Early Bronze and Iron Age Animal Exploitation in Northeastern Anatolia: The faunal remains from Sos Höyük and Büyüktepe Höyük 9781841712376, 9781407352930
Early Bronze and Iron Age faunal remains from the two sites in the northeastern region of Turkey were analysed to establ
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English Pages [214] Year 2001
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables
List of Figures
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2. SITE DESCRIPTIONS
Chapter 3. METHODOLOGY
Chapter 4. EARLY BRONZE AGE SOS HÖYÜK
Chapter 5. EARLY BRONZE AGE BÜYÜKTEPE HÖYÜK
Chapter 6. IRON AGE SOS HÖYÜK
Chapter 7. IRON AGE BÜYÜKTEPE HÖYÜK
Chapter 8. DISCUSSION
Chapter 9. CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TABLES
FIGURES
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BAR S945 2001 HOWELL-MEURS EARLY BRONZE AND IRON AGE ANIMAL EXPLOITATION
Early Bronze and Iron Age Animal Exploitation in Northeastern Anatolia The faunal remains from Sos Höyük and Büyüktepe Höyük
Sarah Howell-Meurs
BAR International Series 945 B A R
2001
Early Bronze and Iron Age Animal Exploitation in N ortheastem Anatolia The faunal remains from Sos Hoyiik and Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik
Sarah Howell-Meurs
BAR International Series 945 2001
Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 945 Early Bronze and Iron Age Animal Exploitation in Northeastern Anatolia
© S Howell-Meurs and the Publisher 2001 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.
ISBN 9781841712376 paperback ISBN 9781407352930 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841712376 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd/ Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.
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CONTENTS Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1
The Research Problem ................................................................................................................................. .
1
1.2
The Background ...........................................................................................................................................
.
1
1.3 1.4
The Present Study ......................................................................................................................................... . The Archaeological and Architectural Context. .......................................................................................... ..
1
2
1.4.1
Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik ...................................................................................................................... .
2
1.4.2
Early Bronze Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik ........................................................................................................... .
2
1.4.3
Iron Age Sos Hoytik .....................................................................................................................................
3
1.4.4
Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik ......................................................................................................................... .
3
The Significance of the Current Study ......................................................................................................... .
4
1.5
.
Chapter 2. SITE DESCRIPTION 2.1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................
.
5
2.2
Environmental Setting .................................................................................................................................. .
5
2.3
Vegetation ....................................................................................................................................................
.
5
2.4
Climate .........................................................................................................................................................
.
6
2.5
Geology ........................................................................................................................................................
.
6
2.6 2.7
Agriculture ...................................................................................................................................................
.
6
Excavation of the Faunal Remains ............................................................................................................... . Cleaning ............................................................................ _........................................................................... .
7
2.8
8
Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY Post-excavation Analysis ............................................................................................................................. . 3.1 3.2 3.3
Measurements ............................................................................................................................................... Comparative Assemblages............................................................................................................................
9 9
3.4
Assemblage Stages........................................................................................................................................
10
3.5
Some Definitions...........................................................................................................................................
10
3.6
Quantification................................................................................................................................................
10
3.6.1
Number of Identified Specimens (NISP)......................................................................................................
10
3.6.2
Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI).....................................................................................................
11
3.6.3
Petersen Index...............................................................................................................................................
12
3.6.4
White's Method and the Weight Method......................................................................................................
12
3.6.5
Discussion.....................................................................................................................................................
13
3.6.6
MNI Quantification Method..........................................................................................................................
13
3.7
Log Ratio Diagrams......................................................................................................................................
14
3.8
Mortality Profiles..........................................................................................................................................
14
Dental Eruption and Attrition........................................................................................................................ Epiphyseal Fusion.........................................................................................................................................
15 16
3.8.3
Sex Determination.........................................................................................................................................
18
3.8.4
Discussion.....................................................................................................................................................
18
3.9
Butchery........................................................................................................................................................
18
3.10
Carnivore Gnawing ......................................................................................................................................
3.11
Burning .........................................................................................................................................................
.
18 18
3.12
General Pathology ........................................................................................................................................
.
19
3.8.1 3.8.2
.
9
.
Chapter4 EARLYBRONZEAGESOSHOYUK 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. . 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3
The Assemblage............................................................................................................................................ Carnivore Gnawing....................................................................................................................................... Burning..........................................................................................................................................................
20 20 20 21
4.1.4 4.2
The Unidentified Remains-Butchery and Tools............................................................................................ Horse (Equus caballus ), ass? (E. asinus ), and hemione? (E. hemionus )..................................................
21 21
4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.3
The Cranial Remains..................................................................................................................................... The Post-cranial Remains.............................................................................................................................. Summary....................................................................................................................................................... Domestic cattle (Bos taurus ) and aurochs (B. primigenius ).......... .............................................................
22 23 23 23
4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens...................................................................................... Physical Characteristics of the Domestic Cattle........................................................................................... Hom Cores....................................................................................................................................................
23 24 25
4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8
Mortality Profiles.......................................................................................................................................... Sex Ratio....................................................................................................................................................... Butchery........................................................................................................................................................ Tools.............................................................................................................................................................. Pathology.......................................................................................................................................................
25 26 27 28 28
4.3.9 4.4
Summary....................................................................................................................................................... Domestic sheep (Ovis aries ), domestic goat (Capra hircus ), wild sheep (0. orientalis ) and wild goat (C. aegagrus )........................................................................................................................
28 29
4.4.1
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens......................................................................................
29
4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5
Physical Characteristics of the Domestic Ovicaprids................................................................................... Hom Cores.................................................................................................................................................... Mortality Profiles.......................................................................................................................................... Ovis:Capra Ratio.........................................................................................................................................
30 31 32 34
4.4.6
Sex Ratio.......................................................................................................................................................
34
4.4.7 4.4.8 4.4.9 4.4.10 4.4.11 4.5
Fretal and Neonatal Bones............................................................................................................................. Butchery........................................................................................................................................................ Tools.............................................................................................................................................................. Pathology....................................................................................................................................................... Summary....................................................................................................................................................... Domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) and wild pig (S. scrofa ).................................................................
34 35 36 36 38 38
4.5.1 4.5.2
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens ..................................................................................... . Physical Characteristics of the Domestic Pigs ............................................................................................. . Mortality Profiles ......................................................................................................................................... . Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... . Domestic dog (Canis familiaris ) and wolf (C. lupus ) ............................................................................... .
38 39 39 39 39 39 41 41
4.5.3 4.5.4
4.6 4.6.1 Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens ..................................................................................... . 4.6.2 Stature ........................................................................................................................................................... . 4.6.3 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... . Wild Taxa 4.7 Bison (Bison bison )...................................................................................................................................... 4.8 Red deer (Cervus elaphus )...........................................................................................................................
41 42
4.8.1
The Cranial Remains.....................................................................................................................................
42
4.8.2 4.9 4.10
The Post-cranial Remains.............................................................................................................................. Brown bear (Ursus arctos )........................................................................................................................... Red fox (Vulpes vulpes )...............................................................................................................................
43 43
ii
44
4.11
Brown hare (Lepus europaeus ) ................................................................................................................... .
44
4.12
Bi-coloured white-toothed shrew (Crocidura leucodon ) ............................................................................ .
45
4.13
Mountain mole rat (Nannospalax nehringi ) ............................................................................................... .
45
4.14
Turkish hamster (Mesocricetus brandti ) .................................................................................................... .
45
4.15
White stork (Ciconia ciconia ) ..................................................................................................................... .
45
4.16
Whitefront goose (Anser albifrons ) ............................................................................................................ .
45
4.17
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos ) .................................................................................................................... .
46
4.18
Marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus ) ........................................................................................................... .
46
4.19
Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos ) ............................................................................................................... .
46
4.20
Chukar (Alectoris chukar ) .......................................................................................................................... .
46
4.21
Common crane (Grus grus ) ........................................................................................................................ .
47
4.22
Great bustard (Otis tarda ) .......................................................................................................................... .
47
4.23
Little owl (Athene noctua ) ......................................................................................................................... .
47
4.24
Unidentified ..................................................................................................................................................
.
48
4.25
Summary of the Faunal Assemblage from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik .................................................. .
48
Birds
Fish
Chapter 5 EARLY BRONZE AGE BUYUKTEPE HOYUK 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................
49
The Assemblage............................................................................................................................................
49
Carnivore Gnawing.......................................................................................................................................
49
The Unidentified Remains............................................................................................................................ Horse (Equus caballus ), hemione (£. hemionus ), and ass? (E.asinus )....................................................
49 49
The Post-cranial Remains..............................................................................................................................
49
Summary....................................................................................................................................................... Domestic cattle (Bos taurus )........................................................................................................................
50 50
5.3.1
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens......................................................................................
50
5.3.2
Physical Characteristics of the Domestic Cattle...........................................................................................
50
5.1.3 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.3
5.3.3
Mortality Profiles..........................................................................................................................................
50
5.3.4
Butchery........................................................................................................................................................
50
5.3.5
Summary....................................................................................................................................................... Domestic sheep (Ovis aries ) and domestic goat (Capra hircus) ................................................................. .
50
5.5 5.6
Domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) ........................................................................................................
.
50
Domestic dog ( Canis familiaris ) ................................................................................................................ .
51
5.7
Summary of the Faunal Assemblage from Early Bronze Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik ....................................... .
51
5.4
50
Chapter 6 IRON AGE SOS HOYUK 6.1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................
52
6.1.1
The Assemblage............................................................................................................................................
52
6.1.2
Carnivore Gnawing.......................................................................................................................................
52
6.1.3
Burning..........................................................................................................................................................
52
The Unidentified Remains- Butchery and Tools........................................................................................... Horse (Equus caballus ), ass (E.asinus ), hemione? (E.hemionus ), and hydruntine? (E.hydruntinus ).....
53 53
6.2.1
The Cranial Remains.....................................................................................................................................
53
6.2.2
The Post-cranial Remains..............................................................................................................................
54
6.2.3
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................
55
6.1.4 6.2
iii
Domestic cattle (Bos taurus )........................................................................................................................
55
6.3 .1
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens......................................................................................
55
6.3.2
Physical Characteristics of the Domestic Cattle...........................................................................................
55
6.3.3
Hom Cores....................................................................................................................................................
56
6.3.4
Mortality Profiles .........................................................................................................................................
.
56
6.3.5
Sex Ratio ......................................................................................................................................................
.
57
6.3.6
Fe.eta!and Neonatal Bones ............................................................................................................................
.
57
6.3.7
Butchery .......................................................................................................................................................
.
57
6.3.8
Tools .............................................................................................................................................................
.
58
6.3.9
Pathology ......................................................................................................................................................
.
58
6.3.10 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... . 6.4 Domestic sheep (Ovis aries ), and domestic goat (Capra hircus ) .............................................................. .
59
6.3
59
6.4.1
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens .....................................................................................
.
59
6.4.2
Physical Characteristics of the Domestic Ovicaprids ..................................................................................
.
59
6.4.3
Hom Cores ...................................................................................................................................................
.
60
6.4.4 6.4.5
Mortality Profiles ......................................................................................................................................... Ovis:Capra Ratio ........................................................................................................................................
. .
60
6.4.6
Sex Ratio ......................................................................................................................................................
.
62
6.4.7
Fe.eta!and Neonatal Bones ............................................................................................................................
.
62
6.4.8
Butchery .......................................................................................................................................................
.
63
6.4.9
Tools .............................................................................................................................................................
.
63
6.4.10 Pathology ......................................................................................................................................................
.
64
6.4.11 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... 6.5 Domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) ........................................................................................................
. .
65
.
65
Mortality Profiles/Sex Ratio ......................................................................................................................... . Domestic dog (Canis familiaris ) ................................................................................................................. .
65 65
6.6.1
The Cranial Remains.....................................................................................................................................
65
6.6.2 6.7
The Post-cranial Remains.............................................................................................................................. Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)............................................................................................................
66 66
6.5 .1 6.5.2 6.6
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens .....................................................................................
62
65
67
Wild Taxa
67
6.9
Fallow deer (Dama dama) ............................................................................................................................ . Red fox (Vulpes vulpes ) .............................................................................................................................. .
6.10
Eurasian badger (Meles meles ) ................................................................................................................... .
68
6.11
Common weasel (Mustela nivalis ) .............................................................................................................. .
68
6.12
Beaver (Castor fiber ) .................................................................................................................................. .
68
6.13
Brown hare (Lepus europaeus ) ................................................................................................................... .
69
6.14
Mountain mole rat (Nannospalax nehringi ) ............................................................................................... .
69
6.15
Turkish hamster (Mesocricetus brandti ) .................................................................................................... .
69
6.16
Wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus ) .......................................................................................................... .
69
6.17
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos ) .................................................................................................................... .
69
6.18 6.19
Quail (Cotumix cotumix ) ........................................................................................................................... .
70
Common crane (Grus grus ) ........................................................................................................................ .
70
6.20
Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica caspica) ................................................................................................
.
70
6.21
Summary of the Fauna! Assemblage from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik ................................................................. .
70
6.8
67
Birds
Reptiles
iv
Chapter 7 IRON AGE BUYUKTEPE HOYUK 7 .1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 7 .1.1 The Assemblage............................................................................................................................................ 7.1.2 Carnivore Gnawing....................................................................................................................................... 7.1.3 Burning.......................................................................................................................................................... 7.1.4 The Unidentified Remains- Butchery and Tools........................................................................................... 7.2 Horse (Equus caballus ), hemione (E. hemionus ), ass? (E. asinus)...........................................................
72 72 72 72 72 73
7.2.1 7.2.2
The Cranial Remains..................................................................................................................................... The Post-cranial Remains..............................................................................................................................
73 73
7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6 7.3
Physical Characteristics of the Domestic Horses.......................................................................................... Butchery........................................................................................................................................................ Pathology....................................................................................................................................................... Summary....................................................................................................................................................... Domestic cattle (Bos taurus ) and aurochs (B. primigenius ).......................................................................
75 75 75 75 76
7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens...................................................................................... Physical Characteristics of the Domestic Cattle........................................................................................... Mortality Profiles..........................................................................................................................................
76 76 76
7.3.4 7.3.5
Sex Ratio....................................................................................................................................................... Butchery........................................................................................................................................................
77 77
7.3.6 7.3.7 7.3.8 7.4
Tools.............................................................................................................................................................. Pathology....................................................................................................................................................... Summary....................................................................................................................................................... Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and domestic goat (Capra hircus )................................................................
78 78 78 78
7.4.1 7.4.2
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens...................................................................................... Physical Characteristics of the Domestic Ovicaprids...................................................................................
78 78
7.4.3 7.4.4 7.4.5
Hom Cores.................................................................................................................................................... Mortality Profiles ......................................................................................................................................... Ovis:Capra Ratio.........................................................................................................................................
79 79 80
7.4.6 7.4.7 7.4.8 7.4.9 7.4.10 7.5
Sex Ratio....................................................................................................................................................... Butchery........................................................................................................................................................ Tools.............................................................................................................................................................. Pathology....................................................................................................................................................... Summary....................................................................................................................................................... Domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus).........................................................................................................
80 80 81 81 82 82
7 .5.1 7.5.2
Differentiation of Wild from Domestic Specimens...................................................................................... Mortality Profiles..........................................................................................................................................
82 83
7.5.3 7.6
Sex Ratio....................................................................................................................................................... Camel (Camelus sp.).................................................................................................................................... Domestic dog (Canis familiaris )................................................................................................................. . Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) ........................................................................................................... .
83 84
7.7 7.8 Wild Taxa Bison (Bison bison ) ..................................................................................................................................... . 7.9 Red deer (Cervus elaphus ) .......................................................................................................................... . 7.10 Eurasian badger (Meles meles )................................................................................................................... . 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15
Marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna ) ....................................................................................................... . Asia Minor suslik (Citellus xanthoprymnus ) ............................................................................................. .. Mountain mole rat (Nannospalax nehringi ) ............................................................................................. .. Turkish hamster (Mesocricetus brandti ) ..................................................................................................... .
V
84 85 85 85 86 86 86 87 87
Birds 7.16
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos ) .................................................................................................................... .
87
7.17
Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos ) ............................................................................................................... .
87
7.18
Grey partridge (Perdix perdix ) .................................................................................................................... .
87
7.19
Carrion crow (Corvus corone ) .................................................................................................................... .
87
7.20
Summary of the Faunal Assemblage from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik ..................................................... .
88
Chapter 8 DISCUSSION 8.1
Wild:Domestic Ratio .................................................................................................................................... .
89
8.2
Environmental Setting .................................................................................................................................. . Domestic Abundance ................................................................................................................................... .
90
8.3 8.4 8.4.1
Skeletal Part Representation ......................................................................................................................... .
90 92
Domestic Cattle ............................................................................................................................................
.
92
8.4.2
Domestic Ovicaprids ....................................................................................................................................
.
92
Subsistence Strategies ..................................................................................................................................
.
Domestic Cattle ............................................................................................................................................
.
8.6 8.7
Ovis:Capra Ratio ........................................................................................................................................
.
93 93 93 94 94
Butchery .......................................................................................................................................................
.
95
8.8
Gnawing .......................................................................................................................................................
.
96
8.9
Pathology ......................................................................................................................................................
.
96
Pastoralism ...................................................................................................................................................
.
96 96
8.5 8.5.1
8.5.2 Domestic Ovicaprids .................................................................................................................................... . 8.5.3 Domestic Pigs ............................................................................................................................................... .
8.10 8.10.1 Definition......................................................................................................................................................
8.10.2 Species Representation..................................................................................................................................
97
8.10.3 Seasonality....................................................................................................................................................
97
8.10.4 The Archaeological Context..........................................................................................................................
99
Chapter 9 CONCLUSION 9.1
The Results of the Current Study ................................................................................................................. .
101
9.2
Problems Encountered in the Current Study ................................................................................................ .
101
9.3
Directions for Future Research .................................................................................................................... .
101
9.4
Concluding Remarks .................................................................................................................................... .
102
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................................................
103
TABLES......................................................................................................................................................................
117
FIGURES....................................................................................................................................................................
177
vi
LIST OF TABLES la. 1b. 2. 3. 4.
Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik Bonelist............................................................................................................... Relative Representation of Identified to Unidentified Specimens...................................................................... Early Bronze Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik Bonelist................................................................................................... Iron Age Sos Hoytik Bonelist....... ................................. ..................................................................................... Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik Bonelist..................................................................................................................
117 117 118 118 119
Sa. 5ai. 5aii. Sb.
Preservation of the Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik Assemblage Unidentified Remains......................................................................................................................................... Identified Remains.............................................................................................................................................. Preservation of the Early Bronze Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik Assemblage
120 120
5bi. 5bii. Sc. Sci. 5cii.
Unidentified Remains......................................................................................................................................... Identified Remains.............................................................................................................................................. Preservation of the Iron Age Sos Hoytik Assemblage Unidentified Remains......................................................................................................................................... Identified Remains..............................................................................................................................................
5d.
Preservation of the Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik Assemblage
5di. 5dii. 6. 6a. 6b. 6c. 6d. 7. 7a.
Unidentified Remains......................................................................................................................................... Identified Remains.............................................................................................................................................. Frequency of Gnawing in the Assemblages Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik............................................................................................................................. Early Bronze Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik................................................................................................................. Iron Age Sos Hoytik........................................................................................................................................... Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik................................................................................................................................ Frequency of Burning in the Assemblages Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik.............................................................................................................................
7b. 7c. 8. Sa. Sb. Sc. 8d. 9.
Iron Age Sos Hoytik........................................................................................................................................... Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik................................................................................................................................ Frequency of Butchery in the Assemblages Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik............................................................................................................................. Early Bronze Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik................................................................................................................. Iron Age Sos Hoytik........................................................................................................................................... Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik..... ........................................................................................................................... Frequency of Tools in the Assemblages
121 121
9a. 9b. 9c. 10a. 10b. 10c. I la. llb. I le. l ld. 12a. 12b. 12c. 12d. 13a. 13b.
Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik............................................................................................................................. Iron Age Sos Hoytik........................................................................................................................................... Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik................................................................................................................................ Frequency of Equus Skeletal Elements from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik.................................................... Frequency of Equus Skeletal Elements from Iron Age Sos Hoytik.................................................................. Frequency of Equus Skeletal Elements from Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik....................................................... Frequency of Bos Skeletal Elements from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik........................................................ Frequency of Bos Skeletal Elements from Early Bronze Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik............................................ Frequency of Bos Skeletal Elements from Iron Age Sos Hoytik...................................................................... Frequency of Bos Skeletal Elements from Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik........................................................... Frequency of Ovis/Capra Skeletal Elements from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik........................................... Frequency of Ovis/Capra Skeletal Elements from Early Bronze Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik............................... Frequency of Ovis/Capra Skeletal Elements from Iron Age Sos Hoytik......................................................... Frequency of Ovis/Capra Skeletal Elements from Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik.............................................. Frequency of Sus Skeletal Elements from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoytik........................................................ Frequency of Sus Skeletal Elements from Iron Age Btiytiktepe Hoytik...........................................................
122 122 122 122 122 123 123 123 123 124 124 124 125 125 125 125
vu
120 120 120 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121
122 122 122 122
14a.
Frequency of Canis Skeletal Elements from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik....................................................
126
14b.
Frequency of Canis Skeletal Elements from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik...................................................................
126
15.
Equus caballus, E. asinus, E. hemionus Measurements...................................................................................
126
16.
Bos taurus/B. primigenius Measurements.........................................................................................................
128
17.
Ovis aries/0. orientalis, Capra hircus/C.aegagrus Measurements..................................................................
135
18.
Sus scrofa domesticus/S. scrofa Measurements...............................................................................................
154
19.
Canisfamiliaris/C. lupus Measurements..........................................................................................................
155
20.
Gallus gallus domesticus Measurements..........................................................................................................
156
21.
Camelus sp. Measurements..............................................................................................................................
156
22.
Bison bison Measurements................................................................................................................................
156
23.
Cervus elaphus Measurements..........................................................................................................................
156
24.
Dama dama Measurements...............................................................................................................................
156
25.
Ursus arctos Measurements..............................................................................................................................
157
26.
Vulpes vulpes Measurements............................................................................................................................
157
27.
Meles meles Measurements...............................................................................................................................
157
28.
Mustela nivalis Measurements..........................................................................................................................
157
29.
Vormela peregusna Measurements...................................................................................................................
158
30.
Castor fiber Measurements...............................................................................................................................
158
31.
Lepus europaeus Measurements.......................................................................................................................
158
32.
Anser albifrons Measurements..........................................................................................................................
158
33.
Anas platyrhynchos Measurements...................................................................................................................
158
34.
Circus aeruginosus Measurements...................................................................................................................
159
35.
Aquila chrysaetos Measurements......................................................................................................................
159
36.
Perdix perdix Measurements.............................................................................................................................
159
37.
Alectoris chukar Measurements........................................................................................................................
159
38.
Coturnix coturnix Measurements......................................................................................................................
159
39.
Grus grus Measurements..................................................................................................................................
159
40.
Otis tarda Measurements..................................................................................................................................
159
41.
Athene noctua Measurements............................................................................................................................
159
42ai.
Elements included in Bos Log Ratio Diagram for Breadth Indices from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik.........
160
42aii.
Elements included in Bos Log Ratio Diagram for Length Indices from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik..........
160
42bi.
Elements included in Bos Log Ratio Diagram for Breadth Indices from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik.......................
161
42bii. 42ci.
Elements included in Bos Log Ratio Diagram for Length Indices from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik.......................... Elements included in Bos Log Ratio Diagram for Breadth Indices from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik............
161 162
42cii.
Elements included in Bos Log Ratio Diagram for Length Indices from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik.............
162
43.
Length of Bos Mandibular Third Molars..........................................................................................................
162
44.
Bos Stature Data from Eastern Turkish Sites
162
44a.
Talus: Greatest Length of the Lateral Half (GLl) .............................................................................................. .
162
44b.
Forelimb Phalanx 1: Greatest Length of the Abaxial Half (GLpe) ................................................................... .
163
44c.
Hindlimb Phalanx 1: Greatest Length of the Abaxial Half (GLpe) ................................................................... .
163
44d.
Forelimb Phalanx 2: Greatest Length (GL) .......................................................................................................
.
163
44e.
163
45a.
Hindlimb Phalanx 2: Greatest Length (GL) ...................................................................................................... . Bos Dental Data from Sos Hoyiik and Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik ............................................................................... .
45bi.
Bos Dental Data from Comparative Sites (% ) .................................................................................................
.
164
45bii.
Bos Dental Data from Comparative Sites (% ) .................................................................................................
.
164
46a.
Bos Epiphyseal Fusion Data from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik ................................................................... .
164
46b.
Bos Epiphyseal Fusion Data from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik. ................................................................................. .
165
46c.
Bos Epiphyseal Fusion Data from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik ...................................................................... .
165
47ai.
Elements included in Ovis Log Ratio Diagram for Breadth Indices from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik ....... .
165
47aii.
Elements included in Ovis Log Ratio Diagram for Length Indices from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik ........ .
166
viii
163
47bi.
Elements included in Ovis Log Ratio Diagram for Iron Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik.........................................................
166
47bii.
Elements included in Ovis Log Ratio Diagram for Length Indices from Iron Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik.......................
167
47c.
Elements included in Ovis Log Ratio Diagram for Breadth Indices Iron Age Bi.iyi.iktepeHi:iyi.ik...................
167
48ai.
Elements included in Capra Log Ratio Diagram for Breadth Indices from Early Bronze Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik.....
167
48aii.
Elements included in Capra Log Ratio Diagram for Length Indices from Early Bronze Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik ......
168
48b.
Elements included in Capra Log Ratio Diagram for Breadth Indices from Iron Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik .................. .
168
49a.
Ovis Withers Heights from Early Bronze Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik .............................................................................. .
168
49b.
Ovis Withers Heights from Iron Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik ............................................................................................. .
168
49c.
Ovis Withers Heights from Iron Age Bi.iyi.iktepeHi:iyi.ik ................................................................................. .
168
49d.
Ovis Withers Heights from Comparative Sites ................................................................................................ .
50a.
Capra Withers Heights from Early Bronze Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik ........................................................................... .
169 169
50b.
Capra Withers Heights from Iron Age Bi.iyi.iktepeHi:iyi.ik .............................................................................. .
169
50c.
Capra Withers Heights from Comparative Sites ............................................................................................. .
169
51a.
Ovis/Capra Dental Data from Early Bronze Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik. ......................................................................... .
171
51b.
Ovis/Capra Dental Data from Iron Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik ........................................................................................ .
171
51c.
Ovis/Capra Dental Data from Iron Age Bi.iyi.iktepeHi:iyi.ik ............................................................................. .
171
5ldi. 5 ldii.
Ovis/Capra Dental Data from Comparative Sites (% ) ..................................................................................... . Ovis/Capra Dental Data from Comparative Sites (% )......................................................................................
172 172
52ai.
Ovis/Capra Epiphyseal Fusion Data from Early Bronze Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik....... .... .............................................
173
52aii.
Ratio of Ovis to Capra based upon the Number of Fused Specimens for each Epiphyseal Fusion Group.....
173
52bi.
Ovis/Capra Epiphyseal Fusion Data from Iron Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik......................................................................
174
52bii.
Ratio of Ovis to Capra based upon the Number of Fused Specimens for each Epiphyseal Fusion Group.....
174
52c.
Ovis/Capra Epiphyseal Fusion Data from Iron Age Bi.iyi.iktepeHi:iyi.ik...........................................................
175
53. 54a.
Estimated Age for Fretal Ovicaprid Specimens from Iron Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik....................................................... Sus Dental Data from Iron Age Bi.iyi.iktepeHi:iyi.ik...........................................................................................
176 176
54b.
Sus Dental Data from Iron Age Lidar Hi:iyi.ik....................................................................................................
176
55.
Elements for Skeletal Part Representation..........................................................................................................
176
56.
Frequency of Pathology in the Assemblages
56a.
Early Bronze Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik.............................................................................................................................
176
56b.
Iron Age Sos Hi:iyi.ik...........................................................................................................................................
176
56c.
Iron Age Bi.iyi.iktepeHi:iyi.ik................................................................................................................................
176
ix
LIST OF FIGURES 1.
Map of Turkey Showing the Location of the Sites of Sos Hoyiik and Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik..................................
177
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9a.
Map of Erzurum Plain.......................................................................................................................................... Map of Bayburt Plain........................................................................................................................................... The Site of Sos Hoyiik.......................... ............................................................................................................... The Site of Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik.............................................................................................................................. Site Plan of Sos Hoyiik. Contour Interval 2 metres............................................................................................. Site Plan of Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik. Contour Interval 2 metres................................................................................. Map of Turkey showing Location of Main Comparative Sites used in the Current Study................................. Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth and Length Size Indices of Bos Specimens from Early Bronze Age
177 178 178 179 179 180 180
9b.
Sos Hoyiik............................................................................................................................................................ Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth and Length Size Indices of Bos Specimens from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik...........
181 181
9c. 9d. 10.
Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth and Length Size Indices of Bos Specimens from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth and Length Size Indices of Bos Specimens from Comparative Sites............... Greatest Length of the Lateral Half (GU) by Greatest Breadth (Bd) of Bos Talus Bones from Early Bronze
181 182 184
I la.
Age Sos Hoyiik.................................................................................................................................................... Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth and Length Size Indices of Ovis specimens from Early Bronze Age
11b. l lc.
Sos Hoyiik............................................................................................................................................................ Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth and Length Size Indices of Ovis specimens from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik.. ........ Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth Size Indices of Ovis Specimens from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik.................
184 184 185
l ld.
Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth and Length Size Indices of Domestic Ovis Specimens from Comparative Sites................................................................................................................................................ Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth and Length Size Indices of Capra Specimens from Early Bronze Age
185
12a. 12b. 12c.
Sos Hoyiik............................................................................................................................................................ Log Ratio Diagram of Breadth Size Indices Capra Specimens from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik............................. Log Ratio Diagrams of Domestic Capra Specimens from Comparative Sites.................................................
186 187 187
13.
Relative Abundance of Domestic to Wild Taxa at Sos Hoyiik and Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik.......................................
189
14a. 14b. 14c.
Relative Abundance of the Main Domesticates from Sos Hoyiik and Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik (NISP)...................... Relative Abundance of the Main Domesticates from Sos Hoyiik and Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik (MNI)....................... Relative Abundance of the Main Domesticates from Sos Hoyiik and Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik (WEIGHT(g))..........
189 189 190
15. 16a. 16b. 16c. 17a.
Tripolar Diagram of Relative Species Abundance of Cattle, Pigs and Ovicaprids from Some Early Bronze and Iron Age Sites in the Near East..................................................................................................................... Skeletal Part Representation of Bos Elements from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik.......................................... Skeletal Part Representation of Bos Elements from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik......................................................... Skeletal Part Representation of Bos Elements from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik............................................. Skeletal Part Representation of Ovis/Capra Elements from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik..............................
190 191 191 191 192
17b. 17c.
Skeletal Part Representation of Ovis/Capra Elements from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik............................................ Skeletal Part Representation of Ovis/Capra Elements from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik.................................
192 192
18a.
Percentage of a Given Skeletal Element showing Butchery Marks from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik Bos Remains.......................................................................................................................................................
193
Percentage of a Given Skeletal Element showing Butchery Marks from Early Bronze Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik Bos Remains....................................................................................................................................................... Percentage of a Given Skeletal Element showing Butchery Marks from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik Bos Remains..
193 193
Percentage of a Given Skeletal Element showing Butchery Marks from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik Bos Remains.......................................................................................................................................................
193
Percentage of a Given Skeletal Element showing Butchery Marks from Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik Ovis/Capra Remains..........................................................................................................................................
194
Percentage of a Given Skeletal Element showing Butchery Marks from Iron Age Sos Hoyiik Ovis/Capra Remains..........................................................................................................................................
194
18b. 18c. 18d. 19a. 19b.
X
19c.
Percentage of a Given Skeletal Element showing Butchery Marks from Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik Ovis/Capra Remains .........................................................................................................................................
.
194
20a.
Equus asinus/E.hemionus M2, 6.1491, occlusal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ................................ ..
194
20b.
Equus caballus M2, 6.0362, occlusal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ................................................. ..
194
20c.
Equus asinus/E. hemionus P3, 7.0442, occlusal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ............................................... ..
194
20d.
Equus caballus P4/Ml, 7.1078, occlusal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) .......................................................... ..
194
20e.
Equus asinus/E.hemionus P4/Ml, 4.0434, occlusal aspect (Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik) .............................. ..
194
20f.
Equus hemionus M3, 5.0008, occlusal aspect (Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik) ................................................... .
194
21.
Bos taurus Hom Core, 6.0182, ventral aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ................................................ .
195
22.
Bos Humerus Spindle Whorl, 5.3460, dorsal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ..................................... ..
195
23.
Bos Tibia Awl, 6.1844, ventral aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) .......................................................... ..
195
24.
Bos Modified Phalanx 1, 5.3479, dorsal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ............................................. .
195
25a.
Bos Phalanx 1 with Extreme Osteoarthritis, 5.2057, lateral aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) .............. ..
195
25b.
Bos Phalanx 1 with Extreme Osteoarthritis, 5.2057, proximal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) .......... ..
195
26.
Ovis aries Hom Core, 6.0514A-B, dorsal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) .......................................... ..
195
27a.
Capra hircus Hom Core, 6.0045, lateral aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ............................................ ..
195
27b.
Capra hircus Hom Core, 6.0045, dorsal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ............................................ ..
195
28.
Ovis Modified Phalanx 1, 7.1403, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ........................................................... .
196
29a.
Ovis Radius with Healed Com.minuted Fracture, 7.1671, ventral aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) .................... ..
196
29b.
Ovis Radius with Healed Com.minuted Fracture, 7.1671, lateral aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ...................... .
196
30.
Ovis Phalanx 2 with Periostitis, 7.1064, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ................................................ .
196
31.
Cervus elaphus Comb, 5.3500, (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ......................................................................
.
196
32a.
Bone Point, 6.0075, (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) .........................................................................................
.
196
32b.
196
33.
Bone Point, 6.2002, (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ......................................................................................... . Camelus sp. Humerus, 5.1587A-E, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik) ............................................ .
34.
Bison bison Radius, 4.0128, distal aspect (Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik) ........................................................ ..
196
35.
Canisfamiliaris
Mandible, 6.1884, lateral aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ......................................... ..
196
36.
Ursus arctos Mandible, 5.1971, lateral aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ............................................. ..
196
37.
Meles meles Atlas, 7.0813, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) .....................................................................
.
197
38.
Meles metes Cranial Specimens, 4.0523A-C, lateral aspect (Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik) ............................ ..
197
39a.
Mustela nivalis Skull, 7.0149, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ................................................................
..
197
39b.
Mustela nivalis Skull, 7.0149, ventral aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ............................................................... .
197
40i.
Mustela nivalis Radius, 7.0240, medial aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ............................................................. .
197
40ii.
Mustela nivalis Humerus, 7.0281, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) .......................................................... .
197
41a.
Vormela peregusna Skull, 4.0669, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Bliyiiktepe Hoyiik) .............................................. .
197
41b.
Vormela peregusna Skull, 4.0669, ventral aspect (Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik) ............................................. .
197
42i.
Castor fiber Molar, 7.0284, lingual aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ...................................................................
.
197
42ii.
Castor fiber Tibia, 7.1250, lateral aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ......................................................................
.
197
43i.
Lepus europaeus Metatarsal Bone, 7.0702, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ........................................... ..
197
43ii.
Lepus europaeus Femur, 7.0703, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ........................................................... ..
197
44i.
Circus aeruginosus Ulna, 6.1974, dorsal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ........................................... ..
197
44ii.
Ciconia ciconia Tarsometatarsus, 6.1608A-B, dorsal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ....................... ..
197
45i.
Otis tarda Coracoid, 5.3587, ventral aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) .................................................. ..
197
45ii.
Aquila chrysaetos Coracoid, 4.0019, ventral aspect (Iron Age Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik) ........................................ ..
197
45iii.
Anser albifrons Coracoid, 6.1886, ventral aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) .......................................... .
197
46i.
Anas platyrhynchos Carpometacarpus, 7.0973, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ...................................... .
198
46ii.
Aquila chrysaetos Carpometacarpus, 6.2165, dorsal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ......................... .
198
47i.
Athene noctua Humerus, 5.3529, dorsal aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyiik) ............................................ ..
198
47ii.
Coturnix coturnix Humerus, 7.1457, ventral aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ..................................................... .
198
48.
Coturnix coturnix Carpometacarpus, 7.1458, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyiik) ......................................... .
198
xi
196
49i.
Grus grus Ulna, 6.1948, ventral aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyi.ik)...........................................................
198
49ii.
Gallus gallus domesticus Tarsometatarsus, 7.0153, dorsal aspect (Iron Age Bi.iyi.iktepeHoyi.ik)....................
198
49iii.
Grus grus fibula, 6.0489, medial aspect (Early Bronze Age Sos Hoyi.ik)..........................................................
198
50.
Mauremys caspica caspica Hypoplastron, 7.0717A-B, ventral aspect (Iron Age Sos Hoyi.ik).........................
198
xii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people contributed to make the completion of this work possible. I must begin my thanking my supervisors who enabled my to undertake this research.
I am firstly most grateful to Dr. Tony Sagona for entrusting me with the
responsibility of studying the faunal remains from his excavations.
Thank you also for ongoing support and direction over
the past fours years, the advice and assistance with the archaeology of the studied sites, and for providing me with the opportunity to publish my preliminary findings. I must thank Dr. Chris Philip of the Department of Veterinary Science at the University of Melbourne for the loan of comparative specimens, and permitting me access to facilities for and assistance with the preparation of skeletons. I also wish to acknowledge his meticulous and insightful reading of drafts and enormous assistance in the improvement of my writing style. Thank you to the University of Melbourne for the provision of a scholarship without which this research could not have proceeded. Thank you also to the Faculty of Arts for the Travel Grant-in-Aid which assisted towards my study period at the University of Sheffield. Many thanks must go to the staff at the University of Sheffield, most particularly Dr. Paul Halstead, who was most generous in his provision of information and assistance. Participation in the classes and seminars and the opportunity to discuss my research with the staff at Sheffield impacted enormously upon the direction and approach of my research and and for that I am indebted. Thank you also to Dr. Louise Martin at the Institute of Archaeology at University College London for her advice and generous hospitality. Thank you to Joan Dixon and Lina Frigo in the Department of Mammalogy at the Museum of Victoria for permitting me to make use of the collections. Thank you to the staff at the Baillieu Library at University of Melbourne for the prompt processing of international loans, and sourcing of some fairly obscure texts! I wish also to thank the various readers who ploughed through drafts and offered insightful and productive comments, streamlined the presentation, and alerted me to mistakes and errors. Thank you to Dr. Richard Meadow, Dr. Elizabeth Pemberton, Dr. Richard Cosgrove, Dr. Ian Thomas, Stephie Nikoloudis, Jonathan Howell-Meurs and Margaret Howells. The text and presentation was much improved through the input of these people and any errors remain my own. Thanks must go to various volunteers who assisted me in the unenviable task of cleaning bones. Thank you to Margaret Howells, Sally Morris, Ben Thomas and Chryssa Walsh for giving up their spare time to help me. I wish to thank various fellow students including Stephie Nikoloudis, Sally Morris, Matty McConchie, Jenny Newton and Peter Davies who provided me with their much valued friendship, support, encouragement and exchange of ideas during the preparation of this work. Thank you to Pots for his unfailing companionship, and support during those late nights. I cannot express my gratitude to my family, especially my parents who provided endless emotional and financial support, and encouragement. I must acknowledge particularly the enormous help provided by my mother who assisted me in so many ways with the researching and preparation of this work. I wish to also thank my father for his financial and emotional assistance during my time in England. Finally, I am unable express my enormous gratitude to my partner Jonathan Howell-Meurs for his limitless support and encouragement, endless reading of drafts and assistance with so many things.
Dedicated to Margaret Howells & Jonathan Howell-Meurs
xiii
INIRODUCTION
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Research Problem Faunal remains from Sos Hoyiik and Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik were analysed in order to establish characteristics of the previously unexamined economic patterns of the northeastern region of Turkey. Assemblages from Early Bronze and Iron Age contexts were analysed and compared in order to reconstruct subsistence patterns, and determine the characteristics of, and degree of variability within, the herding strategies for domestic species, as well as the forms of exploitation of wild taxa. 1
1.2 The Background Prior to extensive excavations of the mounds of Sos Hoyiik and Biiyiiktepe Hoyiik by the University of Melbourne, the archaeology of the northeastern region of Turkey was poorly understood (Sagona, Pemberton & McPhee 1991, 145; Sagona, Sagona & Ozkorucuklu 1995, 193). This sit~ation was even more pronounced in terms of an understandmg of ancient economies. The lack of archaeozoological reports from the northeastern region stands in contrast to the number of published studies from elsewhere in Turkey and the Near East, which have enabled a fairly detailed impression of economic strategies throughout those regions to be established. Archaeozoological studies have been undertaken on assemblages dating from the Neolithic to Medieval periods from most regions in Turkey. Sites from the west include Troy and Fikirtepe (Uerpmann, Kohler & Stephen 1992; Boessneck & von den Driesch 1979b); central Anatolian sites include A§ikli Hi:iyiik and Ali§ar Hi:iyiik (Payne 1985a; Patterson 1937); southern Anatolian excavations include