaking and flexural tension, but is very costly [23]. Although individual damaged plates may be replaced – analogous to natural stone coverings – it is often very difficult to obtain matching colours, formats, edge and surface finish. In the case of particularly valuable, listed flooring with severe damage, a modern replica of the historic tiles may be produced (see project example “Restoration and change of use of the pressurised waterworks in Frankfurt am Main”, p. 102f.).

Ceramic coverings

Due to the typically low firing temperatures, clay tile flooring produced in preindustrial times – glazed or unglazed – is relatively porous and not very resistant to mechanical wear, rising moisture and diffusing salts. In older historic buildings, this type of flooring therefore either no longer exists or is very damaged. Industrially manufactured ceramic floor coverings on the other hand are characterised by being significantly harder, stronger and more resistant. High-quality stoneware tiles manufactured in the mid-19th century and later are often still in very good condition today [21]. Provided that older unglazed clay tiles have not been damaged by rising damp or wear, the structure of these may be strengthened by introduction of a silicic acid ester. This substance penetrates the porous material while not affecting 70

Wood coverings

Wood coverings are subject to various damage mechanisms on account of the organic nature of the material and its relative lack of hardness and strength. These include mechanical damage, wear, colour changes, local discolouration or staining, fire marks, arching, cupping, curling at the edges due to swelling, shrinkage cracks due to drying, detachment of parts of the floor structure due to shrinkage, rotting as well as damage to the top layer. Renovation of wood floors with minor damage is generally easily achieved by grinding and treatment of the surface (Fig. 33). A thickness of no more than a few millimetres has to be removed when floors are relatively even. This is also recommended at approximately ten-year intervals in case of normal conditions of

use. The thickness of wear layers of solid wood parquet floors (commonly measured from the top to the upper edge of the groove or tongue) generally permits numerous renovation cycles of this kind. The same applies for higher-quality modern multilayer parquets with a correspondingly thick wear layer. It is also possible to renovate historically valuable parquets that have almost no remaining wear layer. This can be done by removing the elements, filling the grooves with a strip of the same wood and then milling new grooves a little further down [24]. Grinding not only improves the general appearance, but also allows remediation of any minor unevenness. This is often necessary for instance in the renovation of old floorboards that have been varnished a number of times and in which the uppermost pith side of the floorboard cross-sections has arched upwards. Typical damage to older wood floors includes shrinkage cracks or gaping joints after shrinkage of the wood during drying. Cracks as well as holes and other blemishes can be repaired using wood / wax filler or putty. Smaller repairs to the surface can be carried out using a retouching pen. Big gaping joints can also be filled with veneer or narrow strips of wood (filling with chippings). If the wood elements are demounted completely, the initially gaping joints can be closed when the flooring is reinstalled. The finally resulting gap in the peripheral area has to be covered or hidden in another way. Detachments and hollow spaces under wood floors can be repaired using a special adhesive injected through small drilled holes. A similar procedure is used for detached top layers of multilayer parquets. Wood floors are particularly sensitive to high humidity. In addition to the development of mould, this can lead to expansion of the wood and often to corresponding

Flooring in renovation and modernisation

33

damage in the form of curling at the butt joints or at the connection of flooring to the walls. In such cases, it should be ensured that the air is dried – e.g. through condensation dryers during the renovation process – or constantly controlled during normal use. If necessary, floors may have to be cut open in the wall connection areas to allow for expansion due to swelling effects. Sometimes it is not possible to reverse moisture-related distortions of wood, necessitating complete replacement of the deformed parts. Local damage can be rectified by substitution of the affected wooden components, with special attention paid to the correct choice of wood. Colour differences between old and new must be expected even if the type of wood is the same, although these normally disappear in the course of time. Elastic coverings

Elastic floor coverings are subject to renewal cycles that are generally much shorter than the regular lifetime of a building. It is therefore quite rare to renovate rather than replace an elastic floor in the course of renovation of a building. Yet there are some examples of linoleum floors – a relatively young type of flooring known for about 150 years – that can be 60 years old and still in good condition. Older and heavily used elastic flooring may be renovated by means of thorough professional cleaning. This involves application of a cleaning agent, which is removed mechanically together with the dirt using a machine with a rotating disc after allowing the agent to act sufficiently. The surface is then rinsed with clear water, pores of older coverings are sealed with pore filler, followed by polishing and coating. Coverings coated with several films that were applied periodically during care of

the floor may be renovated by dry removal of the films. The uppermost film is ground to create a matt surface. If soiling is extensive, all the films on top of the basic material can be stripped. The dust created is simultaneously vacuumed off to prevent contamination of neighbouring areas. This is followed by degreasing, application and drying of a new layer of polymer dispersion and finally by mechanical polishing [25]. These procedures are generally suitable for linoleum as well as for other elastic coverings, while the chemical substances used to care for the floor vary according to the basic material of the floor. Protective coatings (e.g. consisting of polyacrylate, polyurethane or other polymers) are processed as one- or two-component mixtures. An additional transparent top layer may be applied. Minor scratches can be removed or concealed with a retouching pen. The thorough cleaning procedures described are also suitable for industrial epoxy resin floors [26]. Textile coverings

Wall-to-wall carpeting has existed for a little over 60 years. Typical life cycles do not normally exceed 10 years. Particularly valuable older textile floors in an adequately good condition to allow or warrant renovation are very rare, which is why such coverings are almost always replaced within the scope of comprehensive renovation of old buildings. Methods to at least extend the lifetime of damaged or worn textile coverings however do exist. As for elastic coverings, this requires thorough professional cleaning. This encompasses brush vacuum cleaning, stain removal through shampooing, which may be repeated in case of persistent soiling, as well as spray extraction (also see Volume 1, “Hygiene and value retention”).

Notes [1] Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit – BMUB (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety) (pub.): Leitfaden Nachhaltiges Bauen. (Sustainable Building Guideline.) Berlin 2014, p. 125 [2] Ibid. p. 126 [3] Institut für Bauforschung e. V. (Institute for Building Research) (pub.): Schäden an Bodenbelägen. Erkennen und Vermeiden. (Damage to floor coverings. Recognition and prevention) Cologne 2007, p. 22 [4] As Note 1, p. 128 [5] Ibid. p. 131 [6] Ibid. p. 148f. [7] EnEV 2014, § 9, Anlage 1 (Energy Saving Ordinance 2014, § 9, Annex 3) [8] EnEV 2014, Anlage 3, Abs. 5 (Energy Saving Ordinance 2014, Annex 3 (5)) [9] Ibid. [10] EnEV 2014, § 9, Anlage 3 (Energy Saving Ordinance 2014, § 9, Annex 3) [11] EnEV 2014, § 24 “Ausnahmen”, (1) (Energy Saving Ordinance 2014, § 24 “Exceptions”, (1)) [12] DIN 4108-2:2013:02, Preamble [13] DIN 18 195-1:2011-12, 1.2 [14] DIN 18 195-4:2011-12, 6.2.1 [15] Moschig 2014, p. 265 [16] Giebeler et al. 2008, p. 101 [17] As Note 3, p. 186 [18] Wihr 1985, p. 223 [19] Ibid. p. 241 [20] Ibid. p. 252 [21] Ibid. p. 113 [22] Ibid. p. 137 [23] Ibid. p. 138 [24] Michaelsen 2010, p. 154 [25] According to: Armstrong/DLW Flooring GmbH (pub.): Technische Information Reinigungstechnik Nr. 3.1 (Technical Information Cleaning Technology No. 3.1), issue 10 /2007, p. 1f.; Armstrong / DLW Flooring GmbH (pub.): Technische Information Reinigungstechnik Nr. 3.2 (Technical Information Cleaning Technology No. 3.2), issue 09/2007, p. 1f.; Alpha Clean Gebäudereinigung (Alpha Clean Building Cleaning): http://acclean. de/reinigung-und-sanierung-von-linoleumboeden/ (accessed: 19.02.2016) [26] http://acclean.de/reinigung-und-sanierung-vonlinoleumboeden/ (accessed: 19.02.2016)

32 Typical damage to flooring a chipped plate edges; also recognisable filling of a crack b crack in terrazzo floor c open joints in parquet flooring d crack in natural stone plate running right across lateral butt joint 33 Grinding parquet flooring

71

Examples of projects

74

Kindergarten in Bizau (A) Bernardo Bader, Dornbirn

76

Research and development building “adidas Laces” in Herzogenaurach (D) kadawittfeldarchitektur, Aachen

78

Residential buildings in Bullas (E) blancafort-reus arquitectura, Barcelona

80

Research and development centre in Dogern (D) ludloff + ludloff Architekten, Berlin

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Residential building of IBA in Hamburg (D) Adjaye Associates, London / Berlin (competition design) Planpark Architekten, Hamburg (from design plan)

84

Residential building in Munich (D) leonardhautum, Munich / Berlin

86

Extension and conversion of Luther’s Death House Museum in Eisleben (D) VON M, Stuttgart neo.studio – neumann schneider architekten, Berlin (exhibition design)

88

New reading room in Berlin State Library (D) hg merz architekten museumsgestalter, Berlin

90

Kindergarten in Chróścice (PL) PORT, Wroclaw

93

Extension of a farm business in Shanghai (CHN) playze, Shanghai

94

Apartment conversion in Madrid (E) TallerDE2, Madrid

96

Residential building in Stuttgart (D) MBA/S Matthias Bauer Associates, Stuttgart

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Residential building in Munich (D) Sauerbruch Hutton, Berlin

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Student residence in Sant Cugat del Vallès (E) dataAE, Barcelona

102

Restoration and change of use of the pressurised waterworks in Frankfurt am Main (D) LV Architekten, Bad Homburg Natalie Hett, Kronberg (interior designer)

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Fashion store in Frankfurt am Main (D) DESIGN IN ARCHITEKTUR, Darmstadt

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Rolex Learning Centre in Lausanne (CH) SANAA, Tokyo

108

Parliament of the German-speaking Community in Eupen (B) Atelier Kempe Thill architects and planners

110

Triple-function sports hall in Ingolstadt (D) Diözesanbauamt (Diocesan Building Authority) Eichstätt, Karl Frey

112

Office building in Amsterdam (NL) Claus en Kaan Architecten, Amsterdam /Rotterdam

114

Company kindergarten in Innsbruck (A) ATP architekten ingenieure, Innsbruck 73

Kindergarten in Bizau (A)

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Clothes and shoe rack Children’s WC Disabled access WC Group room Terrace

Architect: Bernardo Bader, Dornbirn Team: Sven Matt Structural engineering: Merz Kley, Dornbirn

Floor plan Scale 1:400 1 Front area 2 Covered entrance 3 Corridor /Auxiliary area 4 Side entrance

The shape and materiality of the kindergarten building allows harmonious incorporation in the village of Bizau, located in the middle of Bregenz Forest. On closer inspection however, large ashwood-framed openings in an otherwise homogeneous facade clad with white-fir shingles identify the structure as a modern interpretation of the traditional houses of the region. The excellent craftsmanship in the execution of the clear and modern interior design is notable. Untreated local fir and ash alternate to fulfil specific functions. White fir covers the walls and ceilings, while

solid ash is used for floorboarding and most of the furnishing. For the sake of effective sound protection, a heavy layer of gravel filling material is integrated between the floating cement screed and OSB covering panels. The untreated wood is characterised by a sensuous quality and good environmental performance without emission of harmful substances. Further contributions to achieving an ecological building climate are made by adaptive mechanical equipment as well as mechanical venting and aeration with displacement diffusers near the ground. The passive-house

6 7 8 9

design is executed as a full timber construction above the top edge of the basement. A short building period is facilitated by a simple building design, floorceiling constructions between storeys made of solid wooden beams and prefabricated outer wall elements. Solid wood instead of wood-based material was used wherever possible. Regional character and ecological aspects of the project were important specifications by the municipality. Raw materials were to be sourced and processed locally in order to support firms and create value in the region. 10 Fibre cement cover 25 mm Counter lathing 30 mm Rear ventilation/lathing 80 mm Subroof sheeting Three-ply board, perforated 20 mm Rafter layer/cellulose flakes 400 mm Full formwork 20 mm, vapour seal Airspace 40 mm Insulation, sheep’s wool 40 mm Non-woven acoustic fabric, black Cladding, solid white-fir slats 30 mm 11 Ash trim cladding 12 Triple insulation glazing in ash frame 13 Partitioning wall, white fir formwork board 14 Ash boards 25 mm Heated screed 65 mm, separating layer Impact sound insulation panel 30 mm Gravel fill 50 mm, OSB panel 20 mm Solid wood beam floor-ceiling construction 400 mm Insulation, sheep’s wool 40 mm Gypsum plasterboard 12 mm, airspace 30 mm Insulation, sheep’s wool 40 mm Non-woven acoustic fabric, black Solid white-fir formwork 30 mm 15 White-fir shingles 30 mm Formwork 27 mm, rear ventilation 40 mm Windproof sheeting, diagonal formwork 20 mm Solid construction wood studs 300 mm / cellulose fibre flake thermal insulation Full formwork 20 mm, vapour barrier Installation level/sheep’s wool 40 mm Solid white-fir panelling 20 mm 16 Sliding element, triple insulation glazing in ash frame 17 Ash boards 25 mm Heated screed 65 mm, separating layer Impact sound insulation panel 30 mm Expanded perlite insulation, bound 200 mm Reinforced concrete floor-ceiling construction 200 mm 18 Playing furniture, untreated solid ash, staggered openings to front/top, padded internal seating area 19 Sliding door of kitchen element, solid white fir

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Vertical section Scale 1:20 10

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Research and development building “adidas Laces” in Herzogenaurach (D) 6

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4 Architects:

kadawittfeldarchitektur, Aachen Gerhard Wittfeld, Klaus Kada Team: Dirk Zweering (project partner) Christoph Helmus (deputy project leader) Structural engineering: Weischede, Herrmann Partner, Stuttgart

Ground level floor plan 1 Main entrance 2 Atrium 3 Meeting

adidas Laces accommodates about 1,700 product development employees and is an addition to the existing ensemble on the adidas campus in Herzogenaurach, which has served as global headquarters of the sports equipment manufacturer since 2006. The architects created a counterpart to the flat black structure of the Brand Centre in the southeast of the grounds by inserting a floating, clearly contoured construction. The volume contains office areas organised in a series of expressively angled strips around a central atrium with a thermally

controlled environment. Large areas of glazing open facades to the surrounding landscape as well as to the light-flooded atrium, the expanse of which is emphasised by continuous high-gloss terrazzo flooring. The eponymous laces are slender bridges made of anthracite-coloured varnished sheet steel and PU-coated floors crossing the extensive atrium. The contrast between these dark structures tying the building together like the laces of a sports shoe and the light office areas with epoxy-resin-coated hollow-cavity floors and the transparent inner facades

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Scale 1:2,500 4 Bistro Timeout 5 Innovation Valley 6 Athlete Services

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adidas Innovation Team Test hall Office modules

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10 Connecting lace bridge 11 Prototype test

is intentional. The laces allow direct connection between departments, forming an efficient circulation system without infringing upon other work areas. At the points where the bridges penetrate the inner facades, colourful office lounges with outside loggias offering a view of the landscape are an attractive place to linger. These areas are fitted with a loosely laid anti-slip textile covering. The colour-matched custom-made highpile carpets serve to improve acoustics in these spaces. An open and creative atmosphere is produced.

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22 Vertical section of inclined atrium facade Vertical section of connecting lace bridge Scale 1:20 25

12 ETFE foil cushion, three-layered, upper layer with point lattice design 0.25/0.1/0.25 mm 13 Arched girder, steel pipe Ø 140 – 355/16 mm 14 Specular louvre luminaire 15 Deflector, point source 16 White glass, partially enamelled toughened glass 6 mm 17 Spotlight, point source 18 Heat-soaked tempered glass, rear enamelled 8 mm 19 Overflow opening, ventilation system, sound-insulated 20 Suspended ceiling, office module, Aluminium lamellae 50/10 mm, Acoustic insulation, glued, Black laminated fibrous web 40 mm 21 Glare protection blind, textile, rope-controlled 22 Glazing. lam. safety glass 12 mm 23 Floor covering, epoxy resin 8 mm, partly with carpeting, Hollow-cavity floor system 50/180 mm, Coated with dust-binding paint, reinforced concrete 300 mm 24 Terrazzo 20 mm, cementitious screed 100 mm, Heating system plate 30 mm, Rubber mat 8 mm, PS hard foam, two-layer 90 mm, Reinforced concrete 300 mm 25 Brushed stainless steel cover 26 Balustrade made of laminated safety glass consisting of 2 panes of toughened glass 10 mm 27 Coated sheet steel 2 mm 28 PU coating 3 mm, Cementitious screed 50 mm, Separating layer PE foil, Impact sound insulation mineral wool 12 mm, Box girder sheet steel 10 – 20 mm, Metal subconstruction, Gypsum plasterboard ceiling smoothed with filler, painted 2≈ 12.5 mm

18 26 28

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1

Residential buildings in Bullas (E)

2

Architects:

blancafort-reus arquitectura, Barcelona Jaume Blancafort, Patricia Reus Team: Pepo Devesa Carrión, Arturo García Agüera, Tomás Larios Roca, Jose María Mateo Torres, Antonio J. Martínez Espinosa, Mario Méndez Cervantes Structural engineering: Ginés Sabater, Murcia

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78

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Vertical section

Scale 1:20

5

1 Artificial stone, grey 500/400/60 mm 2 Gravel, geotextile, Extruded polystyrene foam 100 mm, Geotextile, waterproofing, levelling mortar, Lightweight concrete, 2 % incline Hollow-core floor-ceiling construction 300 mm: topping concrete 50 mm, hollow-core concrete 500/250/250 mm, gypsum plaster 15 mm 3 Pine formwork 40/100 mm rear-ventilated, Pinewood battens 40/100 mm, Spray PU foam 30 mm, cement plaster 20 mm, Thermal bricks 300/290/190 mm, Gypsum plaster 15 mm 4 Parquet floor, maple 10 mm, vapour seal Hollow-core floor-ceiling construction 300 mm: topping concrete 50 mm Hollow-core ceramic 450/200/250 mm 5 Gypsum plasterboard 12.5 mm 6 Galvanised sheet steel, steel pipe 40/40 mm 7 Insulation glazing in aluminium frame 8 Plywood board, varnished white,19 mm 9 Galvanised sheet steel, spray PU foam 30 mm Cement plaster 20 mm, vapour seal Reinforced concrete foundation 10 Concrete, sealed and polished 50 mm 11 White tiles, bevelled 100/200/15 mm Cement plaster 15 mm 12 Coloured glazed tiles 200/200/15 mm Cement mortar 20 mm, levelling mortar Reinforced concrete slab 200 mm Extruded polystyrene 40 mm, Polystyrene foil Crushed stone, compacted earth

12

11

Surrounded by vines and olive trees, these houses belonging to three siblings and their families are located on the outskirts of the Spanish town of Bullas in the Province of Murcia. The architects developed various strategies to create energy-efficient houses in line with the local traditions and climatic conditions of the region – hot summers and cold winters. Three independent units with facades made using pressuretreated pinewood are grouped around a central common courtyard. Adequate privacy is ensured by a windmill-like arrangement. Floor plans are similar yet individual in design, with a generous L-shaped dining/living area and an open kitchen forming the focus of each house. Master bedrooms are situated on the upper floors and have roof terraces with a broad view of the hilly landscape. Outer walls made of heat-insulating bricks and concrete floor-ceiling constructions provide large thermal masses. The white colour of the suspended ceiling above the cooking area and elements of the hollow-core floor-ceiling construction offer a neutral background setting off the sealed and polished wearing floor screed and the grey joists of the floorceiling constructions. Traditional, brightly coloured tiles link up kitchen counter, kitchen floor and the base of the stairs. The steps continue upwards towards the bedrooms above in the form of a suspended wooden structure. Correspondingly, the floors of the bedrooms are finished with maple parquet laid directly on a thin layer of concrete covering the hollow-core floor-ceiling construction.

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Research and development centre in Dogern

Architects:

ludloff + ludloff Architekten, Berlin Jens Ludloff, Laura Fogarasi-Ludloff, Team: Dennis Hawner, Sven Holzgreve, Andrea Böhm, Gabriella Looke Structural engineering: Sobek Ingenieure, Stuttgart

Mediating between a rural residential area and warehouse with a height of 30 metres, the new research centre of an office furniture manufacturer presents itself as an introverted, white monolith with a gently sloping roof. Interesting perspectives are created by the diagonal direction of the roof ridge and varying eave heights. Created by a textile envelope the light pavilion-like character of the building disappears on entering the three-storey building. Fair-faced concrete walls dominate in the foyer, indicating the presence of workshops and labs. In contrast, the upper storey is executed as a light wooden construction. Continuous ribbon windows ensure maximum illumination of the unobstructed office area while offering a view of offshoots of the Rhine Valley. A bright red rubber floor gives the area a homely atmosphere without robbing the open-plan office of its loft-like character. Access is via curved concrete stairs. The impression of having reached a plateau is produced by a combination of the earthy red of the floor, the green strip of landscape visible through the ribbon windows and the blue-grey canopy-like ceiling folded to follow the geometry of the unusually shaped roof. A textile-lined structure is located in the middle of the room. At the centre of this core is a 7-metrehigh project room. This tent-like space is illuminated diffusely through the frosted glass facade of a contemplative “thinking space” situated above it. The floors in the open office and core areas are executed as hollow-cavity floors with easy-to-install calcium-sulfate flowing screed, while the working areas in the core are fitted with bleached Douglasfir floorboards.

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Level 1 floor plan Scale 1:500

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Reception area / bar Open office area Project room Meeting room Kitchenette Plotter room Access to “thinking space”

Vertical section of project room Scale 1:20 8 Spray-applied PU waterproofing dyed light blue Mineral fibre thermal insulation 2≈ 100 mm Bituminous vapour seal Wood-based material panel 30 mm Glulam rafters 120/360 mm Heating/cooling ceiling Perforated gypsum plasterboard 10 mm on wood-aluminium subconstruction 9 White translucent textile wrapping on aluminium subconstruction 10 Glass separating wall with 2 toughened glass panes 6 mm each on steel profile fi subconstruction, concealed screws

11 Holding profile steel pipe | 40/40/4 mm 12 Rotation axis steel pipe Ø 75 mm 13 Rubber floor covering 2.5 mm Hollow-cavity floor: Calcium-sulfate flowing screed smoothed with filler 33 – 40 mm Separating layer Mineral-based carrier plate 18 mm Threaded pedestal 14 Bleached Douglas-fir floorboarding 38 mm Hollow-cavity floor: Calcium-sulfate flowing screed smoothed with filler 35 mm Separating layer Mineral-based carrier plate 18 mm Threaded pedestal

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Residential building of IBA in Hamburg (D)

Architects (competition design):

Team:

Adjaye Associates, London /Berlin David Adjaye Mansour El-Khawad (project leader), Katherine Gowman, Roman Piontkowski, Mark van der Net

Architects (from design plan):

Planpark Architekten, Hamburg Team: Anja Lohfink (project leader) Structural engineering: Bauart Konstruktion, Munich

The sculpted cube is part of a residential district created in Hamburg-Wilhelmsburg in the context of the International Building Exhibition IBA Hamburg. Adjaye Associates won a competition hosted by the IBA with a proposal for a house with floor-ceiling constructions and walls made of solid timber. Basic modules of equal size on either side of the circulation core allow free organisation of the floor plan. In the course of realisation, the design was revised to comply with Hamburg’s fire-protection regulations. This resulted in a floor plan with three units per level arranged around a compact

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Site plan Scale 1:4,000

stairwell, which provides access to nine apartments in total ranging between 47 and 124 m2 in size. Each apartment has a loggia decked with grooved wooden floorboards. Placement of the loggias at different positions on every floor results in differentiated elevations. Utilisation of wood in the construction of multistorey dwellings – not yet common in Hamburg – offers an optimal CO2 balance with regard to the required sustainability of the concept. Both sides of the bearing cross-laminated timber walls however had to be clad with gypsum plasterboards for fire-protection reasons. Extra-

thick, unclad wooden walls that would have been necessary for an acceptable burning rate were decided against because of the associated loss of living space and increased building costs. Floor-ceiling constructions are executed as composite wood-concrete structures for static, acoustic and fire protection reasons, with the wooden underside left visible. This harmonises with the oak mosaic parquet floor laid on a floating screed layer. Lines can be laid as required in an additional 30-mm-thick insulation layer located under the impact sound insulation.

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Level 1 floor plan Scale 1:400

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Apartment 1: (maisonette): 100 m2 Apartment 3: 71 m2 Apartment 4: 100 m2

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Vertical section

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Scale 1:20

4 Extensive plant coverage 80 mm Drainage layer 10 mm, building protective mat Bitumen roof waterproofing, two-layer EPS thermal insulation on incline 120 – 350 mm Vapour seal Cross-laminated timber floor-ceiling construction 208 mm 5 Tongue-and groove casing, larch 21 mm Lathing 25/38 mm, counter lathing 38/38 mm Waterproofing sheet Thermal insulation mineral wool 180 mm Convection barrier Gypsum plasterboard 2≈ 12.5 mm Cross-laminated timber wall 120 mm Gypsum plasterboard 2≈ 12.5 mm 6 Triple glazing in wood frame 7 Sheet steel firewall 1.5 mm 8 Steel profile ‰ 260/100 mm encapsulated with gypsum plasterboard 9 Oak mosaic parquet, ladder pattern, glued 10 mm Cementitious screed 45 mm, separating layer Impact sound insulation 35 mm EPS panel 30 mm (installation level) Wood-concrete composite floor-ceiling construction: Reinforced concrete 100 mm on cross-laminated timber structure 182 mm Thermal insulation mineral wool 160 mm between square timber 60/160 mm Sheathing membrane, lathing 60/75 mm Tongue-and-groove casing, larch 21 mm 10 Grooved Bangkirai floorboards 70/25 mm Square timber 60/80–30 mm Building protective mat Waterproofing membrane, two-layer, 20 mm Thermal insulation EPS on incline 80 –130 mm Vapour seal Wood-concrete composite floor-ceiling construction: Reinforced concrete 100 mm on cross-laminated timber structure 182 mm

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Residential building in Munich (D)

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leonardhautum, Munich / Berlin Kristin Leonard, Lisa Hautum Structural engineering: Gruppe Ingenieurbau, Munich

Ground level floor plan 1 Entrance 2 Kitchen 3 Living room

The small “Herbergshäusl” cottages at the foot of the Nockherberg hill in Munich – mostly dating back to the 18th and early 19th century – originally accommodated workshops and poorer people. Today, the ensemble formed by the row of houses together with the associated rear buildings is under protection. The special atmosphere and close proximity to the city centre makes the houses very popular. A carpenter’s shop built in a second row in 1890 was also used as a dwelling until it burned down in the 1990s. The ruin is now part of a new residential building

accessed via narrow stairs. Aside from numerous building legislation issues, construction site logistics also presented a challenge to the young architects: the narrowness of the plot made it impossible to use a crane or excavator. Extension of living space by digging into the slope had to be done manually and debris removed bucket by bucket. All suitable building material was saved and incorporated in the construction at a later stage. The compact, two-storey house practically grows out of the original workshop building. The extension – executed using

Architects:

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Scale 1:200

thermally insulating fair-faced concrete supplemented with crushed recycled glass – is clearly discernible both from outside and inside. This concrete envelope doubles up as the static and technical backbone of the house, integrating all installations. Original and added areas are also differentiated by the flooring. Old parts can be identified by floorboards made of solid oak or Swiss stone pine laid on sleepers, while new areas are finished with a smoothed wearing screed made of cement. The soil-facing ground floor slab is waterproofed and insulated.

Vertical section Scale 1:20

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Standing seam roof covering, tin-plated stainless steel 0.5 mm Waterproofing membrane Boarding, unplaned 24 mm Lathing, pine 30/50 mm Rear ventilation, rafters 80/220 mm Mineral wool 180 mm Vapour seal, lathing 40/40 mm with thermal insulation in between Gypsum plasterboard 2≈ 12.5 mm Insulating concrete 500 mm Insulating plaster, trass cement plaster 60 – 80 mm with handcrafted structure, smooth edging 100 mm Brick wall (existing) Box-type window (existing) Mosaic floor, marble, basalt stone 50/50 mm Gravel bed 30 mm, liquid waterproofing, concrete slab on incline,

fill, glass foam granulate 9 Oak floorboards 30 mm, lathing 30/50 mm, reinforced concrete floor slab 250 mm Thick bitumen coating 5 mm, separating layer Glass foam granulate 350 mm, separating layer 10 Swiss stone pine floorboards 9 25 mm, oiled, lathing 20/50 mm Timber planks 40 mm Beam 130/150 mm with impact sound insulation 80 mm in between Gypsum plasterboard 12.5 mm 1011 White cement-bound filling compound 10 mm Heated screed 100 mm, separating layer, insulation 30 mm Reinforced concrete bearer 350/440 mm

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85

Extension and conversion of Luther’s Death House Museum in Eisleben (D)

Architects:

VON M, Stuttgart Myriam Kunz, Dennis Mueller, Matthias Siegert Exhibition design: neo.studio – neumann schneider architekten, Berlin Structural engineering: Hilpert Ingenieure, Halle / Saale

The house in which Luther was thought to have died (built after the great fire in 1498) and the house of his birth only 500 m away are both UNESCO world heritage sites. A mistake by a chronicler led the Prussian state to buy the wrong house as the house in which Luther died (Sterbehaus or Death House) and turn it into a memorial site in 1863. The house was later converted by Friedrich August Ritter, who also restored the facade in a neo-Gothic style. Based on historical reports regarding his death, Friedrich Wilhelm Wanderer

furnished the interior after a period of 30 years. The highlights of the exhibition include a conference room, a bedroom and the room in which he supposedly died. An extension of the museum involved the addition of a new construction composed of two square-shaped building parts as well as renovation of the building fabric and furniture in accordance with the historically documented conversions that took place in the 19th century. The new grey-beige brick facade is in harmony with the old masonry struc-

ture. Together with a historical outbuilding, the ensemble encloses a protected courtyard. A tour of the museum commences in the ground-level foyer of the new building, which is finished with light fair-faced concrete walls and a honed and oiled wearing screed. The modern contemporary style deliberately contrasts the old building. Grey sandstone flooring identifies the narrow transition between the old and new structures. Light vaulting alternates with dark wooden panelling in the historical rooms.

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9 Ground level floor plan Scale 1:500

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Entrance Foyer / Cash desk / Shop Multifunctional room Kitchenette Permanent exhibition

6 Transition to old building 7 Permanent exhibition (old building) 8 Museum education (old building) 9 Entrance (old building) 10 Special exhibition

Vertical section of transition between old/new buildings Vertical section of foyer access Scale 1:20 11 Anhydrite screed, ground, oiled 12 Heated cementitious screed, ground, oiled 80 mm PE foil, insulation rigid foam plate 110 mm Waterproofing, reinforced concrete 300 mm, PE foil Gravel fill 150 mm 13 Sandstone plate 45 mm 14 Clinker 115/240/52 mm Mortar bed 80 mm Protective non-woven fabric Bitumen waterproofing membrane, two-layer Sloping insulation min. 60 mm

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Thermal insulation 80 mm Vapour seal, bitumen Reinforced concrete 300 mm Flat steel railing 25/15 mm on flat steel 40/80 mm welded Concrete sealing compound Precast concrete part Stainless steel bracket Every third bed joint open Heated cementitious screed, oiled 80 mm PE foil, thermal insulation rigid foam plate 110 mm Waterproofing membrane Reinforced concrete 250 mm PE foil, blinding layer 50 mm Gravel fill 150 mm

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New reading room in Berlin State Library (D)

1

Architects:

aa

hg merz architekten museumsgestalter, Berlin

Structural engineering of reading room: Werner Sobek Ingenieure GmbH, Stuttgart

General refurbishment work on the “Haus unter den Linden” of the State Library in Berlin is expected to continue until 2019. The reading room completed in the first building phase represents the new centre of the complex originally dating back to 1914. The new cuboid construction located on the same site as the former reading room under a dome destroyed during the war in 1943 reflects its proportions with a width of 35 m, a length of 30 m and a height of 36 m. A single flight of stairs leads from the foyer to the centre of the room located on the fifth floor and extending over several storeys. Visitors are enclosed by an almost three-storey-high wooden shell composed of bookshelves occupying the lower third of the 18-metre-high glass structure. Workplaces along the facade or in the encircling passages and galleries above are accessed via narrow aisles leading to stairs hidden behind the shelf wall units. The warm tone of the finely striped wood harmonises with the dominating redorange of the carpeting in the central working area and circumferential bookshelving galleries. The carpeting is very robust and provides impact sound insulation with a favourable effect on the room acoustics. The multilayer translucent building envelope is constituted of a double facade consisting of glass with low iron-oxide content and internal thermal-protection glazing, composed of shaped panes held on four sides. The innermost layer – the gallery facade facing the reading room – is made of PTFE-coated glass fibre fabric ensuring diffuse illumination irrespective of whether the source of light is artificial from concealed luminaires or natural daylight.

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Section • Floor plan of Book Level 7 Scale 1:1,500 1 2 3

Foyer Media workplaces General Reading Room

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Open access repository Vestibule airspace Music Reading Room Children’s and Young People’s Reading Room Reference Library

Reading Room 9 Catalogues Reading Room 10 Maps Reading Room 11 Ballroom 12 Repository

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Vertical section of stairs Wooden shell across level 5 –7 Scale 1:20

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13 Veneered MDF panel, multilaminated, varnished 25 mm 14 Hanging bookend, bright zinc-coated round steel in guide groove 15 Veneered plywood shelf board 30 mm 16 Veneered MDF back wall 20 mm 17 Carpeting 5 mm Prefabricated screed 25 mm Impact sound insulation 15 mm Reinforced concrete hollow-core plank 80 mm on steel strut Veneered MDF panel, multilaminated 18 mm 18 Handrail, solid American cherrywood 70/20 mm 19 Flat steel railing, glass-bead-blasted stainless steel 8/30 mm 20 Built-in shelf illumination, linear flood light 21 Veneered MDF panel, multilaminated, varnished 25 mm, fitted to steel support HEB 100 mm Veneered MDF panel, multilaminated, varnished 25 mm 22 Hand rail, solid American cherrywood 32/32 mm 23 Tread: Solid wood parquet 25 mm, adhesive 3 mm Laying plate 25 mm

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Kindergarten in Chrós´ cice (PL)

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9 Architects:

PORT/Józef Franczok + Marcin Kolanus, Wroclaw

The two-storey existing building dating back to the 1970s was turned into a modern kindergarten with only a few interventions by the architects based in Wrocław. The basic floor plan was extensively retained. Conversion measures were essentially restricted to installation of a floor-to-ceiling window in the group rooms and foyer as well as reconfiguration of the walls separating the group rooms from the corridor on the ground floor. A second panel fitted with various amorphous openings was added to these partitions to create an ideal space for children to play or retreat into. In the pre-

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school group room located on the first floor, a wooden structure offers attractive spaces for hiding and playing. This “house within a house” is made of black laminated MDF panels. On the inside, these are clad with plywood painted white or with clear varnish. The sensitivity of the architects for the requirements and perception of children is also expressed by the careful selection of material and colours. Group rooms are fitted with colourful natural-fibre carpeting composed of 80 % wool. All floor coverings were laid on the existing screed of the old kindergarten. In the

access, dining, kitchen and sanitary areas, the screed was covered with a polyurethane coating in white, black or another colour. The existing parquet floor in the multipurpose room was ground, treated with black oil and waxed. The surfaces of the new installations in the group rooms for toddlers were clad with varnished plywood and painted green or yellow and orange.

Ground level floor plan 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Scale 1:500

Vestibule Foyer Eating area Kitchen Group room for toddlers Group room for intermediate ages Multipurpose room Teaching room WC

Vertical section of supplemented wall Scale 1:20 10 Reinforced concrete slab 250 mm 11 Acrylic-based paint, white gypsum plasterboard 2≈ 12.5 mm, Metal stud wall 75 mm, gypsum plasterboard 2≈ 12.5 mm Acrylic-based paint, green or orange /red 12 Fluorescent tube 13 Wall opening 14 Frame made of birch plywood 5/30/5 mm, solid wood core 70/55 mm 15 Masonry wall (existing) 250 mm, painted green or orange / yellow 16 Natural fibre carpeting, green or orange 12 mm, anti-allergic, 80 % wool content, underlay Screed 75 mm (existing), separating layer, thermal insulation 70 mm (existing) Reinforced concrete slab 250 mm 17 Veneered birch plywood board, waterproof 12 mm Screed 75 mm (existing), separating layer, thermal insulation 70 mm (existing), reinforced concrete slab 250 mm 18 Floor structure in corridor: Polyurethane coating 5 mm, screed 75 mm (existing), separating layer, thermal insulation 70 mm (existing), reinforced concrete slab 250 mm

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Vertical section of “house within a house” Scale 1:20 2 1

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Black varnished MDF panel cladding 18 mm Wooden beam construction 75/75 mm Plywood board inner cladding 12 mm Roof or wall opening Frame made of birch plywood, waterproof, 12 mm Black varnished MDF panel cladding 18 mm Wooden beam construction 75/75 mm Plywood board inner cladding 6 mm Frame made of birch plywood, waterproof, 6 mm Pink natural fibre carpet 12 mm, anti-allergic, 80 % wool content, underlay Screed 75 mm (existing), separating layer, heat insulation 70 mm (existing) Reinforced concrete slab 250 mm (existing) Veneered birch plywood board, waterproof, glued 12 mm Screed 75 mm (existing), separating layer, heat insulation 70 mm (existing) Reinforced concrete slab 250 mm (existing)

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Extension of a farm business in Shanghai (CHN)

Architects:

playze, Shanghai Marc Schmit, Pascal Berger, Mengjia He Team: Meijun Wu, Liv Xu Ye, Ahmed Hosny, Andres Tovar, Sebastian Hefti, Maggie Tang Structural engineering: BS Engineering Consulting, Shanghai

This organic food farming business with associated fields and packing hall is located outside Shanghai. An existing building is extended by a distinctive green container structure composed of two parts. Office and meeting rooms are adjacent to the original building, while an information area for visitors has been added as a separate structure in front of the hall. The first impression of some randomly stacked containers turns out to be a spatially differentiated arrangement. Each of the 78 boxes consists of a framework of hollow steel profiles, with open or closed sides resulting in diverse spatial relations. The boxes unfold to form covered platforms and bridges in the outside areas, connecting visitor and office areas, providing outdoor work areas and offering a view of the surrounding fields. The containers engage with each other spatially and extend the foyer to a height of three storeys. The decision to opt for standardised elements was based on the client’s desire to use recyclable structures. The original idea of using old freight containers was discarded due to lack of availability. A container manufacturer produced the standard modules measuring 20 and 40 feet. Regular perforated doors provide external sun protection. Utilisation of recycled, ecologically sustainable, quickly renewable or reusable materials emphasises the corporate belief in sustainability. This is also evident in local bamboo used for indoor and outdoor floors as well as for all built-in furniture. Floor coverings are executed either as sealed bamboo parquet or as heat-treated and oiled bamboo floorboards.

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Longitudinal section Scale 1:500 Vertical sections Scale 1:20 1 Extensive plant coverage, non-woven filter fabric PE drainage mat, pressure-resistant 40 mm Separating layer, root-proof Concrete 35 mm, plastic sheet waterproofing Cement mortar bed 15 mm XPS insulation 80 mm, sheet steel 2 mm Gypsum plasterboard 2≈ 12 mm 2 Container steel pipe ¡ 150/180 mm 3 Container door perforated sheet metal 2 mm 4 Insulation glazing in aluminium frame, powder-coated

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Sealed bamboo parquet 6 mm + 4 mm XPS insulation 80 mm Composite floor-ceiling construction: Reinforced concrete 115 mm and trapezoidal sheet metal 70 mm Sheet steel 2 mm Bamboo floorboards, heat-treated, oiled 20 mm Bamboo profiles screwed, topping concrete on incline, reinforced concrete floor slab (existing) Sealed bamboo parquet 6 mm + 4 mm Impact sound insulation 25 mm XPS insulation 80 mm, concrete 45 mm, reinforced concrete floor slab (existing)

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6 A Vertical section of 1st floor projecting structure

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Apartment conversion in Madrid (E)

Architects:

Team:

TallerDE2 Arquitectos, Madrid Arantza Ozaeta Cortázar, Álvaro Martín Fidalgo Cruz Calleja

Opportunities for devising completely new habitation concepts arise when single persons or couples move into spaces formerly occupied by families of up to four people living together in relatively cramped conditions. A convincing example is a conversion in Madrid’s Avenida de Valladolid, in which the architects gutted a four-room 1950s apartment divided into small sections followed by reorganisation using light structures. With an excellent location in a privileged area – inner city with a view of nature – the apartment located in a multifamily building was completely outdated with regard to technical installations and current energy standards. After removal of the interior walls, the architects had the windows exchanged and insulated the room surfaces with a mineral wool layer of 40 mm. The space was filled with three-dimensional units composed of 54 individual storage, kitchen and wetroom modules, with the particular function often only disclosed after opening the respective doors, flaps or drawers. Before the conversion, occupants only had about half of the total dwelling area available for free movement (after deduction of all the floor space required by furniture). This has now been increased to 77 %. All sorts of covering material are hidden behind the uniform OSB cladding of the modules: black-dyed hard wooden fibreboards inside the storage spaces, waterproof MDF panels or ceramic tiles in the wet areas. A clear contrast to the irregular pattern of the MDF-clad walls is presented by the uniform cool blue-grey vinyl flooring fitted throughout the apartment on a newly installed screed. The flooring contains also an underfloor heating system and unifies the spatial units to a continuous area.

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Various floor plan designs

Scale 1:300

Vertical section of shower 1

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Gypsum plasterboard 12.5 mm Thermal insulation mineral wool 40 mm Masonry bricks (existing) 160 mm LED light band in shadow gap OSB panel 18 mm Subconstruction, pinewood 20/35 mm Planking MDF, water-repellent 19 mm Ceramic tiles 20/20/5 mm Vinyl covering 5 mm Dry screed with underfloor heating system Reinforced concrete slab between storeys (existing) Tile covering 20/20/5 mm MDF panel, water-repellant 19 mm Subconstruction, pinewood 35/20 mm

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Residential building in Stuttgart (D)

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MBA/S Matthias Bauer Associates, Stuttgart Team: Björn Sippel, Sabine Schneider, Martin Blank, Sven Hummerich, Wulf Kramer, Walker Stone, Aidas Barzda, Christian Meyer, Thomas Krause Structural engineering: EfA, Stuttgart

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Architect:

House 36 is a villa located on a slope, in which the possibilities of a new building material – insulating concrete containing glass foam granulate as an alternative aggregate to gravel – are demonstrated. The material was used for construction of the roof, walls and floors. The polyhedron shape of the building is a result of building legislation requirements, conceptual design ideas, requested room heights, exterior views as well as an endeavour to protect the interior from outside view. The completely open bathroom is a key element spatially, conceptually and con96

Upper level floor plan Scale 1:200 1 2

structively. Located in the uppermost storey, it forms the culmination (together with the bedroom) of a spatial sequence from the bottom upwards, while at the same time reflecting the progression from public to increasingly private areas. The sunken bathtub is flush with the floor. The outline of this paradigm of a sensuous as well as intimate space shapes the ceiling of the storey beneath, dividing the commonly used space below into cooking, eating and living area. The bathroom floor is composed of the same solid surface as the bathtub and laid as a jointless continuum of prefabri-

Bathroom Bedroom

cated glued elements. The floor is inclined towards the tub, making the whole room a basin, with sight lines defined accordingly. The bather has an amazing view of the sky through the portholes cut into the concrete, of the city through the glazed and thereby translucent corner of the room, and of the green surroundings through the large window.

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Portholes (drilled) with fixed glazing Triple insulation glazing, glued 40 mm Polyurethane coating Insulating concrete with glass foam granulate aggregate 500 mm with inner side hydrophobed Roof stainless steel gutter PU-coated 2 mm Integrated textile solar protection Stainless steel window frame with fixed glazing Triple insulation glazing 65 mm Ug = 0.4 W/m2K Mineral-based solid surface coating (HI-MACS) 12 mm, preformed, laid without joints and glued full face PU surface waterproofing

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Foamed insulation layer Hydrophobed concrete 230 mm Overflow slit Bathtub inlet and outlet 27 l/min filling rate Mineral-based solid surface coating (HI-MACS), 12 mm preformed, laid without joints and glued full face PU surface waterproofing Levelling layer, rapid drying screed 75 – 85 mm Underfloor heating Styrodur impact sound insulation 50 mm Hydrophobed concrete 180 mm Built-in shelf, mineral-based solid surface glued without joints 9 mm with concealed air venting at head end Custom-made stainless steel shower

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Residential building in Munich (D) a

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2 Sauerbruch Hutton, Berlin Louisa Hutton, Matthias Sauerbruch, Juan Lucas Young Project leaders: Jürgen Bartenschlag, Peter Apel Structural engineering: IG albrecht + brettfeld, Ebenhausen

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Multi-coloured glazed surfaces of specially developed bricks constitute the homogeneous envelope of this five-storey villa near the English Garden in Munich. The side facing the park was executed as a rigorous angular facade with large openings. Bay windows allow a side view of green spaces, while the rear building edges are rounded. Tall trees in the garden are integrated in the playful facade design. Clear horizontal structuring into darker and lighter zones differentiates two office storeys from the two residential floors above. A recessed glass penthouse with an all-round roof terrace

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Section • Level 4 floor plan Scale 1:500

crowns the building. Each of the five storeys has an individual design, with different uses such as work, living, exhibition and reception stacked on top of each other within the uniform envelope of the house. Depending on the function of the room, flooring may be coarsely structured grey in-situ terrazzo or oak herringbone parquet, both laid on floating screed. 4 5 6

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Aluminium sheet 2 mm Handrail, hydro-varnished steel Ø 40 mm Precast clinker bricks 120/210/52 mm Airspace 10 mm, mineral wool insulation 80 mm Reinforced concrete 200 mm, EIFS 80 mm Terrazzo 30 mm, cementitious screed 40 mm

1 Office 2 Apartment 3 Terrace

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Drainage layer 16 mm, bitumen roof sealing PU sloping insulation 130 –200 mm Bitumen sheeting roof sealing, reinforced concrete slab 300 mm, levelling plaster 21– 50 mm Insulating panel glued 2≈ 100 mm, plaster 12 mm 8 Triple thermal protection glazing 9 Terrazzo 30 mm, heated cementitious screed 67 mm Wood fibreboard 3 mm, PE foil separating layer Impact sound insulation 20 mm, insulation 220 mm, PE foil, reinforced concrete slab 300 mm, plaster 20 mm 10 Glued oak herringbone parquet 15 mm, separating layer Heated cementitious screed 94 mm, wood fibreboard 3 mm Two-layer PE foil separating layer, impact sound insulation 20 mm, mineral wool 40 mm, PE foil separating layer, reinforced concrete slab 300 mm, plaster 20 mm

Vertical section Scale 1:20

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Student residence in Sant Cugat del Vallès (E)

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Architects:

dataAE, Barcelona Claudi Aguiló, Albert Domingo HARQUITECTES, Sabadell David Lorente, Josep Ricart, Xavier Ros, Roger Tudó Structural engineering: DSM arquitectes, Vic

The new construction of the student residence in Sant Cugat del Vallès, a city near Barcelona, is located between a Faculty of Architecture and a residential area. A requirement for participation in the competition held by the Polytechnic University of Catalonia for this design was the utilisation of a modular precast component system produced by a Spanish manufacturer. The winning team consisting of two Catalonian architectural firms took the liberty of modifying the concrete boxes, the shorter sides of which are open. They chose to do without the wall and floor coverings intended by the 100

manufacturer and left the surfaces raw instead, partly to make use of the thermal inertia of the concrete. The exposed wearing surface of the concrete slab is merely ground and surface-treated. They furthermore selected a size of 5 ≈ 11.2 m – the maximum dimension permitted for transportation by truck. Sixty-two of these modules were stacked in two rows forming two storeys. The long courtyard in between forms the heart of the complex and functions as a commonly used area. It is bordered by covered accessways, also made of precast concrete parts. Creepers climbing up a steel rope trellis

on the outer sides provide protection from the sun, while at the same time making the repetitive perforated facade more attractive. Individual modules are approximately 40 m2 in size and provide accommodation for one or two students. A bathroom box with kitchenette and open shelves integrated at the rear end is located next to the entrance. The remaining space can be furnished as required – the architects developed various furnishing options for occupation by two persons.

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Section of concrete module Scale 1:100 Vertical section of facade Scale 1:20

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1 Covered accessway/projecting roof, reinforced concrete part 2 Prefabricated interior space module 5.00/9.30/3.08 m 3 Steel construction, assembled on site 4 Partition between installation pipes: Timber post, clad on either side with veneered plywood, birch-coated 18 mm 5 Roof structure: Plant cover, substrate 100 mm Non-woven filter fabric, drainage panel Glassfibre-reinforced PVC waterproofing 1.2 mm Thermal/acoustic insulation, high density rockwool 2≈ 60 mm Vapour barrier Reinforced concrete ribbed slab (part of prefabricated room module) 6 Veneered plywood board, birch-coated 18 mm Acoustic insulation 40 mm Installation cavity 7 Facade structure: Veneered plywood board, birch-coated 18 mm Lathing/rear ventilation 20 mm Sheathing membrane, moisture-diffusing Glassfibre-reinforced cement building board 15 mm Post with steel profile fi 120 mm, with rock wool thermal insulation in between 2≈ 60 mm Vapour barrier Gypsum plasterboard 2≈ 15 mm 8 Balustrade, galvanised flat steel 50/10 mm 9 Pine window frame with insulation glazing 10 Floor structure: Reinforced concrete slab with ribs, upper surface ground and surface-treated (part of prefabricated room module) Thermal insulation, high-density rock wool 40 mm, waterproofing XPS insulation 40 mm Drainage panel, gravel 150 mm

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Restoration and change of use of the pressurised waterworks in Frankfurt am Main (D)

Architects:

LV Architekten, Bad Homburg Martin Vetter, Volker Lausch Interior design: Natalie Hett, Kronberg Structural engineering: Stephan Krück, Bad Homburg

The original purpose of the Druckwasserwerk in Frankfurt’s Westhafen area was to supply the hydraulic drive systems of the port facilities with pressurised water. The Neo-Renaissance brick building with two flanking towers was built in 1886 –1888. The machine house was closed down in 1960 and eventually restored in the course of rehabilitation of the former port area to a new commercial and residential district in 2008. Since that time, it has accommodated a restaurant. The forward-looking entrepreneur who bought the listed industrial building

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attached great value to a historically authentic restoration of the construction. Bricked-up windows reinstated and fitted with new lattice windows, the roof structure and the wooden roof were renewed true to the original design. Visitors entering the Druckwasserwerk find themselves immediately inside the approximately 13-metre-high former machine hall. Two new stairs located in the towers on either side lead to a gallery offering a free view of the generous restaurant area with inserted ceilings and wooden truss joists. An unobtru-

sive white-plastered building added to the rear of the historical building contains the restaurant kitchen and storage spaces. The original floor tiles play a major role in the general impression of the hall. Since these were only partly intact, the client ordered a replication of the historical tile design consisting of cream-coloured grooved cement mosaic tiles with matching dark-red inserts. The floor areas are framed by an enclosure of special dark-red tiles, which also mark the step leading down from the entrance area.

Section • Floor plan Scale 1:250 1 2 3 4 5 6

Main entrance Pedestal Stairwell Dining area Kitchen Dish-washing area

Detail of floor structure /pedestal Scale 1:10 aa

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7 Cement mosaic tile, grooved, octagonal 170/170/16 mm with cement mosaic insert grooved, square, dark red Flowing bed mortar 6 –10 mm Screed 60 mm Thermal insulation with integrated underfloor heating system 50 mm Floor slab (existing) bearing steel structure with concrete bracing 210 mm (composite girder) 8 Floor edging composed of dark-red tiles 18 mm 9 Steel profile ∑ 10 Visible edge of pedestal, tile 16 mm Tile adhesive 11 Cement mosaic tile, grooved, octagonal 170/170/16 mm with cement mosaic insert grooved, square, dark red Flowing bed mortar 6 –10 mm Screed 60 mm Thermal insulation with integrated underfloor heating system 90 mm Reinforced concrete floor slab (existing)

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Fashion store in Frankfurt am Main (D)

aa Architects: Team:

DESIGN IN ARCHITEKTUR, Darmstadt, Ingo Haerlin Vera Burbulla

Running parallel to Frankfurt’s main shopping road, the “Zeil”, the Stephanstraße also marks the beginning of the Neustadt area. This formerly quiet district has developed into a trendy neighbourhood, offering a mixture of cafés, restaurants, clubs, studios, galleries, shops and residential buildings. The area is also attractive to the fashion scene. Retail outlets and offices are establishing themselves in a renovated building complex dating back to the 1970s – the former diamond market. The redesigned commercial

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building, known as the MA, also accommodates a fashion store run by the project developer. A selection of fashion labels for men and women is presented on a retail area of about 400 m2 on two levels. Goods are predominantly denim as well as leather bags and other accessories. High-quality materials and excellent craftsmanship play a major role in the design of the shop. The cool rough fairfaced concrete ceilings in combination with grey plastered walls contrast the

panel parquet flooring made of pre-aged oak with integrated fields of unicoloured and ornamented cement tiles. Areas with women’s, men’s and denim products are defined by this differently designed flooring. Solid ash seating, tables and shelves are finished with leather, brass or copper details. The illumination concept is a mixture of LED spotlights and traditional elements such as vintage lamps and bulbs with visible spiral filaments, echoing the typical atmosphere of a classical men’s store.

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Section • Level 1 floor plan /design Scale 1: 200 Vertical section of flooring structure Scale 1:10 1

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Panel parquet 20 – 22 mm Tile adhesive / levelling filling compound 3 mm Screed 65 mm Reinforced concrete 250 mm Cement tile, multicoloured pattern 200/200/18 mm framed with linear edging and corner edging cement tile, multicoloured 200/200/18 mm Cement tile 200/200/18 mm, motif depicting stylised acanthus in light blue with cement tile border, unicoloured light blue 200/200/18 mm Cement tile 200/200/18 mm, motif depicting stylised acanthus in dark blue with cement tile border, unicoloured dark blue 200/200/18 mm Rubber covering, storage area Tile covering, WC Expansion joint, cork 8 mm Cement tile 18 mm, mortar bed 17 mm Screed 55 mm Reinforced concrete 250 mm

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Rolex Learning Centre in Lausanne (CH)

Architects:

SANAA, Tokyo, Kazuyo Sejima, Ryue Nishizawa Structural engineering: SAPS Sasaki and Partners, Tokyo (concept) Bollinger + Grohmann Ingenieure, Frankfurt / M. Walther Mory Maier, Münchenstein BG Ingénieurs Conseil, Lausanne Losinger Construction, Bussigny

The location of the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) at the northern edge of Lake Geneva is as unique as the campus centrepiece by SANAA. The rectangular shape measuring 166 ≈ 121 m has a surface reflecting the gentle undulations of the surrounding landscape with altogether 14 patios ranging from 7 to 50 m in diameter cut out of it. Values such as transparency, networking and innovation pursued by the university are ideally represented by the unconventional concept and organic design vocabulary of the spatial sculpture. The ultimate aim is to provide

an atmosphere attractive to top international researchers. A single huge space with a height of 3.30 m and an area of about 17,000 m2 accommodates library, workplaces, offices, cafés, restaurant, bookshop, banking facility and multifunctional auditorium – almost without any partitioning walls, doors and corridors. The continuum is a spatial tour de force, with views open to all sides in an inward and outward direction or right across, spaces becoming wider or narrower, and in particular, unique meandering floors with inclinations of up to 30° often matched by parallel

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Section Scale 1: 200 Vertical section of perimeter facade Scale 1:20

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ceilings. Difficulties posed by the highly unusual sloping floors are put up with for the sake of the exceptional impression achieved. The colour white dominates the ceiling, the steel stays of the glazed surfaces as well as the furniture, while sound-damping needle-felt carpeting throughout echoes the light grey tone of concrete. The patios provide contact to the exterior even in the middle of the building, while admitting adequate daylight and offering spatial permeability in the free areas under the concrete shell of this extensive flat construction.

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Light grey PVC waterproofing Mineral wool 220 mm, vapour seal Support structure in plane areas: Trapezoidal sheet metal 80 mm Main girder steel profile IPE 400, distance 9 m, l = 9 m Auxiliary girder steel profile IPE 300, distance 3 m, l = 9 m Light grey PVC waterproofing Mineral wool 220 mm, vapour seal Support structure in curved areas: Trapezoidal sheet metal curved 26 mm Main girder steel profile IPE 400 polygonal bent, distance 9 m, l = 9 m, segment length 3 m, Auxiliary girder BSH bent 360/200 mm, upper and lower side milled slanted l = 9 m, distance 1.50 m Wind bracing flat steel Solar protection lamella curtain Solar protection glazing type A (in patio area curved, type B) toughened glass 10 + inter-pane

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gap 14 + lam. safety glass 12 mm Ug = 1.1 W/m2K, g = 58 % Facade post steel profile T 70/90/10 mm Sound-absorbing coating 8 mm Acoustic insulation 25 mm Gypsum plasterboard curved 12.5 mm Subconstruction aluminium rails Composite column steel pipe Ø 127 mm Needle-felt carpeting Reinforced screed jointless 80 mm with integrated thermal mass activation for heating/cooling, foil Thermal insulation 350 mm, vapour seal Reinforced concrete C 50/60 fibre-reinforced jointless, curved 600 mm Limestone grit 150 mm, waterproofing Reinforced concrete 280 or 600 mm on bearing with integrated prestressing device (stay cable of arches in shell above) Floor slab of underground garage: Reinforced concrete 250 mm Bored piles Ø 500, 600, 900 mm, depth 14 – 20 m

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Parliament of the German-speaking Community in Eupen (B)

Architects:

Partner architects:

Atelier Kempe Thill architects and planners, Rotterdam André Kempe, Oliver Thill artau architectures, Malmedy Luc Dutilleux, Fabienne Courtejoie

Although the German-speaking community is the smallest member of the Federal State of Belgium, it has its own government and parliament. Continuous development of the autonomy of the group of approximately 75,000 persons has led to the parliament’s requirement of additional premises. A former sanatorium built around 1910 and situated on a hill above the city of Eupen was selected to accommodate of the administration and plenary hall. The old building first had to undergo thorough renovation measures. A formally reserved extension containing

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Section

Scale 1:500

plenary hall and foyer is half concealed within the slope. It forms a visual and symbolic base of the building situated in a large park. Greenery decorating the facades and a planted roof integrate the structure in the landscape, with a direct connection to the park achieved through a large window front along the longer side. The old and new buildings are connected by means of a generous stairwell located in the foyer. White-plastered foyer walls contrast with the wood paving floors, which also extend into the hall, creating a sense of spatial continuity. They are executed as hollow-cavity

floors. Wood dominates the plenary hall, paying tribute to the traditional woodbased culture in the region as well as to the craft of cabinetmaking and carpentry in the Ardennes. Wood paving is used to finish the floors and walls, and a uniform and harmonious appearance of the walls, ceiling, floor and fitted tables is achieved. The solid blocks of wood were mounted to the ceiling and walls with joints of 3 mm, which allows coherent integration of sound absorption and mechanical ventilation in the spatial design without any visible grids, air inlets or the like.

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Vegetation /sedum plants, Vegetation mat 20 mm, Light substrate 24 mm, Solids drainage 25 mm, Non-woven storage fabric 3 mm, roof waterproofing, EPS thermal insulation 145 – 285 mm, Vapour seal, TT reinforced concrete slab 950 mm Substrate-filled coffer system 60 mm, aluminium rail 100 mm, Sprayed PU foam insulation 100 mm, Reinforced concrete 300 mm Lam. safety glass 2≈ 12 mm Lam. safety glass 2≈ 6 + inter-pane gap 20 + lam. safety glass 2≈ 6 mm Oak wood paving 22/45 mm, Filling compound, rubber granulate 5 mm, gypsum fibreboard 36 mm, Hollowcavity floor Oak wood paving block 10/45 mm, Perforated multiplex panel 20 mm, Steel profile HEA 100

Vertical section of plenary hall, facade and speaker’s desk Scale 1:20 1

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Formed part with incoming air opening Built-in display / touch panel Oak veneer, wood-based material 18 mm Oak wood paving block 10/45 mm, Perforated multiplex board 20 mm, Non-woven acoustic fabric Mineral wool insulation 60 mm Oak wood paving 10/45 mm, Dry screed 80 mm, PE foil, Reinforced concrete 250 mm, PE foil, Thermal insulation 80 mm, Lean concrete 50 mm, geotextile separating layer, gravel fill 200 mm Oak step riser 45/92 mm Oak wood paving 22/45 mm Wood-based material 2≈ 18 mm Foyer door: 2≈ 12 mm toughened glass with steel pipe 80/50 mm in between Oak wood paving block 10/45 mm Perforated multiplex board 20 mm Non-woven acoustic fabric, mineral wool 60 mm

Vertical section of stairs connecting old building/foyer / hall Scale 1:20

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Triple-function sports hall in Ingolstadt (D)

Architects:

Team:

Building technology:

Diözesanbauamt (Diocesan Building Authority) Eichstätt Karl Frey Richard Breitenhuber, Robert Fürsich, Clemens Bittl, Winfried Glasmann, Roland Seidl Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

A triple-function sports hall has been built by the Canisius Foundation in the yard of a former Jesuit College in the middle of the old part of Ingolstadt. The hall is located on top of a municipal underground garage. Changing, shower and WC areas for the teachers as well as equipment storage rooms are on the ground floor. Changing and shower areas for athletes are accessible via a glazed gallery in the upper storey. Thermal decoupling of the new hall from the concrete construction is achieved by thermal insulation of the floor and elevation above the existing structure. The cavity created provides space for lines, cables and pipes, while the remaining hollow spaces are filled with a heat-insulating lightweight concrete mixture. Linoleum is used as floor covering. The surface heating system accommodated in the elastic wooden sprung floor can be regulated individually for each of the component halls. Supply air comes in through diffusers near the floor level of the hall. This has a constant temperature in winter, autumn and spring, while it depends on the outside temperature in summer. Outgoing air is led to the changing rooms through sound-insulated elements and is extracted from there via the washing rooms. In summer, natural ventilation and overnight cooling down of the hall is also possible by means of lamella windows in the facade and vertical opening elements in the clerestory windows. The clerestory windows are fitted with horizontal solar protection insulation glazing with an integrated light matt foil to disperse daylight and reduce glare. The glazing is also ball-impact-resistant. Reflective characteristics of the linoleum floor serve to increase daylight illumination. The general objective of the building measure to achieve maximum comfort for sports hall users with minimum expenditure of energy has been met. 110

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2 Section Ground level floor plan Scale 1:750

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Technical facilities Hall Equipment room Trainer’s room

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Vertical section Scale 1:20

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5 Aluminium profile panels 1 mm Rock wool insulation felt, compressible 100 –120 mm Rock wool thermal insulation, compression-proof 100 mm Elastomer bitumen vapour seal Multilayer panel, lower side spruce, visible quality 40 mm 6 Steel profile, welded conically 10 mm 7 Aluminium window with fixed insulation glazing Lam. safety glass 12 mm + inter-pane gap 14 mm + float glass 10 mm 8 Perforated aluminium sheet 2 mm Aluminium pipe | 30/30/3 mm Flat steel ¡ 60/40/4 mm Three-layer panel, larch, varnished white 19 mm Climate membrane Vertical wooden bar 240/70 mm Thermal insulation, mineral wool 70 mm Thermal insulation, mineral wool 100 mm between horizontal wooden bars 100/100 mm Vapour seal Carrier lathing, solid spruce 100/100 mm Sprung lathing, birch wood fibre 60/18 mm Screwed lathing, birch wood fibre 60/18 mm Non-woven acoustic fabric Cladding, spruce boards 93/19 mm 9 Diffuser band, galvanised steel perforated metal sheet, ball-impact-resistant 2 mm 10 Floor covering, linoleum 4 mm Veneered plywood board 12 mm, PE foil Rough floor, spruce 15 mm Double springing carrier with integrated underfloor heating 54 mm Thermal insulation, polystyrene 40 mm Vapour seal, bitumen Reinforced concrete cover 60 mm Installation shaft Thermal insulation, polystyrene 60 mm Reinforced concrete 200 mm (existing)

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Office building in Amsterdam (NL)

1 Claus en Kaan Architecten, Amsterdam / Rotterdam Team: Felix Claus, D. van Wageningen (project manager), M. van Broekhuijsen, R. Rens, J. Mulders, J. Leupen, R. Schneider, S. Steijlen, J. Webb Structural engineering: Adams Bouwadviesbureau, Druten

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Architects:

The slender six-storey building is situated on the corner of Ijburg, a district of Amsterdam located on the artificial island Haveneiland. It is part of a new urban quarter. Claus en Kaan Architecten moved their Amsterdam office to this prominent location right by the sea. Their own office space is characterised by a reduced material and design vocabulary and high quality of interior design. The external appearance of the plain modular facade with deep-set windows is uniform and austere, while differentiated spatial qualities are created

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inside. 55-cm-wide elements of the reinforced concrete framework of the facade carry the hollow-core concrete slabs making up the floor-ceiling constructions. With a height of about 4 m, the office storeys manage without the usual suspended ceiling systems, leaving the materiality of the grey concrete surfaces also perceptible inside. This impression is supplemented by the matt light-grey wearing screed making up the entire flooring, with the wearing screed and heated screed underneath executed as two separate layers. The two form a

composite structure, while the heated screed right at the bottom is also adjacent to the bearing floor-ceiling construction. This composite construction increases the mass of the floor-ceiling construction and improves impact sound protection. At the same time, separating walls can be set up wherever required without creating routes for undesirable flanking sound transmission. Partitions and other communication barriers were however largely refrained from in the design in order to create an open and well-proportioned space.

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5 Level 3 floor plan Scale 1:750 1 Technical facilities 2 Open office area

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Vertical section Scale 1:20

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3 Roof structure: Gravel fill 60 mm Roof bitumen waterproofing sheeting Thermal insulation 2≈ 70 mm Hollow-core concrete plank 200 mm 4 Stairwell skylight Lam. safety glass composed of toughened glass 10 mm + inter-pane gap 15 mm + toughened glass 10 mm 5 Wall structure: Precast concrete frame 550 mm Thermal insulation 2≈ 60 mm Gypsum plasterboard 12.5 mm Vapour barrier Gypsum plasterboard 12.5 mm 6 Insulation glazing, float glass 10 mm + inter-pane gap 15 mm + lam. safety glass 15 mm 7 Grey varnished wood fibreboard 18 mm 8 Powder-coated steel profile ∑ 60/40 mm 9 Floor structure: Cementitious screed 60 mm Pressure-distribution panel, heated screed 60 mm Hollow-core concrete plank, prestressed 200 mm 10 Precast concrete doorsill

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Company kindergarten in Innsbruck (A) 1

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Architects:

ATP architekten ingenieure, Innsbruck Team Gerhard Oberrauch, Veronika Mair, Eva Manesch Structural engineering: ATP architekten ingenieure, Innsbruck Alois Salzburger, Stefan Demetz

A company kindergarten with roof terrace and a view of Innsbruck is located on the third floor of an annex of the Sillpark shopping centre. The underlying concept of this activitybased playschool requires an environment that offers children a free choice of play while at the same time promoting their imagination and creativity. Gradually merging spaces rather than a strictly organised floor plan are therefore provided, creating diverse zones allowing a variety of activities. A corridor with space for clothes and shoes is accessed via a foyer. Curved group room walls create an

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interesting corridor design that differs from the usual uniform width. The rear part of the kindergarten contains space for the children to move about freely or to relax, as well as a craft and eating room. Discrete zoning is emphasised by a distinctive colour design of the floor coverings. The corridor with clothes and shoe rack is covered with dark-grey linoleum, with inlaid light-grey circles indicating connections to other zones. This is contrasted by yellow/orange linoleum flooring with red and grey circular inlays in the playing rooms. The exercise and relaxation room floor is dark blue. A non-

slip and resilient type of linoleum was selected and factory-finished with a polyurethane surface coating to increase resistance of the covering against dirt and scratching. All furniture, installations and doors are made of light wood.

Level 3 floor plan of Sillpark Scale 1:1,000 1 2 3 4

Kindergarten Kindergarten roof terrace Administration of shopping centre Technical facilities of shopping centre

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8 12 9

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15 Level 3 floor plan of kindergarten

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5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Scale 1:400

Ventilation system of shopping centre Functions room Kindergarten access Corridor /clothes and shoe rack Group room Office Exercise and relaxation room Craft room Eating area / kitchenette WC / shower

Detail sections of separating wall • sliding door Scale 1:10

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15 Gypsum plasterboard 12.5 mm, plywood board 16 mm Metal stud wall with C-profile 100 mm, with thermal insulation 50 mm in between 24 Plywood board 16 mm, gypsum plasterboard 12.5 mm 16 Woollen textile covering 2 mm, Velcro attachment Rubber foam filling material 30 mm Sheet steel 3 mm Rubber foam filling material 30 mm Woollen textile covering 2 mm 17 Transparent acrylic glass 8 mm 18 Subconstruction of seating shell in gypsum plasterboard wall, steel pipe | 80/80/5 mm 19 Polyurethane coating, linoleum 7 mm Screed 80 mm, impact sound insulation 30 mm Expanded clay thermal insulation fill 83 mm Reinforced concrete floor-ceiling construction 300 mm 20 Gypsum plasterboard suspended ceiling 12.5 mm 21 Fixed glazing, glued float glass 8 mm 22 Solid wood door frame 155/65 mm 23 Door leaf, full wood sliding door 30 mm in horizontal running rail 24 Fixed element, sliding door, solid wood 30 mm

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Appendix

Author

Literature

José Luis Moro Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Architekt

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1974 Abitur at the Deutsche Schule Madrid 1974 –1982 Study of architecture at the ETSA Madrid (Superior Technical School of Architecture at the Technical University of Madrid) and the University of Stuttgart, Graduation 1982 1982 –1985 Office management in the architecture firm of Fernando Higueras in Madrid 1985 –1987 Research assistant at the Technical University Berlin in the Department of Industrial, Energyand Raw Material-Saving Building led by Prof. Konrad Weller 1987–1988 Research assistant at the Technical University Darmstadt, Department of Design and Building Technology led by Prof. Thomas Herzog 1988 Office management in the architecture and engineering firm of Santiago Calatrava in Zurich 1988 Office management in the architecture firm of Prof. Thomas Herzog in Darmstadt 1989 –1991 Project partnership with Thomas Herzog 1990 –1992 Own architecture firm in Darmstadt 1992 –1994 Office management in architecture and engineering firm Santiago Calatrava in Zurich Since 1995 Own architecture firm in Stuttgart 1995 – 2006 Professorship in Fundamentals of Planning and Construction of Buildings, Faculty of Construction Engineering, University of Stuttgart. Co-opted at the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning Since 2006 Professorship in Design and Construction, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Stuttgart. Co-opted at the Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

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Heesch, Heinrich; Kienzle, Otto: Flächenschluss: System der Formen lückenlos aneinanderschließender Flachteile. (Surface closure: System of flat component shapes that fit together without gaps.) Berlin /Göttingen /Heidelberg 1963 Hezel, Dieter: Altbauerneuerung – Fußböden. (Renovation of old buildings – Flooring.) Stuttgart 2002 Hofmeister, Gertraud: Bauschäden an der Altbausubstanz in den neuen Bundesländern infolge unterlassener Instandhaltung und Instandsetzung sowie nicht fachgerechter Modernisierung, bezogen auf die Feuchtraumbereiche Bad und Küche auf Holzbalkendecke; Abschlussbericht. (Building damage to old building fabric in the new federal states due to lacking maintenance and repair as well as improper modernisation, with regard to the wet room areas bathroom and kitchen on a timber beam floor-ceiling construction; final report.) Stuttgart 1995 Kässner, B.: Über das Wesen der Parketts und deren Erzeugung. (About the nature of parquets and their creation.) Reprint of 1877 issue, accompanying text by Ortwin Baumann. Hanover 1996 Kier, Hiltrud: Der mittelalterliche Schmuckfußboden: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Rheinlandes. (Medieval decorative flooring: with special consideration of the Rhineland.) Düsseldorf 1970 Kier, Hiltrud: Schmuckfußböden in Renaissance und Barock. (Decorative flooring in Renaissance and Baroque.) Munich 1976 König, Holger i. a.: Lebenszyklusanalyse in der Gebäudeplanung: Grundlagen, Berechnung, Planungswerkzeuge. (Life-cycle analysis in building planning: Fundamentals, calculation, planning tools.) Munich 2009 Kottjé, Johannes: Fußböden. Attraktive Wohnbeispiele für Neubau und Modernisierung. (Flooring. Attractive habitation examples for new construction and modernisation.) Munich 2013 Langowski, Horst-Christian (ed.): Life Cycle Assessment Study on Resilient Floorcoverings. Stuttgart 1998 Loos, Adolf: Gesammelte Schriften. (Collected writings.) Published by Adolf Opel. Vienna 2010 Lutz, Martin: Lebenszykluskosten von Fußbodenbelägen. (Life-cycle costs of flooring coverings.) Metzingen 2010 Maier, Josef: Energetische Sanierung von Altbauten. (Energetic renovation of old buildings.) Stuttgart 2011 Mermet, Gilles i. a.: Sols de l’Afrique romaine: mosaïques de Tunisie. Paris 1995 Michaelsen, Hans: Königliches Parkett in preußischen Schlössern. Geschichte, Erhaltung und Restaurierung begehbarer Kunstwerke. (Royal parquet in Prussian palaces. History, conservation and restoration of walk-on works of art.) Petersberg 2010 Montesinos-Amilibia, José María: Classical Tessellations and Three-Manifolds. Berlin i. a. 1987 Moschig, Guido F.: Bausanierung: Grundlagen – Planung – Durchführung. (Building renovation: Fundamentals – Planning – Execution.) Wiesbaden 2014 Nickl, Peter (ed): Parkett. Historische Holzfußböden und zeitgenössische Parkettkultur. (Parquet. Historical wood flooring and contemporary parquet culture.) Munich 1995 Rapp, Andreas O.; Sudhoff, Bernhard; Pittich, Daniel: Schäden an Holzfußböden. Schadenfreies Bauen (Damage to wood flooring. Damage-free building.), Vol. 29. Stuttgart 2011 Rau, Otfried; Braune, Katharina; Lutz, Barbara Anna: Der Altbau: Renovieren, Restaurieren, Modernisieren. (Old buildings: Renovation, restoration, modernisation.) Leinfelden-Echterdingen 2013 Richarz, Clemens; Schulz, Christina; Zeitler, Friedemann: Energetische Sanierung. (Energetic renovation.) Munich 2006 Risselada, Max (pub.): Raumplan versus Plan Libre: Adolf Loos and Le Corbusier. Rotterdam 2008 Rolof, Hans-Joachim: Fußbodenschäden im Bild. Betonböden, Estriche, Bodenbeläge, Beschichtungen. (Flooring damage images. Concrete floors, screeds, floor coverings, coatings.) Stuttgart 2010 Rombock, Ulrich: Problemfall Fuge. Fassade, Fußboden, Malerei (Problematic joints. Facade, flooring, painting.). Stuttgart 1994 Roubo, André Jacob: L’Art du menuisier. Paris 1769 –1774 Sammartini, Tudy; Crozzoli, Gabriele: Steinböden in Venedig (Stone floors in Venice), Munich 2000

Appendix

Scheidegger, Fritz: Aus der Geschichte der Bautechnik. (From the history of building technology.) Vol. 2, Anwendungen. (Applications.) Basel / Boston / Berlin 1992 Scheidegger, Fritz (ed.): Aus der Geschichte der Bautechnik. (From the history of building technology.) Vol. 1, Grundlagen. (Fundamentals.) Basel / Boston / Berlin 1990 Sinn, Börries H.: Und machten Staub zu Stein. Die faszinierende Archäologie des Betons von Mesopotamien bis Manhattan. (And they turned dust into stone. The fascinating archaeology of concrete from Mesopotamia to Manhattan.) Düsseldorf 1973 Stefanou, Damaris: Darstellungen aus dem Epos und Drama auf kaiserzeitlichen und spätantiken Bodenmosaiken. Eine ikonographische und deutungsgeschichtliche Untersuchung. (Epic and dramatic representations on imperial and Late Antique floor mosaics.) Münster 2006 Ungruh, Christine: Das Bodenmosaik der Kathedrale von Otranto (1163 –1165): Normannische Herrscherideologie als Endzeitvision. (The floor mosaic of the Cathedral of Otranto (1163 –1165): Norman monarchistic ideology as apocalyptic vision.) Affalterbach 2013 Vasari, Giorgio: Lebensläufe der berühmtesten Maler, Bildhauer und Architekten. (Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects) Translated by Trude Fein. Zurich 2000 von Vegesack, Alexander; Remmele, Mathias (ed.): Verner Panton – Das Gesamtwerk. (Verner Oanton – the collected works.) Ausstellungskatalog. (Exhibition catalogue.) Vitra Design Museum. Weil am Rhein 2000 Vitruv (Vitruvius): Zehn Bücher über Architektur – De architectura libri decem (The Ten Books on Architecture) Transl. and commented by Curt Fensterbusch. Darmstadt 1991 Vondung, Matthias: Studien über historische Parkettfußböden: bauhistorische Untersuchungen – Geschichte, Technik, Restaurierung. (Studies of historical parquet flooring: investigation of construction – history, technology, restoration.) Diss. TU Berlin 1999 Weber, L.: Schlanke Deckenauflagen für die Altbausanierung. (Slim add-ons to floor-ceiling constructions for old-building renovation.) Stuttgart 2010 Weigel, Thomas: Schmuckfußböden des 12. Jahrhunderts aus inkrustiertem Estrichgips. (Decorative 12th century floorings made of encrusted gypsum screed.) Petersberg 2009 Wihr, Rolf: Fußböden: Stein, Mosaik, Keramik, Estrich. Geschichte, Herstellung, Restaurierung. (Flooring. Stone, mosaic, ceramic, screed. History, production, restoration.) Munich 1985 Worbs, Dietrich: Adolf Loos 1870 –1933. Raumplan – Wohnungsbau. (Room plan – Housing construction.) Ausstellungskatalog. (Exhibition catalogue.) Akademie der Künste. (Academy of Arts.) Berlin 1983 Zettler, Alfons: Offerenteninschriften auf den frühchristlichen Mosaikfußböden Venetiens und Istriens. (Offerer inscriptions on Early Christian mosaic flooring of Veneto and Istria.) Berlin /New York 2001

Standards and guidelines Sustainability DIN EN ISO 14 004 Umweltmanagementsysteme – allgemeiner Leitfaden über Grundsätze, Systeme und unterstützende Methoden (Environmental management systems – General guidelines on principles, systems and support techniques) DIN EN ISO 14 020 Umweltkennzeichnungen und -deklarationen – Allgemeine Grundsätze (Environmental labels and declarations – General principles) DIN EN ISO 14 021 Umweltkennzeichnungen und -deklarationen – umweltbezogene Anbietererklärungen (Umweltkennzeichnung Typ II) (Environmental labels and declarations – Self-declared environmental claims (Type II environmental labelling)) DIN EN ISO 14 024 Umweltkennzeichnungen und -deklarationen – Umweltkennzeichnung Typ I – Grundsätze und Verfahren (Environmental labels and declarations – Type I environmental labelling Principles and procedures) DIN EN ISO 14 025 Umweltkennzeichnungen und -deklarationen – Typ III Umweltdeklarationen – Grundsätze und Verfahren (Environmental labels and declarations – Type III environmental declar-

ations - Principles and procedures) DIN EN ISO 14 031 Umweltmanagement – Umweltleistungsbewertung – Leitlinien (Environmental management - Environmental performance evaluation – Guidelines) DIN EN ISO 14 040 Umweltmanagement – Ökobilanz – Grundsätze und Rahmenbedingungen (Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework) DIN EN ISO 14 044 Umweltmanagement – Ökobilanz – Anforderungen und Anleitungen (Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines) DIN EN ISO 14 045 Umweltmanagement – Ökoeffizienzbewertung von Produktsystemen – Prinzipien, Anforderungen und Leitlinien (Environmental management – Eco-efficiency assessment of product systems – Principles, requirements and guidelines) DIN EN ISO 14 050 Umweltmanagement – Begriffe (Environmental management – Vocabulary) DIN EN ISO 14 051 Umweltmanagement – Materialflusskostenrechnung – Allgemeine Rahmenbedingungen (Environmental management – Material flow cost accounting – General framework) DIN EN ISO 14 063 Umweltmanagement – Umweltkommunikation – Anleitungen und Beispiele (Environmental management – Environmental communication – Guidelines and examples) DIN EN ISO 14 064-2 Treibhausgase – Teil 2 (Greenhouse gases – Part 2): Spezifikation mit Anleitung zur quantitativen Bestimmung, Überwachung und Berichterstattung von Reduktionen der Treibhausgasemissionen oder Steigerungen des Entzugs von Treibhausgasen auf Projektebene (Specification with guidance at the project level for quantification, monitoring and reporting of greenhouse gas emission reductions or removal enhancements) DIN EN 15 643 Nachhaltigkeit von Bauwerken – Bewertung der Nachhaltigkeit von Gebäuden (Sustainability of construction works – Sustainability assessment of buildings) – Teil 1: Allgemeine Rahmenbedingungen (Part 1: General framework) Teil 2: Rahmenbedingungen für die Bewertung der umweltbezogenen Qualität (Part 2: Framework for the assessment of environmental performance) Teil 3: Rahmenbedingungen für die Bewertung der sozialen Qualität (Part 3: Framework for the assessment of social performance) Teil 4: Rahmenbedingungen für die Bewertung der ökonomischen Qualität (Part 4: Framework for the assessment of economic performance) DIN EN 15 804 Nachhaltigkeit von Bauwerken – Umweltproduktdeklarationen – Grundregeln für die Produktkategorie Abbauprodukte (Sustainability of construction works – Environmental product declarations – Core rules for the product category of construction products) DIN EN 15 978 Nachhaltigkeit von Bauwerken – Bewertung der umweltbezogenen Qualität von Gebäuden – Berechnungsmethode (Sustainability of construction works – Assessment of environmental performance of buildings – Calculation method) DIN EN 13 306 Instandhaltung – Begriffe der Instandhaltung (Maintenance – Maintenance terminology) DIN 31 051 Grundlagen der Instandhaltung (Fundamentals of maintenance) DIN EN 16 309 Nachhaltigkeit von Bauwerken – Bewertung der sozialen Qualität von Gebäuden – Berechnungsmethoden (Sustainability of construction works – Assessment of social performance of buildings – Calculation methodology) DIN EN 16 627 Nachhaltigkeit von Bauwerken – Bewertung der ökonomischen Qualität von Gebäuden – Berechnungsmethoden (Sustainability of construction works – Assessment of economic performance of buildings – Calculation methods) DIN EN 16 810 Nachhaltigkeit von Bauprodukten – Umwelt-Produktdeklarationen – ProduktkategorieRegeln für elastische, textile und Laminat-Bodenbeläge (Entwurf) (Sustainability of construction work – Environmental product declarations – Product category rules for resilient, textile and laminate floor coverings (draft)) DIN 32 736 Gebäudemanagement – Begriffe und Leistungen (Building management – Definitions and scope of services) DIN 32 736 Beiblatt (Supplement) 1 Gebäudemanagement – Begriffe und Leistungen – Gegenüber-

stellung von Leistungen (Building management – Definitions and scope of services – Comparison of services) DIN 32 835 Technische Produktdokumentation – Dokumentation für das Facility Management (Technical product documentation – Facility management documentation) – Teil 1: Begriffe und Methodik (Part 1: Concepts and methodology) Teil 2: Nutzungsdokumentation (Part 2: Building occupancy documentation) DIN CEN ISO / TS 14 067 / DIN SPEC 35 801 Treibhausgase – Carbon Footprint von Produkten – Anforderungen an und Leitlinien für Quantifizierung und Kommunikation (Greenhouse gases – Carbon footprint of products – Requirements and guidelines for quantification and communication) DIN CEN / TR 15 941 / DIN SPEC 18 941 Nachhaltigkeit von Bauwerken – Umweltproduktdeklarationen – Methoden für Auswahl und Verwendung von generischen Daten (Sustainability of construction works – Environmental product declarations – Methodology for selection and use of generic data) DIN CWA 16 633 / DIN SPEC 91 298 Alterungsverhalten von Bauteilen in Bezug auf ganzheitliche Lebenszyklusbewertungen und weiterführendes Erhaltungsmanagement von Infrastrukturbauten (Ageing behaviour of Structural Components with regard to Integrated Lifetime Assessment and subsequent Asset Management of Constructed Facilities) DIN SPEC 77 234 Leitlinien für die Bewertung von Lebenszykluskosten in Produkt-Dienstleistungssystemen (Guideline to evaluate lifecycle costs in product-service systems) DIN EN 16 485 Rund- und Schnittholz – Umweltproduktdeklarationen – Produktkategorieregeln für Holz und Holzwerkstoffe im Bauwesen (Round and sawn timber – Environmental Product Declarations – Product category rules for wood and wood-based products for use in construction) VDI 2067 Wirtschaftlichkeit gebäudetechnischer Anlagen – Grundlagen und Kostenberechnung (Economic efficiency of building installations – Fundamentals and economic calculation) VDI 4703 Facility-Management – Lebenszykluskostenorientierte Ausschreibung (Facility Management – Life-cycle-cost-based tender) Renovation DIN 4108-2 Wärmeschutz und Energie-Einsparung in Gebäuden (Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings) Teil 2: Mindestanforderungen an den Wärmeschutz (Part 2: Minimum requirements to thermal insulation) Teil 3: Klimabedingter Feuchteschutz – Anforderungen, Berechnungsverfahren und Hinweise für Planung und Ausführung (Part 3: Protection against moisture subject to climate conditions – Requirements and directions for design and construction) DIN EN ISO 6946 Bauteile – Wärmedurchlasswiderstand und Wärmedurchgangskoeffizient – Berechnungsverfahren (Building components and building elements – Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance – Calculation method) DIN EN ISO 7345 Wärmeschutz – physikalische Größen und Definitionen (Thermal insulation – Physical quantities and definitions) DIN EN ISO 9229 Wärmedämmung – Begriffe (Thermal insulation – Vocabulary) DIN EN ISO 9346 Wärme- und feuchtetechnisches Verhalten von Gebäuden und Baustoffen – Physikalische Größen für den Stofftransport (Hygrothermal performance of buildings and building materials – Physical quantities for mass transfer – Vocabulary) DIN EN ISO 10 211 Wärmebrücken im Hochbau – Wärmeströme und Oberflächentemperaturen – Detaillierte Berechnungen (Thermal bridges in building construction – Heat flows and surface temperatures – Detailed calculations) DIN EN 12 524 Baustoffe und -produkte – Wärmeund feuchteschutztechnische Eigenschaften – tabellierte Bemessungswerte (Building materials and products – Hygrothermal properties – Tabulated design values) DIN EN ISO 12 572 Wärme- und feuchtetechnisches Verhalten von Gebäuden und Baustoffen und Bauprodukten – Bestimmung der Wasserdampfdurchlässigkeit (Hygrothermal performance of building materials and products – Determination of water vapour transmission properties)

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Appendix

DIN EN ISO 13 791 Wärmetechnisches Verhalten von Gebäuden – sommerliche Raumtemperaturen bei Gebäuden ohne Anlagentechnik – Allgemeine Kriterien und Validierungsverfahren (Thermal performance of buildings – Calculation of internal temperatures of a room in summer without mechanical cooling – General criteria and validation procedures) DIN EN ISO 14 683 Wärmebrücken im Hochbau – Längenbezogener Wärmedurchgangskoeffizient – vereinfachte Verfahren und Anhaltswerte (Thermal bridges in building construction – Linear thermal transmittance – Simplified methods and default values) (draft) DIN V 4108 Wärmeschutz und Energie-Einsparung in Gebäuden (Thermal insulation and energy economy in buildings) Teil 4: Wärme- und feuchteschutztechnische Bemessungswerte (Part 4: Hygrothermal design values) Teil 10: Anwendungsbezogene Anforderungen an Wärmedämmstoffe – Werkmäßig hergestellte Wärmedämmstoffe (Part 10: Application-related requirements for thermal insulation materials – Factory made products) (prestandard) DIN 4109 Schallschutz im Hochbau – Anforderungen und Nachweise (Sound insulation in buildings; requirements and testing) Teil 1: Anforderungen (Part 1: Requirements) (draft) Teil 2: rechnerische Nachweise der Erfüllung der Anforderungen (Part 2: Verification of compliance with the requirements by calculation) (draft) DIN EN 12 354 Bauakustik – Berechnung der akustischen Eigenschaften von Gebäuden aus den Bauteileigenschaften (Building acoustics – Estimation of acoustic performance of buildings from the performance of products) Teil 1: Luftschalldämmung zwischen Räumen (Part 1: Airborne sound insulation between rooms) Teil 2: Trittschalldämmung zwischen Räumen (Part 2: Impact sound insulation between rooms) Teil 3: Luftschalldämmung gegen Außenlärm (Part 3: Airborne sound insulation against outdoor sound) VDI 4100 Schallschutz von Wohnungen – Kriterien für Planung und Beurteilung (Sound insulation of apartments – Criteria for planning and assessment) DIN 18 195 Bauwerksabdichtungen (Waterproofing of buildings) Teil 1: Grundsätze, Definitionen, Zuordnung der Abdichtungsarten (Part 1: Principles, definitions, attribution of waterproofing types) Teil 2: Stoffe (Part 2: Materials) Teil 4: Abdichtungen gegen Bodenfeuchte (Kapillarwasser, Haftwasser) und nichtstauendes Sickerwasser an Bodenplatten und Wänden, Bemessung und Ausführung (Part 4: Waterproofing against ground moisture (capillary water, retained water) and non-accumulating seepage water under floor slabs on walls, design and execution) Teil 5: Abdichtungen gegen nichtdrückendes Wasser auf Deckenflächen und in Nassräumen, Bemessung und Ausführung (Part 5: Waterproofing against non-pressing water on floors and in wet areas, design and execution) Teil 6: Abdichtungen gegen von außen drückendes Wasser und aufstauendes Sickerwasser, Bemessung und Ausführung (Part 6: Waterproofing against outside pressing water and accumulating seepage water, design and execution) Teil 10: Schutzschichten und Schutzmaßnahmen (Part 10: Protective layers and protective measures) Teil 100: Vorgesehene Änderungen zu den Normen DIN 18 195 Teil 1 bis 6 (Part 100: Proposed amendment to the Standards DIN 18195 Part 1 to 6) (draft) Teil 101: Vorgesehene Änderungen zu den Normen DIN 18 195-2 bis DIN 18 195-5 (Part 101: Proposed amendment to the Standards DIN 18195-2 to DIN 18195-5) (draft) DIN 18 195 Beiblatt 1 (Supplement 1) Bauwerksabdichtungen (Water-proofing of buildings) – Beiblatt 1: Beispiele für die Anordnung der Abdichtung (Supplement 1: Examples of positioning of sealants) DIN 4095 Dränung zum Schutz baulicher Anlagen – Planung, Bemessung und Ausführung (Planning, design and installation of drainage systems protecting structures against water in the ground)

118

DIN 4102 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen (Fire behaviour of building materials and building components) Teil 1: Baustoffe – Begriffe, Anforderungen und Prüfungen (Part 1: Building materials; concepts, requirements and tests) Teil 2: Bauteile – Begriffe, Anforderungen und Prüfungen (Part 2: Building Components; Definitions, Requirements and Tests) Teil 3: Brandwände und nichttragende Außenwände – Begriffe, Anforderungen und Prüfungen (Part 3: Fire Walls and Non-load-bearing External Walls; Definitions, Requirements and Tests) Teil 4: Zusammenstellung und Anwendung klassifizierter Baustoffe, Bauteile und Sonderbauteile (Part 4: Synopsis and application of classified building materials, components and special components) Teil 4: Zusammenstellung und Anwendung klassifizierter Baustoffe, Bauteile und Sonderbauteile (Part 4: Synopsis and application of classified building materials, components and special components) (draft and amendment A1) Teil 7: Bedachungen – Begriffe, Anforderungen und Prüfungen (Part 7: Roofing; definitions, requirements and testing) Teil 14: Bodenbeläge und Bodenbeschichtungen – Bestimmung der Flammenausbreitung bei Beanspruchung mit einem Wärmestrahler (Part 14: Determination of the burning behaviour of floor covering systems using a radiant heat source) DIN EN 13 501 Klassifizierung von Bauprodukten und Bauarten zu ihrem Brandverhalten (Fire classification of construction products and building elements) Teil 1: Klassifizierung mit den Ergebnissen aus den Prüfungen zum Brandverhalten von Bauprodukten (Part 1: Classification using data from reaction to fire tests) Teil 2: Klassifizierung mit den Ergebnissen aus den Feuerwiderstandsprüfungen, mit Ausnahme von Lüftungsanlagen (Part 2: Classification using data from fire resistance tests, excluding ventilation services) DIN EN ISO 9239-1 Prüfungen zum Brandverhalten von Bodenbelägen (Reaction to fire tests for floorings) – Teil 1: Bestimmung des Brandverhaltens bei Beanspruchung mit einem Wärmestrahler (Part 1: Determination of the burning behaviour using a radiant heat source) DIN 18 040 Barrierefreies Bauen – Planungsgrundlagen (Construction of accessible buildings – Design principles) Teil 1: Öffentlich zugängliche Gebäude (Part 1: Publicly accessible buildings) Teil 2: Wohnungen (Part 2: Dwellings) VDI 6008 Barrierefreie Lebensräume (Barrier-free buildings) Blatt 1: Allgemeine Anforderungen und Planungsgrundlagen (Sheet 1: Requirements and fundamentals) Blatt 2: Möglichkeiten der Sanitärtechnik (Sheet 2: Aspects of sanitary installation) Costs DIN 276-1 Kosten im Bauwesen (Building costs) – Teil 1: Hochbau (Part 1: Building construction) DIN 18 960 Nutzungskosten im Hochbau (User costs of buildings)

Further guidelines and work aids BBSR (Bundesinstitut für Bau-, Stadt- und Raumforschung – Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development): Use periods of building components for life cycle analyses according to the Assessment System for Sustainable Building (Bewertungssystem Nachhaltiges Bauen – BNB). 2011 BBSR (Bundesinstitut für Bau-, Stadt- und Raumforschung – Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development): Update of the BBSR table on use periods of building components for life cycle analyses according to the Assessment System for Sustainable Building (Bewertungssystem Nachhaltiges Bauen – BNB) dated 3.11.2011 BBSR (Bundesinstitut für Bau-, Stadt- und Raum-

forschung – Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development): Explanations regarding the BBSR table on use periods of building components for life cycle analyses according to the Assessment System for Sustainable Building (Bewertungssystem Nachhaltiges Bauen – BNB) 2011 Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung (BMVBS – Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development); Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (BMVG – Federal Ministry of Defence) (pub.): Work aids for handling building and demolition waste as well as for use of recycled building material on federal property (Arbeitshilfen Recycling – Recycling Work Aids). 2008 Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung (BMVBS – Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development); Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (BMVG – Federal Ministry of Defence) (pub.): Arbeitshilfen Recycling (Recycling Work Aids) – Appendix. 2008 [1] Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit – BMUB (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety) (pub.): Leitfaden Nachhaltiges Bauen. (Sustainable Building Guideline.) 2014 [1] Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit – BMUB (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety) (pub.): Leitfaden Nachhaltiges Bauen (Sustainable Building Guideline) – Annexes. 2014 Umweltbundesamt (UBA – Federal Environment Agency) (pub.): Leitfaden zur umweltfreundlichen Beschaffung von elastischen Fußbodenbelägen. (Guideline on environmentally friendly procurement of elastic flooring coverings.) 2012 Zentralverband Deutsches Baugewerbe (German Construction Confederation) (pub.): Verbundabdichtungen – Hinweise für die Ausführung von flüssig zu verarbeitenden Verbundabdichtungen mit Bekleidungen und Belägen aus Fliesen und Platten für den Innen- und Außenbereich. (Composite waterproofing – Information regarding execution of composite waterproofing processed as liquids with cladding and coating composed of tiles and plates indoors and outdoors.) 2012

Databases ÖKOBAUDAT (www.oekobaudat.de) Institut für Bauen und Umwelt – IBU (Institute for Building and Environment) (www.bau-umwelt.de) WECOBIS (www.wecobis.de) GaBi (www.gabi-software.com)

Regulations EnEV Energieeinsparverordnung (Energy Saving Ordinance) 2014 (version dated 18 November 2013) Regulation (EU) No 305/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2011 laying down harmonised conditions for the marketing of construction products and repealing Council Directive 89/106/EEC (Construction Products Regulation)

Certificates RAL-UZ 38 Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel) (www.blauer-engel.de) Öko-Test (Oeko Test) (www.oekotest.de)

Certification systems DGNB Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen (German Sustainable Building Council) (www.dgnb-system.com) LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (www.usgbc.org) BREEAM Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology (www.breeam.com)

Appendix

Image credits Sincere thanks to all those involved in the production of the book by letting us have their original images, by granting permission for reproduction and by providing information. All drawings in this publication were created specially. Photographs without credits originate either from the archives of the architects or from the archives of the magazine Detail. Despite intensive efforts, it was not possible to determine the originators of some photographs and images; copyrights of the holders are however retained. Information in this regard is welcome. Title left: VIA GmbH Title middle: tretford Teppich Title right: DESIGN IN ARCHITEKTUR, Darmstadt Historical development of flooring 1 Maurice Babey, akg-images 2 Valdavia (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Ancient_Roman_Mosaics_Villa_Romana_La_ Olmeda_000_Pedrosa_De_La_Vega_-_Salda% C3%B1a_%28Palencia%29.JPG?uselang=de) 3, 4 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 5 Rufus46 (https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:San_Miniato_al_Monte_Fussboden_ Florenz-02.jpg) 6, 7, 8, 9 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 10 Lionel Allorge (https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Chateau_de_Versailles_2011_Galerie_ des_Glaces.jpg) 11 Benedikt Hotze for DLW Flooring, D – Berlin 12 Public domain (https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Pazyryk_carpet.jpg?uselang=de) Flooring as an architectural design element 1 From: Michaelsen, Hans (author): Königliches Parkett in preußischen Schlössern. (Royal parquet in Prussian palaces.) Petersberg 2010, p. 97 2 FG + SG Fotografía de Arquitectura, Lissabon 3 From: Boesiger, W. (author): Le Corbusier et son atelier rue de Sèvres. Œuvre complète 1952 – 1957 (Vol. 6). Zurich 1957, p. 144ff. (Fig. p. 150) 4 From: Lambot, Ian (ed.): Norman Foster – Buildings and Projects of Foster Associates, Vol. 3, 1978 –1985, Berlin 1989, p. 233 5 Hisao Suzuki, Barcelona 6 Georgethefourth/istockphoto.com 7 Skydeck Chicago at Willis Tower 8 From Hausladen, Gerhard; Tichelmann, Karsten: Ausbau Atlas. (Interiors Construction Manual.) Munich 2009, p. 17 9 VIA GmbH 10 As Fig. 1, p. 193 14 From: Grandjean, Etienne: Grundlagen gesunden Wohnens. (Ergonomics of the Home.) Zurich 15 As 14, p. 244 16 a Ian Scott (https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_ Sophia#/media/File:Crowning_point_in_Hagia_ Sophia.jpg) 16 b VIA GmbH 17 a José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 17 b Nacása & Partners Inc., Tokyo 18 a As Fig. 1, p. 129 18 b Roland Halbe, Stuttgart 19 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 20 As Fig. 1, p. 291 21 As Fig. 17b 22 VIA GmbH Sustainability of flooring 1 According to Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit (BMUB – Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety) (pub.): Leitfaden Nachhaltiges Bauen (Sustainable Building Guideline), Berlin 2014, p. 22 2 According to König, Holger i.a.: Lebenszyklusanalyse in der Gebäudeplanung: Grundlagen, Berechnung, Planungswerkzeuge. (Life-cycle analysis in building planning: Fundamentals, calculation, planning tools.) Munich 2009, p. 40 3 As Fig. 2, p. 39 4 According to DIN EN 15 804, Tab. 4, p. 35; Tab. 6, p. 36 5 According to DIN EN 15 804, Tab. 3, p. 34

6 According to DIN EN ISO 14 004, image 3, p. 36 7 According to DIN EN ISO 14 004, Tab. 1, p. 37 8 According to Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit – BMUB (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety) (pub.): Leitfaden Nachhaltiges Bauen (Sustainable Building Guideline), p. 29 9 According to DIN EN 15 804, image A.1 and A.2, p. 47 10 As Fig. 8, p. 24 11 According to DIN 31 051:2010-09, 3. 12 According to DIN EN 13 306:2010-09, Annex A, p. 38 13 According to DIN 31 051:2012-09, 4.3.2 14 According to DIN EN 15 643-4, image 3, p. 20 15 According to Lutz, Martin: FIGR Report No. 2 – Lebenszykluskosten von Fußbodenbelägen (Lifecycle costs of flooring coverings.) Metzingen 2010, p. 7 and 8 16 As Fig. 15, p. 19 17 According to DIN EN 15 643-3, Annex B, p. 26 18 According to DIN EN 15 643-3, 1. and DIN EN 16 309, 7. 19 According to König, Holger i. a.: Lebenszyklusanalyse in der Gebäudeplanung: Grundlagen, Berechnung, Planungswerkzeuge. (Life-cycle analysis in building planning: Fundamentals, calculation, planning tools.) Munich 2009, p. 86 20 According to Bundesinstitut für Bau-, Stadt- und Raumforschung – BBSR (Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban Affairs and Spatial Development) (pub.): Bewertungssystem Nachhaltiges Bauen (BNB – Assessment System for Sustainable Building). Berlin 2011 21 According to Bund Technischer Experten e. V. (BTE – Association of Technical Experts): Lebensdauer von Bauteilen, Zeitwerte. (Lifetime of building components, time values) Worksheet by BTE working group. Essen 2008, p. 4/9 22 As Fig. 15, p. 10 23 a According to University of Hamburg, University of Stuttgart, Knauf Consulting, PE International, Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF – Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Ökopot (pub.): Detailanalyse für Hersteller – Ökologischer Vergleich verschiedener Fußbodenbeläge (Detailed analysis for manufacturers – Ecological comparison of different flooring coverings), p. 2 projekt.knauf-consulting.de/files/handreichung_ fussboden.pdf (accessed: 24.2.2016) 23 b As Fig. 23 a, p. 3 24 Junckers Parkett GmbH 25 According to ÖKOBAUDAT (www.oekobaudat.de) 26 El khouli, Sebastian; John, Viola; Zeumer, Martin: Nachhaltig konstruieren (Sustainable construction techniques). Munich 2014, p. 101 27 Arbeitsgemeinschaft PVC-Bodenbelag Recycling (AgPR – Association for the Recycling of PVC Floor-Coverings) 28 According to Arbeitsgemeinschaft PVC-Bodenbelag Recycling (AgPR – Association for the Recycling of PVC Floor-Coverings): PVC-Bodenbelag Recycling (Recycling of PVC Floor-Coverings). Information brochure, p. 2f. 29 According to Deutsche Gesellschaft für Nachhaltiges Bauen (German Sustainable Building Council) (pub.): DGNB-Systembroschüre – Ausgezeichnet. Nachhaltig Bauen mit System. (DGNB System brochure: Excellence defined. Sustainable building with a systems approach) Berlin 2014, p. 15 Flooring in renovation and modernisation 1 From Giebeler, Georg i.a.: Atlas Sanierung. Instandhaltung, Umbau, Ergänzung. (Renovation atlas. Maintenance, conversion, supplementation.) Munich 2008, p. 78 2 According to Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit (Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety) (pub.): Arbeitshilfen Recycling. (Recycling Work Aids) Berlin 2008, p. 26, Tab. 4-2 3 According to EnEV (Energy Saving Ordinance) 2014 Annexes, Annex 3: Anforderungen Baubestand (existing buildings requirements), regarding § 8, § 9, para. 7

4 According to DIN 4102-4:2014-06, Tab. 3 5, 6, 7, 8 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 9 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart und Institut für Bauforschung e.V. (Institute for Building Research): U-Werte alter Bauteile. (U-values of old building components.) Hanover 2010 a) p. 197; b) p. 198; c) p. 202; d) p. 208 10, 11, 12 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 13 According to Balkowski, Michael: Handbuch der Bauerneuerung – Angewandte Bauphysik für die Modernisierung von Wohngebäuden. (Building renovation handbook. Applied building physics for modernisation of residential buildings.) Cologne 2008, p. 269 14 According to DIN 4109 Supplement 1:1989 -11, Tab. 17, p. 19 15 According to DIN 4109 Supplement 1:1989 -11 16 According to Informationsdienst Holz (Wood information service.) (pub.): Holzbau Handbuch. (Timber Construction Handbook.) Series 1, Part 14, Episode 1: Modernisierung von Altbauten. (Modernisation of old buildings.) Munich 2001. Cited in: Balkowski, Michael: Handbuch der Bauerneuerung – Angewandte Bauphysik für die Modernisierung von Wohngebäuden. (Building renovation handbook. Applied building physics for modernisation of residential buildings.) Cologne 2008, p. 272 17 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 18 According to DIN 18 195 -1, Tab. 1, p. 12 19, 20, 21 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 22 According to DIN 4102-4, Tab. 9, p. 18 23 According to DIN 4102-4, image 14 and 15 24 According to DIN 4102-4, Tab. 13, p. 24 25 As Fig. 16 26 According to DIN 4102-4, Tab. 27, p. 37 27 According to DIN 4102-4, Tab. 62, p. 85 28 According to DIN 4102-4, Tab. 63, p. 86 29 According to DIN 4102-4, Tab. 64, p. 87 30 Empur 31 Heide Wessely, Munich 32 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 33 VRD / fotolia Examples of projects Page 74, 75: Adolf Bereuter, Lauterbach Page 76: Werner Huthmacher, Berlin Page 77 top: OBJECT CARPET GmbH, Denkendorf Page 77 bottom: Werner Huthmacher, Berlin Page 78, 79: David Frutos / Bis Images, Murcia Page 80, 81: Jan Bitter, Berlin Page 82 top: Jochen Stüber, Hamburg Page 82 bottom, 83: Christian Lohfink, Hamburg Page 84, 85: Yatri Niehaus, Berlin Page 86, 87: Zooey Braun, Stuttgart Page 88: Udo Meinel, Berlin Page 89: bpk Jörg F. Müller Page 90 – 92: Stanisław Zajączkowski, Breslau Page 93: Bartosz Kolonko, Hongkong Page 94, 95: Miguel de Guzmán, Madrid Page 96: Roland Halbe, Stuttgart Page 98: noshe, Berlin Page 99: Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich Page 100, 101: Adrià Goula, Barcelona Page 102 top: Christoph Tempes, Friedrichsdorf Page 102 bottom, 103 bottom: VIA GmbH Page 103 top: Natalie Hett, Kronberg Page 104: Artur Lik, Koblenz Page 105: DESIGN IN ARCHITEKTUR; Darmstadt Page 106: Frank Kaltenbach, Munich Page 107: Robert Mehl, Aachen Page 108, 109: Ulrich Schwarz, Berlin Page 110, 111: Magenta 4, Eichstätt Page 112: Christian Richters, Münster Page 113: Luuk Kramer, Amsterdam Page 114, 115: ATP/Aleksander Dyja Photographs introducing sections Page 4: Office and commercial building, Shanghai (CHN) 2006, A-ASTERISK and A-I-SHA architects Photograph: Nacása & Partners Inc., Tokyo Page 6: Flooring of Lateran Basilica, Rome (I) Photograph: Christian Schittich, Munich Page 22: Damaged wood flooring before renovation Photograph: fotolia / wabeno Page 72: New reading room in Berlin State Library (D) 2012, hg merz architekten museumsgestalter, Berlin Photograph: bpk Jörg F. Müller

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Appendix

Index Acidification potential Assessment (overall) Bamboo floorboards Bamboo parquet Barrier-free Building assessment Building diagnosis Building material databases Building stock Building upkeep

27ff., 39ff. 48 93 93 68 32 51 39 50ff. 35ff.

Care 29ff. Carpeting, carpet 12f., 71, 76f., 88f., 90ff., 106f. Cement tiles 102f., 104f. Ceramic flooring, ceramic covering 10, 70 Certification systems 48 Change-of-use measures 50 Cleaning 29ff., 33 Colour, floor colour 15, 17ff. Comparative unit 24 Concrete floor 100f. Conversion measures 50 Cosmati floors 9ff. Damage to flooring Daylight Deconstruction Decorative flooring Deflection, sagging Disposal Downcycling Durability

54ff. 17 31ff. 8f., 11, 20, 50 54ff. 45ff. 32ff. 14

Economic consideration 29f. Elastic floor coverings 11f., 47, 71 Elastomer coverings 12 Element formats 19ff. Energy-efficient renovation 52f. Environmental compatibility 24ff. Environmental impact 24ff. Environmental product declaration 28f., 39ff. Environmental product designation 28f. EPD (Environmental Product Declaration) 28f., 39ff. Equivalents 27ff. Eutrophication potential 26ff., 39ff. Faience Fire protection Fire resistance classes Flexibility of use Floor coverings Floor design Floor inclination Floor landscape Floor mosaic Flooring level Flooring surface Formal design Functional requirements

10 64ff. 63ff. 15f. 37ff., 44ff., 69ff. 14ff. 106f. 16, 106 9 53f. 14ff. 18ff. 14

Glass flooring Global warming potential Graphic design

16f. 26ff., 39ff. 15, 18f.

Harmful substances Height compensation Historical development Hollow-cavity floor Hollow-core concrete planks Hollow-core slab (floor-ceiling construction) Hypocaust floors

52f. 54f 8ff. 80f., 108f. 112f.

Impact assessment Impact category Impact indicator Inclination Inspection Intarsia/inlay technique Italian Renaissance Late antiquity Level development Levelling fill

79f. 10f. 25ff., 37ff. 26ff. 27 14 30, 50 9f., 11, 19f. 8f. 9 16ff., 55ff. 55f.

Life-cycle assessment 24ff., 37ff. Life-cycle costs 29f. Life-cycle inventory 32, 39ff. Life-cycle stages 29, 32, 39ff. Life-cycle steps 25ff. Life cycle 24ff., 30ff. Lifetime 29ff., 37ff., 50ff. Linoleum 11ff., 45, 110f., 114f. Load-bearing capacity of floor-ceiling construction 56 Loam floors 8 Maintenance, servicing 30f., 50 Majolica 10 Modernisation, modernisation measures 50ff. Modular arrangement 15f. Moisture protection, exposure to moisture 60ff. Mosaic flooring 9, 19f., 102f. Mosaic parquet 82f. Mosaic technique 9f. Natural stone coverings

Tongue-and-groove connections Trompe-l’∞il effect Underfloor heating Unevenness Vinyl covering Visual perception

10f. 19f. 69f., 94f., 111ff. 55f. 94f. 15ff.

Waterproofing measures 60ff. Wet room flooring 61f. Wood flooring, wood coverings 10f., 45f., 57ff., 70f. Wood paving 108f. Wood-concrete composite floor-ceiling construction 56 Wooden floorboards 10f., 74f., 80f., 82ff., 94

69f. 30 51ff. 19f. 11 27ff., 39ff.

Obsolescence Old-building renovation Ornament Ornamental stone flooring Ozone depletion potential

Panel parquet 11, 104f. Parquet 19f., 79f., 82f., 90, 93, 98f., 104f. Paving 19 Plate covering 9f., 19ff. Primary energy 39ff. Product systems 24f. Protection of building stock 51ff. PVC coverings 12 Recycling, recycling potential Renewal Renovation, renovation measures Repair, repair measures Replacement cycles Resource consumption Resource use Revision Roman antiquity Room acoustics Rough floor Rubber

32ff., 45ff. 31f. 50ff. 31, 50 51 26f. 26 31 10 76, 88 55 12, 45

Screeds, screed floors

8f., 58f., 68f., 74f., 79f., 84f., 86f., 112f. Sensory perception 14f. Shape 15f. Skewness 54f. Sociocultural effects 35ff. Solid surface, mineral-based 96f. Sound protection 55f., 58ff. Spatial aesthetics 15ff. Spatial concept /design 15ff. Spatial effects 15 Spatial impression / appearance 18f. Spatial perception 14ff. Sports floor 110f. Sprung floors 110f. Status analysis 51ff. Stone covering 45f. Stone plate covering 9f., 86f. Structural height 51ff., 56 Subfloors 68f. Subjects of protection 25ff. Summer smog potential 28ff., 39ff. Surface contrasts 15, 17ff. Sustainability 24ff., 46f., 50ff. System boundaries 24, 33 Targets of protection Terracotta tiles Terrazzo floors Tessellation Textile floor covering Texture Thermal protection Tile floors

25ff. 10 8f., 98f. 19ff. 12f., 18, 45f., 47 15, 18ff. 52ff., 57f. 10f., 79f., 102f., 104f.

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