Flooring. Volume 1 Flooring Volume 1: Standards, solution principles, materials 9783955533021, 9783955533014

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∂ Practice

Flooring Volume 1 Function and Technology

Standards Solution Principles Materials

José Luis Moro

Edition Detail

Author José Luis Moro, Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Architekt University of Stuttgart, Institute for Design and Construction – IEK Assistant: Julia López Hidalgo

Publisher Editorial services and editorial assistants: Steffi Lenzen (Project Manager) Jana Rackwitz Editorial staff: Carola Jacob-Ritz, Heike Messemer Drawings: Ralph Donhauser, Simon Kramer Translation into English: Übersetzungsbüro I Translation Agency Antoinette Aichele-Platen, Munich www.antoinetteaichele.com Übersetzungen Gründing I Gruending Translations Dr. Yasmin Gründing (Univ. Lond.) www.gruending-translations.de Copy Editor: Übersetzungsbüro I Translation Agency Antoinette Aichele-Platen, Munich Proofreading: Stefan Widdess, Berlin

© 2016 Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Munich An Edition DETAIL book

ISBN 978-3-95553-301-4 (Print) ISBN 978-3-95553-302-1 (E-Book) ISBN 978-3-95553-303-8 (Bundle) Printed on acid-free paper made from cellulose bleached without the use of chlorine. This book is protected by copyright. All rights are reserved, specifically all rights to the translation, reprinting, citation, re-use of illustrations and tables, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other ways and storage of material from the book in databases, in whole or in part. Any reproduction of this book or parts of this book is permissible only within the limits imposed by current valid copyright law and shall be subject to charges. Violations of these rights shall be subject to the penalties imposed by copyright law. This textbook uses terms applicable at the time of writing and is based on the current state of art, to the best of the author’s and editor’s knowledge and belief. All drawings in this book were made specifically by the publisher. No legal claims can be derived from the contents of this book. Typesetting & production: Simone Soesters Printed by: Grafisches Centrum Cuno GmbH & Co. KG, Calbe 1st edition, 2016 This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 978-3-95553-258-1). Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek. Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the internet at http://dnb.ddb.de. Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG Hackerbrücke 6, 80335 Munich, Germany Tel: +49 89 381620-0 www.detail.de

Contents 5

Preface

8 11 29 43

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles Flooring in a constructive context Usage functions Protective functions Constructive functions

50 74

Execution Flooring types and constructive connections Floor coverings

116 119 120

Appendix Author, literature, standards Image credits Index

∂ Practice Flooring is published in two volumes. Volume 1 is primarily concerned with function and technical construction. It serves as a planning aid for designing flooring constructions and coverings. In addition to sound theoretical principles, it provides background information and decision-making aids for various flooring types, materials as well as constructive connections and transitions. Volume 2 is dedicated to historical development, architectural effect and life cycle – including renovation or modernisation – and the ecological balance of flooring. It contains a comprehensive project part with successful execution examples. Volume 1 – Function and Technology Volume 2 – Architecture and Design

Preface

Flooring plays an important part in the overall architectural impression of a place – in particular of interior spaces – which is significantly influenced by its materiality and appearance. The aesthetic potential is however often underestimated, assuming a subordinate ranking in the design process. This is partly due to the fact that flooring generally has to fulfil particularly tight functional constraints that do not immediately seem to allow any major creative leeway. Users are in constant physical contact with the floor and reliant on free and safe accessibility within the construction as well as strict fulfilment of the associated functions. Flooring has to meet the demands on a building component subjected to extreme use. To allow unrestricted usability, flooring should be flat, even and – as far as possible – free of excessive inclines, steps or other interruptions. As far as shape is concerned, the scope of design is therefore relatively restricted. Irrespective of this, flooring constitutes an essential element of architectural design and can have a strong visual impact. By making up a relatively high proportion of the visible surfaces, the influence on how interior spaces are perceived is significant. Flooring can contribute considerably to the architectural appearance of a building through its material, colour and ornamental design. Graphical treatment of the flooring surface can set visual accents in a room and – by reflecting the rhythm of the building structure – powerfully support the effect of architectural composition. The substantial impact of flooring is also attributable to its physical proximity to the perceiver. As opposed to walls and ceilings, users are in direct contact with the surface, and therefore immediately exposed to a constant haptic

impression of the nature of the material making up the floor, its texture as well as its warmth or coldness. The aim of this two-volume publication is to give an overview of flooring with regard to aesthetics, function and construction. Due to the broadness and complexity of the topic, which is increasing on account of the constantly rising requirements in the building industry, this publication focusses exclusively on interior flooring. Volume 1 is primarily concerned with function and technical construction. It serves as a planning aid for designing flooring constructions and coverings. In addition to sound theoretical principles, it provides background information and decision-making aids for various flooring types, materials as well as constructive connections and transitions. Volume 2 is dedicated to historical development, architectural effect and life cycle – including renovation or modernisation – and the ecological balance of flooring. It contains a comprehensive project part with successful execution examples offering inspiration for individual application in practice. José Luis Moro

6

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

8 9

Flooring in a constructive context Allocation of functions to layers Principal structures of floors and ceilings

11 12 16 21 22 25 27 27

Usage functions Accessibility and general usability Safe access and general safety aspects Barrier-free Room acoustics Thermal room conditioning and ventilation Hygiene and value retention Special requirements of usage for sport Special requirements of industrial use

29 32 35 37 38 39 41

Protective functions Sound protection Fire protection Thermal protection Heat storage Heat conduction on contact Moisture protection Protection from electrostatic discharge

43 43 44

Constructive functions Load transfer, load distribution Media routing Durability

7

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Flooring in a constructive context Flooring is constituted of layers or series of layers on top of load-carrying floor or ceiling constructions. It should always be considered in constructive connection with the entire building. The functions that flooring and the load-bearing construction are required to fulfil are fundamental factors defining their constructive constitution.

Changing material properties Primitive flooring able to satisfy very elementary functional requirements can be created by cleaning, levelling and compacting natural ground composed of soil. The latter can be achieved through very simple methods such as watering, a process in which the adsorption effect of water serves to bind the particles of earth. This renders a plane surface that is at least partly dust-free and abrasionresistant to a limited extent.

for walking on, this wood covering also possesses heat-insulating properties allowing it to keep any coldness of the ground away from the feet. In this case, the floor covering layer fulfils (at least) two different functions. In view of the fact that certain functions are assigned to specific layers of a construction, this floor can already be described as multifunctional. Construction however often also involves conscious utilisation of purely monofunctional layers, e.g. waterproofing sheets.

Introduction of separate layers Despite the simplicity of the primitive flooring described, the process involves targeted constructive measures aiming at maximum compliance with the chief requirements of the flooring surface for a specific use. A waterbound floor is an example of a measure that modifies a surface material characteristic, i.e. its more or less sandy and loose composition, to this end. A covering composed of timber planks laid out flat on the other hand already involves introduction of a coat-like layer made of a specifically selected material able to fulfil essential functions due to its properties. On closer inspection, it becomes evident that apart from creating an even and firm surface

Monofunctionality – multifunctionality The allocation of specific functions to selected components, layers or coats, which fulfil these primarily on the basis of their material properties, is helpful for understanding the composition of constructions and for making well-founded decisions during the construction process. Already on a functional level, the following should be differentiated: the actual usage-related chief function of a component – in this case comfortable and safe accessibility of flooring as well as possible influence on the spatial situation – and the associated constructional subfunctions. These may include transfer of forces, heat insulation and storage, sound and fire protection as well as absorption or reflection of light etc. Precisely these subfunctions are normally allocated to individual layers. From this perspective, the development of complex multilayer constructions from originally simple, sometimes homogeneous single-shell components can be understood as a process in which the allocation of functions to material layers or coats takes place in an increasingly differentiated manner. Simple components with a rather uncomplicated structure fulfil several functions at the same time, i.e. they are multifunctional, yet only with a moderate efficiency in regard to the individual subfunctions.

Allocation of functions to layers

The floor is defined as any ground surface within a specific room or area. The term is however not necessarily only building-specific: the floor of the mouth or the floor of the ocean are examples of this. The term flooring on the other hand already clearly implies accessibility of the ground surface. In this sense, flooring can be considered as floors that can at least be stepped on and in most all cases also walked on. Certain minimum requirements must be fulfilled for this purpose, particularly with respect to the stability of the surface and its characteristics regarding evenness and flatness. These requirements necessitate constructive measures, which are considered more closely below.

1

8

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Targeted assignment of functions to individual layers, i.e. monofunctionality, on the other hand allows considerable specialisation of these for this particular subfunction and therefore also a distinct increase in their efficiency with regard to these subfunctions. The use of monofunctional layers allows optimal fulfilment of specific subfunctions. Multifunctional layers on the other hand are associated with a drawback in this context, because major conflicts between the targets of the combined subfunctions often exist, such as between transfer of forces and heat insulation. While the former needs strong and dense materials, insulation normally requires just the opposite, namely porous and light materials. Fulfilment of both subfunctions by a single layer composed of a homogeneous material may clearly be very difficult to achieve. Specialisation and differentiation of layers The fact that flooring is described as a constructively differentiated element is attributable to the classification of layers fulfilling specialised functions described above. Over time, the upper limiting regions of floors or floor-ceiling constructions developed from initially undifferentiated floor constructions to independent layer packages. This was because the surfaces of the main loadcarrying construction no longer met the rising demands made on them. As far as floors against soil are concerned, there came a time when loam or other screeds 1

2

Oak floorboards in the Maritime Museum of Denmark, Helsingør (DK) 2013, BIG – Bjarke Ingels Group Principal layer structure of a floor plate against soil according to DIN 18 195-4 with the most important necessary and optional functional layers. The flooring-relevant layers are identified as components of the flooring structure (FS). a Simplest structure: Sealing is achieved with an anti-capillary layer (4). Flooring structure (FS) is limited to an optional surface treatment or coating here (1). According to DIN 18 195-4,

used were no longer considered adequately abrasion-resistant or clean, so that they were covered with an additional firmer layer. Similarly, the surface formed by floorboards on top of wooden beam ceilings was found to be insufficient, resulting in coverage with an additional layer that could easily be renewed as required. The influence of industrial building technology led to considerable intensification of this process, so that today‘s floorings are generally composed of a series of layers of materials, partly significantly technically modified and optimised to fulfil relatively narrowly defined subfunctions. The latter applies particularly to the uppermost layer, i.e. the floor covering.

1 Smoothing, coating or levelling with filler 2 Floor plate (necessary) 3 Separating layer 4 Anti-capillary gravel layer (optional if sealing layer (8) exists) 5 Filtering layer (optional) 6 Flooring structure (at least necessary if sealing layer (8) exists) 7 Thermal and /or impact sound insulation

1 (FS)

2

(both optional) 8 Sealing layer according to DIN 18 195-4 (necessary, except when floor plate (2) is made of waterproof concrete) 9 Levelling layer (can also be executed as thermal insulation layer instead of thermal insulation layer (7))

3

4

5

8 (FS)

2

4

5

3 (FS)

8

2

4

5

9

Principal structures of floors and ceilings

The sequence of layers above the top edge of the load-bearing construction is described as flooring structure. The sequence of layers making up the flooring primarily depends on the constructive subfunctions assumed by the flooring in association with the complete structure of the enveloping component, i.e. a floor against the soil or an intermediate floor structure in this context. These may vary considerably from case to case: flooring may under certain circumstances contain a layer which is impervious to moisture, if the complete component – such as a floor against soil – is required to fulfil this function as a whole. In other cases, however, this sealing layer is either integrated in the layer sequence of the this structure is only suitable for rooms with minimal requirements, but not for constantly used rooms. b Conventional structure with waterproofing against soil moisture on the floor plate. In this case, the flooring structure (FS) consists of package (6) and (8) (and possibly (7) and (3)). c Structure with waterproofing against soil moisture under the floor plate. Here the flooring structure (FS) consists of flooring package (6) (and possibly (7) and (3)).

a

6 (FS)

7 (FS)

3

b

3 7 6 (FS) (FS) (FS)

2c

9

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

1 (FS) 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Screed Separating layer Sealing layer Floor plate Anti-capillary gravel layer Thermal insulation Floor covering Impact sound insulation Thermal insulation consisting of closedcell foam material

2 (FS)

3 (FS)

2 (FS)

2

3 (FS)

1 (FS)

6 (FS)

4 5

3

4

5a

(Fig. 2 c, p. 9 and Fig. 5). Fig. 3 – 5 illustrate different examples of constructive executions of complete structures. Floor structure between storeys with heated rooms As far as floor-ceiling constructions with heated rooms are concerned, two alternatives generally come into consideration for the main construction, namely a solid slab (Fig. 6 a) or a joist /beam ceiling (Fig. 6 b). Both solutions can be considered analogous with regard to the flooring. In virtually all cases, a closed, flat and even surface is created by the loadcarrying ceiling construction. The actual flooring layers are laid or fitted on top of this, all of which is then referred to as the flooring structure. Important functions of floor-ceiling constructions that may also influence the flooring structure include sound protection, room conditioning, media routing as well as thermal and fire protection, depending on the particular case. Sound protection requirements may specify a floating screed (Fig. 7 b) or a bonded screed (Fig. 7 a) to increase the mass of the ceiling. Alternatively, sound protection can, at least partly, be allocated to a subceiling (Fig. 7 b). A prerequisite for room conditioning by means of heating (and additionally also

Floor against soil An important subfunction of a floor plate lying on soil is to proof it against rising groundwater. This is normally ensured by creation of a sealing layer in accordance with DIN 18 195-4. Two positions are generally possible for this: below (Fig. 2 c, p. 9) or above the load-carrying floor plate (Fig. 2 b, p. 9). The upper position is normally preferred, mainly for building procedure reasons. The sealing layer is included in the flooring structure in this version (Fig. 4). If the room above the floor plate is heated, an additional thermal insulation layer needs to be included. This can in turn also be integrated in the flooring structure (Fig. 2 b, p. 9 and Fig. 4) or alternatively lie under the floor plate

2

TE BS

1

2

3

3 4

4

ing (BS) (necessary) Subceiling space (optional) Subceiling shell (optional)

TE BS

b

10

7 (FS)

1 (FS)

3 4 9 5

cooling) is that exposed surfaces can be thermally activated. This function can generally be assumed by the flooring or ceiling surface. In the first case, the heating and cooling elements are integrated in the flooring structure (Fig. 7 c). If media routing in the ceiling is intended, there are two options: either to lay lines in the subceiling cavity (Fig. 7 b) or in the flooring structure, which can also be designed as a raised access floor if required (Fig. 7 d). In solid constructions, fire protection of the complete ceiling is provided by the loadcarrying plate, so that the flooring does not need to fulfil any further requirements. If this is not the case (e.g. in conventional timber ceilings), the flooring may also have to fulfil fire protection requirements (in case of exposure to fire from above). Floor-ceiling construction adjacent to unheated rooms When floor structures between storeys are adjacent to unheated rooms, a thermal insulation layer has to be integrated in the ceiling structure. Two options are again available: the thermal insulation layer can either be placed on the underside of the bearing shell (Fig. 9 a), so that the flooring structure does not need to fulfil any thermal protection requirements, or on the ceiling plate (Fig. 9 b). In the latter

BS

TE BS Top edge of bearing shell

1 2.1 B 2.2 3

4

4

5 6a

8 (FS)

b

3 2.1 Surface-forming shell of a beam ceiling (necessary) 2.2 Level with beams (B) and beam spac-

Floor structure (optional) Load-carrying construction (solid plate, necessary)

7 (FS)

4

remaining component structure – e. g. below the load-bearing construction and hence beyond the flooring structure – or not existent at all, such as in an intermediate floor-ceiling construction. For this reason, the composition of flooring always depends on the complete construction of the floor or ceiling and can therefore only be defined in overall association with the component. Various compositions are examined in the case examples presented below.

1

2 (FS)

Layer structure of floor plate under unheated room, simple design. According to DIN 18 195-4, a sealing layer (3) is not required if ground conditions are favourable (non-cohesive without water retention hazard) and requirements are minimal. Here the flooring structure (FS) consists of layers (1) and (3) and hence ensures waterproofing. Layer structure of floor plate under unheated room. Thermal insulation layer on the floor plate. Here the flooring structure (FS) consists of layers (1), (2), (3) and (6) and ensures necessary waterproofing by means of a sealing layer (3). Separating layer (2) should be designed as a partial or complete vapour barrier. Alternative layer structure of a floor plate under unheated room. Thermal insulation (9) and sealing layer (3) in this case under the floor plate

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

1 TE BS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

case, the thermal insulation layer can be integrated in the flooring structure. For functional differentiation between impact sound and heat insulation, these are generally laid as separate insulation layers. It should be noted that a vapour retarder or barrier sheet should be incorporated above the thermal insulation layer in this type of structure. The examples demonstrate clearly how closely the constructive execution of flooring is connected to the overall context of the complete component. Layers outside the floor structure layer package (e.g. the thermal insulation, such as the case in Fig. 9 a), therefore always influence the sequence of layers of the flooring itself, even though they are not as such part of it. The functions that have to be fulfilled by flooring and the associated flooring requirements are considered in three subsections, depending on the type of function involved: “Usage functions” (p. 11ff.), “Protective functions” (p. 29ff.) or “Constructive functions” (p. 43ff.). Usage functions Usage-related flooring requirements range from basic accessibility and safe access to special requirements related to usage for sport or industrial use.

Floor covering Cementitious screed Solid plate Separating layer Impact sound insulation Hollow cavity damping Thermal insulation Gypsum plasterboard Electrical lines Levelling layer

11 Heating element 12 Floor plate 13 Pedestal with support and adjustment nut 14 Planking 15 Wood beam 16 Dry screed FS Layers of flooring structure TE BS Top edge of bearing shell

1

2

b 6 8

a

Accessibility and general usability

An elementary basic requirement for usage of flooring is to offer an appropriate surface for people to walk and stand on as well as a suitable surface to put furnishings on. It is also often expected from flooring that rolling objects or devices can be moved smoothly and that they remain in place once parked. A requirement for comfortable accessibility by foot is that the flooring is either horizontal or only very slightly inclined. Slopes, provided they are not too extreme, are tolerable, but not ideal, as they are found to be strenuous especially by older persons. This is however mainly applicable to traffic routes. The willingness to 7c accept floor inclinations is even less for much-frequented commonly used areas. Standing on sloping floors for longer periods of time is tiring and walking on them is always more exhausting than walking on horizontal surfaces. The safest and most comfortable ground to walk on is continuous, without any steps or disturbing unevenness. The latter is experienced as unpleasant, especially when unevenness occurs abruptly. Although flat steps generally do not require too much effort, provided the ratio of treads to risers is favourable, 8a they require increased attention and have

1 2 4 4 5 3

6

7

8

9

tion floor-ceiling construction with heated or unheated rooms (insulation (6)/(7) can serve as 1 acoustic hollow cavity damping as well as thermal heat insulation) Flooring structure (FS) floating a As cementitious screed b As dry screed (generally preferable to wet screed in this lightweight construction method) Constructive design of a solid-construction floor-ceiling construction with a heated (top) and unheated (bottom) room. In both cases, the separating layers (4) should be designed as partial or complete vapour barriers. Thermal insulation integrated a underneath the bearing ceiling b in the flooring structure (FS). Heated screed according to DIN 18 560-2 Construction Type A. 9 a

4

5

9 1

12

10 11

13

d 1

2

4

8

5

6 8

14

15

1

b

7

1 2 3 a Floating screed b Bonded screed Here the flooring structure (FS) consists of layers (1) – (5) and does not require waterproofing, since this is provided underneath the floor plate. Principal constructive design of a floor-ceiling construction including optional additional layers: a Solid construction b Beam construction Constructive design of a solid-construction floorceiling construction with heated rooms: a With bonded screed (2) b With floating screed and subceiling, which also accommodates electrical lines (9) c With heated screed (according to DIN 18 560-2 Construction Type C) d With raised access floor and subceiling Constructive design of a wooden-beam-construc-

2

3

2

4

16

5

6

4

5

7 11

5

6

8

b

11

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

a considerable impact on the possible utilisation of a room, because certain activities or furnishings are simply not possible when flooring incorporates steps. The room-dividing effect of steps may however be desired in some cases (see Volume 2) [1]. Another important aspect of utilisation of interior spaces is the ability to set up items of furnishing on the flooring as required for their use. This can generally be defined by the rule that objects placed on allocated areas of furniture (e.g. shelves) neither fall down or over. Pull-out parts like drawers or trays may also not slide out of their own accord, i.e. they must remain inside the furniture when put there. It should similarly be prevented that the furnishing objects themselves – especially tall and slim items – fall over on inclined flooring [2]. It is virtually impossible to park objects or frames that can be rolled or equipment on rollers on flooring with even the slightest inclination (especially if the surface is smooth and hard). Special measures have to be taken to prevent them from rolling away in an uncontrolled manner. Flooring in much-frequented commonly used areas should be as even as possible, have no steps and in particular be horizontal (Fig. 10). Dimensional tolerances According to DIN 18 202, only specific deviations from the target plane geometry of generally even flooring are permitted. This requirement does not refer to planned deviations, such as a step, but regulates manufacturing-related dimensional tolerances. A summary of the flatness deviation limits specified by the standard is represented in Fig. 11 b. These limits refer to separate measuring points at defined distances. Intermediate values can be interpolated using Fig. 11 a. 12

The fact that these target values are material independent is emphasised in DIN 18 202. Despite the extreme variation of tolerance ranges of most materialspecific building methods, the requirement of small dimensional deviations is solely based on the usage function. According to the standard, the closer together the measuring points are, the smaller the tolerance range. This intends to avoid abrupt differences in height, i.e. possible tripping obstacles. Gradual transitions between points at different heights across larger distances are tolerable on the other hand, because these practically correspond to a minimal, often barely perceptible inclination. Depending on the specific use, maximum values of the flatness deviation, which are far below the standard value, may however be required [3]. This applies e.g. to special industrial buildings (high bay warehouses, workshops with special machines) or research and sports buildings (see “Special requirements of usage for sport”, p. 27f. and “Special requirements of industrial use”, p. 27ff.). As raw floor-ceiling constructions are produced in the work phase preliminary to flooring, they have an important influence on its evenness. It is hardly ever possible to successfully compensate sagging floor-ceiling constructions through the flooring structure retrospectively. If these deformations of the bearing shell are transferred to the flooring, the problems mentioned in association with inclinations are bound to occur. Not least for this reason, dimensional deviations in raw ceilings intended to accommodate flooring structures are generally only tolerated within relatively tight limits (Fig. 11 b, line 2 a) in DIN 18 202 – albeit not quite as tight as for ready-made flooring. Even when measuring points are 15 m (and further) away from each other, the maximum height-related tolerance of raw floor-

ceiling constructions is limited to only 20 mm. This measure concerns the sag, which should be complied with by adequate stiffness of the load-bearing construction within the corresponding limits. Inclinations Walking upwards on inclined flooring requires extra energy, because of the additional gravity component that has to be overcome. The steeper the flooring, the larger this component will be. This geometry-related force component (see “Safe access and general safety aspects“, p. 12ff.) also plays a role in the slide stability of flooring since ramps in the direction of fall represent an increased slipping hazard. The additional effort required to surmount the elevation of inclined floors is particularly strenuous for sick and older persons. At a specific inclination, sloping flooring such as ramps are no longer negotiable by wheelchair users (see “Barrier-free”, p. 16ff.). The upper limits defined for inclination of flooring with regard to barrier-free construction should generally be observed, because of the increasing stringency of the demand for barrier-free mobility in new designs. The general usage-related restrictions of inclined flooring have practically limited their prevalence to the form of ramps in traffic routes. If relatively steep ramp areas cannot be avoided for specific reasons, a stair ramp, which does not differ much from conventional stairs, may be advisable in some cases. The riser heights are small and the treads are normally identical to the average distance of a footstep, i.e. about 63 cm (or a multiple of this). Safe access and general safety aspects

The requirements of flooring dimensional accuracy for comfortable usage are also relevant with regard to safe accessibility.

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

10

Limit values for evenness deviations [mm]

Stumbling hazard Holes in flooring, even smaller ones, removal of liquids or granulates through Particularly abrupt changes in the floor should generally be avoided, since these the openings (see “Slipping hazard”, geometry, i.e. elevations or recesses in can lead to tripping or shoes getting p. 14ff.). Larger openings in flooring must the flooring surface, represent a safety caught (especially stilettos) [6]. There are always be closed with covers or lids that risk. The reason for this is that walking nevertheless several uses for which floorare flush with the ground [8]. A falling is normally an automatic, hardly coning is fitted with a continuous arrangehazard exists starting from a specific scious process, during which the walker ment of smaller openings. According opening size. expects a particular continuous nature of to recommendations by the German the floor. Sudden unforeseen obstacles Statutory Accident Insurance (Deutsche 10 While the design of floors and ceilings is curved lead to stumbling or taking a hard tread Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung – DGUV), and merging, flooring is strictly level all the way to the edges. (in case of elevations) or stepping into the mesh width of grids in public traffic 11 Limit values for deviations from evenness of empty space (in case of recesses) and routes may for example not exceed upper surfaces of ceilings, screeds and flooring according to DIN 18 202 to an even harder subsequent tread. If 10 mm in one direction, to avoid the dana For interpolation of limit values between the walking person already expects to ger of the heels of shoes getting caught measuring points encounter unevenness, such as on very [7]. These grids are often used to allow b Limit values at measuring points irregular, bumpy flooring, he/she will be 30 much more careful and the risk of stumbling decreases. Not easily seen, sudden changes in the inclination of the flooring 25 Line 1 can also be dangerous, because they lead to excessive bending of the foot 20 and possibly accident [4]. Gradual transitions from flooring to walls should Line 2a and 2b 15 for example be avoided for this reason Line 3 (Fig. 10). Ridge-like elevations of over 10 4 mm are generally considered as stumLine 4 bling hazards [5]. 5 A decisive safety risk factor is therefore the perceptibility of changes in the geom0 etry of the flooring surface: unavoidable 0.1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 tripping hazards should (additionally) be Distance of measuring points [m] a signalised using colour for this reason (see “Barrier-free”, p. 16ff.). Single, solitary Line as limit values [mm] steps in floor surfaces should be avoided. for measuring point If height differences between adjoining distances [m] up to flooring areas have to be overcome, it 0.1 1 1) 4 1) 10 1) 15 1) is safer to group a number of steps (at 1 Incomplete upper surfaces of ceilings, subconcrete and subfloors 10 15 20 25 30 least three are recommended) rather than 5 8 12 15 20 2a Incomplete upper surfaces of ceilings or floor plates for addition of floor arranging them individually at larger disstructures, e.g. bonded screeds or on separating layer, floating screeds, tances. The riser height, i.e. height offset industrial floors, tile and plate coverings in mortar bed of the stair step, also plays a role. This 2b Complete upper surfaces of ceilings or floor plates for subordinated 5 8 12 15 20 should not be less than a minimum size purposes, e.g. storage areas, cellars, monolithic concrete floors so as not to be overlooked by the walking 3 Complete floors, e.g. screeds as wearing screeds, screeds for addition 2 4 10 12 15 of floor coverings, floor coverings, tile coverings, coverings smoothed person and present a stumbling hazard. with filler and glued coverings DIN 18 065 specifies a minimum riser 4 As in line 3, but with superior requirements, e.g. self-levelling compounds 1 3 9 12 15 height of 140 mm for treads inside buildings, irrespective of building usage. 11b 1) Intermediate values can be found in Fig. 11 a and rounded to the next millimetre. 13

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Corrected mean total acceptance angle

αtot

12

Smallest displacement volume per unit area [cm3/dm2]

Slip resistance class

Displacement volume class

6° to 10°

R9

4

V4

> 10° to 19°

R 10

6

V6

> 19° to 27°

R 11

8

V8

> 27° to 35°

R 12

10

V 10

> 35°

R 13

Falling hazard, danger through falling objects Bigger height offsets between adjacent flooring surfaces bear an increased falling hazard, which can lead to severe accidents. According to the Technical Rules for Workplaces (Arbeitsstättenrichtlinie – ASR), graduations between 20 and 100 cm in height constitute a so-called danger zone, while from 100 cm onwards this is declared as a falling hazard. In the latter case, the floor height offset must be secured with a protection device (or an equivalent permanently installed item of furnishing); with regard to the danger zone, this is normally not mandatory, depending on usage. It should however be taken into account that even smaller offsets in the defined range, i.e. ones that are just over 20 cm, bear similar hazards as already discussed in connection with the individual treads of stairs. A clear signalisation of these graduations is certainly recommendable. Protective devices have to be at least 1 m high; if the fall height is over 12 m, at least 1.10 m is prescribed. If the protective device is wide enough to offer comparable protection against falling, less than the specified measurement may be adequate [9]. In addition to the actual falling hazard at height offsets or openings in flooring, the danger of falling objects also has to be taken into consideration. These may harm people located on the lower level. The gap therefore has to be so small or narrow that nothing more than smaller, non-dangerous objects can fall down. DIN 18 065, for example, specifies a maximum permissible width of the gap between a flight of stairs and a wall of 6 cm [10]. In workplaces with a hazard of falling objects, toe boards at least 5 cm in height (or a comparable measure) have to be fitted to the edge of the floor around openings [11]. 14

13

Of relevance is also the largest permissible opening size, especially for grids that can be walked on. Pursuant to statutory accident insurance guideline BGI/ GUV-I 588-1 [12], grating mesh widths are defined taking into account the following factors: • Safe to walk on • Safe to drive on • Size of objects that are to be prevented from falling through • Passage of light, air, liquids, dirt, weather precipitations • Psychological effect when working in high-altitude workplaces, e.g. downward visibility Regulations regarding mesh sizes of grid floors in workplaces are normally such that a ball with a diameter of 35 mm cannot fall through; if permanent work areas are located under the grid area, then this is reduced to 20 mm. Open gaps between the edges or cut-out edges of grid flooring and neighbouring components necessitate a toe board when a distance of 30 mm is exceeded. Slipping hazard Human motion is such that when placing a foot on the floor – while walking or standing – there is a firm horizontal hold between the foot and the floor surface. If this is not warranted, the foot slips on the floor, which causes an acute falling hazard and may lead to accidents. The Federation of the Statutory Accident Insurance Institutions for the Industrial Sector (Hauptverband der gewerblichen Berufsgenossenschaften – HVBG) provides an indication of the frequency and severity of slipping accidents [13]. This is why it has to be ensured that flooring generally offers a specific minimum measure of resistance to slipping, and that not fully glued floor coverings do not slip out of place.

Demands with regard to anti-slip properties are particularly stringent for flooring in public areas and in workplaces, but also in wet rooms [14]. The basic physical prerequisite for satisfactory slip resistance on flooring is the prevalence of adequate friction or also mechanical grip between shoe (or the naked foot) and flooring surface. In this case, both mechanisms can be considered as different physical principles of action [15]. The anti-slip effect is however not only dependent on the nature of the floor, but also on other factors. The DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) recommendation [16] divides these into technical, organisational and person-related parameters. Those relevant for flooring include – in addition to the nature of the floor covering itself – the cleaning method, type of usage, inclination of the floor surface, existence of sharp curves in the walking line as well as, and in particular, existence of slippery substances. The latter are liquids or granulates, which act as lubricants significantly reducing adhesion of the foot to the ground. These include water, fats and oils, various granulates (e.g. sand) as well as different types of contaminants. For average building uses, such slippery substances are rarely found on floors, while this is quite normal in wet rooms and in association with specific industrial uses. Other factors, such as the 12 Allocation of corrected mean total acceptance angles of flooring covers inclined for testing purposes to slip resistance classes according to DIN 51 130 13 Allocation of profiled flooring to volumes per unit area to displacement volume class according to DIN 51 130 14 Slip-resistant studded flooring in the museum Staatsgalerie Stuttgart (D) 1984, James Stirling, Michael Wilford & Associates a Spatial impression b Stud structure in detail

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

14 a

nature of the shoes worn, the physical and mental constitution of the person walking as well as his/her gait, also influence the risk of slipping, but are beyond the subject area covered by the scope of this book. DIN 51 130 and DIN 51 131 use two different parameters for determining of the slipping hazard on a specific floor: slip resistance and the coefficient of sliding friction of flooring. The former is concerned with flooring surfaces in general and applies to workplaces [17], the latter applies to floors with anti-slip effects based on areal surface roughness (not on profiling) [18]. The slip resistance of a floor covering to be tested depends on the maximum angle of inclination allowing access without slipping, the so-called acceptance angle. Classes are defined according to increasing slip resistance from R 9 to R 13 (Fig. 12). In the sense of slip resistance, only profiling with a clear profile interval of maxmum 40 mm can be considered as effective. In case of geometrically oriented profiling, the least favourable orientation, normally the longitudinal alignment, should be taken into consideration. Geometrical profiling of flooring, the anti-slip effect of which is determined as the R value according to DIN 51 130, develops an additional effect apart from mechanical interlocking with the sole of the shoe: it forms a so-called displacement volume in its recesses, which can take up potentially slippery substances, thus removing them from the walk-on surface. According to the standard, a displacement volume is defined as a “hollow space under the walking plane which is open towards the walking plane”. Effectiveness is based on the volume per unit area (measured in cm3/dm2), dependent on which classes V 4 to V 10 are defined in DIN 51 130 (Fig. 13).

b

In addition to the general slip resistance, the standard also regulates the valuation of the coefficient of sliding friction μ of flooring with areal surface roughness. This is calculated from: μ = F/N where F is the mean frictional force [in N] and N is the weight of the pulled object [in N]; μ is therefore a ratio without unit. The decisive effect is that of the reaction force parallel to the floor, which breaks the sliding motion of the treading foot and finally stops it. It increases with μ, but also with the weight N acting perpendicular to the plane of the floor. In general, this means that heavy persons or those carrying heavy loads are subjected to a lower slipping hazard than others at otherwise constant conditions. For obvious reasons, this is however not significant with regard to the choice or design of floor coverings. The design tool with which the safety-enhancing force F can be raised is to increase the coefficient of sliding friction itself, i.e. to increase the roughness of the surface. Non-skid coverings in a work environment have μ values between 0.30 and 0.45. Still higher values guarantee suitability for unrestricted usage. An additional force has to be taken into consideration for sloping floors, which is parallel to the floor and caused by gravity (see “Inclinations”, p. 12f.). Such cases therefore require a larger force F to prevent the sliding motion of the treading foot. The slipping hazard will increase otherwise, assuming that all other conditions remain unchanged. Alternatively, the coefficient of sliding friction μ can be increased accordingly, i.e. by selecting a rougher floor covering. Another important factor influencing the slip resistance of a floor is its ability to not only displace potentially slippery sub-

stances (as in the profiling discussed above), but to remove them in a controlled manner. Flooring composed of grids is ideal in this respect. But even slightly inclined flooring corresponding to a magnitude of 2 % – a moderate inclination which hardly has any negative effects on the sliding behaviour when stepping on the surface – can divert water with the help of gravity. More viscous liquids may require a more pronounced inclination. Corresponding drainage channels and floor gullies prevent accumulation of liquids. These should be fitted with covers that are flush with the ground – except for rounded channels with a maximum depth of 2 cm [20]. Appropriate measures can also be taken to ensure in advance that no slippery fluids or granulates reach the interior floors from outside. This can, for example, take place by using methods to take up dirt and moisture (GUV 181) in the access areas, i.e. through suitably large door scrapers, door mats or grids with a depth of at least 1.50 m in a walking direction (Fig. 15). Anti-slip floors are more difficult to clean than smooth floors and require a corresponding effort, irrespective of whether coverings are rough or profiled. Proper cleaning is generally only possible using cleaning machines with rotating brushes or liquid jets. A conflict of aims can be said to exist between slip resistance and hygiene (see “Hygiene and value retention”, p. 25ff.). The cleaning agents themselves must be selected, dosed and used appropriately, to ensure that the anti-slip properties of the floor are not influenced negatively. Slip resistance requirements of floors exposed to moisture that are used barefooted are particularly demanding [21]. This applies mainly to sanitary facilities such as toilets, changing rooms, showers, bathrooms or certain rooms in 15

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

15

hospitals. Different from the valuation parameters for floors that are not used barefooted (R value, V value), DIN 51 097 defines valuation groups A, B and C, with non-slip requirements increasing from A to C (Fig. 16). Performance of sloping flooring is also measured, only that this is continuously sprinkled with water containing wetting agent in this case. The maximum inclination just offering adequate hold is expressed in terms of a corresponding valuation category (A, B, C) (Fig. 17). The same requirements with regard to controlled water dissipation, flush coverage of drainage channels and floor gullies, use of suitable cleaning, disinfection and care products moreover apply to this type of flooring as for non-slip flooring for barefoot use. Barrier-free

The objective of barrier-free design of constructions is to allow usage by a maximum number of persons, self-sufficiently

and largely without limitation, even if these are located outside their familiar living environments. This requirement is considerably more comprehensive than the original disability-friendly design of buildings, the primary aim of which was to make buildings wheelchair-accessible. In addition to the group of persons reliant on technical aids for movement (e.g. wheelchairs or walking frames), barrierfree building is also geared to other, much larger groups of persons subject to specific limitations in their capabilities [22]. These include: • Elderly persons, elderly persons with limitations • Wheelchair users • Persons with walking difficulties or movement restrictions • Persons with limitations in visual and auditory perception: blind or visually impaired persons, deaf or hearing-impaired persons • Persons with cognitive limitations or dementia

Valuation group

Minimum inclination angle

Areas

A

12°

• Barefoot passages (mainly dry) • Single and group changing rooms • Floors of pools in non-swimmer areas, provided the depth of water in the entire area is over 80 cm • Sauna and resting areas (mainly dry)

B

18°

• • • • • • • • • • • •

C 16

16

24°

Barefoot passages that are not allocated to A Shower rooms Disinfectant spraying system areas Paths around pools Floors of pools in non-swimmer areas, provided the depth of water in some areas is less than 80 cm Floors of pools in non-swimmer areas of wave-generating pools Lifting floors Paddling pools Ladders leading into water Steps leading into water with handrails on either side with maximum width of 1 m Ladders and stairs outside the pool area Sauna and resting areas, which are not allocated to A

• Steps leading into water that are not allocated to B • Pools for walking through • Sloping pool edge design

• Persons with other special requirements (including persons of short or tall stature as well as overweight persons, children, parents with children, persons with multiple disabilities and persons with one or no hands) The declared aim of barrier-free design of constructions is therefore to facilitate “unrestricted and self-determined participation in the life of society” for as many persons as possible [23]. This is in line with the requirements of the Equality for the Disabled Act (Behindertengleichstellungsgesetz – BGG) as well as the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The number of potential users that can benefit from barrier-free building has increased significantly in the industrial nations within the last decades, and this trend is expected to continue. This is primarily associated with demographic change [24]. The number of older people in need of care is increasing. A correspondingly designed living environment is essential for them to be able to lead a dignified life without constantly requiring help from others. Constructional measures, in particular in building interiors, play an important role in this respect. Flooring is certainly one of the most relevant barrier-free elements in a building, since it has an important influence on the movement of people in the building and therefore also on the risk of accident and the possibility of orientation problems. An important function of building design is therefore to design and execute flooring so as to also allow persons with limitations in their perception and movement abilities to move about freely and orient themselves within buildings. In this sense, the legislation promotes barrier-free design for numerous building utilisations. These include in particular, public buildings and facil-

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Determined inclination angle

17

Valuation group

≥ 12°

A

≥ 18°

B

≥ 24°

C

ities as well as buildings not intended for residential purposes, with a floor space of over 1,200 m2 [25]. Although this already affects a considerable proportion of the total volume of new constructions, there is a noticeable tendency to also implement barrier-free design in other building types, beyond the requirements of the legislative authorities. In addition, it can be said that not only persons with restrictions, but all users actually benefit from barrier-free measures, which facilitate autonomous movement within buildings for everyone. Depending on the type of limitation of a particular person, barrier-free design of flooring should be considered from the perspective of the correspondingly different needs and requirements of these diverse user groups. Relevant measures are dealt with below, divided according to the requirement profiles of the respective limitations [26]. Limitation or loss of visual perception Although limitations in vision to the point of blindness are not age-dependent and therefore affect all age groups, they are particularly frequent in older persons. Glare effects and irritating reflections on flooring must be excluded as far as possible by a suitable choice of surface material. Indirect illumination and matt floor materials are favourable in this respect. Big differences in brightness 15 Walk-off zone in entrance area of a café 16 Recommendation of minimum inclination angles and valuation groups for various wet-loaded barefoot areas according to DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 207-006 17 Allocation of inclination angles determined in the test procedure to slip-resistance valuation groups for wet-loaded barefoot areas according to DIN 51 097 18 Table summarising possible measures for ensuring necessary slip resistance of flooring in workplaces according to DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 208-041 18

Measures

Comments

Literature

New anti-slip floor covering • ceramic floor coverings • floor coatings • grid, metal plate profiles • elastic, wood and textile floor coverings • concrete, natural stone, artificial stone, glass plates

• Robust and lasting solution

DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Regulation 108-003/4 and BGIA-Handbuch (Bard Globalization and International Affairs Handbook) Geprüfte Bodenbeläge – Positivliste (Tested Floor Coverings – White List) (7)

Post-treatment of floor covering • mechanical post-treatment • chemical post-treatment • surface finish • (flame treatment)

• Visual appearance of floor may suffer • Consider durability of posttreatment

DGUV Regulation 108-003/4, Paragraph 3.5 and Information Sheet M 9 (8) of BGHW (Berufsgenossenschaft Handel und Warendistribution, Institution for Statutory Accident Insurance and Prevention in Trade and Goods Logistics).

Anti-slip mats

• Secure against sliding away • Hygiene problems, e.g. in fresh food area

BGIA-Handbuch (Bard Globalization and International Affairs Handbook) Geprüfte Bodenbeläge – Positivliste (Tested Floor Coverings – White List)

Walk-off zones

• E.g. in entrance areas or at hygiene stations

DGUV Regulation 108-003/4, Paragraph. 4 and Information Sheet M10 (9) of BGHW DGUV Regulation 108-003/4, Paragraph 4 and Information Sheet M10 of BGHW

Avoidance of slippery materials on floor through technical installations, e.g. roofing in outside areas, removal from machine by suction Cleaning floor covering

• Set up cleaning plan • Unsuitable cleaning procedures can reduce slip resistance • Consider special hazards in outside areas

DGUV Regulation 108-003/4, Paragraph 5.1

Care of floor covering

• Unsuitable care products often reduce slip resistance • Use precisely dosed suitable care products • Follow manufacturer specifications

DGUV Regulation 108-003/4, Paragraph 5.1

Avoidance of slippery materials on floor through workflow design

DGUV Regulation 108-003/4, Paragraph 5.2

Inspection of slip resistance of floors

• Regularly • After change in usage • After change in cleaning methods

DGUV Regulation 108-003/4, Paragraph 4, 5 & 7

Selection of slip-resistant shoes

• Particularly suitable for controllable areas

DGUV Regulation 112-191

Regular inspection of shoes

• Visual inspection

DGUV Regulation 112-191 ASR A1.3 (11)

Areas with special slipping hazard • put up information signs • bar access to area Regular instruction of employees

Instructions can include information on: • suitable shoes • avoidance of slippery materials • direct removal of slippery contaminants • safe walking

Regular instruction of cleaning staff

Offer multilingual work instructions if appropriate

DGUV Information 211-005 (12) – Sicherheit durch Unterweisung (Safety through instruction)

17

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

(e.g. between wall, ceiling and flooring) should be avoided, as these challenge the adaptation of the eye (see Volume 2). Accentuated orientation lighting moreover helps to register obstacles and important targets [27]. The most important deducible requirement consists of a general exclusion of obstacles and sources of danger, such as steps or edges, because these can only be perceived with difficulty, if at all, by visually impaired or blind persons. In this sense, pertinent requirements are comparable to those considered with regard to general safety aspects (see “Stumbling hazard”, p. 13f.). If steps or edges cannot be avoided in flooring, they should be made easy to identify visually by arrangement in groups, highcontrast design or emphasis with contrasting elements (Fig. 19). The latter can be achieved with continuous marking of the edge of the step (Fig. 20). For stairs inside buildings, the marking lines should be attached directly to the respective edge of both step treads and risers. On step treads, marking widths should be between 4 and 5 cm, while step risers only require widths between 1 and 2 cm. Markings should contrast treads, risers and landings [28]. When using colours for signalisation, contrasts based on luminance (such as between black and white) are more effective than contrasts based on colour (such as between red and green). Luminance contrasts of c > 0.4 have proven to be adequate for orientation and guidance purposes [29]. An appropriately bright illumination of the flooring is generally advisable. Luminous colours > 4,000 K are favourable for visual perception. In addition to colours, surface textures or structural profiling of flooring (tactile elements), which can be detected with the foot or a walking stick, can also be used as an orientation help for visu-

19

20

21

18

ally impaired or blind persons. Even a change in floor covering (e.g. between carpet and stone floor) can easily be felt with the sense of touch and serve as a guiding indicator. Floor profiling in strategic positions, so-called ground surface indicators offer extensive opportunities for guiding visually impaired persons (Fig. 21 and 22). Inside buildings, this can be achieved by elevations or recesses between 2 and 3 mm, which are often used in public buildings or on public traffic routes [30]. Both non-directional stud structures and directional rib structures can be utilised (Fig. 23 a, b). Ribs mainly serve for orientation and guidance, e.g. along a path or towards an important target. Studs on the other hand signalise special locations, they indicate that increased attention or searching is required, e.g. before stairs (Fig. 23 d) and other obstacles (Fig. 23 c), or at decision-making points in a guiding system, such as a turn-off or divergence (Fig. 24, p. 20). If contrast between the regular floor surface and the ground surface indicators is not enough, supplementary, specially designed accessory lines should be added. Apart from tactile detectability, their good visibility should also be ensured for visually impaired persons. DIN 32 984 defines the minimum equipment with ground surface indicators for blind and visually impaired persons in public buildings according to type and location as follows [31]: • Guiding line from entry/exit up to main information and/or contact point as well as to stairs and elevators • Attention fields in individual storeys before stairs, at least at the top • Finding lines/guidance to main stairs, elevators, escalators, storey information points, waiting areas and (disabilityfriendly) WCs

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

22

19 Coloured illumination marking transition of flooring to escalator landing with indication of respectively changing direction of escalator (red /green) 20 Dark strips marking the edges of steps of stairs 21 Profiled floor indicators in the form of a guiding strip 22 Studs as floor indicators along the facade, Louvre Lens (F) 2012, Kazuyo Sejima + Ryue Nishizawa / SANAA 23 Floor indicators for visually impaired or blind persons according to DIN 32 984 (dimensions in cm) a as studs b as ribs c in front of doors d near stairs

b

30

1

1

1

30

Limitation or loss of motor skills Typical barrier-free measures for persons with impaired mobility (e.g. due to amputation, arthrosis, nerve damage) are similar to the general measures for increasing safe access of floors. Avoidance of tripping hazards, steps and stairs, utilisation of aids when stairs cannot be avoided, floor-level showers, provision of adequate devices for holding on to as well as adequate slip resistance of floor surfaces. Walking-impaired persons often depend on technical aids such as walking frames, which is another factor that needs to be taken into consideration when designing flooring. Particularly high demands apply for wheelchair users. Their mobility within the building must be safeguarded in general. For this, it should be ensured that all areas are accessible at ground level, without tripping hazards or steps. Designers should furthermore avoid excessive floor inclinations. At a certain point, these become impossible to use for wheelchair users and are also strenuous for walking-impaired persons (see

a

60

Limitation or loss of auditory perception In interior spaces, auditory perception may chiefly be impaired through reflection of sound on the surrounding surfaces, i.e. within acoustically hard premises (see “Room acoustics”, p. 21f.) The contribution of flooring in this respect is often significant, since it constitutes a considerable proportion of the surfaces enclosing a room. Floor surfaces with a certain degree of sound absorption are therefore favourable for hearing-impaired persons.

“Accessibility and general usability”, p. 11ff.). This primarily concerns traffic routes in the form of ramps. According to DIN 18 040-1, the following requirements are applicable for ramps [32]: The maximum inclination of a ramp run is 6 %, the usable walking width is at least 120 cm, the maximum length of a ramp run is 600 cm; transverse slopes are not permissible; if the maximum ramp length is exceeded or if changes in direction are included, plane intermediate landings with a usable length of at least 150 cm are required. Ramps have to furthermore be equipped with accessory elements making them easier and safer to use. For safety reasons, both ramp runs and landings have to be fitted with handrails on either side as well as wheel guards at a height of 10 cm above the floor surface (Fig. 25). Floor coverings in sanitary rooms must be slip-resistant, at least equivalent to class R10 and installed firmly. The guideline by the Association of German Engineers (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure – VDI) VDI 6008-2 [33] specifies that shower areas for persons with limited mobility must be level with the floor and have no sill to the adjoining floor (Fig. 26). In case of depressions, the transition should be designed as a slope. Floor coverings must be slip-resistant, at least

60

Further ground surface indicators must be fitted in particularly frequented common areas of public administration buildings, hospitals and shopping centres.

c

1 Attention field 2 Step edge marking 3 Possible attention field

1

2

– 60

90

3

23 d

– 60

90

19

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

2 < 150

1 1

1 Locating strip 2 Door handle

24

> 800

≤ 600

≥ 150

1

≤ 600

2

≤ 6%

10

85 – 90

10

1

≥ 150

85 – 90

≥ 150

≥ 150

≤ 6%

≤ 6%

≥ 120

≥ 150

≥ 120

1

≤ 6% ≤ 600

≥ 150

≥ 150

≤ 600

≥ 150

≥5 ≥ 120

10 *

**

***

Basic suitability

7

Other special requirements

6

Commendably barrierfree

5a 5b

Extensively barrier-free

4b

Persons with mental disabilities or dementia

4a

Hearing-impaired persons

3

Deaf persons

2

Visually impaired persons

1b

Blind persons

1a

Persons with walking difficulties or movement restrictions

Categories

Individual definition according to VDI 6008 (3-star category)

Barrier-free accessibility and assistance for

Wheelchair users

Comfort and prevention

Elderly persons with limitations, at risk

Classification according to

Elderly persons

25

3

2

10

1 Handrail 2 Upstand as wheel guard 3 Rail as wheel guard

85– 90

85– 90

1

floor level

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

incline to drain < 2 %

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

slip resistance R 10

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

˜

Equipment of residential buildings Shower area

˜

˜

Equipment of public sanitary facilities Shower area floor level

˜

˜

incline to drain < 2 % (or shower run-off groove)

˜

˜

slip resistance

˜

˜

26 ˜ required

20

˜ provided

in compliance with valuation group B pursuant to DIN 51 097 (see “Slipping hazard”, p. 14ff.). The inclination of floors and shower areas with slopes for water dissipation must be below 2 % for safety reasons. Stops and sills at the base of doors are tripping hazards and must generally be avoided pursuant to DIN 18 040-2. If unavoidable for technical reasons, the maximum permitted height is 2 cm. Floor coverings in entrance areas must be slip-resistant (minimum R 9 according to DIN 51 130) and suitable for use with wheelchairs and other walking aids. Limitation or loss of cognitive skills Persons with limited or non-existent cognitive skills are mainly individuals with dementia, an age-related disease affecting a considerable proportion of the older generation and expected to gain increasing significance for demographic reasons. Dementia is characterised by a loss of the capacity of the brain functions, resulting in deficient cognition as well as limited perception and ability to move. A physiologically adequate and sufficient illumination of flooring is generally required for persons suffering from dementia. Colour gradations and contrasts can be used to support orientation and to reduce psychological stress factors. As for the other impairments considered, obstacles such as tripping hazards should be avoided. 24 Locating strip to indicate a door or lateral passage according to DIN 32 984 25 Floor plan, side elevation and section of a barrier-free ramp according to DIN 18 040-1 and -2 26 Requirements for safeguarding barrier-free design of flooring in sanitary areas of residential and public buildings, differentiated according to user groups with various limitations according to VDI 6008-2 27 High-pile carpeting with impact on room acoustics

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

27

Other limitations Persons with other limitations profit from most of the measures of barrier-free design mentioned so far, but may require special individual measures depending on the building use and personal circumstances. Room acoustics

The sound pressure level in a room not only depends on sound emitted by a source of sound in that room (direct sound field), but also on the sound reflected by the surfaces enclosing the room (diffuse sound field). If these surfaces are highly reflective, i.e. acoustically hard or reverberative, the audible sound pressure level increases significantly, while this decreases if sound is effectively absorbed by them. Room acoustics are influenced by the total surface S of the reflecting or absorbing surfaces as well as their sound absorption coefficient α. The sound absorption coefficient is the ratio of non-reflected and incident sound energy; it ranges between 0 (complete reflection) and 1 (no reflection). Room acoustics are determined by the equivalent sound absorption area A, which is calculated from: A = Σ αi · Si = α1 · S1 + α2 · S2 + α3 · S3 + … where αi and Si represent the respective sound-absorbing coefficients and the surface areas of the flat components enclosing the room (walls, ceilings, floor). Persons and furnishings also have an influence on the room acoustics. Low A values indicate reverberating, acoustically hard rooms, while high A values represent less reverberation and a more muffled acoustic impression. Reduction of acoustic energy in interior spaces is generally achieved by increasing sound absorption. This also improves speech intelligibility, because

the influence of reflective sound is reduced or even eliminated. A higher degree of sound absorption is therefore generally desired in lecture halls, teaching rooms, theatres, auditoria as well as in connection with barrierfree design (see “Barrier-free”, p. 16ff.). Retention of an appropriate proportion of sound reflection may on the other hand be necessary for adequate perception of music. The reverberation time is decisive for acoustic perception in a room. This is the time within which the sound pressure decreases by 60 dB. The reverberation time is inversely proportional to the sound-absorbing surface area and is calculated as follows: T = c · V/A c = constant = 0.163 V = Volume [m3] A = Sound-absorbing surface area [m2] Fig. 30 (p. 22) provides roughly desirable guide values of reverberation times for various room types [34]. Sound absorption – physical principles of action Sound absorption can generally be achieved by two different physical mechanisms: porosity and resonance. Materials are classified as porous absorbers or resonance absorbers. In the case of porosity, sound energy is dissipated because the sound wave impinges on a surface covered with many channels and hollow spaces, in which part of the sound energy is transformed to heat. The thickness of the material and its resistance to flow influence the degree of absorption. Porous absorbers are noticeably effective from a thickness of 1 cm or more. Typical for this group is that absorption increases significantly with rising frequency. Porous surfaces are

often associated with usage-related disadvantages – they bind dirt, are difficult to clean and often sensitive to mechanical damage – so they are frequently fitted with acoustically transparent coverings, such as perforated plates or textiles. Their effectiveness is hardly impaired by this. Non-porous materials (e.g. glass) can also be converted to sound absorbers through microperforations. Resonance absorbers on the other hand are based on the physical massspring principle (see “Sound protection”, p. 29ff.), in which two springy plates oscillate harmoniously, so that sound is significantly absorbed at a specific resonance frequency. In building practice, this method is realised using thin plates, which are flexible to bending, mounted at a distance to a surface component (wall, ceiling, floor). The absorption effect increases additionally when the hollow space is filled with fibre material. This is however only noticeable in the lower frequencies for this type of absorber. Flooring as a sound absorber Flooring can be effective as a porous sound absorber to a certain extent. Although the total floor surface is always smaller than the sum of the wall and ceiling surfaces, flooring nevertheless constitutes a significant proportion of the surfaces enclosing a room and hence the equivalent sound absorption area of a room. The sound absorption coefficient α of the floor surface can primarily be increased by textile or at least by resilient coverings that act as porous absorbers. The higher the pile of a carpet for instance, the higher the sound absorption, although this dimension is subject to usage-related limits (Fig. 27). The acoustically effective porosity of installed flooring surfaces is in particular also limited from a hygienic perspective. Making 21

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Plate

Sound absorption coefficient α

Sound absorption coefficient α

Porous material

28 a

Frequency [Hz]

floors out of very porous materials and then making them more usable by covering them with perforated plates, for example, is normally also refrained from for the same reasons. This is why the high degrees of absorption achievable for walls and ceilings by using perforated plates fitted in front or below them and using cavity damping with fibre insulation material cannot generally be realised for flooring. In flooring, the resonance principle can be made use of by means of elastic floor plates or boards laid on hollow space (e.g. parquet on sleepers). The absorption effect is increased if the latter are laid floating on springy strips of felt or plastic. Fig. 29 shows reference values of the sound absorption coefficient α of several

b

Frequency [Hz]

floorings as well as, for comparison, of α values of conventional sound-absorbing wall and ceiling claddings. Whether a particular covering functions as a porous absorber or a resonance absorber is evident from the effectiveness in the lower or higher frequency ranges. The combination of both principles of action in the same covering permits maximisation of sound absorption over the entire frequency spectrum.

energy supplied or removed is constant, the large floor surface permits small temperature differences between room air and heating or cooling surface. This is a physiologically favourable factor. Flooring can be considered as an ideal heating and cooling surface from a physiological perspective for reasons including even heat transfer with small temperature gradients, a high proportion of thermal radiation, minor air circulation and heat supply or removal close to the body. Persons in a room with a heating or cooling system incorporated in the flooring are located close to the thermally conditioned floor surface. In addition, the convection heat transfer coefficient is higher for floors than for walls or ceilings. This means that when using a heating or cooling system in the flooring, room temperatures can be kept one to two degrees lower or higher than for conventional systems. The operative or perceived temperature is actually determined from the mean of the air temperature in the room and the average surface temperatures of the room. This is advantageous from a health point of view and saves energy [35]. Additional space-requiring heating elements are moreover not needed. The small temperature gradient between room air and heating or cooling surface allows low feed temperatures for heating and high feed temperatures for cooling. A self-regulation effect moreover occurs at the heating or cooling surface: when

Thermal room conditioning and ventilation

In addition to its acoustic effectiveness, the relatively large proportion of the room-enclosing surfaces represented by flooring predestines it for transfer of warmth and coolness to the interior space. Provided the overall thermal

Absorber type

Frequency [Hz]

Common floor coverings

125

250

500

1,000

2,000

4,000

Parquet flooring, glued

0.04

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.06

0.06

Parquet flooring, on blind floor

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.09

0.06

0.10

Parquet flooring, lying on hollow space

0.15

0.08

0.07

0.06

0.06

0.06

Carpeting, pile height of up to 6 mm

0.02

0.04

0.07

0.19

0.29

0.35

Carpeting, 7–10 mm pile height

0.04

0.07

0.14

0.30

0.51

0.78

PVC floor covering (2.5 mm) on concrete floor

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.03

0.05

0.05

Linoleum on concrete

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.04

0.04

Needle felt, 7 mm

0.02

0.04

0.12

0.20

0.36

0.57

5 mm carpet with 5 mm felt underlay

0.07

0.21

0.57

0.68

0.81

0.72

PVC covering, linoleum

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.04

0.06

0.05

Wall and ceiling claddings (for comparison) Gypsum plasterboards, 0.5 mm thick, 60 mm from the wall, coffered hollow space Grid ceiling, 8/18 round perforation, 15.5 %, 200 mm, acoustic fleece, 20 mm mineral wool layer 4 mm hard fibreboard, coffered with 40 mm mineral wool board, 60 mm from wall

0.30 0.50 0.63

0.10 0.65 0.25

0.05 0.70 0.14

0.07 0.65 0.08

0.09 0.60 0.06

0.08 0.70 0.05

3

29

40 mm mineral wool mat (20 kg/m ), with perforated metal plate cover (18 %)

22

0.11

0.36

0.69

0.95

0.81

0.70 30

Room type

Reverberation time

Sound studios

≤ 0.3 s

Office rooms

~ 0.35 s

Class rooms > 125 m3

~ 0.5 – 0.6 s

Lecture rooms / theatres

~ 0.7 –1.3 s

Concert halls > 19,000 m3

~ 1.7 – 2.2 s

Sports halls

≤ 1.8 s

Multipurpose halls

~ 1.3 s ± 20 %

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

31

the room air temperature approaches the target value, heat output or input at the surface decreases by itself. In such cases, it is sufficient to keep the surface temperature constant at around 23 °C. If the room temperature is below this, heating sets in, while if it is above this value, cooling commences. For this reason, surface heating or cooling is generally considered to be an energy-efficient room conditioning method that furthermore permits utilisation of renewable energies. Efficient use of natural warmth or coolness from borehole heat exchangers or water bodies can be made. This can either take place passively by leading the environmental warmth or coolness into the building via a circulation system using a circulation pump, or actively by means of refrigerating machines or reversible heat pumps. Heat transfer primarily takes place at the component surface, which is why care should be taken to avoid development of radiation asymmetries in surface heating and cooling systems. This occurs in association with poor temperature control of enveloping areas, such as badly insulated exterior walls or windows as well as all-glass facades. Such cases either require local installation of compensating additional heating elements or an increase in the heating or cooling capacity of the surface heating or cooling system at the critical places, such as by laying heating and cooling pipes more densely. Surface-integrated water circuits are used to supply the room with heat (or remove heat in case of cooling) at thermally activated room surfaces. Surface heating can also be operated electrically. The advantage of water circuits is that they combine a heating and cooling function in one circulation system. Decisive for the thermal function of surface heating or cooling systems is the manner

in which the water circulation pipes are integrated in the surface component. In the case of floors, there is the option of embedding the pipes in a thin layer of screed and to thermally separate this from the remaining construction using a thermal insulation layer, which can be combined with an impact sound insulation if applicable (Fig. 31). The advantages of this solution include adequate heat distribution via the screed, thermal responsiveness due to a relatively low storage mass and limitation of the heat output to the room above the ceiling. This makes regulation as well as calculation of the heating costs easier. DIN EN 1264-4 specifies the thermal resistance of the thermal insulation layer (Fig. 33, p. 24). Floor coverings should generally possess good thermal conductivity for the sake of efficient heat transfer at the floor surface, otherwise the heating and cooling load has to be increased correspondingly. Textile floor coverings have disadvantages in this respect. Guide values of thermal conductivity of different coverings on underfloor heating systems are shown in Fig. 34 (p. 24). Development of condensation water at the surface has to be prevented in the case of surface-integrated cooling systems. This always happens when the temperature at the cool component surfaces falls below the condensation temperature. In this case, the temperature of the cooling medium has to be increased or the system has to be switched off temporarily. Removal of moisture using suitable ventilation is also possible. The inertia of surface-integrated heating and cooling systems can be boosted to a certain extent by increasing the screed thickness. This is however limited. Apart from laying surface heating systems in thermally separated screed using an insulation layer, these can alterna-

tively be installed so as to utilise and /or activate the mass of the load-bearing construction for room conditioning. This is described as thermally activated components or thermally activated ceiling panels (TACP). Various execution options are available (Fig. 32, p. 24). Component activation increases the thermal inertia of a heating and cooling system due to the high heat storage capacity of the load-bearing construction and offers several advantages. Due to the inertia-related phase shift of the temperature peaks, nocturnal coolness can be used in summer via recooling systems or non-operation of refrigerating machines at night [36]. Amplitude damping furthermore ensures that the temperature peaks are generally smoothed, which allows reduction of the installed cooling capacity. Raised access floors as well as subceilings should be avoided to make use of the radiation surfaces. Another option is to thermally activate only one side of the ceiling – as in a floor-ceiling construction with a raised access floor but no subceiling – while it would be appropriate to lay the heating circulation close to the exposed raw ceiling surface (in this case the lower one). Individual regulation of rooms as well as a storey-based calculation of heating and cooling are not possible if components are fully activated. Instead, thermally connected zones are generally identified, usually depending on align28 Dependence of sound absorption coefficient α on sound frequency for a porous absorbers b resonance absorbers 29 Sound absorption coefficients α depending on sound frequency according to DIN 18 041 (draft) for common floors as well as wall and ceiling claddings for comparison 30 Roughly desirable guide values of reverberation times for various room types 31 Laid out heating circuits before pouring heated screed

23

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

32 a

b

Heated room located underneath or adjacent

Unheated or periodically heated room located underneath, adjacent or directly on soil 1)

0.75

1.25

Thermal resistivity Rλ, ins 33

1)

c

Outside air temperature in area located underneath or adjacent Outdoor design temperature ϑd ≥ 0 °C

Outdoor Outdoor design design temperature temperature 0 °C > ϑd ≥ -5 °C -5 °C > ϑd ≥ -15 °C

1.25

1.50

2.00

This value should be increased if the groundwater level below the load-carrying substrate is ≤ 5 m.

Planning guide values for full-surface glued floor coverings on underfloor heating Thickness 1) thk [mm]

Thermal conductivity λ [W/mK]

Thermal resistance RλB [m2 K/W]

Ceramic tiles

13

1.05

0.012

Marble

12

2.1

0.0057

Natural stone tiles

12

1.2

0.010

Cut cement stone

12

2.1

0.0057

Carpeting

–

–

0.07 – 0.17

Needle felt

6.5

0.54

0.12

Linoleum

2.5

0.17

0.015

Floor covering material

Synthetic covering

3.0

0.23

0.011

PVC coverings or carriers

2.0

0.20

0.010

Mosaic parquet (oak)

8.0

0.21

0.038

Strip parquet (oak)

16.0

0.21

0.090

Multilayer parquet

11.0 – 14.0

0.09 – 0.12

0.055 – 0.076

9

0.17

0.044

Laminate 1)

34

In case of deviating dimensions of l, the new thermal resistance has to be calculated using the following formula: RλB, new = thk/λTable (thickness should be quoted in metres here)

24

ment to the cardinal direction. Because of the high thermal inertia of the system making it difficult to respond to changing temperature conditions quickly, thermally activated components are suitable as a basic heating or cooling system that can be operated favourably with renewable energies. In order to guarantee maximum adaptability and avoid radiation asymmetries, additional supplementary heating or cooling elements are often required. With conventional window-based ventilation, incoming air can be prewarmed by means of radiator or convection heating elements near the facade or windows. Decentralised ventilation devices or a mechanical ventilation system can also be used to ensure good temperature regulation in individual rooms and handling of temperature peaks. This option additionally permits heat recovery from exhaust air as well as alleviation of the condensation water problem in summer, by removal of accrued moisture through ventilation. This also allows an increase of the cooling capacity of the system [37]. Apart from thermal room conditioning, ventilation functions can also be integrated within the flooring. This takes place in the form of displacement ventilation. 32 Various installation layers of heating and cooling lines in association with thermally activated components a in the central, statically neutral region of the ceiling plate b in bonded screed (easier installation and maintenance) c in bearing ceiling and in floating screed (better control, but double circulation) 33 Minimum thermal resistances of insulation layers under the lines of an underfloor heating or cooling system in m2K/W according to DIN EN 1264-4 34 Guideline thermal resistance values of floor coverings on underfloor heating systems depending on thickness and thermal conductivity of covering according to BVF (Bundesverband Flächenheizungen und Flächenkühlung e. V., Federal Association of Surface Heating and Surface Cooling)

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Fresh air with a low flow rate is supplied to the room from the floor to form an area of cool air near the flooring. The temperature of the supplied air must always be about 2 K below room temperature for this purpose. The fresh air rises towards bodies radiating heat (as well as machines emitting heat), so that good quality air is constantly breathed in. In order to introduce the required quantity of air to the room at a low velocity, the diameters of the air outlets in the floor must be relatively large. Only a few outlets are however required, since the system is effective across a relatively large area with a radius of about 15 m. Displacement ventilation offers many advantages from a physiological point of view. The fact that the fresh air always has to be cooler than the room air means that room heating via displacement ventilation – perhaps in supplementation of thermal activation of building components – is not possible. The potential cooling capacity is also limited due to the small temperature difference between fresh air and room air [38]. Displacement ventilation can be realised by means of routing air flow or at least by integration of suitable floor outlets in the flooring structure. This can have a considerable influence on the planning and constructive design of the flooring structure (see “Media routing”, p. 43f.). Air supply at floor height through wall outlets is a feasible alternative. Hygiene and value retention

Long-term usability of flooring requires regular cleaning and care. Cleaning implies the removal of undesirable substances, while care involves the supply of desirable substances. Additional disinfection of flooring may be required under certain circumstances. The aims of cleaning and care include: • Keeping up a good appearance

• • • •

Maintaining hygienic conditions Ensuring safety Facilitating long-term use Protecting from damage and wear as far as possible

Design measures An important design measure to make cleaning and care of flooring easier, is to avoid corners, edges, and joints (especially open joints) to the greatest possible extent. This requirement essentially coincides with the objectives of safe and barrier-free access to flooring. Similarly, keeping flooring free of contamination, such as dust, oils, fats, organic residues but also water, contributes considerably to resistance to slipping (see “Safe access and general safety aspects”, p. 12ff., and “Barrier-free”, p. 16ff.). In areas with particularly high hygienic requirements (wet rooms, hospitals), the transition between flooring and wall can be designed as a groove (approx. 2 – 5 cm) for easier cleaning. Smooth coverings are generally better to clean than rough surfaces with pores for dirt to accumulate in. In this respect, the targets of cleaning conflict with those of slip resistance. Dirt trap zones already collecting most of the dirt near access points can be fitted as a preventive measure. Cleaning methods for different flooring types Floor coverings are generally divided into two groups: textile and non-textile, with non-textiles including hard as well as elastic floors. The simplest way to clean non-textile floors is sweeping, i.e. dry mechanical removal of loose dirt [39]. Mechanical vacuum sweepers are an alternative, with the swept up material sucked in or use of a special sweeping compound. Damp cleaning of non-textile flooring can be

carried out as follows: by wiping with slightly damp cleaning textiles to bind dust, wet mopping, wet scrubbing, mechanical vacuum brush cleaning, mechanical polishing of untreated floors or floors treated with care products (which are suitable for care), vacuum polishing and simultaneous removal of dust by dry vacuum cleaning, using cleaners with special agents followed by polish (suitable for care). Compared to non-textile floors, textile floors are usually more difficult and timeconsuming to clean and look after. In spite of certain disadvantages due to their practically unavoidable tendency to bind dust, it is generally agreed that textile coverings are safe for conventional use – microorganisms like bacteria or mould cannot survive in dry textile materials for longer periods of time. Carpets are however completely excluded from use for the specific applications described below. It cannot be denied that dust can gather in textile floors and that they offer ideal breeding grounds for house dust mites. Normal concentrations of house dust mites in textile floors do not represent a health hazard, while complaints may be experienced by allergic persons. House dust mites can however be controlled using special cleaning agents (acaricides). The following cleaning methods can be used for textile floors: vacuum cleaning, i.e. dry removal of dirt by suction, mechanical vacuum brush cleaning, mechanical carpet sweeping, removal of stains with special agents, cleaning with special powders or granulates as well as with special pads, using brush roller machines for application of a cleaning solution, followed by rubbing it in and removing it by vacuuming, shampooing followed by vacuuming, or spray extraction, i.e. pressure spraying with a cleaning solution followed by vacuuming. 25

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Areas (examples)

Cleaning / Disinfection

Areas without risk of infection (with regard to a general risk to the population) • • • • •

Corridors, stairwells Administration / Offices Dining rooms Lecture theatres/Teaching rooms Technical areas

• Cleaning of all surfaces is adequate, disinfection is not necessary

Areas with a possible risk of infection • General ward • Outpatient treatment areas • Radiology • Physical therapy • Sanitary rooms • Dialysis • Childbirth • Intensive care/monitoring

• Surfaces with frequent hand/skin contact must be disinfected • Floors and other surfaces are cleaned • Staff responsible for cleaning and disinfection must be suitable, trained and instructed

Areas with a particularly high risk of infection • OR departments • Intervention rooms • Departments for special intensive care (e.g. long-term ventilation, severe-burn patients) • Transplantation department • Premature infants ward

• Surfaces with frequent hand/skin contact and floors must be disinfected • Other surfaces are cleaned • Staff responsible for cleaning and disinfection must be suitable, trained and instructed

Areas with patients carrying pathogens in or on them, which represents a risk of transmission in individual cases • Isolation areas/care • Functional areas in which the above-mentioned patients are treated

• Surfaces with frequent hand /skin contact and floors must be disinfected • Other surfaces are cleaned • Staff responsible for cleaning and disinfection must be suitable, trained and instructed

Areas with a risk of infection particularly to staff

35

• • • •

Microbiological laboratories Pathology Disposal Sluice rooms of laundries and functional units

• Surfaces representing an infection hazard must be disinfected

35 Hygiene-related sensitivity of various usage areas in healthcare facilities and associated disinfection requirement of surfaces according to recommendation by the Robert Koch Institute (RKI) 36 Treatment rooms in Federal Armed Forces hospital Ulm (D) 2007– 2015, Heinle, Wischer and Partner 37 Sports hall in Sports education centre Mülimatt, Brugg / Windisch (CH) 2010, Studio Vacchini Architetti

36

26

Healthcare requirements The risk of infection is high in healthcare facilities, i.e. hospitals, clinics, rehabilitation centres as well as homes for the elderly and nursing homes. So-called nosocomial infections (also known as infections through hospital germs) are attributable to staying in such institutions and represent an increasing health hazard. Although flooring is normally not in direct contact with the skin, the permanent closeness to the body and its extensive area make flooring a safety hazard that should not be underestimated, if not cleaned adequately. The specifications with regard to cleaning and care of surfaces, including flooring, in the healthcare sector are therefore particularly high. Dirt can be considered to cause infections in the sense that it offers subsistence for microorganisms. Further unfavourable conditions in healthcare facilities include relatively high room temperatures, that patients often have weaker constitutions than normal, also from an immunological perspective, and the contaminations that have to be dealt with are frequently of a problematic nature. The aim of a health-promoting and low-risk design as well as safe operation of such premises is therefore to remove the basis for survival and nutrition of microorganisms through appropriate cleaning [40]. Particularly sensitive or exposed areas in healthcare facilities have to permit disinfection in addition to cleaning. These must therefore be designed to allow safe application of suitable disinfectants [41]. This requirement excludes textile floor coverings in general for such areas. Rooms are divided into groups depending on use and disinfection requirements (Fig. 35). According to the guideline of the Robert Koch Institute, flooring in critical areas of healthcare facilities should generally

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

37

be “waterproof, easy to clean and disinfect”. “[...] smooth, non-porous materials may be considered as advantageous, because microbial contaminations can be removed more easily” [42]. Seals and connections must also be hygienic, i.e. as smooth and tight as possible. Open joints offer hollow spaces for the accumulation of dirt. In damp areas, ingress of moisture in cracks through capillary action must generally be prevented. Expansion joints should not be used at all in particularly sensitive rooms. Special requirements of usage for sport

Sports hall floors have to fulfil special requirements, depending on the type of sport carried out, and in the case of multipurpose halls, the other intended uses. DIN V 18 032-2 distinguishes three major superordinate properties to be fulfilled by sports floors, with the extent depending on the particular purpose of the sports hall: • Sport-functional properties: These create the necessary conditions for various types of sport, while at the same time reducing fatigue and preventing excessive risks related to straining the musculoskeletal system. • Protective-functional properties: These are concerned with taking the strain off the musculoskeletal system of persons engaging in sport and lowering the risk of injury. • Technical properties: These serve for long-term retention of the sport-functional and protective-functional properties of the floor, as well as its usability for various devices and equipment (chairs, platforms) as well as for nonsport use. Focus may be more on one or another property depending on the purpose of the sports hall. All three aspects should however always be included in an overall

consideration. The requirements that have to be fulfilled by flooring vary significantly according to the type of sport. A major difference between the type of sport and the techniques associated lies in whether more or less the whole body surface hits the ground when falling, or only an elbow and / or knee. Different characteristics are in turn required for roller sports like cycle racing or ball sports. The elastic deformability of flooring is decisive in this context. DIN V 18 032-2 distinguishes the following sports floors: • Area-elastic sports floor: The surface of this floor is extensively elastic to deformation thanks to incorporation of a bending-resistant load distribution layer in its structure. The relatively bending-resistant surface is favourable for standing stability, sliding behaviour as well as for rolling loads. The response of the hard surface to deformation is more sluggish. • Point-elastic sports floor: The surface is flexible to bending under point loads and responds quickly even to small loads. A special protective function is provided for falling on elbows and knees. The reaction to large-surface impacts is however harder. It is not very suitable for rolling loads. • Mixed-elastic sports floor: The structure is similar to that of point-elastic sports floors, however with an additional surface-stiffening component. This reduces the respective disadvantages of area- and point-elastic floors. • Combined-elastic sports floor: This is essentially based on the structure of area-elastic sports floors, but with an additional elastic layer between load distribution and covering layer, combining the protective-functional property of point-elastic compliance with the sport-functional property of surface elasticity.

The deformation trough of each of these four sports floor types is characteristic for the respective elastic behaviour (Fig. 40). In addition to the elastic deformation behaviour, DIN V 18 032-2 also specifies the reflective behaviour of sports floors. These generally have to be matt to avoid glare effects. The light reflectance factor should however not be below a minimum value. The sliding behaviour of the floor may only vary within a narrow range, since a turning movement of the foot or a sliding break should be facilitated, while slipping should be prevented. In addition, unpleasant electrostatic discharges should be avoided. DIN V 18 032-2 also prescribes stringent requirements with regard to evenness of the floor. Both development and distribution of sound have to be restricted. The rolling resistance of the floor must not be too high for roller sports. As far as multipurpose halls are concerned, it should be ensured that flooring can be subjected to point loads exerted by items of furniture such as tables, chairs or platforms [43]. When a hall is intended for multiple uses, sports floors with mixed properties are normally opted for, i.e. combined-elastic and mixed-elastic structures. Special requirements of industrial use

Industrial floors are subjected to particularly high strain due to constant and mobile loads, mechanical wear, chemical attack, temperature-based expansion / contraction, concrete-typical shrinkage deformations as well as internal restraints originating from the concreting process. Industrial constructions are often without complicated flooring structures, which are quite normal for other areas of use. The reasons for this include the necessity to build quickly to allow prompt putting into service and significant cost pressure. In most cases, the floor plate generally 27

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

1

2

3

3

4 1

2

1 2

5

3 a

b

1 1

5

1

4

38 c

6

3

3

4

e

5

2

5

f

the concrete. An alternative method to ensure small crack widths is to use finemeshed anti-shrinkage reinforcement (non-prestressed reinforcement or fibre reinforcement). Crosswise post-tensioning of the floor plate at midsection height is then possible from the outer edges. As far as plate manufacture is concerned, two methods are generally available [44]: • A non-reinforced concrete slab with regular joint distribution: a network of joints is cut into the surface after the concrete just starts to set (contraction joints for controlled crack formation). During the shrinkage process, the tensile strength of the concrete must not be reached within a certain plate segment. • A large jointless concrete slab with continuous reinforcement and planned maximal crack width: crack width is limited by a continuous double-layer reinforcement. High reinforcement ratios can be reduced by combination of non-prestressed and fibre reinforcement. It is however not possible to prevent cracks completely, only their width can be limited.

Area-elastic sports floor

Combinedelastic sports floor

Mixedelastic sports floor

Pointelastic sports floor

Events, concerts

˜

–

™

–

Stand structures, seating

˜

–

–

–

Inline skates, wheelchair users

˜

–

™

–

Basketball

˜

™

™

–

Handball

˜

˜

˜

–

Volleyball

˜

˜

˜

™

Football / Hockey

˜

˜

˜

™

Gymnastics / Physical exercise

˜

˜

˜

˜

Aerobics

˜

˜

˜

™

Martial arts

˜

˜

˜

™

39 ˜ very good suitability

28

2

5 6

Load-bearing construction Elastic layer Surfacestiffening component

1

made of concrete also serves as a usable floor surface, in some cases after additional treatment to increase abrasion, chemical and slip resistance. Relatively thin, load-distributing layers on a floating underlay (e.g. insulating layer) are normally not suited for industrial construction, because of the associated, sometimes extremely high, point loads. A clear functional separation between primary load-bearing structure and flooring structure is therefore not possible for industrial floors, so that the requirements of the two areas overlap and are contingent on each other. An important specification that has to be fulfilled by floor plates of industrial constructions, which also has an impact on the usability of the flooring, is a low prevalence of cracking and/or a limitation of the crack width. Cracks mainly develop when the concrete shrinks, which is a material-related process that cannot be avoided. The width of cracks can however be limited by making sure that the size of the jointed segments is not too large, so that the tensile forces caused by shrinkage lie below the tensile strength of

Sports halls

5

4

5

d

Multipurpose halls

Upper covering Bending-resistant load distribution layer Elastic subconstruction

˜ good suitability

™ satisfactory suitability

– unsuitable

Requirements Typical requirements of industrial floors include: • Load-bearing capacity: This primarily dictates the required slab thickness. Loads that have to be carried are wheel, shelf and surface loads, as well as contact pressure caused by wheels (in particular the hard wheel systems of forklift trucks are critical). Customary slab thickness ranges between 15 and 30 cm. These values may however be significantly exceeded to meet special operational demands. • Flatness: The specifications of DIN 18 202 for floors with finished surfaces and more stringent requirements (dimensional tolerance of 9 mm for a measured length of 4 m) can be realised without increased expenditure. A higher degree of flatness is however required in some cases, especially for warehouse systems with line-guided industrial trucks according to DIN 15 185 (e. g. high rack storage), which may necessitate additional measures (grinding, self-levelling compounds).

38 Structural design of sports floors according to DIN V 18 032-2: a area-elastic, with elastic subconstruction b area-elastic, with elastic layer c point-elastic d mixed-elastic, with additional area-stiffening component (6) e combined-elastic, with elastic subconstruction f combined-elastic, with two elastic layers, each located under the upper covering (1) and the bending-resistant load-distribution layer (2) 39 Sports floor types and their suitability for various types of sport 40 Typical deformation troughs of various types of sports floors according to DIN V 18 032-2: a area-elastic b point-elastic c combined-elastic d mixed-elastic 41 Construction-dependent individual requirements of sports floors according to DIN V 18 032-2:

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

• Discharge resistance: Specific uses associated with an increased fire or explosion hazard (filling stations, paint shops, warehouses storing flammable liquids) require prevention of electrostatic charging of flooring. Authoritative standards include DIN EN 61 340-4-1 and/or VDE 0330-4-1. The electrostatic leakage resistance of a floor is primarily dependent on its moisture content. Especially very dry floors exhibit a small discharge capacity. Addition of suitable coating using a material with discharge capacity (soot, graphite, carbon fibres) may be necessary. • Collection of hazardous liquids: A primary measure to prevent hazardous substances associated with the industrial facility from entering the groundwater involves maximum limitation of the width of cracks in the concrete. More stringent requirements may necessitate use of joint fillers and raising the floor edges in the shape of a trough. • Slip resistance (see “Safe access and general safety aspects”, p. 12ff.) Protective functions Some of the protective functions that flooring is expected to fulfil include sound, fire and thermal protection. Sound protection

The aim of room acoustics (see p. 21f.) is to control the sound pressure level from the direct and diffuse sound field within a room. In the case of building acoustics or sound protection, the objective is to reduce the transmission of sound between adjacent rooms. The respective components making up the surfaces separating the rooms therefore have to fulfil specific building acoustic requirements. As far as the flooring is concerned, these are the floor-ceiling constructions with rooms

F 500 mm a

Mean W500 ≤ 15%

100 mm Mean W100 = 0%

b

500 mm

Mean W500 ≤ 5%

c

500 mm 100 mm W500 = 0% W100 > 0%

40 d

Characteristic

Requirements Area-elastic sports floor

Pointelastic sports floor 1)

Combinedelastic sports floor

Mixedelastic sports floor

Total structure Shock absorption, SA55 Standard deformation, StD

min. 53 %

Category 1 min. 51%

Category 2 min. 45%

min. 58 %

min. 53 %

min. 2.3 mm

Category 1 max. 3.5 mm

Category 2 max. 3.0 mm

min. 3.0 mm, max. 5.0 mm

min. 2.3 mm

Thickness factor, THK

–

min. 4.0

–

–

Deformation trough, W100

–

0%

–

> 0%

Deformation trough, W50

max. 15 %

–

max. 5 %

0%

1,500 N

1,000 N

1,500 N

1,500 N

Rolling load behaviour, RLB, axle load without damage Impact resistance, IR, at 10 °C

–

min. 8 Nm

min. 8 Nm

min. 8 Nm

Residual indentation, RI

–

max. 0.5 mm

max. 0.5 mm

max. 0.5 mm

Ball rebound, BR

min. 90 % of rebound height on rigid floor

Sliding behaviour, SB

Coefficient of sliding friction min. 0.4 and max. 0.6

Upper elastic layer of combined-elastic sports floor Standard deformation, StD

–

–

min. 0.8 mm

–

Thickness factor, THK

–

–

min. 5.0

–

Subconstruction

The behaviour of the subconstruction responsible for the elastic compliance of the floor may not change significantly, neither under dynamic nor under static strain. Connections in the subconstruction must offer long-term resistance to the above-named loads. Adhesive bonding must be permanently elastic; it may not deteriorate in strength with age, nor become brittle, harder or softer. The subconstruction and upper covering of point-elastic sports floors must be coordinated structurally to prevent the upper covering from becoming fractured, fissured or destroyed. The same applies to the upper elastic layer of combined-elastic sports floors. Boards must be in compliance with DIN 68 365, quality class III. Particle boards must comply with DIN 68 763, while structural veneered plywood boards must comply with DIN 68 705-3.

41 1) Category 1 floors have a higher protective function compared to category 2 floors.

29

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

42

located above each other. Flanking transmission via neighbouring components (e.g. walls) also has to be taken into consideration. A first elementary, often overlooked sound protection requirement is complete continuity of the separating component forming the surface (i.e. no openings or open gaps). Another important point is that our hearing is characterised by an extremely selective perception of sound frequencies. Humans can only hear sounds within a frequency range of 16 and 20,000 Hz, with higher frequencies feeling more unpleasant than lower ones. A possible sound protection strategy is therefore to use building measures to shift occurring frequencies to inaudible ranges. Building acoustics, essentially involving reduction of sound energy (or respectively its conversion to thermal energy), offers two physical principles of action: • large acoustic oscillation carriers distributed evenly over the surface, i.e. a mass which is as flexible to bending as possible (single-shell system) • excitation of oscillation of two or more bending-flexible shells that are parallel to each other and separated by an elastic space, which use up sound energy in a specific frequency range (the resonance frequency) (multilayer system, mass-spring system). Flooring can assume an important role for both of these sound protection methods, namely: • as a single-shell system, by increasing the mass of the ceiling (not floating screed) • as a double-shell system, by creating a thin oscillating ceiling add-on (floating screed) Airborne or structure-borne sound A fundamental differentiation between airborne and structure-borne sound is made 30

in building acoustics. Airborne sound protection includes the proportion of sound transmitted via air, while structureborne sound protection is concerned with sound created by mechanical excitation of solid bodies and transmitted through them. In the building industry, the latter primarily involves impact sound protection, which directly concerns flooring. Characteristic of the airborne sound protection of a component is its weighted sound reduction index R'w measured in decibel (dB). High Rw values are an indication of good airborne sound insulation. Impact sound insulation is measured by the level of sound received in the neighbouring room, which is expressed using the weighted normalised impact sound pressure level Ln. w. Contrary to airborne sound protection, high Ln. w values are therefore indicative of poor impact sound protection, while low values indicate good protection. The building acoustic effect of floors is mainly expressed by a parameter known as the weighted impact sound improvement index Δ Lw, which describes the improvement of the impact sound insulation through ceiling add-ons. A correspondingly corrected calculated value Δ Lw, R is used for multilayer ceiling add-ons. Single-shell components The building acoustic effect of heavy single-shell components is based on a maximum mass per unit area, i.e. distributed evenly, without irregularities, as well as the associated bending stiffness, which should be as small as possible. In single-shell components, the mass and weighted sound reduction index are roughly proportional (Fig. 45) [45]. Impact sound protection also improves through an increased mass. Although a higher mass is normally associated with greater thickness and hence increased bending stiffness, there are cases in which acous-

tic mass effects can be utilised in flooring structures, for instance by using loose artificial stones laid on wooden beam ceilings or loose fills, which are heavy but not bending-resistant (Fig. 43). This significantly increases both airborne as well as impact sound protection of light wooden beam ceilings, which are very unfavourable from a building acoustics perspective (Fig. 44). Solid ceilings generally already have a high mass per unit area (500 kg/m2 and above) due to structural dimensioning. Although these offer acceptable airborne and impact sound protection, additional measures are necessary to meet the requirements of office construction, for example. Bonded screeds on a bearing ceiling may improve conditions by increasing mass, but supplementary layers that are flexible to bending or springy are required to optimise the building acoustic values of the ceiling. Two measures are suitable for this. One option is to use resilient floor coverings such as carpeting or other elastic coverings (Fig. 47). Although these improve the impact sound insulation of the ceiling, since structure-borne sound vibrations are already dampened at source (when the foot is set down), the influence on airborne sound insulation is minimal. Impact sound improvement indexes Lw, R of 20 dB and above can be achieved (Fig. 46, p. 31). The second option for optimisation of the building acoustic behaviour of a floor-ceiling construction is to add a thin, flexible-to-bending, elastically mounted plate. Relevant solutions in this context are cushioning floor-ceiling constructions add-ons in the form of floating screeds (Fig. 48). Double-shell systems The combination of floating screeds with raw ceilings results in double-shell massspring systems. In contrast to the heavy

Weighted impact sound improvement index ΔLW [dB]

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

40

30

Floating dry screed

Loading consisting of concrete stones (mass per unit area m’)

20

10

Load-carrying ceiling construction

single-shell components primarily reducing sound energy through vibrational inertia as mentioned above, the acoustic action of double-shell systems is based on neutralisation of part of the sound energy within specific favourable frequency ranges by reciprocal oscillation of the flexible-to-bending shells. A part is played by the mass per unit area and the bending stiffness of the shells as well as by the resilience of the intermediate layer. Each double-shell component has a specific natural or resonance frequency fR, at which both shells oscillate synchronously, leading to significant reduction of the sound protection effect. As far as double-shell components are concerned, the aim is therefore to shift this resonance frequency range to the non-critical, hardly or not at all audible frequency range below 100 Hz. The effectiveness of doubleshell systems is very high for high frequencies (from 1,000 Hz upwards). The following measures are generally suitable to push the resonance frequency below 100 Hz: • Heavy shells: Heavy shells are generally considered to be solid ceilings, but not floating screeds that are subject to strict dimensional constraints.

Weighted sound reduction index R’W [dB]

43

0 0

20

44

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 Mass per unit area m’ of loading [kg/m2]

60

50 A 40

B C

30

20

10 0

45

2

3

4 5 6

8 10

20

30 40 50

70

100

200 300 500 700 Mass per unit area m’ [kg/m2]

Ceiling add-ons; resilient floor coverings 1

Linoleum composite covering according to DIN 18 173

ΔLw, R (V MR) [dB] 14 1) 2)

PVC composite coverings 2

PVC composite covering with jute felt as carrier according to DIN 16 952-1

13 1) 2)

3

PVC composite covering with corkment as carrier according to DIN 16 952-2

16 1) 2)

4

PVC composite covering with foam material as sublayer according to DIN 16 952-3

16 1) 2)

5

PVC composite covering with synthetic fibre non-woven material as carrier according to DIN 16 952-4

13 1) 2)

Textile floor coverings according to DIN 61 151 3)

6 Needle felt, thickness = 5 mm 20 42 Forklift truck on an industrial floor, Ricola Kräuterzentrum (Herb Centre) in Laufen (CH) 2014, Pile carpets 4) Herzog & de Meuron 7 Underside foamed, standard thickness a20 = 4 mm according to DIN 53 855-3 19 43 Loading a ceiling with loosely laid concrete stones to improve airborne and impact sound 24 8 Underside foamed, standard thickness a20 = 6 mm according to DIN 53 855-3 protection 44 Dependence of mass per unit area of the load 9 Underside foamed, standard thickness a = 8 mm according to DIN 53 855-3 28 20 on a wood beam ceiling in combination with a floating dry screed and the achievable impact 19 10 Underside unfoamed, standard thickness a20 = 4 mm according to DIN 53 855-3 sound improvement index ΔLW. For comparison, improvement indexes achievable in such light11 Underside unfoamed, standard thickness a20 = 6 mm according to DIN 53 855-3 21 weight construction ceilings with floating cementitious screeds alone are at best less than 20 dB. 24 12 Underside unfoamed, standard thickness a20 = 8 mm according to DIN 53 855-3 45 Relation between mass per unit area m' and 1) weighted sound reduction index R'w according Floor coverings must be marked with a reference to the respective standard. The relevant impact sound to Gösele, Schüle 1985, p. 39 improvement index ΔLw, R (V MR) must be stated on the product or packaging. 2) 46 Calculated value of impact sound improvement The values stated in lines 1 to 5 are minimum values; they are only applicable for glued floor coverings. 3) index ΔLw, R of various resilient floor coverings for Textile floor coverings must be delivered with the corresponding ΔLw, R (V MR) in the right column stated on the solid ceilings according to DIN 4109 Supplemenproduct or packaging as well as a certificate of compliance according to DIN 50 049. tary Sheet 1 46 4) Pile make of polyamide, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, polyester, wool and mixtures thereof

31

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

1 2 3

4 5 6 7

Resilient floor covering Bonded screed Raw ceiling

Floor covering Floating screed Separating foil Impact sound insulation

8 9 10 11

Dry screed Sleeper Cushioning underlay Insulating layer

4 3 1

2

5

6

48

32

L n, w, eq

70

L n, w

50

25 30

40

35

30 150

12

11 12 13

200 300 400 500 Mass per unit area m’ of raw ceiling [kg/m2]

Fire protection

Flooring on top of floor-ceiling constructions with rooms located above each other is important with regard to fire protection when the fire hazard is located above. Fire protection of the upper side can be achieved using various constructive flooring alternatives without any major additional expenditure. This applies e.g. to floating screeds, in which both the screed plate as well as the impact sound insulation can be used for fire protection purposes. Dry screeds or floating flooring

Structure Raw ceiling

Solid ceilings and composite ceilings Both solid and composite ceilings have a room-concluding horizontal concrete slab, which is decisive for fire protection from above. Floor add-ons such as screeds can improve the fire protection capacity of the load-carrying ceiling. The reduced minimum thicknesses of

60 B A

50

40 Highly soundinsulating partitioning wall

fg

30

Floating screed

20 100

m’

made of wood or wood-based materials can similarly contribute to fire protection. As an add-on, the flooring structure forms part of the total floor-ceiling construction from a functional perspective; its inclusion in fire protection therefore always depends on the extent to which other ceiling layers (can) contribute to this. Decisive in the case of flooring therefore is the fire resistance of the construction located immediately underneath, namely the bearing ceiling. Correspondingly, (additional) fire protective functions of the flooring may or may not be required, depending on the particular case. Two cases are distinguished in building practice: • Solid reinforced concrete ceilings in different versions as well as composite reinforced concrete constructions with a load-carrying concrete slab • Wooden ceilings

L

90

impact sound transmission. This can be avoided by either cutting the screed under the partitioning wall or continuation of the wall all the way to the top edge of the raw ceiling. Both measures considerably hamper free placement of partitioning walls however – a disadvantage that particularly comes to bear in administration buildings. For this reason, the previously described ceiling add-on composed of bonded screed or screed on separating layer and a resilient floor covering are considered to be more advantageous for office buildings (Fig. 47). In contrast to floating screed, this solution permits completely free implementation of partitioning walls.

Flanking sound reduction index R [dB]

Weighted impact sound pressure level L n,w or L n,w,eq [dB]

The proper function of a floating screed requires effective and careful separation by joints from surrounding components, especially at edges and walls. Floating screeds and floating wood floors (Fig. 49) improve airborne sound protection of a ceiling (Fig. 50, 52) and especially its impact sound protection (Fig. 53). Floating mounting on all sides also effectively rules out secondary routes of sound transmission (e.g. via walls). Light partitioning walls set on floating screeds however lose most of their building acoustic effect through flanking sound transmission via the thin screed plate; this applies both to airborne (Fig. 51) and

60

11

49

Impact sound improvement index ΔLw, R of structure [dB]

• Large distances between shells: In the case of floating screeds, the distance between shells is specified by the thickness of the impact sound insulation layer, which in turn is limited. • Springy intermediate layer: This is the decisive factor for the building acoustic action of floating screeds. This is why soft fibre insulating materials, rather than stiff and hard foam materials, are suitable for this. The resilience of the impact sound insulation is expressed by means of its dynamic stiffness.

80

8 9 10

7

3

47

50

4

12 Load-carrying ceiling construction 13 Loading consisting of dry sand

51

200

400

800

1600 3200 Frequency [Hz]

Raw ceiling

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

reinforced concrete plates as well as reinforced concrete hollow-core slabs and aerated concrete plates with floorceiling add-on specified by DIN 4102-4, require flooring to provide additional fire protection. For structural design reasons, the thickness of slabs used for regular span widths of ceilings is however far beyond what is required by the standard. It can therefore normally be assumed that additional fire protection properties of flooring are not required in these cases, since this task is already fulfilled by the bearing ceiling. The fire-protective effect of a non-flammable screed however permits a reduction in the thickness of the concrete covering the upper reinforcement layer of the bearing ceiling [46]. In the case of composite ceilings with steel girders embedded in the concrete, fire protection from above can be provided by adequate concrete coverage of the steel section or, alternatively, by a

Mass per unit area of ceiling 2) [kg/m2]

R'w, R [dB] 1) Single-shell solid ceiling, with directly applied screed and walk-on covering

Single-shell solid ceiling, with floating screed3)

500 450 400

55 54 53

59 58 57

350 300 250

51 49 47

56 55 53

200 150

44 41

51 49

1)

Valid for flanking components with a mean mass per unit area m'L, mean of about 300 kg/m2. For further conditions with regard to applicability of the table, see section 3.1, DIN 4109, Supplementary Sheet 1. 2) The mass of applied bonded screeds or screeds on separating layers and of the underside plastering has to be taken into account. 3) And other ceiling add-ons laid in a floating manner, e.g. floating wood flooring, with an impact sound improve52 ment index ΔLw (V M) ≥ 24 dB.

ΔLw, R (V MR) [dB]

Ceiling add-ons

With hard floor covering

With resilient floor covering 1) L (V MR)

20 22 24 26 27 29

20 22 24 26 29 32

Floating screeds Mastic asphalt screeds according to DIN 18 560-2 with a mass per unit area m' ≥ 45 kg/m2 on insulating layers made of insulating materials according to DIN 18 164-2 or DIN 18 166-2 with a dynamic stiffness s' of maximum 50 MN/m3 40 MN/m3 30 MN/m3 20 MN/m3 15 MN/m3 10 MN/m3

47 Solid ceiling with bonded screed and resilient floor covering 48 Ceiling with floating screed 49 Wood beam ceiling with floating wood floor, right with additional loading with sand Screeds according to DIN 18 560-2 with a mass per unit area 50 Dependence of equivalent normalised impact m' ≥ 70 kg/m2 on insulating layers made of insulating materials according sound pressure level Ln, w, eq of a single-shell solid to DIN 18 164-2 or DIN 18 166-2 with a dynamic stiffness s’ of maximum raw ceiling on its mass per unit area m'. Ln, w is 23 50 MN/m3 22 the impact sound pressure level of the combin25 40 MN/m3 24 ation of raw ceiling and ceiling add-on. It is 3 27 26 30 MN/m calculated by subtraction of the impact sound 3 30 28 20 MN/m improvement index Δ L of the ceiling add-on 3 23 29 15 MN/m (in three steps of 25 – 35 dB respectively) from 3 34 30 10 MN/m Ln, w, eq. 51 Maximum achievable airborne sound reduction Floating wood flooring index of an otherwise highly sound-insulating Subfloors made of wood chipboards according to DIN 68 771 on sleepdividing wall in consequence of flanking transers with insulating tape underlays made of insulating materials accordmission through a continuous screed plate. The ing to DIN 18 166-2 with a dynamic stiffness s’ of max. 20 MN/m3; width range of the coincidence frequency fg includes a 24 – of insulating tape min. 100 mm, thickness when installed min. 10 mm; distinctly sound-insulating minimum right in the insulating materials between sleepers according to DIN 18 165-1, nommiddle of the frequency range critical for building inal thickness ≥ 30 mm, linear flow resistance Ξ ≥ 5 kN · s/m4 acoustics. 52 Weighted sound reduction index R'w, R of solid Subfloors according to DIN 68 771 made of min. 22-mm-thick wood ceilings (calculated values) without and with chipboards according to DIN 68 763, with the full surface laid on insulat25 – floating screed according to DIN 4109, Suppleing materials according to DIN 18 165-2 with a dynamic stiffness s' of mentary Sheet 1 max. 10 MN/m3 53 Overview of impact sound improvement indexes 1) It is possible to exchange resilient floor coverings as in Fig. 46, p. 31. Since these are subject both to wear Δ Lw, R of customary flooring structures and /or and the specific requirements of the occupants, they may not be included for proof of compliance with the ceiling add-ons according to DIN 4109, Supplementary Sheet 1 53 requirements of DIN 4109.

33

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

thk5 thk4 thk3

Floating screed or floating flooring Upper planking or formwork Wooden rib Insulating layer necessary (for fire protection reasons) with attachment thk2

Lower planking or cladding

w [mm] 40

Minimum thickness

thk1 thk1 thk2 l [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]

THK [mm]

ρ [kg/m3]

thk3 [mm]

Minimum thickness thk4 thk5 [mm] [mm]

16

625

60

30

13

15

16

625

60

30

13

15

16

625

60

30

13

15

12.5 + 12.5

500

60

30

13

15

12.5 + 12.5

500

60

30

13

30

12.5 + 12.5

500

60

30

13

15

40 a

Fire resistance class designation

Minimum Minimum thickness bulk density

Floating screed or floating flooring made of

Gypsum boards

Upper planking or formwork made of Wood-based panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3

Fire-resistant gypsum boards

Minimum thickness

Minimum width

Cladding

Necessary insulating layer made of

Permissible span length

Lower planking or cladding

Wood-based panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3

Wooden ribs

w

Mineral fibre boards or mats

w

Wood-based panels, boards or parquet

w

Mortar, gypsum or asphalt

w

Insulating layer with ρ ≥ 30 kg/m3

THK thk1

thk5 thk5 [mm] [mm]

20 16

F 30-B 9.5

20 25

F 60-B 18

thk3 thk2

Floating screed or flooring, flooring on sleepers Mineral fibre insulating layer Possibly with intermediate layer composed of concrete, fill, cork, wood-based materials or similar (e.g. for sound protection reasons)

thk1

Formwork

Wooden beam made of glulam or solid wood Minimum thickness when using

Mineral fibre insulating layer with ρ ≥ 0 kg/m3

Minimum thickness of flooring when using

Fire resistance class designation

Wood-based panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3

Boards or planks

Minimum thickness

Wood-based panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3

Boards, tongued and grooved

thk1 [mm]

thk1 [mm]

thk2 [mm]

thk3 [mm]

thk3 [mm]

25 19 + 16

28 22 + 16

15 15

16 16

21 21

F 30-B

45 35 + 19

50 40 + 19

30 30

25 25

28 28

F 60-B

The grey fields contain information relevant to flooring. The other information shows the impact of flooring dimen54 b sioning on other parts of the floor-ceiling construction.

34

correspondingly thick, non-flammable screed, depending on whether the top edge of the steel section is fully embedded or concreted with the top edge flush with the ceiling surface. Open butt joints (up to 3 cm in width) of prefabricated ceiling elements can be sealed in compliance with fire protection requirements by continuous, floating or non-floating screeds, subject to certain specifications of DIN 4102-4 (Fig. 55). Wooden ceilings Wooden ceilings can be executed in two ways: as wood panel ceilings, in which beams or ribs are covered with panelling material on both sides (Fig. 54 a), or as traditional wood beam ceilings with beams fully or partly exposed on the underside (Fig. 56, 58, 59). From a fire protection perspective, ceilings are differentiated as those requiring an insulating layer in the cavity for fire protection (Fig. 54 a) and those that do not (Fig. 59). For fire resistance classes F 30-B and F 60-B, DIN 4102-4 prescribes addition of dry screed for fire protection from above. Prerequisites include suitable insulating layers with a minimum bulk density and 54 Minimum measurements according to DIN 4102-4 a of wood panel ceilings with insulating layer required for fireproofing, each with ceiling add-on and subceiling b of wood beam ceilings with trilaterally flametreated wood beams with floating dry screed or floating flooring Each applicable for exposure to fire from above or below. The floating screed or flooring serves to protect the ceiling against the effect of fire from above. 55 Possible joint design of prefabricated ceilings with fire protection action according to DIN 4102-4 with open joint and continuous screed on the upper side. The screed assumes fire protection functions here. Observation of specified minimum thickness according to DIN 4102-4, makes it possible to reach a specific fire resistance class (predetermined breaking point in screed, reinforcement above joint). 56 Staggered butt joint arrangement of ceilings with

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

≥ 60

≥ 60

≤ 1.5

thkE

thkE

thk thk ≤3

≤3

55 Intermediate layer made of felt or carton board

Floating screed

w

≥ 60

57

Additional joint coverage with plates Load-carrying planking thk3 thk1 thk2

A

B

C

D

h-thk2

58

w thk4 thk3 thk2

E

Floating screed or floating flooring Formwork Insulating layer (not required for fire protection reasons)

THK

Wooden slats ≥ 40/60 mm, attached with nails at two different heights

≥ 60 thk1

Cladding (single- or double-layer) Wooden beam made of glulam or solid wood w

Fire resistance class designation

Gypsum boards

Wood-based panels, boards or parquet

Floating screed or floating flooring made of

Insulating layer with ρ ≥ 30 kg/m3

Formwork

Made of wood-based panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3

Cladding

Mortar, gypsum or asphalt

w

Permissible span length

With regard to thermal protection, flooring should be designed to prevent transfer of heat through the associated ceiling or floor component as far as possible. This is necessary to prevent development of moisture, to save energy as well as to

w

Made of fire-resistant gypsum boards

Thermal protection

w

56

Made of wood-based panels with ρ ≥ 600 kg/m3

correspondingly thick screed plates (Fig. 54 a). Correspondingly thicker layers are required by the superior fire protection specification F 60. DIN 4102-4 also defines constructive variants for ceilings with exposed wood beams with a fire resistance duration corresponding to F 30-B and F 60-B and contribution of flooring to fire protection (Fig. 54 b). Since fire protection from below is solely provided by the upper planking of the floor-ceiling construction in this case, the thickness of this has to be appropriately thick (between 25 and 60 mm). Attention should also be paid to the design of the butt joints of the plates, both for the upper planking of the floor-ceiling construction and the add-on. No continuous joints which are not tight must be created. This can be ensured by suitable arrangement or overlapping of joints and /or by suitable intermediate layers (Fig. 56 – 58).

floating screed for tightness in case of fire 57 Wood beam ceiling F 30-B with two-layer upper planking made of particle boards with staggered elastic butt joints at right angles to beam direction and intermediate layer made of felt or carton board for fireproofing 58 Wood beam ceiling F 30-B or F 60-B without Minimum thickness Minimum thickness Minimum thickness floating screed or floating screed with additional bilateral joint coverage by means of plates (thk2, thk1 thk1 l thk2 thk3 thk4 thk4 thk4 thk3) with staggered butt joints; butt joint design [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] for boards or planks (A, B) and/or for wood625 16 15 20 19 based panels (C – E) with regard to fireproofing. 625 16 15 16 19 F 30-B 59 Minimum dimensions of wood beam ceilings F 30-B with partly exposed wood beams not 625 16 15 9.5 19 requiring an insulating layer for exposure to 2≈ 12.5 400 19 15 20 fire from above or below for fire protection reasons according to DIN 4102-4. With regard to 25 2≈ 12.5 400 19 30 F 60-B fire protection, the flooring serves to protect the 18 2≈ 12.5 400 19 15 ceiling against impact of fire from above. This The grey fields contain information relevant to flooring. The other information shows the impact of flooring solution is for instance used in the renovation of 59 dimensioning on other parts of the total ceiling construction. old buildings.

35

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

Components with mass per unit area m’ ≥ 100 kg/m2

Thermal resistance of component 2) R [m2 K/W]

Description

immediately above outside air, underground garages, garages (also heated ones), thoroughfares (also lockable ones) and ventilated crawl spaces 1) Ceilings of heated rooms located

1.75

Ru = 0.09 + 0.4 Ai /Ae

immediately above unheated cellar rooms with the bottom (e.g. base plate) of occupied rooms immediately adjacent to the soil up to a room depth of 5 m

0.90

above a non-ventilated hollow space (e.g. crawl cellar) adjacent to the soil Components between heated rooms

ceilings separating apartments, ceilings between rooms used for various purposes

0.35

1) Prevention of coldness to feet 2) For components in contact with the ground: constructive thermal resistance The thermal resistance of single- or multi-shell components with mass per unit area m' ≤ 100 kg/m2 must be at 60 least R = 1,75 m2K/W

keep the temperature of the floor surface at a comfortable minimum temperature. The latter particularly concerns how warm or cold the flooring feels to the feet (see “Thermal room conditioning and ventilation”, p. 22ff.). Components relevant for thermal protection of flooring floor-ceiling structures with heated and low-temperature or completely unheated rooms as well as the outside air, in addition to floor plates against soil. Floor-ceiling structures with heated rooms located above each other, which belong to different units (e.g. apartments) should furthermore be designed with limited thermal protection, provided the usage of these rooms differs. DIN 4108-2 defines minimum thermal resistances R for the laminar

DEO DEO – Interior insulation of ceiling or floor plate (upper side) under screed without sound 61 protection requirements

36

components concerned (Fig. 60). These are calculated from the quotient of the thickness of the component or layer (thk) and the material-specific thermal conductivity λ or from the sum of individual quotients in the case of multilayer components. According to DIN 4108-2, the convection heat transfer resistances Rsi (interior) and Rse (exterior) at the upper and lower component surface – or the upper surface of the flooring and the lower surface of the ceiling – and, assuming a downward heat flow, can be estimated at Rsi = 0.17 m2 K/W and Rse = 0.04 m2 K/W. If a flooring structure between storeys is directly adjacent to outside air, but to a smaller unheated room, e.g. a cellar room, then (based on DIN EN ISO 6946)

DES DES – Interior insulation of ceiling or floor plate (upper side) under screed with sound protection requirements

this room can be treated as if it were an additional homogeneous layer with a thermal resistance Ru, which is calculated as follows:

PB PB – External thermal insulation (perimeter insulation) under floor plate against soil (outside the waterproofing)

provided that Ru ≤ 0.5 m2 K/W Ai Total area of all components facing the interior and unheated room Ae Total area of all components between the heated room and exterior surroundings This calculation method takes into account the more favourable conditions compared to direct contact with outside air. Integration of thermal insulation layer in structural composition Decisive for the structural composition of flooring is whether the thermal insulation layer is integrated in the flooring structure or located underneath the ceiling. Considerations in this regard can be found in the section “Principal structures of floors and ceilings” (p. 9ff.). DIN 4108-10 differentiates various thermal insulation application methods on the basis of their respective installation locations in a building and identifies them with codes. Applications relevant for floors are illustrated in Fig. 61. The designation codes of DIN V 4108-10 of the variants significant for this publication

60 Minimum thermal resistances of ceiling components with flooring to outside air, slightly heated areas, areas with considerably lower inside temperatures or unheated areas according to DIN 4108-2, with a mass per unit area larger than or equal to 100 kg/m2 61 Thermal insulation applications methods relevant for floors at their location of installation in a building according to DIN 4108-10 62 Floor insulation in an industrial building

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

62

include DEO (insulation under screed without sound protection requirements and DES (insulation under screed with sound protection requirements), while PB (perimeter insulation under floor plate against soil) does not directly concern the flooring structure. Application-dependent requirements of thermal insulation materials If a thermal insulation layer is integrated in the flooring structure, then it must comply with specific requirements, which differ significantly from those of wall and ceiling insulations. It is important in this regard, for instance, to make sure that surface or point loads are transferred to the bearing shell without any inadmissible deformation or compression. A load-distributing shell (normally screed) arranged on the thermal insulation is a prerequisite for this is in most cases. Significant factors include compressive strength of the thermal insulation layer, the magnitude of the load incurred as well as the mounting method of the load-distributing shell (preferentially areal) or of elevated flooring (usually linear or at points). If the insulating layer has to fulfil sound protection requirements, specific values regarding dynamic stiffness as well as compressibility will have to be adhered to. DIN 4108-10 contains flooring-relevant requirements of thermal insulation materials depending on various applications of the two installation variants DEO and DES. It includes dimensionrelated parameters such as limit deviations (manufacturing tolerances), mechanical properties like stability or stiffness or hygroscopic characteristics like water absorption, compressive strength, depending on use in residential and office areas, terraces, industrial floors and parking decks as well as compressibility of impact sound insulation in floating screeds [47].

Heat storage

Flooring plays an important role with regard to the thermal storage capacity of a building. On the one hand, it constitutes a significant proportion of the room-enclosing surfaces (in addition to walls and ceilings), so that its thermally active, mass per unit area is correspondingly large and hence also its ability to absorb or emit large quantities of thermal energy. On the other hand, flooring is directly affected by direct solar radiation entering via the windows and other glazed surfaces – a factor that is significant for thermal protection in summer as well as winter, since flooring can quickly store desired as well as undesired heat and emit this back to the interior spaces at a different time as required. The resulting thermal inertia of the construction however also slows down heating-up and cooling-down processes, which may be unfavourable for specific situations, such as for periodic building operation. Non-stationary thermal processes – relevant factors Thermal protection takes into account stationary processes, while heat storage affects non-stationary, i.e. changing thermal processes. This has an impact on comfort as well as energy efficiency issues. Relevant factors influencing these processes include thermal diffusivity a and the rate at which thermal energy is exchanged with its surroundings (quantified by thermal effusivity b) [48], both of which are material-specific parameters particularly describing the storage process. The quantity of heat absorbed is physically determined by two parameters: specific heat capacity c of a material, and the ability to store heat Qs of a plateshaped component with a particular thickness and made of a certain material with a corresponding bulk density. It can

therefore be stated that the process of heat absorption (as quantified using the first two parameters) is mainly dependent on thermal conductivity λ, specific heat capacity c and bulk density ρ of the material, whereas the quantity of heat absorption (as expressed by the last two parameters) is mainly specified by the bulk density ρ in addition to the specific heat capacity c. Or in short: the heavier and more conductive a material, the more thermal energy it can absorb or emit in a shorter period of time. This is therefore altogether referred to as the thermal inertia of a specific construction. With regard to building practice relating to flooring, a basic differentiation between two types is made. On the one hand, there are the heavy materials with good conductivity, pertaining both to covering and screed (stone or ceramic coverings, mineral screeds), that are able to quickly absorb large amounts of heat and to release these again later. On the other hand there is light (wood) flooring with poorer conductivity, less mass and hence lower heat storage capacity, which can take up heat very slowly and store it to a limited extent. The former are able to make a considerable contribution to solar energy usage in winter, to thermal protection in summer and to flattening temperature peaks in general, while the latter are not. The closer the masses are to the surface, the more effective they are with regard to heat storage, i.e. the first ten centimetres adjacent to a boundary surface are most effective in this respect. This is however in turn dependent on the previously mentioned thermal effusivity b of the material that determines the rate at which thermal energy is exchanged with the surroundings, which directly affects flooring and the uppermost centimetres of screed or the ceiling. Deeper surface areas are 37

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

63

therefore thermally more effective in more conductive materials than in less conductive materials. In principle, both floor coverings and screeds should however lie on the thermally most relevant side of the construction, namely on the one facing the room [49]. Decisive for the thermal action of a mass capable of heat storage is the side on which the thermal insulation layer – if present as a separate layer – is located in the ceiling or floor structure. Thermal masses situated outside the insulating layer, such as floor or ceiling plates under flooring-integrated thermal insulation, are largely thermally irrelevant for the interior, since they are effectively decoupled from the interior by the effect of the thermal insulation. Internally positioned thermal masses, such as screeds and floor coverings in this case, on the other hand govern the thermal inertia of interior spaces. These are therefore referred to as internal thermal masses in this context. The thermal action of flooring structures able to store heat can additionally be significantly increased by placement in direct contact with heavy floor or ceiling plates, i.e. with externally insulated components or ceilings between rooms of equal temperature, since they increase the overall thermal storage mass. Heat conduction on contact

The constant relative closeness of the human body to flooring compared to other room-enclosing surfaces, such as walls and ceilings, distinguishes flooring in this regard. While the temperature of the flooring surface – analogous to that of walls and ceilings – generally influences comfort by thermal radiation and partly by convection (in this case mainly perceived by the feet and legs), there is an additional effect in this case: heat conduction by contact between foot and flooring. This 38

has a significant influence on the thermal comfort experienced in indoor spaces. Radiation and convection primarily determine the perception of warmth by clad feet, while conduction is decisive when the feet are bare. Clad foot Thermal comfort depends on the temperature of the floor itself and the air layers near the floor, as well as on the duration of stay. The latter parameter tends to have a negative influence on the perception of warmth, i.e. higher floor temperatures are required for thermal comfort when the duration of stay is longer. Heat conduction via contact is of subordinate importance when feet are not naked, because of the extensive insulation of the foot against the floor through socks and shoe soles. Whether the floor feels warm to the clad foot depends on the floor temperature. According to Schüle, this should only lie a few degrees below the ambient room temperature [50]. Decisive in this regard for outer enveloping components (floors in this context) is an adequate thermal insulation capacity (see “Thermal protection”, p. 35f.) and /or constant heating of the floor surface such as through underfloor heating. Unclad foot The situation is different for naked feet. Barefoot contact with flooring is common in residential settings. Direct heat conduction by contact always takes place when there is a temperature gradient between surfaces touching each other, i.e. between the naked sole of the foot at about 31 °C and the flooring [51]. Studies have shown that temperature gradients of up to 4 K are still found to be tolerable at the point of contact within the first ten minutes [52]. According to this, contact temperatures between 26 and 27 °C could still feel warm to the feet. Apart

from the floor temperature, whether a floor feels warm to the feet also depends on the heat conduction behaviour of the flooring. If heat is withdrawn quickly by contact despite a relatively small temperature gradient between foot and floor surface, the floor will soon feel cold to the feet. A decisive factor in this regard is the thermal effusivity b, which was already discussed in association with heat storage (see “Heat storage”, p. 37f.). This is what finally determines the temperature experienced by the foot. Low b values are indicative of warmness to feet, while high b values are indicative of coldness to feet (Fig. 65). The thermal effusivity depends on the thermal conductivity λ, the specific heat capacity c and the bulk density ρ. This essentially means that heavy floors with good conductivity and high storage capacity feel cold to the feet. Fig. 64 shows the effect of floors which respectively feel warm and cold to the feet on the contact temperature at the naked foot. Apart from this method for assessing warmness to feet according to Schüle, a simpler procedure pursuant to Cammerer is also used [53]. The quantity of heat dissipated is recorded at measuring periods of 1 and 10 minutes and allocated to heat conduction levels I–III depending on their behaviour (Fig. 66). A general estimation of various floor structures with regard to their warmness to feet is provided by Fig. 67. In summary, it can be stated that flooring has to be designed to feel adequately warm to feet, i.e. with minor heat conduction, particularly in residential constructions. This requirement is fulfilled by all wood and cork flooring as well as elastic flooring on relatively light screeds below 1,000 kg/m3 (Fig. 63). Heavier screeds made of cement or melted asphalt do not guarantee adequate

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

0 8 mm cork parquet -1 warm to feet

24 mm wood floor

-2 -3 -4 -5 -6

Screed with bulk density of 1,200 kg/m3 and above

-7

cold to feet

0 64

2

2 mm covering warm with sheeting to feet 1 mm felt board Cementitious screed

-2 -3 -4

2 mm covering with sheeting Cementitious screed

-5

cold Cementitious screed to feet without covering

-7 -8

4 6 8 10 Time after placing foot on floor [min.]

Floor material

0 -1

-6

Cementitious screed 2,200 kg/m3

-8

warmness to feet and should therefore be thermally separated from the floor covering with an insulating intermediate layer [54]. This requirement is in conflict with the desired ability to store heat (see “Heat storage”, p. 37f.). Compromises have to be made here; if thermal mass is increased at the expense of warmness to feet, it may be recommendable to use underfloor heating to permanently maintain a consistent and agreeable floor temperature.

Assessment of floors Temperature at sole of foot [°C]

Temperature at sole of foot [°C]

Assessment of floors

0

2

4 6 8 10 Time after placing foot on floor [min.]

Thermal effusivity b [kcal/m2 h0,5 K] 2 4 8 8 8

Corkboards Spruce Oak Rubber Magnesia / wood flour cement screed Linoleum Anhydrite screed Mastic asphalt screed Gypsum screed Ceramic plates Cementitious screed Cut cement stone Artificial stone 65 Marble

9 18 19 16 – 21 20 17– 23 30 34 43

Heat conduction [kJ/m2]

Heat conduction W1 W 10 level (1 minute) (10 minutes)

Assessment of floor

up to 38

up to 190

I

specially warm to feet

above 38 to 50

above 190 to 294

II

adequately warm to feet

above 50

above 294

III

not adequately warm to feet

66

Moisture protection

Flooring must remain permanently free of moisture (or running water) to avoid building damage and development of mould, to ensure safe accessibility, a healthy indoor climate and general usability. Two moisture protection requirements are generally distinguished: exposure to moisture from above, such as splash, cleaning or precipitation water (wet rooms, balconies), and exposure to moisture from below (soil moisture exerting no pressure). Protection against soil moisture exerting pressure does not involve flooring and is therefore not considered here. The first function is fulfilled by waterproofing through the flooring construction, while this is the case for the second function only if waterproofing is included in the flooring structure (rather

63 Cork floor as floor covering that feels warm to the feet 64 Heat conduction curves of flooring and an estimation of their warmness to feet (according to Gösele, Schüle 1985, p. 173) A temperature drop of 4 K at the place of contact with the foot is the threshold between feeling warm or cold to the feet. 65 Thermal effusivity b of flooring in kcal/m2 h0,5 K (Grandjean 1973, p. 302) 66 Heat conduction levels of flooring (according to the withdrawn DIN 52 614) and assessment with regard to warmness to feet. 67 Assessment of warmness to feet of various flooring structures according to the procedure by Cammerer in two categories (after 1 minute and after 10 minutes). 67

Walking layer (top layer)

Sublayers

• Wood floorboards • Wood parquet over 18 mm

• any • any

Assessment of floor for short contact (walking)

for long contact (standing)

• specially warm to feet • specially warm to feet • adequately warm to feet • specially warm to feet to specially warm to feet

• Cork parquet over 5 mm • any • Screed with bulk density • Cork parquet under below 1,000 kg/m3 5 mm • Cementitious screed, asphalt screed and similar

• specially warm to feet • specially warm to feet

• specially warm to feet • specially warm to feet

• specially warm to feet

• specially warm to feet

• Covering with synthetic resin filling compound

• Screed with weight per unit volume below 1,000 kg/m3 • Cementitious screed, asphalt screed

• adequately warm to feet • adequately warm to feet

• Dry screed • Cementitious screed, asphalt screed

• adequately warm to feet • adequately warm to feet • not adequately warm to • not adequately warm to feet feet to adequately warm • adequately warm to feet to feet • adequately warm to feet

• Coverings with sheeting 2.5 – 3.5 mm (e.g. plastic sheeting, Walton (= one colour) linoleum and similar)

• Felt board on cementitious screed, asphalt screed and similar • Pressed corkboards, foam material layers (2 – 3 mm) on cementitious screed and similar • Screeds below 1,000 kg/m3 • Cementitious screed, asphalt screed

• not adequately warm to feet

• not adequately warm to feet

• adequately warm to feet • adequately warm to feet

• specially warm to feet

• specially warm to feet

• specially warm to feet

• adequately warm to feet

• not adequately warm to feet • not adequately warm to feet

• not adequately warm to feet • not adequately warm to feet

– • Terrazzo floors, cementitious screeds, walk-on asphalt screeds

• not adequately warm to feet

• not adequately warm to feet

• Walk-on dry screeds

• not adequately warm to feet

• not adequately warm to feet

• Cork linoleum with a thickness of 3.5 mm and above • Stoneware tiles in mortar bed

• Cementitious screed • Dry screed

–

39

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

1

2

3

6

4

5

a

1

2 4

5

7

8

68 b

1 4

5

8 10

11

12

a

1 4

5

8

10 11

69 b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

40

8 Waterproofing Floor covering according to Protective layer DIN 18 195-5 Composite waterproofing 9 Screed with (CWP) floor covering Screed 10 Floor plate Impact sound insulation 11 Thermal insulation Floor drain 12 Seepage layer Drainage layer

than being located under the floor plate or being waterproof itself). Various sealing layers offering protection against soil moisture are considered in the section “Principal floor and ceiling structures” (p. 9ff.). Apart from the other objectives referred to, keeping the flooring surface free of moisture is particularly important for safe access primarily for reasons of slip resistance (see “Safe access and general safety aspects”, p. 12ff.). This cannot always be safeguarded in some room types (e.g. wet rooms), where accumulated water is removed as quickly as possible in a controlled manner, for instance through floor inclinations and suitable floor drains. Requirements regarding durability, health protection and safety therefore coincide in this regard. Exposure to moisture from above Most regular-use flooring is exposed to moisture to a minor extent. Accidentally spilt liquids form local damp spots and are normally harmless since they can diffuse into the room and dry out after a short period of time. Most hard floors are regularly wiped with water containing a cleaning agent (see “Hygiene and value retention”, p. 25ff.). The thin film of moisture created in the process is however safe even for relatively porous stone or ceramic floors. Exposure classes according to DIN 18 195-5 Floor surfaces with moderate and heavy exposure to moisture require special moisture protection measures. DIN 18 195-5 distinguishes the following exposure classes (also see “Wet-room floors”, p. 57f.): • Moderately exposed surfaces: Balconies in residential buildings, floor surfaces directly exposed to splash

water in wet rooms of residential buildings • Heavily exposed surfaces: Floor surfaces heavily exposed to water for normal use or cleaning in wet rooms (e.g. entrances to swimming pools, public showers, commercial kitchens and other commercial uses) Surfaces requiring waterproofing are classified as moderately exposed by DIN 18 195-5, when “water exposure is slight, not constant and there is sufficient slope to prevent water retention or puddle formation” [55]. Flooring surfaces subjected to moderate as well as heavy exposure must be fitted with additional waterproofing according to DIN 18 195-5. It must be ensured that accumulated water cannot collect. Even if sealing layers are considered to be permanently impermeable to water, there is a risk of damage to the sealing by water collected over a longer period of time or ingress of water in the construction through possibly existing defects, which are harmless when water is drained away quickly [56]. If water drainage of the floor surface cannot take place quickly enough, perhaps due to excessive roughness or pronounced profiling, suitable drainage layers for quick removal of water have to be included in the waterproofing system. According to DIN 18 195-5, waterproofing of the flooring must be installed and secured to adjoining rising components such as walls at least 15 cm above the protective layer or the surface of the covering. Otherwise, special measures ensuring that water can neither enter nor run behind the waterproofing (e.g. channels covered with grating) have to be implemented. Waterproofing must generally be protected from mechanical damage from above. This is normally achieved by protective

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

70

layers pursuant to DIN 18195-10 (customarily through screed) or a suitable cover fulfilling the same function (Fig. 68). The various waterproofing materials used for moderately and heavily exposed flooring surfaces are considered more closely in the section “Wet room floors” (p. 57f.). Exposure to moisture from below In the building industry, efforts to seal against rising soil moisture exerting no pressure must be made. As far as the flooring structure is concerned, this always involves moisture accumulated in the load-carrying floor plate. Waterproofing (according to DIN 18 195-5) is always positioned on the upper side of the floor plate, either fitted directly to it or on subconcrete and /or an equivalent substrate. This generally includes (cold self-adhesive) bitumen sheeting, plastic and elastomer sheeting, polymermodified bituminous thick coating and mastic asphalt. As mentioned in the previous section, waterproofing must be protected against mechanical damage from above. This is achieved by means of a suitable protective layer according to DIN 18 195-10. Floor waterproofing must be joined to wall waterproofing at connections to rising wall components. Possible solutions for exterior masonry walls are shown in Fig. 69. In concrete constructions, separate sealing is either completely omitted (when using concrete with

68 Principal design of floor waterproofing according to DIN 18 195, Supplementary Sheet 1 a in a room with moderate exposure to moisture (wet room in residential construction) b in a room with high exposure to moisture (wet room for commercial use). An additional drainage layer is provided under the protective layer (mortar bed of plate covering), because pronounced profiling of flooring for good slip resistance hinders drainage of the larger quantities of water that occur.

a high penetration resistance, waterproof concrete), or horizontal waterproofing is continued up to the wall and the construction joint between floor plate and wall is sealed with a joint tape (also see DIN 18 336). Protection from electrostatic discharge

Under specific conditions, flooring can lead to electrostatic charging of the human body. Contact with conductive materials can result in sudden discharge (electrostatic discharge – ESD) due to the built-up electric potential, visible by attraction of dust and dirt to flooring. In addition, such electrostatic discharges may lead to permanent damage to circuits of sensitive electronic equipment. In specific areas of industry or research, static sparking may cause explosions. ESD must therefore be prevented, starting with a reduction in the degree of static charging. Depending on use as well as the risk and damage potential of a respective room, this can be achieved by suitable selection of flooring material – some flooring types are safe in this respect, while others are problematic (see “Electrostatic behaviour of flooring”, p. 42 and Fig. 73, p. 42) –, by special treatment of the flooring or by additional measures for dissipation of the electric charge induced by the floor. Physical interrelations Each body possesses both positive and negative electric charges, which are nor-

69 Principal design of sealing against soil moisture at the outer wall connection in cellars according to DIN 18 195, Supplementary Sheet 1 a The outer wall is made of bricks, with the horizontal sealing installed in the bed joint between floor plate and the first row of stones. b Sealing can alternatively be installed in a mortar joint above the top edge of the floor plate. 70 Lab room with floor covering with discharge capacity. Special labs at the University of Leipzig (D) 2009, Schulz and Schulz

mally balanced. Friction or contact between two bodies results in a transfer of negatively charged particles (electrons) between the atoms of the boundary layers. This asymmetrical electron distribution leads to a so-called contact voltage between the two bodies; the surface layers develop electric direct voltage fields, which are at rest (static). When the bodies separate from each other, the voltage at both bodies increases significantly (analogous to a parallelplate capacitor), while the capacitance decreases, so that the overall voltage remains the same. This results in the high voltages typical for electrostatic charging, which can reach up to 20,000 V [57]. These high potential differences associated with electrostatic charging are not perceivable, except on contact with a conductive object, leading to immediate and often unexpected discharge. According to the current state of knowledge, these voltages are however not dangerous, because the total transmitted electric charge is still small. The threshold for feeling an ESD is around 3,000 V. Contact with friction and subsequent separation of two objects is what generates the so-called triboelectricity (from tribeia, Greek for “to rub”). On floors, this occurs during the walking process: when setting down and lifting off the foot from a surface. This is chiefly influenced by the following factors: • Ability of the materials involved to take up or release electrons: There are significant differences in this regard between isolating materials (in which electrons are firmly bound to the atoms) and conductive materials, such as metals (the outer electrons of which are only loosely bound to the nucleus). Persistent surface charging caused by isolators generally leads to higher potential differences and hence to more 41

Standards, building physics effects and constructive solution principles

1

4 3 5 6 2

2 7

1

8

9

3 4

Copper strip (self-adhesive) Protruding copper strip for equipotential bonding Elastic joint Grout, depending on type of tile with conductive additive

7

5 Tiles 6 Tile skirting 7 Conductive thin-bed mortar 8 Priming with conductive additive 9 Substrate/screed 10 Tiles, non-conductive 11 Conductive grout

11 1

8

9

10

Distance 4–5 m

71 a

b

Earthable objects

Objects earthable to a limited extent

Generally not earthable objects

Conductive materials

Area of transition

Non-conductive materials

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

a

1010

104

Discharge possible

Discharge possible to a limited extent

Discharge generally not possible

Not chargeable materials

Area of transition

Chargeable materials

105

106

107

108

109

72 b

1012

1010

1011

1012

1013

1014

Surface resistance [Ω]

Material

Discharge resistance Ω

Steel Steel, galvanised

80 kN, contact chips) 5/11 and 11/22 2 pressure, p ≤ 2 N/mm ), polyor aggregate as in application stringent demands on the composition of 2 area 1 and 2 with hard material urethane tyres (p ≤ 4 N/mm ) concrete are based on expected wear, layer according to DIN 18 560-7 56 which is divided into exposure classes XM 10 to XM 3 according to DIN 1045-1. secured areas with higher risk of falling, 50 Force vs time diagram illustrating shock absorpAccording to the standard, this only conmixed-elastic characteristic through denser tion in area-elastic (B) and point-elastic or mixedand stiffer upper elastic layer (4) elastic sports floors (C) compared to a reference cerns floors with load-carrying or bracing 53 Production facility for hydraulic components, concrete surface (A) function, but is also recommended as Kaufbeuren (D) 2014, Barkow Leibinger 51 Structure of a point-elastic sports floor made an alternative to the specifications in 54 Groups of heavy duty screeds subjected to of PUR mechanical use according to DIN 18 560-7 a with elastic, impact-sound-insulating covering Fig. 56 [27]. In addition to the require55 Cement-bonded hard material screeds: nominal b with EPDM granulate covering ments arising from exposure, slip resistthicknesses of hard material layer according to 52 Structure of point-elastic sports floors for climbDIN 18 560-7 ing halls with increased falling hazard ance requirements may also have to be 56 Examples of concrete floors subjected to wear. a suitable for underfloor heating (adequate taken into consideration (see “Safe access Composition of concrete with associated uses shock absorption and thermal conductivity) and general safety aspects”, p. 12ff.). and abrasion resistances according to Böhme b high elasticity and high shock absorption in 67

Flooring types and constructive connections

BA I

BA III 3

2

BA II

1 Perimeter joint 2 Dummy joint 3 Construction joint

1 57

1 2

4

3

4 5

6 7

4 5

10 Dowel 11 Sleeve with plastic coating

7 Elastic joint filler 8 Elastic joint profile 9 Insulating material

4 Cut 5 Saw cut 6 Joint grouting

1 Concrete plate 2 Sliding layer 3 Bearing layer

Employer liability insurance associations generally specify classification categories between R 10 and R 13 [28].

8 Joints 1

3 2 7 6 22 d/2

30

50

6 10

20 30

9 7

25

11

d/2

Ground

500

b

58 a

c

3

59 a

5 Plywood strip 6 Second concreting section 7 Shear-resistant interlocking

1 First concreting section 2 Bearing layer 3 Side formwork 4 Trapezoid moulding

5 4

1

20

b 5 Separating layer according to DIN 18 560-4 6 Wear layer 7 Bonded screed, adapted to the wear layer (6) or transition layer in two-layer hard material screed and/or sublayer 8 Bonding layer 9 Bonded screed

1 Floor plate (concrete) 2 Bearing layer 3 Sliding layer 4 Screed for load distribution, thickness and flexural tensile strength dimensioned according to intended use

2

1 2

3 4 5

1

6

7

8 1

8

9

a 6

7

Ground Ground 60 b

61a Nominal thickness [mm]

Largest grain of aggregate [mm]

I (heavy)

≥ 35 ≥ 30

11 8

II (medium)

≥ 30 ≥ 25

8 5

III (light)

≥ 30 ≥ 25

8 5

Use group (according to Fig. 54, p. 67)

62

68

b

c

Hardness classes according to DIN EN 13 813 for heated rooms

not heated rooms and outdoors

refrigeration rooms

IC 10 or IC 15

IC 15 or IC 40

IC 40 or IC 100

Cracks are unavoidable in building practice and have to either be limited in width or controlled in location and path using suitable measures (see “Special requirements from usage for industry”, p. 27ff.). Concrete plates without reinforcement must be divided into jointed areas by means of a carefully designed joint plan to avoid formation of uncontrolled, random cracks (Fig. 57). Reinforced plates on the other hand are executed without joints and the width of unavoidable cracks is limited. The dummy joints characteristic for nonreinforced industrial floors induce crack

57 Exemplary jointing plan of non-reinforced floor plate of an industrial hall, cast in three concreting sections (CS I – III) 58 Ways of executing dummy joints a simple joint cut (60/3 mm) b with saw cut (25/8 mm), joint filler and joint grouting c with saw cut (40/10 mm) and joint profile 59 Ways of executing movement joints with joint fillers: a with shear-proof dowelling to prevent vertical offsets b perimeter joint adjacent to rising component 60 Construction joint with tongue and groove for transmission of transverse forces a first concreting section b second concreting section 61 Ways of executing industrial screeds a screed on separating layer b two-layer bonded screed with wear layer c bonded screed 62 Heavy-duty mastic asphalt screeds for industrial construction according to DIN 18 560-7 63 Principal structure of an industrial floor without insulation (a, b) and with thermal insulation (c, d) a with bonded screed or hard material layer b without floor add-on, with treated concrete surface, or hard material added when moist c with floating load distribution layer (2), only suitable for small loads d normal execution in industrial construction with thermal insulation layer under the floor plate

Flooring types and constructive connections

1 2 3 4

5 6

Wear layer (optional) Screed or hard material layer Concrete plate Separating and /or sliding layer

7 8

Bearing layer Substructure / substrate Treated and possibly cured surface Thermal insulation 1 2 4 8 3 4

5

6 7

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

3

4

Ground

63 a

formation in a controlled manner by functioning as predetermined cracking locations in a floor plate (see “Cracks and joint design”, p. 54f.). For this purpose, the cross section of the plate is weakened by making a cut in the upper third after initial setting (Fig. 58 a). The irregular vertical course of the crack then developed in the remaining two thirds of the cross section creates a vertical shear lock between the two plate sections. If the joint is to be closed, another wider saw cut (8 – 20 mm) has to be made and the widened joint section filled with sealant or an elastic joint profile (Fig. 58 b and c). For jointed areas exceeding 6 m or wheel loads above 40 kN, crack keying with a dummy joint no longer meets the requirements [29]. Additional dowelling (Fig. 59 a) or tongue-and-groove-like connections through appropriate grouting of the plate sections (Fig. 60) are required in such cases. Movement joints through the complete cross section of the plate separate the floor plate from building components rising up vertically (Fig. 59 b) and permit their constraint-free expansion. Constructive design

The typical structure of an industrial floor consists of three main layers: a levelled substrate, a bearing layer with or without binding agents and a concrete panel. The top of the latter may be treated (at least) or sometimes fitted with an additional layer of screed or hard material (Fig. 63 a, b). The bearing layer, normally composed of granulate (gravel, crushed stones), at the same time fulfils an anti-capillary moisture protection function. Heated industrial constructions require an adequately compression-resistant thermal insulation (Fig. 63 c, d), usually consisting of cellular glass. Placement of a thermal insulation layer under the load-carrying concrete slab is normal (Fig. 63 d).

3

4

8

5

5

b Surface treatment

Exposed concrete surfaces without any further coverage are normally levelled (after raking the fresh concrete and sufficient setting of the hardening, still ductile concrete), i.e. mechanical smoothing and power trowelling. The created surface corresponds to a trowel finish. To improve the mechanical resistance of the floor, a hardening component can also be added during this procedure (see “Hardmaterial-finish cementitious screeds”). The same aim, as well as crack prevention, is pursued by concrete curing. Curing compounds (CC) ensure minimisation of evaporation at the concrete surface during the critical initial setting period. This creates a distinctly more wear-resistant surface layer with less cracks. An entire layer of hard material with a thickness of several centimetres can be added for particularly demanding requirements. Additional structure and surface finishing

Special functional requirements of floors may necessitate curing the exposed concrete surface (see “Surface-finishing measures”, p. 70) as well as addition of further layers in the form of a screed. The most common execution methods are bonded screeds and screeds on separating layers (Fig. 61). Various materials are available, with the corresponding requirements specified by DIN 18 560-7. Mastic asphalt, synthetic resin, magnesite, cementitious and so-called hard material screeds are suitable for industrial applications (see “Screeds”, p. 50ff.), while the following characteristics should be kept in mind with regard to industrial use: Mastic asphalt screed Mastic asphalt screeds are not resistant to oils, petrol or solvents. The contained binding agent, bitumen, is a thermoplas-

Ground

c

d

tic substance, which means that it is sensitive to high temperatures. A broad temperature spectrum can however be covered by using polymer bitumen [30]. Synthetic resin screed For heavy duty industrial constructions, synthetic resin screed is normally executed as a bonded screed. Magnesite screed Magnesite screed is generally applied as a bonded screed. When laid on an insulating or separating layer, it must be executed in two layers (sublayer in compressive strength class C 12 or better). Calcium sulfate screed Calcium sulfate screeds can only be used to a limited extent in industrial constructions due to relatively low strength compared to other screeds and sensitivity to moisture [31]. Cementitious screed Cementitious screeds for heavy-duty use are mainly executed as bonded screeds. Less demanding use allows execution as screed on separating layer, while flexural tensile strength is decisive for dimensioning in such as case. Cementitious screeds tend to form dust in association with wear, which is why deep impregnation is recommended. This also prevents penetration of fluids. Various slip resistance classes can be obtained by the type of surface treatment (see “Safe access and general safety aspects”, p. 12ff. and “Screeds”, p. 50ff.). Abrasion resistance classes between A 15 and A 12 can be achieved [32]. Hard-material-finish cementitious screeds Hard materials are added to the wet screed in accordance with DIN 1100 to produce cementitious screeds finished with hardening components. Rather than 69

Flooring types and constructive connections

a 64 Surface-finishing measures a Impregnation with transparent low-viscosity epoxide resins, applied once or twice with paint brushes for large areas, impregnation brushes or by spray coating b Sealing with epoxide resins dilutable with water, applied once or twice with roller (possible addition of colour pigments) c Epoxide resin or polyurethane coating (possible addition of colour pigments) 65 Cement-bonded flowing screed as wearing screed, premises of the Fraunhofer Institute, Ilmenau (D) Staab Architekten

b

64 c

creating a separate hard material layer, this results in firm bonding between the upper aggregate and the cementitious screed. The customary thickness of the hard material layer is between 6 and 10 mm. A single layer of screed is produced (Fig. 61 c, p. 68). When laid on an insulating or separating layer, it is executed in two layers and is then considered as a separate hard material screed (see “Cement-bonded hard material screed”). As far as hard materials are concerned, the standard differentiates the following groups: A (general), KS (electrocorundum/silicon carbide) and M (metal). Group A is suitable for hardmaterial-finish cementitious screeds [33]. It can be executed with abrasion resistance class A 9. Cement-bonded hard material screed Cement-bonded hard material screeds may be laid bound directly to the load-carrying substrate with a transition layer at least 25 mm thick. If laid on an insulating or separating layer, execution is in two layers with a transition layer at least 80 mm thick and a composition according to DIN 1045-2 (Fig. 61 b, p. 68). Greater thicknesses

and/or reinforcement may be required if laid on an insulating layer. The transition layer has to be compliant with strength class C 35 and/or F 5 or higher, pursuant to DIN EN 13 813. Specifications in Fig. 55 (p. 67) are applicable for nominal thicknesses of the hard material layer. The degree of slip resistance of the floor surface can also be varied to a limited extent through suitable treatment [34]. Surface-finishing measures

The surface quality of both monolithic floors and screeds can be improved by means of retrospective measures. This includes the already mentioned addition of hard materials. Further surface-finishing measures for industrial floors, which are however increasingly also utilised for screeds used in other areas, are considered in the following. Impregnation Impregnation involves integration of special liquids in a screed. To achieve this, the surface is prepared by initial grinding to facilitate penetration of the liquid in the screed or floor plate to a depth between 0.5 and 3.0 mm. The pores are exten-

sively filled and the surface is strengthened to some extent (Fig. 64 a). A continuous film is however not formed in the process. Impregnations can also develop a regulating effect during the drying process of screeds, which has a favourable influence on crack and deformation behaviour [35]. Sealing In contrast to impregnation, sealing forms a continuous layer on the raw flooring surface (Fig. 64 b), with thicknesses normally ranging between 0.1 and 0.3 mm. Sealing finishes are similar to paint coatings and are easier to control than impregnations as far as visual appearance is concerned. They are not suitable for heavy duty exposure. Permeable sealing permits slow diffusion of trapped moisture and prevents blistering. Coating Depending on the expected use, coating is a continuous protective layer between 0.5 and 2.0 mm on flooring. It can even out smaller irregularities on the raw floor surface (Fig. 64 c). Different surface characteristics can be achieved using various techniques, which plays an important role e.g. when imparting flooring with anti-slip properties. Coating design may be chemical-resistant and seal the floor against liquids. Specific conduction resistance to ground can be achieved by inclusion of metal bands providing electrostatic discharge protection (see “Protection from electrostatic discharge”, p. 41ff.) [36]. Constructive connections Special constructive solutions are devised for flooring at connections to rising components (especially walls) as well as at doors and other passages. Depending on the execution method,

65

70

Flooring types and constructive connections

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 3 8 9

66

the floor structure can be connected directly to the vertical components, such as in the case of monolithic or bonded screeds (Fig. 1 and 2, p. 50), i.e. whenever no relative movements are expected between flooring structure and load-bearing construction. Alternatively, perimeter insulation strips are used for jointing, i.e. whenever such movements are included in the design. The latter applies to e.g. screeds on separating layers (Fig. 3, p. 50) or floating screeds (Fig. 9, p. 52). Wall connections

1

2 3 4 5

7

6

67

Most of the flooring structures shown so far have standard constructive connections to walls (especially in the case of solid constructions). Fig. 66 shows a light dry-construction dividing wall resting on the load-carrying floor construction. Light partitioning walls are however often also placed on floating screed. This is always the case when repositioning of partitions is required, such as in office buildings. Joints must then be placed in the screed to prevent flanking sound transmission (Fig. 67).

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6 2

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67 Jointing (7) of floating screed under a light dividing wall to prevent flanking sound transmission 1 Light dry-construction dividing wall 2 Skirting board 3 Floor covering 4 Floating screed, wet construction method 5 Impact sound insulation 6 Separating layer 7 Jointing

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8

Interior door passages

Flooring generally continues through interior door openings, although at least contraction or construction joints, sometimes also movement joints, are placed there for crack control and /or execution (Fig. 68, 69). Various solutions are available for more demanding specifications. Increased sound protection can for example be achieved through contactfree sound insulation sealing (Fig. 69) or double slide sealing (Fig. 68). Apart from an only slightly projecting chamfered sill profile, transition is stepless here. Sill-like offsets are always needed when the bottom end of the door is required to close more tightly, e.g. for fire protection doors (Fig. 70, p. 72).

66 Wall connection of flooring with floating screed, left using wet construction, right using dry construction 1 Light dry-construction dividing wall 2 Skirting board 3 Floor covering 4 Floating screed, wet construction method 5 Impact sound insulation 6 Separating layer 7 Perimeter insulation strip 8 Floating screed, dry construction method, two-layer 9 Moisture protection foil

68

68 Door sill with double slide sealing 1 Door leaf 2 Floor covering 3 Floating screed 4 Sill profile 5 Sealing lip 6 Sealant jointing 7 Case-dependent construction or movement joint 8 Angle piece

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69

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69 Door sill with sound insulation sealing composed of a coupled hollow space 1 Door leaf 2 Floor covering 3 Floating screed 4 Case-dependent construction or movement joint 5 Sill profile 6 Coupled hollow space 7 Angle piece

71

Flooring types and constructive connections

Exterior door passages

1 2 3 4

5 70 Sill of an indoor fire protection door T 30 with end stop 1 Door leaf 2 Sill profile made of aluminium 3 Sealing profile 4 Floor covering 5 Floating screed

70

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7

71 Sill of exterior door with end stop, opening inwards, flush inner and outer flooring 1 Door leaf 2 Floor covering, interior 3 Floating screed 4 Sealing lip 5 Sill profile 6 Waterproofing 7 Floor covering, exterior

8

72 Flooring connection to an exterior door sill with end stop a opening inwards b opening outwards Adequate protection against ingress of surface water must be provided. 1 Floor covering, interior 2 Floating screed 3 Perimeter insulation strip 4 Sealing profile 5 Sealant jointing 6 Stop angle 7 Waterproofing 8 Exterior door frame 9 Floor covering, exterior

71

8 5 4

7

4 7 9

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12 3 6

72 a

b 1 2 14 3 8 9 4 5 6

73

72

7

10 11

12 13

73 Flooring connection to an exterior door sill within a stick system facade. Transition is without a sill. The area immediately outside therefore requires adequate protection against ingress of external water, such as through a projecting roof and an outward inclination. 1 Mullion profile 2 Lower plug connection of mullion, fixed point 3 Transom profile (in background) 4 Foot plate of mullion 5 Floor covering, interior 6 Floating screed 7 Waterproofing 8 Perimeter insulation strip 9 Joint backfill 10 Sealant jointing 11 Sealing lip 12 Transition profile 13 Floor covering, exterior 14 Exterior door frame

Door passageways between inner and outer areas are subject to higher moisture protection requirements. There are two basic conflicting objectives: the creation of a passage which is as continuous and hence barrier-free as possible, while ensuring that no water from outside can enter the interior through this passage. In accordance with DIN 18 195-5, this can be realised by bringing the waterproofing at least 15 cm above the water-bearing level (see “Moisture protection”, p. 39f.). In door passages, this is always the top edge of the external floor (not the actual position of the waterproof sheeting in the floor structure), so that a sill height of at least 15 cm would be required here. Such high steps in flooring are however generally not desired for the functional reasons stated. Two constructive solutions are therefore available to choose from. One is to prevent ingress of water using alternative methods, i.e. either by protecting from precipitation with a projecting roof, while at the same time removing any water via an outward slope in the external flooring (Fig. 71– 73). The other alternative is to place a water drainage channel flush to the floor just outside the door (Fig. 74 and 75). In these cases, the waterproofing located outside has to be led upwards at the door sill and fixed mechanically. Fig. 71 and 72 show sill designs with an inner or outer door stop, providing increased tightness of the bottom end of the door. Fig. 73 and 75 illustrate sill-free solutions with a slide seal. Connections to light facades

Floors are connected to stick system facades at the height of a transom profile, either flush with the top (with the transom profile hidden in the front view), at midheight (Fig. 76) or flush with the bottom (Fig. 77). It has to be taken into account that light facades are primarily attached to the load-carrying construction with vertically mobile connections, since deformations of the load-bearing construction must not be transferred to the facade. A perimeter joint between flooring structure and facade construction therefore has to be installed – apart from impact sound protection reasons. In the case of floor constructions, the joint, including normally present sealant jointing, has to be able to absorb the relative movements between a sagging floor structure and the stick system facade (Fig. 76).

Flooring types and constructive connections

4 5

74 Flooring connection to an exterior door sill, flush with floor. A groove prevents entry of surface water. 1 Floor covering, interior 2 Floating screed 3 Perimeter insulation strip 4 Exterior door frame 5 Cover profile 6 Sealing lip 7 Groove 8 Waterproofing 9 Floor covering, exterior

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6 75 Flooring connection to sill of a lift-and-slide door. A groove protects against entry of surface water. 1 Frame of lift-and-slide door 2 Floor covering, interior 3 Floating screed 4 Perimeter insulation strip 5 Sealant jointing 6 Waterproofing 7 Groove 8 Floor covering, exterior 75

6 5 76 Connection of a floating screed to the transom 1 of a stick system facade in the area between floor and bottom of window composed of sandwich panels. The facade connection to the front edge of the floor structure is mobile in a vertical direction so that relative movements between both components can be absorbed by the perimeter insulation strip and the sealant joint at the edge of the flooring. 1 Floor covering 2 Floating screed 3 Perimeter insulation strip 4 Sealant jointing 5 Transom 6 Sandwich panel 76

2

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2

1

4 77 Flooring connection to the base of a stick system facade. The facade is connected inflexibly to the floor plate in the form of a fixed point. In contrast to the floor structure connection in Fig. 76, no relative movements between flooring and facade result from deformation of the load-bearing structure. 1 Mullion profile 2 Transom profile 3 Lower plug connection of mullion, fixed point 4 Foot plate of mullion 5 Floor covering 6 Floating screed 7 Perimeter insulation strip 77 8 Sealant jointing

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Notes [1] According to DIN EN 13 813:2003-01, screed consists of “a layer or layers of screed mortar that are laid at a building site […] to achieve a specified height; to bear a floor covering; to be used directly.” This limits the term screed to wet construction methods and makes the expression dry screed commonly used in practice a contradiction in itself. It is therefore recommended to use an alternative term for this. The author suggests “dry subfloors”. [2] DIN 18 560-3:2012-06, 4.1; Timm 2013, p. 36 [3] Timm, H. (2013), p. 32 [4] Calcium sulfate screeds can be considered the modern successors of early Egyptian gypsum floors as well as of historical scagliola floors (see Volume 2). [5] The calcium sulfate flowing screed version (CAF) is not included in the European standard DIN EN 13 318:2000-12. [6] Waterproofing under the floor covering is nevertheless recommended (Timm 2013, p. 7). [7] Ibid. p. 11 [8] Ibid. p. 9 [9] Ibid. p. 16 [10] Ibid. p. 17ff. [11] Timm 2013, p. 87ff. [12] Unger 2011, p. 609 [13] DIN 18 560-2:2009-09, 3.2.2 [14] DIN 18 560-2:2009-09, 4.3 [15] As Note 13 [16] Timm 2013, p. 70ff. [17] From DIN 18 195-1:2011-12, 4.5 [18] See work and instruction sheets (Merkblatt /Hinweisblatt) by the Federal Association of Screed and Floor Covering (Bundesverband Estrich und Belag e. V. – BEB: Abdichtungsstoffe im Verbund mit Bodenbelägen. (Waterproofing materials forming a composite with floor coverings.) Published by the Bundesverband Estrich und Belag e. V. (Federal Association of Screed and Floor Covering) 2010; ZDB Merkblatt (information sheet): Abdichtung im Verbund mit Fliesen und Platten. (Waterproofing forming a composite with tiles and plates.) Published by the Zentralverband Deutsches Baugewerbe (German Construction Confederation) 2012 [19] Timm 2013, p. 163 [20] See DIN EN 13 213:2001-12, Tab. 2 and 3 [21] See VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Association of German Engineers) 3762:2012-01, Tab. 1 [22] See VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Association of German Engineers) 3762:1998-11, 5.1.2 [23] See VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Association of German Engineers) 3762:1998-11, Tab. 3 [24] The live load is defined as the breaking load divided by the safety factor (DIN EN 12 825: 2002-04, 4.2.2). [25] VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Association of German Engineers) 3762:1998-11, 5.1.1 [26] According to information from the company Hoppe Sportbodenbau, (2013 brochure), the market share of area-elastic sports floors is about 80 %. [27] Zement-Merkblatt Tiefbau (Cement Datasheet – Civil and underground engineering) T 1: Industrieböden aus Beton. (Industrial floors made of concrete.) Published by Verein Deutscher Zementwerke e. V. (VDZ – German Cement Works Association Industry) 2006, p. 5; Timm 2013, p. 189 [28] Timm 2013, p. 178 [29] Zement-Merkblatt Tiefbau (Cement Datasheet – Civil and underground engineering) T 1: Industrieböden aus Beton. (Industrial floors made of concrete.) Published by the Verein Deutscher Zementwerke e. V. (VDZ – German Cement Works Association Industry) 2006, p. 8 [30] Timm 2013, p. 183 [31] Ibid. p. 185 [32] Ibid. p. 180 [33] Ibid. p. 181 [34] Ibid. p. 182 [35] Unger 2011, p. 918 [36] According to Unger 2011, p. 922, thicknesses between 2 and 6 mm are already referred to as coverings.

73

Floor coverings

As the top layer on the upper side of flooring structures, floor coverings are directly exposed to the effects of use and must therefore often satisfy very demanding requirements. Coverings moreover determine the visual appearance of flooring and its influence on the spatial impression. Based on conventional classification according to material, various types of floor coverings are considered below. Cement-bonded coverings Floor coverings made of cement-bonded artificial stone (also cast stone) are processed in two different ways: as precast floor plates or tiles or as wearing screeds poured in place followed by surface grinding and post-treatment (see “Wearing screed”, p. 55). The historic predecessor of this type of flooring is terrazzo, which is why cast stone floor plates may also be referred to as terrazzo plates and floors poured in place as in-situ terrazzo. Despite a characteristic aggregate composition, the latter is comparable to a wearing screed, particularly

1

74

when executed as a single layer, which corresponds to the definition of a conventional screed according to DIN EN 13 318. Material

Terrazzo or cast stone is a mixture of binding agent (previously lime, now Portland cement) and aggregates, normally consisting of natural stone chips (e.g. marble, travertine, limestone, dolomite, basalt or quartzite). Conventional Portland cement gives the material a grey tone and dampens the brightness and colour of the aggregate. White cement is used for lighter and brighter colours. Addition of colour pigments to this binder makes various colour shades possible. Aggregates must be grindable. Grinding is normally carried out in several consecutive work steps, with application of filler after every cycle. The grinding process can be finished with honing or high-gloss polishing using very fine abrasives. Post-treatment generally consists of application of fluorosilicatebased substances, which have an additional hardening effect. Alternatives include polishing wax, oil, impregnation

or hydrophobing agents, synthetic polymers or nanocomposites. As purely mineral products not containing organic additives at volume or weight percentages greater than 1 %, terrazzo products are automatically considered as non-combustible (reaction-to-fire class for floor coverings A1fl according to DIN EN 15 285). Terrazzo tiles/plates

According to DIN EN 13 748-1, terrazzo floor tiles or plates (Fig. 2 a) are either produced individually using compression or vibration methods or cut out of large terrazzo blocks. Tiles or plates composed of single or double layers can be manufactured. The latter involves creation of a composite consisting of a face layer (the actual wear layer made of terrazzo) on a bearing core concrete layer. The thickness of the face layer in double-layer tiles or plates is at least 8 mm if tiles or plates are ground afterwards (thickness class I), or 4 mm if they are not ground after laying (thickness class II). Laying terrazzo tiles or plates is similar to other stone plates and tiles or plates (ceramic or natural stone) (see “Natural stone coverings”, p. 75ff. and “Ceramic coverings”, p. 78ff.). According to DIN 18 333, materials including gypsum, highalumina cement or chloride-containing binders or additives may not be used. Conventional tiles or plates, especially large ones, are laid in thick mortar beds (mortar thickness 15 – 45 mm). If tiles or plates must be laid in a thin mortar bed, calibrated tiles or plates with the underside of the core concrete layer ground flat are used. The standard specifies the width of joints between terrazzo tiles or plates: 3 mm for tiles or plates with a maximum edge length up to 60 cm and 5 mm for those above 60 cm. When laid without a mortar bed (e.g. on paving slab supports), the joint width must be 5 mm.

Floor coverings

In-situ terrazzo

In-situ terrazzo is a continuous surface of cast concrete poured in place, forming a composite with the bearing concrete layer or the subfloor. Analogous to tiles or plates, one option is to execute cast terrazzo flooring as one layer (15 – 30 mm thickness). The double-layer version involves creation of a composite made of an upper face layer of at least 15 mm (the wear layer) placed wet-on-wet on top of a core concrete layer. The layers are then compacted by rolling them while they are still moist. The floor surfaces are subdivided into small fields with metal divider strips (Fig. 2 c) because of the expected and practically unavoidable crack formation in the set concrete (Fig. 2 d). These are pushed into the still pliable mortar all the way to the core concrete so that this is also jointed [1] – they are comparable to predetermined breaking points (Fig. 2 b). Ornamental patterns can often be realised in terrazzo flooring (Fig. 2 e, f). This is achieved by using aggregates of different colours and mortar mixtures with various colour pigments, or in combination with other covering types (Fig. 2 f). The high strength and durability of terrazzo floors explains their general use as the standard flooring in muchfrequented areas such as corridors or stairs as well as wet areas before introduction of elastic floor coverings to the market. Terrazzo flooring has however become increasingly popular again in the last years. Natural stone coverings In contrast to artificial stone, the cohesion of the components of which is achieved by targeted technical processes, the material structure of natural stones is the product of long stages of a specific geological history. The technical influence

on the material is therefore limited to the selection of the stone most suitable for the respective purpose, to the cleavage and further processing. In the case of anisotropic stone types, i.e. with a direction-dependent material structure, the cleavage or cut furthermore determines the orientation of the material structure. Natural stones are available with a huge range of different mechanical properties and visual appearances. They can be very dense or very porous. Apart from surface finishing, no further technical measures (e.g. impregnation or coating) are normally required. Porous stones are however an exception. In interior spaces, natural stones are normally used as tiles or plates and the processed version is often referred to as a natural stone product [2]. Individual elements have geometries that allow coverage of a floor surface without any gaps. Installation on a subfloor is essentially analogous to that of ceramic coverings (see p. 78ff.). The deformation behaviour is – in contrast to that of artificial stone, which exhibits a distinct tendency to shrink – very “good-natured”, making natural stone extensively inert in this regard for building purposes. All natural stones can be considered as non-combustible without special proof (class A 1 and /or A 1fl) [3].

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b

c

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Terrazzo floor of canteen of Spiegel Publishing e House, Hamburg (D) 2011, Ippolito Fleitz Group Various executions of terrazzo floors a modern terrazzo tiles with geometric pattern b terrazzo flooring with predetermined breaking point in the form of inserted metal profile: cracked to the left of the metal ring, not cracked to the right c light, fine-grained terrazzo covering divided into squares, poured in place d spontaneous cracks (left) in terrazzo e ornamented, cast in-situ terrazzo floor f cast in-situ terrazzo floor with mosaic frieze 2f

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Floor coverings

3 Material structure

Natural stone is a crystalline material composed of ordered molecular grids. The regularly structured crystallites (single crystals) are however ordered in a more complex macrostructure characteristic for the respective rock type. This determines in particular the mechanical properties of the specific kind of rock. All natural stones however share a characteristic typical for mineral materials, which is brittleness, i.e. increased sensitivity to (flexural) tensile stress. Their abrasion resistance is however high – porous stones excepted – and hence also their durability, which largely compensates the high cost associated with natural stone. Rock groups

Three major groups of natural rock are essentially distinguished on the basis of geological processes determining their structure as well as geological age [4]. Igneous rock Igneous rock was formed by solidification of magma (ignis is Latin for fire). Its extraordinarily hard and dense structure gives it the best mechanical properties among rocks. Sedimentary rock Sedimentary rock is formed from erosion products of igneous rock (e.g. sandstone) and/or remnants of skeletons of creatures (e.g. limestone), i.e. from individual particles (sediment particles) that are already solid. These are lithified into rock by compression and sintering of crystal powder or other particles under pressure and high temperatures (diagenesis). Typical for sedimentary rock is the alignment of grains in sedimentation layers. These dictate a distinct anisotropy of the material, which is relevant for constructional applications. 76

Sedimentary rocks are significantly younger than igneous rocks. The cohesion of their particles is generally less compared to igneous rocks and hence they are usually softer and not as strong. Metamorphic rock Metamorphic rocks are the youngest in terms of geology. They are composed of sedimentary rocks subjected to further transformation processes associated with tectonic activities under the influence of high pressure and intense heat. These rocks often also display typical forms of grain alignment. They can exhibit foliation or a streaky or striated grain structure. This grain structure is superimposed by a superordinate giant rock fabric resulting from tectonic transformations such as folding, jointing and foliation. Selection of relevant rock types

Since a large number of natural rock types can be used for flooring, it is not possible to consider each of these separately. There are moreover distinct deviations between commercial and scientific (petrographic) designations. The subgroups of the three major groups named in DIN EN 12 670 as well as several representative rock types can be used for rough orientation (Fig. 4). A detailed list of traditional trade names of European natural stones is contained in DIN EN 12 440. The natural stone types considered below are particularly relevant for execution of flooring.

why it is excellently suited for flooring subject to heavy use (Fig. 5 d). In interior spaces, it is often finished with a polished surface because of its insensitivity to wear. Visual appearance is extensively homogeneous and neutral due to the grainy structure. Granite is one of the most common rocks found practically all over the world. Sandstone Sandstone is a sedimentary rock that was formed by densification (cementation) of loose sand. The properties displayed by sandstone vary considerably, depending on how the particles were bound during diagenesis. The key mineral is quartz (quartz sandstone). If the feldspar content is higher, the material is called arkose, while sandstone with a grain composition characterised by high clay content and low quartz content is referred to as greywacke. Quartzite-bound sandstones offer higher abrasion resistance. Discolouration may occur due to the generally rough surface of sandstone. Reddish tones dominate the available colour spectrum. Just like other sedimentary rocks, sandstone is anisotropic. Sandstone can therefore be differentiated as cut with the grain (parallel to the bedding plane) or against the grain (perpendicular to the bedding plane).

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Granite Granite is of magmatic (or igneous) origin and possesses a medium to coarse grain structure, which is non-directional (isotropic). It is characterised by considerable hardness and high resistance to abrasion and chemical attack, which is

Natural stone floor made of Dorfergrün, a chlorite gneiss from East Tyrol, administration building, Vandans (A) 2013, Architekten Hermann Kaufmann Rock groups according to DIN EN 12 670 with some representative rock types (in brackets) Various natural stone coverings a marble plate covering b slate plate covering c decorative floor with black and white stone intarsia design; representation of the zodiac, San Miniato al Monte, Florence (I) 1207 d granite plate covering e sandstone plate covering f Solnhofen limestone plate covering g limestone plate covering h travertine plate covering

Floor coverings

a

b

Limestone Similar to sandstone, limestone is also sedimentary (Fig. 5 g). Limestone minerals are crystallisation forms of calcium carbonate, CaCO3. If the content of dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, is high, the material may be called dolomite rock, while the term marl signifies a high proportion of clay mineral. Limestone is often of biogenic origin, i.e. it is composed of skeletons or scraps of creatures, although it may also be formed by chemical precipitation. Limestone generally offers low mechanical and chemical resistance. It is sensitive to scratching (Mohs hardness of 3), traces of which can however be removed by repeated grinding [5]. Colours range from white to grey, beige and various earth tones. Solnhofen limestone is common in Germany (Fig. 5 f). A special form of limestone is travertine (Fig. 5 h). This sedimentary rock has a very porous striated macrostructure characterised by many cavities. Travertine practically consists exclusively of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). On account of its limited strength and mechanical resistance, travertine is considered to be a soft rock. It also lacks resistance to chemical attack. When used as floor covering, pores and cavities of the stone are normally filled, often using cement-

based mortar. If the surface is polished, epoxy resin is used instead. Well-known travertine types include Roman travertine from Tivoli, Tuscan travertine or Cannstatt travertine from Germany. Marble Marble is a metamorphic rock with a medium to large crystalline structure, originating from limestone (carbonate rocks). Although resembling the latter with regard to its technical characteristics, marble contains no fossils (Fig. 5 a). Marble is a relatively soft stone (Mohs hardness 3) which is sensitive both to scratching and chemical attack (especially acids). Signs of wear may appear quickly on much-frequented flooring due to erosion effects, but the stone can simply be ground and repolished in such cases. Many types of marble are very translucent. This makes it necessary to match the colour of the mortar selected for laying. The high absorbency of the material may lead to transfer of colour pigments from the mortar to the covering and associated (generally undesirable) discolouration. This may be remedied by using white mortar for laying and limiting moisture transport to the covering. Depending on the natural content of various minerals, marble comes in a broad

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f

Igneous rock: • plutonic rock (granite, syenite, diorite) • ultrabasic rock (hornblende) • volcanic or pyroclastic rock (basalt, tuff) Sedimentary rock: • quartz (sandstone) • phyllosilicates (clay rock) • carbonates (limestone, dolomite) • feldspars and feldspar/quartz fragments (greywacke) • rock fragments (lithic greywacke, lithic arkose)

4

Metamorphic rock: • quartz (quartzite, slate, clay slate) • feldspars (feldsparite, gneiss, green slate) • amphiboles (amphibolite) • epidotes (green slate) • mica, chlorite (mica rock, slate, clay slate, green slate) • carbonates (marble, platy limestone)

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Floor coverings

6

range of colours: from virtually black, red, brown and green to pure white. Famous types of marble available on the market include white marble from Carrara (Italy) and Thassos (Greece). Slate Slate is a metamorphic rock created by the deposition of clay minerals and subsequent transformation in the course of tectonic processes (Fig 5 b). Plates for flooring are normally obtained by splitting the stone along parallel foliation planes, which is why they often have a rough cleftface finish. Slate offers very high flexural tensile strength – much higher than other rocks. This makes it possible to produce and lay very thin plates. The stone is water repellent (hydrophobic) as well as waterproof, making it predestined for flooring exposed to moisture. The high density of slate surfaces makes them fairly insensitive to soiling. Low absorbency with regard to mortar on the other hand may reduce adhesion between floor covering and mortar layer. A bonding layer normally has to be included for this reason. Although slate is sensitive to scratching, the material can easily be restored using slate oils. Surface finishing

The following surface textures of natural stone flooring can be produced in accordance with DIN EN 12 059: • by means of grinding – coarse, medium or honed surfaces depending on the grain size of the grinding disc – matt shiny finish by using polishing discs – high-gloss polished finish using polishing discs or felt • by means of striking tools – bush-hammered finish – pointed work finish – raked finish using a tooth chisel 78

• by means of other finishing methods – flamed finish – sandblasted finish (matt) – waterjet finish (structured, with dull sheen) – mechanically treated surfaces (possibly with traces left by tools) – cleft-face finish, left untreated after cleavage Smooth or polished surfaces are often preferred for optical reasons, are dirt repellent and easy to clean, but not very slip-resistant. Rougher surfaces on the other hand offer high slip resistance, while dirt can accumulate in pores making them more difficult to clean (see “Design measures”, p. 25). Some porous stone types may make it necessary to fill pores and any larger cavities with suitable filler material (e.g. cement-based mortar, epoxy resin) to create a smooth surface. Formats

DIN 18 332 differentiates between tiles (nominal thickness ≤ 12 mm) and thicker elements. Up to a thickness of 80 mm, the latter are described as plates, while the term “solid workpieces” is used for even thicker elements. According to DIN EN 12 670, plates have a length / width ratio between 1 and 8 and a width /thickness ratio greater than 10. The following is also described as a plate: “every natural stone product with edge lengths exceeding 150 mm and with the longest edge length equal to at least four times the thickness” [6]. Larger plate formats can generally only be executed with appropriately greater thicknesses due to the often low flexural tensile strength of natural stone. The cost of larger formats increases disproportionately with their dimensions. Costs can be saved by laying a combination of different formats to reduce scrap dur-

ing manufacturing. Classical laying patterns suitable for this include random patterns composed of various square and rectangular formats or staggered patterns. The latter involves laying rows of tiles or plates of the same width but varying length. The widths of individual rows may however also differ. Numerous different scrap-saving formats can be combined in an extensively ordered manner in this way. Considered to be the most precious flooring material, natural stone also has a history of being used to create decorative flooring, such as by creating complex geometric or figurative laying patterns also using the intarsia technique (Fig. 5 c, p. 77, see also Volume 2). Ceramic coverings Ceramic floor coverings are composed of tiles and plates. They have a lot in common with natural stone coverings. The main difference between the two is the constitution, the thermal and mechanical properties as well as the long-term behaviour of the materials. Manufacture

Similar to cement-bonded coverings, ceramic coverings are based on an artificially produced stone material composed of aggregate, binding agent and additives, if required. During manufacturing, both main components are subjected to a specific physical preparation process, a drying and frequently also a firing process. The resulting firm mechanical bonding provides the necessary strength and resistance of the product. Binding agents used for ceramic materials include clay and mica, while quartz sand and grog are used as aggregates and feldspar serves as a fluxing agent. The mixture of the basic components of all ceramic products, clay and sand, is described as

Floor coverings

Ceramic products

coarse

Greenware (biscuit)

Products (examples) 6 7

Colour-glazed and hand-painted earthenware General classification of ceramic products

7

fine

porous

dense

coloured

coloured

coloured

light to white

stoneware

common pottery 1)

earthenware1)

Clinker Bricks Split-face plates Terracotta Chamotte bricks Acid-resistant stone construcClaystones tion ceramics Fire clay stones

porous

Pottery ware

loam. Their respective ratio determines the mechanical and optical properties of the subsequent ceramic product.

have a denser structure, conduct heat relatively well and hardly absorb any water.

Drying Loam is processed as a moist, soft plastic mass that can be shaped freely. Most of the water contained escapes during drying. All that remains is an adsorption layer of a few molecules in thickness, resulting in solidification of the particles. Flooring composed of air-dried loam is very simple and has a limited abrasion resistance (see Volume 2).

Industrial manufacture Modern industrially manufactured floor tiles and plates are basically produced by means of two methods. Extrusion involves shaping a plastic, relatively moist clay mass (water content 15 – 25 %) to a continuous length, which is then cut into individual elements such as floor plates [8]. Dry pressing on the other hand consists of pressing dry clay powder (water content 5 –10 %) in moulds under high pressure [9]. Relief structures may be pressed using this method, while the production process by extrusion is strictly limited to specific cross sections. Different material structures ranging from coarse porous to dense can be realised with both methods (Fig. 11, p. 80). The modern ceramic industry mainly processes lean clays, i.e. with relatively low water content, since these tend to be more reliable during the firing process and hence produce less rejects [10]. The green tile bodies start to dry, which is associated with shrinkage – the higher the water content, the greater the shrinkage. Then they can be fired in a roller passage kiln (on rotating rollers) or in a tunnel furnace (on a kiln car on rails). Firing temperatures may fluctuate between 800 –1,000 °C (low-fired) and 1,200 °C (high-fired) during this process. The ceramic biscuit ware [11] produced has a significantly higher strength and resistance compared to the starting material loam in a merely dried state.

Firing Significantly higher strength and durability can be achieved by firing loam. At a temperature of about 400 to 500 °C, the firing process first removes the water of adsorption and the bound water of crystallisation, making the material waterproof. A chemical reaction at a temperature of around 800 to 1,000 °C cements the clay particles to form a solid structure. Sintering of the material commences at 1,200 °C, i.e. the components fuse to form a glassy, very strong and durable clinker structure with a new crystalline structure [7]. In principle: the longer the firing process and the higher the firing temperature, the denser and stronger the ceramic structure created. Higher strength and durability therefore necessitate more effort and higher energy consumption. The porosity and water absorption capacity of the material can also be influenced by the firing process. Low-fired ceramic products (unglazed terracotta, glazed and unglazed earthenware) are porous. They are therefore characterised by a relatively low bulk density, as well as low thermal conductivity and high sorption capacity (water absorption capacity). Higher fired or sintered products (clinker, stoneware, as well as porcelain) on the other hand

Glazing Earthenware tiles, which are relatively porous and not very abrasion-resistant as biscuit ware, are preferentially glazed. This protects from mechanical wear, chemical attack and soiling. Key sub-

Crockery Sanitary goods Wall tiles 1)

dense

coloured to light

white porcelain

Sanitary goods Isolators Floor tiles Split-face plates

Crockery

with the materials clay, feldspar and limestone

stances in glazings are quartz, dolomite and various metal oxides such as tin dioxide (SnO2), which creates a white opaque fundamental layer that can then be coated with coloured pigments as required (Fig. 6). Glazings are either produced by single firing, with biscuit and glazing solidifying during the same firing process, or by double firing in two subsequent firing processes. Stoneware can also be produced with glazing. Depending on resistance of the surface to wear, glazings are divided into various classes pursuant to DIN EN 14 411 (Fig. 11, p. 80). Ceramic products

The basic composition of clays may be similar, but their properties vary extensively depending on their place of origin. Ceramic products therefore tended to differ significantly (especially during the pre-industrial period) from region to region. This applies in particular to the colouring, which can range from anthracite, brown, ochre and yellow to white. As far as constitution is concerned, clays are essentially differentiated as fat or lean. Fat clays are plastic (easy to shape), because of their finer grain size and greater water content, but they are prone to rupturing during the firing process. To prevent this and to improve their firing behaviour in general, fat clays are tempered, i.e. mixed with sand or grog. The grain size of the aggregate primarily determines the fineness of the clay, which is why a differentiation is made between fine ceramics (grain size up to 0.2 mm) and coarse ceramics (grain size up to 5 mm). Coarse ceramics (or structural ceramics) include clinker, brick, Cotto and split-face plates, while fine ceramics include earthenware and floor tiles (Fig. 7). Depending on their material composition and manufacturing process, ceramic products suitable for flooring are divided into groups as follows. 79

Floor coverings

8

9

l

w

W C

W thk

10

S

J

C

Class 0

Glazed tiles and plates in this class are not recommended for floor coverings.

Class 1

Floor coverings in areas mainly used by persons wearing shoes with a soft sole or barefoot, without exposure to materials that cause scratching (e.g. bathrooms and bedrooms without direct outdoor access).

Class 2

Floor coverings in areas used by persons wearing shoes with a soft or normal sole, with maximum slight exposure to materials that could cause scratching (e.g. in living room areas of houses, except for kitchens, entrances and other areas that could be much used). This excludes unusual footwear (e.g. nail shoes).

Class 3

Floor coverings in areas used by persons wearing normal shoes exposed more frequently to materials that could cause scratching (e.g. eat-in kitchens, halls, corridors, balconies, loggias, terraces). This excludes unusual footwear (e.g. nail shoes).

Class 4

Floor coverings exposed to certain amounts of materials that could cause scratching through regular use, exceeding that of class 3 (e.g. entrances, commercial kitchens, hotels, exhibition and sales rooms).

Class 5

Floor coverings exposed to certain amounts of materials that could cause scratching through heavy pedestrian traffic over long periods of time, which may reach the limits specified for glazed tiles and plates (e.g. public areas such as shopping centres, checkin areas in airports, hotel foyers, public walkways and industrial applications).

11

Coordination dimensions C (Nominal dimensions) [mm]

12

J

C Coordination dimension = working dimension (W) + joint dimension (J) W Working dimension = Measurements of faces (l), (w) and thickness (thk) S Spacer

Working dimensions W [mm] Width w

Length l

300 ≈ 300

290

290

250 ≈ 250

240

240

125 ≈ 250

115

240

200 ≈ 200

194

194

100 ≈ 200

94

194

8 Fine stoneware plates 9 Large-format, thin porcelain ceramic plates 10 Dimensions of a right-angled ceramic tile or plate without and with spacer A according to DIN EN 14 411 11 Classification of glazed ceramic tiles and plates according to their resistance to surface wear according to DIN EN 14 411 12 Preferential measurements of floor clinker plates according to DIN 18 158 13 Various ceramic products in different formats and arrangements

80

Thickness thk

10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 or 40

a ceramic plates in brick bond patters b rectangular tiles in full-coverage herringbone pattern c hexagonal earthenware tiles with inserted indicators (dots) and building joint d mosaic composed of small-format tiles (5 ≈ 5 cm) e glazed ceramic penny round mosaic f coarse terracotta tiles g simple square brick plate covering h enamelled stoneware tiles

Brick plates Brick plates are low-temperature-fired, coarse ceramic products, with a porous biscuit structure (Fig. 13 g). Firing temperatures are around 800 °C. No sintering takes place at this temperature. Brick plates have a high water absorption capacity. They are consequently not frostproof and are only suitable for indoor use. Clinker plates Clinker plates are coarse ceramic products with a dense biscuit structure, which are fired at high temperatures. The firing temperature is between 1,000 and 1,100 °C. Water absorption is low ( 10.9 % equilibrium moisture content of wood Note: In extreme cases, thermally modified wood may have an equilibrium moisture content which is 50 % less than that of untreated wood. The values are however largely dependent on the treatment method. Specific values may be obtained from the manufacturer. The grey area shows equilibrium moisture content values achieved at regular indoor air humidities (45 – 60 %) and regular indoor air temperatures (15 – 25 °C). The equilibrium moisture content is the lasting value established in the wood after installation over a longer period of time under the given ambient conditions.

95

Floor coverings

59 a

b

the greater the risk of this type of deformation. Flatter cross-sectional geometries with a width/length ratio < 1:4 are therefore particularly prone to cupping. In order to reduce deformation, the board width of thin wood coverings must subsequently also be limited accordingly. In addition to the characteristic anisotropy of wood, the effects of which are predictable at least to some extent, possible natural irregularities associated with growth should also be taken into account. Course and structure of the fibre are not always absolutely linear or completely homogeneous, which is why curvature, warping or distortion of wood elements in relation to the axis of the stem always have to be taken into consideration (Fig. 61, 62). Cracks may also develop, especially when wood dries excessively. Due to the basic structure, these always form parallel to the fibres in the radial plane, since shrinkage primarily takes place tangentially. Laying

Wood flooring can be laid using the following laying methods. Nailing/Screwing The deformation behaviour of wood considered leads to the already described deviations in joint width in flooring composed of elements which are joined laterally and not glued to the substrate (e.g. simple tongue-and groove floorboarding or strip parquets). The relatively elastic nailing or screwing on wood substrates allows considerable expansion along the width of the boards. Wood flooring is on the other hand virtually deformation-free along the axis of the boards. The joint problem can be mitigated by using narrower boards or strips. Even more effective are smaller lamellae, especially if these are laid in an 96

alternating grain direction (e.g. mosaic parquets in a basketweave pattern). Expansions due to a high moisture content prevented by close contact with neighbouring elements may be particularly damaging with regard to this laying method. These may result in upward bulges in the flooring. If forces developed by the blocked expansion are large enough, plastic, i.e. irreversible, deformations may occur, leaving a significantly larger joint than before expansion once the flooring has dried. Correspondingly wide perimeter joints to adjacent components must be included, particularly for wood elements that are pressed and/or glued together or joined in another way offering no tolerance. The forces developing in association with this type of material expansion are huge and certainly capable of damaging neighbouring components. Adhesion Due to the current dominance of wet screeds in the building industry, glueing is practically the standard laying method. Even simpler lamella parquets and wood pavings require – especially due to the lacking lateral connection between the wood elements – a force-locked connection with the subfloor. It should be taken into account in this respect that glued installation blocks the typical deformation of wood, at least to some extent, depending on the elasticity of the adhesive used. Wood flooring types particularly subjected to shrinkage and expansion (e.g. broad solid wood boards) require correspondingly elastic adhesive layers. At least in the upper material layers, local occurrence of shrinkage processes is possible, be it through gaping of existing joints or through rupture of the material. Expansion deformations hindered by contact with a neighbouring element on the other hand create tensile stresses in

the subfloor. Screeds are sensitive to tension and may fracture under such conditions. Adequate screed quality must be ensured if such a risk exists. Fibre reinforcement of the screed may be an alternative. DIN EN 14 293 differentiates hard and soft adhesives for wood flooring (Fig. 63) [31]. Dispersion and reaction adhesives are considered hard. The former contain a binding agent composed of a polymer dispersed in water. This water leads to expansion of the wood floor, which has to be taken into account both in the wood selection and its installation moisture, as well as with regard to the absorbency of the substrate. Reaction adhesives on the other hand generally contain no substance causing wood to swell. All soft adhesives are reactive and offer high elasticity, so that only minor tensional forces are transferred from the deforming wood flooring to the substrate. They are also extensively free of substances giving rise to expansion [32]. Floating laying method When flooring is laid floating, this is placed in the form of a rigid glued shell on a cushioning underlay (membrane). This method is mainly used for multilayer parquet, where individual elements are either connected laterally by

59 Laying a nailing (wood nails visible) b glueing 60 Transverse curvature of solid wood element (cross section) a convex b concave 61 Longitudinal curvature of broad side of solid wood element (side view) a convex b concave 62 Longitudinal curvature of narrow side of a solid wood element (top view) 63 Adhesives for wood flooring

Floor coverings

a tongue-and-groove connection glued in the groove or form-locked to each other by means of a click system. This means that any expansion of the wood is not hindered by intermediate joints, but can extend all the way to the flooring edges. Adequately wide perimeter joints are hence a prerequisite for this laying method. Irregular shrinkage and expansion of flooring, which can hardly be avoided because e.g. entire areas of the flooring are covered by furnishing items and therefore not in contact with the room air, almost invariably lead to crack formation. This effect is however significantly reduced by the basic structure of multilayer parquet composed of a number of layers glued to each other crosswise, in alternating grain directions.

w

w 1

60 a

4

2

1

3

b

4

3

l 5

1

6

5

1

6

4

thk

a

4

thk 61 b

1 2

l

1

7

4

Surface treatment

According to DIN 18 356, the main purpose of surface treatment of wood flooring is to protect against ingress of dirt and liquids. It can moreover also offer limited protection from wear and minor damage. Surface treatment may be applied in one or several work steps after laying and grinding the flooring. Customary surface treatment of wood flooring includes: – Impregnation • undiluted natural impregnation using linseed oil and beeswax • solvent-based impregnation, such as with hard wax oil, polyurethane (PU) impregnation (PU oil) • water-based impregnation, such as e.g. soap – Sealing • water varnish (water-based), such as acrylic varnish, PU water-based varnish • acid-curing varnish (AC varnish), such as urea or melamine resin varnish

2

w

l

62

Adhesive type

Visible surface Transverse curvature measure 3 Cross section 4 Reference line 5 Longitudinal edge 6 Longitudinal curvature of broad side 7 Longitudinal curvature of narrow side w Width l Length thk Thickness

Abbreviation

Hard adhesive types Dispersion adhesives Ready-to-use Two component Powder

D D-2C D-P

Reaction resin adhesives Polyurethane adhesives (one or two components) Silane adhesives

PU-1C, PU-2C HSi

Epoxy resin adhesives

Properties like PU-2C

Soft adhesives

63

Soft polyurethane adhesives

SPU

Soft silane adhesives

SSi

97

Floor coverings

64

• polyurethane resin varnish, such as PU varnish, DD (Desmodur /Desmophen) varnish • synthetic resin varnish, such as alkyd resin varnish or urethane alkyd varnish (UA) • oil varnish – Other • factory sealing • base, bleach • stain The oldest ways to treat a surface are waxing (floor wax) and oiling (linseed oil). Both methods impregnate the wood and similar to other comparable methods (impregnations) enter its pore structure without forming a cohesive film. The wood surface is strengthened, making it more resistant. The surface structure remains visible and the tone of the wood is intensified. Impregnation does not influence the hygroscopic behaviour of wood significantly. Water can penetrate the material, but diffuse out again afterwards. A disadvantage associated with wax or oil treatment is however that the floor binds dust causing it to become grey with time. The application should therefore be renewed regularly, which can be relatively labour-intensive; it can also be carried out partially.

Mean bulk density 1) ρ at 12 % moisture content [kg/m3]

Thermal conductivity 2) λ [W/mK] (rated value)

300 500 700 1000

0.09 0.13 0.17 0.24

Particle board

300 600 900

0.10 0.14 0.18

Fibreboard

400 600 800

0.10 0.14 0.18

Solid wood and some wood-based material plates Solid wood and plywood

1)

65

Impregnated wood floors always look matt or semi-matt due to the relatively small quantity of material applied and the penetration of the impregnation in the wood structure. As opposed to water-based impregnations, impregnations with oil synthetic resin and polyurethane emphasise the wood structure. Special treatment methods, such as hot waxing or curing, create particularly resistant surfaces. These are suitable for flooring subjected to greater wear, such as industrial and public buildings. An impregnation is turned into a sealing by addition of synthetic resin. This forms a continuous film on the flooring surface which increases its wear resistance in proportion to the layer thickness. Fine cracks in the film are however unavoidable, so that a degree of infiltration through moisture is possible. Water therefore penetrates the wood through the cracks, but is not able to diffuse out again through the film afterwards. The film consequently cracks. In contrast to impregnation (oil, wax), sealing cannot be partially renewed. Water-based sealing (water varnish) creates a slightly milky look, while synthetic resin sealing emphasises the tone of the wood. Sealings differ from impregnations haptically on account of their

2)

For bulk densities not shown in this table, λ can be determined though interpolation. These values correspond to the values in EN ISO 10 456.

98

synthetic-like character and can be finished high gloss, matt or semi-matt. Depending on the thickness of the sealing layer, hygroscopic properties of the wood, especially its adaptation rate (Fig. 57, p. 95), can be modified significantly. According to the Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances (Technische Regeln für Gefahrstoffe) TRGS 617, impregnation and sealing products with a high proportion of solvent and those containing particularly harmful solvents may not be used, because they are classified as harmful to the environment and to health [33]. This applies e.g. to formaldehyde-containing acid-curing varnishes as well as DD varnishes, which contain isocyanates [34]. Water varnishes on the other hand are safe, since the liquid is water-based and the proportion of chemical solvents contained is only about 10 %. Compared to impregnation, sealing a wood floor can reduce its slip resistance significantly. Reaction to fire

According to specifications in DIN 4102, floor coverings made of wood are generally classified as normally flammable (B 2) or, in some individual cases, as not easily flammable (B 1). They are included in the reaction-to-fire classes Cfl, Dfl and Efl defined in DIN EN 13 501-1 (Fig. 66), with additional smoke emission limits expressed with the denotation s1 or s2 (s = smoke). Despite the generally combustible nature of the starting material wood, the installation conditions of wood flooring are favourable in the sense that only the upper side – one of six surfaces – is effectively exposed to fire. Only surface charring normally occurs in the event of fire, which hinders progress of the fire. The grain-cut timber surfaces of wood paving are most advantageous in this respect.

Floor coverings

Thermal conduction

Wood flooring is felt warm to the feet and pleasant to touch because of the inherently low thermal conductivity of the chief material component wood (Fig. 65) and the minimum required thickness. It is hardly surpassed by any other covering in this respect, textile coverings excepted. Yet the thermal resistance of wood flooring is not too high to make it unsuitable for underfloor heating systems. Although heat is transmitted via a wood floor covering with some delay, this effect is hardly noticeable after a certain start-up time. It must however be ensured that heat flow is not impaired by any thermally insulating air cushions (e.g. in association with detachments).

Product 1) 7)

Product units 4)

Wood flooring and parquet

Solid wood flooring of oak or beech with surface coating

Beech: 680 Oak: 650

8

Glued to substrate 6)

Solid wood flooring of oak, beech or spruce with surface coating

Beech: 680 Oak: 650 Spruce: 450

20

With or without underside air gap

390

8

Without underside air gap

390

20

With or without underside air gap

400

6

All

10

Glued to substrate 6)

14 2)

With or without underside air gap

Minimum value Minimum total of mean bulk density 5) thickness 3 [mm] [kg/m ]

Other solid wood flooring with surface coating

Other solid wood flooring and parquet 9) Wood parquet

Multilayer parquet with wear layer of oak of min. thickness of 5 mm and with surface coating

650 (wear layer)

Dfl - s1

Efl

Cfl - s1

Glued to substrate

10 14

With or without underside air gap

650

8

Glued to substrate 10)

Dfl - s1

Ash: 650 Maple: 650 Oak: 720

8

Glued to substrate 10)

Dfl - s1

550

15 8)

Without underside air gap

Dfl - s1

Solid wood flooring of pine or spruce 9)

Pine: 480 Spruce: 400

14

Without underside air gap

Dfl - s1

Solid wood flooring of beech, oak, pine or spruce 9)

Beech: 700 Oak: 700 Pine: 430 Spruce: 400

20

With or without underside air gap

Dfl - s1

800

6 2)

Without underside air gap

Dfl - s1

Solid wood parquet (one layer) made of walnut 9) Solid wood parquet (one layer) of oak, maple or ash 9) Multilayer parquet with wear layer of oak of min. thickness of 3.5 mm 9)

Veneered floor covering

Cfl - s1

Without underside air gap

Other multilayer parquet surface coating

Wood flooring

Reactionto-fire class 3) of flooring

8 500

Elastic coverings In contrast to hard coverings such as stone or wood coverings, elastic coverings – analogous to textile coverings – do not possess any notable resistance to bending. They are instead comparable to thin skins only a few millimetres in thickness, which are attached to the subfloor to provide protection against various influences and to achieve a desirable appearance. The minimal structure is a major advantage of this covering type. High elasticity and small thickness however also cause some disadvantages. These include sensitivity to any even minor unevenness of the substrate, which is directly reflected by

Final use condition

Veneered floor covering with surface coating

Dfl - s1

1)

Installed according to EN ISO 9239-1 on min. D - s2, d0 class substrate and minimum density of 400 kg/m3 or with underside air gap 2) An intermediate layer of min. class E and with maximum thickness of 3 mm may be used for applications without air gap in parquet with min. thickness of 14 mm and for veneered floor coverings 3) Class corresponding to Decision of Commission 2000/147/EC, Annex, Tab. 2 4) The following types and quantities may be used for surface coating: acrylic, polyurethane or soap 64 Oak parquet, Museum Fuglsang, Toreby (DK) (50 –100 g/m2) and oil (20 – 60 g/m2) 5) 2007, Tony Fretton Architects Conditioned according to EN 13 238 (50% relative humidity, 23 °C) 6) 65 Thermal conductivity values of solid wood and Min. A2 - s1, d0 class substrate 7) several wood-based plates used in products for Also valid for steps of stairs 8) wood flooring and parquet in relation to mean An intermediate min. class Efl layer with maximum thickness of 3 mm and minimum density of 280 kg/m3 may bulk density according to DIN EN 14 342 be used 9) 66 Reaction-to-fire classes for wood flooring acWithout surface coating cording to DIN EN 14 342 66 10) Min. class D - s2, d0 substrate

99

Floor coverings

67 a

b

the appearance of the covering [35]. Evenness specifications as prescribed in DIN 18 202 are not adequate for elastic floor coverings in this regard [36]. Screeds must be ground, primed and often smoothed with filler (normally about 2 mm in thickness) before laying elastic materials [37]. High degrees of elasticity are also responsible for retention of residual impressions caused by point loads (e.g. legs of chairs or tables). An excessively thick or soft adhesive layer under the covering can also give rise to such deformations [38]. In addition, most elastic coverings are also sensitive to scraping marks. The elasticity of this covering type on the other hand however also means that constraints arising in the covering, such as when the deformation of a hard covering and subfloor differ, do not necessarily lead to damage. Expansions in the covering can normally be dissipated with zero stress provided bonding to the screed is adequately shear-resistant. If deformations are too large, crack joints can occur as a result of shrinkage, or corresponding joint bulges in case of expansion (peaked seams) [39]. Since deformations are primarily temperature-

and moisture-related, before installation of elastic coverings, these must be stored under climatic conditions equivalent to those prevailing during later use for a sufficiently long period of time (approx. 2– 3 days). Many coverings in this category are waterproof as well as largely vapourtight. If the butt joints are also executed watertight, e.g. through heat-sealing, an overall water-impermeable covering able to withstand moderate use (e.g. in bathrooms in residential constructions) can be created. Elastic coverings however do not offer long-term resistance to exposure to water exerting pressure from above (e.g. in shower rooms), which is why they cannot be considered to serve as waterproofing [40]. The relatively high diffusion resistance of these floors on the other hand means that it is very difficult for moisture to diffuse back out of the subfloor or load-carrying raw floor structure. This may result in blistering or saponification of the dispersion adhesive [41]. A sufficient drying period of the screed is therefore imperative, while it should not be too long as this may in turn lead to excessive drying of the upper layers and fracture. A moisture barrier

Test method

Requirement

ENV 717-1

Release ≤ 0.124 mg/m3

ENV 717-1

Release ≤ 0.124 mg/m3

EN 717-2

Release ≤ 3.5 mg/mg/m2 h

ENV 717-1

Release > 0.124 mg/m3

EN 717-2

Release > 3.5 mg/m2 h to ≤ 8 mg/m2 h

ENV 717-1

Release > 0.124 mg/m3

EN 717-2

Release > 3.5 mg/m2 h to ≤ 8 mg/m2 h

Formaldehyde class E 1 Initial test 1) Factory production control Formaldehyde class E 2 Initial test

Factory production control 1)

68

In case of already known products, the initial test can also be carried out on the basis of existing data from factory production control or an external inspection with tests according to EN 717-2.

100

may have to be fitted on the raw floor structure in order to prevent moisture from reaching the flooring structure. Elastic coverings are laid by full-face adhesion to the subfloor, almost without exception. Contrary to textile coverings, elastic coverings are characterised by smooth surfaces without any joints or pores, which are generally dirt-resistant and easy to clean. They usually offer a long service life as well as being economical. Their relatively low thermal conductivity means that they feel warm to the feet, while still being suitable for use in combination with underfloor heating systems because of their thinness and the subsequent low thermal resistance. With a cushioning foam backing, these coverings can improve impact sound protection significantly. Materials used for elastic floor coverings can be natural (cork, linoleum, natural rubber), but are mostly synthetic (PVC, elastomer coverings). Reaction to fire

Standards classify elastic floor coverings as normally flammable without requiring any further testing, subject to specific conditions (class Efl according to DIN EN 13 501-1, B 2 according to DIN 4102; Fig. 69). Depending on how they are laid, individual elastic coverings may be considered as normally flammable Dfl or even as not easily flammable (Bfl or Cfl according to DIN EN 13 501-1, B2 according to DIN 4102). Aggressive gases may be formed in the event of fire. Emissions

Various additives used in the manufacture of elastic coverings made of synthetic materials are considered to be dangerous to health and harmful to the environment. These substances are partly

Floor coverings

liberated by emission during the usage period (Fig. 68) and also give rise to disposal problems. Long and intensive public debate has in the meantime finally led to the industry substituting some of these substances with safe alternatives, as well as severe restriction of the use of health-hazardous substances by relevant standards. Elastic floor coverings – as well as textile coverings and laminates – may not contain pentachlorophenol (PCP) or derivatives thereof pursuant to DIN EN 14 041. With regard to formaldehyde emission, only floor coverings corresponding to class E1 are permitted (Fig. 68).

Type of floor covering 1)

Elastic materials

Elastic coverings were initially made of natural materials (linseed oil, natural rubber, cork), with synthetic materials (PVC, synthetic rubber) dominating later. As far as the technical development of floor coverings is concerned, linoleum is one of the oldest.

EN product standard

Minimum mass [kg/m2]

Maximum mass [kg/m2]

Minimum total thickness [mm]

Reaction-to-fire class 2) of floor covering

Linoleum with and without pattern

EN 548

2.3

4.9

2

Efl

Homogeneous and heterogeneous polyvinyl chloride floor covering

EN 549

2.3

3.9

1.5

Efl

Polyvinyl chloride floor covering with foam material layer

EN 651

1.7

5.4

2

Efl

Polyvinyl chloride floor covering with cork-based backing

EN 652

3.4

3.7

3.2

Efl

Foamed polyvinyl chloride floor covering

EN 653

1.0

2.8

1.1

Efl

Flexible polyvinyl chloride plates

EN 654

4.2

5.0

2

Efl

Linoleum with corkment backing

EN 687

2.9

5.3

2.5

Efl

Homogeneous and heterogeneous smooth elastomer floor covering with foam material coating

EN 1816

3.4

4.3

4

Efl

Homogeneous and heterogeneous smooth elastomer floor covering

EN 1817

3.0

6.0

1.8

Efl

Homogeneous and heterogeneous profiled elastomer floor covering

EN 12 199

4.6

6.7

2.5

Efl

1)

69

Linoleum coverings Linoleum coverings were developed at the end of the 19th century and were very widespread until largely displaced from the market by cheaper synthetic products (especially PVC). Linoleum coverings have however had a comeback in the past years on account of the association

67 Examples of elastic floor coverings in use a linoleum floor, seminar room in university building, Brixen (I) 2004, Kohlmayer Oberst b rubber floor, extension of Martin Luther School, Marburg (D) 2010, Hess / Talhof / Kusmierz Architekten und Stadtplaner 68 Allocation of elastic coverings to formaldehyde classes E1 and E2 according to DIN EN 14 041 69 Requirements of elastic floor coverings for classification in reaction-to-fire class E without further testing according to DIN EN 14 041 70 Classification of elastic floor coverings by intensity of use according to DIN EN ISO 10 874 70

2)

Floor covering loosely laid on any wood-based material plate (min. class D -s2, d0) or any carrier plate (min. class A2-s1, d0) Class corresponding to Tab. 2 of Annex to Decision 2000/147/EC

Class

Usage area

Description

Domestic

Areas intended for private use

21

moderate/slight

Areas with slight or occasional use

22

general /medium

Areas with medium use

22+

general

Areas with slight to intensive use

23

heavy

Areas with intensive use

Commercial

Areas only intended for public and commercial use

31

moderate

Areas with slight or occasional use

32

general

Areas with medium use

33

heavy

Areas with heavy use

34

very heavy

Areas with intensive use

Light industrial

Areas intended for light industry use

41

moderate

Areas in which work is mainly carried out sitting and in which light vehicles are occasionally used

42

general

Areas in which work is mainly carried out standing and/or with vehicle traffic

43

heavy

Other light industry areas

101

Floor coverings

wear layer (DIN EN 655) • Foamed PVC floor coverings (DIN EN ISO 26 986) • PVC floor coverings with particle-based enhanced slip resistance (DIN EN 13 845)

Standard-compliant PVC execution methods • Homogeneous PVC floor coverings (DIN EN ISO 10 581) • Heterogeneous PVC floor coverings (DIN EN ISO 10 582) • Semi-flexible PVC floor coverings (DIN EN ISO 10 595) • PVC floor coverings with backing made of jute or polyester felt or on polyester felt with polyvinyl chloride backing (DIN EN 650) • PVC floor coverings with foam layer (DIN EN 651) • PVC floor coverings with cork-based backing (DIN EN 652) • Tiles of agglomerated composition cork with PVC

Standard-compliant linoleum execution methods • Linoleum with and without pattern (DIN EN ISO 24 011) • Linoleum with and without pattern with foam backing (DIN EN 24 686) • Linoleum with and without pattern with corkment backing (DIN EN 24 687) • Cork linoleum (DIN EN 688)

of synthetic coverings with health-damaging effects and their questionable environmental compatibility (Fig. 67 a, p. 100). According to DIN EN ISO 24 011, linoleum is a “product that is manufactured by calendering one or more layer(s) of a homogeneous mixture of linoleum cement, cork and/or wood flour, pigments and inorganic fillers, which contain a fibre reinforcement and/or a fibre backing” [42]. The basic substance is linseed oil which, on addition of other drying plant-based oils, wood resin and siccatives, solidifies to semi-elastic linoxyn (or linoleum cement) after an oxidative cross-linking process and exposure to air. Cork linoleum is created by addition of cork granulate. Calenders (rolling mills) are then used to form the plastic linoleum mass into a sheet, which is simultaneously pressed onto bearing fabric. An acrylic dispersion is added

after maturing and drying; this improves cleanability and insensitivity to dirt, as well as protecting the covering from scraping or soiling damage during the building phase. The characteristic properties of linoleum floors include: an extensively poreless surface, high elasticity, robustness, slip resistance, increased impact sound insulation capacity (if fitted with an additional cushioning layer), resistance to chair castors, low electrostatic charging, executability with electrical conductivity, good resistance to mineral oil and grease, resistance to cigarette burns, favourable reaction to fire (B 1 and B 2), suitability for underfloor heating systems (since thermal resistance is low) as well as good lightfastness. The oxidation process in linoleum cement can result in discolouration or yellowing. This veiling on maturation can however be reversed

Classes according to DIN ISO 10 874

Usage area

Minimum thickness of top layer [mm]

Nominal value of total thickness [mm]

21

moderate/slight

0.8

2.0

22

general /medium

0.8

2.0

22+

general

0.8

2.0

23

heavy

0.8

2.0

Domestic

Commercial 31

moderate

0.8

2.0

32

general

0.8

2.0

33

heavy

1.3

2.5

34

very heavy

1.3

2.5

1)

Light industrial 41

moderate

0.8

2.0 1)

42

general

1.3

2.5 1)

43

heavy

1.3

2.5 1)

1)

71

Other thicknesses, e.g. 3.2 mm and 4.0 mm, may be specified in order to comply with specific customer requirements.

102

by exposure to natural or artificial light, and the original colour of the linoleum restored. Linoleum comes in single- or doublelayer sheets with a width of 2 m and a thickness between 2.0 and 3.2 mm. The sheets can alternatively be cut into tiles or plates at the factory. Higher dimensional stability is achieved by producing special plates with carrier fabric made of glass fibre or polyester fabric instead of jute. Another option is available: linoleum can be attached, in the form of a parquet-like prefabricated floor, to 6 –7 mm thick HDF carrier plates (the so-called substrate according to DIN EN 14 085) fitted with a stabilising layer made of paper or cork on the underside, resulting in an overall bending-resistant panel. Such prefabricated floor elements are laid floating. For improvement of impact sound protection and thermal insulation capacity, linoleum can also be executed as a laminated covering with a thickness of 4 mm with a resilient underlay composed of corkment, which is a mixture of coarse cork meal and binding agents consisting of natural or synthetic resins (according to DIN EN 687), or of foam material (according to DIN EN 686). An impact sound improvement between 14 to 18 dB can be achieved in this way. Linoleum is offered in a broad range of colours, as well as plain, marbled, patterned or with inlays (Fig. 73 a, b). Laying Linoleum is generally laid by full-face adhesion to the subfloor with dispersion adhesives, solvent-based contact glues (use limited for health reasons [43]), reaction resin adhesives, two-component dispersion and/or cement powder adhesives such as water-based gypsumcasein glue (not suitable for wet rooms) or dry adhesives [44]. Joints can be heat-

Floor coverings

sealed using a linoleum welding wire on the basis of two-component adhesives (Fig. 73 a). Yet linoleum is not suitable for use in wet rooms, since permanent moisture disintegrates its natural components. While glueing, it shows a clear tendency to shrink in length and stretch in width, especially when using dispersion-based adhesives [45]. PVC coverings Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) coverings are soft elastic coverings. PVC is a thermoplastic material (or a plastomer), which is hard and brittle under normal conditions, with the plastic state only commencing at a temperature of about 160 °C. Additives are used to achieve the desired elasticity at room temperature as well as e.g. stability to temperature and light. These include stabilisers and in particular plasticisers such as phthalic acid ester (PAE). The latter are embedded in the molecular structure of PVC and improve elasticity, but tend to gradually migrate to the surface and transfer to the atmosphere by gas emission. This process can however be slowed down using alternative plasticisers. Analogous to linoleum coverings, PVC coverings can be calendered, i.e. rolled out to single- or multi-layer sheets, either with or without carrier material (cork,

foam material or fabric made e.g. of polyester, glass fibre, jute). Coverings with a carrier layer are also called laminate coverings. Calendered coverings may have a homogeneous or heterogeneous structure. The former refers to a composition of one or several layers of the same material, while the latter describes several layers of different materials. Foamed coverings may be decorated with a printed pattern and coated with a transparent protective PVC layer matching the pattern. This actually forms the wear layer. Such layered PVC coverings (also called cushioned vinyl – CV) can be printed with all sorts of patterns. This versatility has allowed heterogeneous foamed PVC coverings to be offered as imitations of other floor coverings (e.g. stone, wood). The cushioning effect of the foam layer gives CV coverings favourable impact sound characteristics. Coverings with a cork-based backing also provide improved impact sound protection. This execution according to DIN EN 655 consists of a compressed cork layer with a transparent PVC wear layer on top (as well as a decorative layer in between if desired) and a PVC foil as stabilising layer underneath. PVC coverings are finally almost always fitted with a protective polyurethane layer. PVC coverings are generally very hard-

a

b

c

d

Classes Usage area Nominal 71 Minimum and nominal thicknesses of linoleum according value of total floor coverings with and without pattern dependto DIN ISO thickness ing on type of use according to DIN EN ISO 10 874 [mm] e 24 011 72 Nominal thicknesses of cork linoleum floor 21 Domestic – moderate 3.2 coverings depending on type of use according to DIN EN 688 22 Domestic – general 73 Various elastic floor coverings a linoleum covering 22+ Domestic – general, 4.5 1) b linoleum covering with inlaid indicator increased use c differently coloured quartz vinyl tiles d rubber covering 31 Commercial – moderate e grain-like structured surface of an elastomer 1) Other thicknesses, e.g. 4.5 mm and 6.0 mm, may floor covering f elastomer studded covering 73 f 72 be specified in order to achieve better walking

103

Floor coverings

wearing, easy to look after, durable and economical. They offer high resistance to mechanical and chemical stress, as well as offering anti-slip and antistatic properties. They can be recycled: successor products can be made after shredding. PVC is classified as not easily flammable (B 1), but nevertheless exhibits problematic behaviour in this regard. It is not resistant to cigarette burns and a very toxic and dangerous gas, hydrogen chloride, is emitted in the event of fire. The thermoplastic material is necessarily sensitive to high temperatures. The high vapour diffusion resistance of PVC floors means that the previous recommendations made for elastic floor coverings should particularly be taken into consideration. Laying PVC coverings are available as sheeting (usually 2 m wide) or in the form of tiles or plates, normally 50 ≈ 50 cm or 61 ≈ 61 cm. Thicknesses are small, ranging around a few millimetres, normally between 1.5 mm (residential buildings) and 2 mm (public buildings). The substrate must always be adequately even. PVC coverings also require an acclimatisation period under suitable climatic conditions before laying. They are normally glued to screeds full face. Comparable adhesives to those used for laying linoleum are used (see p. 102f.), prefer-

Standard-compliant elastomer covering execution methods • Homogeneous and heterogeneous smooth elastomer floor coverings (DIN EN 1817) • Homogeneous and heterogeneous profiled elastomer floor coverings (DIN EN 12 199) • Homogeneous and heterogeneous smooth elastomer floor coverings with foam backing (DIN EN 1816) • Smooth elastomer floor coverings with or without foam sublayer with a decorative layer (DIN EN 14 521)

104

entially solvent-free, low-emission dispersion adhesives applied only to one side [46]. The edges of butting sheets must be cut to ensure a clean seam. Waterproof closure of joints is achieved using a suitable PVC welding rod. The seam is first milled to two thirds of the covering thickness. A parabolic cross section with a width of a few millimetres is created. The joint is then filled with a welding rod using an automatic or hand-held welding machine. Finally the projection has to be removed using a trimming knife in two work steps, once while warm and again when cold. Cold welding can be used alternatively. Analogous to linoleum, PVC can also be turned into rigid panels by glueing the material to a carrier plate made of high density fibre (HDF) – the substrate – with a stabilising layer underneath. The product is then laid floating with the elements normally connected to each other by means of click systems. Polyolefin coverings Thermoplastic polyolefin coverings composed of ethylene copolymers were originally introduced as a substitute for PVC on account of the associated environmental issues. They are considered to be safe with regard to health and do not require addition of plasticisers. Chalk and kaolin are used as filler materials. Similar to other elastic floor coverings, they are glued full face to a firm and even underlay. They are subject to relatively large temperature-based elongation and tend to swell if the interior air is damp, which means that shear-resistant adhesives must be used to limit these deformations to some extent [47]. Quartz vinyl coverings Quartz vinyl coverings are generally available as tiles (Fig. 73 c, p. 103). They are produced using quartz sand

with addition of very small quantities of plasticisers (no phthalates), compressed under high pressure. The UV-cured, PUR-coated wear layer is extremely hard wearing, dirt-repellent and tight. Polyolefin coverings are therefore mainly used in non-residential constructions subject to heavy use, including industrial constructions. Their reaction to fire is classified as not easily flammable (B 1). Elastomer coverings Floor coverings made of elastomer materials (also called rubber coverings) are normally composed of synthetic materials (synthetic rubber/styrene butadiene rubber – SBR), more rarely of natural rubber or latex. Additional fillers (e.g. kaolin, chalk or soot) are added as well as stabilisers, vulcanising agents, colour pigments and plasticisers. Processing into sheeting usually also takes place through calendering, during which an additional elastic carrier layer consisting of foam material or cork can be attached to the rear (doubling). Vulcanisation gives the material its final elastic properties. Analogous to other elastic coverings, elastomer coverings can be executed homogeneously or heterogeneously. The former means that they are made of one or several layers of the same composition and colour, possibly with a continuous pattern throughout the thickness. In the latter case, they are made of a wear layer and further compact layers which differ in their composition and/or pattern and can include a stabilisation layer (DIN EN 12 199). This gives the covering the character of a bending-resistant panel (according to DIN EN 14 085) (see linoleum and PVC coverings). The surface texture may be smooth or structured, in the latter case either rough, serrated, grained or studded (Fig. 73 e and f, p. 103). The slip

Floor coverings

74

75

resistance of this type of flooring can be increased significantly through structuring. The surface of elastomer coverings is generally not treated additionally. Elastomer coverings are suitable for residential buildings, including for wet areas. Their high durability and wear resistance however favours their use in public, commercial and industrial buildings. The high resistance to chemical attack is particularly advantageous in industrial constructions, although this characteristic requires special mixtures. Elastomer coverings generally offer high elasticity and, in combination with foam material sublayers, can improve impact sound protection considerably. They are heat-insulating (and hence not suitable for underfloor heating), resistant to chair castors, lightfast and easy to clean thanks to a practically smooth poreless surface. Rubber coverings are also available in many colours and patterns and suitable for inlays. The reaction to fire of elastomer floors corresponds to B 1 or Bfl-s1 (not easily flammable). In contrast to PVC, these coverings do not emit any aggressive gases in the event of fire and are considered to be resistant to cigarette burns. Laying Elastomer coverings are available as sheeting or floor tiles, generally with a standard dimension of 61 ≈ 61 cm. Thicknesses normally range between 1.8 and 2.5 mm, with foam sublayers around 3.5 mm. The rules for laying elastomer layers are similar to those of the already described elastic coverings [48]. They are generally installed by full-face adhesion. Thermal jointing, as for PVC coverings, is possible for coverings without a foam sublayer. Such jointing is on the other hand prescribed for coverings with a foam sublayer and an electrical discharge capacity, similarly for use in

76

wet rooms or in case of frequent wet cleaning. A welding wire is introduced analogous to PVC coverings. Jointing can alternatively be carried out using one- or two-component reaction resin jointing compound, a method that is particularly common in the construction of laboratories. Cork coverings Cork is a renewable, recyclable and environmentally friendly natural product and hence a popular alternative to coverings made of synthetic materials. The bark of the cork oak, from which cork is obtained by periodic peeling, protects the trunk from drying out, pests and infections. Cork therefore possesses corresponding properties. It is virtually resistant to fouling and also water-repellent – desirable characteristics for a floor covering material that make additional protective agents (e.g. fungicides) unnecessary. All cork coverings are made of compressed cork (Fig. 75), a material created by compression of cork granulate with addition of a suitable binding agent (natural or synthetic resins) (DIN EN 12 104, ISO 3813). The coarse cork meal is first moulded under pressure and the body is then cut into thin boards or sheets. The structure of these can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. The latter involves supplementation of the compressed cork layer with a veneer and possibly further wear or stabilising layers (e.g. of PVC, see “PVC coverings”, p. 103f.). Panels can also be fitted with an additional strong substrate layer composed of HDF (High Density Fibreboard). A click system is used to establish a formlocked connection between these panellike prefabricated floor elements (cork prefabricated parquet) on all sides and they are laid floating (DIN EN 14 085). Cork floors are however often composed of compressed cork tiles (cork parquet);

these are either homogeneous or with an additional veneer. Sheeting is only used as underlay. The cork surface may be left untreated, impregnated with oil or wax or made waterproof by sealing with several layers of PU varnish. The latter version is particularly suitable for moderately exposed wet areas (especially kitchens), while cork floors are generally not recommended for increased exposure (e.g. bathrooms). Floorings made of cork do not emit any substances which are damaging to health, they are slip-resistant, feel warm to the feet, are anti-static, foulingresistant, easy to clean and resistant to wear and chemical attack (except for acetone). Cork tiles without a tight sealing layer exhibit moisture-regulating sorption behaviour. Laying Like other elastic floor coverings, cork tiles (Fig. 76) are glued full face on a firm and even substrate (usually screed) [50], while prefabricated cork floor elements are laid floating. Adequate acclimatisation of the covering material is required before laying. This is achieved by storage under suitable climatic conditions over a period of two to three days. Water-based, solvent-free dispersion adhesives should be preferentially used for general as well as occupational health reasons [51]. Dispersion contact adhesives or one-side application adhesives can be used alternatively. This is followed by a surface treatment [52].

74 Bamboo covering, off-the-roll 75 Compressed cork 76 Cork tile covering, laid in an irregular pattern. Differences in colour and structure of the tiles are clearly visible.

105

Floor coverings

1 Top layer (overlay) made of resin-pressed paper 2 Carrier material made of wood-based material

3 Stabilising layer made of veneer or resin-pressed paper 4 Underlay material (optional) 2

1

77

78

Bamboo coverings Being both environmentally friendly and economical, bamboo has developed to a popular alternative over the past years. The trunk of the bamboo plant, a fast-growing giant grass, is cut into narrow strips, which are then glued together to form parquet-like elements or attached to a carrier fabric to create off-the-roll sheeting (Fig. 74). The surface can be oiled, varnished, waxed or brushed. When treated with natural oil, the material retains its moisture-regulating sorption capacity. This property is lost when the material is sealed, but it becomes much easier to clean. Flooring can be renovated after some time by grinding and renewed surface treatment. Bamboo coverings are very hard and resistant. Since the deformation on expansion is only limited when exposed to water, bamboo coverings are also suitable for wet areas.

Despite the similarities of laminates with prefabricated parquet coverings as well as with bending-resistant panels with a wear layer consisting of various materials, they are classified as a separate category in DIN EN 13 329 (draft). In this, a lamin-

80

106

4

ate covering is defined as a “floor covering, normally in the shape of boards or plates with a multilayer structure [...]. Products with an elastic or textile top layer as well as top layers or stone, wood, leather or metal are not considered to be laminate floors.” [53] The customary three-layer structure is derived from the construction principle of prefabricated parquets combined at right angles to the grain, while a very thin laminate wear layer with high hardness and abrasion resistance is characteristic for laminates (Fig. 78): • Top or wear layer (overlay): One or several layers of fibre-containing material, generally paper, impregnated with amino-plastic, thermosetting resins (usually melamine resin), are pressfitted with simultaneous application of heat and pressure, either together with a carrier plate made of wood-based material or glued to this carrier plate retrospectively. • Carrier plate: This is composed of wood-based material, e.g. particle boards (DIN EN 309), medium density (MDF, DIN EN 316) or high density fibreboards (HDF) • Stabilising layer: In the sense of a counter laminate, this stabilising layer serves to neutralise the deforming

Laminate coverings

79

3

action of the top layer on the carrier plate on the other side. It can be composed of a veneer, or analogous to the top layer, of impregnated paper. For a floating installation, underlay material can additionally be fitted under the stabilising layer (DIN CEN/TS 16 354). Alternatively, this can also be rolled out as continuous sheeting on the subfloor, separate from the laminate. Laminates were developed as an economical alternative to expensive parquet floors, and are almost exclusively offered with a parquet-like look (Fig. 77). Pattern, surface texture and gloss level of the top layer can be designed as required. Laminate floors are very hard and dense, which makes them very resistant to soiling. The sides of the joints made of wood-based materials are however sensitive, which is why they should be sealed as tightly as possible. In addition, liquids should always be removed quickly from laminate floors to prevent the joint edges from buckling as a consequence of swelling. Disadvantages include the high proportion of synthetic resin contained in laminates, as well as the associated high content of formaldehyde, energy-intensive manufacturing and somewhat problematic disposal of this covering type.

77 Common type of laminate floor, parquet imitation 78 Structure of laminate floor element according to DIN EN 13 329 79 Laminate floor element with glueless click system connection 80 Various click systems for laminate floors 81 Differently coloured carpet tiles made of tufted recycling yarn, refurbishment of office building, Stuttgart (D) 2013, Ippolito Fleitz Group

Floor coverings

81 Laying

Laminates are usually laid floating, occasionally glued full face to the subfloor (DIN CEN/TS 14 472-3). In the former case, the flooring is laid on a cushioning underlay, with form-locked elements. This is either achieved by means of glueing together a tongue-and-groove system or using click systems without adhesive (Fig. 79, 80). Similar to prefabricated parquets, a thin connected covering plate is created, which can move and deform independently of the subfloor. The perimeter joints to neighbouring components must be dimensioned adequately. A vapour barrier consisting of a PE foil (at least 2 mm thick) on the subfloor is generally recommended to prevent transfer of moisture from the screed to the covering. In case of full-face adhesion to the subfloor [54], the joints between the elements should also be glued in a waterproof manner or the edges should alternatively be suitably protected against moisture. Adhesion is particularly recommendable for high surface loads or when using heated screeds, since thermal transfer can be improved by full-face contact. As for elastic flooring, the material should be stored under suitable climatic conditions for at least two days in advance. Adequate residual moisture content of the screed must be ensured. Only (oneor two-component) polyurethane adhesives without solvents and water that cure fast and offer high strength and elasticity may be used as adhesives. Only white or cold glue must be used to glue the tongue-and-groove connections (stress group D 2 or D 3 according to DIN EN 204) [55]. With regard to deformation of laminate, in particular in association with the substrate, conditions are similar to those for prefabricated parquet floors (see “Multilayer parquet”, p. 91f.).

Textile coverings The textile structure and in particular the open fibre structure towards the top of many varieties (cut pile/velour) differentiate textile coverings significantly from the smooth coverings discussed so far. Their surface structure and the highly elastic structure of most textile coverings are responsible for their characteristic properties, such as the deformation, thermal insulation and impact sound behaviour, the visual appearance, the hygroscopic and electrostatic behaviour, hygienic suitability as well as resistance to various exterior influences. Structure

Woven textile floor coverings are made using threads or yarns as basic elements, with two sets of parallel threads running orthogonal to each other, to form a connected laminar grid structure, the fabric. Since the threads cannot penetrate each other at the crossing points, they run past each other at respectively different heights. The friction between the threads touching each other gives rise to cohesion of the fabric in the fabric’s plane, while the interlacing of the threads creates this at right angles to it. The two chief thread sets of the fabric have a different order of precedence. The set processed first always runs in a linear direction, mounted freely in the weaving loom. It is called the warp and specifies the direction of the fabric that can be subjected to the biggest strain with the least deformation under tension. The set of yarns running perpendicular to this is woven between the warp threads and hence called weft (that which is woven, also referred to as woof, weft shot, pick or filling), with the threads going over and under the warp in alternation (Fig. 87 a, p. 109). Two-dimensional textile coverings, also known as flat carpets, are cre-

ated in this way. Textile fibres can alternatively be connected to form a laminar structure without spinning them into yarns, by simply intertwining them in a felt-like manner. A layer with a disorderly random orientation composed of fibres, or a nonwoven material, is created in this case. The laminar textile structure, either woven or non-woven (felted), simultaneously represents the wear layer in both cases. Floor coverings with pile

In three-dimensional textiles, the wear layer is formed by an additionally introduced thread system, called pile or nap or tuft. This is woven or embedded into the laminar carrier layer and aligned vertically, i.e. at right angles to the floor plane. The pile layer gives the floor covering elasticity, softness and volume. Textile constructions are differentiated on the basis of how the pile threads are arranged and connected to the carrier layer underneath (Fig. 90, p. 110). Woven coverings Most modern, mechanically produced textile floor coverings are composed of at least two (linear) sets of weft strands, the upper and the lower weft shot. In order to interconnect the fabric, which is initially not given due to the lacking interlacing of the weft with the warp, two further warp threads are introduced (a so-called binding warp) that reconnect the two weft threads again. The upper weft serves to hold the actual wear layer of the textile floor covering, the pile or nap, while the lower weft forms the stabilising layer to lock the binding warps. The upper exposed pile layer is composed of individual piles densely packed to form a continuous surface. These are loop-like wound threads that enclose the upper weft at their base (and are thus 107

Floor coverings

1 2 3 4

Pile (here loop pile) Ground warp Upper weft Lower weft

1

A

B 82

5 Binding warp A Pile layer (wear layer) B Ground fabric

3 5 2 5 4 1 Cut pile 2 Loop pile 3 Ground layer

2 1 3 83

84

a

1 2

85 b

3

1 Warp 2 Weft 3 Pile

held tight) and form the visible surface at the top (Fig. 82). If the loop at the top is left as it is, this is called a loop pile. The covering is then described as loop or bouclé material. If the loop is cut open at the top, then this is a cut pile or velour material (Fig. 83, 84). The described structure corresponds to a woven textile floor covering with pile. The interconnection of the thread groups both between the pile layer and the ground fabric and within the ground fabric itself (Fig. 82) is achieved by mutual entangling (or weaving). Classically crafted carpets have a comparable structure, with the pile threads not only individually woven into the ground fabric composed of warp and weft, but also knotted (Fig 85). In both methods, weaving and knotting, the complete textile structure is created in a single work step. Tufted coverings Tufting is a more modern and rational method of mechanical production. Tufted coverings are created by sewing or needling, i.e. tufting, pile threads in a prefabricated loose ground fabric composed of warp and weft (also called primary carrier or backing) [56]. The needle holding the thread pierces the ground fabric

82 Two consecutive loop piles between weft threads (section in warp direction) 83 Piles left as loops (loop pile 2) and cut loops (cut pile 1) (section in warp direction) 84 Types of cut piles 85 Knotted textile structure a Persian knot b Turkish knot (section in weft direction) 86 Manual carpet-making: Pile yarns (light green here) are knotted to the tensioned vertical warp strands (white). After completion of a pile yarn row, a weft thread (visible at the bottom left above the last finished row) is integrated through the warp layer. 87 Textile coverings a simple two-dimensional fabric composed of warp (horizontal) and weft (vertical) b loop carpeting

86

108

while a hook or gripper holds the pole thread on the opposite side, then the needle is retracted, ready to penetrate a different location during the next work step. The hook can be fitted with a blade to cut the loop open and form a cut pile (Fig. 88 a). The stability of the fabric can be increased by additionally glueing the needled pile fibre to the carrier fabric. Synthetic rubber material is used for this, normally styrene butadiene rubber (SBR). The underside can be additionally fitted with foam backing, also described as secondary backing. This gives the textile structure the cut resistance necessary for further processing (Fig. 88 b). Most current textile floor coverings are manufactured using the tufting method. Glued pile coverings Glued pile coverings consist of nonwoven materials or yarn sets folded like loops and attached to a carrier layer by glueing or held together by an adhesive layer (Fig. 88 c). Needled pile coverings Needled pile floor coverings have a pile layer composed of a felted randomly arranged layer – a needle-punched non-woven, the fibres of which stick out

c velour d needle-punched nonwoven 88 Schematic representation of the textile structure of various manufacturing methods a tufting method, here with cutting knife for producing cut pile (velour) b loop pile tufted carpet c bonded pile carpet with loop pile (section in longitudinal direction) d needled pile covering e flocked covering f needled textile floor covering with carrier material (needle-punched non-woven) g woven carpet with pattern (top) and without pattern (bottom); the latter with dead, i.e. invisible pile yarns (3) h patterned woven carpet with four pile yarns of different colours, partly visible, partly hidden in the ground fabric (dead pile yarns, 6)

Floor coverings

a

b

87 c

d

perpendicular to the floor plane, while some of them remain in there (Fig. 88 d). The felt-like pile layer is attached to a backing layer. These coverings represent a sort of transition to coverings without a pile layer.

Next work step Needle Yarn feed

Underside of covering

Ground carrier

Primary carrier Cut pile

Flocked coverings Flocked coverings are produced by insertion of short cut fibres in an adhesivecoated carrier layer by means of electrostatic or other action, so that these are arranged at right angles to the covering surface (Fig. 88 e).

Hook

1 3 4 2 3 5 B

b

2 Fibres remaining in ground layer 3 Backing layer 4 Ground layer

1 Pile-forming fibres, pile layer (wear layer)

2 Carrier material 3 Adhesive (coating) 4 Ground layer

1 Folded non-woven fabric or yarn set (loop pile), pile layer (wear layer)

1 1 4 c

4

3 2

2 3

d

3 Entangled fibres 4 Carrier material 5 Fibres pushed through the carrier material by needling

1 Layers of fibre lying on top of each other 2 Needles with barbed hooks

1 Pile, pile layer (wear layer) 2 Adhesive (coating) 3 Carrier material 4 Ground layer

2 2 1

2

3

3 1

4 e

4

f

3 Dead pile or yarn 4 Ground layer

1 Pile layer (wear layer) 2 Pile base

Patterns

Patterns and structures on the visible covering surface can be realised using various methods (Fig. 89). Relieflike structures are created by means of varying pile heights, achieved by specific shearing or inclusion of recesses in the pile structure. Multicoloured patterns are produced by weaving in differently coloured pile yarns. A pile yarn can alternatively

A

Knife (optional)

a

Floor coverings without pile

Most floor coverings without pile are textile coverings made by needling reinforced non-woven fabric (needlepunched non-woven coverings). The wear layer consists of a consolidated random orientation layer usually made of synthetic fibres that is either laid directly or attached to a carrier material or fabric. The fibres are felted by means of a mechanical, thermal or chemical process, or a combination of these. The wear layer of needle-punched non-woven coverings is compacted by a mechanical process involving repeated penetration with needles and intertwined with a consolidating carrier fabric (Fig. 88 f). The classification of floor coverings with and without pile according to DIN ISO 2424 is shown in Fig. 90.

Upper side of covering

Needle plate

5 Secondary backing A Ground layer B Needling direction (tufting)

1 Loop pile, pile layer (wear layer) 2 Warp of primary carrier 3 Weft of primary carrier 4 Fixing material

4 5 6 7

1 Cut pile, pile layer (wear layer) 2 Binding warp 3 Upper weft

5

Ground warp Lower weft Dead pile yarn Ground fabric

1 2

4

1

7

2

4

1 3 2 4 2

88 g

3

3

5

6

h

109

Floor coverings

89

remain invisible in the ground fabric (dead pile yarn) or be pulled up by a hook and hence be made visible (Fig. 88 g, h, p. 109). Materials

Textile floor coverings always consist of fibres as the basic element. These can be combined into a laminar structure in several processing steps and using various methods. Fibres can be spun into yarns, single-ply yarns can in turn be twisted into multi-ply yarns. The way that fibres are turned into yarns already makes it possible to create specific characteristics. Fibres can also be directly bonded together by entangling

or felting them into non-woven materials. They can be of natural or artificial, i.e. chemical, origin. Natural fibres are distinguished according to whether they are derived from plants or animals. The following natural fibres are used for floor coverings: • Plant fibres: Cotton (CO): moderate abrasion resistance, hence only for light use, relatively prone to soiling, hence often finished with additional dirt repellent Jute (JU): very strong bast fibre for coarse, resistant coverings Sisal (SI): from the agave plant, strong, elastic fibre for abrasion-resistant coverings

Classification (according to DIN ISO 2424) Textile floor coverings with pile

Woven textile floor coverings with pile

Wilton weave carpet • Plain woven carpet • Patterned woven carpet Double carpet Axminster carpet • Chenille Axminster carpet • Spool Axminster carpet • Gripper Axminster carpet • Gripper spool Axminster carpet Knotted carpet

Tufted textile floor covering with pile (tufted carpet) Warp-knitted textile floor covering with pile (warp-knitted carpet) Textile floor covering with glued pile (bonded pile carpet)

Single bonded pile carpet Double bonded pile carpet

Flocked textile floor covering (flocked carpet) Textile floor covering with sewn-on pile (sewn warpknitted carpet) Textile floor covering with needled pile (needled pile covering) Knotted carpet Textile floor coverings without pile

110

Machine-knotted pile carpet

Warp-knitted textile floor covering without pile

Braided textile floor covering without pile

90

Hand-knotted pile carpet

Woven textile floor covering without pile (flat carpet)

Textile floor covering without pile made of reinforced non-woven fabric

Coconut (CC): light, elastic, strong fibre made from the coconut shell for rough, hard-wearing flat or velour coverings, sensitive to moisture, Seagrass: strong, very dense fibre, leather-like consistency • Animal fibres: Wool (WO): most frequently used natural fibre for floor coverings, very stretchy, elastic return to original condition, sheep's wool and/or pure new wool for higher-quality requirements, heat-insulating and sound absorbing, fibre has a natural waterand dirt-repellent wax layer, while the wool structure itself can take up and give off moisture, hence capable of thermoregulation Silk (SE): obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm, very high quality and expensive material, very resistant fibre with high tensile strength, slight shine, can be made into very fine fabrics with a high knot density, moisturesensitive Goat hair (GH): strong, smooth fibre for very hard-wearing floor coverings, highquality versions use the hair of the angora goat (mohair) or the cashmere goat (cashmere), fibres have a dirtrepellent fat layer as well as a moistureregulating capacity like wool Synthetic fibres are significantly less hygroscopic compared to natural fibres, i.e. they take up less water, which however makes them electrostatically chargeable and dirt-attracting. These properties can be counteracted by additional treatment with special finishes. Synthetic fibres are generally cheaper than natural fibres, and

Needle-punched non-woven floor covering Sewn non-woven covering

89 Patterned and woven vinyl floor covering 90 Classification of textile floor coverings according to DIN ISO 2424

Floor coverings

therefore very common in floor coverings. The following synthetic fibres are used: • Polyamide fibres (PA): the most common synthetic fibre for floor coverings, extruded from spinning nozzles, with high tensile strength, various crosssectional forms are realisable leading to different characteristics of the textile, very hard-wearing, also suitable for much-frequented areas • Polypropylene fibres (PP): fibres extruded from spinning nozzles, yet only round cross sections, less absorption of moisture, chemically relatively inert, softer and less abrasion-resistant compared to other fibres • Polyester fibres (PES): extruded from spinning nozzles, very elastic fibres, various cross-sectional forms possible, lightfast, abrasion-resistant and hardwearing, often used for velour because of silky shine • Polyacrylic fibres (PAN): spinning fibre, wool-like properties, often processed together with natural wool, easy-care, durable, but moderate wear resistance • Viscose (CV, formerly called artificial silk): made out of cellulose, not very hard-wearing, mostly used as an addition Various textile coverings (e.g. tufted carpets) require a backing coating to keep them together securely, while in others this is intended to improve dimensional stability and resistance to damage at the cut edges of the covering. Backing coatings moreover influence the sound and thermal insulation properties as well as the elasticity when stepped on. Textile fabrics or foam backings made of styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) or rubber are used. Textile secondary or double backings are made of jute or synthetic fibres (polyester or polypropylene).

Compared to foam backing, the improvement of walking comfort, acoustics and thermal insulation is however less. Thin smooth coating or latex coating may also be used. Finishing

The properties of textile fibres are sometimes inadequate due to the nature of the material. This can often be remedied with special substances (additives) and / or finishing. The following targets are pursued [57]: • Anti-static: This particularly concerns synthetic fibres. The risk of sudden electrostatic discharge and the attraction of dirt are to be reduced. The following measures are suitable for this purpose: – addition of very fine metal fibres or special textile fibres to the pile – utilisation of conductive backing or integration of conductive yarns in the textile backing – spraying the fibre with formic acid followed by fixation at high temperatures during the manufacturing process – spraying with an anti-static (ammonium compound) retrospectively • Dirt repelling: Fibres are treated with various chemical substances (e.g. fluorine compounds or polyglycol ether) to achieve dirt-repellent properties. • Protection from insects: Especially wool and cotton coverings require protection from insects, for which insecticides based on halogen sulfonamides are used. These are effective on ingestion by the pests, such as moths. Action is not time-limited, as no gas is emitted. • Protection from microbes: Only for hospitals. • Flame protection: Flame protection is achieved by addition of aluminium hydroxide, phosphoric acid ester, brom-

ine compounds, antimony trioxide or chlorine compounds. • Colourfastness, light protection: Light protection agents such as e.g. UV absorbers, quenchers, radical scavengers, hydroperoxide decomposers and metal deactivators. • Increasing elasticity (plasticisation): Phthalic acid esters (phthalates), trimethyl acid ester (trimellitates) and other substances are used for this purpose. Properties

The generally good thermal insulation capacity of textile floor coverings as well as their haptically pleasing surface quality makes them very suitable for areas such as living rooms. These are important advantages over hard coverings, which normally feel less comfortable, with the added effect of coldness radiated from the surfaces in winter. Textile coverings moreover possess further characteristics that are relevant for use. These include: • Elasticity: Textile floor coverings are very elastic and therefore advantageous e.g. from an orthopaedic point of view, because of the shock absorption effect when stepped on. Decisive in this respect is the existence of a pile layer and, in particular, its thickness and density, i.e. the number of piles per unit area. In this regard, DIN EN 1307 defines various comfort classes LC 1 to LC 5 depending on the weight per unit area of the wear layer [58]. Textile coatings are also efficient with regard to shock absorption in association with falls, which may be important in a hospital or care setting. Favourable impact sound behaviour is a further consequence of the elasticity of textile coverings (especially in combination with an additionally cushioning backing layer), which can offer considerable improve111

Floor coverings

ment in this respect. A significant elasticity to point loads allows them to dampen sound at the point of origin, namely where the foot is actually set down. The high degree of sound absorption, which has a very positive effect on the room acoustics, is also attributable to the resilience of the surface and/or the pile layer. This aspect is important for comfort in a domestic setting, but particularly relevant for concert and theatre halls or cinemas. Another advantage of the elasticity of this type of covering is its ability to adapt both to unevenness of the subfloor as well as to cracks in it. Even the slightest irregularity in the substrate shows up in other elastic coverings, and cracks in the subfloor are inevitably reproduced by cracks in corresponding places in most hard coverings. Problems with regard to differing deformation of covering and substrate, common particularly in wood coverings, practically do not exist for textile coverings. Dimensional stability issues are also less critical for this type of covering. • “Indulgent” in appearance: Not only are substrate irregularities less apparent in textile floor coverings, the same applies to soiling. Stains are on the other hand not so easy to remove, while smooth Classes according to DIN ISO 10 874

Domestic use

21

light

22

general

23

heavy Commercial use

91

31

light

32

general

33

heavy

112

coverings can normally be easily wiped clean with a damp cloth. • Durability: The durability of a textile floor covering depends on various factors such as lightfastness, wear resistance (especially when chairs with castors are used, at the edges of steps, or in much-frequented areas such as traffic routes in corridors), regeneration capacity with regard to pressure marks etc. This durability is tested by evaluation of the change in appearance of the textile floor covering when subjected to use. Many aspects of this are considered, including e.g. hairiness, matting/crushing, protruding pile or colour changes (regulated in DIN EN 1471). As far as durability is concerned, a differentiation must be made between utilisation in a residential or commercial setting, on the basis of which specific usage areas are defined in DIN EN 1307 (Fig. 91). Various abrasion resistance classes are furthermore defined taking into account the loss of mass or fibre under test conditions or by means of the minimum number of revolutions in a drum-like test device leading to a recognisable alteration in appearance. • Emission behaviour: Many textile floor coverings develop a “new product” smell, which is attributable to various sulfur-containing components, amines and aromatics. This should however disappear after a period of six weeks or earlier. The effect of styrene and toluene emissions from the synthetic rubber material of the backing coating as well as benzols, phenols and amines and/or plasticisers may on the other hand be damaging to health. Corresponding limits must be adhered to [59]. Problems caused by dust and abrasion also play a role in this respect. Because

of the open-pore surface and the fibre structure of the flat fabric or the pile, textile floor coverings tend to bind dust particles and only release these again when cleaned appropriately. Dust is not dispersed by relatively slight air movements, as is the case for smooth coverings. In terms of health, these properties are rather favourable, especially for persons with allergies. Contrary to popular belief, the concentration of particles in the air above textile coverings is less than above smooth coverings. [60] Additional suitabilities In addition to the fundamental properties required from a textile floor covering discussed so far, DIN 66 095-4 defines further, so-called additional suitabilities for office and commercial constructions. These include: • Anti-static quality: according to DIN EN 14 041, the following qualities are defined in this regard (see “Protection from electrostatic discharge”, p. 41ff.): anti-static floor coverings: under standardised temperature and moisture conditions, body voltage ≤ 2.0 kV electrostatically discharging floor coverings: vertical resistance ≤ 109 Ω (ISO 10 965) electrically conductive floor coverings: vertical resistance ≤ 106 Ω (ISO 10 965) These qualities can be ensured by suitable chemical finishing of the carpeting or by addition of conductive fibres (e.g. metal fibres) and/or activated charcoal. A conductive laying method is another option; the adhesive plays a central role here. • Suitability for chair castors: Suitability for chair castors is tested pursuant to DIN EN 985. A chair castor /wheel index r, which reflects the change in appearance on use under testing conditions, is defined for assessment. The

Floor coverings

92 a

b

minimum value for suitability for use with chair castors is r = 2.4. According to DIN EN 12 529, only chair castors classified as hard (type H) may be used on textile coverings. It must generally be assumed that the rolling resistance of textile coverings is much bigger than for smooth coverings. • Suitability for stairs: Textile floor coverings are particularly subjected to wear at the stair edges, which is why these should always be rounded off and the covering laid with the pile facing downwards (Fig. 92 a). Coverings suitable for stairs must not show more pronounced signs of use at the stair edges than elsewhere. • Suitability for damp rooms: Textile coverings are only suitable for damp rooms when they display adequate colourfastness, dimensional stability and if they are not decomposable. Only synthetic materials come into consideration in this regard. • Suitability for underfloor heating: Textile coverings are generally suitable for use in combination with underfloor heating systems. Despite their typically good thermal insulation capacity, textile coverings must offer an adequately low thermal resistance for this purpose, be sufficiently resistant to thermal ageing as well as anti-static. Suitable bonding by adhesion has to be ensured.

Type of textile floor covering

Further requirements for office and commercial buildings include: • Resistance to damage at cut edges for easier processing (tested according to DIN EN 1814) 91 Usage classes of textile floor coverings according to DIN EN 1307 92 Suitability of textile floor coverings for additional uses a textile floor covering suitable for stairs b textile floor covering suitable for chair castors 93 Compatibility of various textile floor coverings with laying method according to DIN CEN/TS 14 472

Tensioning

Full-face adhesion

Bonding systems

Full-face adhesion to carpet underlay

Peripheral attachment

Woven carpet (without foam backing) Flat carpet

no

yes

yes 5)

yes

no

Wilton

yes

yes

yes 5)

yes

no

Axminster

yes

yes

yes 5)

yes

no

Double carpet

yes

yes

yes 5)

yes

no

(with secondary backing)

yes 6)

yes

yes 4) 5)

yes

yes 1) 5)

(with priming, latexing)

no

yes

no

yes 5)

yes 1) 5)

(with foam backing)

no

yes

yes 5)

no

yes 1) 4)

(with non-woven backing)

yes 5)

yes 5)

yes 4) 5)

yes

yes 1) 5)

Needle-punched non-woven floor covering with foam backing

no

yes

yes 5)

no

yes 1)

Needle-punched non-woven floor covering partly or fully impregnated

no

yes

no

no

yes 2)

Needle-punched non-woven floor covering with secondary backing

no

yes

no

no

yes 2)

Needled pile floor covering partly or fully impregnated

no

yes

yes 5)

no

yes 2)

Needled pile floor covering with secondary backing

no

yes

yes 5)

no

yes 2) 5)

Needled pile floor covering with foam backing

no

yes

yes 5)

no

yes 1)

Bonded pile carpet with secondary backing

yes

yes

yes 4) 5)

yes

yes 1)

Flocked carpet

no

yes

yes 5)

yes

yes 1) 5)

Warp knitted carpet

yes

yes

yes 5)

yes

yes 1) 5)

Tiles

no

yes 3)

yes 3) 5)

no

yes 1)

Tufted carpet

Needle-punched non-woven floor covering

93

1)

Suitable only for domestically used areas up to 5 ≈ 4 m and for seamless laying Suitable exclusively for time-limited use (e.g. at trade fairs) 3) See EN 1307 for specifications regarding scale 4) Size of area according to manufacturer recommendations 5) Only according to manufacturer recommendation; if seams are required, bonding systems are unsuitable specifically for off-the-roll coverings 6) Not suitable for exposure to rolling objects such as office chairs with castors and heavy transport trolleys 2)

113

Floor coverings

• Slip resistance dependent on respective use reflected by the R and /or A, B or C value (see “Safe access and general safety aspects”, p. 12ff.) Laying

Depending on nature and delivery form, textile floor coverings can be laid using different methods (Fig. 93, p. 113). They are processed in the form of sheeting or tiles. Off the roll, the material can be laid loosely, under tension, fixed at points, linearly or over the whole area, or glued full face. All versions, except for glueing, allow simple removal at the end of the service life, without damage to the subfloor. Fixing can take place using a double-sided adhesive tape, webbing or mesh, or alternatively with suitable pressure-sensitive adhesives with reduced adhesion. Installation under tension is carried out using special tack strips or grippers, to which the prestretched covering is attached. This is primarily suited for woven and tufted coverings with a textile backing layer. Laying out carpeting loosely is quick and easy, but the lack of bonding to the subfloor

can result in visible deformations (e.g. undulations) caused by various external factors such as movement of chair castors or hygroscopic effects. Carpet tiles can neither be laid loosely nor under tension, while all other laying methods corresponding to off-the-roll material are possible. Adequate acclimatisation before firm installation by glueing is recommended. Generally used adhesives include solvent-free, emission-controlled adhesives as well as water-based dispersion and dry adhesives. The edges of the roll widths may already be cut ready-forinstallation or have to be cut during installation (both sides). Cutting should always take place along the groove between the rows of fibres. Sections are installed in the adhesive bed tightly and bluntly [61].

in category Efl (Fig. 94) without requiring further proof. In principle, they are therefore considered as normally flammable by both standards. This means that the requirements for use in domestic settings are fulfilled. The property “not easily flammable” may be specified for other utilisations. This can be achieved by finishing textile floor coverings with suitable flame retardants (see “Finishing”, p. 111ff.). Reaction-to-fire classes Bfl-s1 or Cfl-s1 according to DIN EN 13 501-1 and /or B 1 according to DIN 4102 can be attained in this way. Aluminium hydroxides are normally used for this purpose. These liberate water under the influence of heat, which retards the burning process. Flame retardants and their emissions in the event of fire are considered as safe to health.

Reaction to fire

According to the national standard DIN 4102-4, textile floor coverings are generally allocated to building material class B2, with the European standard DIN EN 14 041 classifying various types

Type of floor covering 1)

EN product standard

Reaction-to-fire class 3) of floor covering

EN 1307

Efl

Non-flame-resistant textile needle-punched non-woven floor coverings 2)

EN 1470

Efl

Non-flame-resistant textile needled pile floor coverings 2)

EN 13 297

Efl

Non-flame-resistant machine-made off-the-roll pile carpets and pile carpet tiles 2)

94 Textile floor coverings classified in reaction-tofire class E without further testing, according to DIN EN 14 041 95 L’Opéra Restaurant, Paris (F) 2011, Odile Decq Benoit Cornette Architectes Urbanistes

1)

Floor covering glued to or loosely laid on a class A2 - s1, d0 carrier plate Textile floor coverings with a total mass of max. 4.8 kg/m2, a minimum pile thickness of 1.8 mm (ISO 1766) and: • a surface of 100 % wool • a surface of min. 80 % wool and max. 20 % polyamide • a surface of min. 80 % wool and 20 % polyamide/polyester • a surface of 100 % polyamide • a surface of 100 % polypropylene; if with styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) foam backing, with a total mass of > 0.780 kg/m2. All polypropylene carpets with other foam backings are excluded. 94 3) Class corresponding to Tab. 2 of Annex to Decision 2000/147/EC 2)

114

95

Floor coverings

Notes [1] Timm 2013, p. 50 [2] As opposed to artificial or cast stone. According to DIN EN 12 670:2002-03, 2.3.37 a natural stone product is “a worked piece of naturally occurring rock used in construction and for monuments”. [3] According to DIN EN 12 059:2012-03 with only isolated exceptions: Natural stones containing a mass or volume of asphalt or filling material for repairing holes, discontinuities or similar amounting to over 1 %. Reaction to fire must be tested in these cases. [4] Moro, José Luis: Baukonstruktion – vom Prinzip zum Detail. (Building Construction – from Principle to Detail.) Heidelberg/Berlin 2009, Vol. 1, p. 92ff. [5] Mohs scale of hardness is used to measure the mechanical resistance of a material to scratching by another material and is primarily used for minerals. Soft materials like gypsum are rated between 1 and 2, the hardest, e.g. corundum or diamond, between 9 and 10 on the scale. [6] DIN EN 12 670:2002-03, 2.4.25 [7] As Note 4, p. 97f. [8] Forming process A according to DIN EN 14 411: 2012-02 [9] Forming process B according to DIN EN 14 411: 2012-02 [10] Wihr 1985, p. 126 [11] biscuit: “porcelain or other pottery which has been fired but not yet glazed” (The New Oxford Dictionary of English, ISBN 0-19-860441-6) [12] Group B III according to DIN EN 14 411:2012-02 [13] tessellation: an arrangement of polygons without gaps or overlapping, especially in a repeated pattern. (The New Oxford Dictionary of English, ISBN 0-19-860441-6) [14] However see: Richtlinien für die Herstellung keramischer Bodenbeläge im Rüttelverfahren. (Guidelines for production of ceramic floor coverings by vibration compaction.) Published by the Arbeitskreis Qualitätssicherung Rüttelbeläge (AKQR) (Working Committee for Quality Assurance of Vibrated Coverings) 2015 [15] Timm 2013, p. 230ff. [16] Unger 2010, p. 910 [17] DIN EN 12 004-1:2015-2, 4.4, Tab. 4 [18] Warth, Otto: Die Konstruktionen in Holz. (The constructions in wood.) Leipzig 1900, p. 285 [19] Ibid. p. 286 [20] DIN EN 13 990:2004-04, 3. “The length of floorboards without profiled ends must be at least 1.5 m and increase in increments of 0.1 m, 0.3 m or 0.5 m. In boards with profiled ends, the length has to increase in increments of 0.1 m, 0.3 m or 0.5 m. Length measurements take into account the tongue.” [21] DIN EN 13 629:2012-06, 4.6.3 [22] DIN EN 13 990:2004-04, 5.2.5 [23] The term parquet strip is not clearly defined in the literature. DIN EN 13 756 defines a strip as a “narrow and generally short flooring element”. Meyer-Bohe 1980, p. 74, Fußböden (Flooring) on the other hand differentiates parquet strips as elements that either have grooves all round, or a tongue worked along one longitudinal side and a groove along the other. The same can be found

[24]

[25] [26]

[27]

[28]

[29] [30] [31]

[32] [33]

[34] [35]

[36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43]

in: Parkett – Planungsgrundlagen, Holzbauhandbuch. (Parquet – Fundamental planning principles, Wood Construction Handbook.) Published by the Informationsdienst Holz. (Wood information service.) Series 6, Part 4, Volume 2, 12/2001 Specific strip dimensions may vary regionally. See Nickl, P. (ed.) (1995) Parkett – Historische Holzfußböden und zeitgenössische Parkettkultur (Historical wood flooring and contemporary parquet culture), p. 168. For standard strip measurements of older flooring constructions, see Warth 1900, p. 288f. DIN EN 13 756:2015-01, 1.4 Plain / flat grain is the roughly parabola-shaped wood pattern typical for tangential cuts, while rift / quarter grain is that of the parallel annual rings of the radial cut. See TBK-Merkblatt 1 (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 1): Kleben von Parkett. (Installation of Parquet.) Published by the Industrieverband Klebstoffe e. V. (German Adhesives Association) 2012, p. 3 Timm 2013, p. 226, as well as according to information by the Gesamtverband Deutscher Holzhandel – GD Holz (German Timber Trade Federation) Timm 2013, p. 222 As Note 27 An overview of technically suitable parquet adhesives for various parquet types can be found in TBK-Merkblatt 1 (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 1) (as Note 27), p. 8f. Ibid. p. 7 Technische Regeln für Gefahrstoffe (Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances) TRSG 617: Ersatzstoffe für stark lösemittelhaltige Oberflächenbehandlungsmittel für Parkett und andere Holzböden. (Substitutes for solvent-based surface-treatment agents for parquet and other wood flooring.) Published by the Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA) – Ausschuss für Gefahrstoffe (Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Committee on Hazardous Substances) 2013, p. 4 Nickl 1995, p. 172 TBK-Merkblatt 8 (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 8): Beurteilung und Vorbereitung von Untergründen für Bodenbelag- und Parkettarbeiten. (Assessment and Preparation of Substrates for Floor Covering and Parquet Work.) Published by the Industrieverband Klebstoffe (German Adhesives Association) 2015-04 Timm 2013, p. 219 Unger 2010, p. 856 Timm 2013, p. 213ff. Ibid. p. 214 Unger 2010, p. 855 Ibid. p. 857 DIN EN ISO 24 011:2012-04, 3.2 See Bundesgesetzblatt (BGBl.) (Federal Law Gazette): Verordnung zum Schutz vor Gefahrstoffen (Gefahrstoffverordnung – GefStoffV) (Hazardous Substances Ordinance) 2004; TRGS

[44]

[45] [46]

[47] [48]

[49] [50]

[51] [52] [53] [54]

[55] [56]

[57]

[58] [59]

[60] [61]

(Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances) 610: Ersatzstoffe und Ersatzverfahren für stark lösemittelhaltige Vorstriche und Klebstoffe für den Bodenbereich. (Substitutes and substitution of working methods for solvent-based primers and adhesives for floorings.) Published by the Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin (BAuA) – Ausschuss für Gefahrstoffe (Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Committee on Hazardous Substances), 2011-01, 3.1 See TBK-Merkblatt 4 (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 4): Kleben von Linoleumbelägen. (Installation of Linoleum Flooring.) Published by the Industrieverband Klebstoffe (German Adhesives Association) 2010 Ibid. 4.4.1.1 See TBK-Merkblatt 7 (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 7): Kleben von PVC-Bodenbelägen. (Installation of PVC Flooring.) Published by the Industrieverband Klebstoffe (German Adhesives Association) 2010 Timm 2013, p. 215 See TBK-Merkblatt 3 (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 3): Kleben von Elastomer-Bodenbelägen. (Installation of Elastomer Flooring.) Published by the Industrieverband Klebstoffe (German Adhesives Association) 2009 Ibid. p. 5 See TBK-Merkblatt 5 (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 5): Kleben von Kork-Bodenbelägen. (Installation of Cork Flooring.) Published by the Industrieverband Klebstoffe (German Adhesives Association) 2009 As Note 43 Ibid. p. 4 DIN EN 13 329:2013-12, 3.1 See TBK-Merkblatt 2 (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 2): Kleben von Laminatböden. (Installation of Laminate Flooring.) Published by the Industrieverband Klebstoffe (German Adhesives Association) 1997 Ibid. p. 4 to tuft = strengthen by passing a cluster of threads through the material, to provide with a cluster of short fluffy threads Arbeitsgemeinschaft Wohnberatung e. V. (Working Group on Housing Advice) (ed) 1990, p. 46ff.; Fischer/Gürke-Lang/Diel 2000, p. 22ff. See DIN EN 1307:2014-07, Tab. 18 In particular the specifications by the Gemeinschaft umweltfreundlicher Teppichboden e. V. (GUT) (Association of Environmentally Friendly Carpets) Fischer/Gürke-Lang/Diehl 2000, p. 76ff. See TBK-Merkblatt 13 (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 13): Kleben von textilen Bodenbelägen. (Installation of Textile Flooring.) Published by the Industrieverband Klebstoffe (German Adhesives Association) 2011

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Appendix

Author

Literature

Standards

José Luis Moro Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Architekt

Bomans, Werner; Bomans, Ulli: Bodenbelag: Laminat und Parkett, Holzdielen, Teppich- und PVC-Boden. (Floor covering: Laminate and parquet, wooden floorboards, carpet and PVC floor.) Ettlingen 2014 Fasold, Wolfgang; Veres, Eva: Schallschutz und Raumakustik in der Praxis: Planungsbeispiele und konstruktive Lösungen. (Sound protection and room acoustics in practice: Planning examples and constructive solutions.) Berlin 2003 Fischer, Michael; Gürke-Lang, Birgit; Diel, Friedhelm: Textile Bodenbeläge. Eigenschaften, Emissionen, Langzeitbeurteilung. (Textile floor coverings. Properties, emissions, long-term assessment.) A reference book from the Institut für Umwelt und Gesundheit – IUG (Institute of Environment and Health) in Fulda. Heidelberg 2000 Hausladen, Gerhard; Liedl, Petra; de Saldanha, Mike: Klimagerecht Bauen. Ein Handbuch. (Building to suit the climate. A handbook.) Basel 2012 Hezel, Dieter: Parkett. (Parquet.) Stuttgart 2003 Kier, Hiltrud: Schmuckfußböden in Renaissance und Barock. (Decorative flooring in Renaissance and Baroque.) Munich 1976 Knobel, Thomas: Bodenbeschichtungen. Technik und Gestaltung. (Floor coatings. Technique and design.) Munich 2010 Kottjé, Johannes: Fußböden. Attraktive Wohnbeispiele für Neubau und Modernisierung. (Flooring. Attractive habitation examples for new construction and modernisation.) Munich 2013 Lohmeyer, Gottfried; Ebeling, Karsten: Betonböden im Industriebau. Hallen- und Freiflächen. (Concrete floors in industrial construction. Hall areas and free spaces.) Düsseldorf 1999 Lutz, Martin: Textile Fußbodenbeläge. (Textile flooring coverings.) Heidelberg et al. 2012 Lutz, Martin: Elastische Fußbodenbeläge. (Elastic flooring coverings.) Heidelberg et al. 2013 Lutz, Martin: Holzbodenbeläge. (Wood floor coverings.) Heidelberg et al. 2013 Michaelsen, Hans (ed.): Königliches Parkett in preußischen Schlössern. Geschichte, Erhaltung und Restaurierung begehbarer Kunstwerke. (Royal parquet in Prussian palaces. History, conservation and restoration of walk-in works of art.) Petersberg 2010 Nickl, Peter (ed.): Parkett. Historische Holzfußböden und zeitgenössische Parkettkultur. (Parquet. Historical wood flooring and contemporary parquet culture.) Munich 1995 Rapp, Andreas O.; Sudhoff, Bernhard; Pittich, Daniel: Schäden an Holzfußböden. Schadenfreies Bauen (Damage to wood flooring. Damage-free building.), Vol. 29 Stuttgart 2011 Rolof, Hans-Joachim: Fußbodenschäden im Bild. Betonböden, Estriche, Bodenbeläge, Beschichtungen. (Flooring damage images. Concrete floors, screeds, floor coverings, coatings.) Stuttgart 2010 Rotter, Manfred: Die Hygiene des Teppichbodens. (Hygiene of textile floorcoverings.) Stuttgart 1975 Sammartini, Tudy; Crozzoli, Gabriele: Steinböden in Venedig. (Pavimenti a Venezia = The floors of Venice) Munich 2000 Schuhmann, Hans: Kunstharzbeläge. Mängelfreie Ausführung und bauphysikalische Grundlagen. (Synthetic resin coverings. Defect-free execution and building physics fundamentals.) Stuttgart 2005 Steuer, Walter; Lutz-Dettinger, Ursula; Schubert, Friedemann: Leitfaden der Desinfektion, Sterilisation und Entwesung. Mit Grundlagen der Mikrobiologie, Infektionslehre, Epidemiologie und der tierischen Schädlinge. (Guideline on disinfection, sterilisation and disinfestation. With fundamentals of microbiology, infectiology, epidemiology and animal pests.) Stuttgart /Jena / Lübeck /Ulm 1998 Timm, Harry: Estriche und Bodenbeläge. Arbeitshilfen für die Planung, Ausführung und Beurteilung. (Screeds and floor coverings. Work aids for planning, execution and assessment.) Wiesbaden 2013 Unger, Alexander: Fußboden-Atlas. Fußböden richtig planen und ausführen. (Flooring atlas. Correct planning and execution of flooring.) 2 volumes. Donauwörth 2011 Wihr, Rolf: Fußböden. Stein, Mosaik, Keramik, Estrich. Geschichte, Herstellung, Restaurierung. (Flooring. Stone, mosaic, ceramic, screed. History, production, restoration.) Munich 1985

Dimensions DIN 18 202 Toleranzen im Hochbau – Bauwerke. (Tolerances in building construction – Buildings.) ISO 1006 Building Construction – Modular Coordination – Basic Module. ISO 2848 Building Construction – Modular Coordination – Principles and Rules.

1974 Abitur at the Deutsche Schule Madrid 1974 –1982 Study of architecture at ETSA Madrid (Superior Technical School of Architecture at the Technical University of Madrid) and the University of Stuttgart, Graduation 1982 1982 –1985 Office management in the architecture firm of Fernando Higueras in Madrid 1985 –1987 Research assistant at the Technical University Berlin in the Department of Industrial, Energy- and Raw Material-Saving Building led by Prof. Konrad Weller 1987–1988 Research assistant at the Technical University Darmstadt, Department of Design and Building Technology led by Prof. Thomas Herzog 1988 Office management in the architecture and engineering firm of Santiago Calatrava in Zurich 1988 Office management in the architecture firm of Prof. Thomas Herzog in Darmstadt 1989 –1991 Project partnership with Thomas Herzog 1990 –1992 Own architecture firm in Darmstadt 1992 –1994 Office management in architecture and engineering firm Santiago Calatrava in Zurich Since 1995 Own architecture firm in Stuttgart 1995 – 2006 Professorship in Fundamentals of Planning and Construction above Ground, Faculty of Construction Engineering, University of Stuttgart. Co-opted at the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning Since 2006 Professorship in Design and Construction, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Stuttgart. Co-opted at the Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

The author and the publishers would like to thank the following sponsor for the assistance with this publication:

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Durability DIN EN 12 529 Räder und Rollen – Möbelrollen – Rollen für Drehstühle – Anforderungen. (Castors and wheels – Castors for furniture – Castors for swivel chairs – Requiremenyts.) Accessibility DIN 18 040 Barrierefreies Bauen – Planungsgrundlagen (Construction of accessible buildings – Design principles ) DIN 32 984 Bodenindikatoren im öffentlichen Raum. (Ground surface indicators in public areas.) VDI 6008 Barrierefreie Lebensräume (Barrier-free buildings) Slip resistance DIN 51 097 Bestimmung der rutschhemmenden Eigenschaft – Nassbelastete Barfußbereiche – Begehungsverfahren – Schiefe Ebene. (Determination of the anti-slip property – Wet-loaded barefoot areas – Walking method – Ramp test) DIN 51 130 Prüfung von Bodenbelägen – Bestimmung der rutschhemmenden Eigenschaft – Arbeitsräume und Arbeitsbereiche mit Rutschgefahr – Begehungsverfahren – Schiefe Ebene. (Testing of floor coverings – Determination of the anti-slip property - Workrooms and fields of activities with slip danger – Walking method – Ramp test) DIN 51 131 Prüfung von Bodenbelägen – Bestimmung der rutschhemmenden Eigenschaft – Verfahren zur Messung des Gleitreibungskoeffizienten. (Testing of floor coverings – Determination of the anti-slip property – Method for measurement of the sliding friction coefficient) Thermal protection DIN 4108 Wärmeschutz und Energie-Einsparung in Gebäuden (Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings) DIN EN 13 162–DIN EN 13 167 Wärmedämmstoffe für Gebäude (Thermal insulation products for buildings) DIN EN ISO 6946 Bauteile – Wärmedurchlasswiderstand und Wärmedurchgangskoeffizient – Berechnungsverfahren (Building components and building elements – Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance – Calculation method) Room conditioning DIN EN 1264 Raumflächenintegrierte Heiz- und Kühlsysteme mit Wärmedurchströmung (Water based surface embedded heating and cooling systems) Sound protection/Room acoustics DIN 4109 Schallschutz im Hochbau (Sound insulation in buildings) DIN 18 041 Hörsamkeit in Räumen – Vorgaben und Hinweise für die Planung. Entwurf (Acoustic quality in rooms – Specifications and instructions for the room acoustic design. Draft) VDI 3762 Schalldämmung von Doppel- und Hohlraumböden. (Sound insulation by means of raised access floors and hollow floors.) Technical Rule Fire protection DIN 4102 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen (Fire behaviour of building materials and building components) DIN EN 13 501 Klassifizierung von Bauprodukten und Bauarten zu ihrem Brandverhalten (Fire classification of construction products and building elements) Sports floors DIN V 18 032 Sporthallen – Hallen für Turnen, Spiele und Mehrzwecknutzung ); Teil 2: Sportböden, Anforderungen, Prüfungen. Vornorm. (Sport halls –

Appendix

Halls for gymnastics, games and multi-purpose use; Part 2: Floors for sporting activities, requirements, testing. Prestandard.) Waterproofing DIN 18 195 Bauwerksabdichtungen (Waterproofing of buildings) DIN 18 336 VOB Vergabe- und Vertragsordnung für Bauleistungen – Teil C: Allgemeine Technische Vertragsbedingungen für Bauleistungen (ATV) – Abdichtungsarbeiten (German construction contract procedures (VOB) – Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts (ATV) – Waterproofing) Concrete construction DIN 1045 Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton (Concrete, reinforced and prestressed concrete structures) DIN EN 206 Beton – Festlegung, Eigenschaften, Herstellung und Konformität (Concrete – Specification, performance, production and conformity) DIN EN 206/A1 Beton – Festlegung, Eigenschaften, Herstellung und Konformität; Änderung A1 (Concrete – Specification, performance, production and conformity; Amendment A1) Timber construction DIN EN 1995-1-1 Eurocode 5: Bemessung und Konstruktion von Holzbauten; Teil 1-1: Allgemeines – Allgemeine Regeln und Regeln für den Hochbau (Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures– Part 1-1: General – Common rules and rules for buildings) Wood-based materials DIN EN 300 Platten aus langen, flachen, ausgerichteten Spänen (OSB) – Definitionen, Klassifizierung und Anforderungen (Oriented Strand Boards (OSB) – Definitions, classification and specifications) DIN EN 309 Spanplatten – Definition und Klassifizierung (Particleboards – Definition and classification) DIN EN 312 Spanplatten – Anforderungen (Particleboards – Specifications) DIN EN 316 Holzfaserplatten – Definition, Klassifizierung und Kurzzeichen (Wood fibreboards – Definition, classification and symbols) DIN EN 317 Spanplatten und Faserplatten; Bestimmung der Dickenquellung nach Wasserlagerung (Particleboards and fibreboards; determination of swelling in thickness after immersion in water) DIN EN 622-1 Faserplatten (Fibreboards) Screeds DIN 1100 Hartstoffe für zementgebundene Hartstoffestriche – Anforderungen und Prüfverfahren. (Hard aggregates for cement-bound floor screeds – Requirements and test methods) DIN 18 354 VOB Vergabe- und Vertragsordnung für Bauleistungen – Teil C: Allgemeine Technische -Vertragsbedingungen für Bauleistungen (ATV) – Gussasphaltarbeiten (German construction contract procedures (VOB) – Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts (ATV) – Asphalt flooring work) DIN 18 560-1 Estriche im Bauwesen (Floor screeds in building construction) DIN EN 13 318 Estrichmörtel und Estriche – Begriffe (Screed material and floor screeds – Definitions) DIN EN 13 454-1 Calciumsulfat-Binder, Calciumsulfat-Compositbinder und Calciumsulfat-Werkmörtel für Estriche (Binders, composite binders and factorymade mixtures for floor screeds based on calcium sulfate) DIN EN 13 813 Estrichmörtel, Estrichmassen und Estriche – Estrichmörtel und Estrichmassen – Eigenschaften und Anforderungen (Screed material and floor screeds – Screed materials – Properties and requirements) DIN EN 13 892 Prüfverfahren für Estrichmörtel und Estrichmassen (Methods of test for screed materials) Raised access / Hollow floors DIN EN 12 825 Raised access floors DIN EN 13 213 Hollow floors

Mortars /Adhesives DIN EN 12 004 Mörtel und Klebstoffe für Fliesen und Platten (Adhesives for tiles) DIN EN 13 888 Fugenmörtel für Fliesen und Platten – Anforderungen, Konformitätsbewertung, Klassifikation und Bezeichnung (Grout for tiles – Requirements, evaluation of conformity, classification and designation) DIN EN 14 293 Klebstoffe – Klebstoffe für das Kleben von Parkett auf einen Untergrund – Prüfverfahren und Mindestanforderungen (Adhesives – Adhesives for bonding parquet to subfloor – Test methods and minimum requirements) DIN EN 204 Klassifizierung von thermoplastischen Holzklebstoffen für nicht tragende Anwendungen. Entwurf. (Classification of thermoplastic wood adhesives for non-structural applications. Draft) Cement-bonded coverings DIN 18 333 VOB Vergabe- und Vertragsordnung für Bauleistungen – Teil C: Allgemeine Technische Vertragsbedingungen für Bauleistungen (ATV) – Betonwerksteinarbeiten (German construction contract procedures (VOB) – Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts (ATV) – Cast stone works) DIN EN 13 748-1 Terrazzoplatten – Teil 1: Terrazzoplatten für die Verwendung im Innenbereich (Terrazzo tiles – Part 1: Terrazzo tiles for internal use) DIN EN 15 285 Künstlich hergestellter Stein – Fliesen für Fußbodenbeläge und Stufenbeläge (innen und außen) (Agglomerated stone – Modular tiles for flooring and stairs (internal and external)) Natural stone coverings DIN 18 332 VOB Vergabe- und Vertragsordnung für Bauleistungen – Teil C: Allgemeine Technische Vertragsbedingungen für Bauleistungen (ATV) – Naturwerksteinarbeiten (German construction contract procedures (VOB) – Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts (ATV) – Natural stone work) DIN EN 12 059 Natursteinprodukte – Steine für Massivarbeiten – Anforderungen (Natural stone products – Dimensional stone work – Requirements) DIN EN 12 440 Naturstein – Kriterien für die Bezeichnung (Natural stone – Denomination criteria) DIN EN 12 670 Naturstein – Terminologie (Natural stone – Terminology) Ceramic coverings DIN 18 157-1 Ausführung keramischer Bekleidungen im Dünnbettverfahren; Hydraulisch erhärtende Dünnbettmörtel (Execution of ceramic linings and coverings by thin mortar bed technique) DIN 18 158 Bodenklinkerplatten (Clinker floor tiles) DIN EN 14 411 Keramische Fliesen und Platten – Definitionen, Klassifizierung, Eigenschaften, Konformitätsbewertung und Kennzeichnung (Ceramic tiles – Definition, classification, characteristics, evaluation of conformity and marking) DIN EN ISO 10 545 Keramische Fliesen und Platten (Ceramic tiles) Wood coverings DIN 18 356 VOB Vergabe- und Vertragsordnung für Bauleistungen – Teil C: Allgemeine Technische Vertragsbedingungen für Bauleistungen (ATV) – Parkettarbeiten (German construction contract procedures (VOB) – Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts (ATV) – Laying of parquet flooring) DIN 68 702 Holzpflaster (Wood paving) DIN EN 13 226 Holzfußböden – Massivholz-Elemente mit Nut und /oder Feder (Wood flooring – Solid parquet elements with grooves and /or tongues) DIN EN 13 227 Holzfußböden – Massivholz-Lamparkettprodukte (Wood flooring – Solid lamparquet products) E DIN EN 13 227 Holzfußböden – Massivholz-Lamparkettprodukte. Entwurf (Wood flooring – Solid lamparquet products. Draft) DIN EN 13 228 Holzfußböden – Massivholz-OverlayParkettstäbe einschließlich Parkettblöcke mit einem Verbindungssystem (Wood flooring – Solid wood

overlay flooring elements including blocks with an interlocking system) DIN EN 13 488 Holzfußböden – Mosaikparkettelemente (Wood flooring – Mosaic parquet elements) DIN EN 13 489 Holzfußböden und Parkett – Mehrschichtparkettelemente. Entwurf (Wood and parquet flooring – Multi-layer parquet elements. Draft) DIN EN 13 629 Holzfußböden – Massive Laubholzdielen und zusammengesetzte massive Laubholzdielen-Elemente (Wood flooring – Solid individual and pre-assembled hardwood boards) DIN EN 13 756 Holzfußböden – Terminologie. Entwurf (Wood flooring – Terminology. Draft) DIN EN 13 990 Holzfußböden – Massive NadelholzFußbodendielen (Wood flooring – Solid softwood floor boards) DIN EN 14 342 Holzfußböden und Parkett – Eigenschaften, Bewertung der Konformität und Kennzeichnung (Wood flooring – Characteristics, evaluation of conformity and marking) DIN EN 14 761 Holzfußböden – Massivholzparkett – Hochkantlamelle, Breitlamelle und Modulklotz (Wood flooring – Solid wood parquet – Vertical finger, wide finger and module brick) Elastic, textile and laminate floor coverings DIN CEN / TS 14 472 Elastische, textile und Laminatbodenbeläge – Planung, Vorbereitung und Verlegung (Resilient, textile and laminate floor coverings – Design, preparation and installation) DIN EN 14 041 Elastische, textile und LaminatBodenbeläge – Wesentliche Eigenschaften (Resilient, textile and laminate floor coverings – Essential characteristics) DIN EN ISO 10 874 Elastische, textile und LaminatBodenbeläge – Klassifizierung (Resilient, textile and laminate floor coverings – Classification) (ISO 10 874:2009) Elastic coverings DIN EN 650 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Bodenbeläge aus Polyvinylchlorid mit einem Rücken aus Jute oder Polyestervlies oder auf Polyestervlies mit einem Rücken aus Polyvinylchlorid – Spezifikation (Resilient floor coverings – Polyvinyl chloride floor coverings on jute backing or on polyester felt backing or on a polyester felt with polyvinyl chloride backing – Specification) DIN EN 651 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Polyvinylchlorid-Bodenbeläge mit einer Schaumstoffschicht – Spezifikation (Resilient floor coverings – Polyvinyl chloride floor coverings with foam layer – Specification) DIN EN 652 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Polyvinylchlorid-Bodenbeläge mit einem Rücken auf Korkbasis – Spezifikation (Resilient floor coverings – Polyvinyl chloride floor coverings with cork-based backing – Specification) DIN EN 655 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Platten auf einem Rücken aus Presskork mit einer Polyvinylchlorid-Nutzschicht – Spezifikation (Resilient floor coverings – Tiles of agglomerated composition cork with polyvinyl chloride wear layer – Specification) DIN EN 686 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation für Linoleum mit und ohne Muster mit Schaumrücken (Resilient floor coverings – Specification for plain and decorative linoleum on a foam backing) DIN EN 687 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation für Linoleum mit und ohne Muster mit Korkmentrücken (Resilient floor coverings – Specification for plain and decorative linoleum on a corkment backing) DIN EN 688 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation für Korklinoleum (Resilient floor coverings – Specification for corklinoleum) DIN EN 1816 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation für homogene und heterogene ebene Elastomer-Bodenbeläge mit Schaumstoffbeschichtung (Resilient floor coverings – Specification for homogeneous and heterogeneous smooth rubber floor coverings with foam backing) DIN EN 1817 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation für homogene und heterogene ebene ElastomerBodenbeläge (Resilient floor coverings – Specification for homogeneous and heterogeneous smooth rubber floor coverings)

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Appendix

DIN EN 12 104 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Presskorkplatten – Spezifikation (Resilient floor coverings – Cork floor tiles – Specification) DIN EN 12 199 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Spezifikationen für homogene und heterogene profilierte Elastomer-Bodenbeläge (Resilient floor coverings – Cork floor tiles – Specification) DIN EN 13 845 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Polyvinylchlorid-Bodenbeläge mit partikelbasiertem erhöhten Gleitwiderstand (Resilient floor coverings – Polyvinyl chloride floor coverings with particle based enhanced slip resistance – Specification) DIN EN 14 085 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation für Fußbodenpaneele für lose Verlegung (Resilient floor coverings – Specification for floor panels for loose laying) DIN EN 14 521 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation für ebene Elastomer-Bodenbeläge mit oder ohne Schaumunterschicht mit einer dekorativen Schicht (Resilient floor coverings – Specification for smooth rubber floor coverings with or without foam backing with a decorative layer) DIN EN ISO 10 581 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Homogene Polyvinylchlorid-Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation (Resilient floor coverings – Homogeneous poly(vinyl chloride) floor covering – Specification) DIN EN ISO 10 582 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Heterogene Polyvinylchlorid-Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation (Resilient floor coverings – Specification for heterogeneous vinyl flooring) DIN EN ISO 10 595 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Halbflexible PVC-Bodenplatten – Spezifikation (Resilient floor coverings – Semi-flexible/vinylcomposition (VCT) poly(vinyl chloride) floor tiles – Specification) DIN EN ISO 24 011 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation für Linoleum mit und ohne Muster (Resilient floor coverings – Specification for plain and decorative linoleum) DIN EN ISO 26 986 Elastische Bodenbeläge – Geschäumte Polyvinylchlorid-Bodenbeläge – Spezifikation (Resilient floor coverings – Expanded (cushioned) poly(vinyl chloride) floor covering – Specification) Laminate coverings DIN CEN/TS 16 354; DIN SPEC 68 285:2014-03 Laminatböden – Verlegeunterlagen – Spezifikationen, Anforderungen und Prüfverfahren. (Laminate floor coverings – Underlays – Specification, requirements and test methods) Technical Rule DIN EN 13 329 Laminatböden – Elemente mit einer Deckschicht auf Basis aminoplastischer, wärmehärtbarer Harze – Spezifikationen, Anforderungen und Prüfverfahren (Laminate floor coverings – Elements with a surface layer based on aminoplastic thermosetting resins – Specifications, requirements and test methods) Textile coverings DIN EN 985 Textile Bodenbeläge – Stuhlrollenprüfung (Textile floor coverings – Castor chair test) DIN EN 1307 Textile Bodenbeläge – Einstufung (Textile floor coverings – Classification) DIN EN 1471 Textile Bodenbeläge – Beurteilung der Aussehensveränderung (Textile floor coverings – Assessment of changes in appearance) DIN EN 1471 Textile Bodenbeläge – Beurteilung der Aussehensveränderung. Entwurf (Textile floor coverings – Assessment of changes in appearance. Draft) DIN EN 1814 Textile Bodenbeläge – Bestimmung der Schnittkantenfestigkeit durch die modifizierte Trommelprüfung nach Vettermann (Textile floor coverings – Determination of resistance to damage at cut edges using the modified Vettermann drum test) ISO 2424 Textile Bodenbeläge – Begriffe (Textile floor coverings – Vocabulary)

118

Further guidelines and information sheets AGI A 10 Industrieböden – Hartstoffbetonplatten (Industrial floors – Hard material concrete plates) Arbeitskreis Qualitätssicherung Rüttelbeläge (Working Committee for Quality Assurance of Vibrated Coverings) – Richtlinien für die Herstellung keramischer Bodenbeläge im Rüttelverfahren (Guidelines for production of ceramic floor coverings by vibration compaction) Arbeitsstättenverordnung (ArbStättV), Workplaces Ordinance ASR A 1.5/1,2 Arbeitsstättenrichtlinie – Technische Regeln für Arbeitsstätten (Technical Rules for Workplaces) – Fußböden (Flooring) ASR A 1.5/1,2 Änd (Amendment) Arbeitsstättenrichtlinie – Technische Regeln für Arbeitsstätten (Technical Rules for Workplaces) – Fußböden (Flooring). Amendment BEB-Merkblatt Abdichtungsstoffe im Verbund mit Bodenbelägen. (Federal Association of Screed and Floor Covering Information Sheet: Waterproofing materials forming a composite with floor coverings.) BVF Richtlinie (Federal Association of Surface Heating and Surface Cooling Guideline) No. 1: Wärme- und Trittschalldämmung beheizter und gekühlter Fußbodenkonstruktionen (Heat and impact sound insulation of heated and cooled flooring constructions) No. 3: Herstellung beheizter/gekühlter Fußbodenkonstruktionen im Wohnungsbau (Creation of heated/cooled flooring constructions in residential building) No. 8: Herstellung beheizter und gekühlter Fußbodenkonstruktionen im Gewerbe- und Industriebau (Creation of heated/cooled flooring constructions in commercial and industrial building) No. 9: Einsatz von Bodenbelägen auf Flächenheizungen und -kühlungen – Anforderungen und Hinweise (Use of floor coverings on surface heating and cooling systems – Requirements and information) No. 12: Herstellung dünnschichtiger, beheizter und gekühlter Verbundkonstruktionen im Wohnungsbestand (Creation of thin-layer, heated and cooled composite constructions in housing stock) DBV Industrieböden Merkblatt (Industrial Floors Guide to Good Practice by the German Society for Concrete and Construction Technology) Industrieböden aus Beton für Frei- und Hallenflächen (Industrial floors made of concrete for free spaces and hall areas) Deutsche Bauchemie e. V. Merkblatt (Code of Practice by German Construction Chemistry) DBC_59-MB-D-2003 Hinweise zur Ausführung von rutschhemmenden Bodenbeschichtungen mit Reaktionsharzen (Instructions on execution of slipresistant floor coatings with reaction resins) Deutsche Bauchemie e. V. Merkblatt (Code of Practice by German Construction Chemistry) DBC_143-SD-D-2011 Einsatz von PCE-basierten Fließmitteln im Industriebodenbau (Use of PCEbased admixtures in industrial floor construction) Deutsche Bauchemie e. V. Merkblatt (Code of Practice by German Construction Chemistry) DBC_168-IS-D-2013_01 Elastische Fugen im Sanitärbereich (Elastic joints in sanitary areas) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 202-044 Sportstätten und Sportgeräte (Sports facilities and sports equipment) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 202-058 Sicherheit in der Schule (Safety at school) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 207-006 Bodenbeläge für nass-belastete Barfußbereiche (Floor coverings for wet-loaded barefoot areas) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 207-011 Achtung Allergiegefahr (Warning, allergy hazard) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 208-04 Bewertung der Rutschgefahr unter Betriebs-

bedingungen (Assessment of slipping hazard under operating conditions) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 208-007 – Roste – Auswahl und Betrieb (Grids – Selection and operation) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 208-025 VMBG-Information – Damit Sie nicht ins Stolpern kommen (To prevent you from stumbling) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 213-060 Richtlinien für die Vermeidung von Zündgefahren infolge elektrostatischer Aufladungen – Richtlinien “Statische Elektrizität” (Guidelines for the prevention of ignition hazards due to electrostatic charging – “Static Electricity” guidelines) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Regulation Grundsätze der Prävention (Fundamental principles of prevention) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Regulation 101-019 Umgang mit Reinigungs- und Pflegemitteln (Handling cleanse and care agents) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Regulation 107-001 – Betrieb von Bädern (Operating baths) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Regulation 107-002 – Desinfektionsarbeiten im Gesundheitsdienst (Disinfection work in healthcare service) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Regulation 108-003 Fußböden in Arbeitsräumen und Arbeitsbereichen mit Rutschgefahr (Flooring in work rooms and work areas with slipping hazard) DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Regulation 110-002 HVBG-Information – Arbeiten in Küchenbetrieben (Working in commercial kitchens) DNV Merkblatt (Information Sheet from the Deutsche Naturwerkstein-Verband) Rutschsicherheit von Bodenbelägen aus Naturwerkstein in Arbeitsräumen und Arbeitsbereichen mit Rutschgefahr (Slip resistance of floor coverings made of natural stone in work rooms and work areas with slipping hazard) Merkblatt (Information Sheet) T 051 (4/2009) Elektrostatik – Antworten auf häufig gestellte Fragen (Electrostatics – Answers to FAQ) TKB-Merkblatt (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note) No. 1: Kleben von Parkett (Installation of Parquet) No. 6: Spachtelzahnungen für Bodenbelag-, Parkettund Fliesenarbeiten (Trowel Notch Sizes for Installation of Floor Coverings, Wood Flooring and Tiles) No. 8: Beurteilen und Vorbereiten von Untergründen für Bodenbelag- und Parkettarbeiten (Assessment and Preparation of Substrates for Floor Covering and Parquet Work) No. 10: Holzwerkstoffplatten als Vorlegeuntergrund (Wood Particle Boards used as Laying Substrate) No. 11: Verlegen von selbstliegenden Teppichfliesen und -platten (Installation of Self-Laying Carpet Tiles and Sheets) No. 12: Kleben von Bodenbelägen mit Trockenklebstoffen (Installation of Floor Coverings with Dry Adhesives) No. 13: Kleben von textilen Bodenbelägen (Installation of Textile Floor Coverings) No. 19: Technische Beschreibung und Verarbeitung von Bodenspachtelmassen (Technical Description and Processing of Floor Filling Compounds) ZDB-Merkblatt (Information Sheet from the Zentralverband Deutsches Baugewerbe, Central Association of German Construction Industry) Abdichtung im Verbund mit Fliesen und Platten. (Waterproofing forming a composite with tiles and plates.) Zement-Merkblatt (Cement Datasheet) LB 1 Fußböden für Lagerhallen (Flooring for warehouses) Zement-Merkblatt (Cement Datasheet) T 1 Industrieböden aus Beton (Industrial floors made of concrete) Zement-Merkblatt (Cement Datasheet) B 19 Zementestrich (Cementitious screed)

Appendix

Image credits Sincere thanks to all those involved in the production of the book by letting us have their original images, by granting permission for reproduction and by providing information. All drawings in this publication have been created specially. Photographs without credits either originate from the archives of the architects or from the archive of the magazine Detail. Despite intensive efforts it was not possible to determine the originators of some photographs and images; copyrights of the holders are however retained. Information in this regard is welcome. Title left, right: Jana Rackwitz, Munich Title centre: tretford Teppich Page 4: DESIGN IN ARCHITEKTUR, Darmstadt Page 6: Eva Schönbrunner, Munich Page 48: Cosima Frohnmaier, Munich Chapter 1 Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 38, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 58, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 11 according to DIN 18 202:2013-04 12, 13 according to DIN 51 130:2014-02 16 according to DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 207-006 17 according to DIN 51 097:1992-11 18 according to DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 208-041 22 Christian Schittich, Munich 23, 24 according to DIN 32 984:2011-10 25 according to DIN 18 040-1:2010-10 and DIN 18 040-2:2011-09 26 according to VDI 6008-2:2012-12 27 Limited Edition, Mouscron 28 a according to: Gösele, Klaus; Schüle, Walter: Schall, Wärme, Feuchte. (Sound, heat, moisture.) Wiesbaden / Berlin 1985, p. 140 29 Lohmeyer, G.; Post, M.: Praktische Bauphysik. Eine Einführung mit Berechnungsbeispielen. (Practical building physics. An introduction with calculation examples.) Wiesbaden 2013, p. 581 30 according to: DIN 18 041 (draft) 31 from: Hausladen, Gerhard; Tichelmann, Karsten: Ausbau Atlas. (Interiors Construction Manual.) Munich 2009, p. 160 32 according to: Hausladen, Gerhard et al.: Clima Design. (Climate Design.) Munich 2005, p. 160 33 according to DIN EN 1264-4: 2001–12 34 according to: Bundesverband Flächenheizungen e. V. – BFV (Federal Association of Surface Heating and Surface Cooling) Planungsleitfaden Fußboden-Temperierung (Planning guideline for temperature control of flooring) 35 from: Guideline of the Robert Koch Institute (RKI) for Hospital Hygiene and Infectious Disease Prevention 36 Jogi Hild, Holzgerlingen 37 René Rötheli, Baden 39 according to: http://www.leonhard-sportboden.de/ sportboeden/performance/sportbodenauswahl/ 40 a according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-04 40 b according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-05 40 c according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-06 40 d according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-07 41 according to DIN V 18 032-2:2001-04 42 Markus Bühler-Rasom / Ricola AG 46, 52, 53 according to DIN 4109 Supplement 1 54 a according to DIN 4102-4:1994-04, p. 80, Tab. 56 54 b according to DIN 4102-4:1994-04, p. 86, Tab. 63 59 according to DIN 4102-4:1994-04, p. 87, Tab. 64 60 according to DIN 4108-2:2013-02 Tab. 3, p. 15 61 according to DIN 4108-10, p. 8 62 Abriso nv, Anzegem 63 Granorte GmbH Germany 64 as 28 a, p. 173 65 according to: Grandjean, Etienne: Wohnphysiologie: Grundlagen gesunden Wohnens. (Ergonomics of the Home) Zurich 1973, p. 303 66 as 28 a, p. 174 67 as 28 a, p. 204f. 68, 69 according to DIN 18 195 Supplement 1

70 71

72

73

Werner Huthmacher, Berlin according to: MAPEI Planungshandbuch, p. 4/3 & 4/5; available online: http://www.mapei.com/ public/DE/pdf/Mapei_Phb2010web_k04_0.pdf. Last revision 01.10.2015 according to DGUV (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung, German Statutory Accident Insurance) Information 213-060 according to Technische Regeln für Betriebssicherheit (Technical Rules for Operating Safety) TRBS 2153, p. 77f

Chapter 2 Fig. 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 24 a, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 44, 45, 46, 47 a, 47 b, 48, 49 a, 51, 52, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 4 MAPEI GmbH 5 according to DIN 18 560-3, 4.1, Tab. 2 6 according to DIN 18 560-4, 3.2, Tab. 1 7 according to DIN EN 13 813, 5.2.2, Tab. 3 11 Müller-BBM, Planegg 12 according to: Timm, Harry: Estriche und Bodenbeläge. Arbeitshilfen für die Planung, Ausführung und Beurteilung. (Screeds and floor coverings. Work aids for planning, execution and assessment.) Wiesbaden 2013 16 Christian Hacker, Munich 19 Guideline of the Deutsche Institut für Bautechnik (Centre of Competence for Construction), from Sopro information sheet “Verbundabdichtung mit Fliesen und Platten” (“Composite waterproofing with tiles and plates”) 22 according to: Sopro information sheet “Verbundabdichtung mit Fliesen und Platten” (“Composite waterproofing with tiles and plates”), p. 59 23 Viega GmbH & Co. KG 24 b according to: Sopro information sheet “Verbundabdichtung mit Fliesen und Platten” (“Composite waterproofing with tiles and plates”), p. 103 30 OBJECT CARPET 31 according to DIN EN 13 213, 4.1.1 36 from: Hausladen, Gerhard; Tichelmann, Karsten: Ausbau Atlas. (Interiors Construction Manual.) Munich 2009, p. 161 37, 38 José Luis Moro according to VDI 3762 41 according to DIN EN 12 825, 4.1, Tab. 1 42 as 36, p. 156 43 José Luis Moro according to VDI 3762 47 c, 49 b Hoppe Sportbodenbau GmbH 50 according to: Information brochure “Sport- und Elastikböden” (“Sport and elastic floors”) by BSW GmbH, p. 196 53 David Franck, Ostfildern 54 according to DIN 18 560-7, Tab. 1, p. 5 55 according to DIN 18 560-7, Tab. 6, p. 8 56 according to: Zement-Merkblatt Tiefbau (Cement Datasheet – Civil and underground engineering) T 1.2006 Industrieböden aus Beton (Industrial floors made of concrete), p. 2 62 according to DIN 18 560-7, Tab. 2, p. 6 64 according to: Company brochure DISBON Expertise am Bau. Industrieböden – Professionell Beschichten (Expertise at the Building Site. Industrial floors – Professional Coating) 65 Werner Huthmacher, Berlin Chapter 3 Fig. 1 Zooey Braun, Stuttgart 2 a VIA GmbH 2 b – f, 4, 5 a, 5 c, 5 d, 10, 13a – f, 15, 16, 17, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34 a, 34 b, 35, 36 a, 36 b, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43 a, 43 b, 44 a, 44 b, 45 a, 45 b, 46, 47, 48 a, 48 b, 49 a, 50 a, 50 b, 50 c, 51, 52, 53, 54, 59 a, 60, 61, 62, 63, 73 b, 73 e, 73 f, 74, 78, 80 José Luis Moro, Stuttgart 3 Norman A. Müller/nam architekturfotografie 5 b Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna 5 e http://vanelibg.com 5 f Sonat Strobl GmbH & Co. KG 5 g, h stonenaturelle 6 from: Walter B. Denny: Osmanische Keramik aus Iznik (Ottoman ceramics from Iznik), Munich 2005 7 Baunetz, Berlin 8 Agrob Buchtal 9 Kerlite, extra thin fine stoneware by Cotto d’Este 11 according to DIN EN 14 411, Annex M, p. 66

12 according to DIN 18 158:1986-09, Tab. 1, p. 1 13 g Attenberger Bodenziegel GmbH, 84427 St. Wolfgang 13 h Iris Ceramica SpA 14 DeAn Wand-und Bodenbeläge GmbH/photo: D. Antonovic 18 Raimondi S.p.A., Modena 19 www.h-tech.at 20 a according to DIN 18 157-1; Tab. 2, p. 4 20 b according to DIN 18 157-3, Tab. 2, p. 3 21 according to DIN 13 888:2009-08, Tab. 7, p. 13 27 from: Warth, Otto: Die Konstruktionen in Holz. (The constructions in wood.) Leipzig 1900, p. 286 30 Rasmus Norlander, Stockholm 34 c according to DIN EN 13 629:2012-06, Tab. 5, p. 11 36 c according to DIN EN 13 226:2009-09, Tab. 10, p. 20 37 a according to DIN 13 990:2004-04, Tab. 1, p. 8 37 b according to DIN 13 990:2004-04, Tab. 2, p. 9 40 from: André Jacques Roubo (1769 –75) L’Art du Menuisier) In: Nickl, Peter (ed.): Parkett. Historische Holzfußböden und zeitgenössische Parkettkultur. (Parquet. Historical wood flooring and contemporary parquet culture.) Munich 1995, p. 42 43 c according to DIN EN 13 228:2011-08, Tab. 7, p. 16 44 c according to DIN EN 14 761:2008-09, Tab. 4, p. 8 45 c according to DIN EN 14 761:2008-09, Tab. 5, p. 9 48 c according to DIN EN 14 761:2008-09, Tab. 3, p. 8 49 b according to DIN 13 227:2014-11, Tab. 7, p. 14 50 d according to DIN 13 488:2003-05, Tab. 4, p. 8 55 a according to DIN 68 702:2009-10, Tab. 1, p. 6 55 b according to DIN 68 702:2009-10, Tab. 2, p. 6 56 Ulrich Schwarz, Berlin 57 according to: Industrieverband Klebstoffe e. V. (German Adhesives Association) (ed.) TKB-Merkblatt 1 – Kleben von Parkett. (Technical Commission on Construction Adhesives – Technical Briefing Note 1 – Installation of Parquet.) 2012 p. 3 58 ibid., p. 4 59 b CASCO Sweden 64 Hélène Binet, London 65, 66 according to DIN EN 14 342:2013-09, Tab. 1, p. 7f. and Tab. 2, p. 10 67 a Günter Richard Wett, Innsbruck 67 b Florian Holzherr, Munich 68 according to DIN EN 14 041, Tab. 4, 5, p. 10 69 according to DIN 14 041:2008-05, Tab. 1 & 3, p. 8f. 70 according to DIN EN ISO 10 874, Tab. 1, p. 2 71 according to DIN EN ISO 24 011, Tab. 2, p. 7 72 according to DIN EN 688, Tab. 2, p. 7 73 a Mario Jahn for Armstrong 73 c Upofloor 73 d nora systems GmbH 75, 76 HARO – Hamberger Flooring GmbH & Co. KG 77 www.meisterwerke.com 79 HARO – Hamberger Flooring GmbH & Co. KG 81 Zooey Braun, Stuttgart 82 according to DIN ISO 2424, image 23, p. 8 83 according to DIN ISO 2424, image 26, p. 9 84 according to DIN ISO 2424, image 24, p. 9 85 according to DIN ISO 2424, image 25, p. 9 86 REUBER HENNING GbR 87 a Global-Carpet.de 87 b, 87 c Vorwerk Teppichwerke GmbH & Co. KG, Hameln 87 d Tarkett AG, Frankenthal 88 a according to: Fischer, M.; Gürke-Lang, B.; Diel, F.: Textile Bodenbeläge. Eigenschaften, Emissionen, Langzeitbeurteilung. (Textile floor coverings. Properties, emissions, long-term assessment.) A reference book from the Institute of Environment and Health (Institut für Umwelt und Gesundheit – IUG) in Fulda. Heidelberg 2000, p. 2 88 b according to DIN ISO 2424, image 11, p. 5 88 c according to DIN ISO 2424, image 14, p. 6 88 d according to DIN ISO 2424, image 19, p. 7 88 e according to DIN ISO 2424, image 17, p. 7 88 f according to DIN ISO 2424, image 22, p. 8 88 g according to DIN ISO 2424, image 28, p. 11 88 h according to DIN ISO 2424, image 3, p. 3 89 Bolon 90 according to DIN ISO 2424 91 according to DIN EN 1307:2014-07, Tab. 1, p. 7 92 Limited Edition, Mouscron 93 according to DIN CEN/TS 14 472-2:2003, Tab. 1, p. 16f. 94 according to DIN EN 14 041, Tab. 2, p. 8 95 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart

119

Index

Accessibility adhesion, glueing airborne sound (protection) anisotropy areal surface roughness Bamboo coverings barefoot areas barrier-free battens bearing floor-ceiling construction bonded screed bouclé material brick plates building acoustics Calcium sulfate screed cast stone cement-bonded coverings cementitious screed ceramic coverings /products cleaning (methods) click system clinker plates coating composite waterproofing constructive connections constructive design constructive functions constructive solution principles cork coverings cracks /crack formation DEO/ DES dimensional stability dimensional tolerances discharge resistance displacement ventilation displacement volume door mats double-shell systems dry construction method dry screeds durability Earthenware elastic coverings /materials elastic subconstructions / layers elasticity, degree of elastomer coverings electrostatic discharge emissions evenness expansion and shrinkage exposure classes exposure classes, use group

11 96f. 30f., 63 94ff. 15 106f. 17 16ff. 64 43f. 50, 69 108 80 29f. 50, 52, 69 74 74 50, 54f., 69 78ff. 17, 25f. 92, 104 80 53, 60, 70 58 70f. 11 43ff. 8ff. 105 27f., 50, 54 37, 52 50 12 29, 43 24f. 14f. 15 30 52ff. 46, 52f. 44f. 79 99ff. 64f. 99ff. 100, 104 41ff., 111f. 100f. 11ff., 50 86, 90, 94 58, 67 40f., 67

Falling hazard 14 fire protection / behaviour 32f., 50, 85, 98f., 100, 114 fire resistance class 34ff. flanking (sound) transmission 62ff. flat carpets 107 flexural (tensile) strength 28, 45, 51ff., 63 floating laying method 96f. floating screed 52f. flocked coverings 109 floor geometry 13 floor moisture 39ff., 44 floor plate 10, 45, 60f., 66 floor-ceiling construction 9ff., 23, 30ff. floor systems (hollow cavity, raised access) 44, 59ff. floor utility boxes 44, 60 floorboarding 86ff. floor coverings 19f., 23, 33, 43, 74ff. flooring structure 9ff., 36f., 44, 50 flooring types 25, 50ff. free-spanning floors 44 frieze floors 86 functions, assignment of 9 Granite grid groove

76 13f. 25

ground surface indicators, profiling

18f.

Hard material layers healthcare requirements heat storage, capacity heated screed heating and cooling surfaces height offset hollow (cavity) floors hygiene (sensitivity)

67, 70 26f. 37 23, 55f. 22ff. 13 44, 59f. 25f.

Impact sound improvement index impact sound protection impregnation inclinations industrial floors installation lines insulation material type Joints, types of

30f. 30ff., 60 69, 97 11ff. 27ff., 66ff. 59 53

27ff., 34f., 54, 68f., 71, 84

Lamella parquet, lamparquet 90f. laminate coverings / laminate floors 46, 106f. layers/ layer sequence / layer package 8f. laying 50ff., 84f., 96, 102ff., 114 laying pattern 8, 82 levelling systems 84 limestone 77f. line routing /ducts 44, 60 linoleum 101f. load transfer /distribution 43 Magnesite screed marble mass-spring system mastic asphalt screed media routing medium-bed (laying) method minimum thermal resistances mixed-elastic floors modular laying module bricks moisture, exposure to, protection monofunctionality mortar mosaic parquet mosaic tiles multifunctionality multilayer parquet

53, 69 77 62f. 50, 52f., 69 43, 59f. 83 36 66f. 84 90f. 39ff. 8 74, 82ff. 91f. 81f. 8 91f.

Nailing /screwing natural stone (coverings /flooring) needle-punched non-woven coverings needled pile coverings normalised impact sound pressure level Operative temperature overlay parquet Parquet perceived temperature perimeter insulation strips perimeter joint plates point-elastic floors polyolefin coverings polyvinyl chloride floor coverings porcelain ceramics potential differences poured or welded waterproofing prefabricated floor elements profiling protective functions PVC coverings Quartz vinyl coverings Raised access floors ramps relative (atmospheric) humidity resilience resistance to chair castors resonance frequency range

96 75ff., 78 108 108f. 21f., 29f. 22 90f.

90ff. 22 52, 71 72 74ff., 78ff., 102f. 65f. 104 103f. 81 41 58 102, 105 15, 18 29ff. 103 104 60, 62ff. 12, 19f. 93ff. 64f. 102, 112 31

resonance principle reverberation times rock types /groups room acoustics

22 21 76ff. 21f.

Safe access 11ff., 40 sandstone 76 sanitary rooms 19, 57ff. screed on separating layer 50 screed plate 52, 56 screeds, types of 45, 50ff. sealing 58, 70, 97f. sealing layers 40, 58 single-layer parquet, solid wood parquet 91ff. single-shell components 30 slate 78 slide seal 71f. sliding friction coefficient 15 slip resistance 14ff., 25, 40, 67ff. solid flooring structures 43 sound absorber /absorption 21f. sound insulation (sealing) 30ff., 61f., 71 sound pressure level 21 sound protection 29, 63 sound reduction index 30ff. sound reflection 21f. sound transmission paths 62f. sports floors, types of 27, 63ff. sprung floors 64 steps 11ff., 19 stoneware, fine stoneware 81 storage mass, thermal 38 strip floors 89f. strip parquets 89f. structure-borne sound 30, 61ff. stumbling hazard 13f. subfloor /subceiling 43f., 50 supply points 43f., 60 surface finishing 69f., 78 surface hardness 46 surface heating systems 23 surface quality 111 surface resistance 42 surface treatment 97 synthetic resin screed 51, 53, 69 Temperature gradient terrazzo, tiles /plates textile coverings /carpets thermal conductivity thermal insulation layer thermal insulation /protection thermal room conditioning thermally activated components thick-bed (laying) method thin-bed (laying) method tiles toe boards tufted coverings/tufting method Underfloor heating underfloor installation usage functions Velour ventilation Versailles panel parquet vertical finger lamella parquets vibration method vinyl floor covering

22, 38 74f. 107ff., 110f. 113 23f., 36ff. 10f., 23, 36 35ff., 52f. 22, 24 23f. 82 83 80ff., 104f. 14 108 23f., 38f. 44 11ff. 107ff. 22ff. 90f. 90 82 110

Walk-off zone 16f. wall connections 71 warmness to feet, flooring temperature 38f. waterproofing 39ff., 44, 57ff. waterproofing materials 41, 57 wear resistance(classes) 46, 67 wearing screeds 45, 55, 74 wet construction method 52 wet-room floors 57f. wide finger 90 wood flooring / wood coverings 85ff. wood paving 92f.

ISBN 978-3-95553-301-4

9 783955 533014