Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age: Northern Limpopo Province, South Africa 9781407357263, 9781407357270

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A F R I C A N A R C H A E O L O G Y, V O L U M E 9 3

B A R I N T E R NAT I O NA L S E R I E S 3 0 2 0

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Northern Limpopo Province, South Africa

Claudia Abatino

2021

A F R I C A N A R C H A E O L O G Y, V O L U M E 9 3

B A R I N T E R NAT I O NA L S E R I E S 3 0 2 0

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Northern Limpopo Province, South Africa

Claudia Abatino

2021

Published in 2021 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 3020 African Archaeology, Volume 93 Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age isbn  

978 1 4073 5726 3 paperback isbn   978 1 4073 5727 0 e-format doi  https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407357263

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library © Claudia Abatino 2021 cov er i m age

Southern view of the site of Mapungubwe. Photo by the author.

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A F R IC A N A RC HA E OLO G Y Series editors: Kevin MacDonald (UCL) and Paul Lane (Cambridge) Past decades have witnessed a revolution in the archaeological narratives of early African agriculture, technology, urbanism and socio-political complexity. Indeed, the archaeology of Africa continues to expand significantly, with three major international journals working to capacity to publish recent findings. However, given the vastness of the continent and the time depth of its past, field research remains relatively scattered. Each new data point therefore adds significantly to the bigger picture. This series (formerly known as the Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology series) focuses on new contributions to the Holocene archaeology of Africa, particularly primary information on important excavation projects and artefactual assemblage analyses which are beyond the scope of journal publication. In particular, we seek works relevant to the archaeology of food production, metallurgy, complex societies, historical archaeology and material culture studies. African Archaeology is a continuation of Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology, conceived by John Alexander and Anthony Hands (founder of BAR), more recently edited by Laurence Smith, Timothy Insoll, Brian Stewart and Stephanie Wynne-Jones. The first title was published in the BAR international series in 1980. Since then, 90 titles have been published in the BAR series and have contributed to the advancement of the subject in the region and around the world. If you wish to publish in this series, please contact [email protected] For more information on African Archaeology go to the BAR Publishing website: www.barpublishing.com/sub-series Editorial advisory board David Edwards, Leicester, UK Amanda Esterhuysen, Witwatersrand, RSA Francois-Xavier Fauvelle, Toulouse, France Per Ditlef Fredriksen, Oslo, Norway Adria Laviolette, Virginia, USA Alexandre Livingstone Smith, Tervuren, Belgium Cameron Monroe, California, USA Catherine Namono, Witwatersrand, RSA Akin Ogundiran, Charlotte, USA Innocent Pikirayi, Pretoria, RSA Ibrahima Thiaw, Dakar, Senegal

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No 10 Frontiers Southern African Archaeology Today Edited by M. Hall, G. Avery, D.M. Avery, M.L. Wilson, A.J.B. Humphreys, BAR S207, 1984, ISBN 9780860542681 No 11 Archaeology and History in Southern Nigeria The ancient linear earthworks of Benin and Ishan, Parts 1 and 2 by P.J. Darling, BAR S215, 1984, ISBN 9780860542759 No 12 The Later Stone Age in Southernmost Africa by Janette Deacon, BAR S213, 1984, ISBN 9780860542766 No 13 Fisher-Hunters and Neolithic Pastoralists in East Turkana Kenya by John Webster Barthelme, BAR S254, 1985, ISBN 9780860543251 No 14 The Archaeology of Central Darfur (Sudan) in the 1st Millennium A.D. by Ibrahim Musa Mohammed, BAR S285, 1986, ISBN 9780860543671 No 15 Stable Carbon Isotopes and Prehistoric Diets in the South-Western Cape Province, South Africa by Judith Sealy, BAR S293, 1986, ISBN 9780860543763 No 16 L’art rupestre préhistorique des massifs centraux sahariens by Alfred Muzzolini, BAR S318, 1986, ISBN 9780860544067 No 17 Spheroids and Battered Stones in the African Early and Middle Stone Age by Pamela R Willoughby, BAR S321, 1987, ISBN 9780860544104 No 18 The Royal Crowns of Kush A study in Middle Nile Valley regalia and iconography in the 1st Millennia B.C. and A.D. by Lázló Török, BAR S338, 1987, ISBN 9780860544326 No 19 The Later Stone Age of the Drakensberg Range and its Foothills by H. Opperman, BAR S339, 1987, ISBN 9780860544371 No 20 Socio-Economic Differentiation in the Neolithic Sudan by Randi Haaland, BAR S350, 1987, ISBN 9780860544531 No 21 Later Stone Age Settlement Patterns in the Sandveld of the South-Western Cape Province, South Africa by Anthony Manhire, BAR S351, 1987, ISBN 9780860544548 v

No 22 L’art rupestre du Fezzan septentrional (Libye) Widyan Zreda et Tarut (Wadi esh-Shati) by Jean-Loïc Le Quellec, BAR S365, 1987, ISBN 9780860544739 No 23 Archaeology and Environment in the Libyan Sahara The excavations in the Tadrart Acacus, 1978-1983 Edited by Barbara E Barich, BAR S368, 1987, ISBN 9780860544746 No 24 The Early Farmers of Transkei, Southern Africa before A.D. 1870 by J M Feely, BAR S378, 1987, ISBN 9780860544869 No 25 Later Stone Age Hunters and Gatherers in the Southern Transvaal Social and ecological interpretation by Lyn Wadley, BAR S380, 1987, ISBN 9780860544920 No 26 Prehistoric Cultures and Environments in the Late Quaternary of Africa Edited by John Bower and David Lubell, BAR S405, 1988, ISBN 9780860545200 No 27 Zooarchaeology in the Middle Nile Valley A Study of four Neolithic Sites near Khartoum by Ali Tigani El Mahi, BAR S418, 1988, ISBN 9780860545392 No 28 L’Ancienne Métallurgie du Fer à Madagascar by Chantal Radimilahy, BAR S422, 1988, ISBN 9780860545446 No 29 El Geili The History of a Middle Nile Environment, 7000 B.C.-A.D. 1500 Edited by I. Caneva, BAR S424, 1988, ISBN 9780860545484 No 30 The Ethnoarchaeology of the Zaghawa of Darfur (Sudan) Settlement and Transcience by Natalie Tobert, BAR S445, 1988, ISBN 9780860545743 No 31 Shellfish in Prehistoric Diet Elands Bay, S.W. Cape Coast, South Africa by W. F. Buchanan, BAR S455, 1988, ISBN 9780860545842 No 32 Houlouf I Archéologie des sociétés protohistoriques du Nord-Cameroun by Augustin Holl, BAR S456, 1988, ISBN 9780860545866 No 33 The Predynastic Lithic Industries of Upper Egypt by Liane L. Holmes, BAR S469, 1989, ISBN 9780860546016 No 34 Fishing Sites of North and East Africa in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene Environmental Change and Human Adaptation by Kathlyn Moore Stewart, BAR S521, 1989, ISBN 9780860546627 No 35 Plant Domestication in the Middle Nile Basin An Archaeoethnobotanical Case Study by Anwar Abdel-Magid, BAR S523, 1989, ISBN 9780860546641 No 36 Archaeology and Settlement in Upper Nubia in the 1st Millennium A.D. by David N. Edwards, BAR S537, 1989, ISBN 9780860546825 No 37 Prehistoric Settlement and Subsistence in the Kaduna Valley, Nigeria by Kolawole David Aiyedun & Thurstan Shaw, BAR S541, 1989, ISBN 9780860546849 No 38 The Archaeology of the Meroitic State New perspectives on its social and political organisation by David N. Edwards, BAR S640, 1996, ISBN 9780860548256 No 39 Islam, Archaeology and History Gao Region (Mali) ca. AD 900 - 1250 by Timothy Insoll, BAR S647, 1996, ISBN 9780860548324 No 40 State Formation in Egypt Chronology and society by Toby A. H. Wilkinson, BAR S651, 1996, ISBN 9780860548386 No 41 Recherches archéologiques sur la capitale de l’empire de Ghana Etude d’un secteur d’habitat à Koumbi Saleh, Mauritanie. Campagnes II-III-IV-V (1975-1976)-(1980-1981) by S. Berthier, BAR S680, 1997, ISBN 9780860548683 No 42 The Lower Palaeolithic of the Maghreb Excavations and analyses at Ain Hanech, Algeria by Mohamed Sahnouni, BAR S689, 1998, ISBN 9780860548751 No 43 The Waterberg Plateau in the Northern Province, Republic of South Africa, in the Later Stone Age by Maria M. Van der Ryst, BAR S715, 1998, ISBN 9780860548935 No 44 Cultural Succession and Continuity in S.E. Nigeria Excavations in Afikpo by V. Emenike Chikwendu, BAR S734, 1998, ISBN 9780860549215 No 45 The Emergence of Food Production in Ethiopia by Tertia Barnett, BAR S763, 1999, ISBN 9780860549710

No 46 Sociétés préhistoriques et Mégalithes dans le Nord-Ouest de la République Centrafricaine by Étienne Zangato, BAR S768, 1999, ISBN 9780860549802 No 47 Ethnohistoric Archaeology of the Mukogodo in North-Central Kenya Hunter-gatherer subsistence and the transition to pastoralism in secondary settings by Kennedy K. Mutundu, BAR S775, 1999, ISBN 9780860549901 No 48 Échanges et contacts le long du Nil et de la Mer Rouge dans l’époque protohistorique (IIIe et IIe millénaires avant J.-C.) Une synthèse préliminaire by Andrea Manzo, BAR S782, 1999, ISBN 9781841710020 No 49 Ethno-Archaeology in Jenné, Mali Craft and status among smiths, potters and masons by Adria LaViolette, BAR S838, 2000, ISBN 9781841710433 No 50 Hunter-Gatherers and Farmers An enduring Frontier in the Caledon Valley, South Africa by Carolyn R. Thorp, BAR S860, 2000, ISBN 9781841710617 No 51 The Kintampo Complex The Late Holocene on the Gambaga Escarpment, Northern Ghana by Joanna Casey, BAR S906, 2000, ISBN 9781841712024 No 52 The Middle and Later Stone Ages in the Mukogodo Hills of Central Kenya A Comparative Analysis of Lithic Artefacts from Shurmai (GnJm1) and Kakwa Lelash (GnJm2) Rockshelters by G-Young Gang, BAR S964, 2001, ISBN 9781841712512 No 53 Darfur (Sudan) In the Age of Stone Architecture c. 1000 – 1750 AD Problems in historical reconstruction by Andrew James McGregor, BAR S1006, 2001, ISBN 9781841712857 No 54 Holocene Foragers, Fishers and Herders of Western Kenya by Karega-Mũnene, BAR S1037, 2002, ISBN 9781841714172 No 55 Archaeology and History in Ìlàrè District (Central Yorubaland, Nigeria) 1200-1900 A.D. by Akinwumi O. Ogundiran, BAR S1090, 2002, ISBN 9781841714684 No 56 Ethnoarchaeology in the Zinder Region, Republic of Niger The site of Kufan Kanawa by Anne Haour, BAR S1133, 2003, ISBN 9781841715063 No 57 Le Capsien typique et le Capsien supérieur Évolution ou contemporanéité. Les données technologiques by Noura Rahmani, BAR S1187, 2003, ISBN 9781841715537 No 58 Fortifications et urbanisation en Afrique orientale by Stéphane Pradines, BAR S1216, 2004, ISBN 9781841715766 No 59 Archaeology and Geoarchaeology of the Mukogodo Hills and Ewaso Ng’iro Plains, Central Kenya by Frederic Pearl, BAR S1247, 2004, ISBN 9781841716077 No 60 Islamic Archaeology in the Sudan by Intisar Soghayroun Elzein, BAR S1289, 2004, ISBN 9781841716398 No 61 An Ethnoarchaeological Study of Iron-Smelting Practices among the Pangwa and Fipa in Tanzania by Randi Barndon, BAR S1308, 2004, ISBN 9781841716572 No 62 Archaeology and History in North-Western Benin by Lucas Pieter Petit, BAR S1398, 2005, ISBN 9781841718378 No 63 Traditions céramiques, Identités et Peuplement en Sénégambie Ethnographie comparée et essai de reconstitution historique by Moustapha Sall, BAR S1407, 2005, ISBN 9781841718507 No 64 Changing Settlement Patterns in the Aksum-Yeha Region of Ethiopia: 700 BC – AD 850 by Joseph W. Michels, BAR S1446, 2005, ISBN 9781841718828 No 65 Safeguarding Africa’s Archaeological Past Selected papers from a workshop held at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 2001 Edited by Niall Finneran, BAR S1454, 2006, ISBN 9781841718927 No 66 Excavations at Kasteelberg and the Origins of the Khoekhoen in the Western Cape, South Africa by Andrew B. Smith, BAR S1537, 2006, ISBN 9781841719696 No 67 Archéologie du Diamaré au Cameroun Septentrional Milieux et peuplements entre Mandara, Logone, Bénoué et Tchad pendant les deux derniers millénaires by Alain Marliac, BAR S1549, 2006, ISBN 9781841719788 No 68 Chasse et élevage dans la Corne de l’Afrique entre le Néolithique et les temps historiques by Joséphine Lesur, BAR S1602, 2007, ISBN 9781407300191 No 69 The Emergence of Social and Political Complexity in the Shashi-Limpopo Valley of Southern Africa, AD 900 to 1300 Ethnicity, class and polity by John Anthony Calabrese, BAR S1617, 2007, ISBN 9781407300290

No 70 Archaeofaunal remains from the past 4000 years in Sahelian West Africa Domestic livestock, subsistence strategies and environmental changes by Veerle Linseele, BAR S1658, 2007, ISBN 9781407300948 No 71 Il Sahara centro-orientale Dalla Preistoria ai tempi dei nomadi Tubu / The Central-Oriental Sahara. From Prehistory to the times of the nomadic Tubus by Vanni Beltrami, BAR S1667, 2007, ISBN 9781407301020 No 72 Memory and the Mountain Environmental Relations of the Wachagga of Kilimanjaro and Implications for Landscape Archaeology by Timothy A. R. Clack, BAR S1679, 2007, ISBN 9781407301174 No 73 Archaeological Investigations of Iron Age Sites in the Mema Region, Mali (West Africa) by Tereba Togola, BAR S1736, 2008, ISBN 9781407301785 No 74 Current Archaeological Research in Ghana Edited by Timothy Insoll, BAR S1847, 2008, ISBN 9781407303345 No 75 Holocene Prehistory of the Southern Cape, South Africa Excavations at Blombos Cave and the Blombosfontein Nature Reserve by Christopher Stuart Henshilwood, BAR S1860, 2008, ISBN 9781407303437 No 76 The Archaeology of Tanzanian Coastal Landscapes in the 6th to 15th Centuries AD The Middle Iron Age of the Region by Edward John David Pollard, BAR S1873, 2008, ISBN 9781407303536 No 77 Using Stone Tools: the Evidence from Aksum, Ethiopia by Laurel Phillipson with an introduction by Rodolfo Fattovich, BAR S1926, 2009, ISBN 9781407304083 No 78 An Archaeological and Geomorphological Survey of the Luangwa Valley, Zambia by Dan Colton, BAR S2022, 2009, ISBN 9781407305974 No 79 Historical Archaeologies of Nineteenth-Century Colonial Tanzania A comparative study by Daniel Rhodes, BAR S2075, 2010, ISBN 9781407306360 No 80 Material Knowledges, Thermodynamic Spaces and the Moloko Sequence of the Late Iron Age (AD 13001840) in Southern Africa by Per Ditlef Fredriksen, BAR S2387, 2012, ISBN 9781407309798 No 81 Métallurgie du fer et Sociétés africaines Bilans et nouveaux paradigmes dans la recherche anthropologique et archéologique Edited by Caroline Robion-Brunner and Bruno Martinelli, BAR S2395, 2012, ISBN 9781407309880 No 82 Butua and the End of an Era The effect of the collapse of the Kalanga state on ordinary citizens. An analysis of behaviour under stress by Catharina van Waarden, BAR S2420, 2012, ISBN 9781407310190 No 83 The Butana Group Ceramics and their Place in the Neolithic and Post-Neolithic of Northeast Africa by Frank Winchell, BAR S2459, 2013, ISBN 9781407310671 No 84 The Archaeology of the West Coast of South Africa Edited by Antonieta Jerardino, Antonia Malan and David Braun, BAR S2526, 2013, ISBN 9781407311449 No 85 The Ancient Red Sea Port of Adulis and the Eritrean Coastal Region Previous investigations and museum collections by Chiara Zazzaro, BAR S2569, 2013, ISBN 9781407311906 No 86 Metals from K2 and Mapungubwe, Middle Limpopo Valley A technological study of early second millennium material culture, with an emphasis on conservation by Farahnaz Koleini, BAR S2653, 2014, ISBN 9781407312958 No 87 Archaeology of Mound-Clusters in West Africa by Augustin F. C. Holl, BAR S2660, 2014, ISBN 9781407313023 No 88 Paleoethnobotanical Study of Ancient Food Crops and the Environmental Context in North-East Africa, 6000 BC–AD 200/300 by Alemseged Beldados, BAR S2706, 2015, ISBN 9781407313573 No 89 Population and Ceramic Traditions: Revisiting the Tana Ware of Coastal Kenya (7th-14th Century AD) by Freda Nkirote M’Mbogori, BAR S2717, 2015, ISBN 9781407313702 No 90 Swahili Urbanisation, Trade and Food Production Botanical perspectives from Pemba Island, Tanzania, AD 600-1500 by Sarah Walshaw, BAR S2755, 2015, ISBN 9781407314167 No 91 The So Pots of Central Africa Memories of the past by Graham Connah, 2019 ISBN 9781407316888 No 92 Modelling Water Use at Great Zimbabwe An ethnohistoric, ethnoarchaeological, and GIS landscape analysis at an ancient African city by Tendai Treddah Musindo, 2019, ISBN 9781407353975 No 93 Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Northern Limpopo Province, South Africa by Claudia Abatino, BAR 3021, 2021, ISBN 9781407357263

To Peter & to my family

Acknowledgements I would like to thank a few people who made it possible to accomplish this research. First of all, a special thanks to Jacopo De Grossi Mazzorin and Girolamo Fiorentino, for encouraging me to participate in AESOP+ Project. Obtaining the mobility grant allowed me to begin this research as part of my PhD and to move to South Africa to conduct the study. I am particularly grateful to my advisor and strong supporter, Jacopo De Grossi Mazzorin. Since the start of this process, he has been there for me, providing useful advice on how to best conduct my research and also encouraging me during difficult times. Thanks to Alexander Antonites who welcomed me into the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University of Pretoria. He immediately made me feel part of the team and helped me during the start of my research. I was able to highly appreciate his great professionalism and knowledge. Thank you to Ceri Ashley for the stimulating and constructive conversations and moments of hilarity we shared. I would like to express my gratitude to Fraser McNeill, who was fundamental to the start of ethnoarchaeozoological research and always available to share his knowledge. A huge thanks to my colleagues of the Archaeology Laboratory of the University of Pretoria, for the support and sharing of ideas and information. Thank you to Annie Antonites, Shaw Badenhorst and Wynand van Zyl for their advice and discussion during the determination of the faunal evidences. I would also like to thank Claudia Minniti, who has followed my research with interest and has been particularly close to me during the last months. Her support was crucial. Thanks to all the colleagues of the Zooarchaeology Laboratory of the University of Salento, for the beautiful working climate that we were able to build together. Thank you to publishing house B.A.R. for the kindness and total availability shown from the first stages of preparation of the volume. I thank my family and friends, always ready to encourage me and proud of my achievements. Your love and support have been indispensable. My last thanks, but not least, goes to my rock Peter. Without him I probably wouldn’t have made the decision to put myself into what turned out to be a once-in-a-lifetime experience.

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Contents List of Figures.................................................................................................................................................................. xvii List of Tables................................................................................................................................................................... xxiii Preface............................................................................................................................................................................ xxvii Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 1 1. The area of research: analysis of the historical, cultural and geographical context............................................. 3 1.1. Historical premise................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.2. The Iron Age in South Africa................................................................................................................................. 3 1.3. Models of settlement: the Central Cattle Pattern (CCP) and the Zimbabwe Culture Pattern (ZCP) compared..... 6 1.4. The region and the environment............................................................................................................................. 6 1.4.1. The Limpopo Valley....................................................................................................................................... 6 1.4.2. Soutpansberg................................................................................................................................................... 8 2. The analysed sites.......................................................................................................................................................11 2.1. Mapungubwe........................................................................................................................................................ 11 2.1.1. History of the archaeological research......................................................................................................... 12 2.1.2. The site.......................................................................................................................................................... 13 2.1.3. Phases of occupation of the site.................................................................................................................... 16 2.2. Mutamba............................................................................................................................................................... 17 2.2.1. History of the archaeological research......................................................................................................... 18 2.2.2. The site.......................................................................................................................................................... 18 3. Methodology............................................................................................................................................................... 21 3.1. Zooarchaeological research conducted in the area of interest: the state of the art............................................... 21 3.2. Preparation of the sample..................................................................................................................................... 21 3.3. Methods applied to the samples analysed............................................................................................................ 22 4. The faunal remains from Mapungubwe.................................................................................................................. 25 4.1. Areas of provenance and chronology of the finds................................................................................................ 25 4.2. The zooarchaeological data from the Southern Terrace and Mahobe.................................................................. 25 4.2.1. Phase II......................................................................................................................................................... 25 4.2.2. Phase III........................................................................................................................................................ 29 4.2.3. Phase IV........................................................................................................................................................ 37 4.3. Data arising from the zooarchaeological investigations of Mapungubwe Hill.................................................... 46 4.3.1. Phase III........................................................................................................................................................ 46 4.3.2. Phase IV........................................................................................................................................................ 49 4.4. Taphonomy........................................................................................................................................................... 56 4.4.1. Southern Terrace and Mahobe (MST & MST1). Phase II............................................................................ 56 4.4.2. Southern Terrace and Mahobe (MST & MST1). Phases III and IV............................................................. 58 4.4.3. Mapungubwe Hill. Phases III and IV........................................................................................................... 59 4.5. Worked bones....................................................................................................................................................... 59 4.6. Diseases................................................................................................................................................................ 64 4.7. Biometrics............................................................................................................................................................. 64 4.7.1. Phase II (11th and 12th centuries)................................................................................................................... 67 4.7.2. Phases III and IV (13th century).................................................................................................................... 69 4.8. Economic and social considerations..................................................................................................................... 70 5. The faunal remains from Mutamba......................................................................................................................... 79 5.1. Areas of provenance of the finds.......................................................................................................................... 79 5.2. The data arising from the zooarchaeological investigations................................................................................ 79 xiii

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age 5.2.1. Taxonomic composition................................................................................................................................ 79 5.2.2. Domestic fauna............................................................................................................................................. 83 5.2.3. Wild fauna..................................................................................................................................................... 88 5.3. Taphonomy........................................................................................................................................................... 93 5.4. Worked bones....................................................................................................................................................... 95 5.5. Diseases................................................................................................................................................................ 95 5.6. Biometrics............................................................................................................................................................. 97 6. Ethnozooarchaeological research........................................................................................................................... 101 6.1. The approach to the research.............................................................................................................................. 101 6.2. Objectives and methods of the research............................................................................................................. 102 6.3. Results and interpretations................................................................................................................................. 102 7. Considerations and conclusions..............................................................................................................................111 7.1. The livestock rearing economy in the northern part of Limpopo province.........................................................111 7.2. Considerations on size variation in domestic species......................................................................................... 115 7.3. The exploitation of wild fauna............................................................................................................................ 118 7.4. Animal products and trade networks.................................................................................................................. 126 7.5. Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................ 128 Appendix.......................................................................................................................................................................... 129 Osteometry................................................................................................................................................................ 129 Mapungubwe – Phase II (11th-12th centuries).......................................................................................................... 129 Ovis vel Capra...................................................................................................................................................... 129 Ovis aries.............................................................................................................................................................. 129 Capra hircus......................................................................................................................................................... 129 Mapungubwe – Phase III and IV (13th century)....................................................................................................... 129 Lycaon pictus........................................................................................................................................................ 129 Equus quagga ...................................................................................................................................................... 129 Procavia capensis ................................................................................................................................................ 129 Bos taurus............................................................................................................................................................. 129 Ovis vel Capra...................................................................................................................................................... 130 Ovis aries.............................................................................................................................................................. 131 Capra hircus......................................................................................................................................................... 132 Sylvicapra grimmia .............................................................................................................................................. 132 Syncerus caffer ..................................................................................................................................................... 132 Lepus capensis ..................................................................................................................................................... 132 Lepus saxatilis ..................................................................................................................................................... 132 Lepus sp. .............................................................................................................................................................. 132 Gallus gallus ........................................................................................................................................................ 132 Corvus sp. ............................................................................................................................................................ 132 Mutamba.................................................................................................................................................................. 132 Equus quagga....................................................................................................................................................... 132 Orycteropus afer................................................................................................................................................... 132 Bos taurus............................................................................................................................................................. 132 Ovis vel Capra...................................................................................................................................................... 133 Ovis aries.............................................................................................................................................................. 133 Capra hircus......................................................................................................................................................... 133 Sylvicapra grimmia............................................................................................................................................... 133 Raphicerus campestris.......................................................................................................................................... 133 Aepyceros melampus............................................................................................................................................. 133 Pedetes capensis................................................................................................................................................... 133 Lepus saxatilis...................................................................................................................................................... 133 Lepus sp................................................................................................................................................................ 133 Numida meleagris................................................................................................................................................. 133 Corvus sp.............................................................................................................................................................. 133

xiv

Contents Riassunto.......................................................................................................................................................................... 135 L’area di ricerca. Contesto storico e culturale........................................................................................................... 135 Mapungubwe............................................................................................................................................................. 137 Mutamba.................................................................................................................................................................... 138 Metodologie applicate sui campioni analizzati......................................................................................................... 139 I reperti faunistici di Mapungubwe........................................................................................................................... 140 I reperti faunistici di Mutamba.................................................................................................................................. 141 La ricerca etnoarcheozoologica................................................................................................................................. 143 Considerazioni sull’economia di allevamento nell’area settentrionale del Limpopo................................................ 145 Considerazioni sulle variazioni dimensionali nelle specie domestiche..................................................................... 147 Lo sfruttamento della fauna selvatica........................................................................................................................ 148 I prodotti animali nella rete commerciale.................................................................................................................. 148 Considerazioni conclusive......................................................................................................................................... 149 Bibliography.................................................................................................................................................................... 151

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List of Figures Figure 1.1. Location of the sites cited in the text (image adapted from Huffman 2009)...................................................... 4 Figure 1.2. Chronological sequence of the Iron Age ceramics found in the Limpopo Valley (from Huffman 2009).......... 4 Figure 1.3. Location of Mutamba (from Abatino, Antonites, in print)................................................................................. 7 Figure 1.4. Panoramic view of the area around the confluence of the Shashe and the Limpopo, with both rivers in flood. Photograph taken in February 2017............................................................................................................................ 8 Figure 1.5. Panoramic view of the area around the confluence of the Shashe and the Limpopo, with both rivers at their lowest point. Photograph taken in June 2017............................................................................................................... 8 Figure 1.6. View of the Mapungubwe National Park........................................................................................................... 8 Figure 2.1. Location of Mapungubwe (adapted from Antonites, Ashley 2016)................................................................. 11 Figure 2.2. Southern view of the site of Mapungubwe. The photograph shows the hill on which the members of the elite lived, while the rest of the settlement was arranged at the foot of the slope........................................................ 12 Figure 2.3. Map of the site of Mapungubwe (adapted from Antonites et al. 2016)........................................................... 14 Figure 2.4. Mapungubwe Hill – circular foundation trench of a hut excavated in the bedrock......................................... 14 Figure 2.5. Gold necklaces discovered inside some burials on Mapungubwe Hill. Kept in the Mapungubwe Museum of the University of Pretoria. Image used by permission of University of Pretoria Museums............................ 15 Figure 2.6. Sceptre wrapped in gold leaf discovered in a burial on Mapungubwe Hill. Kept in the Mapungubwe Museum of the University of Pretoria. Image used by permission of University of Pretoria Museums............................ 15 Figure 2.7. Rhinoceros wrapped in gold leaf discovered in a burial on Mapungubwe Hill. Kept in the Mapungubwe Museum of the University of Pretoria. Image used by permission of University of Pretoria Museums..... 15 Figure 2.8. Mapungubwe Hill – game board carved in the rock........................................................................................ 16 Figure 2.9. Location of Mutamba (from Abatino, Antonites, in print)............................................................................... 17 Figure 2.10. Mutamba – current photograph of the area subject to archaeological investigation (Saddle Area)............... 18 Figure 2.11. Mutamba – test digs and excavation areas (Features) investigated (from Antonites 2013)........................... 19 Figure 4.1. Composition of the faunal sample from the Southern Terrace (MST)............................................................. 25 Figure 4.2. Composition of the faunal sample from the area known as Mahobe (MST1)................................................. 25 Figure 4.3. MST & MST1 – Phase II: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish........................................................................................................................... 27 Figure 4.4. MST & MST1 – Phase II: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and game animals................................................................................................................................................ 27 Figure 4.5. MST & MST1 – Phase II: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each anatomical element of cattle..................................................................................................................... 29 Figure 4.6. MST & MST1 – Phase II: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each anatomical element of caprines................................................................................................................ 31 Figure 4.7. MST & MST1 – Phase III: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish........................................................................................................................... 32 Figure 4.8. MST & MST1 – Phase III: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and game animals................................................................................................................................................ 33

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Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Figure 4.9. MST & MST1 – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each anatomical element of cattle..................................................................................................................... 34 Figure 4.10. MST & MST1 – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each anatomical element of caprines. .............................................................................................................. 35 Figure 4.11. MST & MST1 – Phase III: Relative percentage of caprine mandibles and loose teeth by age stage (Payne 1973). ..................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Figure 4.12. MST & MST1 – Phase III: Caprine kill-off patterns based on mandibular wear stage data (Payne 1973)....................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Figure 4.13. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish...................................................................................................................... 41 Figure 4.14. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and game animals........................................................................................................................................... 42 Figure 4.15. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each skeletal element of cattle.......................................................................................................................... 42 Figure 4.16. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each anatomical element of caprines................................................................................................................ 43 Figure 4.17. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: Relative percentage of caprine mandibles and loose teeth by age stage (Payne 1973)....................................................................................................................................................................... 45 Figure 4.18. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: Caprine kill-off patterns based on mandibular wear stage data (Payne 1973)....................................................................................................................................................................... 45 Figure 4.19. Calcaneus of an African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), with butchery marks...................................................... 46 Figures 4.20 and 4.21. Giant African snails (Achatina sp.), pierced on the ventral surface............................................... 46 Figure 4.22. Composition of the faunal sample from the Mapungubwe Hill..................................................................... 47 Figure 4.23. MK – Phase III: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish........................................................................................................................... 48 Figure 4.24. MK – Phase III: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and game animals................................................................................................................................................ 48 Figure 4.25. MK – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each skeletal element of cattle....................................................................................................................................... 50 Figure 4.26. MK – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each anatomical element of caprines............................................................................................................................. 51 Figure 4.27. MK – Phase III: Relative percentage of caprines mandibles and loose teeth by age stage (Payne 1973)....................................................................................................................................................................... 52 Figure 4.28. MK – Phase III: Caprine kill-off patterns based on mandibular wear stage data (Payne 1973).................... 52 Figure 4.29. MK – Phase IV: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish........................................................................................................................... 53 Figure 4.30. MK – Phase IV: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and wild animals.................................................................................................................................................. 54 Figure 4.31. MK – Phase IV: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each skeletal element of cattle....................................................................................................................................... 55 Figure 4.32. MK – Phase IV: number of identified specimens (NISP) and and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each anatomical element of caprines................................................................................................................ 57 Figure 4.33. MK – Phase IV: Relative percentage of caprines mandibles and loose teeth by age stage (Payne 1973)....................................................................................................................................................................... 57 Figure 4.34. MK – Phase IV: Caprine kill-off patterns based on mandibular wear stage data (Payne 1973). .................. 58

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List of Figures Figure 4.35. Detail of skinning marks on the mandible of a rock hyrax (Procavia capensis)........................................... 58 Figure 4.36. MST & MST1 – Phases III & IV: percentages of the faunal sample characterised by various modifications....................................................................................................................................................................... 59 Figure 4.37. MST – Phase III: cattle scapula with probable traces of meat removal......................................................... 60 Figure 4.38. MST – Phase III: cattle ischium with deep butchery marks........................................................................... 60 Figure 4.39. MST – Phase III: fragment of caprine frontal bone with skinning marks...................................................... 60 Figure 4.40. MST – Phase III: navicular cuboid of Bos taurus with skinning marks........................................................ 60 Figure 4.41. MST – Phase III: metacarpal of Bos taurus with skinning marks.................................................................. 60 Figure 4.42. MST – Phase III: metatarsal of Bos taurus with skinning marks................................................................... 61 Figures 4.43 and 4.44. MST – Phase III: combusted calcaneus of Bos taurus. Processing marks on the plantar side in the proximal part of the bone.......................................................................................................................................... 61 Figure 4.45. MST & MST1 – Phases III & IV: cattle bones with butchery and skinning marks (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))........................................................................ 62 Figure 4.46. MST & MST1 – Phases III & IV: caprine bones with butchery and skinning marks (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))........................................................................ 62 Figure 4.47. MST & MST1 – Phases III & IV: cattle bones with combustion marks (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))................................................................................ 63 Figure 4.48. MST & MST1 – Phases III & IV: cattle bones with traces of calcination (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))................................................................................ 63 Figure 4.49. MST & MST1 – Phases III & IV: caprine bones with combustion marks and traces of calcination (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))............................................ 64 Figure 4.50. MK – Phases III & IV: percentages of the faunal sample characterised by various modifications................ 64 Figure 4.51. MK – Phases III & IV: cattle bones with butchery and skinning marks (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))................................................................................ 65 Figure 4.52. MK – Phases III & IV: caprine bones with butchery and skinning marks (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))................................................................................ 65 Figure 4.53. MK – Phases III & IV: cattle bones with combustion marks (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))............................................................................................................ 66 Figure 4.54. MK – Phases III & IV: caprine bones with combustion marks (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))............................................................................................................ 66 Figure 4.55. MST – Phase IV: fragments of various worked bones (awls, arrow points and link-shafts)......................... 67 Figure 4.56. MST – Phase IV: fragment of bone awl......................................................................................................... 67 Figure 4.57. MST – Phase III: fragment of bone spatula fashioned from a mammalian rib.............................................. 67 Figure 4.58. MST – Phase IV: fragment of decorated bone............................................................................................... 68 Figure 4.59. MST – Phase IV: beads made from terrestrial mollusc shells and ostrich egg shells.................................... 68 Figure 4.60. MST – Phase III: phalanx II of Bos taurus with pathology........................................................................... 69 Figure 4.61. Mapungubwe: distribution of the osteological remains discovered in accordance with the chronological phase............................................................................................................................................................ 72 Figure 4.62. Southern Terrace & Mahobe: distribution of the identified specimens (NISP) in accordance with chronological phase and taxa.............................................................................................................................................. 73 Figure 4.63. Mapungubwe Hill: distribution of the identified specimens (NISP) in accordance with chronological phase and taxa..................................................................................................................................................................... 73 Figure 4.64. Mapungubwe: comparison of domestic and wild species as a percentage of all animals during Phase II....... 73 xix

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Figure 4.65. Mapungubwe: comparison of domestic and wild species as a percentage of all animals during Phases III and IV............................................................................................................................................................................. 73 Figure 4.66. Mapungubwe – 13th century: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by each skeletal element of cattle.................................................................................................................................. 75 Figure 4.67. Mapungubwe: frequency (%) of cattle body parts......................................................................................... 75 Figure 4.68. Mapungubwe – 13th century: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by each skeletal element of caprines............................................................................................................................. 76 Figure 4.69. Mapungubwe: frequency (%) of caprine body parts...................................................................................... 76 Figure 5.1. Mutamba – map of the excavation areas (from Abatino, Antonites, in print).................................................. 79 Figure 5.2. Mutamba – composition of the faunal sample................................................................................................. 79 Figure 5.3. Mutamba – percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish................................................................................................................................................. 85 Figure 5.4. Mutamba – percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and game animals...................................................................................................................................................................... 85 Figure 5.5. Mutamba – number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each skeletal element of cattle..................................................................................................................................................... 87 Figure 5.6. Mutamba – frequency (%) of cattle body parts................................................................................................ 87 Figure 5.7. Mutamba – number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each skeletal element of caprines................................................................................................................................................ 89 Figure 5.8. Mutamba – frequency (%) of caprine body parts............................................................................................. 89 Figure 5.9. Mutamba – relative percentage of caprine mandibles and loose teeth by age stage (Payne 1973).................. 90 Figure 5.10. Mutamba – caprine kill-off patterns based on mandibular wear stage data (Payne 1973)............................. 90 Figure 5.11. Mutamba – number of identified specimens (NISP) of equids, wild bovids and suids.................................. 91 Figures 5.12a and 5.12b. Mutamba – shell of Cypraea sp. with the dorsal surface cut and polished................................ 92 Figures 5.13a and 5.13b. Mutamba – shell of Polinices mammilla perforated on the ventral side.................................... 93 Figures 5.14a and 5.14b. Mutamba – shell of Nassarius krassianus with the dorsal surface polished.............................. 93 Figure 5.15. Mutamba – cattle bones with butchery and skinning marks (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap)). .......................................................................................................... 94 Figure 5.16. Mutamba – cattle bones with combustion marks (image modified from ArcheoZoo.org / Michel Coutureau (Inrap), Vianney Forest (Inrap))........................................................................................................................ 94 Figure 5.17. Mutamba – percentages of the faunal sample characterised by various modifications.................................. 95 Figure 5.18. Mutamba – fragment of an arrow point/link shaft.......................................................................................... 95 Figure 5.19. Mutamba – fragment of an arrow point/link shaft.......................................................................................... 96 Figure 5.20. Mutamba – fragment of an arrow point/link shaft. Unfinished product......................................................... 96 Figure 5.21. Mutamba – fragment of an arrow point/link shaft. Unfinished product......................................................... 96 Figure 5.22. Mutamba – fragment of a bone awl................................................................................................................ 96 Figure 5.23. Mutamba – fragment of a needle with a double eye...................................................................................... 97 Figure 5.24. Mutamba – fragment of a needle with a double eye...................................................................................... 97 Figure 5.25. Mutamba – pendant obtained from a Pedetes capensis metapodial............................................................... 97 Figure 6.1. Location of the village of Bende Mutale. The map also shows the two sites subject to zooarchaeological investigation (image from Google Earth)........................................................................................... 103

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List of Figures Figure 6.2. View of the Mutale River............................................................................................................................... 103 Figure 6.3. Cattle grazing along the banks of the Mutale River....................................................................................... 103 Figure 6.4. Wealth of the families in terms of livestock................................................................................................... 105 Figure 6.5. Part of the perimeter wall of the courtyard of the dwelling........................................................................... 106 Figure 6.6. The state of the wall and the decoration before the renewal. ........................................................................ 106 Figure 6.7. Spreading the paste obtained from cattle dung, earth and water.................................................................... 107 Figure 6.8. Decoration of the area of the courtyard of the dwelling................................................................................. 107 Figure 6.9. Finishing touches to the decoration of the dwelling....................................................................................... 108 Figure 6.10. Final result of the renewal of the decoration. In the background is the kraal of the dwelling..................... 108 Figure 6.11. Corn plantation in the garden behind one of the dwelling in the village...................................................... 109 Figure 7.1. Percentage of domestic animals among the identified specimens (NISP) in the sites considered in this study............................................................................................................................................................................111 Figure 7.2. Percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish discovered in Mapungubwe and Mutamba. ................................................................................. 112 Figure 7.3. Comparison of kill-off patterns for cattle in Mapungubwe and Mutamba..................................................... 113 Figure 7.4. Drawing dated to the period from 1700 to 1740. The artist was presumably associated with the Dutch East India Company.......................................................................................................................................................... 114 Figure 7.5. Comparison of kill-off patterns for caprines based on mandibular wear stage data (Payne 1973) in Mapungubwe and Mutamba............................................................................................................................................. 114 Figure 7.6. Comparison of the variation of length of cattle bones from selected sites using the log ratio technique (* = average)..................................................................................................................................................................... 119 Figure 7.7. Comparison of the variation of widths of cattle bones from selected sites using the log ratio technique (* = average). ................................................................................................................................................................... 120 Figure 7.8. Comparison of the average of caprine withers heights in selected Middle Iron Age sites. ........................... 121 Figure 7.9. Comparison of the variation of length of caprine bones from selected sites using the log ratio technique (* = average)..................................................................................................................................................... 122 Figure 7.10. Comparison of the variation of widths of caprine bones from selected sites using the log ratio technique (* = average)..................................................................................................................................................... 123 Figure 7.11. Percentages of the number of identified mammal specimens (NISP) and the minimum number of individuals (MNI) accounted for by carnivores................................................................................................................ 124 Figure 7.12. Percentages of the total number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) accounted for by avifauna..................................................................................................................................... 125 Figure 7.13. Percentages of the total number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) accounted for by ichthyofauna.............................................................................................................................. 126 Figure 7.14. Stefano della Bella (1644-47 ca.), etching from “Diversi Capricci” - MET Museum NYC........................ 127

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List of Tables Table 3.1. List of sites of the Early, Middle and Late Iron Age in which zooarchaeological analyses have been conducted............................................................................................................................................................................ 22 Table 3.2. List of wild bovid species present in Southern Africa, subdivided by the categories set out in Brain (1974). The scientific nomenclature is taken from Skinner, Chimimba (2005).................................................................. 23 Table 4.1. Faunal samples recovered from the Southern Terrace and the area known as Mahobe..................................... 25 Table 4.2. MST & MST1 – Phase II: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages on the Southern Terrace (MST) and in the area known as Mahobe (MST1)................................................................................. 26 Table 4.3. MST & MST1 – Phase II: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of each taxon on the Southern Terrace (MST) and in the area known as Mahobe (MST1).................................... 26 Table 4.4. MST & MST1 – Phase II: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages of total remains accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish.................................................................................. 27 Table 4.5. MST & MST1 – Phase II: minimum number of individuals (MNI) of the main domestic species (J = juvenile; S/A = subadult; A = adult)............................................................................................................................ 28 Table 4.6. MST & MST1 – Phase II: list of anatomical elements pertaining to cattle (NISP) and relative percentages of the total....................................................................................................................................................... 28 Table 4.7. MST & MST1 – Phase II: epiphysial fusion data for cattle (Silver 1969). NF = not fused; F = fused............. 28 Table 4.8. MST & MST1 – Phase II: cattle wear stages of individual teeth (following Grant 1982)................................ 29 Table 4.9. MST & MST1 – Phase II: list of anatomical elements pertaining to caprines (NISP) and relative percentages of the total....................................................................................................................................................... 30 Table 4.10. MST & MST1 – Phase II: epiphysial fusion data for caprines (Bullock, Rackham 1982). NF = not fused; F = fused................................................................................................................................................................... 30 Table 4.11. MST & MST1 – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages on the Southern Terrace (MST) and in the area known as Mahobe (MST1)................................................................................. 30 Table 4.12. MST & MST1 – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of each taxon on the Southern Terrace (MST) and in the area known as Mahobe (MST1)................. 32 Table 4.13. MST & MST1 – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages of total remains accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish.................................................................................. 32 Table 4.14. MST & MST1 – Phase III: minimum number of individuals (MNI) of the main domestic species (J = juvenile; S/A = subadult; A = adult)............................................................................................................................ 33 Table 4.15. MST & MST1 – Phase III: list of anatomical elements pertaining to cattle (NISP) and relative percentages of the total....................................................................................................................................................... 33 Table 4.16. MST & MST1 – Phase III: epiphysial fusion data for cattle (Silver 1969). NF = not fused; F = fused.......... 33 Table 4.17. MST & MST1 – Phase III: cattle wear stages of individual teeth (following Grant 1982)............................. 34 Table 4.18. MST & MST1 – Phase III: list of anatomical elements pertaining to caprines (NISP) and relative percentages of the total....................................................................................................................................................... 35 Table 4.19. MST & MST1 – Phase III: epiphysial fusion data for caprines (Bullock, Rackham 1982). NF = not fused; F = fused................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Table 4.20. MST & MST1 – Phase III: age estimates for mandibles and loose teeth of caprines (after Payne 1973)....... 36 Table 4.21. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages on the Southern Terrace (MST) and in the area known as Mahobe (MST1). ............................................................................... 38 xxiii

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Table 4.22. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of each taxon on the Southern Terrace (MST) and in the area known as Mahobe (MST1)................. 40 Table 4.23. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages of total remains accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish.................................................................................. 41 Table 4.24. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: minimum number of individuals (MNI) of the main domestic species (N = newborn; J = juvenile; S/A = subadult; A = adult)..................................................................................................... 41 Table 4.25. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: list of skeletal elements pertaining to cattle (NISP) and relative percentages of the total........................................................................................................................................................................... 41 Table 4.26. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: epiphysial fusion data for cattle (Silver 1969). NF = not fused; F = fused.......... 42 Table 4.27. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: cattle wear stages of individual teeth (following Grant 1982)............................. 43 Table 4.28. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: list of skeletal elements pertaining to caprines (NISP) and relative percentages of the total....................................................................................................................................................... 44 Table 4.29. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: epiphysial fusion data for caprines (Bullock, Rackham 1982). NF = not fused; F = fused................................................................................................................................................................... 44 Table 4.30. MST & MST1 – Phase IV: age estimates for mandibles and loose teeth of caprines (after Payne 1973)....... 44 Table 4.31. Faunal sample recovered from Mapungubwe Hill........................................................................................... 47 Table 4.32. MK – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of each taxon from Mapungubwe Hill................................................................................................................................ 47 Table 4.33. MK – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages of total remains accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish............................................................................................... 48 Table 4.34. MK – Phase III: minimum number of individuals (MNI) of the main domestic species (J = juvenile; S/A = subadult; A = adult)................................................................................................................................................... 48 Table 4.35. MK – Phase III: list of anatomical elements pertaining to cattle (NISP) and relative percentages of the total..................................................................................................................................................................................... 49 Table 4.36. MK – Phase III: epiphysial fusion data for cattle (Silver 1969). NF = not fused; F = fused........................... 49 Table 4.37. MK – Phase III: list of anatomical elements pertaining to caprines (NISP) and relative percentages of the total................................................................................................................................................................................ 50 Table 4.38. MK – Phase III: epiphysial fusion data for caprines (Bullock, Rackham 1982). NF = not fused; F = fused............................................................................................................................................................................. 51 Table 4.39. MK – Phase III: age estimates for mandibles and loose teeth of caprines (after Payne 1973)........................ 51 Table 4.40. MK – Phase IV: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of each taxon discovered on Mapungubwe Hill................................................................................................................. 53 Table 4.41. MK – Phase IV: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish........................................................................................................................... 53 Table 4.42. MK – Phase IV: minimum number of individuals (MNI) of the main domestic species (J = juvenile; S/A = subadult; A = adult)................................................................................................................................................... 54 Table 4.43. MK– Phase IV: list of anatomical elements pertaining to cattle (NISP) and relative percentages of the total..................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 Table 4.44. MK – Phase IV: epiphysial fusion data for cattle (Silver 1969). NF = not fused; F = fused........................... 55 Table 4.45. MK – Phase IV: cattle wear stages of individual teeth (following Grant 1982).............................................. 55 Table 4.46. MK – Phase IV: list of anatomical elements pertaining to caprines (NISP) and relative percentages of the total................................................................................................................................................................................ 56 Table 4.47. MK – Phase IV: epiphysial fusion data for caprines (Bullock, Rackham 1982). NF = not fused; F = fused............................................................................................................................................................................. 56

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List of Tables Table 4.48. MK – Phase IV: age estimates for mandibles and loose teeth of caprines (after Payne 1973)........................ 58 Table 4.49. Mapungubwe – Phase II: cattle bone measurements in mm............................................................................ 68 Table 4.50. Mapungubwe – Phase II: caprines bone measurements in mm....................................................................... 68 Table 4.51. Mapungubwe – Phase II: sheep withers heights estimates in centimetres (after Teichert 1975)..................... 68 Table 4.52. Mapungubwe – Phases III & IV: cattle bone measurements in mm................................................................ 69 Table 4.53. Mapungubwe – Phases III & IV: caprines bone measurements in mm........................................................... 70 Table 4.54. Mapungubwe – Phases III & IV: sheep bone measurements in mm................................................................ 71 Table 4.55. Mapungubwe – Phases III & IV: goats bone measurements in mm................................................................ 71 Table 4.56. Mapungubwe – Phases III & IV: caprine withers heights estimates in centimetres (after Teichert 1975)...... 72 Table 4.57. Mapungubwe – Phases III & IV: average caprine withers heights estimates in centimetres (after Teichert 1975)..................................................................................................................................................................... 72 Table 4.58. Southern Terrace: age estimates for cattle in the analysis conducted by E. Voigt (Voigt 1983, Table 6.5)....................................................................................................................................................... 74 Table 4.59. Mapungubwe Hill: age estimates for cattle in the analysis conducted by E. Voigt (Voigt 1983, Table 6.5)....................................................................................................................................................... 74 Table 4.60. Southern Terrace: age estimates for caprines in the analysis conducted by E. Voigt (Voigt 1983, Table 6.3)............................................................................................................................................................................ 74 Table 4.61. Mapungubwe: age estimates for caprines in the analysis conducted by E. Voigt (Voigt 1983, Table 6.3)...... 74 Table 5.1. Mutamba – Feature 1: faunal samples recovered............................................................................................... 80 Table 5.2. Mutamba – Feature 2: faunal samples recovered............................................................................................... 80 Table 5.3. Mutamba – Feature 3: faunal samples recovered............................................................................................... 80 Table 5.4. Mutamba – Test trench N105: E169. Faunal samples recovered....................................................................... 80 Table 5.5. Mutamba – number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages.................................................. 81 Table 5.6. Mutamba – number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of each taxon........................................................................................................................................................................... 83 Table 5.7. Mutamba - minimum number of individuals (MNI) of the main domestic species (N = newborn; J = juvenile; S/A = subadult; A = adult).............................................................................................................................. 84 Table 5.8. Mutamba – number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish........................................................................................................................................... 85 Table 5.9. Mutamba – list of anatomical elements pertaining to cattle (NISP) and relative percentages of the total........ 86 Table 5.10. Mutamba – epiphysial fusion data for cattle (Silver 1969). NF = not fused; F = fused.................................. 86 Table 5.11. Mutamba – cattle wear stages of individual teeth (following Grant 1982)...................................................... 88 Table 5.12. Mutamba – list of skeletal elements pertaining to caprines (NISP) and relative percentages of the total....... 88 Table 5.13. Mutamba – epiphysial fusion data for caprines (Bullock, Rackham 1982). NF = not fused; F = fused......... 88 Table 5.14. Mutamba – age estimates for caprine mandibles and loose teeth (after Payne 1973)..................................... 90 Table 5.15. Mutamba – cattle bone measurements in mm.................................................................................................. 98 Table 5.16. Mutamba – caprine bone measurements in mm............................................................................................... 98 Table 5.17. Mutamba – sheep bone measurements in mm................................................................................................. 98 Table 5.18. Mutamba – goat bone measurements in mm................................................................................................... 98 Table 5.19. Mutamba – caprine withers heights estimates in centimetres (after Teichert 1975)....................................... 99

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Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Table 5.20. Mutamba – average caprine withers heights estimates in centimetres (after Teichert 1975).......................... 99 Table 6.1. Data obtained from the families interviewed about the management of livestock.......................................... 104 Table 6.2. Data obtained from the families interviewed about the management of vegetable patches and agricultural production...................................................................................................................................................... 104 Table 7.1. Number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of the main domestic and wild species found in the Iron Age settlements of the northern part of Limpopo province. EIA = Early Iron Age; MIA = Middle Iron Age; LIA = Late Iron Age....................................................................................... 116

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Preface It gives me great satisfaction to present the volume Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age in Northern Limpopo Province, South Africa by Claudia Abatino. I have known the author of this volume since her first ever steps, some years ago now, in the difficult field of Zooarchaeology and I must say that I have always noted a great industriousness and a great maturity in her analysis of data. I had the good fortune to appreciate these qualities at first hand as her tutor during her doctorate, which she completed and defended, attaining full marks, at the Doctoral School in Cultural Heritage Sciences of the University of the Salento (Lecce).

The large site of Mapungubwe was then compared with the satellite site of Mutamba, whose social characteristics and economic exploitation of animals seem to differ slightly.

This book is the result of the study conducted by the author on the faunal remains found at two Middle Iron Age sites in the Limpopo Valley in South Africa: Mapungubwe and Mutamba. The work also examined the environmental aspects and the economic, ritual and social activities of these two human communities.

The excellent accompanying imagery further enriches this work, together with the exhaustive bibliography.

This study is accompanied by ethnozooarchaeological research conducted among the Venda community of the village of Bende Mutale in South Africa. The purpose of this research was to obtain further knowledge of the geographical and cultural context in which the other two sites lie. The author had the opportunity to be an observer and a participant in the daily life of the village’s inhabitants and this enabled her to learn about certain customs of that community.

Rome, 12 June 2020

The site of Mapungubwe is known in South African archaeology above all for having yielded some extremely interesting archaeological materials, including the famous rhinoceros wrapped in sheets of gold which has practically become the emblem of South African cultural heritage. The study of animal remains can appear to be of less importance than that of artefacts but in reality they represent one of the numerous sources of information on which archaeological research is founded. Animal bones should also therefore be considered “archaeological material”, the study of which serves to reveal the “anthropic context”. Indeed, these remains are closely connected to the cultural framework that gave rise to them, and their analysis therefore needs to be integrated with that of the other materials discovered during the excavation, in order to reconstruct the overall structure of the communities in question. In addition to taxonomic identification, the study of the animal remains also involved the determination, when possible, of the animals’ age, sex and spatial distribution, and analysis of butchery marks and biometrics. This made it possible to understand the lifestyles of the community that lived on the summit of the hill of Mapungubwe and the so-called Southern Terrace below, highlighting the different consumption of meat depending on social class. Of particular interest is the presence of marine molluscs, which indicates a network of commercial exchanges that stretched to the coasts of the Indian Ocean, as already highlighted by the oriental ceramics and glass beads of Indian origin.

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Jacopo De Grossi Mazzorin Professor of Zooarchaeology University of Salento

Introduction Regarding the birth and development of complex societies in South Africa, there is a tradition of studies dating back to the 1930s, a period that saw the discovery of Mapungubwe, the important 13th-century regional settlement that was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2003.

Chapters four and five are dedicated to the detailed analysis of the finds from the sites, including the frequency of the species and the anatomical parts present in the osteological sample, their age classes, the butchering techniques and the observation of taphonomic and osteometric data.

Since the discovery of Mapungubwe, much of the research into the evolution of its social and political dynamics has focused on the settlement and its immediate surroundings (Fouché 1937; Gardner 1963; Meyer 1998; Calabrese 2007; Huffman 2009). However, in the last few years the research has been extended to outlying areas in order to analyse the theme of social complexity on a regional scale and to examine topics such as mobility and interaction between centre and peripheral areas (Antonites 2013; 2014; Chirikure et al. 2014; Antonites, Ashley 2016; Ashley et al. 2016; Moffett, Chirikure 2016). These studies focus on small settlements that emerged on the margins of the developing polity; as well as obtaining important information regarding a series of sites that formed a social and trading network across a broad region, they reveal a political panorama in which the various communities interacted and were part of a rich social and environmental mosaic. This led to the idea of analysing two very different situations, far apart in social and environmental terms, which would make it possible to advance hypotheses regarding animal husbandry and the exploitation of wild fauna during the Middle Iron Age. This research thus presents an interpretation of the faunal remains from Mapungubwe and Mutamba, a small agro-pastoral settlement coeval with the capital’s period of greatest hegemony, situated on the edge of its area of influence.

Chapter six is dedicated to the ethnozooarchaeological study, and presents the results of the research conducted among the local community of Bende Mutale, based on direct observation and information obtained from interviews with the village’s inhabitants. The volume concludes with a chapter setting out considerations and interpretations based on the results obtained from the analysis of the faunal samples of Mapungubwe and Mutamba, integrating them with published data regarding other Iron Age sites in the light of what was gleaned from the ethnozooarchaeological research. The appendix includes osteometric data for each site. At the end of the book there is a summary chapter in Italian.

The zooarchaeological analysis was accompanied by ethnozooarchaeological research conducted in the Venda village of Bende Mutale in north-eastern South Africa in order to better interpret the faunal data by observing livestock management as currently practised by a local community and to understand the social value of livestock for such communities. In addition, it was possible to observe a rural society’s relationship with the surrounding landscape and the climate and understand any restrictions on agriculture and livestock rearing arising from the local environment. The first two chapters of the book present the historical and cultural framework of the area in which the sites studied here are situated and a description of the region and the archaeological research. This introductory session is followed by a chapter that summarises the methods applied to the study of the faunal samples. 1

1 The area of research: analysis of the historical, cultural and geographical context 1.1. Historical premise

900 AD it seems that the region was characterised by a very small population and little archaeological evidence is available for this chronological phase. Surveys and excavations in the Limpopo Valley have found nothing to indicate the presence of settlements during this period. This may be due to an unfavourable climate, characterised by particularly low rainfall, making these areas unsuitable for agriculture in the early Iron Age (Huffman 1996a; 2008).

Ever since the 1930s, use of the term “Iron Age” in African archaeology has given rise to problems and debates. In the past the term “Bantu” was widely used to refer to a period during which the communities were distinguished from the previous ones by their use of certain technologies, including metallurgy, which were not yet in use throughout the continent. One of the factors prompting the shift towards use of the term “Iron Age” in Africa was the desire to avoid the racial connotations of the term “Bantu”. This terminology was first used in reference to East African cultures and later extended to Southern Africa (Sinclair et al. 1993).

In the 10th century a population from south-west Zimbabwe that produced ceramics in the Zhizo style moved into the Limpopo Valley, marking the start of what is called the Middle Iron Age (Fagan 1970). Zhizo ware originated among the eastern Bantu-speaking communities and developed southwards via Malawi, Zimbabwe and Botswana until reaching the northern part of today’s Limpopo Province (Huffman 1989). The small Zhizo communities were scattered across the area around the confluence of the River Shashe and the River Limpopo. Their capital, Schroda, was built near the latter and is believed to have been the first important settlement of the region (Hanisch 1980: 217-226; 1981) (Figure 1.1). At the same time as these peoples began to settle in this region, the presence of exotic objects from the coast of the Indian Ocean – the result of expanding transoceanic trade – is attested (Hanisch 1980: 226; Wood 2000). Initially it was believed that the arrival of the Zhizo communities was triggered by an improvement in the climate (Huffman 2000), but in fact, isotopic analyses indicate that the climate was no better than it is currently and conditions were not particularly favourable to agriculture (Smith et al. 2007). It is therefore more plausible that these peoples were driven by economic factors. Taken together, the climate data and the discovery of ivory in the sites of the Zhizo culture (Voigt 1981; Raath 2014: 195-198) suggest that they migrated to the Limpopo Valley in order to hunt elephants and trade in their ivory (Wood 2000; 2011; Smith et al. 2005; Huffman 2005: 12). This would also explain the presence of sites characterised by the Zhizo culture in areas not particularly suitable for agriculture (Huffman 2014a).

In order to date contexts and reconstruct the chronology of Iron Age archaeological sites, radiocarbon analyses were used extensively (Phillipson 1975). When seeking to determine the circumstances underlying the passage from the Late Stone Age, or Neolithic, to the Early Iron Age, rigorous criteria continue to be applied (Sinclair et al. 1993). In many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, Bantu communities are believed to have replaced the autochthonous populations, settling in semi-permanent villages and introducing metallurgy and agriculture (at least in the southern part of the continent). The Bantu migrations began in the second millennium BC and continued for over two millennia. After many years of studies it has been possible to trace their routes of expansion from West Africa to Central Africa (De Maret 1982; 1985), through the Congo basin (Phillipson 1977a; 1977b) and the Great Lakes region in East Africa (De Maret 2013) and from there proceeding southwards along the coast of Mozambique and into the interior passing by Lake Malawi, Zimbabwe (Huffman 1970; 1972) and Botswana, finally reaching South Africa (Huffman 1982; 1989; Sinclair et al. 1993: 11-12; Bostoen 2018). Recent studies have made it possible to integrate the archaeological data and the radiocarbon datings in order to create models with which to explain the spread of agro-pastoral communities (Russell et al. 2014). 1.2. The Iron Age in South Africa

The 11th century AD is marked by the arrival on the south side of the Limpopo of new peoples, who established their capital at K2, a few kilometres from Schroda. This development was accompanied by the fairly rapid spread of a new ceramic style known as Leopard’s Kopje1, also attested in the south of Zimbabwe and eastern Botswana.

The first Bantu-speaking agricultural communities reached the north of South Africa between 350 and 450 AD. Associated with them is the pottery known as Happy Rest, after the site in which it was first found. By means of an integrated study of archaeological, anthropological and linguistic data it was established that these communities spoke an eastern Bantu language (Huffman, Herbert 199495; Mitchell 2002: 259-263). From this time until about

1 Leopard’s Kopje ware is also known as K2 ceramics, after the settlement in which it is abundantly attested.

3

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age

Figure 1.1. Location of the sites cited in the text (image adapted from Huffman 2009).

One consequence of the settlement of these new communities was the movement of the Zhizo communities towards the eastern part of Botswana. Some of them however remained in the area of the Limpopo Valley within the sphere of interaction of K2 (Calabrese 2000a; 2007; Vogel, Calabrese 2000). At the same time, the area around the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers saw the production of the ceramics known as Leokwe (Figure 1.2), which takes its name from the site in which it was first discovered and stylistically recalls the previous Zhizo ware. This suggests that the producers of Leokwe ware were the descendants of those who had previously produced Zhizo ware (Calabrese 2007: 221-225). In the 12th century the settlement known as K2 was the largest attested site in the Limpopo Valley (Figure 1.1). Judging by its size and the wealth of prestige goods, both local and imported from the Orient, discovered during the archaeological excavations, K2 is believed to have functioned as the political heart of the region during this phase (Gardner 1955; Meyer 1998: 261-263; 2000; Huffman 2009). The consolidation of K2’s political power is based on the control of livestock and trade. Livestock played an important role in the economy of these communities. It was the main form of material wealth, on which social relationships were also founded, since it was a means of exchange used for bridewealth. Cattle were important for farmers since they were more profitable than crops: herds grew in size because livestock enabled them to consolidate cohesion and reciprocal assistance with other families precisely by means of marriage ties (Hall 1986)2. This historic period is characterised by higher rainfall, with a consequent increase in agriculture (Huffman 2000; Smith 2005: 189-197; Smith et al. 2007) and population growth (du Piesanie 2008: 78-82). K2 was at the heart of these developments, larger in size and population than Schroda, and its influence extended over

Figure 1.2. Chronological sequence of the Iron Age ceramics found in the Limpopo Valley (from Huffman 2009).

long distances, including areas not previously occupied by the Zhizo communities (Huffman 2000). K2 was inhabited for two centuries, from about 1030 to 1220 AD. The first half of the 13th century is marked by changes in the organisation of the settlements, the sharpening of class distinctions and the rise of the concept of religious leadership. This led to the abandonment of K2, with the members of the elite moving from here to the nearby site of Mapungubwe, where they settled on a hilltop that was occupied from about 1220 to 1300 AD (Vogel 2000). The first phase of occupation of the hilltop is characterised by a ceramic style known as Transitional

2 Historical and ethnographic studies of the current agro-pastoral communities of southern Africa have stressed the central role of livestock, particularly cattle, in the creation and maintenance of the social structure. They represent the main form of family wealth and are still today the means of payment of the lobola, i.e. the bridewealth (Schapera, Goodwin 1937; Shaw 1937; Stayt 1968: 143-44).

4

The area of research K2, which in the second half of the 13th century matured into the full Mapungubwe style (Figure 1.2) (van der Walt 2012: 54-59).

important political power, of which the ruins of the royal palace and the whole area that developed around Great Zimbabwe are still conserved (Huffman 1972; Huffman 1988; 2009; Vogel 1990).

The existence of a stratified society in Mapungubwe is physically manifested by the separation of the elite, which settled on the hilltop, from the remaining part of society, which in contrast settled in the valley that curved around the headland3. This is considered to be the most ancient evidence of class distinctions and the formation of the state in southern Africa (Huffman 2015a; 2015b).

Reconstruction of the phases of occupation of the area of the Soutpansberg mountains is hampered by the shortage of material. To date, our understanding is still mostly based on the distributions of the various ceramic styles. The origin of a style lies in the identity of a community when the producers and users coincide. Taking this into account, ceramic styles can be used to recognise communities, their movements and their interactions with other groups. There are cases in which ceramics of one style appear in an area characterised by another style; this is held to be the result of marriage-based alliances (Peisach et al. 1991). The studies suggest that in the 12th century the Soutpansberg area was occupied by communities that produced Eiland ceramics (Loubser 1991). At the beginning of the 13th century it seems that the northern slopes of Soutpansberg were colonised by agro-pastoral communities that lived in small villages, probably inhabited by a few families, and Mapungubwe-style ceramics are also attested at this time. In these settlements, no K2-type ceramics, previous to Mapungubwe ceramics, have been discovered, and this suggests that these small settlements were founded in the 13th century. In addition this indicates that Mapungubwe exerted an influence over areas to the south. These communities are generally characterised by small settlements, no bigger than 1.5 hectares. Unlike the Limpopo Valley, which saw a fall in the number of settlements after the abandonment of Mapungubwe, the communities in the central Soutpansberg area continued to make ceramics in the Mapungubwe style for a long period (Antonites 2013: 48).

The archaeological evidence suggests that the centralisation of power in Mapungubwe society unfolded as a consequence of the system of wealth based on the accumulation of livestock and control over the trade in exotic goods (Hall 1987: 82; Huffman 1982; 1986; 2000). The imported goods included glass beads, fabrics and porcelain from the Middle East and Asia, while gold, slaves, ivory, rhinoceros horn and other products of animal origin were exported (Pikirayi 2001: 97-100). Mapungubwe, and the area of the Limpopo Valley more generally, was abandoned around 1300 AD. For a long time it was held that this was the consequence of reduced rainfall and thus drier conditions in the region (Huffman 1996a). Subsequently however it was demonstrated by isotopic analyses that rainfall in the region continued at roughly the same level in the period after Mapungubwe was abandoned (Smith 2005: 189-197; Smith et al. 2007). The depopulation of the Limpopo valley was without doubt due to the complex interplay of environmental damage (the result of 200 years of rapid population growth) and changes in political and commercial organisation. Although the relationship between the two events is not clear, the abandonment of Mapungubwe coincides with the development of the city known as Great Zimbabwe, which was also an important regional centre. In about 1270 AD, an elite emerged there and laid the basis for the construction of an elaborate urban complex that would serve as the capital of a state, with stone buildings of unprecedented size. Great Zimbabwe played a key role in long-distance trade networks, including the mining, processing and export of gold, further undermining the economy of Mapungubwe and probably contributing to its abandonment (Pikirayi 2001: 140-147). For the following 150 years Great Zimbabwe was the most important political authority south of the River Zambezi (Huffman 1996b; 2007a), reaching its zenith during the 14th and 15th centuries, when elaborate walls, symbolising wealth, power and status, were extended to include the outlying areas. With an estimated population of almost twenty thousand, Great Zimbabwe was the largest metropolis in southern Africa (Pikirayi 2013).

The end of the production of Eiland ceramics is marked by the appearance of a new ceramic style known as Moloko, which expanded and appeared in the centre, west and south of Limpopo province in the 15th and 16th centuries. Between 1300 and 1450 AD Mapungubwe ceramics were predominant on the north side of Soutpansberg, while Moloko ceramics were present south of the mountains. These two different ceramic styles were produced by the Shona and Sotho cultures respectively, and the mountains represented the frontier between them. By 1450 AD the appearance of the ceramic style known as Khami, together with settlements organised in accordance with models that differed from those hitherto present in this area, highlights the arrival of new Shona dynasties from Zimbabwe. Although these newcomers did not settle south of Soutpansberg, interaction between the communities living on the two sides of the mountains became more intense. The interaction between the Shona and Sotho communities is reflected not so much in the presence of fragments of both Khami and Moloko ceramics in the same sites, as in the appearance of a new ceramic style known as Tavhatshena, which includes elements of both ceramic styles. From the mid 16th century a new style known as Letaba developed from the fusion of the styles

The rise of Great Zimbabwe marked the beginning of the Late Iron Age, which lasted until the 19th century. Mapungubwe is seen as the predecessor of this new 3

See section 2.1.

5

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age archaeological data and ethnographic studies of Shona and Venda societies in southern Africa today (Huffman 1986; 1996b: 103-122). From these analyses it emerged that the Zimbabwe Culture Pattern reflects the organisation of special settlements characterised by the presence of an elite, often functioning as regional capitals, while the less important settlements continued to be organised in accordance with the Central Cattle Pattern (Huffman 2000).

produced by the Shona and Sotho communities. This led in the space of a century to the creation of a new culture, characterised by the Letaba ceramic style and the birth of the Venda language (Loubser 1989). In addition to Soutpansberg, ceramics in the Letaba style have also been discovered in eastern and central Limpopo province, in the south-western area of Mozambique and the southern area of Zimbabwe (Loubser 1991: 167). 1.3. Models of settlement: the Central Cattle Pattern (CCP) and the Zimbabwe Culture Pattern (ZCP) compared.

More recent archaeological and ethnographic research (Schoeman 2006a; 2006b; 2009; Murimbika 2006) has hypothesised that in Mapungubwe the religious leadership may have been based on control of the rains, believed to be sacred. The transformation from a leadership transmitted by legitimate succession to one dictated by divine will suggests that the communities were led by the figure of the rainmaker, i.e. the one who was able to communicate with the supernatural forces that caused the sacred rain. These activities took place outside the main area of the settlement, usually on higher ground: special hills that functioned as natural cisterns, hard to access, in which the space available on the summit was not sufficient for men and cattle together (Huffman 2007b: 71-73). It has therefore been hypothesised that the separation of the elite from the masses in Mapungubwe is linked to a process by which the leader of the capital also took on the role of rainmaker. Royal power thus became linked to ritual functions. This system did not entirely replace the old practices however, and other rainmakers continued to use their powers in the smaller communities (Huffman 2009).

One of the tools used for investigating social change and the political hierarchies of communities is the application of models of settlement organisation, developed on the basis of well-documented human behaviours. In the first place, in order to create order, human societies divide the physical environment into separate places reserved for specific activities; in the second place these divisions have social meanings and consequences (Lane 1998: 183). Much of our knowledge of social and political organisation in southern Africa from the 9th to the 13th centuries is derived from the application of ethnographic models. As mentioned previously, the value of cattle in contributing to the creation of social networks among the agro-pastoral communities is extensively documented. Their central role in society is also manifested in a settlement model applied in archaeology known as the Central Cattle Pattern (CCP), which is characterised by the presence of a central kraal (a South African term indicating an enclosure for cattle), with the settlement arranged around it (Huffman 1982; 1986; 1990; 2001). Then as now, the leaders of these societies were of patrilineal descent (Huffman 2010), and the area of the kraal was a place to which only men had access. Below them or in the immediate vicinity there were usually burials of high-ranking members of the group (Huffman 2007b: 55-57). Also in the vicinity of the kraal were structures for the storage of cereals for the entire community, which were controlled and managed by the leader of the settlement. The presence of the CCP implies that the communities were organised hierarchically, with leaders wielding hereditary power (Huffman 2000; 2007b: 23-25). In this system, social interaction was generally limited to the local level and the economy was subsistencebased. However, even within a society organised on the basis of the Central Cattle Pattern, the management and exploitation of livestock vary considerably in terms of both the ratio of domestic to wild animals and the age at slaughter (Plug 1997).

1.4. The region and the environment This paragraph contains a description of the region and the environment in which the two sites subject to zooarchaeological investigation are situated. Mapungubwe is located near the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, in the northern part of South Africa; Mutamba is located on the northern slopes of the Soutpansberg mountains (Figure 1.3). 1.4.1. The Limpopo Valley The area in which the River Shashe and the River Limpopo flow into each other is also commonly called the Limpopo Valley. The river, after which the region is also named, flows eastwards, reaching the Indian Ocean in Mozambique, marking the present-day border between South Africa and Botswana and between South Africa and Zimbabwe. Currently the Limpopo Valley is characterised by a semi-arid environment with annual rainfall below 350 mm. The period that sees most rainfall runs from October to April, with peaks in January and February, when the highest temperatures are also recorded. During the summer months, these reach an average of 32° during the day and 20° at night. In contrast, the winter months are generally dry, with mild temperatures (Smith 2005: 38). Figures 1.4 and 1.5 are photographs taken in two different periods of the year from a viewpoint overlooking the confluence

In contrast, the model known as the Zimbabwe Culture Pattern (ZCP) is used to represent social stratification and religious leadership. The settlements controlled by an elite are characterised by the presence of a palatial complex with a courtyard and an area for the royal wives, a residential area for the inhabitants of the village and places set aside for the royal guards (Huffman 2007b: 25-28). This arrangement was determined on the basis of 6

The area of research

Figure 1.3. Location of Mutamba (from Abatino, Antonites, in print).

the bark is fire-resistant. Herders let their flocks graze in the mopane scrub during the dry season, the relatively high protein and phosphorus content of the leaves compensating for the lack of grass and other nutritious plants in this period (Wellington 1955: 299). Some caterpillars that feed on mopane leaves represent a rich source of protein for human beings too. The mopane tree also provides good firewood and can even be used when it is not dry. Its timber is difficult to work but is suitable for the construction of huts (Jessop 1937). The baobab (Adamsonia digitate) is often associated with vegetation rich in mopane trees, and other tree genus present in the region include Sterculia, Acacia, Grewia, Terminalia, Dombeya, Adenium, Opuntia, Euphorbia, Croton, Combretum, Aleo, Cussonia, Hyphaene, Ficus, Commiphora, Spirostochys, Salix, Gymnoporia, Flacourtia, Ximenia, Cordia, Cassine, Ehretia and Boscia. Wherever the climate is semi-arid in southern Africa, the fruit, pods and leaves of these species are used as food by human beings and livestock during droughts (Smith 2005: 58-60).

of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers. To the north-east lies Botswana (between the two rivers) and Zimbabwe (beyond the two rivers). Both river courses are seasonal and the water flow varies considerably depending on the time of year. In the winter months the water persists only in those stretches where the river bed is particularly deep. The Limpopo Valley is characterised by vast plains alternating with outcrops and ridges of dolerite and basalt that reach between 400 and 750 m above sea level (Smith 2005: 56). Above 650 m, the land is exposed to summer breezes, offering the livestock respite from insects and parasites. The earliest agro-pastoral communities would have been drawn here by the alluvial plains around the confluence of the two rivers because they both favoured intensive agriculture and provided winter pasture for their herds (Huffman 2000). To the east and south of Mapungubwe is a broad plain with blocks of sandstone and granite of volcanic origin. The biome in this area is savannah, which has developed in the more tropical regions of South Africa where the rains are seasonal (Figure 1.6). Savannah is characterised by a layer of grassland and a higher layer of woody plants, mostly mopane trees (C. mopane). These trees are a fundamental source of food for herbivores in the Limpopo valley, dominating the broad plains and escarpments of this region, since they are adapted to heat and low altitudes and

In the past the area is believed to have hosted a large number of wild animals, as has been found in areas adjacent to the one examined here (Plug 1989). A broad variety of wild species (including many bovids, carnivores, suids, baboons, elephants, rhinoceroses, zebras, etc.) is still observed today, but numerically the population is not high. The intensive exploitation of the area for both 7

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age

Figure 1.4. Panoramic view of the area around the confluence of the Shashe and the Limpopo, with both rivers in flood. Photograph taken in February 2017.

Figure 1.5. Panoramic view of the area around the confluence of the Shashe and the Limpopo, with both rivers at their lowest point. Photograph taken in June 2017.

Figure 1.6. View of the Mapungubwe National Park.

1.4.2. Soutpansberg

agriculture and grazing, together with unfavourable climate conditions, has led to a reduction in grass coverage (Jessop 1937). This in turn has further degraded the environment, driving the animal populations to migrate to more favourable areas (Plug, Voigt 1985; Plug 2000).

The Soutpansberg mountain chain stretches for about 210 km along an east-west axis and reaches a maximum of 30 km wide. Its highest peaks reach 1700 m above sea 8

The area of research level, towering over the surrounding terrain, which ranges between 650 and 800 m above sea level. The drastic increase in altitude makes the Soutpansberg mountain chain a clear physical barrier, with a few river valleys forming natural grooves in the mountainous terrain. Here there are two main seasonal cycles: a hot humid season, which lasts from December to February, and a cool and dry season from May to August. The east-west orientation of the Soutpansberg mountains gives rise to orographic precipitation as a result of humid air from the Indian Ocean being blown by the prevailing south-eastern winds towards the southern flank of the Soutpansberg mountains. The north-south orientation of the WolkbergDrakensberg mountains also conditions the movement of atmospheric humidity, forcing it into the funnel created by the two mountain systems. Large quantities of rain thus fall on the southern and eastern slopes of the Soutpansberg. Annual rainfall on the southern flank exceeds 1800 mm. In contrast, the north-west area lies in the rain shadow and records just over 350 mm of rainfall a year. Changes in altitude mean that the climate (especially rain and fog) varies considerably even over short distances. The combination of frequent orographic rain and fog during the summer months leaves the terrain saturated and sometimes flooded for long periods. During the other months the winds are mainly dry and cause the terrain and vegetation to dry out. These extremes and fluctuating environmental conditions have resulted in specialisation among the plants, which explains the relatively high level of endemicity in this environment (Mostert et al. 2008). To date, 321 tree species and more than 500 bird species have been recorded in the area, respectively equivalent to one third and 56% of the known species in southern Africa. The region is also the perfect habitat for arachnids, insects and reptiles (Mostert et al. 2008).

9

2 The analysed sites The research presents the interpretation of the faunal remains recovered from two Middle Iron Age sites, both situated in the north of South Africa. Mapungubwe was the regional capital in the 12th and 13th centuries, while Mutamba was a small coeval settlement in the hinterland situated on the southern limit of Mapungubwe’s area of influence. In the following paragraphs both sites will be individually described.

metres above the surrounding terrain and 300 metres long, characterised by a flat summit and steep sides, and partly in the sandy valley that surrounds the hill (Figure 2.2). Mapungubwe is the most ancient site in Southern Africa, and has yielded evidence of a stratified society. The separation of social classes was materially manifested with the members of the elite, the king and his extended family living on the hilltop, while the rest of society occupied the valley below.

2.1. Mapungubwe

The archaeological complex is conventionally subdivided as follows: the hilltop is known as Mapungubwe Hill (the abbreviation is MK), the flat area at the foot of the hill on the southern side is called the Southern Terrace (MST) and the flat area on the eastern side is called Mahobe (MST1). The name “Southern Terrace” is misleading since it suggests an area on a terrace or in any case at a higher level than the valley below the heights, whereas in reality both the Southern Terrace and Mahobe lie in the valley at the foot of the steep slopes of the hill.

The large settlement known as Mapungubwe is situated in the northern part of South Africa, on high ground just less than 2 km south of the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, which marks the current meeting point of the borders of South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe (Figure 2.1). The site, which was inhabited from the 11th to the 13th centuries, stands partly on a sandstone hill about 30

Figure 2.1. Location of Mapungubwe (adapted from Antonites, Ashley 2016).

11

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age

Figure 2.2. Southern view of the site of Mapungubwe. The photograph shows the hill on which the members of the elite lived, while the rest of the settlement was arranged at the foot of the slope.

2.1.1. History of the archaeological research

climbing the slope, i.e. the narrow passage where the inhabitants of Mapungubwe had drilled holes in the rocky walls, probably to support wooden beams that facilitated the ascent. Once van Graan and his team had reached the top, they began digging up the deposits, discovering fragments of ceramics, iron artefacts, glass beads and some gold objects. The younger van Graan, a student at the University of Pretoria, immediately understood the historic and cultural importance of the site. He decided to inform Professor L. Fouché (Tiley-Nel 2011d), then director of the Department of History, of the discovery and passed him some of the artefacts discovered. Subsequently, the University of Pretoria obtained authorisation to proceed with the investigations in Mapungubwe and the surrounding areas (Fouché 1937: 1-2; Meyer 1998: 19).

The discovery of the site of Mapungubwe, officially dated to 1932, is apparently linked to the story of a man born in South Africa, Bernard Francois Lotrie. The son of a French botanist, in the last few decades of the 19th century he settled in the valley of the Limpopo where he lived as a hermit in a cave near the banks of the river, half a mile from Mapungubwe Hill. The site was apparently well known to the man and there he found a ceramic vessel that he offered as a gift to a friend of his, Mowena, an elderly African farmer who lived near the cave (Tiley-Nel 2011b; Tiley-Nel 2019: 72). The German anthropologist Frobenius claimed to have been the first person to conduct excavations on the hill, in 1929 (Meyer 1998: 17). Having spent his whole professional life in Africa, being especially fascinated by the cave paintings and ruins of Great Zimbabwe, from 1928 to 1930 he conducted a twentymonth expedition south of Zimbabwe (Tiley-Nel 2019: 7879). It was however during the 1930s that Mapungubwe became the subject of archaeological investigation.

The first archaeological excavations in Mapungubwe began in April 1933 under the direction of Professor Fouché (Fouché 1937). In 1934 and 1935, Reverend N. Jones was tasked with the excavations, while J. F. Schofield and P. W. van Tonder were named as his assistants. In 1934, while the excavation of Mapungubwe proceeded, a number of stone walls were also identified in the adjacent site of Bambandyanalo, subsequently named K2. It was thus decided to investigate this area as well, about two kilometres from Mapungubwe, and preliminary excavations were conducted (Fouché 1937: 19; Meyer 1998: 20).

On the 31st of December 1932, a local landowner and mine-owner, E. S. J. van Graan, who had heard reports of the existence of the site, asked Mowena to accompany him to the place where his friend Lotrie’s gift had come from. After failing to persuade Mowena, van Graan got Mowena’s son to take him, together with his own son, J. C. O. van Graan (Tiley-Nel 2011c) and three other men. Few local people were willing to reveal the location of the site because the Mapungubwe Hill was considered a sacred place. The van Graans were shown a way of

From 1935 to 1940, G. A. Gardner (Tiley-Nel 2011e) headed the excavations in both sites. In K2, 70 tombs and six animal burials were discovered (Meyer 1998: 21-22). 12

The analysed sites The latter depositions, three of which contained the remains of cattle and the other three remains attributed to smaller bovids, were associated with ceramic fragments. In two of the animal burials there were only jawbones, while in the other four there were both cranial bones and post-cranial bones (Voigt 1983: 6-7). According to Gardner these depositions were unique in southern Africa, not having been found in any other site, and were interpreted as votive offerings (Gardner 1963: 54-59). A recent study (Hutten 2008) has reawakened the debate over the meaning of these depositions however. During construction work on a dam in the Venda region in the north of Limpopo province, 1021 20th-century tombs were discovered, 140 of which were considered “symbolic” in that they contained animal remains associated with other materials of common usage, such as ceramics, garments, buttons, tobacco etc. This type of burial, also called “symbolic” in ethnographic studies, is performed when the mortal remains of the deceased are not available. The animal, usually a sheep, a goat or a cow, is sacrificed and deposed in place of the body of the deceased. The discovery has reawakened the debate over the six animal burials discovered in K2, of which it was possible to re-examine only one however. In the light of what has emerged from the excavations regarding the stratigraphy, it is argued that the K2 burials were neither symbolic nor votive, since they did not contain complete skeletons and were not in anatomical connection4.

of the archaeological deposits in the north-western part of Mapungubwe Hill. These excavations brought to light two substantial structures (Gardner 1963: 18-21). One was probably the remains of the hut used as a bed chamber by the society’s first leader and the other was interpreted as the place used by his diviner. Whatever the best interpretation of these environments, it was immediately clear that they were associated with the elite. It is important to note that this elite area, and the high position with respect to the rest of the settlement, represents the earliest testimony in the prehistory of southern Africa of the physical separation between a leader and his subjects. This spatial division represents the materialisation of class distinctions. 14C datings have demonstrated that Mapungubwe Hill was inhabited for only a brief period, from about 1220 until the end of the 13th century (Vogel 2000), but during this time the spatial organisation evolved. Indeed, the excavations in the central part of the hilltop also brought to light a complex of huts adjacent to an area of prestige walls that was interpreted as a palace (Huffman 1996b: 181-183; 2009). On the rocky surface of the western part of the hilltop, the post-holes and foundation grooves for the huts that were carved in the bedrock can still be observed today (Figure 2.4). The remains of the gravel pavement are also still visible in some areas on Mapungubwe Hill (Meyer 1998: 116; Meyer, Cloete 2010).

After just over a decade in which no investigations were conducted in the area due to the Second World War, the excavations resumed in 1953 and 1954 under the direction of P. J. Coertze and H. F. Sentker and in the 1970s under the direction of J. F. Eloff (Meyer 2011: 29-34). Research in the field stopped in the 1980s due to military activities on the northern border of South Africa (Meyer 1998: 32). In the 1990s the management of the Greefswald farm, the area in which the archaeological sites lie, was taken over by the Limpopo Provincial Authority and today belongs to SANParks (South Africa National Parks), as a part of the Limpopo/Shashe Transfrontier Conservation Area, which includes a part of Botswana and Zimbabwe (Meyer 1998: 35). Lastly, in 2003 the site of Mapungubwe was added to the UNESCO list of world heritage.

In addition, 27 tombs were discovered on the hilltop, three of which contained gold objects (Fouché 1937; Galloway 1937; Pearson 1937; Weber 1937). These discoveries were immediately interpreted as symbols of the social status of those who lived on Mapungubwe Hill. The grave goods made of gold included ankle and wrist bracelets, necklaces (Figure 2.5), ornaments and wooden objects wrapped in gold leaf (Pearson 1937; Weber 1937). Tomb 14 was probably of a woman, inhumed in a sitting position facing west. The deceased wore at least a hundred gold ankle bracelets and in the tomb there were more than 12,000 gold beads. Tomb 10 belonged to an adult man, also seated with the body facing west. He wore a necklace of gold beads and cowry shells and among the grave goods there were also objects covered gold leaf. The most famous burial was also of a male but his position is not known. He was buried with a headrest and a bowl, a sceptre (Figure 2.6) and a gold-covered rhinoceros (Figure 2.7).

2.1.2. The site Although Mapungubwe Hill and the Southern Terrace, from the earliest excavation campaigns, were investigated and described as two distinct stratigraphic contexts, both areas in fact belong to a single Iron Age settlement with a total area of about 10 hectares (Figure 2.3). On the hilltop lived the members of the elite, while discovered in the valley were the remains of a large settlement that was frequented for about 250 years (Meyer 1998: 116).

These three objects, especially the gold rhinoceros (Fouché 1937; Steyn 2007), have become the symbol of Mapungubwe and the indigenous cultural heritage of South Africa. These materials are coeval with the occupation of the site and are thus the first gold artefacts discovered in southern Africa (Woodborne et al. 2009).

During the excavations conducted from 1934 to 1940 (Gardner 1955; 1958; 1963), Gardner removed most

The archaeological research on the Southern Terrace initially focused on the so-called “main entrance”, i.e. what is considered the main point of access to Mapungubwe Hill, situated between the enormous sandstone boulders at the foot of the hill on the south

4 For further discussion of this topic, see Hutten 2008; Plug, Badenhorst 2009.

13

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age

Figure 2.3. Map of the site of Mapungubwe (adapted from Antonites et al. 2016).

Figure 2.4. Mapungubwe Hill – circular foundation trench of a hut excavated in the bedrock.

14

The analysed sites

Figure 2.5. Gold necklaces discovered inside some burials on Mapungubwe Hill. Kept in the Mapungubwe Museum of the University of Pretoria. Image used by permission of University of Pretoria Museums.

Figure 2.6. Sceptre wrapped in gold leaf discovered in a burial on Mapungubwe Hill. Kept in the Mapungubwe Museum of the University of Pretoria. Image used by permission of University of Pretoria Museums.

Figure 2.7. Rhinoceros wrapped in gold leaf discovered in a burial on Mapungubwe Hill. Kept in the Mapungubwe Museum of the University of Pretoria. Image used by permission of University of Pretoria Museums.

side. In this area, the archaeological deposits were almost completely removed by Jones and Schofield during the excavations of 1934. Unfortunately, very little information on the extensive excavation area is available. During these

early archaeological investigations, in addition to a large quantity of ceramic material (Tiley-Nel 2013), spindle whorls, iron objects (Calabrese 2000b; Miller 1995; Miller 2001; Miller et al. 1995; Thondhlana 2015), clay figurines 15

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age This also yielded remains linked to domestic activities, including burnt detritus attributed to a hut used for storing grain (Meyer 1998: 169-170).

and ivory bracelets, many of them prestige objects, both produced locally and imported, were discovered. Among the remains of imported artefacts there is a large quantity of glass beads5 from south-east Asia (Wood 2000; 2012: 3234) and on Mapungubwe Hill, fragments of celadon pottery from China were also discovered. Another fragment of this type of ceramics was discovered at the main entrance on the Southern Terrace in 1991 and another two similar fragments recovered from the Greefswald farm are kept in the collection of the materials of the University of Pretoria. The study of these fragments shows that they belonged to small spherical vessels produced in China during the Song dynasty from 960 to 1279 AD (Meyer 1996: 203).

In the last few years the gradual erosion of the surface of the site has exposed numerous stone structures, some of which are circular, associated with grindstones. These structures have been interpreted as the foundations of the walls of grain stores that probably began to be used towards the end of Mapungubwe’s period of occupation (Meyer, Cloete 2010). Evidence of activities linked to the everyday life of the inhabitants was provided by the discovery of a series of holes carved in rows in the bedrock that formed a game board (Meyer 1998: 173; King 2011) (Figure 2.8) of a kind which is still widely used in many parts of Africa today6.

In 1971, in order to obtain detailed and reliable stratigraphic data and a complete collection of archaeological materials, it was necessary to conduct three assays on the Southern Terrace. The assays were located in the pre-existing excavation grid that was adopted during the investigations of 1953, which was subdivided into squares of 3.66 x 3.66m. The excavation on the Southern Terrace enabled a stratigraphic reading of the settlement and brought to light numerous stone retaining walls, the remains of burnt huts, gravel flooring, ceramic fragments, mortars and a large quantity of organic finds (Meyer 1998: 142; Meyer, Cloete 2010).

2.1.3. Phases of occupation of the site Information on the stratigraphy of the site can be found in the publication by Andrie Meyer (1998), but this concerns mainly two areas of excavation on Mapungubwe Hill and three excavation squares on the Southern Terrace. However, the faunal material studied was also recovered in other contexts that are not addressed in that publication. It was therefore necessary to consult the excavation reports, conserved in the archives of the Mapungubwe Collection managed by the Department of UP Arts of the University of Pretoria, in order to obtain information on the areas of

In the area called Mahobe (MST1) a smaller area of 12 x 9 m, divided into squares of 3 x 3 m was investigated.

Figure 2.8. Mapungubwe Hill – game board carved in the rock. 6 The gaming counters usually consist of seeds or stones, while the board can be created either by simply tracing it on the ground with one’s fingers or drawing it on a piece of paper. In the Venda language, the game is called mafuvha. For a description of the rules of the game, see Stayt 1968: 364.

3,888 beads from the Southern Terrace and 104,164 from the Mapungubwe Hill were classified. A single burial excavated on the Mapungubwe Hill contained more than 26,000 beads (Wood 2000; 2012: 32). 5

16

The analysed sites origin and the dating of the studied materials7 (Sentker 1954; Eloff 1978; 1979; 1980; 1981; 1983).

Little Ice Age resulted in conditions that were no longer favourable to agriculture (Huffman 1996a; 2000). Some recent studies however (Smith 2005; Smith et al. 2007; Huffman 2008) have demonstrated that the causes should actually be sought in the political sphere and commercial competition with Great Zimbabwe9.

The most ancient material discovered in Mapungubwe consists of a small quantity of ceramic fragments of the Early Iron Age, recovered from the lower layers during the excavations of the 1930s and the 1970s. These finds highlighted the existence of a small 10th-century settlement that preceded the main occupation of Mapungubwe, probably a single family that settled in this area for only two generations: in the chronology of the site it is referred to as Phase I (Meyer 1998: 181; 2000). The faunal material examined in this study is dated to the three subsequent phases, which are described below.

Several samples from both Mapungubwe Hill and the Southern Terrace have been 14C-dated and the results obtained confirm the chronology of the various phases of occupation of the site (Vogel 2000). 2.2. Mutamba Mutamba is situated on the northern side of the Soutpansberg mountains (Figure 2.9) on a ridge oriented east-west that formed the southern limit of the distribution of the material culture of Mapungubwe and probably the geographical limit of its influence. The southern side of the ridge on which the settlement stands falls within the valley of the River Mutamba, after which the site is named. At its closest point, the River Mutamba is just 250 metres from the settlement.

Phase II is conventionally defined as the period from 1030 to 1220 AD and is manifested in the lower layers of the deposit on the Southern Terrace and Mapungubwe Hill. The remains of the Phase II settlement broadly consist of a sequence of floors of huts. Unlike K2, a site just less than two kilometres from Mapungubwe that had previously been the region’s main settlement but was abandoned at the beginning of the 13th century8, the stratigraphy of the coeval deposits in Mapungubwe are shallower and less complex. Therefore, from the 11th to the early 13th century, Mapungubwe is believed to have been a less intensive settlement than K2. It also seems plausible that the settlement was extended to the hilltop only towards the end of Phase II (Meyer 1998: 181; 2000).

The site of Mutamba, identified and excavated by Johannes N. H. Loubser in the 1980s and subsequently investigated from 2010 to 2011 by Alexander Antonites, covers an area of just less than 1.2 hectares. The archaeological contexts and the results obtained from the radiocarbon analyses suggest that Mutamba was occupied in the 12th and 13th centuries AD (Antonites 2013: 105-109). Some of the ceramic materials discovered in the site display characteristics of the style known as Mapungubwe, which suggests the existence of social contacts between the two sites. Other communities that produced ceramics in the Mapungubwe style are scattered over the broad area between the northernmost parts of South Africa, Zimbabwe and southern Botswana (Antonites 2013).

Phase III of the settlement is dated to the first half of the 13th century. During this short period, the settlement of K2 was definitively abandoned. In contrast, in Mapungubwe there are deep deposits consisting of successions of gravel flooring, the remains of burnt huts, ceramic and organic material, both on the Southern Terrace and to a lesser extent on Mapungubwe Hill. The intense activity in the settlement during this phase is reflected in the numerous structures in these deposits attributed to domestic environments. Among the discoveries are the remains of large huts with double walls, storage huts and grindstones. The lower levels of this phase were sealed by a layer of burnt detritus. The upper layers of phase III also contain the remains of large huts with double walls and grindstones and were also sealed by a considerable layer of burnt detritus (Meyer 1998: 181-182; 2000). Phase IV of the settlement is dated to the second half of the 13th century. Unlike Phase III, the deposits of Phase IV, on both Mapungubwe Hill and the Southern Terrace, did not yield abundant remains of huts or other structures of a domestic nature (Meyer 1998: 182; 2000). The site was abandoned at the end of the 13th century. For a long time it was believed that the abandonment of the site was prompted by the deteriorating climate. Specifically, a cold and dry period associated with the beginning of the

Figure 2.9. Location of Mutamba (from Abatino, Antonites, in print).

7 I thank Dr Sian Tiley-Nel, Curator of the Mapungubwe Collection, for granting me access to archive data. 8 See above section 1.2.

9

17

See above section 1.2.

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age iron slag. In addition, this layer yielded 16 spindle whorls, of which one was decorated in the Mapungubwe style (Loubser 1991: 248-254).

Spatially, the site is laid out in accordance with the Central Cattle Pattern10 (CCP, see Huffman 2001), i.e. with a residential area around the central kraal11 for the livestock (Antonites 2013: 110-113). In this region in this period, the CCP is associated with non-elite settlements (Loubser 1991: 169-174; Calabrese 2007).

Other excavation campaigns were conducted by Alexander Antonites in 2010 and 2011 as part of his doctoral research into the interactions between central and peripheral settlements during the Mapungubwe period (Antonites 2013). During the early phase of the research some test digs were conducted in various parts of the site. Those that yielded architectural discoveries or other archaeological material were excavated more fully during the second phase of the research.

2.2.1. History of the archaeological research Mutamba was investigated by Johannes N. H. Loubser as part of his doctoral research into the origins of the Venda communities who currently occupy the region, published in 1991 (Loubser 1991). In the course of his research he excavated an area of 3 x 3 m and interviewed local inhabitants in order to obtain ethnographic information. The excavations yielded five layers, reaching a depth of about 1.2 m (Loubser 1991: 254). Loubser identified the presence of ceramics belonging to four different styles in the site: Mapungubwe was found at the lower levels, associated with the site’s first phase of occupation, together with ceramics known as Mutamba and Eiland. Next were layers of occupation that yielded ceramics in the Moloko style, while the shallowest layer contained ceramics in the Letaba style12. The levels containing the Mapungubwe ware also yielded two fragments of flooring that rested on a bed of earth and dung. One of the two fragments of flooring had four holes that were interpreted as postholes for a hut. Fragments of daga13 were also discovered scattered on the surface, associated with small pieces of

2.2.2. The site The initial survey of the site found visible material scattered over an area of about 1.2 hectares, although in the steeper parts little archaeological material was discovered. This deposit was the result of the erosion of the slope, especially as a result of rainwater runoff. In the area where the settlement stood there were ephemeral traces of recent human activities linked to agriculture. The archaeological material was distributed fairly evenly across the site; however, the deposits in the Saddle Area were richer in material, with a more elaborate stratigraphy, which suggests that this was the site’s main area of occupation (Figures 2.10; 2.11).

Figure 2.10. Mutamba – current photograph of the area subject to archaeological investigation (Saddle Area). See above section 1.3. South African term used to indicate an enclosure for cattle. 12 See above section 1.2. 13 A blend of clay and cattle dung used as a construction material. 10 11

18

The analysed sites

Figure 2.11. Mutamba – test digs and excavation areas (Features) investigated (from Antonites 2013).

The test trenches dug during the first phase of the research confirmed that the settlement of Mutamba was mostly built on the central terrace (Antonites 2013: 110). As already mentioned, the trenches that detected architectural elements were broadened and extended horizontally. The areas of excavation from which the faunal finds were recovered were labelled Feature 1, Feature 2 and Feature 3 (Figure 2.11).

Feature 2 yielded the remains of a single collapsed hut below a deposit of waste. Directly to the west of this inhabited area, the excavations found layers of burnt dung which were interpreted as the remains of a kraal (Feature 3). Inside this area a burial was identified. This feature, together with the spatial organisation of the settlement, has parallels with other settlements in the region (Antonites 2013: 92-105). The individuals buried in the kraals are assumed to be high-ranking members of the community (Huffman 2000; 2001; Huffmann, Murimbika 2003).

Feature 1 and Feature 2 yielded remains attributable to domestic contexts. Discovered in both areas were remains of huts with clay floors resting on an archaeologically sterile surface, which can therefore be ascribed to the initial phase of occupation of the site and are probably coeval with each other. Feature 1 is characterised by a series of hut floors interleaved with deposits of animal dung. The dung is probably associated with the existence of a small herd kept in an enclosure next to the hut.

The archaeological evidence suggests that Mutamba was composed of huts made of daga measuring about two metres in diameter. The huts were presumably linked to courtyards with hearths where cooking activities took place. The structures were probably circular, as is still the custom throughout southern Africa (Antonites 2013: 110-113). 19

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age The results of the archaeological excavations and the radiocarbon analyses suggest that Mutamba was occupied from as early as the late 12th century. The only clear evidence of this initial phase of occupation comes from the remains of the burnt hut discovered in Feature 2. However, the material culture associated with this hut suggests a later occupation, probably towards the mid 13th century. The excavations in the nearby Feature 1, also built on sterile terrain, suggest that the initial occupation of the site probably occurred at the beginning of the 13th century. The dating of other layers of the site also indicates that the main period of occupation was during the 13th century. Both the kraal and the remains of the huts discovered in Feature 1 are dated with certainty to this period. Mutamba is thus coeval with the main period of occupation of the site of Mapungubwe and the zenith of its economic and political development (Antonites 2013: 113).

20

3 Methodology Zooarchaeology is concerned with the study of faunal finds discovered in archaeological levels. The analysis of animal remains represents an important tool for studying history, one that can enrich and add new elements of reflection, for example regarding the economic and cultural aspects of past communities in both the prehistoric and historic epochs. The discipline is by now firmly established both in Italy and abroad and many works dedicated to the study and application of this topic have been published14. The object of zooarchaeological research is usually skeletal remains of animal origin, but the materials studied also include horns and antlers, the shells of marine, terrestrial and freshwater molluscs, hides, eggs, coproliths etc.

and Late Iron Age that were compared with the samples studied.

For a correct interpretation of the zooarchaeological record it is essential to consider information regarding the archaeological context, since the discovery of animal bones can indicate a wide range of activities, such as livestock rearing, hunting, religious rituals and others. It is thus necessary to identify the processes that contributed to the formation of the archaeological deposit and the recovery of the faunal finds. For a correct study of the finds, the first task in the laboratory is the washing and consolidation, if necessary, of the bones, followed by the determination of their anatomical position and taxonomy.

The material was conserved in boxes in storerooms in the building that houses the Museum and the archives of Mapungubwe on the University of Pretoria campus. Once permission to enter had been obtained, it was seen that the boxes of materials did not always have a label indicating the provenance of the material inside them, while for those that did have a label, the contents did not always correspond to what was indicated on it. It was thus necessary to check each box to recover the faunal material that was then studied. The original packaging material consisted of brown paper bags. These were often torn and in some cases the materials inside had spilled out, becoming mixed with other material and thus were no longer contextualised. The paper bags were replaced with polyethylene bags, inside which was inserted a card with information on the provenance and archaeological context.

Re-examination of the faunal sample of Mapungubwe and zooarchaeological analysis of the site of Mutamba increased the amount of data available. In addition, integration of the results of analyses of faunal samples from a range of sites in various geographical regions is expected to shed light on the economic and social developments that led to the establishment of a society in the Limpopo valley during the Iron Age. 3.2. Preparation of the sample

3.1. Zooarchaeological research conducted in the area of interest: the state of the art Since the discovery of Mapungubwe in 1933 most of the archaeological research has concentrated on the area around the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers (Fouché 1937; Gardner 1963; Meyer 1998; Calabrese 2007; Huffman 2009). The study of the fauna has also therefore concentrated mainly on the sites in this area, with the aim of obtaining a clear picture of the exploitation and management of animal resources (Voigt 1979; Hanish 1980; Voigt 1981; Voigt, Plug 1981; Voigt 1983; Plug, Voigt 1985; Plug 2000; Hutten 2005; Fatherley 2009; Smith et al. 2010; Brunton et al. 2013; Raath 2014). Over the years, interest has also developed in Mapungubwe-period sites situated in regions further away from the Limpopo valley, and a considerable number of zooarchaeological analyses have also been conducted in these areas (Voigt 1979; Van Ewyk 1987; De Wet-Bronner 1994; De Wet-Bronner 1995a; De Wet-Bronner 1995b; Manyanga et al. 2000; Prinsloo, Coetzee 2001; Manyanga 2007; Badenhorst et al. 2011; Antonites et al. 2016; Magoma et al. 2018). Table 3.1 shows the list of sites dated to the Early, Middle

In contrast, the faunal material from Mutamba was conserved in the Laboratory of Archaeology of the University of Pretoria. Recovery was easier since the material had been recovered during more recent excavation campaigns. All of the faunal remains were washed in the laboratory to remove excess earth. After cleaning, the fragments were divided into those that could be taxonomically determined and those that could not and were labelled. The results of the zooarchaeological investigations were stored in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, one for each site analysed, which contained the main types of archaeological information (site, year of excavation, grid square, layer, description of the context and any other information useful for establishing the location of the finds) and the information resulting from the zooarchaeological analysis. The latter includes the state of conservation of the bone (intact or fragmented), anatomical element, anatomical portion of the element conserved (e.g. proximal, distal, diaphysis), side, fusion of the epiphysis (e.g. fused,

14 Of the works that have tackled this topic, see: Davis 1987; Tagliacozzo 1993; De Grossi Mazzorin 2008; O’Connor 2008; Baker, Worley 2014.

21

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Table 3.1. List of sites of the Early, Middle and Late Iron Age in which zooarchaeological analyses have been conducted. Chronological phase Early Iron Age

Site Happy Rest

4th century

Plug, Voigt 1985 Plug 2000

9th century

Plug 2000

Schroda

9th-11th centuries

Hanisch 1980 Voigt 1981 Voigt, Plug 1981 Plug, Voigt 1985 Plug 2000 Raath 2014

Commando Kop

9th-11th centuries

Voigt, Plug 1981 Plug, Voigt 1985 Plug 2000

K2

10th-11th centuries

Voigt 1983 Plug 2000 Hutten 2005

Pont Drift

9th-12th centuries

Hanisch 1980 Voigt, Plug 1981 Plug, Voigt 1985 Plug 2000

Stayt

Plug 2000 11th century Prinsloo, Coetzee 2001

Skutwater

12th century van Ewyk 1987

Mapungubwe 11th-13th Hill centuries

Late Iron Age

Bibliography

Sentinel ranch 8 century th

Pa 8.1

Middle Iron Age

Dating

not fused, partially fused), age group (e.g. newborn, juvenile, subadult, adult, elderly), sex (for the remains that allow attribution), tooth wear stages, species and measurements. A final field contains notes in which any diseases and taphonomic modifications are described. The indeterminate fragments, ribs and vertebrae were counted separately and any observable traces of processing by humans (e.g. butchery marks), gnawing by rodents and carnivores and burning were inserted in the database. 3.3. Methods applied to the samples analysed The finds were classified with reference to osteological atlases by Schmid (1972), Barone (1974), Walker (1985) and Plug (2014). Reference was also made to the comparative skeletal collection of the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History of Pretoria. The determination of the species took account of the distribution of the animals in the region in the past and the present, taking the studies by Du Plessis (1969) and Plug and Badenhorst (2001) as a reference. Sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus) can be distinguished by observing certain morphological characteristics of certain bones. The differences can be minimal however, and in this case it was necessary to consult specific works: Boessneck et al. (1964), Boessneck (1969), Payne (1985), Prummel, Frisch (1986), Halstead et al. (2002), Zeder, Lapham (2010) and Zeder, Pilaar (2010). It should be remembered that in Africa very few studies have been carried out on this topic and the autochthonous varieties of sheep and goats differ from the better known breeds of Europe and western Asia. A paper presented at the 13th ICAZ conference (International Council for Zooarchaeology) held in Ankara in 2018, based on research by Louisa Hutten and Judith Sealy of the University of Cape Town, demonstrated that the two species can be distinguished on the basis of morphological differences in the molars, as well as isotopic analyses. However, although the isotopic measurements successfully separate the sheep from the goats within specific areas, environmental variations can render the distinction less legible. For the distinction between cattle (Bos taurus) and African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), reference was made to the study by Peters (1988), while to distinguish the remains of chickens (Gallus gallus) from the helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris) MacDonald (1992) was consulted. In some cases, it was possible to distinguish the scrub hare (Lepus saxatilis) from the Cape hare (Lepus capensis) by observing certain morphological characteristics and using the comparative skeletal collection as a reference. This was possible only for certain anatomical features (the humerus, radius, pelvis, tibia and calcaneus) which at the time of analysis were in a good state of conservation15.

Voigt 1983 Plug, Voigt 1985

Southern Terrace

11th-13th centuries

Plug 2000 Abatino (see below)

Mutamba

12th-13th centuries

Abatino (see below)

2229 AD5

13th century Plug 2000

MNR 74

13th century

Antonites et al. 2016

Tavhatshena

12th-16th centuries

De Wet – Bronner 1994 Plug 2000

Icon

Hanisch 1979 Voigt 1979 14th century Voigt, Plug 1981 Plug, Voigt 1985 Plug 2000

Mutokolwe

15th-16th centuries

Magoma et al. 2018

Thulamela

14th-18th centuries

Plug 2000

Dzata

De Wet – 17th century Bronner 1995a Plug 2000

Tshirululuni

17th-19th centuries

Hapi pan

18th century Plug 2000

Tshitheme

18th century Plug 2000

Due to the fragmentary state of the material, some of the remains could not be determined to species level. These were grouped by class or family, for example carnivores, bovids, rodents and birds. The remains attributable to

De Wet – Bronner 1995b Plug 2000

A recent study examined the distinction between the two species on both a morphological and a morphometric basis (Scott 2018).

15

22

Methodology bovids are the most abundant due to the high number of bovids present in southern Africa. Zooarchaeologists working on these contexts typically classify fragments of skeletal remains that have lost their diagnostic characteristics but are clearly attributable to the Bovidae family into four groups depending on their dimensions, as set out by Brain (1974). The bovid remains that were not determined to species level were thus subdivided into small (Bovidae I), medium (Bovidae II), large (Bovidae III) and very large (Bovidae IV). Table 3.2 shows the southern African species associated with each category. Regarding domestic bovids, the caprines were placed in the Bovidae II category, while the cattle are included in the Bovidae III category.

Table 3.2. List of wild bovid species present in Southern Africa, subdivided by the categories set out in Brain (1974). The scientific nomenclature is taken from Skinner, Chimimba (2005).

Concerning the quantification of the material, for each species the bone remains were identified and counted, giving the number of identified specimens (NISP). The calculation of the minimum number of individuals (MNI) was based on the recommendations of Bökönyi (1970) and was performed for each animal species considering the most frequent anatomical element, but also the size, age at death and sex. Considering that the real number of individuals present in the sample can never be determined, what is obtained is only an estimate and therefore the percentage was not calculated (Plug, Plug 1990).

Bovidae I

Kg

Damara dik-dik (Madoqua damarensis Günther)

4.5-5

Suni (Neotragus moschatus Von Dueben)

4.5-7

Blue duiker (Philantomba monticola Thunberg)

6-7

Cape grysbok (Raphicerus melanotis Thunberg)

7-9

Sharpe’s grysbok (Raphicerus sharpei Thomas)

9-14

Red duiker (Cephalophus natalensis A. Smith)

10-16

Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus Zimmermann)

11-15

Steenbok (Raphicerus campestris Thunberg)

7-9

Common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia Linnaeus)

11-21

Oribi (Ourebia ourebi Zimmermann)

14-19

Bovidae II Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis Zimmermann)

18-52

Mountain reedbuck (Redunca fulvorufula Afzelium) 23-27

The age at death was estimated on the basis of the fusion of the articular epiphyses of the post-cranial bones and the state of eruption and wear of the teeth. The age of fusion of the epiphyses in the caprines was based on the study by Bullock and Rackham (1982) and for the cattle on the study by Silver (1969). The age at death was determined on the basis of the eruption and wear of the teeth with reference to the work of Grant (1982) for cattle and Payne (1973) for caprines. It was not possible to determine the sex of any fragment on the basis of morphological or osteometric criteria.

Grey rhebok (Pelea capreolus Forster)

23-27

Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus Pallas)

23-83

Bontebok/Blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus Pallas)

32-81

Impala (Aepyceros melampus Lichtenstein)

36-69

Southern reedbuck (Redunca arundinum Boddaert)

45-104

Puku (Kobus vardonii Livingstone)

56-84

Bovidae III

The butchery marks and the way in which the bones were broken generally provide information on the use and division of the carcasses. These characteristics represent irrefutable proof of human action, shedding light on the processing, preparation and consumption of the meat. Archaeological sites can yield a high percentage of fragmented bones, whose conditions are closely correlated with the site’s functions or with the specific culinary and economic use of the animals. An example is the bones that were broken in order to extract the marrow (Noe-Nygaard 1977). The breakage and fragmentation of the bones can thus serve as useful indicators of pre-depositional activities (Orton 2012). Naturally, the tools used to skin and dismember the animal also leave characteristic signs on the bones and it is important to record and describe these traces in order to better understand how these operations were conducted. In this study the bones that present butchery or skinning marks and the portions of the bone on which they were visible, using as a reference the work of De Cupere (2001), were recorded. Traces of carnivores, which often played a waste disposal role in the

Lechwe (Kobus leche Gray)

77-130

Nyala (Tragelaphus angasii Angas)

91-114

Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii Speke)

91-114

Tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus Burchell)

117-158

Red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus Pallas)

106-172

Lichtenstein’s hartebeest (Alcelaphus lichtensteinii Peters)

146-205

Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros Pallas)

150-296

Black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou Zimmermann) 158-182 Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus Ogilby)

158-272

Gemsbok (Oryx gazella Linnaeus)

182-238

Sable (Hippotragus niger Harris)

205-264

Blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus Burchell)

205-274

Roan (Hippotragus equinus Geoffrey)

223-299

Bovidae IV African buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman)

367-837

Eland (Tragelaphus oryx Pallas)

396-945

sites, can also be observed on the bones. Several studies have investigated the destructive effects that dogs have on the various types of bone. They are also able to break the long bones. The fragmentation of the finds may therefore be affected by this factor (Davis 1987: 26-27; Cleghorn, Marean 2007). All the traces attributable to anthropic and non-anthropic actions (Fisher 1995), on both determined bones and indeterminate fragments, were recorded in the 23

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age database. Of the combusted bones, the colour changes, which range from brown and black for charred bones to blue, grey and white for the calcinated bones (Nicholson 1993), were described. A modest quantity of worked bones were discovered in both sites. The bone tools recovered from sites in the area of Mapungubwe have been extensively studied. Many of them were classified as needles, arrow points and spear points (Voigt 1983: 101-119; Tiley-Nel, Antonites 2015), others as work tools such as hoes (Bradfield, Antonites 2018), and some even as objects with magic or prophetic powers (Plug 1982; 1987; 2012). In addition, in the last few years studies have been conducted using mass spectrometry (ZooMS) to identify the animal species used to make the arrow points (Bradfield et al. 2018). These studies have also looked at the micro-residues present on the bone tools (Bradfield 2015a; 2015b; Bradfield et al. 2015); one study re-examined about 700 worked bones from Mapungubwe (Antonites et al. 2016). The bones that were sufficiently well-preserved were measured by digital caliper and all the measurements are shown in the appendix. Unfortunately, there are very few published osteometric data available for this geographical context. This is probably because many of the studies were carried out in the 1970s and 80s, a period in which the rise of post-processual archaeology was accompanied by strong emphasis on taphonomy, causing biometry to be seen as the mere recording of osteological measurements (Albarella 2002: 51-52). An analytical procedure that has been used with increasing frequency in the course of the 21st century, which was also applied to the samples studied here, is the log size index scaling technique (Simpson et al. 1960; Meadow 1999). This method is used to study variability in the dimensions of the animal over the course of time and it can be applied on large geographical scales. The log-ratio is calculated with the formula log10 (X/Y), where “X” is the measurement of the archaeological sample and “Y” is the measurement corresponding to a standard. The standard values can be averages calculated on the basis of a sample, archaeological or modern, of animals of the same species, or the measurements of a complete skeleton of an individual. The measurements used as a standard in this study, for both cattle and caprines, are those set out in the work by Manhart (1998, Table 103). In this study, measurement of the bones was mainly performed with reference to the work of von Den Driesch (1976); the BT and HTC values of the humerus in all species were measured using the method described by Payne and Bull for pigs (1988), while those of the metapodials of cattle and caprines followed the proposals of Davis (1992; 1996). The height at the withers was calculated only for the sheep, using Teichert’s coefficients (1975).

24

4 The faunal remains from Mapungubwe The sample comes from three excavation areas that include both the area of the site occupied by the elite and the area inhabited by the rest of the population. The following paragraphs present the zooarchaeological analysis with reference to the areas of provenance and the successive phases of occupation of the site. 4.1. Areas of provenance and chronology of the finds The faunal finds studied here come from Mapungubwe Hill (MK), the Southern Terrace (MST) and the area known as Mahobe (MST1)16. A preliminary study of the fauna was conducted by the zooarchaeologist Elizabeth Voigt17, who analysed the faunal finds from some excavation squares on Mapungubwe Hill and selected a single excavation square on the Southern Terrace for a more detailed study (Voigt 1983). The present study focused on the re-examination of some of the faunal finds discovered during the excavation campaigns of the 1950s and 60s already analysed by Voigt18 and on the analysis of materials discovered during the excavations of the 1970s, for which no published description was available.

Figure 4.1. Composition of the faunal sample from the Southern Terrace (MST).

The materials are associated with three phases of occupation of the site: Phase II, dated to the 11th and 12th centuries AD, Phase III, dated to the first half of the 13th century AD and Phase IV dated to the second half of the 13th century AD, which was followed by the abandonment of the site19.

Figure 4.2. Composition of the faunal sample from the area known as Mahobe (MST1).

4.2. The zooarchaeological data from the Southern Terrace and Mahobe

Table 4.1. Faunal samples recovered from the Southern Terrace and the area known as Mahobe.

The faunal sample analysed is composed of 23,513 fragments, of which 4,035, i.e. 17.2%, could be taxonomically identified. In addition to bones, the determined fraction includes a modest quantity of fragments of terrestrial and freshwater molluscs. When these are excluded, the number of identified specimens (NISP) comes to 3,444, i.e. 14.6% of the total fragments. 17,234 fragments, 73.3% of the total sample, could not be determined, while 9.5% of the material analysed is made up of vertebrae and ribs. Figures 4.1 and 4.2 and Table 4.1 show the quantification of the composition of the sample from the Southern Terrace and the area known as Mahobe.

Southern Terrace (MST)

See above section 2.1. For biographical information, see Morris 2010. 18 Unfortunately, part of the material analysed by E. Voigt could not be re-examined because it is not present in either the storage facilities of the Mapungubwe Collection or in the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History of Pretoria where the analyses were performed. The material has probably been lost. 19 See above section 2.1.

Mahobe (MST1) %

Total

NISP

%

NISP

NISP

%

Identified specimens

3040

17.4%

995

16.6% 4035 17.2%

Ribs

1081

6.2%

407

6.8%

1488

6.3%

Vertebrae

552

3.2%

204

3.4%

756

3.2%

Unidentified specimens

12835

73.3% 4399 73.3% 17234 73.3%

Total

17508

100% 6005 100% 23513 100%

16 17

4.2.1. Phase II The faunal finds recovered in the contexts dated to the 11th and 12th centuries are not in a good state of conservation and are highly fragmented. Of the 5,419 fragments 25

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age characteristics that enable determination to species level were divided into four groups depending on their size, following the classification applied by Brain (1974). The sample included a single fragment attributable to a small bovid (Bovidae I), the others being attributable to bovids of medium (Bovidae II) and large (Bovidae III) dimensions. Among the finds there was also a fragment attributable to scrub hare (Lepus saxatilis) and another to catfish (Clarias sp.). The sample also included a modest quantity of terrestrial freshwater molluscs.

discovered, only 222 could be taxonomically identified (4% of the total sample). 4,263 fragments, i.e. 79% of the total sample, could not be determined, while 7% of the material analysed is made up of vertebrae and 11% of ribs. The low number of fragments attributable to this phase of occupation of the site may be due to the fact that the settlement had not yet grown to its fullest extent20. 4.2.1.1. Taxonomic composition Most of the faunal remains (78%) were recovered from the south-eastern area known as Mahobe, while a more modest quantity (22%) are from the Southern Terrace (Table 4.2). Table 4.2 lists the species present and the number of identified specimens (NISP) discovered on both the Southern Terrace and in Mahobe. The sample includes two remains attributed to the common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), one to oribi (Ourebia ourebi) and another two fragments probably attributable to the latter species. The skeletal remains attributable to bovids without diagnostic

Analysis of the determined fragments shows that the remains of domestic animals constitute 91% of the Phase II faunal sample. Table 4.3 shows the total number of identified specimens (NISP) discovered for this phase of occupation of the site and the minimum number of individuals (MNI) calculated for each species. Table 4.4 and Figure 4.3 show the percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic animals, wild animals, birds and fish, excluding the remains of Bovidae II and Bovidae III, which may have been either wild or domestic. Sheep and goats are the most frequently attested species for Phase II, followed by cattle. The category that includes wild bovids, equids and suids accounts for 7.7% of the sample; this category

Table 4.2. MST & MST1 – Phase II: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages on the Southern Terrace (MST) and in the area known as Mahobe (MST1). Taxa

Phase II MST NISP

MST1

% NISP % NISP NISP

Table 4.3. MST & MST1 – Phase II: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of each taxon on the Southern Terrace (MST) and in the area known as Mahobe (MST1).

Domestic animals Cattle – Bos taurus L.

10

Sheep or goat – Ovis/Capra

12

Sheep – Ovis aries L.

-

Goat – Capra hircus L.

-

23.3%

24

15.7%

16 27.9%

5

MST & MST1

16.3%

Taxa

4

Common warthog – Phacochoerus africanus Gmelin

-

-

2

1.3%

Oribi - Ourebia ourebi Zimm.

-

-

1

0.7%

? Oribi – cf. Ourebia ourebi Zimm.

-

-

2

1.3%

Small bovid – Bovidae I

-

-

1

0.7%

Medium-sized bovid – Bovidae II

18

41.9%

71

46.4%

Large bovid – Bovidae III

3

7.0%

25

16.3%

Scrub hare – Lepus saxatilis Cuvier

-

-

1

0.7%

Catfish – Clarias sp.

-

-

1

0.7%

Total

43

100%

153

100%

Giant African Snails – Achatina sp.

4

10

Freshwater molluscs - Unionidae

1

5

Total

52

170

20

%

MNI

Cattle – Bos taurus L.

34

17.3%

3

Sheep or goat – Ovis/Capra

28

Sheep – Ovis aries L.

5

18.9%

4

Goat – Capra hircus L.

4

Wild animals

2

4

NISP

Domestic animals

Wild animals

Small terrestrial molluscs – Mollusca

Phase II

Common warthog – Phacochoerus africanus Gmelin

2

1.0%

1

Oribi - Ourebia ourebi Zimm.

1

0.5%

1

? Oribi – cf. Ourebia ourebi Zimm.

2

1.0%

Small bovid – Bovidae I

1

0.5%

-

Medium-sized bovid – Bovidae II

89

45.4%

-

Large bovid – Bovidae III

28

14.3%

-

Scrub hare – Lepus saxatilis Cuvier

1

0.5%

1

1

0.5%

1

196 100%

11

Catfish – Clarias sp. Total Giant African Snails – Achatina sp.

6

Small terrestrial molluscs – Mollusca

14

Freshwater molluscs - Unionidae Total

See above section 2.1.

26

6 222

The faunal remains from Mapungubwe includes the warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), oribi (Ourebia ourebi) and small bovids (Bovidae I) consisting of small wild bovids not determined to species level. The “other wild” category includes only the scrub hare (Lepus saxatilis). During this phase of occupation, no carnivore or bird remains are attested, while the fish remains are limited to a single fragment.

belonging to at least three individuals, one of which was a juvenile and two were adults (Table 4.5). The quantification of the skeletal parts of cattle is shown in Table 4.6, together with the number of identified specimens (NISP) and the relative percentages accounted for by each skeletal element. The quantity of bone fragments seems to indicate a greater presence in the sample of cranial bones and bones at the extremities of the hindlimbs and forelimbs. In contrast, observing the minimum number of elements (MNE), the skeletal parts appear to be broadly balanced (Figure 4.5).

Considering only the two main domestic species and the game animals that presumably were part of the diet of the inhabitants of the site, it can be affirmed that the diet was mainly characterised by the meat of caprines and cattle (91%), while wild species played a secondary role (9%) (Figure 4.4).

From the mortality profiles obtained from the analysis of the epiphyseal fusion of the long bones (Silver 1969), it

4.2.1.2. Domestic fauna Cattle account for about 17% of the determined sample. 34 finds were attributed to this species (Tables 4.2 and 4.3), Table 4.4. MST & MST1 – Phase II: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages of total remains accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish. Mapungubwe (MST & MST1)

Phase II NISP

% NISP

Cattle

34

43.0%

Caprines

37

46.8%

Equids, wild bovids and suids

6

7.6%

Other wild species

1

1.3%

Carnivores

0

0%

Birds

0

0%

Fish

1

1%

Total

79

100%

Figure 4.4. MST & MST1 – Phase II: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and game animals.

Figure 4.3. MST & MST1 – Phase II: percentages of the number of identified specimens (NISP) accounted for by domestic and wild species, birds and fish.

27

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Table 4.7. MST & MST1 – Phase II: epiphysial fusion data for cattle (Silver 1969). NF = not fused; F = fused.

Table 4.5. MST & MST1 – Phase II: minimum number of individuals (MNI) of the main domestic species (J = juvenile; S/A = subadult; A = adult). MST & MST1

Bone

Phase II

Taxa Cattle – Bos taurus L.

J

S/A

A

1

-

2

1

-

3

Sheep or goat – Ovis/Capra Sheep – Ovis aries L. Goat – Capra hircus L.

Skeletal element

Cattle – Bos taurus L. NISP

% NISP

Horn core

0

0.0%

Skull

0

0.0%

Os petrosum

2

5.9%

Maxilla + upper teeth

5

14.7%

Mandible + lower teeth

9

26.5%

Indeterminate teeth

0

0.0%

Hyoid

0

0.0%

Atlas

0

0.0%

Axis

0

0.0%

Sternum

0

0.0%

Scapula

0

0.0%

Humerus

0

0.0%

Radius

2

5.9%

Ulna

2

5.9%

Carpal

1

2.9%

Metacarpal

2

5.9%

Sacrum

0

0.0%

Pelvis

1

2.9%

Femur

0

0.0%

Tibia

0

0.0%

Patella

0

0.0%

Calcaneus

0

0.0%

Astragalus

0

0.0%

Tarsal

1

2.9%

Metatarsal

1

2.9%

Metapodial

0

0.0%

Sesamoid

0

0.0%

Phalanx I

2

5.9%

Phalanx II

5

14.7%

Phalanx III

1

2.9%

Total

34

100%

NF-F

Phalanx I

18 months

0-2

Phalanx II

18 months

0-3

Distal radius

42-48 months

0-1

Proximal ulna

42-48 months

0-1

Distal ulna

42-48 months

0-1

emerges that the cattle were butchered at 42 months of age or more (Table 4.7). Remains attributable to young or subadult individuals are completely absent, which suggests that the livestock was butchered once it had reached a suitable weight.

Table 4.6. MST & MST1 – Phase II: list of anatomical elements pertaining to cattle (NISP) and relative percentages of the total. MST & MST1

Age

Unfortunately the sample contained only four intact loose lower teeth in which the degree of eruption, substitution and wear of the teeth could be observed. The data obtained from these analyses therefore are not particularly reliable. It is however interesting to note that the wear recorded using the method proposed by Grant (1982) (Table 4.8), together with the reading of the data suggested by O’Connor (2003: 160), indicates the presence of at least one immature and one subadult. 37 finds were attributed to caprines, about 19% of the sample as a whole. Calculation of the minimum number of individuals (MNI) shows the presence of at least four caprines, consisting of one juvenile and three adults (Table 4.5). Where possible, the sheep bones were distinguished from those of goat; 5 fragments were identified as being from sheep (56%) and 4 from goats (44%). Analysis of the distribution of caprine skeletal elements (Table 4.9) shows higher percentages for bones belonging to the skull, followed by foot bones, hindlimbs and forelimbs. In contrast, calculation of the minimum number of elements (MNE) indicates that the skeletal parts are broadly balanced (Figure 4.6). Regarding the caprines, the data on the age at death obtained from the analysis of the fusion of the epiphyses of the long bones (Bullock, Rackham 1982) demonstrate that 40% of the herd were butchered in their second or third year of life while 60% were killed after reaching the age of four (Table 4.10). Unfortunately it was not possible to use the method based on the degree of eruption, substitution and wear of the teeth since this phase yielded only a single third lower molar. 4.2.1.3. Wild fauna In the osteological sample some wild species were identified (Tables 4.2; 4.3). The remains of equids, bovids (those reliably judged to be wild) and suids account for 7.6% of the sample (Table 4.4; Figure 4.3). Among the remains of suids there are two fragments of common 28

The faunal remains from Mapungubwe

Figure 4.5. MST & MST1 – Phase II: number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of elements (MNE) for each anatomical element of cattle. Table 4.8. MST & MST1 – Phase II: cattle wear stages of individual teeth (following Grant 1982). C

V

E

1⁄2

U

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

j

k

l

dP4

m

n

o

p

1

P4

1

M1

1

M2

1

M3

warthog (Phacochoerus africanus); among the wild bovids only one species, the oribi (Ourebia ourebi), was identified, while there were no remains of equids. Among the other wild species, one fragment attributed to scrub hare (Lepus saxatilis) was discovered, along with one fragment of catfish (Clarias sp). There were also a few fragments of the shells of giant African snails (Achatina sp.) and freshwater molluscs (Unionidae).

conservation. Of the 1,714 fragments discovered, 1,421 (83%) were taxonomically identified. About 43% of the sample had previously been analysed and was already brushed, labelled and selected. These finds were given a new inventory number and both labels were inserted in the database. There were 242 indeterminate fragments, 14% of the total, while 1% of the analysed material was made up of vertebrae and 2% of ribs.

4.2.2. Phase III

4.2.2.1. Taxonomic composition

The faunal finds recovered from contexts dated to the first half of the 13th century AD are in a fair state of

About 75% of the materials analysed were discovered on the Southern Terrace and about 25% in the area known as 29

Exploitation and Management of Animal Resources During the Middle Iron Age Table 4.9. MST & MST1 – Phase II: list of anatomical elements pertaining to caprines (NISP) and relative percentages of the total.

Mahobe (Table 4.11). The species present and the number of identified specimens (NISP) relative to each species are listed in Table 4.11. The material studied was made up almost entirely of domestic animals, with only about 2% attributed to other species. There were a few remains of suids attributed to the common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and the bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus), a fragment of rhinoceros (Ceratotherium/Diceros) and one item probably attributable to African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), while the other skeletal remains are attributable

Caprines – Ovis/capra

MST & MST1 Skeletal element

NISP

% NISP

Horn core

0

0.0%

Skull

1

2.7%

Os petrosum

0

0.0%

Maxilla + upper teeth

4

10.8%

Mandible + lower teeth

8

21.6%

Indeterminate teeth

0

0.0%

Hyoid

0

0.0%

Atlas

0

0.0%

Axis

0

0.0%

Sternum

0

0.0%

Scapula

0

0.0%

Table 4.11. MST & MST1 – Phase III: number of identified specimens (NISP) and relative percentages on the Southern Terrace (MST) and in the area known as Mahobe (MST1). Taxa

Phase III MST NISP

MST1

%

NISP

% 14.9%

Humerus

1

2.7%

Radius

3

8.1%

Cattle – Bos taurus L.

283 26.4%

52

Ulna

0

0.0%

Sheep or goat – Ovis/Capra

186

54

Carpal

0

0.0%

Metacarpal

1

2.7%

Sheep – Ovis aries L.

43

Sacrum

0

0.0%

Goat – Capra hircus L.

38

Pelvis

1

2.7%

Femur

4

10.8%

Tibia

0

0.0%

Patella

1

2.7%

Calcaneus

3

8.1%

Astragalus

3

8.1%

Tarsal

1

2.7%

Metatarsal

0

0.0%

Metapodial

2

5.4%

Sesamoid

0

0.0%

Phalanx I

2

5.4%

Phalanx II

2

5.4%

Phalanx III

0

0.0%

Total

37

100%

Domestic animals

Age

10

19.3%

3

Wild animals Rhinocerontidae

1

0.1%

-

-

Common warthog – Phacochoerus africanus Gmelin

2

0.2%

-

-

Bushpig - Potamochoerus larvatus Cuvier

1

0.1%

-

-

? African buffalo – cf. Syncerus caffer Spar.

2

0.2%

-

-

Small bovid – Bovidae I

1

0.1%

-

-

Small/medium-sized bovid Bovidae I-II

2

0.2%

2

0.6%

133

38.2%

0.7%

9

2.6%

190 17.7%

80

23.0%

Medium-sized bovid – Bovidae II Medium-sized/large bovid – Bovidae II-III Large bovid – Bovidae III

Table 4.10. MST & MST1 – Phase II: epiphysial fusion data for caprines (Bullock, Rackham 1982). NF = not fused; F = fused. Bone

24.9%

NF-F

308 28.8% 7

Large bovid – Bovidae III (wild)

1

0.1%

1

0.3%

Large/very large bovid – Bovidae III-IV

3

0.3%

-

-

Rodents - Rodentia

-

-

2

0.6%

Cape hare – Lepus capensis L.

-

-

1

0.3%

Chicken/Guineafowl – Gallus/ Numididae

1

0.1%

-

-

Distal humerus