Ethnobiology of Mountain Communities in Asia 3030554937, 9783030554934

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Ethnobiology

Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Rainer W. Bussmann  Editors

Ethnobiology of Mountain Communities in Asia

Ethnobiology Series editors: Robert Voeks, Center for Remote Sensing & California State University, Fullerton, CA, USA John Richard Stepp, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

Ethnobiology is the study of the dynamic relationship between plants, animals, people, and the environment. Academic and applied interests include ethnobotany, ethnozoology, linguistics, paleoethnobotany, zooarchaeology, ethnoecology, and many others. The field lies at a dynamic intersection between the social and biological sciences. The major contribution from the biological sciences has come from economic botany, which has a rich historical and scientific tradition. Indeed, the objectives of the colonial enterprise were as much about the quest for “green gold” –herbal medicines, spices, novel cultivars, and others—as it was for precious metals and sources of labor. The view that ethnobiology concerns mostly the discovery of new and useful biota extended into the 20th century. The social sciences have contributed to the field in both descriptive studies but also within quantitative approaches in cognitive anthropology that have led to general principles within ethnobiological classification. Ethnobiological research in recent years has focused increasingly on problem solving and hypothesis testing by means of qualitative and especially quantitative methods. It seeks to understand how culturally relevant biotas are cognitively categorized, ranked, named, and assigned meaning. It investigates the complex strategies employed by traditional societies to manage plant and animal taxa, communities, and landscapes. It explores the degree to which local ecological knowledge promotes or undermines resource conservation, and contributes to the solution of global challenges, such as community health, nutrition, and cultural heritage. It investigates the economic value and environmental sustainability to local communities of non-timber forest products, as well as the strategies through which individual ecological knowledge and practices encourage resilience to change—modernization, climate change, and many others. Most importantly, contemporary ethnobiological research is grounded in respect for all cultures, embracing the principles of prior informed consent, benefit sharing, and general mindfulness. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11551

Arshad Mehmood Abbasi  •  Rainer W. Bussmann Editors

Ethnobiology of Mountain Communities in Asia

Editors Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Department of Environmental Sciences COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus Abbottabad, Pakistan

Rainer W. Bussmann Department of Ethnobotany Institute of Botany Ilia State University Tbilisi, Georgia

ISSN 2365-7553     ISSN 2365-7561 (electronic) Ethnobiology ISBN 978-3-030-55493-4    ISBN 978-3-030-55494-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55494-1 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Useful biodiversity (UB) is the genetic diversity, structural diversity, and diversity in the anthropologically influenced ecosystem. This includes crops as well as wildcrafted species. The variability of useful biodiversity is closely related to environmental change (global change, economic policy) and shows strong interactions with the culture of the local population. Research on useful biodiversity is very diverse since researchers are working on all its facets and interactions of individual components: for example, the importance and conservation of different elements of useful biodiversity, influence of gender in UB and homegardens, the relationship of useful biodiversity with food security, effects of global change on UB, or the importance and role of the exchange of seeds of cultivated species for the conservation of genetic diversity. Today, the terms “Economic Botany,” “Ethnobotany,” and “Ethnobiology” are used interchangeably, and research focuses on the documentation of local knowledge and the protection of the intellectual property of the local population under the stipulations of the Protocol of Nagoya, and measures of protection of biological and associated cultural diversity, especially in situ. The use of wildcrafted species, especially wild food plants, has become an increasingly important research topic. The maintenance of biodiversity is a prerequisite for the maintenance of ecosystem services. In this way, local resource use influences the quantity and quality of ecosystem services and provides a great benefit for society and the environment, strengthening cultural identities and the development of a sense of place through diverse, direct relationships between humans and their environment. Plants provide humankind with most of our most basic resources, including food and medicine. Plants provide the molecular basis of many pharmaceuticals, directly or via lead compounds, and modern science increasingly blurs the distinction between nutrition and medicine. As human populations increase in numbers and have access to markets, overharvesting of commercially important medicinal species has increased. At the same time, habitat loss, climate change, and invasive species further threaten wild plant populations, while traditional knowledge associated with plant use is being eroded by urbanization. Thus, never before in human history has there been a greater need to discover, understand, conserve, and sustainably use v

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culturally important plant resources. Many important plant species are concentrated in mountain systems, with alpine meadows being a major source of medicinal plants. For example, more than 300 medicinal plant species are known from Bhutan and over 500 from Peru. Global change can lead to dramatic shifts in the distribution of species. Plant use is affected by very small-scale factors, even when looking at especially important plant groups, in seemingly homogenous regions and in a global environment. Medicinal plant availability, particular in markets, is greatly influenced by plant availability, and medicinal fashion, and as such markets are constantly and profoundly changing. Simultaneously, indigenous traditional knowledge is changing and/or being lost at breathtaking speed. Such change in knowledge is not only regrettable but can also pose serious danger to local consumers when used as medicine, while the loss of traditional management practices increases human-wildlife conflicts. Sadly enough, even very commonly used plant species are often not well known scientifically. Mountains cover roughly 25% of the Earth’s terrestrial surface but harbor a disproportionately large number of unique species and human cultures. Intact mountain ecosystems are of vital ecological and economic importance as sources of useful species, water catchments for huge populations, and to maintain slope stability. Mountains play an important, albeit poorly understood, role in hydro-climatic and biogeochemical cycles that directly or indirectly sustain the livelihoods of many people around the world. In addition, montane forests are important energy sources and carbon sinks. Alpine plant diversity is significantly higher than the global average. Studies in the Himalayas find that the highest plant diversity, richness, and endemism in alpine environments are found between 4200 and 4500 m, and useful plants (e.g., medicines, non-timber products, traditional foods, fodder) are most abundant in alpine meadows, which are also essential for livestock grazing. After the polar regions, which have relatively little biodiversity, alpine environments are among those most affected by global climate change and affect the future invasiveness of species. Global warming was detected early due to alpine glacial and meteorological measurements dating back as far as the nineteenth century. Now, treeline advance has been reported worldwide. In the Himalayas, nival areas have decreased rapidly since 1960 and are predicted at present rates to disappear in the mid-twenty-­ second century. Climate change in alpine regions therefore endangers a significant portion of Earth’s biodiversity and of the biodiversity directly useful to humans. Predicted extinctions of montane populations of animals and plants have drawn further attention to the plight of these species. Already, substantial ecological impacts can be detected in alpine and arctic environments around the world. Cold-­ adapted alpine species are stressed by warming and, more importantly, must compete with species from lower elevations extending their ranges upward. On mountains around the world, increasing temperatures force alpine plants to migrate upwards until they reach the highest elevations. Climate-induced differential migration rates could lead to the formation of new plant assemblages and result in changes in ecosystem functioning. Increased competition and new plant assemblages in alpine areas are evidenced by increases in alpine species richness reported from the

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Alps and from Scandinavia. New plant assemblages and increased competition are presumed to be harbingers of future extinctions. Thus, alpine vegetation and species distributions are already responding to climate change despite the long-lived and slow-growing nature of alpine plants. Mountain ranges worldwide, where numerous endemic plants are found, may suffer critical species losses. With the present volume we aim to provide an in-depth introduction to the ethnobiological knowledge of the peoples of Asian mountain regions, with information both from a historic perspective and data from the most recent scientific studies in the region, including the most up-to-date literature sources. We hope that the present volume will give both interested laypeople and professionals an opportunity to learn about the fascinating biodiversity and ethnobiology of Asian mountain regions and will spark interest in its further documentation, sustainable use, and conservation. Abbottabad, Pakistan Tbilisi, Georgia 

Arshad Mehmood Abbasi Rainer W. Bussmann

Contents

 Medicinal, Nutritional, and Spiritual Significance of Plants in Bhutan: Their Biodiscovery Potential and Conservation Status��������������������������������    1 Karma Yeshi, Jens Aagaard-Hansen, and Phurpa Wangchuk  Ethnobotany of the Himalayas—Kashmir, India������������������������������������������   27 Muzafar Riyaz, Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu, Rauf Ahmad Shah, Kuppusamy Sivasankaran, and Perumal Pandikumar  Food from Forest: Diversity of Wild Vegetables Used by Pwo People Thailand������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   47 Prateep Panyadee, Nattee Muangyen, Wittaya Pongamornkul, and Angkhana Inta  Study of Medicinal Plants of the Chitral Gol National Park (CGNP) with Special Emphasis on Future Conservation and Sustainability ����������   71 Sanam Asmat, Shujaul Mulk Khan, Zeeshan Ahmad, Abdullah, Muhammad Arif, Rubina Noor, Rainer W. Bussmann, Andrea Pieroni, and Habib Ahmad  Ethnobotany of Western Himalayan Region, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   87 Muhammad Shoaib Amjad, Rubab Khurshid, Arshad Mehmood Abbasi, Muhammad Altaf, Huma Qureshi, and Fozia Abasi  Floral Composition, Sustainable Utilization, and Conservation of Important Medicinal Plants in the Ayubia National Park, Abbottabad, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  103 Sabina Nazakat, Shujaul Mulk Khan, Abdullah, Rubina Noor, Iftikhar uz Zaman, Muhammad Arif, Noreen Khalid, and Zeeshan Ahmad  Ethnomedicinal Uses of Plant Species from the Himalayas������������������������  125 Jugreet Bibi Sharmeen, Suroowan Shanoo, and Mahomoodally Mohamad Fawzi

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 Plant Resources and Their Uses in Salt Range, Pakistan����������������������������  163 Sehrish Sadia, Khawaja Shafique Ahmad, Ansar Mehmood, Fahim Nawaz, Haroon Ahmed, Mansoor Hameed, Farooq Ahmad, Wasifa Rani, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi  Ethno-Medicinal Uses of Wildlife in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  175 Muhammad Altaf, Abdul Majid Khan, Sadia Zahoor, Muhammad Umair, and Muhammad Shoaib Amjad  Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Medicinal Plants of Tharu Community in Swathi Village, Nawalparasi District Nepal��������  185 Chetmani Chaudhary and Sangeeta Rajbhandary  Ethnomedicinal Uses of Animals in Vicinity of Ayubia National Park, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan ��������������������������������������������������������������������  221 Sayeda Maria Bashir, Muhammad Altaf, Muhammad Umair, Sadia Zahoor, Muhammad Shoaib Amjad, and Arshad Mehmood Abbasi  Ethnobotany of Karakorum, Pakistan����������������������������������������������������������  229 Zaheer Abbas, Rainer W. Bussmann, Shujaul Mulk Khan, Jan Alam, Salma, Manzoor Hussain, and Zahid Ullah  Ethnobotany of Mountain Region of Himalaya, District Poonch, Azad Kashmir��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  245 Amna Mustafa, Khawaja Shafique Ahmad, Ansar Mehmood, Fahim Nawaz, Haroon Ahmed, Abdul Hamid, and Iqra Liyaqat  Diversity and Uses of Wild Animals in Bagh, AJ&K, Pakistan ������������������  269 Muhammad Altaf, Mehwish Altaf, Muhammad Shoaib Amjad, Sadia Zahoor, Nargis Sultan, and Muhammad Umair  Ethnobotanical Appraisal of Medicinal Plants from Bajaur; A Remote Area of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan�����������  277 Abdullah, Shujaul Mulk Khan, Rabia Affza Kashif, Zahoor Ul Haq, Zeeshan Ahmad, Amin Ul Haq, and Muhammad Abdul Haq  Folk Formulations of Asteraceae Species as Remedy for Different Ailments in Lesser Himalayas, Pakistan ��������������������������������  295 Inayat Ur Rahman, Rainer W. Bussmann, Aftab Afzal, Zafar Iqbal, Niaz Ali, and Farhana Ijaz  Medicinal Flora and Cultural Values of Arkot-Biakand Valley Hindu Kush Region Swat, Pakistan ��������������������������������������������������������������  327 Zahid Ullah, Usman Ali, Shawkat Ali, Ahmad Ali, Naveed Alam, and Hassan Sher

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 Healthcare Choices and Use of Medicinal Plants: An Ethnobotanical Study in Kanda Area of Bajhang District, Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  381 K. Adhikari, Y. Uprety, D. Pyakurel, K. Thagunna, L. D. Bhatta, and R. P. Chaudhary  Exploration, Conservation, and Utilization of Ethnobotanical Knowledge: Sri Lankan Perspective������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  409 R. H. G. Ranil, R. M. S. R. Chamara, D. K. N. G. Pushpakumara, and Rainer W. Bussmann Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  433

About the Editors

Arshad  Mehmood  Abbasi is working as Assistant Professor of Environmental Sciences at COMSATS University, Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Pakistan. Dr. Abbasi received his PhD in Ethnobotanical and Nutraceuticals aspects of plant species of Lesser Himalayas, Pakistan, from Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan, in 2013. He served as a postdoctoral research fellow in the School of Food Science in South China University of Technology from 2014 to 2016. His research is mainly focused on plant resource utilization by mountain communities of Himalayan region of Pakistan with particular reference to ethnobotanical and nutraceutical aspects. To date, Dr. Abbasi has authored 90+ research articles and 40 book chapters. He has also two international books to his credit: Medicinal Plant Biodiversity of Lesser HimalayasPakistan and Wild Edible Vegetables of Lesser Himalayas: Ethnobotanical and Nutraceutical Aspects published by Springer, USA, in 2012 and 2015, respectively. So far, Dr. Abbasi has been awarded three outstanding research awards by Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan, best researcher awards (2017 and 2019) by host University and foreign expert certificate by Chinese Government along with many other certificates. He also serves as volunteer editor and reviewer of several journals of international repute including the Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, Journal of Herbal Medicine, Food Chemistry, Pharmaceutical Biology, European Journal of Medicinal Plants, Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, and Pakistan Journal of Botany among several others. Dr. Abbasi is also a member of the International Society of Ethnobiology; Society of Ethnobiology, University of North Texas, USA; American Chemical Society (ASC); and Institutional APIFP Champion: Asia Pacific Institute of Food Professionals.

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About the Editors

Rainer  W.  Bussmann  earned his MSc (Diploma) in Biology at Universität Tübingen, Germany, in 1993 and his doctorate at Universität Bayreuth, Germany, in 1994. He is an ethnobotanist and vegetation ecologist, currently Affiliate Scientist at Museo Nacional de Historia Natural in La Paz, Bolivia, and co-director of Saving Knowledge, La Paz, Bolivia, as well as Principal Scientist at the Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, both of which he co-founded. Before retiring from Missouri Botanical Garden, Dr. Bussmann was director of the William L. Brown Center at Missouri Botanical Garden, William L. Brown Curator of Economic Botany, and Senior Curator. Before accepting the directorship of WLBC, he held academic appointments as Research Fellow in Geography and the Environment at the University of Texas at Austin from 2006 to 2007, as Associate Professor of Botany and Scientific Director of Harold Lyon Arboretum at the University of Hawaii from 2003 to 2006, and as Assistant Professor at the University of Bayreuth from 1997 to 2003, following a postdoc at the same institution from 1994 to 1997. He holds affiliate faculty appointments at Washington University St. Louis, USA; University of Missouri St. Louis, USA; Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, USA; Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Brazil; Universidád Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú; and at Ilia State University, Republic of Georgia, and serves as external thesis advisor at multiple other universities worldwide. His work focuses on ethnobotanical research and the preservation of traditional knowledge, in Bolivia, Peru, Madagascar, the Caucasus, and the Himalayas. To date, Dr. Bussmann has authored over 290 peer-reviewed papers, over 1200 book chapters, and authored or edited over 35 books. Dr. Bussmann is a past President of the Society for Economic Botany and has served as board/council member of the International Society for Ethnopharmacology, Society of Ethnobiology, Botanical Society of America, and International Society of Ethnobiology. See more of his work on his website ­(https://www.cejaandina.org/ rainer-w-bussmann/) and download publications from ResearchGate (https://www. researchgate.net/profile/Rainer_Bussmann).

Medicinal, Nutritional, and Spiritual Significance of Plants in Bhutan: Their Biodiscovery Potential and Conservation Status Karma Yeshi, Jens Aagaard-Hansen, and Phurpa Wangchuk

Contents 1  Introduction 1.1  Location 1.2  Terrain, Ecology, and Climate 1.3  Plant Diversity 2  Ethnobotanical Uses of Himalayan Plants in Bhutan 2.1  Medicinal Plants Used in Scholarly Bhutanese Traditional Medicine 2.2  Medicinal Plants Used in Folklore Medicines 2.3  Wild Plants Used as Nutrients 2.4  Wild Edible Mushrooms 2.5  Wild Plants Used for Their Essential Oils 2.6  Plants Used for Rituals and Other Spiritual Purposes 2.7  Plants Used for Incense-Making 3  Biodiscovery Potential of Himalayan Medicinal Plants 4  Impact of Climate Change and Conservation of Plants 4.1  Medicinal Plant Ecology 4.2  Conservation 5  Conclusion References

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K. Yeshi Department of Environment and Life Sciences, Sherubtse College, Royal University of Bhutan (RUB), Kanglung, Trashigang, Bhutan J. Aagaard-Hansen Health Promotion, Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Gentofte, Denmark MRC Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa P. Wangchuk (*) Centre for Molecular Development of Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 A. M. Abbasi, R. W. Bussmann (eds.), Ethnobiology of Mountain Communities in Asia, Ethnobiology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55494-1_1

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1  Introduction 1.1  Location The Kingdom of Bhutan is a landlocked country with an area of 38,394 km2. The country has been a sovereign nation throughout history and was never colonized by any Asian or Western powers. Two giant nations border the country, China towards North and India to its south, east, and west (Fig. 1). As of 2017, Bhutan’s total population was 681,720 (NSBB 2018). Today, Bhutan is well-known for its unique developmental philosophy called ‘Gross National Happiness’ (GNH) with an emphasis on environmental preservation in the process of modern development. The fourth King Jigme Singye Wangchuk, promulgated the GNH philosophy in the early 1970s (GNHC 2019). It has four pillars of development, namely, preservation of the environment, promotion of culture and traditions, equitable socio-economic development, and good governance (Wangchuk and Tobgay 2015). The GNH policy on the preservation of the environment was so firm that it has later on shaped the framing of the constitution of Bhutan, which firmly states that the government shall maintain a minimum of 60% of forest cover forever (The Constitution of Bhutan 2008). Bhutan stands in the top five out of 152 countries in the world for the protected area (Lindsey et al. 2017) with 51.32% of its geographical area under protection as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biological corridors (LCMP 2010).

Fig. 1  Map of Bhutan showing rich biodiversity (Photo. WWF office, Bhutan)

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1.2  Terrain, Ecology, and Climate Bhutan has a pristine environment with altitudes ranging from 150 to as high as 7500 meters above sea level (masl). It possesses a wealth of global biodiversity containing 60 eco-regions, 53 crucial plant areas, and a large number of wetlands, and 29 Ramsar sites (wetland sites of international importance identified by Ramsar Convention) (ICIMOD, 2010). Snow-capped peaks and alpine pastures stretch over the northern belt near Tibet (China), serene river valleys in the central belt, and fertile alluvial plains in the south near India. Ecologically, it comprises three eco-­ floristic zones, namely, alpine zone (4000 masl and above), temperate zone (2000–4000 masl), and sub-tropical zone (150–2000 masl) (MoA 2009). The alpine zone has snow-capped mountains and glacial lakes (Fig. 2), and alpine meadows and scrubs (Fig. 3). This zone has cold winter (cold) and fresh summer and receives the least precipitation of 40  mm/annum. Rhododendron, Juniper, Aconitum, Gentiana, Nardostachys, Delphinium, Rhodiola, Meconopsis, Onosma, and Dactylorhiza grow abundantly in this alpine zone. Temperate zone experiences cold winters (−4 °C to 15 °C) and hot summers (15 °C–26 °C) with moderate rainfall of 1000 mm/annum (NEC 2016). This zone has four types of forests: Fir forest (3000 masl and above), Mixed conifer forest (2500 to 3500 masl), Blue pine forest (1500–3200 masl), and Broadleaf mixed with conifer forest (2000 to 2500 masl) (Fig. 4). Abies densa Griff., Taxus, Quercus semecarpifolia Sm., Castanopsis, and Populus ciliata Wall. Ex Royle are some of the representative tree species in the temperate zone. Sub-tropical zone experiences high humidity and heavy rainfall of 1500  mm/annum with a temperature range of 15  °C–30  °C throughout the year.

Fig. 2  Snow-capped mountain (Mount Jomo Lhari, 7314 meters above sea level) (Photo. S. Wangdi)

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Fig. 3  Alpine meadows and grassland–Lingzhi Yügyal Dzong constructed by the third Desi of Bhutan, Chögyal Minjur Tenpa (r. 1667–1680) in 1668 (Photo. P. Wangchuk)

Fig. 4  Mixed coniferous forest with Druk Wangyal Chorten at Dochula (108 stupa, Photo. P. Wangchuk)

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Fig. 5  Subtropical forest with twin waterfall, Leylang gang near Panbang Dungkhag (Photo. P. Wangchuk)

This zone consists of broadleaf forest (1000 to 2000 masl), Chir pine forest (700 to 2000 masl), and sub-tropical broadleaf forest and riverine scrub (