Yoga and Alignment [1 ed.] 1527564746, 9781527564749

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Yoga and Alignment

Yoga and Alignment: From the Upanishads to B.K.S. Iyengar By

Gitte Bechsgaard and Gillian McCann

Yoga and Alignment: From the Upanishads to B.K.S. Iyengar By Gitte Bechsgaard and Gillian McCann This book first published 2021 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2021 by Gitte Bechsgaard and Gillian McCann All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-6474-6 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-6474-9

This book is dedicated to the memory of Sri Krishan Mantri

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ................................................................................... ix Chapter One ................................................................................................ 1 Higher Law and Alignment Chapter Two ............................................................................................. 13 Practices and Attitudes that Allow for Flourishing Chapter Three ........................................................................................... 29 Establishing Healthy Mental States Chapter Four ............................................................................................. 43 The Temple of the Body Chapter Five ............................................................................................. 63 The Breath as Spirit Chapter Six ............................................................................................... 79 Obstacles on the Spiritual Path Chapter Seven........................................................................................... 97 The Beginning of the Movement Inward Chapter Eight .......................................................................................... 105 Alignment and Higher States of Consciousness Chapter Nine........................................................................................... 115 Models of Development and Transformation References .............................................................................................. 131 Appendix: A Selected Sample of Yoga and Mind/Body Research......... 137

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Senior Commissioning Editor, Rebecca Gladders and the team at Cambridge Scholars Publishing for their support in the publication of this work. They would also like to express their appreciation to editor Kerry Fast for her meticulous and dedicated work. Both authors would like to thank Kathryn Curtis for her contributions and dedication. This work was completed in the middle of a worldwide pandemic and our thanks go out to all the front line and health care professionals who allowed for some semblance of normality in the face of an unprecedented challenge to us all. Although it is not customary to thank your co-author, Gitte and Gillian wish to express their gratitude for the work they have done together over many years. Since 2003 we have taught at Vidya Institute, and written, envisioned and created curriculum together. Both personally and professionally this relationship has been a tremendous gift. We deeply value our friendship, and feel grateful for the many ways that we share in this journey. Gillian would like to express her gratitude to Dr. Joseph T. O’Connell who introduced her to the field of South Asian religion and who completely transformed her ideas about spiritual practice. I also wish to thank Shivaram who has been a mentor and teacher for many years. I would also like to express my gratitude to Sri Krishan Mantriji for his teachings,

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inspiration and support. He imagined this book, and larger work, long before we did. I would finally like to thank my family and friends for their support, interest and encouragement. Gitte Bechsgaard would like to express her gratitude to her teacher and mentor Sri Krishan Mantriji. Without his expert guidance, daily private teachings and blessings this work would never have been possible. You are in my heart every day. Your example, wisdom and generosity of heart will always be an inspiration to me. Also, I wish to express my gratitude to Yoga Master Sri B.K.S Iyengar, who have taught me about the transformative and healing power of Yoga. To write about Yoga without the personal experience of sadhana would not have been possible for me. It is out of love for the practice, that this book has come in to being. I thank all the Iyengar yoga teachers who have shared with me over the last thirty years, and hope for many more years of Iyengar yoga sadhana together. My appreciation must be expressed to all who assisted and supported me through the process surrounding this work. A special thank you goes out to my colleagues Gloria Goldberg, Sheila Haswell, Bharathi Venkatachalapathy and Michael Highburger. It has been an honour to teach and share together. And to Amy Renee, whose kindness, unfaltering support and vision has meant so much to me. I must also thank the Vidya Institute team: Daniel Ruberto Bechsgaard, Leah Futalan and Katy Curtis. You saved the work at a very vulnerable point in time. Your committed intervention and unconditional support has been outstanding. I am forever grateful, and know in my heart of hearts, that Krishan Mantriji would have been as well. Truly, there has been no

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challenge which you have not been able to face and overcome. Your integrity, steadfastness and dedication to the teachings have touched me profoundly. You have worked together in a beautiful manner, bringing your different skill sets and strength together. It has allowed me to write and teach, trusting in your overseeing many other tasks. And to everyone at Quo Vadis in Tiruvannamalai, India. You opened your doors for me to come and stay and write at a crucial time. For two months you took care of me in a way that I never expected. A special thank you to Rev. Joshua Peter Annamalai and Mrs Shekinah Penita, and to the watchman. Also, Nikolaj Stubbe from the Brorsons Kirken in Denmark and Maria. Thank you. And to Michael, Kaya, Adeel, Janine and Nariman. Thank you for lending hands of support in your own unique ways. Also, a profound thank you goes out to the many dedicated practitioners of yoga around the world. You are a true source of inspiration. Your commitment, sincerity and whole-hearted participation in the teachings have touched me deeply over these years. It is in many ways your questions and our dialogue together which have brought this book into being. Many of you have opened your doors, yoga-studios and hearts to me as I have travelled away from home. Your generosity will not be forgotten. And last, but not least, I would like to thank my children Daniel Ruberto Bechsgaard and Maya Ruberto Bechsgaard. You are always in my heart, and I couldn’t dream of a life without you. You have showed such resilience in these years, and I hope for so much joy and fun memories together in the coming years. And to my family in Denmark for always, and unconditionally, supporting my children and I. I have no words to

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express what your love and example means. Before my Guru, I was taught by you in many more ways than words can express.

CHAPTER ONE HIGHER LAW AND ALIGNMENT

Alignment is a foundational concept in the yoga tradition and is related to the ancient idea of sacred order. The word rta (order) appears in the Rig Veda, the oldest and most sacred writings of the Vedic tradition. Tripathi (2004) refers to rta as “the most fundamental and at the same time the most ancient concept of Indian thought” (vii). This principle of cosmic order is part of the structure of creation itself. We are told that at the very beginning of creation, “order [rta] and truth were born from heat as it blazed up” (Rig Veda 34.10.190). This description of structure emerging from primeval chaos establishes the vital blueprint for all philosophical thought that followed. The assertion of an intrinsic and immutable pattern of order and meaning conditions all aspects of the cosmos. Connection to this sacred order is the basis of the created reality, and in order to thrive, it is necessary for human beings to align themselves with this order. From a spiritual standpoint, beliefs, behaviours, social and legal codes, rituals and ceremonies are all part of the larger set of practices and behaviours that make it possible for the individual to be in a living relationship with the sacred. Rta is the source of natural law and its underpinning. It is also the root of the word rtu, the four seasons. Klostermaier (1994) describes it as “the

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sequence of the seasons, which in their regularity embody constancy and lawfulness” (154). This foundational belief reflects the understanding that the microcosm mirrors the macrocosm. The laws that oversee cosmic order ensure the creation and maintenance of the world and the unfolding of the days, nights and seasons. These laws also directly impact human life and embodiment. According to the logic of Vedic thought, human flourishing can only come about through alignment with rta and natural law. This approach stands in direct contrast to the current North American obsession with the search for novelty and constant change. An affinity with regularity, structure and order is accompanied by a parallel horror of the anrta, that which is “untrue” or “disordered” (Smith 1989, 17). The opposite of rta is agitation, disharmony and imbalance (Khanna 2004, 3), and no real health, be it physical, mental or emotional, can come from chaos or disorder. The link between the divine and underlying structure is demonstrated in the figure of the god Varuna. The deva is described as being the guardian of rta and as the upholder of law, in the earliest scriptures. This intimate connection between the divine order and human life is depicted in a hymn that resonates thousands of years later. Suffering from a guilty conscience, the composer of the prayer pleads, “The mischief was not done by my own free will, Varuna; wine, anger, dice, or carelessness led me astray” (Rig Veda 114.7.86). The human tendency to fall out of alignment with higher law is depicted here in a way that remains clearly recognizable in the contemporary world. The earliest forms of Vedic ritual were meant to bring the individual and community into alignment with the divine and subtle realms. In the

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thousands of years of development of South Asian civilization, a wide of variety of techniques for remaining aligned have been developed including: worship, pilgrimage, participating in spiritual community, mantra, yoga, meditative practices, charitable giving and selfless service. All of these share the goal of creating and maintaining a clear and open channel between the individual and the divine. From the Vedic period onward, it has been understood that one of the most important ways that human beings can remain connected with rta is through ritual practice (sadhana). Smith (1989) notes that while human beings have a biological birth they also have a religious birth; “the divine self is born out of the sacrifice” and is a “ritual construct” (116). This larger logic understands the person as being refined and developed over time. The maintaining of alignment with cosmic order is not a given but must be overseen by teachers, tradition, practice and custom and is an ongoing process through the different stages of life. Rta is not a cold, rigid, authoritarian set of laws but contains within it the understanding that there is a meaning, purpose and pattern to the world. Knowing this results in unshakeable security and the recognition that one can rest in this pre-existing, supportive structure, not unlike being in a well-built and beautiful house—the design supports what goes on in the space. A belief in rta does not mean that there is no room for spontaneity, creativity and improvisation. The dynamic relationship between structure and innovation is illustrated in the ragas of classical Indian music. A raga is a set pattern of notes but within this, musicians improvise on a theme.

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The raga provides the skeleton for the players to flesh out as they please, expressing their individual creativity. Satya, or truth, is closely allied with rta. It is an aspect of the divine characterized by the qualities of Sat-Chit-Ananda. As Khanna (2004) writes, “rta and satya are two facets of the principle of order governing the outer cosmos and our inner reality” (2). To be truthful and to see things clearly and without illusion, is to be in harmony with rta. Sri Aurobindo (1990) refers to satya as “truth consciousness,” the opposite of chaos, and describes it as a “guiding truth and harmonious self-vision” (143). There is a recognition, however, that the truth of a situation is not always clear. We can easily be misled by our own desires, wishes and the turbulence of our minds and feelings. This makes it necessary to consult scripture, observe the lives of saints and sages, and attempt to live a principled life. Without an understanding of higher law, it is easy to fall into thinking that pursuing pleasure and our desires is the correct way forward. But what is pleasant and convenient is not always what is good in the long term and can result in behaviour that leads a person to act outside of rta. The power of discrimination is needed to live according to rta and discern the good from the pleasurable. This is described in the Upanishadic discussion of sreyas versus preyas which emphasizes the need to focus on the meaningful rather than the pleasant (Radhakrishnan and Moore 1989, 45). To be aligned with rta is also to live in accordance with the rules of nature. There is a direct link between Ayurveda, the ancient healing system, and higher law—we become physically ill when we go against the iron-clad dictates of nature. The basic founding principle is logically echoed in all

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aspects of life, evident in the fields of law, aesthetics, ritual practice, health and medicine. There is an intrinsic connection between the self (atman/purusha) and the divine, between oneself and nature and between oneself and other living beings. While this alignment doesn’t guarantee a carefree and easy existence, it does ensure that the individual and society function in agreement with higher law. Just as telling the truth isn’t always comfortable or appreciated, it is at the same time right and allows for a sense of stability and groundedness. It functions as a true-north no matter what the challenges are either internally or externally. Rta stands in contrast to many secular philosophies that have gained in popularity in the Western world, such as postmodernism where each person has to establish their own meaning in a fragmented and random world. In contrast, as Khanna (2004) writes, rta assumes a “universe [that] is not amorphous and inconsistent but a harmonious and ordered whole” (2). This understanding is anchored in a sense of pattern and order that supports all aspects of both individual and collective life. The concept of rta can be understood as the blueprint that orders communal life. This principle is foundational to the well being of the individual who can feel secure and grounded knowing that they exist in a meaningful and ordered world. The necessity of inner stability is recognized within Western psychology, and as Westen (1985) writes, the “inability to form a coherent set of ideals and commitments renders one less able to carry out stable plans and long-term goals, which in turn produces a subjective sense of incoherence” (376). It is not difficult to see that a belief in rta provides an unshakeable sense of structure and order

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that is immoveable and unchangeable. This understanding offers a form of inner and outer stability that allows individuals and societies to thrive. Based on the foundational principle of rta, the Vedic tradition has developed a multitude of paths, scriptures and technologies of the sacred. This multiplicity of paths is based in a belief that there are many approaches to the same goal. Yoga is one of the six orthodox schools of philosophy and is a recognized path to the ultimate destination of moksha (liberation).

Dharma: higher law in daily life The question that naturally follows is what does rta mean in terms of every day life. Within the yoga tradition, it functions at every level and in every aspect of the created world. It is typical for human beings to become “lost in the weeds” and to lose track of higher principles. This confusion and lack of orientation can result from a variety of factors that characterize life in the world. A person can also be thrown off course by internal forces that are psychological and emotional or by the dramas and challenges that typify human life. One way to quickly align with rta is to live within the rhythms and laws of nature, which are themselves an expression of higher law. In the Ayurvedic system, scripture includes a branch of writings on health and healing, and the tradition directly connects human health and well being to respect for the power of nature. This principle is to be followed in daily life, partly by sensitivity to the moon cycles, times of day and seasonal changes. Ayurveda teaches that human life and activity mirrors the rhythms of the day and seasons and recommends that the individual live in accordance with the inherent structure of the natural world.

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However, because many of us in the contemporary world live unnaturally, going from air conditioned cars to brightly lit high rises, we easily fall out of balance with the natural world. Anyone who camps knows that in that setting you are thrown into the larger patterns of nature: It is impossible to sleep past a certain time, because the tent is too hot, or to stay up late, because the night is pitch black. Camping can be one way of hitting the reset button, which is probably one of the reasons for it popularity as many urban dwellers instinctively recognize their alienation from natural time and rhythms. While getting back to nature periodically is an important part of life, on a day-to-day basis the majority of the world’s population now lives in urban areas. As a result, we need to make an effort to retain an embeddedness in nature, which is possible even in large cities with their parks, ravines, lakes and rivers because cities are complex ecosystems that involve many urban plants and animals. Walking and biking, rather than driving, are ways to be in relationship with the landscape. Nature can also be brought in doors through houseplants, which filter the air and bring natural beauty with them. Pets also demonstrate daily how to live beautifully in nature with their necessary cycles of activity and rest. Unlike other beings in the created order, human beings can go against dharma and rta because of their consciousness, whereas animals are bound to instinctual patterns that are tied directly into the higher order of natural law. Human beings, uniquely, can flout these limitations if they choose, which also means that the negative impact of transgressing nature’s laws will rebound on them.

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The Ayurvedic approach to eating connects dietary choices to the higher laws of nature. In the contemporary world, disconnection from nature has resulted in confusion and the proliferation of faddish diets. These are generally aimed at weight loss rather than health and are notoriously difficult to maintain. The principles taught by Ayurveda call for sattvic, fresh food adapted to one’s personal constitution. The principles of eating fresh, unprocessed food, local and organic if possible, provide a guide to eating that doesn’t change from year to year.

Dharma and higher purpose In contemporary usage, it is much more common to hear the word dharma than the word rta. In many ways, dharma has taken over rta’s most salient characteristics. Dharma is a word that is notoriously difficult to translate. It is often glossed as duty, but this does not capture its nuance. Dharma differs from rta in that it is context specific and in classical Hinduism was tied to gender, caste and stage of life. Dharma is defined as proper and moral conduct in all aspects of life and as “essential for the sustenance and welfare of the individual, society and creation” (Srivastava et al. 2013, x). In the yogic paradigm, dharma is connected to an individual’s unique spiritual purpose. Though life holds diverse roles and duties for a person, the underlying pattern of meaning and purpose is the connecting thread. When we follow this thread of dharma, we are more likely to be at peace and have a sense of contentment within. Concepts of dharma are intrinsically linked to living in a way that allows for individual flourishing but also in a way that is good for the larger world, community and environment. The concept of dharma has always been a dynamic one and has allowed for differences of culture and for

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specific circumstances. Therefore, cultural laws, which interface directly with lived reality, have changed and evolved over time. There are different dharmas for renunciants/yogis than for householders. Because most people do not live a monastic life, there needs to be a balance between how principles are applied to ascetics and those managing a challenging career and/or a busy household. Because determining one’s dharma is a challenging process, many wellknown Hindu scriptures are preoccupied with it. The epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, are fundamentally about trying to follow one’s dharma when it is obscure and difficult to discern. Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, when treated unjustly and sent into exile because of the machinations of his stepmother, continues to respect his parents and leaves without quarrelling. He does not stoop to the strategizing and plotting of those caught up in worldly power. The factors that cause people to reject rta and dharma—to lose focus of higher law and the common good—are highlighted in all the world’s spiritual traditions: ego, pride, jealousy, envy, anger and sexual desire can result in actions that overstep the limitations. Lack of discrimination and an ignorance of higher principles can also contribute to undharmic behaviour and beliefs. Traditionally, dharma was supported by codes that oversaw all aspects of life. The classical tradition, in looking at the life of the householder, developed the idea of the acceptable goals of life, which are duty and spiritual purpose (dharma), gaining a livelihood and material resources (artha), enjoying aesthetics, relationships, sensuality and love (kama), and liberation (moksha).

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Within the Vedic discipline of astrology (jyotish), an individual’s horoscope is used to analyze the balance between these four life-goals and is meant to guide the individual through the phases of life. The aspect of time is crucial in dictating what times of life are to be best utilized for pursuing the different goals. Traditionally, more time was dedicated to spiritual goals in the latter stages of life. A larger sense of pattern and periodicity is also upheld through the practice of rituals that move the individual through the life stages. Khanna (2004) writes that these practices were meant to ensure that “the actions, behaviour and thinking of a person correspond to the universal rta” (viii). From this perspective ritual practice is effective way of binding each person to higher principles. Even for the householder, the goal of enjoying money and sensuality is regulated by the spiritual limitations of duty and liberation. That said, it is recognized that during the householder stage of life, individuals need to attend to acquiring the necessary resources to live in the world in order to support their families and to contribute to worthy causes, such as the financial support of renunciants and those in need. Ideally, by late middle age, a person’s focus should shift from their worldly life to spiritual practice. The concept of kama—sexuality, aesthetics, the arts and sensual life in all its forms—is also important to the householder. The most famous text on this topic, the Kama Sutra, is not first and foremost a sex manual. Rather, it looks at how to live a good life that appreciates the arts, poetry and literature, dance and music along with cultivated and refined forms of sexuality.

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Systems such as yoga contain a set of codes and principles to guide the practitioner, the connecting concept being that we should be in alignment with rta and higher law. Yoga offers one of the clearest and most accessible pathways to connect to the divine and provides step-by-step guidance in the journey towards higher consciousness.

CHAPTER TWO PRACTICES AND ATTITUDES THAT ALLOW FOR FLOURISHING

The yoga tradition builds on the basic assumptions of rta and provides a system that connects the individual to it in the form of the eight limbs (angas). In the West, there has been a tendency to pick and choose which limbs to work with and a focus on posture practice (asana). However, yoga is a holistic system in which all the limbs play a vital role in moving the practitioner towards a positive transformation. It is important to understand ethical behaviour (yama) and self-discipline (niyama) in the context of the larger philosophy of yoga. These two limbs, which are foundational to the practice of yoga, grow out of the first principle of rta discussed in the previous chapter. This reflects the integrated nature of the tradition, which includes ethical, emotional and physical aspects that are aimed at transforming the whole person within a holistic system. All the limbs work synthetically in the yogic system to create optimal conditions for human development and eventual access to higher states of consciousness. The first two limbs establish a set of higher principles and then speak to day-to-day practices, habits and attitudes, which work at

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every level to create the conditions necessary for the unlocking of human potential. From this perspective, the yamas and niymas are the enabling attitudes and approaches that lay the groundwork for practice and move towards the ultimate goal of working with the mind. This approach is the opposite of the Cartesian mind/body split that has characterized much of Western culture since the nineteenth century. From the yogic point of view, a calm, clear mind cannot emerge from within an unethical, chaotic, unreflective life. Research is bearing out these maps of practice that were created thousands of years ago. According to the yoga tradition, practitioners have to purify themselves at every level in order to access the higher states of consciousness. Even for those who aren’t aiming for liberation, the classical goal of the eight limbs, the changes to one’s psyche can be experienced almost immediately. The impact of a healthier body and clearer mind can only be positive and constructive. As Fields (2002) writes, “a person’s practice in matters such as diet, sleep, hygiene, exercise and mental attitude constitute a fabric of daily life grounded in one’s fundamental values” (106). Rather than being viewed as punishments, the yamas and niyamas should be viewed as setting the stage for health and well being. The effectiveness of these ancient practices is borne out by increasing research that reveals that religious people are, on average, physically and mentally healthier.

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See Jeff Levin 2001 God, Faith and Health: Exploring the Spirituality- Healing Connection. NewYork: Wiley. and Brian Bethune, “God is the Answer”, Macleans, April 6 &15, 2015, 45.

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The yamas: the universal commandments The word yama is translated into English as rule, universal moral duty or major observance (Klostermaier 1994, 212). Yamas are meant to purify the practitioner and orient them in a healthy way towards other people and the larger environment. Transgressing these limits, which are underwritten by rta, will accumulate negative karma, which hinders progress on the road of self-realization. Thus, unskilful attitudes and actions spin a web that becomes denser and denser over time. All of us have witnessed how lies feed on and require more lies or greed creates an ever greater degree of craving. This is why principles have to come first as they set the path forward either towards greater clarity or more and more delusion. There is no definitive interpretation of these concepts as they have to be applied to each generation. For example, the teaching of greedlessness and non-attachment, which originally spoke to absolute forms of asceticism, fits neatly in a number of emerging movements in the Western world, one being minimalism. What is remarkable is the way that that these ancient principles remain vitally relevant and necessary for a well lived life and healthy society. The wisdom held within these key concepts can be discovered anew and made relevant to the problems of our time.

Ahimsa: the central role of non-violence The concept of ahimsa (non-violence) came into Western consciousness largely through the writing and success of the political actions of Gandhi. Fewer people, however, realize that ahimsa is an ideal that lies at the heart of most South Asian spiritual traditions. So while yoga was originally a

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teaching for renunciants, the value of ahimsa applies to all in a spiritual worldview. The yoga tradition, developing as it did in close conversation with Buddhism and Jainism, shares a commitment to non-violence. Jainism makes ahimsa foundational as its central teaching: ahimso paramo dharma (ahimsa is the highest truth) (Wiley 2004, 15). Considering all actions through the lens of whether or not it is harmful to oneself or others is a powerful spiritual orientation. This ideal is not only applicable in relationships with human beings but also includes animals, the natural world as these too possess soul and therefore have to be treated with care and respect. The belief and practice of ahimsa, then, positions the individual fundamentally within the world in a way that emphasizes relationality, care and respect. In the yoga tradition, ahimsa is not simply a negative commandment but also a positive instruction to develop a friendly and cooperative attitude towards others. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali refer to this as a “spirit of friendliness” and state that the practitioner should strive for “a spirit of compassion for those in distress, a spirit of good will towards those who are treading the path of virtue and a spirit of benevolent indifference towards those who are steeped in vice” (Swami Hariharananda 1985, 77). Ahimsa does not only refer to physical violence but to the more subtle spheres of speech and thought. It is rooted in a sophisticated understanding of human psychology that recognizes that our actions begin with mental attitudes that are expressed through speech and physical action. Therefore, to get at the root of violence of any kind, the way the psyche works needs to be examined as it is the seedbed of action, whether positive or negative.

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From a theological/philosophical point of view, the three Indic traditions recognize that violent, unskilful and malicious action, thought and speech lead to the creation of error which, in turn, contributes to the creation of negative karma. This karma becomes like dust on a mirror that obscures an individual’s ability to discriminate in their actions. It is for this reason that scripture, teachers and community are necessary as they offer guidance until the individual has developed enough insight to recognize the impact of these principles through their own experience. From a spiritual point of view, and one that is borne out every day, violence begets violence, which turns into a never-ending cycle that harms individuals and societies. Fortunately, most of us have the capacity to develop ahimsa, and the number of people who are psychopathic without a mental template for empathy is very small. Nonetheless, for most, the ability to practice ahimsa fully has to be developed and refined. On a subtle level, the principles of ahimsa are also applied to speech, and Buddhism makes Right Speech part of the Noble Eightfold Path. This may seem strange, as in the contemporary world the spoken and written word are often used thoughtlessly on a wide variety of platforms. The negative use of the written word is evident in much of what goes on in social media, with people having little regard for the impact of their words on others. From a spiritual perspective, words are powerful, a recognition that the Rig Veda shares. We are told that Vac, the goddess of speech, can make a person whom she loves a “sage, a wise man, a Brahmin” (Rig Veda 10.125.5). Negative use of speech, such as malicious gossip and slander, is destructive both to the person being slandered and to the person uttering or writing the words.

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All wisdom traditions recognize that people don’t naturally act according to the principles of ahimsa but have to be trained to default to this position. It is the nature of the human psyche to be prone to a variety of states of unconsciousness that lead to negative thoughts, words and actions. According to the Hatha Yoga Pradika, one of the six destroyers of yoga is “useless talk” (Iyengar 2019, 47). The yogic tradition has developed numerous ways of working with the mind and body to help the individual cultivate non-violence, an example being the practice of a vow of silence (vac tapasya) as a form of austerity and purification. Silent retreats have become more popular in the West as many people instinctively recognize the need for periodic breaks from daily life in which speech is often used unconsciously. Many of us are immersed in noise and chatter as well as being bombarded by advertising and unceasing amounts of useless information. Retreats are an opportunity to recalibrate and detox from overstimulation and demands on one’s time and energy. Taking a vow of silence for a period of time is meant to cultivate reflection and an awareness of how speech is used in daily life. This process is challenging as we come to realize how often speech is used negatively. The powerful psychology behind this practice is evident in the connection between constant use of negative and harmful speech and state of mind. As Tiwari (2002) writes in The Path of Practice, “every battle or war or fight, whether personal or political, sprang from someone’s disharmonious thought, followed by verbal articulation of that thought” (264). Negative speech is not only directed at others; it is often directed internally. Observing our inner monologue for a short time can reveal a

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shockingly negative cast to our day-to-day thoughts and speech. This negativity can be both self-directed and outwardly directed. Contemporary forms of psychotherapy often address the need to change negative selftalk. It is common to develop a sensitivity to sound in general as a result of a period of silence. Silence allows for an appraisal of what stimulus we want to have in our lives. Is a constantly blaring television conducive to calm and clarity? Are our conversations draining or damaging to others? Training in silence has an amplifying effect and contributes to a person being able to reflect and make healthy choices. Regular immersion in silence creates a space and time for deeper thought and reflection. Another common result of taking a vow of silence is the recognition of how much energy is taken up with speech. The yoga tradition recognizes that refraining from speech for periods of time is a re-energizing practice that helps to “re-fill the well.” Speech is an innately extroverted activity drawing us into the world and its dramas, so a periodic practice of silence provides a space to be replenished. The yogic tradition also recognizes that training and effort are required to change our psychological and emotional baseline. Becoming aware is a vital first step in contrast to the uncultivated human mind that jumps around restlessly. The percentage of our time that is spent speaking negatively about other people says something important both about how we feel about our social environment and our attitudes to those around us. Habitual states of mind vary from person to person as some default into fear, others into resentment or anger. Paying attention to our automatic reactions offers a helpful lever for working with habitual states of mind.

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Meditation and contemplation are practices developed in the yoga tradition that aim at transforming the psyche and advancing ahimsa. These practices were developed to move the mind out of a state of turbulence and into a state where the individual can reflect, limit impulsivity and develop tools that make us aware of how our thoughts, words and actions move towards harmfulness. Non-violence is a central value in the yogic tradition and acts as a foundational enabling virtue. Looked at in this way, it becomes clear why ahimsa comes first in the list of the yamas—it lays the ground work for all the others that follow. A person who is oriented to and practices this value is well on the way along the spiritual path.

Satya: truth as a grounding principle The yogic tradition is unequivocal regarding the value of truthfulness (satya). This firmness acts as a counterweight to contemporary tendencies fostered by postmodernism that advocate for everyone inventing their own meaning and truth. Within Hinduism and the yoga tradition, satya is a feature of the divine itself. However, determining the truth is not simple, and the guidance of scripture, teachers and holy people is often required. That said, the bracing truthfulness of young children points to the fact that honesty is innate and we have to learn to not be truthful. The word satya emerges from the word sat, which can be translated as being or truth. As such, this principle is part of the fabric of existence itself. The yoga tradition recognizes that describing the divine is largely impossible and partial. However, there are certain qualities associated with it. Sat, chit and ananda are the three descriptors of Brahman, the ground of being as described in the Upanishads. The intertwining of satya with the

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divine is beautifully expressed in the Svetasvatara Upanishad: “God is found in the soul when sought with truth and self-sacrifice, as fire is found in wood, water in hidden springs, cream in milk and oil in the oil fruit” (1.15-16). Satya is an essential attribute of the divine, and because the atman (soul) partakes of its substance, each person contains the divine within themselves. However, it only exists as an ever-present potentiality and can be obscured by wrong belief, thought and action. When an individual is not in touch with the real and with truth, mistaken actions take place. It is therefore not surprising that the courage to be truthful is admired throughout the world. The individual who is willing to speak truth to power is universally admired. However, the challenge of doing this, both internally and externally, is well known. Often people do not want to hear the truth or we don’t want to hear it about ourselves. As a result, it can be easier to give in to group pressure and conformity than tell the truth. But as many recognize, a true friend, teacher or guru tells us the truth even if it is unpalatable. The ancient Vedic writers employed two Sanskrit words, satya and rta, to encompass the English idea of truth, and both have a subjective and objective reference. Satya is the truth of humans and gods; rta is the truth of the universe—that the sun will rise and set and that seasonal characteristics will recur (Wayman 1974, 392). The ideal of truthfulness is part of a larger constellation of concepts and images in the Hindu tradition related to wisdom and knowledge, which are often symbolized with light and fire. These images have been woven and rewoven over millennia in the scriptures and rituals of the tradition while

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still retaining the fundamental power of the insights found in the Vedas and Upanishads. Living out these principles is where the challenge lies. The Vedic and yoga traditions recognize that there are high and low forms of knowledge and that individuals are at different stages of development along this continuum. Therefore, satya will be much more demanding for a renunciant than for a householder. Nonetheless, the same principle offers guidance to both. And it is through sustained practice and attention that each person is progressively more aligned with satya. Self-reflection is a crucial part of this process as it allows for the individual to examine their conscience and contact their inner sense of what is true and untrue. By practicing the eight limbs, over time clarity is developed so that the ability to contact this source becomes easier. It is no longer overlain by the veil of our prior state of ignorance. The metaphor of heat that burns off layers of dross and purifies a vessel is commonly used to portray the practices of the eight limbs—the creation of a pure metal requires high temperatures to achieve purification. Observations drawn from daily life demonstrate the impact of untruthfulness whether personally, socially or politically. Not being able to trust a person can render a relationship or business dealing with them tense and confusing. Being lied to, whether by public figures or people in our intimate circles, in psychological terms referred to as gas-lighting, creates the disturbing phenomenon of being unsure of reality, which can lead a person to doubt their own perception. In turn, lying to oneself can result in remaining in situations that are destructive and dangerous to oneself or others.

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Truth is considered a defining characteristic of the divine and to align oneself with truth in all aspects of life is to be connected with the divine. It also gives the individual access to an inexhaustible source of power and inspiration. From the Vedas to the present, this logic states that we can connect and bind ourselves to the sacred and to other people through truthfulness.

Asteya: taking only what is needed Asteya, or non-stealing, is a commandment that is found across the world’s traditions and within secular law codes. It is important to note that taking food in order to survive, for example, was not viewed in the same way. This is an important distinction as there is a marked tendency in North America to fixate on petty theft but let white collar crime go unpunished. On the spiritual level this is not how it works! The courts of secular law may look the other way but spiritual principles are non-negotiable. Related to asteya is the idea that hoarding wealth and material possessions is not conducive to a spiritual life. The spectacle of the excessively wealthy juxtaposed with those who do not have enough to survive points to a loss of a moral centre in our culture. The teachings of all the world’s religious traditions have been clear that greed and fixation on wealth block progress on the spiritual path. Another important aspect of the practice of detachment from excessive wealth, as is true with all the yamas, is that it encourages pro-social values and allows people to live together harmoniously. Nothing will cause friction in a small or large community as quickly as members lacking respect for what belongs to others. Communities where doors are left unlocked and in which people trust one another are ones that we look to as

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a model. This becomes impossible where there is no respect for asteya. Equitable distribution of wealth and philanthropy ensures that no one will need to act out of desperation. One has to be careful as non-violence always trumps asteya, which means that protecting ones property does not allow for violence. On a more subtle level, asteya also recognizes that theft, in any form, creates negative karma and violates principles tied to energy. This subtle teaching is related to the rule we find in many of the world’s cultures that all relationships have to be reciprocal and so any form of behaviour that is one sided impacts both parties negatively.

Brahmacharya: understanding sexuality as energy In its original context, brahmacharya referred to the student stage of life in the classical four stages of life. In the Chandogya Upanishad, the student Shvetaketu is told to “live the disciplined life of a student of sacred knowledge [brahmacharya]” (Embree 1988, 36). During this first stage of life, Shvetaketu was expected to be celibate. For renunciants who have given up worldly pursuits, this remains the case as they continue to take vows of poverty and celibacy. However, what does this mean for those outside of this traditional, religious context? In the Western world, discussion of this subject is hampered by attitudes that have emerged post-Freud. To talk about limitations on sexuality is seen as puritanical or prudish. However, looking at the definition of this yama as continence can, perhaps, allow for a more helpful discussion. The idea of continence points to sexuality/libido as energy and how we use it. The logic of asceticism recognizes that each person has a finite amount of

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vital energy available to them. So limits on sexuality and speech recognize that human beings deplete their energy in these two ways. There is another dimension to this discussion which is the recognition that sexuality, when it is not used with consciousness, can lead to social chaos. Within the traditional logic of yoga, sexuality is the part of ourselves that can easily lead us into unskilful situations, and the structures around it are a recognition of this fact. One way of thinking about it is to invoke the earlier yama of ahimsa and ask if anyone will be harmed or exploited in the sexual encounter. This recognizes the holistic nature of one’s life in that sexuality can’t be bracketed as being beyond an ethical worldview. All traditional cultures recognize the power of sexuality and as a result the need for its regulation. A post-Freudian naiveté in the Western world has impaired an ability to talk about this subject. However, a more useful conversation would acknowledge the chaos that results from an unconscious approach to the primal creative power of sexuality, which in turn would result in a healthy respect and regard for the ways in which it is channelled.

Aparigraha: ending the cycle of craving The final yama, aparigraha, is generally translated as freedom from grasping or freedom from greed. Looking at our society reveals the devastation that is unleashed by those who allow greed to overtake them. The financial collapses that have negatively impacted the globe have largely been triggered by a search for personal wealth and gain.

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Aparigraha is a value that is under increasing stress in the contemporary world. Consumer culture and the advertising companies that spring from it have developed in absolute opposition to this teaching—we are convinced that acquiring material objects is the road to happiness. While this might not be expressed explicitly, the behaviour we see around us tells the real story. For many, shopping and buying have become the central activity of life. In North America, the volume of “stuff” is staggering as can be witnessed by the piles of garbage going out to the curb and the billiondollar business in storage lockers. Interestingly, research done by the Happiness Institute in Copenhagen and other researchers reveals that more goods do not bring happiness. There is a dawning realization among many people that a lifestyle centred around short-term pleasure and consumption is harmful for the environment and doesn’t make us happy. The growing popularity of minimalist and zero-waste movements is an indication that people recognize that ridding oneself of possessions can be a profoundly positive experience. There is a growing sense in Western culture that our often debt-financed obsession with purchasing things is springing a more deep seated spiritual malaise. 2 In her book Path of Practice (2000), Maya Tiwari advises that the first step on the spiritual path is simplifying and de-cluttering one’s personal environment (59). The external environment can be used to reinforce an internal state of being. As anyone who has practiced this will attest, moving out unused objects, such as clothes, shoes or household items, results in increased feelings of satisfaction, lightness and sense of clarity. 2

There has been a explosion of publications on minimalism such as Zero Waste Home (2013) by Bea Johnson, The Year of Less (2019) by Cait Flanders and countless documentaries and vlogs.

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The value of greedlessness (aparigraha), like all the yamas, emerges from a larger worldview that seeks the eternal rather than the transient. It is illustrated in the famous story of Nachiketas, who asks Yama, the Lord of Death, what happens after death. He is told to fulfill all his earthly desires and leave aside the deep questions. Nachiketas replies, “Ephemeral things! That which is a mortal’s, O End-maker” (1.26). The young seeker recognizes that the pleasures of the senses are fleeting in nature. Much of the materialism that is a marked feature of our world is a misplaced urge for security. This makes sense in a secular world that has mostly lost track of higher values. The illusion that solidity can be found in the material world was rejected by the philosopher Sankaracharya over a thousand years ago. He wrote, “which person who is endowed with discrimination would ever seek happiness in such transient objects?” (Swami Tattwananda, 1960, 12). The Vedic tradition makes it clear that the only ballast is to be found in attachment to spiritual values. It is through “being established in the self” that one can feel the deep sense of safety that we all desire (Radhkrishnan and a 1989, 109).

CHAPTER THREE ESTABLISHING HEALTHY MENTAL STATES

The niymas are techniques that the individual can maintain in order to practice yoga effectively. This second limb of the yogic path offers practices that are “given as a compliment to yama as a precondition for meditation” (Klostermaier 1994, 128). With these techniques, we move into concrete practices that set the stage for a spiritual life. They are aimed at the refinement of the person in preparation the moving into higher states of consciousness. The niymas reflect the recognition in the yogic tradition that there are specific attitudes and approaches that are conducive to spiritual life. However, they must be cultivated intentionally and consistently. Certain structures in our daily life and behaviours over time create the conditions for development. Environment and attitude help shape the consciousness of the individual and, as a result, cannot be left to chance. The importance of individual commitment and practice is maintained throughout the yoga tradition. While intellectual knowledge is important, it is through direct personal realization that yoga is truly practiced. While in the beginning stages of a yoga practice it may be necessary to take the belief in rta and non-violence on faith, through practice these concepts are experienced and integrated.

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Shaucha: purity at all levels The principle of shaucha is generally translated as purity and has been central to the yoga tradition as far back as can be traced historically. The ideal of purity refers to cleanliness at every level—physical, mental and spiritual. This ideal is linked to the larger concept of sattva, which is one of the three qualities (gunas) as understood in both the classical healing system of Ayurveda and the Samkhya system associated with yoga. According to yoga philosophy, all aspects of the phenomenal world partake of the gunas of tamas (heaviness, inertia), rajas (activity, passion) and sattva (clarity). Sattva is the quality most conducive to a spiritual path and practice and can be developed in all aspects of life including lifestyle, diet and daily practices. As a result of this understanding, all aspects of life have to be brought into a sattvic state including diet, attitudes and personal environment. The aim is to break through the forces of heaviness, inertia and frantic activity into mental states of clarity, brightness and benevolence. Because this is so challenging it has be supported by every aspect of daily life. Keeping the body and environment clean is straight forward, but it is also important on a subtle level. All aspects of life are connected, and shaucha in regard to diet is also considered to be a vital part of practice. Going back to first principles can help, as diet and lifestyle should reflect as much as possible the principle of ahimsa. That said, perfection is not possible, and those of us living outside an ashram or monastic community will likely have to partake of un-sattvic food. Avoiding food fundamentalism is important. For some gardening

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can supply a steady flow of fresh vegetable and herbs, for others community supported agriculture or a farmer’s market allows them access to fresh produce, supports local farmers and contributes to healthy and sustainable food systems. Ensuring that healthy, unprocessed food is available to everyone, not just the economically privileged, is another expression of a sattvic attitude. While diet is important, shaucha also refers to the subtle level of refining and purifying consciousness. Ritual practices (sadhanas) are techniques for moving into alignment and allowing for a process of purification. These practices include devotional worship (puja), mantra practice and pilgrimage, among others, all of which are aimed at the larger goal of purification at every level. In the Yoga Sutras, purity is connected with virtues such as spiritual knowledge (jnana), detachment (vairagya) and energy (aisvarya) (1.1–2). When established in these four virtues, sattva is said to be consolidated. As sattva is the essential mode of nature connected with health, balance and well being, both mental and physical, depend upon its maintenance. In describing the process of purification, Swami Satyasangananda notes that all practices are aimed at the transformation of consciousness and access of higher energies. She (2003/1984) writes that this system is designed to purify the whole of man’s being. It begins with the gross form of purification and goes on to the subtle and psychic purification, culminating in the subtle awareness which prepares the aspirant for the experience of the energy and consciousness from which he has evolved. (4)

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The process of refinement happens at all levels: physical, mental and spiritual. The creation of a clean, clear environment and a healthy diet sets the stage for the transformation of consciousness.

Santosha: cultivating contentment The niyama of santosha is usually translated as contentment in English, and this definition captures some of the sense of the word. It is interesting that the very idea of contentment is often viewed as a negative state associated with complacency and lack of ambition. This, no doubt, speaks to the preoccupation of much of Western culture with continual effort and striving. The breathless sense of never having done enough or not being enough factors into the state of anxiety that has become common in contemporary life. As Iyengar (1991) states succinctly, “a mind that is not content cannot concentrate” (37). A nuanced approach to the principle of santosha points to a much more positive valuation. One of the destructive aspects of constant striving and ambition is that it removes us from our lived experience and places all happiness and well being in the future. This future focus results in many people being unable to enjoy or appreciate their daily lives or accomplishments. Chasing after an ever-receding goal becomes the central pivot of life. It is not surprising, then, that mental and spiritual exhaustion is a ubiquitous feature of contemporary life. This is especially true if the goals being pursued don’t have any deep, personal meaning for the person pursuing them. North American culture is particularly prone to this cycle as it lacks the ballast of older cultures that mitigate overwork by providing

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much more time off work. These cultural practices and attitudes emphasize the need for rest and rejuvenation and time set apart for friends and family. The attitude of santosha doesn’t just apply to work but to all areas of life. Discontent can surface in thoughts such as “if I just met the right person I would be happy” or “if I had my dream home I would be happy.” But the logic of desire dictates that even if goals are achieved, the feeling of well being and euphoria doesn’t last long. This is not unlike an addictive cycle where the addict is always seeking the next hit of excitement. It is telling that many people cannot imagine motivation as anything else than the highly stressful, competitive approach. Yoga, with its emphasis on embodied realization, requires coming into the present moment. Yogic practices also cultivate positive mental and emotional states. These include gratitude, which is an important aspect of santosha. Rather than fixating on what is lacking, a yogic approach asks that we feel appreciation for what we have and especially for being exposed to teachings of spiritual liberation. The Indic tradition recognizes that being born a human being and finding our way to philosophy is a great blessing in itself. Santosha is also the centred feeling of rightness that comes from living from deeply held values. A profound sense of wellness emerges with the knowledge that, to the best of our ability, our lives are based on values of non-harmfulness, generosity and non-possessiveness. This results in being anchored in the self as it has nothing to do with external measures of worth. The sense of presence that results is also vital for movement into higher states of consciousness, which are the ultimate aim of the eightfold path of

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yoga. As anyone who has practiced meditation knows, stopping the mind from dwelling in either the past or the future is a challenging task. In this way, santosha is preparation for accessing healing states of consciousness when we come fully into the present.

Virya and tapas: the necessity of energy and determination The next two niyamas ensure that the state of santosha is not one of complacency. The word virya is derived from the root vir, which means strength and vitality. This clear energy is necessary for movement on the yogic path. The emphasis on virya also stands in contrast to the popular perception of yoga as a form of relaxation. In fact, the opposite is true, as spiritual practice flounders on a lukewarm approach. The Yoga Sutras highlight a direct connection between a mental attitude of enthusiasm and the ability to maintain the path with mindfulness (sutra 1.20). In this regard, faith comes first and is followed shortly by heroic energy (virya). In The Gift of Consciousness (2013), Bechsgaard defines this niyama as energy, courage, strength and “enthusiasm leading to sustained effort” (241). The need for sustained effort is unsurprising as this principle applies to any long-term activity. All important aspects of life require discipline, focus, structure, sacrifice and commitment. The Yoga Sutras outline a variety of obstacles and their accompanying psychosomatic symptoms. These challenges range from illness, to doubt and lack of will power (sutras 1.30–1.31). Even subtle obstacles, such as having difficulty making positive spiritual shifts in consciousness, are mentioned. This can manifest in a variety of ways including feeling lethargy, doubt and scepticism.

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In contrast, virya describes a clear, unblocked energy that moves us forward. Without such a concentrated and powerful energy, the likelihood of falling back is great. Virya provides an optimistic and clear internal drive that immediately seeks out solutions rather declaring defeat. Virya combined with santosha is a powerful combination of deep optimism and clear energy. Luckily, the practices themselves contribute to greater energy and so can create a virtuous cycle. Tapas is a concept that ties in tightly with virya and emerges from the oldest strata of the Vedic tradition. In the creation hymn of the Rig Veda, we are told of “the life force that was covered with emptiness, that one arose through the power of heat” (3.10.129). The idea of heat as a creative and purifying energy has remained constant for thousands of years, being shaped and developed in different schools of thought. The word tapas is generally translated as heat and is part of the larger logic of asceticism that runs throughout the Hindu traditions. The symbol and element of fire are both central, seen from the beginning in the figure of the god Agni, who is the messenger of the gods. Fire also connotes witnessing, transformation, purification and creation. Through practices of tapas, negative karma is burned off and the individual purified. There are a wide variety of practices that constitute tapas with some of the most common being fasting, pilgrimage and a vow of silence. These acts of self-sacrifice purify the mind and body and result in energy and clarity along with an ability to manifest one’s ideas in the world. There are numerous stories in the epics describing characters who want to build spiritual power and undertake various forms of tapas. In the

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Mahabharata, Arjuna practices penance in order to be given a boon by the gods. The epic describes Arjuna’s asceticism as embodying the “incandescence of tapas” (Peterson 2007, 224) Arjuna then uses the energy and force bestowed by the practices to fulfill his own dharma. As a warrior (kshatryia) and householder, his concerns are different than those of a renunciant whose goal is liberation, but the same underlying logic applies to both. In the yoga tradition, tapas also refers to the fiery and burning nature of commitment that is needed to break through long-held patterns of the body, mind and emotions. A fierce determination and focused commitment is implied by this term (Bechsgaard 2013, 216). Discipline, like asceticism, is often misunderstood in contemporary culture. From the point of view of the spiritual path, it is a recognition that a scattershot, unfocused approach does not work. When challenges occur, it is virya and tapas that keep us going and move us through despondency, inertia and doubt. The concept of tapas can be understood in many ways, and includes everything from posture practice, to sense control, to diet and lifestyle. Other practice elements that fall into this category have traditionally included service (seva), performance of duty (dharma), harmonization, control of sexual energy and fasting. As Iyengar (2005) writes, “tapas is the blazing desire to burn away the impurities of body, senses and mind” (257). The burning power of tapas was meant to reduce the impact of heaviness (tamas) or overactivity (rajas) and aid in controlling the senses. As Shankara writes, “the objects of the senses are a net, by which the mind is caught like a fish in a net, this is not destroyed without tapas” (Leggett,

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2006, 176). Without tapas there is a strong tendency to remain entangled in distraction and unimportant aspects of life. However, an important caveat is added by many of the ancient commentaries; tapas should in no way upset or disturb the mind nor should it weaken or harm the body. In the Bhagavad Gita, we find a section describing tapas in its healthy form, as well as its misguided expressions and motivations. According to this text, tapas needs to be three-fold, consisting of bodily austerities, austerities of speech and mental austerities (17.14–16). In Light on Pranayama, Iyengar (2019) likens this to burning the dross from metal: “By the fire of yogic discipline the sadhaka (disciple) burns up within himself the impurities of desire, anger, greed, infatuation, pride and envy” (36–37). In this way, all aspects of the self are refined and purified over time. Fanaticism can be a result of an unhealthy approach to yoga practices. When one’s mindset is rigid and psychologically weak at its core, it is a problematic guide when seeking balanced tapas. In the contemporary Western world of spirituality, we have to be careful not to confuse traditional forms of tapas with a psychologically driven self-deprivation or an expression of narcissism and self-involvement. These shadow forms of tapas can result in suffering and emotional dysregulation. These practices were not meant to be an end in themselves but rather the path to higher goals of increased insight and consciousness. The aim of tapas is refinement of the human being and cultivation of character at a spiritual level. Though there are an array of techniques, they all train us to think beyond ourselves and purify the poisons of mind and ego. As stated in Vyasa’s commentary, a person “without self-discipline

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cannot attain perfection in yoga” (Hariharananda Aranya 1983,113). As with any approach, the fruits of the practice are a clear, calm mental state alongside an energized state of mind and body. When the mind, body and emotions are integrated in this way they are prepared for the next stage of the journey.

Svadhyaya: the need for self-reflection and study The niyama of svadhyaya refers to the practice of spiritual study and selfreflection. Study is referred to as the “the highest austerity” in the Upanishads (Klostermaier 1994, 77). The reading of scripture is a necessary corollary of embodied practices, and the two are mutually constitutive of practice. From the yogic perspective, there is a recognition that study is itself part of the larger practice of self-discipline and tapas. Svadhaya also contributes to the lifting of the veil of ignorance (avidya) and providing right knowledge. Scripture offers a condensed form of the wisdom developed within the religious tradition. Through self-reflection, the text is brought into daily life. Iyengar (1991) makes clear that the sacred books of all traditions have the same purifying and positive impact (39). An uncultivated mind can be harmful both to the self and others. As Jung (1968) writes with dry wit, it is the “insufficiently cultivated” mind that is most sure of itself: “once this petty reasoning mind, which cannot endure any paradoxes, is awakened no sermon on earth can keep it down” (16). It is the mark of the developed intellect to recognize the vastness of knowledge and as a result to have a sense of humility. It is also the mark of the developed consciousness to be able to hold paradox and not fall into

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rigid forms of thought and simplistic black and white approaches to problems. Svadhyaya is not an intellectual exercise or a set of facts to be memorized. Scripture serves as a repository of wisdom that leads the student to the goal of transformation. In the early stages of development, this must be taken on faith. It is for this reason that scripture is passed on from generation to generation with the understanding that it holds the highest values and teachings of a culture. With practice, eventually the truth of its teachings can be experienced. The interplay between study and practice is an intrinsic aspect of the eight limbs of Yoga, and no part can be left out. The reading of scripture and related texts is meant to be a starting point for self-reflection and paying attention to how the teachings apply in one’s life. Study involves not merely the act of reading the yoga scriptures but also contemplation on their relevance to us personally, including a plan for practical implementation. Throughout Iyengar’s writing, he points to the integration of study, reflection and embodied purification practice: “Giving attention to and reflecting in practice is essential to develop skilfulness in sadhana so that the hidden impurities clouding the intelligence are eradicated” (Iyengar 2012, 114).

Ishvara Pranidhana: devotion and submission to higher law The final niyama, Ishvara Pranidhana, refers to the process of selfsurrender and devotion to god. The yoga tradition does not dictate what form of the divine is to be worshipped. The important element is the recognition of a higher power beyond the ego-based self.

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Submission to the divine is meant to move the individual beyond their limited ego consciousness. If this does not occur, the powers and abilities built up through various tapas can be highly dangerous both to one’s self and others. As Iyengar (1991) puts it, the one “who knows that all creation belongs to the Lord will not be puffed up with pride or drunk with power” (39). These forms of pride and power can be witnessed everyday in the world around us when the laws of nature are routinely ignored. Our current climate crisis points to the tragic result of this form of thinking. From this ego-driven way of seeing the world, both the natural world and other people exist for one’s comfort, amusement or profit. Acting purely from the ego, pride and power in our personal lives causes incalculable harm to ourselves and others. We live in an era where we are taught to think that we can control our lives through rational planning and personal will. However, all the world’s religions tell a different story. From this point of view, thinking we wield power through our personal ego is a dangerous form of hubris. The idea of self-surrender is threatening to many who think that they are in control of all aspects of their life. Even a cursory reflection on this idea reveals the myriad aspects of life over which we have no control. In the quest for security, we allow ourselves to live with the illusion that we do. But spiritual traditions, aiming as they do at unveiling the truth of existence, do not allow for this self-deception. Pandemics such as the one experienced in 2020 demonstrate how little control we have when larger forces impact us.

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The attitude of surrender is at the centre of all the world’s wisdom traditions, and Wikman (2004) writes that “a victory for the Self always included a defeat for the ego” (xix). As a result, it is often only in times of crisis that surrender can come about. However, Wikman emphasizes that the individual can participate willingly through spiritual practice or unwillingly when faced with crises such as “health problems, loss of love, loss of position and so on,” which serve to break down the ego (xviii). This is not to say, as we can see from the niyamas such as tapas and virya, that personal effort is not important. Ishvara Pranidhana points to a life lived in recognition of the larger forces that shape our existence. As part of this approach, humility is essential. As the Bhagavad Gita counsels, we are not to be puffed up when good fortune comes our way or downcast when it doesn’t, as these events are not within our control. We are instructed to work diligently but not to focus on the fruit of our actions. While at first this may seem like an alien notion, it is actually a balm for the psyche to relinquish the idea that the individual is responsible for everything that happens. The pressure this places on the person is immense, and this approach allows us to do all the necessary work but after that to accept that the outcome is not in our hands. This attitude fosters santosha, trust and faith that are needed for a spacious, open and clear approach to life. *** The yamas and niyamas provide instruction for a spiritual aspirant on how to cultivate right attitudes towards the self and others, and then progressively how to turn inwards on the path to self-development and the transformation of consciousness. These teachings are interconnected with ethical precepts

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that are optimally practiced in a holistic and comprehensive manner and when done so, help the student move towards integrity and wholeness. Although the yamas belong to the world of the outer and provide practical wisdom for embodied daily life, the cultivation of these attitudes has implications for the subtle aspects of self as well. These principles and practices create the field in which spiritual practice can take place. The observation of these precepts assist the practitioner in elevating consciousness through the refinement of the patterns of mind and skilful application of virtues both internally and externally. Ultimately, the precepts provide the fertile ground that allows for the unlocking of full human potential and spiritual development. These practices allow for the marshalling of powerful sattvic forces that impact the state of both body and mind. Traditions such as yoga take a clear-eyed approach to the human condition and offer techniques and practices that purify, calm and settle the psyche. Once they have been integrated into daily life, they become a powerful bulwark against the inevitable challenges, both internal and external, that can drive a person off course. While the word yama means restraint, it is useful to shift the way in which this is understood. In North America, restraint is seen as interfering with freedom and creativity. However, it is helpful to think of the example of an athlete or dancer who embrace discipline and restraint. They internalize these attributes to embody creative freedom at a sophisticated level. Likewise, the yamas and niyamas create structures internally and externally that help develop the individual so that they can be aligned and as a result access the subtle, creative and deep parts of themselves.

CHAPTER FOUR THE TEMPLE OF THE BODY

Though the methods of working with the body in yoga have varied greatly, it is understood as being a vital part of spiritual transformation. Within the yoga paradigm, no bypass of the body is allowed, and energetic training is considered a prerequisite for both health and progressive spiritualization. Though the texts offer different maps of the body’s inner anatomy, they all accept the existence of a subtle life-force energy. The association of life with breath and breath with the divine offers a metaphor of the body as a temple for the spirit. The Sanskrit term used for this association is prana, which connects life-breath and divinity. This spiritual anchoring is an essential aspect of embodied practice. As Iyengar (2012) writes, “without a body, it is impossible to see God. The body has to undergo some training in order to be an effectual help to reach the highest goal: Atma Darshana (self-realization). For that you need a sound and strong body” (51). From this perspective, the spirit (atman) is not found outside normal life, not even outside the body. Instead, the realization of the divine lies behind everyday experience and embodied practice.

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The pioneering work of B.K.S. Iyengar In contemporary yoga culture, posture practice and alignment are often associated with seeking integral balance and symmetry of form in the individual poses. This is accomplished partly by paying careful attention to the dual energies within the body. Though a tapestry of energy channels exist, the two main channels to be harmonized are those of the solar and lunar channels. As gatekeepers to the main spiritual channel the sushumna, their balancing is of primary importance. In fact, to consciously cultivate and attune the body to flow according to its inherent patterns of subtle energy is part and parcel of a balanced posture practice. Iyengar pioneered a radically new way of looking at alignment from the perspective of the physical body, and made posture practice (asana) the entry point to learn about energetic cultivation. He brought methods such as work with points, sequencing and timing into posture practice to bring about an embodied form of concentration and interiorization. Also, he used a great variety of supportive props to bring about a tailored approach to each person. The system developed by Iyengar built on the teachings of his guru Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who was determined that yoga should be taught to householders. Krishnamacharya developed practices suited to those living in the world and pioneered an approach that was compatible with day-to-day life. Eventually, he took the radical step of teaching nonIndians and women, realizing that the practices would be valuable for all regardless of cultural background or gender. As a young man, Iyengar was not considered a promising student. Initially he experienced illness and physical weakness but through determination

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and devotion, he worked through the blocks in his own practice and then was able to engage with the challenges of others with attention and compassion. From his earliest days of teaching, he was concerned with adapting practices to the individual student. He describes imitating a student’s problems in order to find out how he could best correct and guide them back to a natural balance. In this way he attempted to awaken the body’s own intelligence. In developing a whole therapeutic approach to yoga, Iyengar never lost sight of the grounding of yoga in the spiritual tradition. In his book Light on Yoga (2005), he describes the yoga system as a paradigm in which “the subtle precedes the gross, or the spirit precedes matter” (11). From this perspective, subtle breath is one of the tools we possess for stilling the body–mind. Awareness of breath is an integrated part of posture practice, and without it the poses lack vitality. For Iyengar, alignment was the spirit behind any work with postures and the main principle behind any technique used. Some sequences of yoga postures were meant to bring deep therapeutic effects, whereas others were used to shift mental states in a positive direction. A technique such as timing, where the practitioner stays in certain poses longer than in others, develops not only endurance and resilience, but also the subtle gifts of quietude and inner rest. The practice of restorative poses is an example of a practice where calming the nervous system and the mind are emphasized. Through these varied practice methods, Iyengar taught a vital kind of embodied concentration and mindfulness, as well as an attitude of nonviolence (ahimsa).

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His approach is based on the understanding that the subtle body comes to life when stillness and repose are found in the postures. Yoga can be compared to bird watching where the most exquisite things happen when we learn to be attentive, present and still. As Iyengar (2012) writes: While doing the postures, your mind should be in half-consciousness, which does not mean sleep. It means silence, emptiness, space, which can then be filled with an acute awareness of the sensations given by the posture. You watch yourself from inside. It is a full silence. (67)

The emphasis is on being an agent of one’s healing rather than a victim of the many issues that confront the body. Iyengar also addresses mood-states and habits; asanas are used to bring a positive change and to lift the vibration of the energy (prana) of the student. He insisted that yoga poses were to be adapted to the individual and not the other way around, and that props could aid in finding poise in the poses.

The spine as energetic centre Classical yoga scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika agree that it is essential to cultivate a strong and upright spine so that the prana, or vital energy, can flow without blockages, as well as enliven the nerves and chakra system. The spine is our core physically, mentally and spiritually. In Awakening the Spine (2019), Vanda Scaravelli refers to the song of the body that comes to life when we recognize our spine as the energetic core of the practice. This song can only be heard if we listen to the subtle movements of the spine (26).

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In many yoga texts, the health of the spine is understood as being the foundation of good posture and the instrument for the enlivening of spiritual energy in the body. The Vastasutra Upanishad emphasizes that placing the limbs and spine along certain symmetrical lines is like knowledge of the divine. In Iyengar’s method, the symmetry between the use of limbs and the awakening of the spine is taken to new dimensions. Though Scaravelli emphasizes the flexibility of the spine, the scriptures tend to emphasize stability over fluidity, as it is ultimately the delicate dance and union of the two. Sutra 11.46 states that “sthira sukham asanam,” meaning that only the careful balancing of stability and ease can bring about harmonious posture. As Iyengar (1991) writes: Whatever asana is performed it should be done with a feeling of firmness, steadiness and endurance in the body, goodwill in the intelligence of the head, and awareness and delight in the intelligence of the heart. This is how each asana should be understood, practiced and experienced. Performance of the asana should be nourishing and illuminative. (157)

This approach ensures that the practitioner does not become complacent and is regularly moved beyond their comfort zone. Rigidity also is not helpful as it shuts down the inner energy and destroys joy in the practice. Perhaps more importantly, the serenity and quietude of yoga may get lost. Anyone who has immersed themselves in asana practice will know how the spine needs to be strong to hold the energies and yet cannot be rigid or it will block the process of awakening. Asana is by definition good posture and implies both symmetry and precision of the limbs, as well as a mental and sensory attitude of equanimity and focus. The spine’s erect position and the subtle body’s

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openness is a prerequisite for good posture. In fact, it is as much a state of mind as it is a state of the body. The root of the Sanskrit word asana (pose), as, literally means to be or to abide, pointing to a restful and yet alert state of consciousness. When found, the radiant presence offers support and shines through the physical form. The aim of asana practice is to create stability and resilience both mentally and spiritually (11.48). Iyengar (1991) describes this state as “perfection in action and freedom in consciousness” (160). Here, the asana takes on a new meditative form where the inner abiding self is sought out and the mind is in a high contemplative state (2.47).

Ahimsa: the importance of gentleness The quest for inner stillness lies at the heart of yoga. This quest has paved the way for many diverse practices (sadhanas), all with the aim of creating a stable state of consciousness without fluctuation or agitation. This state of mind is described in Vyasa’s commentary on the Yoga Sutras as one of peace and non-harmfulness (1.13). It points to a practice and way of life that brings a quieting to our body and facilitates resting in ourselves. Only a serene mind and sattvifized body can serve as a springboard for cultivating the higher states of consciousness. In this regard, the principle of non-violence (ahimsa) must be at the core of practice. By becoming attuned to its varied landscape of feelings and impulses, we learn to work in harmony with, rather than against, the body. In this, the process of witnessing is a crucial tool. In entering into witnessing consciousness we let go of judgment and stay present and mindful without our usual reactivity to experience. Part of witnessing is

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learning to hold tension with equanimity, so that reactivity is prevented or at least lessened. This in itself represents an attitude of ahimsa. If we force our body and drive it like a machine, or use a goal oriented approach, we readily miss these inner markers of well being and inner calm. Yoga is structured to allow for resting in oneself, and only ahimsa can move us towards a sense of steadiness and ease. Bringing dysfunctional patterns of competitiveness and driven-ness into the practice will block the unfolding of the full potential being developed. According to Cope (1999), yoga calls for a balanced approach that he characterizes as “clear seeing and calm abiding” (41). He notes that too much awareness without a strong foundation and development of equanimity is psychologically dangerous. In the yoga tradition, the body is likened to a vessel that has to be fired in a kiln, creating a form strong enough to tolerate and hold the powerful energies of the subtle body. Once the subtle benefits of yoga are experienced, such as joy, inner anchoring and mental resilience, we become less interested in how many backbends brought us there or how well we did in class. The true gift of yoga becomes clear when daily life is impacted by its benefits. This can manifest itself in a variety of ways depending on what is needed in our individual lives and what we are going through at any given time. In this approach, the body is an important site of knowledge and wisdom. We cannot dissociate the positions from our breathing and a mental attitude of non-harmfulness (ahimsa). Unless both are present, we will not receive the intuitions revealed through our body on a daily basis. They are interrelated, and it is not possible to think of asana as healing without

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connecting it with breath-awareness, sensitivity and a self-compassionate attitude. When the body is brought into a calm state it supports receptivity and revelatory insights important for healing and spiritual growth. Such cellular knowledge can be pre-cognitive in nature, so that we pick up cues at a visceral level that then guides decisions and helps prevent illness. In this way, the body is not just our greatest ally, but also an interpreter of everything that is happening in our surroundings. When approached with care and a sense of listening, the body offers a new perspective and becomes the potential site for revelatory insights. To approach our own body with enmity or that of others with competition, is not only counter-productive but also fundamentally harmful. It blocks our joy for practice and places us in an adversarial relationship with self and others.

The five koshas and yoga The yogic understanding of the physical body as part of a larger system of energy builds upon the earliest scriptures. One of the oldest maps of the subtle body is found in the Taittiriya Upanishad, a scripture that is at least 3000 years old. In this ancient text, the model of the five sheaths (pancha kosha) is used to describe the subtle bodies that surround the self, or spirit (atman). According to this map, the self is hidden away, enclosed in a series of “bodies.” To awaken from a sense of separation from our inner self, we need to explore and intimately know the five layers of the physical, vital, emotional, mental and blissful. These five koshas are:

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x Annamaya kosha: the food body/our physical body x Pranamaya kosha: the vital breath body/our energy body x Manomaya kosha: the emotional body/our lower mind (manas) x Vijnanamaya kosha: the intuitive wisdom body/our higher mind (buddhi) x Anandamaya kosha: the body of bliss/our ecstatic mind (sat-citananda) When following a spiritual path, all of these sheaths are to be worked with, and none can be disregarded. Each successive body holds a mesmerizing power that may seize our full attention, to the exclusion of the other bodies. The result can be one of obsession with the physical body, the emotions or higher ecstatic states. At other times, the danger lies in neglect or dissociation from one of these bodies, resulting in other problems all together. The temptation is to stay in one’s comfort zone and neglect the part of us that is underdeveloped. In Light on Life (2005), Iyengar illustrates the many ways in which health and spiritual well being are directly connected to the harmonious integration of the five koshas (3). While preoccupations about the body as a physical form is tempting, this is rarely a good solution because we then encounter the problems of spiritual alienation and mental fragmentation. There is a great gulf between our physical body and the bliss body nearest to the atman, so any bypass will make for serious consequences. Because of the inherent problems that result from negating any vital part of ourselves, the discipline of yoga does not allow for this type of splitting. Most people begin yoga practice with imbalances, favouring certain parts of themselves to the detriment of others. This can show itself in a

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preference for the practice of poses over study and contemplation, or vice versa. It is natural that many of us feel more developed at either a physical level or mental level, and yet others are strongly anchored in their intuitive self. Using the map of the koshas makes it possible for the less developed parts of us to catch up and receive the light of consciousness. One of the challenges in spiritual life lies is approaching feelings of inferiority, the undeveloped parts of the self, physical injuries, and weakness or stiffness with compassionate care. Jung coined the term “shadow” for those aspects of ourselves that we deny or push aside out of guilt or shame. The more we are trained to hold the tension of working with our shadow aspects while keeping our eyes fixed on the light within, the more integrated we become. This aspect of befriending our body–mind in its wholeness takes time, does not look like much on the outside, but is essential for a life-long and positive relationship with ourselves. In this way yoga can be a profound physical and mental practice for working with areas of weakness and discomfort, either physical or emotional. Learning to sit with discomfort is a common experience of anyone who has done asana practice. Staying present and shifting into a witnessing approach can become a powerful practice for approaching other parts of life. Yoga can contribute to the larger aim of opening and developing the weaker, or rejected, parts of oneself. For many in the Western world, the body partakes in this attitude of inferiority, and developing a friendly attitude towards it is radical experience. In Light on Life (2005), Iyengar argues that the fast-paced life typical of many people has had dire consequences for the integrated care of our body, mind and soul. He paints a picture of fragmentation and self-

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alienation, a situation in which the koshas are separated instead of being integrated. Iyengar writes, “the body and mind are beginning to pull each other in opposite directions, dissipating our energy. We do not know how to recharge our batteries of energy. As a result we become careless and callous” (78). Because of the positive possibilities that exist in the relationship between the different koshas, the ancient sages declared that every sheath, all aspects of the self, had to be known and harmoniously balanced. As each of these bodies are sites of wisdom in themselves, we need to befriend them individually for genuine healing to take place. Practice is the vehicle to transport us inward and develop the higher states of consciousness.

Annamaya kosha: the physical body The first sheath is the annamaya kosha, which is the physical body. This kosha is the outermost layer of the anatomical and physical body. Iyengar (2005) makes clear that “there can be no realization, divine bliss, without the support of the soul’s incarnate vehicle” (12). This body is conceptualized as a product of the food we eat and therefore highly dependent upon our lifestyle and diet. The physical body is particularly vulnerable to the forces of nature, including seasons, and possesses the strengths and weaknesses of our individual Ayurvedic constitution and state of body–mind. Ayurveda was developed to maintain bodily health with a variety of daily self-care routines and an individually adapted diet. These daily routines and lifestyle recommendations emphasize the need to ground ourselves in healthy habits. The routines are related to the idea of tapas (discipline), which is used to purify the body and make it receptive to higher states of

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consciousness. The complexities and weakness of each person are recognized, and Iyengar (2005) writes that if we can become aware of limitations and compulsions we can transcend them (12). It is through the annamaya kosha that we receive vital bodily sensations and can intuit what is going on in our health. It is also via the body that our surroundings are read at a gut level, a form of knowledge that is cultivated through yoga. Iyengar emphasizes that we are not meant to neglect or deny our body, nor are we to become fixated on its every whim. What we do every day and with great regularity, is what influences our health the most.

Pranamaya kosha: the vital breath body The second sheath described is the pranamaya kosha, the body of lifeforce energy. This kosha is a bridge between body, mind and spirit, mediating much of the communication between them. When we listen to the breath, we know a lot more about our state of mind and can readily sense if we suffer from stress, are fatigued or anxious. On the positive side, the breath also indicates when we feel inspired, well and at ease. Prana joined with the five organs of action (karmendriya), which interact with the outer world, form this vital sheath and facilitate the many activities and functions of life. In Ayurveda for Women (1999), Svoboda describes prana as the energy of the entire body–mind–spirit complex, which “invigorates and inspires the body, transports the mind wherever it needs to go, and aligns the soul’s awareness with that of the Absolute Spirit” (17).

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In many ways it is prana that determines our vitality and enthusiasm for life and helps with everything from cleansing to digestion. It is also this vital force that helps us bounce back when faced with adversity, illness and other challenges. While prana is subtle energy, it has great power to affect changes in our body. But it takes training to interpret its cues. Both yoga and Ayurveda are based on the recognition of this vital force and Ayurveda draws on it for diagnostics as well as for its prescribing medicines and health routines. The ancient yogis recognized the many ways in which the mind and breath mirror one another. They emphasized the intricate interdependence between the pranamaya kosha and manomaya kosha. Whenever we effect one of these koshas positively, the other one is also impacted. In a similar way, when the breath is affected by stress or pain, our mental state also suffers. But aside from the physical and mental benefits of breathing practices, yogis also espoused the possibility of self-knowing through the careful witnessing of the breath. Researchers have discovered a range of physiological and psychological mechanisms to account for the effects of breathing practices. They include the ability to cope with stress and a profound rebalancing of the automatic nervous system. Both contemplatives and psychologists suggest that regular breathing practice integrated with posture and meditation hold the key to successful stress management. For this, the three calming and stress-reducing factors are posture practice, breath awareness and meditation, all practiced in a calm environment. When the mind and breath are concentrated and free of agitation, then awareness is clear and insight is deep. Today’s stress research has shown that when we combine these

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approaches our entire physiology responds with a sense of relaxation and evenness of mind. The Yoga Sutras offers a variety of ways in which to calm the fluctuating mind, one of which is breath retention. The yogis discovered the connection between breath retention and the arresting and stilling of mental states (sutra 1.34) and built upon it. A conscious breath practice is also said to brighten and lighten the mind (sutra 2.52). Patanjali refers to a lid, or disk, that needs to be removed by pranayama so that the inner luminosity of the soul can be revealed. The practice of breathing also enhances our ability to concentrate so that meditation can be practiced. The Yoga Sutras refer to techniques and methods that we can practice, but also a “fourth kind” of pranayama, which occurs spontaneously. This latter form is connected with certain states of ecstasy and the development of higher consciousness. The practices that invigorate the pranamaya kosha include pranayama and mantra, which in combined practice are said to “unlock our soul” (Iyengar 2019, 114).

Manomaya kosha: the emotional body The manomaya kosha is considered the sheath of the lower, instinctual mind. This body is connected with our emotions and feeling states. It is closely tied with psychological factors such as security, relational attachment patterns and instinctive reactions when in danger. This kosha is highly dependent on our earliest experiences with love, care and daily routines. The early imprint of trust/lack of trust and safety/danger carries on as a distinct vibration in the manomaya kosha for many years. Even

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factors such as whether we learned to listen when we needed to rest, eat or sleep are central for this kosha. The manas and manomaya kosha represent the part of our mind that responds quickly to a situation based on our past experience and instincts. This automatic reaction can serve us positively in life when in danger or unsafe. While it has a definite positive aspect, the manas can present an obstacle in spiritualization if over or underdeveloped. As it largely depends on our earlier experiences and input from the outer world and senses, it is a poor judge when it comes to finding meaning and higher perspective. When operating from this part of us we can easily get caught in obsessive thoughts and impulses without discrimination and discernment. Many of the day-to-day problems that are a common feature of contemporary life have to do with emotional regulation and increased levels of stress. A growing number of people lack basic tools to deal with the emotional and mental states that are a feature of the human psyche. Grounding in a spiritual tradition and training can aid in resisting the temptation to identify with emotions and impulses, ending up riding on a roller coaster of thoughts and feelings. Being overpowered by an emotional state is common especially for adolescents who often have little ability to regulate their emotions. Emotional states sweep over them like an inexorable wave over which they have little control, leaving them wallowing in suffering, fear, anger, sadness, grief, resentment, outrage, etc., in other words, victimized by their own mind, and thus without a healthy sense of agency. With maturity and the demands of adult life, this sense of being overwhelmed usually becomes less frequent. However, this process can

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more readily take place if spiritual techniques and practices have been developed to cope with the stresses of day-to-day life. It is telling that various states of mental and emotional distress, very common in our contemporary age, are referred to as mood disorders. The psychological community recognizes the debilitating impact of emotions that are out of control. There is nothing unusual about the tendency of the mind and the emotions to run off in different directions. The yoga tradition is clear that the mind and higher states of consciousness have to be cultivated in order to work through and cope with these challenging aspects of the human personality. To this end, awareness practices help to maintain direct contact with our inner self and to remove the veils impeding our progress. This connection is necessary if we are to avoid being swept up in a whirlwind of changeable moods when life is not going the way we expected or we experience high levels of stress. Contemplative traditions, including the tradition of yoga, regard such attention training and self-inquiry as essential for mental resilience, character formation and mood regulation. Higher states (meta-cognitive) can remain dormant and undeveloped unless we expand and develop a healthy dialogue with our instinctual nature. The ways that we draw on their power depends on our mental attention training, meditation, spiritual and ritual practice (sadhana) and mindfulness practice. Yoga and meditative practice steady the fluctuations of the mind and emotions so that they can move into alignment with the deeper parts of the mind and the inner self.

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Vijnanamaya kosha: the intuitive wisdom body The fourth kosha is vijnanamaya kosha, the intuitive wisdom body. This sheath is made up of the higher mind and intellect (buddhi). It is the faculty of mind that discriminates, judges and offers higher perspective. The Sanskrit term buddhi comes from budh, to wake up and be aware. Some of its most significant functions are to temper unexamined moods and impulses with discernment, perspective and judgment. It is meant to shift the weight from the unconscious mind to an illumined and free mind. This kosha is a link to more subtle states of consciousness. In the Yoga Sutras, the buddhi designates the mind of intuition and wisdom, which are the only aspects of the mind capable of reflecting the light of the self. Through spiritual practice, the awakening of the vijnanamaya kosha is cultivated in order to move beyond lower mental tendencies. Mantra practice, in particular, was developed to free us from incessant thoughts and shift our awareness inward to the realm of vijnanamaya kosha. Contemplative techniques help to anchor us in something higher than the problem itself especially when we are experiencing obstacles. In this process we become aware of new and higher perspectives of meaning and purpose. Without the development of the higher mind (buddhi), we remain at a low level of vibration and state of awareness. The vijnanamaya kosha represents a transitional point between the manomaya kosha, on one hand, and the anandamaya kosha on the other. Depending on the direction in which our attention is focused, we can get taken either out or in of ourselves. Ram Dass (2004) refers to this as the “swinging door” quality of buddhi: “It can get sucked in to the lower mind

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and go out into the world, or it can turn back inward and aim towards the light, toward Atman, toward the source of it all” (78). The solution to our predicament of suffering is to turn our attention inward rather than outward. This requires the cultivation of sense-withdrawal (pratyahara), the sixth limb of the eightfold path. This represents the leap we have to take from the outer to the inner limbs of practice (sadhana). At this point in the journey through the koshas, we are more attuned to the messages of the higher mind (buddhi). But even when the inner direction has been established, the challenge of proper discrimination and judgement is still not overcome. There is still the possibility that the self, or atman, will mistake information coming from the emotions and fluctuations of the mind. We have to remember that the knower (buddhi) is different from the known (atman).

Anandamaya kosha: the body of ecstacy and bliss The fifth sheath is the anandamaya kosha. This is the kosha nearest the innermost self and is capable of entering realms both mystical and intuitive. Unlike the intellect, which holds the experiences of the known, this body carries a special wisdom regarding the unknown and mysterious. It is from this kosha that we experience mystical union and the samadhi states described in scripture. I.K. Taimni (2007) links this kosha with higher states of consciousness. He writes that “consciousness functions at different levels in different grades of the mind through different mechanisms” (33). Each kosha is associated with a different mental state, and it is only when moving into the vijnanmaya kosha and anandamaya kosha that the higher states of samadhi can be accessed. Taimni also makes it clear that the most subtle

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states cannot be described in detail but have to be experienced. He likens the sutras to a map that offers the general contours of a territory but real knowledge is “always direct and incommunicable” (41). When integrated at this level, we can glimpse the unity and peace described in scripture and feel connected with all. Such experiences can shake us to the core, leading to a re-evaluation of all aspects of life. An alteration of our sense of I-ness occurs where we know in our heart who we are. Once familiar with this kosha, we can never again identify solely with our body, the ego-self or any changeable state. If we are courageous enough to follow the map set out by the ancient yogis, these glimpses of a deeper reality can help us to cultivate a life of inner joy and peace. In The Varieties of Religious Experience, William James (2002/1902) speaks to the necessity of dying to an “unreal life” before we can enter into the “real life” (131). This spiritual birth is associated with mystical experience as described in all the world’s spiritual traditions. *** Clinical research is now bearing out the intricately connected relationship between all aspects of the self: the mind, body, spirit and larger environment (see Yi-Yuan, Hölzel and Posner 2015; Subramaniam, Telles and Doraiswamy 2013). Studies of the connection between health and psychology have revealed that the immune system is directly linked with and impacted by the mind and the emotions. Anger, anxiety, despair and stress have a cascade effect on the human body, lowering immunity and moving the person into stress response.

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A whole new field called affective immunology is opening a window onto the ways in which emotions condition immune responses and how these connect to the outer environment. D’Acquisto (2017) writes that both emotions and the immune system are dynamic systems that interact with external stimuli: “both systems can either be protective for the body if kept under control or detrimental when they are in disarray.” The ancient images and maps drawn from the Upanishads and the Yoga Sutras offer a way to work consciously with the layers of the psyche and the body and to align them. As Iyengar (2019) writes, “body, breath, mind, intellect and self become one and lose their individual identity” (113). Over thousands of years, a variety of techniques have been developed to bring all the aspects of the human person into harmony with each other. From the traditional point of view, this is the leaping-off point for moving into higher states of consciousness. Research is also showing that human beings respond immediately and profoundly to sound, imagery and meditative and contemplative practice. The fact that we are influenced by our surroundings, thoughts and emotions also means that we can exert some control over these aspects of life. The practice of yoga is a highly developed set of techniques for working with and purifying all aspects of the self from the physical to the subtle.

CHAPTER FIVE THE BREATH AS SPIRIT

In the Vedic scriptures, prana is likened to the soul of the universe and to a light that animates and illumines all. It is the primal energy of the universe and the force that links everything to cosmic intelligence. However, in the practice of yoga in the West, there is a tendency to think of pranayama practice in a strictly physical sense as breathing practices. However, Iyengar (2019) writes that “pranayama is the connecting link between the body and the soul of man, and the hub in the wheel of yoga” (xxi). Pranayama is a subtle teaching that leads to the realization that each breath is linked to universal consciousness and with each exhalation we are reunited with that ground of being. After careful preparation and practice of asanas, pranayama points the way towards the self. Breath practice, which works both physically and subtly, is a powerful technique for energizing the body and regulating the mind. Yogic philosophy holds that the breath is the most powerful tool that we possess for stilling the mind. The mind (citta) has been likened to a chariot that when yoked to prana moves from its usual state of agitation into a sattvic state of calm and clarity. From the point of view of yoga psychology any person who gains control over their breath also is on the

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way to control of their mind. Such control is considered essential for spiritual awakening and cannot come into being without extensive training. Even on a strictly physical level, the breath is a barometer of one’s physical and mental states and an important tool for emotional selfregulation. It is a bridge between the body and mind so that any qualitative changes made in our breathing pattern will affect the entire central nervous system and state of mind. Iyengar (2005) describes breath practice as the “window of the Self” and “the great austerity [maha tapas],” resulting in much more than physiological benefits. Echoing the message of the Upanishads, Iyengar emphasizes the inherent sacredness of prana, as well as its vital importance for our mental and physiological health. He notes that due to prana’s association with divinity, longevity and virtue we benefit from recognizing the central importance of this life-giving breath (12–13).

The mother prana and its five forms The importance of prana can be traced back to the Artharva Veda (11.4– 15.15), where five types of life-force energy are described. All functions of the body and mind are performed by these five, and health and well being are dependent on their proper flow. According to the Upanishads, the cavity of the heart is the seat of these vital powers and plays a crucial role in the three states of consciousness, waking, dreaming and deep sleep. It likewise plays a role in setting the length of our lifespan, as well as the way in which the soul leaves the world. This idea of subtle energy that permeates the body–mind complex and is centred in the heart spans many cultures and healing traditions. While the

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names for the bio-energy differ, the traditions recognize that the body is never only physical but, rather, functions within a complex of energy. Yoga, Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), with its Japanese and Tibetan off-shoots, share the central insight that for health to be maintained and illness prevented, the inner life force has to be cared for. It also has to be supported by the daily choices we make. The Nei Jing, the classic Chinese scripture related to health and healing, states that well being springs from connection to spirit, guarding against the squandering of energy and the “constant flow of qi” (Ni 1995, xiii). In these energy-based healing traditions, qi, or prana, is inherited from our ancestors, giving rise to both inborn strengths and weaknesses. Daily selfcare routines, including breath practice and energy work, are vital for everyone, either to strengthen an already strong constitution or to minimize inherited weaknesses and prevent them from impacting our health. In Reflections of the Moon on Water: Healing Women’s Bodies and Minds through Traditional Chinese Wisdom (2006), Xiaolan Zhao argues that the concept of energy is a difficult aspect for Western minds to grasp. She notes that since neither life-force energy nor its channels (nadis, or meridians) are identified in Western anatomy, most people have no concept of the body as pranic energy nor are they trained in working consciously with its flow (18–19). Traditionally, practices such as yoga, pranayama and tai chi have fulfilled this role of energetic cultivation. All of these paradigms accept the existence of a subtle life-force energy that pervades not only the entire macrocosm but also is present in the microcosm of the body–mind. It creates and maintains life in all its forms.

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Qi is “the vital force that underlies our bodies, minds, hearts and spirits. It is immaterial and invisible, and yet has the capacity to produce material and visible effects” (Zhao 2006, 18). It is likewise the force that destroys and brings illness when blocked and/or unbalanced. In Yoga for Your Type: An Ayurvedic Approach to Your Asana Practice (2001), Frawley and Kozac describe the two factors that disturb these subtle energies as: “externally a wrong relationship with environmental forces like food or climate, and internally, a wrong movement of internal energies brought about by disharmonious thoughts and emotions” (11). Because of this, each person has to regulate their relationship with the external world and their own inner landscape. Both Ayurveda and yoga are based on the recognition of this vital force of prana. In Ayurveda, the five “airs” are called the vata-subdoshas or prana-vayus and are related to the vital functions of respiration, circulation, elimination, digestion and selfexpression: x Prana vayu: Inward moving air—the mother prana x Apana vayu: Downward moving air—the great cleanser x Vyana vayu: Pervasive air—the great nourisher x Samana vayu: Equalizing air—the great digester x Udana vayu: Upward moving air—the great uplifter These five pranas work in tandem and should be balanced, without any being in excess. An integral posture practice helps to maintain the right balance and cultivates energizing (prana), relaxation/cleansing (apana), expansion (vyana), centring (samana) and uplift (udana). When out of balance, particular postures or breath-practice can be used to regain equilibrium. But to master this art and energetic alchemy we have to

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understand how the pranas work in counter-pairs and which poses are conducive to correcting and regulating this subtle energy.

Asana practice for pranic health Posture practice along with its benefits to the physical body and a sense of nurturing and daily support can also balance the prana. When practiced regularly, either at home or in class with a qualified teacher, yoga sequences are an effective way to harmonize the pranic system. Restorative yoga is an example of a practice that facilitates deep relaxation, calms the mind and vitalizes all the pranas. It acts as a catalyst for regulation of energy, revitalizing depleted pranas and calming agitation. It is particularly useful in restoring the subtle energy system and gaining access to the serenity of the inner mind. From an Ayurvedic viewpoint, these practices build a strong and healthy immune system. This, in turn, contributes to the increase of the general store of prana. Another key element for the vital functioning of all five pranas is the linking of breath and movement (vinyasa), which strengthens overall circulation and pranic flow through the body. Any practice, when done dynamically and with the breath will aid in developing vital health. Surya Namaskar (sun salutation) is a core practice of yoga, combining devotional prostrations (salutations) while focusing on movement and breath. Vinyasa, which is traditionally performed at dawn, allows for a harmonious flow of prana through the nadis and helps move blockages within the entire energy system. Through its regular practice, vital pranic health is cultivated.

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Vinyasa practices such as Surya Namaskar and Chandra Namaskar (moon salutation) allow for a balancing of masculine and feminine, heating and cooling practices. Though this solar vinyasa is considered among the masculine yoga repertoire, it is an important practice for women as well. In The Woman’s Yoga Book, Clennell (2007) writes that this “flowing sequence, where the emphasis is on rhythm and speed, develops alertness and stamina. It tones and cleanses the pelvic organs, strengthens the upper body, and brings the whole system to life” (58–59). This practice, which is associated with the solar channel (pingala nadi), can be used consciously to break through tamas and build energy and strength. The less familiar Chandra Namaskar emphasizes the lunar channel (ida pingala and has a cooling impact on the body and mind. This sequence can be used to calm rajas and move into receptive and intuitive states. It helps to balance and harmonize the energies of the body and mind. It is important to find a pace and intensity that are in alignment with one’s Ayurvedic constitution, current state of health and stage of life. It is clear that a young and healthy man or woman, with a healthy pranic condition, can benefit from a stronger form and intensity. However, someone who has been ill or whose prana is depleted, will benefit from restorative poses, lowered intensity and a shorter duration of practice. The strong solar energy of practices like Sun Salutation are not to be engaged when daily life is too demanding, nor is it suitable when we have been weakened due to illness or stress. At those times, we are in need of a gentler version or the lunar influence of a restorative practice that protects, calms and is gentle on the pranic system.

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A number of yoga poses work to balance the solar and lunar energies and contribute to overall vitality. Geeta Iyengar (1998) makes it clear that we need “to see the asana in its true perspective”; too often hatha yoga and the practice of poses have been understood in a strictly physical sense. However, the physical practices need to be understood as embedded in a pranic and spiritual understanding (180).

Solar and lunar breath practice As yoga is fundamentally a means of enhancing the force of prana through the myriad energy channels (nadis), the solar and lunar breath practices cannot be ignored. Though these breath practices are not the techniques we traditionally start with, it is important to prioritize their learning in a developed practice. As some of the most important regulators of our physiology and psychology, these are considered of paramount importance. The term nadi shodhana means purification and cleansing of the nerves and channels (Iyengar 2005, 209). Several classical yogic texts such as the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, Shiva Samhita and Gheranda Samhita mention this cleansing breathing technique and describe its harmonizing effect on the pranas, nadis and mind. Iyengar describes it as a revitalizer of the right and left hemispheres of the brain and its subtlest levels of performance as a “pathway to the innermost Self” (210). In the broader yoga literature, the primary effect of working with the solar breath is described as having powerful psycho-physiological effects. According to Hatha Yoga Pradipika (verse 50), it is excellent for harmonizing vata-dosha and has a positive effect on our nerves and mental-emotional states such as depression and despair. When performed

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correctly it facilitates an immediate sense of agency, self-confidence and mental focus. Working with the solar approach to pranayama, all inhalations are channelled through the right nostril (surya nadi) and all exhalations through the left nostril (chandra nadi). Traditionally, working with the solar breath was considered one of the most effective ways of invigorating flow in the body–mind and nervous system. These practices are healing and energizing. Maya Tiwari (2000) brings an Ayurvedic perspective to the practice of pranayama. In her work with women’s health, she stresses that the lunar breath is best activated in the morning to balance the energies of the external sun (130). According to Tiwari, lunar activation protects us from becoming over-active and aggressive in the midst of daily demands and stresses. Tiwari offers a unique view of the solar and lunar pranayamas for balancing the menstrual cycle, bringing a woman’s perspective to yoga and Ayurveda. One of the central ideas conveyed in the literature of yoga is that by knowing the diverse energies of surya (solar) and chandra nadi (lunar), we can learn to regulate the intricate physiology related to vital functions such as our heart rate, blood pressure, hormonal balance and emotional tone. Furthermore, alternate nostril breathing (nadi shodhana) has benefits for our emotional state and mental capacity, including cognitive function. Pranic energies can help attune the mind with a particular activity whether it is a task that requires a clear, calm mind or a ritual practice that requires a devotional attitude. This internal alchemy of working with breath

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practice was utilized by yogic adepts and is a potent catalyst to calm, awaken or harmonize the mind and prana. Contemporary yoga research has demonstrated that nadi shodhana pranayama alters sympathetic nervous system functioning and can regulate emotional and mental states. Specifically, left nostril breathing, which corresponds to the lunar nadi (ida), has been shown to decrease sympathetic nervous system activity as demonstrated by lowered heart rate and blood pressure and by increased oxygen consumption and galvanic skin response. Whether practicing one of the many forms of alternate nostril breathing for physiological regulation, stress-reduction or spiritual reasons, this approach to pranayama can have a powerful impact on the mind and nervous system. Engaging with breathing practices makes it is possible to regulate and harmonize the inner landscape.

Sacred sound The Vedic tradition developed what Guy L. Beck (1993) has referred to as a “sonic theology” in which sacred sound links the individual directly to the divine realm. The conscious restraint of speech and the applied use of sound and language has been a vital part of the tradition from the Vedas onward. Forms of language, such as mantra practice, were used as “agents of transformation” (23), connecting the vibration of sound to the large energies of the cosmos and within the physical and subtle bodies of human beings. Tiwari (2000) explains the Vedic principles behind the healing power of sacred sound and connects this with the theory of nadis and prana:

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harmonious sound collects in the various pranas of the body. The 72,000 or so nadis or energy channels that exist in the body are all sensitive to sound and function through vibrations. Therefore, good sounds increase the vitality of these nadis. Pranas that flow through them also become more charged with vigor. When the pranas are healthy and filled with vitality, they stimulate healthy tissue and organ activity, so that we achieve good health. Vital prana and harmonious sound work hand in hand. (208)

Attentiveness to these principles requires a growing sensitivity to sound in all its forms including speech and music. Choosing, as much as possible, what forms of sound we are exposed to becomes a part of spiritual practice. When working with prana, the practice of sacred sound (reciting mantras and singing devotional hymns) is commonly used. In Tantric literature, mantras represent the largest portion of the teachings and they are the main healing instrument. Mantras are a combination of sacred Sanskrit syllables that form a unique wholeness of spiritual energy capable of purifying as well as awakening the pranic and chakra systems. Sacred sounds activate the spiritual force within us, promoting a high level of attunement in all parts of the person. Though this kind of sadhana targets the manomaya kosha (emotional mind) in particular, its effects are felt throughout the body–mind. The main point is that by breaking through the energy patterns held in the manomaya kosha, we are able to access the deep koshas such as vijnanamaya and anandamaya. Without such access, the higher samadhi states cannot be reached. Mantras are related to the process of freeing our mind. The Sanskrit root man means to think from our emotional mind, and tra, which comes from

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trai, means to protect or free from. One of the ways that we can lift the vibration of our mind, freeing it from its lowest tendencies, is by vitalizing the inner energy of prana so that both mind and spirit can be freed. One of the benefits of working with mantras is that this practice stills turbulent emotions and breaks apart negative thought patterns. Mantras also offer an opportunity to work with the emotions. In the process, the intellect is trained to remain attentive and to give up its wandering tendency. While chanting, we seek to observe in a non-judgmental manner and thus diminish the habit of identifying with incessant thoughts and feelings. Sacred sound is like a shield that protects us from the compulsive pull of the lower mind, allowing us to be transported into the intuitive mind. Because mantras hold an energetic, piercing power they can bypass layers of the mind so that we can find a deeper source of knowing. Refining awareness is, therefore, a central process mediating the benefits of both mantra and pranayama. In fact, virtually all subtle practices guard the intellect and facilitate the expansion of consciousness. In Light on Pranayama (2019), Iyengar offers guidance in integrating sacred sound and breath. In such practice, none of the subtle energies should be forced; they have to be synchronized in a sensitive manner. The consistent practice of mantra purifies all aspects of the practitioner while offering a point of focus. Through a practice that is devoted and sincere, the practitioner “attains inner quietness and becomes one who has conquered his senses” (114). In the Mandukya Upanishad, the recitation of AUM is described as the doorway to all states of consciousness and the inner self (Radhakrishnan

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and Moore 1989, 55). By repeating the fourfold structure of A + U + M + silence, we cultivate calmness and contemplate our connection with the divine. In Yoga Sutras, this sadhana is intimately linked to Ishwara pranidhana and considered the royal road to the soul. Sacred sound and silence, in balance, form part of the pathway to our inner centre. Increased sensitivity to the impact of sound on consciousness is one of the gifts of yogic practice. It is common after a period of working with various sadhanas to find a growing awareness of the influence of sound. We begin to notice the immediate calming effect of natural sounds such as water, rain or bird song and the agitating impact of certain types of music and other forms of sound. As a result, most practitioners become more selective regarding what sounds they allow in their lives, as they have an impact on consciousness.

Mindfulness and breath practice Western biomedicine and some schools of psychology are increasingly recognizing the beneficial stress-managing impact of breath practices. These techniques are now used in a variety of mindfulness programs, although the spiritual context is often stripped away and the focus is predominantly on their physiological and mental benefits. And yet, if taught with care, the traditional aspects of the practice will shine through if both teacher and participant are open and the teacher is anchored in traditional practice and extensive meditative training. The stresses of daily life contribute to activating the fight-or-flight response, which has a negative impact physically, emotionally and mentally. In controlling the fight-or-flight state through carefully monitored breath practice, intrusive thoughts and anxious sensations can

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be reduced. Breath practices signal to the body and mind that everything is okay. Though the mechanism is physiological in nature, its impact can be felt at the deepest level of the heart and soul. In his teachings on breath, Patanjali does not focus on the particular details of pranayama but on the essential elements of this ancient discipline. The sage specifies that in order to calm the mind, we have to learn to exhale slowly and pause after the exhalation. As the breath slows, so do the fluctuations and agitations of our mind and thoughts. When this quieting occurs, we are better able to prevent ourselves from acting on negative impulses and are less likely to be overwhelmed. If the breath begins to slow down, these changes will be reflected in our inner life, flow of thoughts and emotion, bringing about a wider perspective along with a new horizon of action and thought connected to the higher states of consciousness. Traditionally, pranayama is practiced as a form of devotion, with a quiet surrendering to the heart and the divine, and “contemplation on God, or a feeling of luminosity within the heart, has to be practiced with each incoming and outgoing breath” (Swami Hariharanda Aranya 1985, 231). The outbreath, especially, is associated with surrendering the ego to the inner principle of spirit.

Befriending the breath Pranayama is ideally performed after a consistent posture practice and the development of a tranquil mind (Swami Hariharananda Aranya 1983, 231). We are not considered ready for this subtle art until we have befriended our body and natural breathing in basic ways. As an example, paying attention to the breath when doing poses and the subtle signals of

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breath when over-doing poses or in stress is a good start. Also, the guided relaxation (shavasana) at the end of a class teaches us about our breath when we are calm and at ease. When we come to traditional pranayama techniques after some years of yoga practice, we are more attuned to the basics of inner listening and witnessing. This contributes to our ability to resist the temptation to force the breath. Our breath never responds well to force and will-power, but rather when we listen to its inherent signals. These signals can be everything from a message about stress and anxiety, to the joy of feeling at ease and well in ourselves or with the situation at hand. The ancient yogis possessed an extraordinary understanding of the many ways in which our mind and the breath mirror one another. They emphasized the intricate interdependence of the nervous system and the breath: if the breath is disturbed and agitated, so too are the mind and nervous system. Thought patterns, the flow of our emotions and past experiences are all stored in the prana. In order to bring about a positive shift of mind, the prana needs to be revitalized, balanced and controlled. The quality and rhythm of our breath demonstrates the state of the nervous system— the breath doesn’t lie! Knowledge of these techniques can be useful for working with a wide array of psychological challenges. Amy Weintraub (2002) notes that emotions like unresolved grief are held in the body–mind, resulting in physical and mental symptoms. Weintraub acknowledges the power of modalities such as talk therapy and argues that yoga practice can work in tandem with and help in what she refers to as “cognitive restructuring.” In the event of traumas that occurred in very early life, which may not be

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available to the conscious mind, yoga practice can be a mode for dealing effectively with complex conditions such as depression by working with all aspects of the person and with the causes of deep suffering. Aside from the physiological and mental benefits of pranayama, the ancient sages also espoused the possibility of self-knowing through the careful witnessing of the breath. The Vedas poetically state that the span of an individual’s life is determined by the number of breaths that each soul is given for their quest and not a set amount of years. The ancient sages, therefore, advises us to slow down our breath and master the science of pranayama. *** Practiced together, the various breath sadhanas can aid us in living healthy lives. Pranayama is a powerful practice for stress reduction and can also offer help in healing from trauma. From a spiritual perspective, breath sadhanas are a vital tool that can be used to anchor ourselves. Whether it is taking ten minutes to practice quiet breathing when we first wake up or engaging in more intricate pranayamas, their impact is unmistakable. Breath can be used to maintain a vital connection to one’s health, mental well-being and, ultimately, to spirit. The wisdom of the holistic system can be seen when looking at the first four limbs of yoga. Working with lifestyle, mental attitudes, the body and the breath, the practices work to transform the entire person and move them towards health and well being. This approach takes on board the understanding that dysfunctional patterns are not only held in the mind; they are also stored in the body and breath.

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In Light on Pranayama (2019), Iyengar writes that pranayama is used to “bring out the latent divinity in the body, the abode of Atman” (107). From a spiritual perspective, the breath is a link to higher consciousness. However, this can only be achieved when the mind and body have been calmed and integrated. It is at that point that the spiritual aspects of the practice begin to shine through.

CHAPTER SIX OBSTACLES ON THE SPIRITUAL PATH

All of the world’s spiritual traditions recognize that attempts at personal evolution are accompanied by challenges. This is not the result of personal error, but is endemic to any process of transformation. A vital feature of walking a spiritual path is confrontation with our personal weaknesses and the existential facts of the human condition. The inherent challenges of life are part of the reason that virya is such an important virtue in classical yoga. This source of clear, strong energy is necessary for maintaining momentum on life’s journey. The heroic quality of vigour is extremely important in order to face the trials that inevitably arise. Certain challenges are timeless and universal, while others are related to particular personal weaknesses that are a part of each person. Those embarking on this challenging journey are reassured that it is ultimately worth the pain and struggle. It is, in fact, often the obstacles and challenges that evoke and shape character. The tendency of human beings to fall out of alignment with higher law is universally acknowledged. Because we are not controlled completely by instinct, we can make choices about how to direct our energy and efforts. This freedom to choose means we may to misuse our talents and spend our time on unimportant or even destructive activities. Spiritual traditions have

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long recognized the ways in which certain human tendencies easily derail self-reflection and development.

The kleshas: the universal challenges The yoga tradition engages the obstacles on the path directly. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali lists the kleshas, or afflictions, which are universal for anyone walking the path of yoga, as avidya, asmita, raga, dvesha and abhinivesha. Vyasa, in his commentary, calls avidya, or spiritual ignorance, the breeding ground of all the other kleshas. From this perspective, all problems are the result of lack of insight and knowledge/wisdom. If the starting point is not sound then all the actions that follow will also necessarily be unskilful. In Vyasa’s commentary, he states that “avidya consists in regarding a transient object as everlasting, an impure object as pure and misery as happiness and the Not-Self as the Self” (sutra 2.5). As a result of a lack of right knowledge, the individual attempts to anchor themselves in aspects of life that are impermanent. This is like trying to build a house on shifting sand and cannot bring about long-term well being and development. A common example of this is trying to find lasting security and a sense of self in status, wealth or physical appearance. Observations of oneself and other people make it clear that self-destructive and healthy impulses co-exist in all of us. Through misperception or lack of self-reflection, anyone can end up going down a self-destructive path. Of course, there is a wide spectrum of these behaviours from procrastinating on something important to feeding a life-threatening addiction. These unhealthy and unhappy patterns build up over time but may not show their fruit for many years.

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Asmita: unhealthy forms of ego The klesha of asmita (ego) is considered a central problem in all of the world’s traditions. The ego is the part of the personality that identifies with the external world and tends to see everything in terms of “I, me and mine.” Severe forms of this identification result in what, in Western psychology, is called narcissism, which is becoming increasingly common in Western society. The individual with this type of ego places their wants and needs above all else and barely registers the well being of others or the surrounding environment. A growing number of professionals who work in the fields of psychology, psychotherapy and spiritual care are acknowledging that Western culture is no longer based on strict personal limitations and suppression of feelings, as was the case in the days of Freud. Rather, we are now expected to be authentic and expressive in all life situations independent of context or consequences. As a result, problems with emotional selfregulation, self-image, addiction and psychic fragmentation are common. Religious and spiritual traditions have developed techniques for countering the human tendency of superficial self-absorption. Methods include mindfulness, meditation and self-reflective practice embedded in a worldview that is not focused on the desires of the individual. Also, harmonizing social relations is considered an essential form of meditation. These practices link to ishvara pranidhana, as devotion softens tendencies of self-obsession and inspires attitudes and actions that express gratitude and care. These practices both anchor the individual to a core sense of self based on a spiritual understanding and tie them tightly to community. Unfortunately,

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we can get accustomed to thinking that who we are is determined by the glossy and fleeting pictures of ourselves presented to the outer world. In the spheres of diet, image, exercise and relationships, social media regularly churns out new trends to follow—simplified recipes for happiness and success. Despite differences in terminology, contemplative traditions all refer to the need to move inward and to seek a life of meaning and purpose. They have also created models to aid in the maturation and cultivation of the personality. Jung was one of the great thinkers in psychology who developed a complex understanding of the process of personal evolution. He saw the development and cultivation of the psyche as the duty of everyone who had the potential to do so. Further, he warned of the grave dangers of living solely on the outskirts of who we are, in the roles and masks (persona) created to function in the outer world. Jung believed that it is only when we integrate all the aspects of our psyche that we truly become who we are. This process lends a stability so that we can withstand the blandishments of a culture increasingly dazzled by what can be seen on the surface. Likewise, spiritual traditions have developed a rich toolkit of practices aimed at cultivating capacities such as empathy, compassion and higher forms of consciousness. These philosophies of the mind and emotions are grounded in ideas of a well-lived life rather that in the desires of the moment.

Raga and dvesha: getting caught in the opposites In Yoga and Psychotherapy (1998), Swami Rama, Ballentine and Swami Ajaya state that “in yoga psychology attachment (raga) along with its contrary aversion (dvesha) is considered the key to understanding how the

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process of growth can come to a halt” (179). Attachment results from an experience of pleasure, and Swami Rama et al. trace this back to how the psyche develops from infancy around maximizing pleasure and avoiding pain. To break through this approach is to make a quantum leap away from a self-focused approach to life. We learn slowly that we must often choose something that is not pleasurable. As Swami Rama et al. point out, from a yogic point of view, even as adults we share a great deal with addicts: “On close examination, one can be seen to be addicted or attached to many of the objects, thoughts and persons around which life is organized. Dependency and clinging are the hallmarks of such addiction or attachment” (182). From the perspective of yoga philosophy, attraction and aversion are viewed as being two sides of the same coin: in both cases one loses detachment and becomes “involved to such an extent that that to observe the situation and learn is lost” (183). A great deal of energy is expended avoiding what is not pleasurable and clinging to what is. The strong emotions that are attached to raga and dvesha are also linked to the creation of samskaras and habitual action. These actions are weighted with more karma, and as long as these patterns persist one’s thoughts and behaviour continue to be governed by them. As attitudes and behaviours become habitual they are experienced as being a permanent part of the personality. It is typical for us to sort all phenomenon into what we like and don’t like, which many people wouldn’t consider problematic. But this approach is ego-centred and ranks everything according how it relates to one desires and personal comfort. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna tells Arjuna, “a man

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of disciplined mind, who has the sense under control and who has neither attraction nor aversion for sense objects, attains tranquility” (2.64). It is clear, then that moving beyond the twin pulls of raga and dvesha is a vital aspect of spiritual evolution. The patterns of attraction and aversion are deep seated. Even a casual observer can see that most people are ruled by habitual modes of thought and action, sometimes for efficiency’s sake but other times they play out much more negatively. The ability to move beyond attraction and aversion requires the development of healthy detachment and an expanded perspective. This is a thorny yogic question because traditionally people who practiced pure detachment were renunciants. However, for householders, it is impossible to withdraw completely from the world and its entanglements. For instance, it is extremely destructive to children if they do not learn healthy attachment. This is another subtle topic and it is easy to mistake repression or indifference for detachment. For the person living in the world, the balance between attachment and detachment has to be negotiated while still caring for family and community. According to the Yoga Sutras, the solution to overcoming the push and pull of raga and dvesha lies in the cultivation of detachment, referred to as vairagya. This term originates from the root raga, which means uncontrolled desire and craving. Not only do we have to consider the intensity of our desires in our own life, but also how these affect others around us. The point of detachment is disentanglement from desires that keep us bound and lead to behaviour that contradicts the yamas.

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Though many experiences may appear sweet and enjoyable, they cannot bring us lasting happiness and may turn bitter for ourselves or others at some point. As it says in the Bhagavad Gita, “that which, through the contact of the senses with their objects, is like nectar in the beginning, and like poison in the end, that happiness is said to be rajasic” (18.38). Vyasa specifies four areas of our life where the forces of desires are at their strongest and have to be purified. These are sexuality, food, substances and power (Swami Hariharananda 1983, 37). As the practice of detachment entails a gradual process, Vyasa lays out the stages of cultivation. These bring us from basic sattvification of lifestyle and diet to the subtle aspects of thought and desires. The burning power of tapas is meant to reduce the sway of tamas and rajas and help us control the ego, desires and outwardgoing senses. According to this perspective, the supreme form of detachment is clear and pristine, but for most people it is necessary to begin cultivating detachment in a moderate and life-affirming manner. In a message meant for those living in the world, the Bhagavad Gita states for the one, “who is moderate in food and diversion, whose actions are disciplined, who is moderate in sleep and waking, yoga destroys all sorrow” (6.17). At the most subtle end of the spectrum, we are told, “when he is absorbed in the Self alone, with controlled mind, free from longing, from all desires, then he is said to be a saint” (6.18). Detachment in the latter form is the culmination of wisdom and connected with the higher states of consciousness. Para vairagya arises not out of human effort but through a personal conversion experience and experience of grace. Vyasa refers to this as a direct experience of the divine or self

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(purusha). When this breakthrough takes place, the individual is able to see clearly beyond the push and pull of individual desires and preferences (Swami Hariharananda 1983, 39–41). The mystic Jnaneswar states that the more firmly we can establish outer discipline and structures of detachment, the greater our inner happiness will be. In fact, what seems to be a great sacrifice is merely a seed for something much more valuable (Swami Kripananda 1999, 79). When we are not caught up in our own unending turmoil and other people’s illusions and compulsions, reality can be seen clearly. This requires practices of regular withdrawal and self-reflection as it is easy to lose perspective and get caught up in the daily dramas of life. This challenge to spiritual progress is acknowledged in the Bhagavad Gita, where Arjuna is taught about the necessity of self-control and “right means.” As Krishna states, “Yoga is hard to attain, I concede by a man who cannot control himself; but it can be attained by him who has controlled himself and who strive by right means” (6.36). From this point of view, tapas is a powerful tool that can be used to refine the human being at a soul-level and perfect our character. Though there is an array of techniques and methods to help us do this, the triad of discipline, self-reflection and devotion is aimed at training us to think outside of ourselves and move beyond our basest tendencies (sutra 11.1– 11.2).

Abhinivesha: coming to grips with change The final klesha, abhinivesha, is the most challenging to understand. It is usually translated as fear of death or clinging to life in a form that we are familiar with. In that clinging we easily fear not only the moment of death,

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but also its precursors such as illness, suffering and old age. The more we are attached to the body and security based in the material world, the more we will resist the changes that naturally come about as we approach the later stages of our lives. But according to the yogic understanding, consciousness does not necessarily decline as we approach death but can be cultivated to reach very high states. In fact, the entire process of yoga is meant as a preparation for a proper death. Only when we cultivate an ability to face death, and thus our own mortality, will we learn to truly live. Swami Rama et al (1998) note that personal development requires constant death and rebirth (193). An important part of the spiritual journey means learning to live with uncertainty and change. He likens the ongoing process to climbing a mountain where the trail spirals around the mountain. Each point offers a radically different view but at the peak the view is complete and integrated (203).

Archetypal trials on path In the Yoga Sutras, obstacles are portrayed as an integrated part of the spiritual journey. The prize of higher consciousness does not come easily, nor without struggle. Many veils hide access to the inner self and need to be dealt with. This involves stages of realization, and at every transition or phase of transformation, we find ourselves presented with a new set of trials. Patanjali mentions some of the archetypal obstacles, among which are illness, procrastination, carelessness, doubt and illusory knowledge. Even sluggishness, which can set in due to tamas when we are not living healthily or when we are struck by grief or depression, is mentioned. At a

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subtle level, we find it difficult to control the pull of our senses and make leaps of spiritual progress. Also, the challenge of maintaining our good intentions over time is considered as is the need for perseverance (sutra 1.30). These obstacles speak to fundamental challenges and ultimate concerns of life, which all of us inevitably face. These include the inescapable challenges of suffering and limitation, illness and doubt. These obstacles leave us prey to a deep sense of anxiety and confusion. Patanjali describes these roadblocks as factors of dispersion readily throwing us out of our own centre. These states lead to a loss of inner anchoring and a chain reaction of psychosomatic symptoms. In Patanjali’s language, this cluster of mental and emotional states are “accompanying symptoms” that bring to view the interconnectedness of our spiritual predicament and the body– mind’s reaction to stress and pain (sutra 1.31). Contemporary psychology recognizes many of these emotional and physical states as stress symptoms signalling a system on high alert. These symptoms indicate a body–mind engulfed in the fight-or-flight mechanism of the central nervous system. The psychosomatic symptoms mentioned in sutra 1.31 range from erratic breathing to shakiness, depression, frustration and overall suffering (duhkha). When we are operating from this part of the nervous system we cannot think clearly, and many of the essential functions of our physiology are restricted to coping with life and survival. To notice when this shift takes place is essential so that we do not get stuck in living life in a high stress mode. The accompanying symptoms are messengers that bring attention to the underlying problem. If we shoot the messenger, so to speak, by ignoring

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the signs of the body, breath and nervous system, we lose the opportunity to address the obstacle. On the other hand, if we can observe our reactions we can learn a great deal about ourselves. Only with awareness and sensitivity can the cycle be turned around and used as a springboard for healing and transformation. Challenges caused by illness or the on-set of doubt can be viewed as meaningful life lessons or spiritual tests. Though many times we are stopped in our tracks by an unexpected turn of events, we are encouraged to face it with an open mind. This is an approach that rejects avoidance and denial. Sooner or later we have to wrestle with encrypted messages of setbacks and seek within for guidance and a higher perspective. It is often in our reaction to suffering and the desire to avoid inconvenient road blocks that we end up prolonging the pain. When our expectations and ego’s life plan are derailed, we have to work at multiple layers in order to proceed.

Vishad: the role of suffering in human evolution At the centre of the Bhagavad Gita is the moment when the hero and great warrior Arjuna is brought to his knees through confusion and despair. This moment, referred to as the vishad of Arjuna, points to the mystery that lies at the heart of all spiritual traditions: the recognition that suffering plays an important part in the development of the human person. It is often only great suffering that evokes the necessary humility to open a person to spiritual teachings. When all of aspects of the outer life go according to plan it is common for us to think this is a result of our virtue, intelligence or planning. An unconscious arrogance can result from a too easy life and one that is free

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from physical infirmity or material want. This state can also render empathy for others who are suffering more difficult. Unfortunately, much of contemporary Western culture considers suffering something to be avoided or a punishment for having made mistakes in life, and the province of the unfortunate. Contemporary society often erects defences such as constant busyness or self-distraction. This can create a dangerously unreflective approach to suffering. Contrary to this view, many spiritual traditions regard suffering as a catalyst that brings about a deep spiritual life and matures character. It opens our heart to compassion for others. In this process, our egoic self is transcended and an enlarged identity is created that is anchored in spirit. The Buddhist founder of the mindfulness stress reduction program, Jon Kabat Zinn (1990), describes our attempts to avoid pain as a “misplaced aversion to suffering.” (285). He identifies how ordinarily we do not make a distinction between pain and suffering, but that there is an important difference between them: pain is a natural part of life, whereas suffering is one of many possible responses to pain. Spiritual traditions recognize how easy it is to identify with our suffering in a destructive way instead of working with it consciously and wisely. In this process we are given the spiritual task of grappling with what suffering is teaching us. From this perspective, this challenge is the soil from which virtues grow.

The many faces of suffering The Samkhyakarika, one of the oldest texts of the samkhya philosophical tradition, identifies three primary sources of suffering that we encounter in

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our lifetime: suffering that is self-inflicted, arising from the actions of others, or is an “act of God”. These are well-known in the Indian tradition and provide a basic framework for understanding life in its totality. The Samkhyakarika’s sophisticated assessment of suffering places it in the mystery that is at the base of life’s experiences, recognizing that suffering is often the result of forces beyond an individual’s understanding and control. But as most adults know, what we first think of as suffering can reveal itself to be a blessing in disguise. The most fitting reaction to both ones own and another’s suffering is always one of compassion. The first adhyatmika duhkha is suffering that relates to and arises from our own body and mind. This can be physical, mental or emotional—an illness, negative thought patterns or poor life choices. Fortunately, since we have a level of agency over our own mind and life choices we can take steps to improve and heal at this level. In fact, the entire repertoire of yogic practices is meant to bring about a positive change and help us prevent future suffering. To deal with this first category of suffering is considered the easiest of the three. The second category of suffering, adhibhautika duhkha, is suffering that we must undergo because of the actions of others. As none of us exist as islands unto ourselves, we are affected by the choices of the collective, as well as those we associate with intimately. This category of suffering is challenging to deal with, as we cannot make choices for others. Harmonizing social relations is considered key in this regard, and the upholding of the yamas is meant to direct the collective in a spiritually positive direction. The emphasis on right association is meant as a

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preventative healing balm in a world where many forces are beyond our control. Patanjali clearly recognizes that we can’t always control the people with whom we come into contact with. Because withdrawal from a situation is not always possible, the Yoga Sutras recommends holding a variety of attitudes towards the people in our lives. We are told to cultivate an attitude of friendliness (maitri) towards those who are doing well in life to avoid envy. This relates back to the niyama of contentment and the need to focus on feelings of gratitude. Patanjali also calls us to maintain an attitude of goodwill (mudita) towards the virtuous, always encouraging and supporting those engaged in work that contributes to the well being of others and the greater good (Bechsgaard 2013, 131). Another attitude that should be developed is the great virtue of compassion (karuna) towards those who are suffering. This includes taking concrete action to alleviate the pain and sorrow of those around us. Lastly, indifference (upeksa) is an appropriate response to those who commit wrongful or harmful actions (Bechsgaard 2013, 132). This doesn’t include criminal or violent acts but recognizes that because we can rarely directly impact another person’s choices and behaviour it is best to withdraw out attention from turbulent and problematic situations that waste our time and energy. Finally, adhidaivika duhkha is suffering that issues forth from the gods (devas) or destiny. It can be uncontrollable events, natural catastrophes, pandemics or earthquakes, that leave us vulnerable. Traditionally, prayer is suggested in response to forces that are beyond the control of the individual. The prayer of aum shanti shanti shantih is chanted as a

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supplication for peace and protection against these three sources of suffering. While there is no way to escape completely from these forms of suffering, we can alter our attitude and way of relating to them. Partly this happens when we recognize that suffering in these three forms is a natural part of life. To cultivate an ability to bear suffering with equanimity and a sense of perspective is at the heart of spiritual life. The encapsulation of this complex suffering is explained in sutra 11.15 where the changeable nature of our experience is laid out: parinama taapa samskara duhkhaih gunavritti virodhat ca duhkham eva sarvam vivekinah The wise know that due to the fluctuations, the qualities of the gunas, and subliminal impressions of the soul, even pleasant experiences are coloured with sorrow, and he keeps detached from them.

We might wonder why all this emphasis on suffering and pain. Both yoga and Buddhist philosophy have mistakenly been accused of being too pessimistic. However, this emphasis is present in many of the world’s spiritual traditions and schools of philosophy. From this point of view, death, choice, suffering and self-alienation are not to be avoided, but seen as challenges that allow us to move beneath the surface of life. In its discussion of yoga, the Bhagavad Gita describes an ability to step back and observe the play of the gunas without being subject to their pull. Knowing that changeable experiences are part of life, the yogi can remain undisturbed. This sense of higher detachment allows for equanimity someone who is the same in “honour and disgrace” (14.25).

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Krishna describes not only how such a person thinks and moves in the world, but offers guidance to anyone striving towards a higher state of consciousness. He tells Arjuna that the necessary evenness of mind can be reached through unswerving devotion, faith, and surrender to the divine. Krishna presents the path of bhakti (devotion) as the means of attaining oneness with God and the inner atman (14.26).

Engaging with our weaknesses While challenges are part of the human condition, each person has their unique strengths and weaknesses. Through self-reflection and attention to signals from others, these become obvious. Jung described the weaknesses of a person as the shadow and as the places where we feel inferior and vulnerable. The tendency, unsurprisingly, is to focus on one’s strengths and hide—keep in the shadows—the weak aspects where they remain undeveloped. According to Jung, by middle age it is imperative to deal with the shadow aspects. A person who has relied on and gained success through their intellect will need to engage seriously with the feeling part of themselves. Conversely, a person who has approached life through feeling will need to take seriously the life of the mind. This attention to shadow aspects allows for a rounding out and dimensionality of the character as all aspects of one’s personality are given due attention. Yoga provides tools to help an individual navigate the tensions in their personality, work with the discomfort this brings and accept the paradoxical aspects of their personality. The hallmark of a mature and integrated person is their ability to manage their emotions and access higher modes of thought. A person who has

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worked with their weaknesses and one sidedness is able to think beyond their personal wishes and desires and consider the good of the whole. An integrated person is also characterized by empathy and emotional intelligence and is able to move into higher states of consciousness that allow for vision, inspiration and creativity. *** Because the obstacles on a spiritual path are so challenging, wisdom traditions such as yoga, offer a toolkit for dealing with them as they arise. It is often when we reach a transition point, and are beginning to make real progress, that obstacles occur. Long-held patterns, whether in the body, emotions or mind, may assert themselves and threaten to derail selfdevelopment. Practices, scriptures, teachers and community are meant to be there to help when we are struggling. Through self-reflection, each person can begin to recognize their patterns of behaviour and weaknesses and work with them appropriately. For some, acting out of fear is a controlling pattern that blocks self-development and for others it a pervasive sense of scepticism or an inability to commit to a practice. When describing the process of transformation spiritual traditions of the world use metaphors, symbols and poetry to imagine what a refined psyche would be like. Typical imagery used is that of illumination, clarity and light. These images demonstrate that advancing on the spiritual path is not a rejection of the negative but the achievement of a deep-seated well being and bodily wellness characterized by gratitude, compassion and generosity. Progress along the spiritual path that has obstacles and challenges, also anchors a person in reality no matter what the external

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challenges. Living from this space allows for the full development of human potential. In contrast, a person caught up in turmoil and turbulence is unable to think about anything other than themselves. Whether seen from the point of view of Western psychology or yoga, this level of witnessing and self-reflection is a great achievement. It is also essential for the well-being of society. A person who has fully matured and developed can aid others and give to their communities in a wide variety of ways, consider the good of the whole, think generations ahead and respond to crises with clear headedness and speed.

CHAPTER SEVEN THE BEGINNING OF THE MOVEMENT INWARD

Pratyahara has been described as the “meeting place of the inner and the outer” that bridges the first fours limbs of yoga to the last three (Mehta 2011, 215). It is the pivot point at which the individual shifts from focusing on the outward and begins moving inward. Through this shift, “one departs from one’s habitual life into a new way of spiritual living” (215). The practice of pratyahara is the withdrawal from the influence of the senses and their constant stimulation and distraction. The Upanishadic model of the psyche as a chariot describes this process where the senses are likened to horses that when not carefully trained, run out of control. The symbolism of horses is meaningful as they are beautiful, intelligent and powerful animals. They are also prone to panic and are highly strung. It is only through careful training that they can be harnessed and their energy channelled into productive work. The yoga tradition has developed a variety of practices for shifting from negative states into positive ones, or from low states into high ecstatic states. Mehta (2011) refers to pratyahara as the “re-education of the senses,” noting that this includes consciously choosing, as much as possible, what impressions we allow in (223). For a householder, this is

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more challenging than for someone living in an ashram or monastery. Nonetheless, each individual has some degree of control over their environment. The Bhagavad Gita likens the process of pratyahara to a tortoise that withdraws its limbs. In this process “wisdom is set firm,” and the practitioner is offered a road to “intuit the Supreme” (2:58–61). It is essential to cultivate sense withdrawal, and Krishna warns that not doing so results in a “loss of wisdom”: “The yogi, having controlled them [senses] all, sits focused on Me as the supreme goal. His wisdom is constant whose senses are under subjugation” (2:61). In yoga, this aspect of sensory withdrawal is part of the process of introversion and meditative training; consistent cultivation of sensewithdrawal induces concentration, or dharana. This yogic meditation consists in focusing one’s attention, a mental zeroing in on one topic or object to the exclusion of all others. This is also referred to as onepointedness (eka-gra), or “the practice of a single principle” (sutra 1.32). Undertaking this movement inward can be challenging in contemporary life. While there has always been stress, today we face an extra challenge in harmonizing contemplative life with worldly life and the inner life with the outer one. Many of us live in societies with values that don’t support balance and reflection. Our daily routines seem to encourage the tendency to avoid engaging with our inner landscape by distracting ourselves and staying busy. Our days have become so focused on practicalities that we don’t know when to stop and attend to subtle modes of being. A lack of self-reflection can result in long stretches of time that are not meaningful or spent in ways that do not align with one’s higher values. Commenting

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on the lack of space for introspection in contemporary life, James Finley argues that “it’s the crisis of our age, the loss of the interior of our lives.” 3 Staying distracted and “busy” is a common tactic that many people use to avoid engaging with their inner landscape. Over a prolonged period this can easily lead to losing track of higher aims and values. Long term lack of self-reflection can result in looking back on large stretches of time spent in a way that is not in alignment with one’s higher values or spending time in ways that are not meaningful. Any effort at inner work, such as depth psychotherapy and meditative practice, requires that contemplation and reflection be prioritized and engaged in regularly. The goal of pratyahara is consistent with the idea of projection found in Western psychology. When enmeshed in day-to-day life, it is easy to blame tension or trouble on others. Withdrawing inward prevents this negative use of energy but can be an uncomfortable, albeit necessary, process. Contemplative traditions offer a variety of practices for moving within including shavasana (corpse pose), yoga nidra, meditation and dream work. Practices of guided instruction, visualization and positive affirmations also guide the senses/perception and mind/intelligence inward. Iyengar (2005) compares this inward process to a snake shedding its skin: We have many skins, sheaths, thoughts, prejudices, preconceptions, ideas, memories, and projects for the future. Shavasana is a shedding of all of these skins, to see how glossy and gorgeous, serene and aware is the beautiful rainbow colored snake who lies within. (232)

3 Quoted in Michelle Boorstein, “Silent Retreats’Rising Popularity Poses A Challenge. How to Handle the Quiet. The Washington Post, December 12, 2012.

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Shedding takes time and consistence awareness and cannot be hurried. It must be cultivated gradually. The tension patterns in the body and the incessant flow of thought can be distracting. Because of this, beginners in yogic practice need to be introduced slowly to interiorization, or they risk jeopardizing the process by being overwhelmed by their emotions. Yoga practices such as shavasana are now being used by neuroscientists and in mindfulness programs. Though originally practiced primarily for attaining spiritual goals, they are also beneficial in secular settings for their psychosomatic benefits. Research has suggested a range of psychological and physiological mechanisms to account for the effects of meditation. Some of the effects of these practices include what Herbert Benson (1975) has referred to as the “relaxation response”. When first learning concentration, we experience ups and downs because our ability to remain attentive is not yet well developed. This can make many practitioners feel that they are not capable of meditating. The metaphor of water dripping from a tap characterizes this broken process when first battling the restless mind. But moving in and out of concentration is part of mental training. The Yoga Sutras teach that the practice of concentration (dharana) makes it possible to move to the next stage of meditation (dhyana). In contrast to the metaphor of dripping water, the ancient commentaries use the metaphor of honey whose flow is uninterrupted and continuous to describe this stage. Such meditative absorption is dhyana, which is a deepened and illumined dharana. It is important to understand that dhyana is not just prolonged dharana but can be demarcated from concentration by virtue of its depth and clarity. Only when the mind’s chatter stops are

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we taken into meditation proper. The umbrella term samyama refers to the whole process and captures the natural continuity between the beginnings of concentration practice and its seasoned and refined expression in meditative absorption. When first establishing concentration, the centre of attention can be any object. In sutras 1.33–1.38, Patanjali presents various objects of concentration. The Yoga Sutras emphasize that as long as the object of meditation is sattvic and properly interiorized it will bring about the desired effect. Traditionally, preferred loci were bodily centres such as the heart (sutra 3.34), the “light in the head” (3.32) and the “throat well” (kantha kupe), referring to the throat chakra. Patanjali also lists the sun (3.26), the moon (3.27), the pole star (3.28) and virtues such as friendliness (3.23), heroic strength (3.24) and the recitation of the japa mantra as modes for establishing concentration. As a group, these techniques encompass a wide range of contemplative practices that hold the power to calm the mind and give access to inner wisdom and intuition. Some of these techniques concern the yoga of harmonizing relationships with others and the divine. Others relate to concentration on subtle points of inner awareness, including the chakras and prana. We are advised to find a practice that we are naturally drawn to and to remain with our chosen method. As the body is known and can be experienced in a tangible manner, it is a good starting point to learn concentration. Points on the body can be used to ease us gradually into the subtle expressions of concentration. No one is expected to be a master in a short time. The practice of delineating the inner limbs from one another, for example, is evidence that this kind of

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attention training takes time. Furthermore, the process is valuable in itself. What we learn about ourselves along the way is just as important as the illumed experiences. Though meditation practices can be divided into multiple categories, each with their unique beauty, it is helpful to think of two divisions: focused practices, or concentration, on the one hand, and open awareness practices on the other. In both of these techniques, pratyahara is essential; it is the first step in the shift from focus on outer reality to inner reality. Concentration meditations hold attention on a single object or point, such as an image of a deity, a japa mantra or sensations of the breath. The aim is to develop the mind’s ability to focus and maintain a sharpened attention. In Sanskrit this type of practice is referred to as pratyaharabased dharana. Awareness meditations allow the attention to move from one object to another, exploring a rich tapestry of experiences that include visualizations and the on-going flux of moment-to-moment awareness. Anything from the coming and going of thoughts and sensations, to the visualization of goddesses and chakras are included. These forms of meditation can be done before an altar in quiet sitting, resting in shavasana (corpse pose), or internalized in the heart. *** Staying connected to one’s inner life has always been challenging. However, contemporary life which offers an array of distractions and stimulation with the influence of technology and ubiquitous advertising has only exascerbated the problem. Internet surfing, for example, contributes to the agitated and restless mental state referred to in Buddhism and Hinduism as the “monkey mind”. Despite this, there are

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signs that many people feel a lack of time and space for introspection in their hectic lives. The popularity of retreats at Buddhist and Christian monasteries and convents and yoga schools reveals that many people appreciate the value of retreat and reflection. One of the ways in which we can meet the challenge of inward movement is to carve out time and space for quietude and contemplation. To have a certain hour of the day or clearly demarcated periods of the year where we withdraw from social life, technology and practical demands can help enormously with the stress and tension we experience. Many people are also concerned that the increasing addiction to technology hinders our ability to access deep portions of the mind for reflection and deep thought, which is crucially important if we are to address complex problems such as climate change. In her book Quiet (2012), Cain notes that vital aspects of culture, including medical discoveries and artistic creation, require time and space. In this regard, we depend on people who are able to withdraw regularly, for a fully functioning society. Spiritual traditions insist on maintaining the depth and dimensionality of life and have played a vital role in protecting the inner life of the individual. The world with all its pleasures, successes, failures and demands constantly tempts us to dwell in the external. Like a spider on the surface of the water, we can skim along going from task to task with minimum self-reflection. While withdrawal is essential in mainstream society it is the sine qua non of spiritual practices such as yoga.

CHAPTER EIGHT ALIGNMENT AND HIGHER STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Ultimately, the alignment sought in the first limbs of yoga is aimed towards entering into higher states of consciousness. However, engaging with these subtle states can be a challenge. The very idea may be considered a luxury or self-absorption. Swami Rama et al. (1998) write, investing time or energy into developing oneself beyond the ego level may be little understood or appreciated by a society where economic success and material possessions are the major criteria by which one is judged. And experimentation with higher states of consciousness may be regarded with suspicion or considered wasteful nonsense. (188)

This engagement only with shallow, limited forms of thinking and being is characteristic of our secular, media saturated society. The yogic tradition has been centrally concerned with the ways in which the mind and psyche function. From this stand point, the mind is part of a larger field of the body and soul. As a result, the yoga tradition has an expanded sense of the higher possibilities of consciousness. As is the case in the Buddhist tradition, the yoga tradition has developed a sophisticated vocabulary for describing higher states of consciousness.

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Mind as friend or enemy A marked feature of Western psychology in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, at least in its North American form, has been its focus on pathology. Oceans of ink have been spilled on topics such as psychopathy, narcissism and sociopathy, with popular television shows revealing a similar preoccupation in the general public. There has been much less written about the features of a healthy mind and even less about cultivating and refining the psyche. With the exception of Carl Jung and a variety of contemplative schools of psychology/psychotherapy, Western psychology has aimed only for a psyche that is free of serious impairment, anxiety or depression. The idea that we can work with mental states and shift them positively is taught by many of the world’s wisdom traditions. Patanjali states that an uncultivated mind will always be prey to moods and impulses. The outward facing and largely uncontrolled mind is the normal state of consciousness. Other parts of the mind, which are often inaccessible, are associated with reflection, intuition, perspective and wisdom. Patanjali describes the meta-cognitive functions of the mind with a variety of Sanskrit terms, all pointing to a highly refined and reflective state. Prajna, translated as intuitive knowledge or simply intuition, is one of the Sanskrit terms that he uses to describe this kind of inner knowing. Similar to Jung, he describes intuition as perception via the unconscious. According to both Patanjali and Jung, our unconscious mind can span vast territory of states ranging from the personal unconscious to super-conscious and transcendent states.

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The yoga tradition describes prajna, a form of wisdom, as an illuminated vision and supreme knowledge that bears in itself the truth and higher insight. This extraordinary gnostic insight is said to come to us in flashes, which can only be consolidated after long meditative training. Until then, intuition is mixed with our emotional complexes and fears, and deemed impure and unreliable in the classical tradition. The problem is that these meta-cognitive functions will remain dormant and undeveloped unless we make the effort to work with refining states of consciousness. This requires using practices such as mental attention training, meditation, sadhana (spiritual practice) and other avenues of mindfulness. In the Yoga Sutras, the inner meditative limbs (samyama) are meant to be tools to harness the inner faculties and transform consciousness. Meditative discipline comprises techniques for putting ourselves in a position where we can experience direct contact with the inner self and lift the many veils blocking the way. This is especially important if we are to avoid being swept up in a whirlwind of changeable moods when life is not going the way we expected or when we experience high levels of stress. Contemplative traditions, including the tradition of yoga, regard such mindfulness training and self-reflective practice as essential for mental resilience, inner calm and mood regulation. Though different terms are use in the various contemplative traditions, the aim remains the same—to gain inner spiritual anchoring so that the adversities of life can be faced with equanimity and discrimination, and our higher potential be developed. However, due to the tendency of the psyche to become disturbed and agitated, training in focus is necessary. Without support or direction, it easily goes in circles and the person is likely to fall into a negative state or

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mood. Without training the mind tends to drift in the wake of experience, like a ship without a rudder. Yoga and meditative practice steadies thought patterns so that they fall into alignment with the deeper part of our mind and the inner self. The last three limbs especially are meant to move us inward resisting the pull of the outward-going senses. We can choose to ping pong between our changeable moods and emotional states, or to anchor deep within. This is not to say that we become numb or emotionless, but rather that we are not easily swept away by the shifting nature of our experience. The result of working with the mind is an increased ability to self-regulate and self-soothe. As life evolves and presents a variety of challenges, we are offered choices every day and countless opportunities to grow into a more mature version of ourselves. In many ways it is life that evokes our character, and the multitude of contemplative practices can help us in this process. In fact, it often only in situations of adversity and suffering that the real fruits of practice show themselves as we learn to deal with challenging situations more effectively and calmly. One of the differences between a trained yogi or meditator and someone who has not worked with self-reflective practices is that the yogi has been systematically trained to move beyond conventional stages of mind and impulse rather than stopping there. Also, they have been taught to pause and reflect before they act from an emotional state or mood. The inner mind, accessed through meditation, reflection and awareness is viewed as the mind that offers perspective and allows for conscious action in life. Researchers now recognize the post-conventional states of cognition that yogic scriptures described 3000 years ago and that can still inspire us

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today. These levels of consciousness were considered an expression of the finest states of mental alignment, bringing us inwards towards the self. Over time they shift us out of the fluctuations and turbulence of the lower mind and move us towards a spacious, less reactive and present way of being. In Irreducible Mind: Towards a Psychology of the Twenty-First Century (2009), Kelly, Williams Kelly and Crabtree present numerous studies that have documented the efficiency of interventions such as relaxation training, yoga and meditation in alleviating pain and improving conditions both mentally and physically (129). One of the challenges of discussing different states of mind is the lack of available vocabulary to distinguish between them. While most people will easily recognize the difference between a turbulent, anxious mind and one that is calm, they may have fewer nuanced concepts for lower and higher subtle states. As a result of the lack of accurate descriptive language, starting in the nineteenth century, Western culture began to import vocabulary from the Buddhist and yoga traditions that have been studying human consciousness for thousands of years. In his article, “The Levels of Human Consciousness and Creative Functioning” (2016), Maharaj Raina argues that Eastern conceptions of the mind offer a way to bring Western psychology back into conservation with the goals of self-actualization. Systems developed within traditions such as yoga offer a road map forward in developing an approach to psychology that is more expanded and optimistic. The 1960s saw an increased openness to accessing expanded states of consciousness, and in the intervening years much research has been done

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on the topic. These states of mind move far beyond easing anxiety and stress and towards synthetic, creative and illuminated states of mind. Practices of discipline such as yoga offer tools to develop the mind–body and move into higher states of consciousness.

Cultivating the witness consciousness Learning to cultivate a witnessing consciousness is one of the vital practices taught in contemplative traditions. It is a position of engaged, yet detached, watching of feeling and thought. It is a way of seeing ourselves without judgment or comparison to others. Instead of reacting to immediate impulses we learn to step back and see what is. It is a process whereby we avoid getting pulled into unconscious patterns and instead turn inwards to search more deeply for perspective and meaning. The witness dwells in the space between the heat of unexamined feelings and the discriminative intellect. In yoga philosophy, this aspect of the mind is termed the buddhi—the awake mind—and encompasses intuition, discrimination and spiritual judgement. It is the part of the mind and psyche that is capable of grasping the higher realms within us and steers us wisely through life’s challenges. It can also be viewed as an aspect of the ego used to extricate ourselves from projections and complexes. A regular practice of witnessing helps us to observe our feelings clearly and act from a position of perspective and maturity. It is not a matter of ignoring or dismissing our feelings, but rather allowing them to be in dialogue with our discriminative intelligence (viveka) and moral compass.

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Contemplative traditions teach that daily activities and situations in our lives offer the opportunity to witness as long as we slow down enough to pay attention to them. The witness, however, does not come into existence without training. Various meditative and mindfulness practices can be used to take us out of our normal reaction patterns and help establish the witness in order to better navigate the complex labyrinth of the mind.

The art of being present Another vitally important dimension of advanced meditative practice is how it helps us move into open and spacious mind states that make us available and present to others. This is another example of why a meditative practice is not self-indulgent or meant only for those who lead explicitly spiritual lives. Most of us are aware that when we are anxious, depressed and self-absorbed we are cut off from the reality of others. It is only when the mind and emotions are stabilized that we can turn outward towards the people in our lives and listen to and engage openly with them. It is often not the outer world but our perspective that changes as our practice deepens. In Yoga and the Quest for the True Self (1999), Stephen Cope argues that the whole path of yoga begins with little daily experiences of waking up: “awakening comes, in yoga, not at the end of the path, rather it is present from the very beginning” (41). Often in spiritual life, people strive for enlightenment and other lofty ideals. But this goal-oriented pursuit blinds us to the possibility of moment-by-moment awareness along the path. These moments are windows into an experience of our true abiding nature and occur when we least expect them. In this regard, the atman is only one breath away. The

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sage Patanjali taught that once we rest in ourselves, a whole new life begins. The ability to be present has important consequences in all aspects of life, including family, work and public engagement. While the need for empathetic listening in helping professions, such as psychology, teaching, nursing and medicine is vital, it is equally essential in all lines of work. An unrefined, reactive mind will create chaos and distress no matter the setting. A higher state of consciousness will make us better parents, partners and members of our families and communities, but it is in these roles that clarity is hardest to achieve. Intimate relationships trigger our most emotional and patterned reactions. As a result, the ability to witness and be non-reactive can be extremely helpful in the day-to-day challenges in our families, communities and circles of friends. This doesn’t ensure perfect and ideal relationships, for we can only control our own reactions and not those of others, but one person’s raised consciousness can have far reaching effects in a community or social group. *** An increasing amount of work, done by researchers such as Charney and Southwick (2012), reveals that the human mind is extremely plastic and capable of change, even in old age. To develop its capacities and potential, however, requires concentrated effort. As much of psychology in North America has accepted the machine model of the human mind, many of the implications of these findings are overlooked. Or, as in the case of cognitive behavioural therapy, the mind is viewed as something to be trained and limited rather than developed and expanded.

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How we imagine the mind and the metaphors we use for it, have real world implications. A slavish adherence to the enlightenment metaphor of the machine leaves us with a narrow conception of human consciousness. Such limited thinking was not always the case as is demonstrated by the work of one of the most important early American psychologists, William James. James was willing to discuss all forms of human consciousness with an open mind. Unsurprisingly, this meant that he was open to engaging with religious and spiritual approaches to psychology. The narrowing sense of human consciousness has been a slow and steady process in Western psychology. It can be directly linked with increasing secularization, which renders many traditional understandings of states of mind such as dreams, visions and mystical insight as pathological. In her book Fits, Trances and Visions: Experiencing Religion and Explaining Experience from Wesley to James (1999), Ann Taves traces this process in which any form of consciousness outside of pragmatic and literal rationalism was, by the twentieth century, seen as a form of derangement. In light of secularization, it is interesting to see the ways in which the yoga tradition is entering into conversation with Western psychology. 4 Its direct link to spiritual traditions make its techniques suspect for some. Despite this, many psychologists and psychiatrists now use meditative techniques to work with the transformation of consciousness. Not only do these practices decrease anxiety and depression but also create a state of awareness in which, according to Raina (2016), “our perceptions become finer, more complete, and profoundly creative” (178).

4

See yoga research at Vidya Institute: https://vidyainstitute.ca/published-researches.

CHAPTER NINE MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION

A number of “maps” have been created in the yogic and tantric traditions that present a holistic approach to transformation of consciousness. These models adopt the insights of the subtle body introduced in the Upanishads. Using symbolism, narrative, ritual and meditative practice, they present sophisticated systems both for development and for working with weaknesses and blockages. They create a portrait of the energetic nature of the body and lay out many practices in order to allow a person to develop and move into subtler and subtler aspects of consciousness. The world’s spiritual traditions offer examples of highly evolved people who act as exemplars of those who have access to these higher levels of consciousness. They are characterized by empathy, compassion, respect and care for others. For those further along the path, their actions are naturally moral and based upon wisdom and compassion. With these practices we move in to the most subtle aspects of the energy spectrum. These schemata offer an anchoring point when engaging with the most refined aspects of the self. As a result these traditions use symbols and archetypes to help with the shift beyond rational thinking.

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These images help to focus the mind and lift consciousness and move into the realm of the mythopoeic and beyond.

Chakras: a model for self-development The chakra system represents one of the most sophisticated maps ever created to depict the process of spiritual development and transformation. The practices it outlines serve to develop and purify the mind and energy system. This mapping of the ascension into higher states has caught the attention of people in the Western world, beginning with the first translations of tantric texts in the 19th century. One of the reasons that this system has been eagerly taken up is that it offers both schemata of higher states of consciousness and a way to work with them. Higher states are notoriously difficult to describe but these schemata present a way of engaging with ideas of transformation. The systems developed by traditions such as tantra resonate at an intuitive level for many people as is demonstrated by the popularity of works like Anodea Judith’s Eastern Body Western Mind (2004), which combines Western psychology with the chakra system. The traditional chakra system is a multi-faceted approach using symbolism, colour, sound, sacred geometry, ritual and meditative practice. The system with its rich and layered symbolism and beauty speaks intuitively across cultures. Like the tantric system it springs from, it combines pre-existing practices to aid in the full development of consciousness. It builds on earlier mappings such as the nadis and koshas and develops the system of the seven chakras: muladhara, svadhistana, manipura, anahata, vishuddha, ajna and sahasrara.

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These are subtle energy centres aligned along the spine, reaching from the perineum to the crown of the head. The chakras are understood as charting the movement upward into subtle realms. This approach ties in with the Upanishadic models and is associated with the koshas. As Avalon (1974) notes, the lower chakras from muladhara to visuddha are associated with the five physical elements (bhutas), while the ajna chakra relates to the mental sheaths (103). In this system, the energies associated with each chakra are distinct. The person who functions with the energy of the muladhara (the root chakra) will have a different state of mind, emotions and worldview than someone who has raised their consciousness. In his seminar on the topic of yoga, Jung refers to the lower chakras as a nursery, writing that god is asleep at this level of existence and we remain largely unconscious (Jung 1996, 25). As with the koshas, a scan of the chakras, and what they represent, can help to work with strengths and weaknesses in the energy system. Practices include chanting the seed syllables associated with each centre, visualization and meditative techniques and the practice of yoga. Working with these practices addresses the physical, emotional, mental and spiritual aspects of life and allows for purification and refinement. This tantric approach was always taught by a guru with a focus on the physical and psychological readiness of the student. Unfortunately, in the Western world these practices have often been taught to those who have not prepared by purifying their bodies and lifestyles. Even with full preparation those working with the highest level of consciousness run the risk of moving too much energy through the physical and emotional systems.

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Even viewed from an exoteric perspective, the chakra system can be helpful. The use of symbolism offers a way to imagine what different states of consciousness are like. Just as seeing a beautiful statue of the Buddha seated in meditation provides a glimpse into perfect peace free of turmoil and a painting of the Madonna evokes the feeling of unconditional love, these images help us make the leap to higher states of consciousness. The Indic traditions have created a vast symbolic vocabulary and variety of practices that can be used in meditative practice. They include the use of mandalas, sacred sound (mantra) and sacred diagrams (yantras) as well as subtle practices of deity visualization. Using these embodied practices grounds these extremely subtle concepts so that they can aid in the process of development.

C.G. Jung: western interpreter of the chakra system One of the most important approaches that allows for the bridging East and West is found in the work of Jung. Jung has been a pioneer in Western psychology and was most interested in human development and what he referred to as discovery of the self. As a result, Jung was much more open to influence from Eastern traditions alongside retaining a respect for exiled states of consciousness such as visions and dreams. Jung developed a theory of symbols and archetypes to help people move their energy and consciousness in a spiritual direction. He placed them in the context of individuation, a psycho-spiritual process by which we become individuated human beings with an awareness of our self at the core.

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Jung also engaged with the tantric mapping of the chakras. The movement from the vibrant red of the muladhara chakra to the violet of the crown chakra is paralleled in his work. In “On the Nature of the Psyche” (1947), Jung describes energy and consciousness as a light spectrum that runs from infrared to ultraviolet: “The dynamism of instinct is lodged as it were in the infrared part of the spectrum” while at the opposite pole, violet is the mystic colour (Jung 1981/1947, 211). The red end of the spectrum is associated with the physical body and instinct and then shades into the higher and more subtle energies. According to Jung, living in the realms of the lowers chakras is to be concerned only with survival, sexuality and power. A life lived only “in the red” will be one of complete absorption in the minutiae of day-to-day life, the wants and needs of the body and one’s drives and desires. While the lower chakras are the base and must be stabilized, to remain there is to be self-absorbed, focused on manipulation of resources and others. According to Jung, at the level of the heart chakra we begin to step into true spiritual life, which includes care and compassion for others. However, a life “in the purple” at the opposite end of the spectrum is also ungrounded and typified by an unhealthy neglect of reality and an inability to bring our dreams and plans into reality. Although staying too much in the ultraviolet, or archetypal, realm was rarely a problem when Jung was writing, it is increasingly common today. There is a tendency to skip over the lower chakras and rush to the upper ones. This is witnessed in the ungroundedness of those who have done no preparation and yet practice long periods of meditation. The yogic tradition has long recognized the danger of leaping over parts of the practice, and the eight limbs exist to foreclose this possibility. A simile

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often used to describe the dangers of unpreparedness is of an electric current that is running through wires that cannot bear the load. The body, mind and emotions have to be purified and integrated before they can be expected to move into higher and subtle states. Using the model of the five koshas, Maharaj Raina (2016) discusses the ways in which this understanding imagines the progression from gross to subtle; from these mental states, we are able to access our full potential and move towards self-realization. Raina proposes that truly creative people, whether they are in the arts or sciences, are able to access the subtle realms (180). Having access to the deeper aspects of consciousness has important consequences in the world. A society that has a significant number of people who utilize these spacious, open, synthetic and creative states of mind will be enriched.

The final stages of the yogic path It is important to consider the eight limbs of yoga in light of their expansive understanding of the human psyche. The first limbs create physical and mental space for safe movement into higher states of consciousness. They are concerned with establishing healthy daily habits, living ethically and developing knowledge of the body–mind. At the fourth and fifth limbs of the inner quest, pranayama and pratyahara, the limbs begin to shade into subtle dimensions. This is the practice of withdrawing the senses from the outside world and reining in the wild horses of the senses. Only with adequate sense-control can breath and the inner mind’s resources be cultivated. The first section of the Yoga Sutras contains an introductory commentary by Vyasa that examines the mental states of the human being (sutra 1.1).

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They are considered habitual, and unless they are transformed through spiritual practice, we are likely to operate at the lower end of the spectrum. This approach works well for mundane life and certain day-to-day life tasks but blocks us from developing consciousness at the higher end of the spectrum. The yoga tradition also emphasizes that these states of mind and can be worked with in both mental and physical practices. Through the practice of yoga and contemplative discipline, we learn to settle and still the lower states of thought, emotions and mental patterns that prevent us from accessing the self within. To rest in ourselves, the subtle states have to be cultivated and known directly. Also, the intuitive self will only wake up and speak clearly if we take time to develop the more refined states of mind consciousness. If we study our lives, we will see that certain mental habits, or states, become so common that they feel like an intrinsic part of who we are. According to the Yoga Sutras, these habits are found at all levels of our psyche and in our unconsciousness and consciousness. Sometimes we are aware of them, and sometimes they play out unconsciously. The more aware we are, the more freedom we have to change ingrained habits. We often lack adequate vocabulary to discuss the differences between various states of mind. It is often only through meditative and contemplative practice that we can clarify the difference between an anxious, or obsessive, mind and one that is clear and calm. We all have experienced the difference in the mind and the body between a resentful angry state of mind and one that is accepting and grateful. When the mind is clear, there in an ability to make positive discriminative decisions.

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In the Yoga Sutras, states of consciousness are portrayed as a ladder of vibration going from gross to subtle. Each step upward, or inward, corresponds to a unique form of mind-state, colouring our outlook, health and self-connectedness. However, with the continuous practice of meditation we are prepared to embrace both worldly and highly refined samadhi states. To think that the higher, sattvic states are irrelevant for daily life would be a mistake. It is in the systematic development of these states that our potential for healing, mental peace and intuitive living lie. Tapping into our individual gifts, talents and life-purpose becomes possible when the subtle states are available to us. Through profound alignment and connection to the more subtle realms, we receive nourishment and guidance in day-to-day life. Rather than thinking solely of samadhi states as the purview of enlightened sages in the Himalayas, we can open our minds to their relevance for a life of purpose and self-connectedness. However, the yoga tradition recognizes that the problematic states of mind have to be engaged before progress can be made and maps these mentalities from the most challenging to the fully realized.

The mudha state: the non-discriminative mind The least developed state of consciousness is the mudha state, discussed in the commentary on sutra 1.1. It indicates a mindset that is “dark, stagnant, dull and non-discriminative” (Bechsgaard 2013 17). It is closely associated with the principle of tamas and is understood as a mind that is veiled and clouded. Here the holistic nature of yoga asserts itself, as the earlier angas

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are aimed at purifying the body, mind, lifestyle and environment. It is extremely difficult to maintain a clear mind in a dull and sleepy body. Over time one learns to recognize that what we eat, how we use our body and how we apprehend the world with our senses impacts our mental states. Making this connection becomes part of the practice of learning to pay attention. Dynamic postures, including vinyasa, are meant to work with this state of dullness. In fact, much of the intelligence behind the burning, fiery nature of tapas lies in its ability to lift this state effectively. Yoga aims to create the optimal conditions for higher states of consciousness to unfold. Active work with tamas and the mudha state is a prerequisite to getting started. Many people react instinctively to counteract tamasic states. For instance, when feeling dull and unclear, going for a brisk walk as close to nature as possible is an effective and rapid way of reestablishing clarity. When caught in a tamasic pattern, an active, structured change of lifestyle patterns is needed to break this habit. Self-observation will quickly reveal for instance, how overly processed food and sedentary living impact the entire system, and the desire for these ways of life will usually diminish gradually. The intricate interaction of all aspects of the self is clear as the mudha state contributes to feelings of lethargy and depression and, in the extreme, results in an inability to discriminate. Strong emotions, such a grief, may also bring about a mudha state. This level of consciousness has far reaching implications as it impacts all of our decisions in life including with whom we associate and where we put our energy. A tamasic state can also blind us to our life purpose and make rta

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or dharma difficult to discern. Like looking into a murky pond, it is impossible to see clearly in a state ruled by tamas.

The ksipta state: the impulsive mind The next level of consciousness discussed in the Yoga Sutras is the ksipta, or impulsive mind. This is a mental state in which the mind is scattered in all directions. This level of consciousness is characterized by restlessness, anxiety, and agitation. In contemporary life, this state of mind is common and often is brought about by acute or chronic stress. In our culture, many factors have converged to accelerate the pace of our lives and mental state, so that we find ourselves in a whirlwind of thoughts and worries. From this perspective, it is easy to hurry through each day without delving deeply into an activity, relationship or even ourselves. In this mental condition, the nervous system is tense and wired, and it can be hard to access intuition and know the right way forward. Everyone has experienced the ways in which stress and anger impact the mind and body to trigger a surge of adrenalin, muscular tightness and inability to think clearly. This state is instinctual and often necessary, but when the mind is rehearsing situations that create stress and anger, mental and physical health will also be impacted. This state can also result in impulsive and thoughtless actions and decisions. It is important to emphasize the holistic nature of the yogic approach as anxiety and stress can also result from not being anchored in a belief in higher purpose and law. All the angas contribute to stabilizing the body and mind. Physical practices such as restorative yoga can also help to calm

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the body and nervous system in preparation for meditation. If we live a fast-paced life, we need to slow down before we can learn to go within.

The viksipta state: finding focus The next state discussed in the Yoga Sutras is the viksipta, which is the state of mind necessary to embark on the enfoldment of higher states of consciousness. In this state, it is possible to bring about positive change and ask existential questions about the purpose of life. This state of mind is sometimes concentrated and sometimes not. It is also described as a mind that is fit to concentrate on subtle matters such as inner consciousness. So while it is changeable, there is a small ability to concentrate inwardly, which is a seed that can grow with time. Though concentration is not yet firm but, with practice it can be stabilized. The yogic tradition recognizes the viksipta as a state of mind that makes movement into states of mediation possible. From this perspective we are able to recognize when we have fallen into tamasic or rajasic states of mind and begin to witness this and transform it with practice. Traditionally, when a person is able to do this, they are deemed capable of practicing yoga. The differences among individuals in which this state predominates depend on the triggers that bring them out of a calm state. With awareness we can witness which conditions, inward and outward, block growth and which conditions help us. Such self-inquiry is possible when the viksipta state is our base-support. This changeable state is one that characterizes most people. Almost anyone can be thrown off by a situation in the outer world or by an inner emotional state. Even someone who has practiced for years can have a dark night of the soul and lose their sense of inner anchoring. The

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difference being that someone who is walking an integrated spiritual path will be able to draw on a sense of faith and meaning and fall back on the structure of daily routine, prayer and meditation to provide stability.

The ekagra state: one pointedness of mind The next step in the progression of mental states described in the Yoga Sutras is ekagram, or the one-pointed sattvic mind. This state is the experience of “clarity of vision” (Bechsgaard 2013, 169) and “calm abiding” (sutra 1.3). At this stage, the mind and psyche have been fully prepared for the inner ascent and are primarily of a sattvic quality. This is referred to as a samadhi state, which ranges from mystical intuitiveness (samprajna), to silent inner abiding. It is healing and can function as daily intuitive guidance to the mystical and transcendent experiences. This fourth state of mind transcends the boundaries of ordinary consciousness, leading to the world of the sacred. The single-pointed attentive mind—the ekagra state—is the key to spiritual transformation. It opens the door that leads to self-knowing. Aside from the motivation for positive change, this introspective attitude is a prerequisite to go beyond our own ego and egoic living. According to yogic scriptures, this is the first state of consciousness that can properly be called yoga, and it is linked to samadhi, the final limb. The term ekagra encompasses a range of mental states, all of which produce healing and spiritualization. The yoga tradition emphasizes the necessity of moving into expansive states of mind. These include a sense of open-mindedness, empathy, compassion, wisdom and joy. Studies now demonstrate that these states of mind and feeling have an impact on the whole body–mind. All of the world’s spiritual traditions recognize visions and dreams as vital forms of

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access to higher wisdom. Through spiritual techniques such as yoga, an open channel to these higher states is created and maintained. Without exposure to meditative training and practices of self-reflection, these states are not readily accessible. This can only happen safely in stages with no step skipped along the way, and a consolidation of each and every phase. In the Yoga Sutras, four stages of meditative training to achieve this are laid out, bringing the practitioner from tangible forms of concentration training to silent meditation (sutras 1.40–1.51). This section of the sutras orders mental states hierarchically and progressively. As our meditation practice deepens, a shift from spontaneous glimpses of mystical experience to a consistent deepening occurs, which leaves our whole being and life changed. As William James (2002/1902) writes: One may stumble into super-consciousness sporadically, without the previous discipline, but it is then impure. Their test of its purity, like our test of religion’s value, is empirical; its fruits must be good for life. When a man comes out of Samadhi, they assure us that he remains enlightened, a sage, a prophet, a saint, his whole character changed, his life changed, illumined. (310)

The mystical, or intuitive, experiences described by James are intense and can be sustained only for short periods. But though short in duration, mystical experience leaves significant traces. Many times our outlook on life and the ways in which we are connected to ourselves becomes radically different. Physiologically, we are able to heal and shift into a calm and centred state. A life lived from this spiritual centre is the ultimate aim of the many practices.

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After years of systematic training, we gain confidence to live by the intuitive promptings that issue from the hidden depths of our being. This process demands awareness of the subtle states, courage and faith. At times, in meditation, an intuition may present itself as a visceral feeling in the body, an audible message or a visual impression, sometimes followed by a dream. Once concentration is firmly established, these impressions keep coming to us even when we are not meditating. When a clear channel has opened inwardly, we can receive its light and strong vibration energy in many ways. A growing sense of mental equanimity and anchoring in ourselves is one of the most crucial fruits of meditative discipline. Increasingly, emotional and mental states stabilize and remain in control longer. All forms of practice, whether explicitly linked to samadhi states or not, are means to help us to clear and calm the mind. While a range of scientific works have shown that spiritual life and practice positively affect our physical and mental health, Patanjali traces these effects back to the transcendental centre of our being. The boon of tranquility, equanimity and mental resilience, though deeply connected to the optimal functioning of our nervous system, is viewed as the natural result of prolonged spiritual practice. This state allows for connection with the healing resources of our inner mind.

Nirodha: the state of transcendence The final state, nirodha, represents a state of super-consciousness that moves us outside the realm of verbal description. Shankara describes nirodha as a mind empty of thoughts and mental processes. The practitioner must be able to restrain even the spiritual knowledge and

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insights obtained along the way. When both old and new impressions are dissolved and transcended, a state of enlightenment or self-realization exists. This is Nir-bija Samadhi, the state of absolute unity with the seer within. The self-transcendence, or pure unitary consciousness, is integral to inner mystical experiences as portrayed across religions. The whole mechanism of nature (prakriti) has been transcended, which allows for enlightenment (kaivalya) to take place. The spiritual self abides in its own essence (sutra 1.3). Resting in its own divine nature, the soul is free. Nirodha can seem abstract to anyone who is not used to identifying with the entire spectrum of consciousness. But when we study the sutras and the metaphors of divine light and a soul blazing with light that are used to describe this state, we catch a glimpse of the profound state of unitary consciousness. Here one is considered incomplete without unity with the One, the transcendent self. Iyengar (2002) describes nirodha as a state in which “the soul alone manifests and blazes without form, in pristine clarity” (103). In Sri Aurobindo’s The Life Divine (1990) this state is considered “the primary divine necessity and the pivot on which all else turns” (47). It is described as “the point of light” at which a soul’s journey is complete. The nirodha state is portrayed as the ultimate conquest of the mind and represents the end of all forms of suffering. *** At this stage in the journey, we come to the end of words. The states of consciousness are described in these sutras can only be hinted at. It is for

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this reason that so many of the world’s traditions use poetry to gesture towards what is indescribable. Many of us get glimpses in moments of epiphany. These may occur during a profound experience in nature or while doing household tasks such as washing the dishes. These glimpses are ineffable and filled with spaciousness, wellness and unity, and offer a sense of what expanded consciousness is like. But regardless of where we are along the path, no effort is too small. Each movement towards clarity allows us to function better in other part of our lives, making us better parents, siblings, colleagues and friends. With each step, it becomes easier to access intuitions and to doubt them less. This, in turn, is the truest guide to pursuing right livelihood, choosing our relationships wisely and handling what we cannot change with poise and compassion. The journey along the path of spiritual transformation is one that has long offered healing of body, mind and spirit. The subtle aspects, we are told by those who have gone before, are unimaginable vistas. Even the earliest stages of higher consciousness offer up rich creative and synthetic forms of thinking and feeling. These in turn offer insight into the deepest problems of our age as well as leading to lives of depth and richness.

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APPENDIX A SELECTED SAMPLE OF YOGA AND MIND/BODY RESEARCH

Black, D.S., and Slavich, G.M. (2016). “Mindfulness Meditation and the Immune System: a Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1373(1): 13-24. Curtis, K., Kuluski, K., Bechsgaard, G., Ridgway, and, Katz, J. (2016). “Evaluation of a Specialized Yoga Program for In-patients at a Complex

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Appendix: A Selected Sample of Yoga and Mind/Body Research

Benefits of Pranayama (yogic Breathing): A Systematic Review.” International Journal of Yoga, 13(2): 99-110. doi: 10.4103/ijoy.IJOY_37_19 Larrivee, D., and L. Echarte. 2018. “Contemplative Meditation and Neuroscience: Prospects for Mental Health.” Journal of Religion and Health 57 (3): 960–78. Loizzo, J.J. (2016). “The Subtle Body: an Interoceptive Map of Central Nervous System Function and Meditative Mind-brain-body Integration.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1373(1):78-95. doi: 10.1111/nyas.13065 Masih, Jolly, Frank Belschak, and J.M.I. Willem Verbeke. 2019. “Mood Configurations and Their Relationship to Immune System Responses. Exploring the Relationship between Moods, Immune System Responses, Thyroid Hormones, and Social Support.” PLoS One 14 (5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216232. Raghuraj, Puthige, and Shirley Telles. 2008. “Immediate Effect of Specific Nostril Manipulating Yoga Breathing Practices on Autonomic and Respiratory Variables.” Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 33 (2): 65–75. Sharma, M. “Yoga as an Alternative and Complimentary Approach for Stress Management. A Systematic Review.” Journal of Evidencebased Complimentary and Alternative Medicine. 2014. 19 (1) 59-67. Subramaniam, Meera, Shirley Telles, and P. Murali Doraiswamy. 2013. “Yoga on Our Minds: A Systematic Review of Yoga for Neuropsychiatric Disorders.” Frontiers in Psychiatry 25 (3). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00117. Sullivan, M. B., Erb, M., Schmalzl, L., Moonaz, S., Noggle-Taylor, J., and Porges, S. W. (2018). “Yoga Therapy and Polyvagal Theory: The

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Convergence of Traditional Wisdom and Contemporary Neuroscience for Self-regulation and Resilience.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12: 67. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00067 Tang Yi-Yuan, Britta K. Hölzel, and Michael Posner. 2015. “The Neuroscience

of

Mindfulness

Meditation.”

Nature

Reviews

Neuroscience 16: 213–25. Telles, S., N. Singh, A. Yadav, and A. Balkrishna. 2012. “Effect of Yoga on Different Aspects of Mental Health.” Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 56 (3): 245–54. Tiwari, N., M. Sutton, M. Garner, and D.S. Baldwin. 2019. “Yogic Breathing Instruction in Patients with Treatment-Resistant Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Pilot Study.” International Journal of Yoga, 12 (1): 78–83. Wahbeh, H., Sagher, A., Back, W., Pundhir, P., and Travis, F. (2018). “A Systematic Review of Transcendent States Across Meditation and Contemplative Traditions.” Explore (NY), 14(1): 19-35. doi: 10.1016/j.explore.2017.07.007 Also please see Vidya Institute research page: https://vidyainstitute.ca/introduction-vidya-institutes-integrative-yogaresearch-the-evaluation-of-yoga-and-vedic-sciences-throughempirical-methods/