Two Centuries of Spanish and English Bilingual Lexicography (1590–1800) 9783110807363, 9789027907431

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TWO CENTURIES OF SPANISH AND ENGLISH BILINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHY (1590-1800)

JANUA LINGUARUM STUDIA MEMORIAE NICOLAI VAN WIJK DEDICATA edenda curat

C. H. VAN SCHOONEVELD I N D I A N A UNIVERSITY

S E R I E S PRACTICA 108

1970

MOUTON THE HAGUE · PARIS

TWO CENTURIES OF SPANISH AND ENGLISH BILINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHY (1590-1800) by

ROGER J. STEINER UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE

El 1970

MOUTON THE HAGUE · PARIS

© Copyright 1970 in The Netherlands. Mouton & Co. N.V., Publishers, The Hague. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publishers.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 74-110958

Printed in The Netherlands by Mouton & Co., Printers, The Hague.

This book is dedicated to Dr. Edwin B. Williams, one of the foremost lexicographers of today. The paths followed in my research have been illumined by the principles of lexicography which he has developed. The clarity and accuracy of his work demonstrate that dictionaries can be increasingly useful tools in enabling people to understand one another.

CONTENTS

0. Introduction

9

1. John Thorius, 1590

15

2. Richard Percyvall, 1591

17

3. William Stepney, 1591

36

4. John Minsheu, 1599

38

5. John Minsheu, 1617

52

6. John Minsheu, 1623

55

7. Captain John Stevens, 1705, 1706, 1726

58

8. Peter Pineda, 1740

68

9. Joseph Girai Delpino, 1763

76

10. Joseph Baretti, 1778, 1786

85

11. Thomas Connelly and Thomas Higgins, 1797-1798

92

12. Summary, Evaluation, and Conclusions

103

Appendix A: A Bibliographical Sampling of Translations Made Before 1591 from Spanish to English

108

Appendix B: Percyvall's Rules for Accent and Gender

Ill

8

CONTENTS

Appendix C: Intrigue in the 16th-century English Book Trade

.

.

113

Appendix D: A Chronological Listing of Spanish Dictionaries Before 1600

115

Bibliography

120

Index

127

0. INTRODUCTION

0.1. THE FIELD OF STUDY

The scope of this research is a history of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography beginning in the sixteenth century and continuing through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Polyglot dictionaries and monolingual dictionaries as well as bilingual dictionaries in language combinations other than Spanish and English are ancillary to the study. The beginning of the nineteenth century marks a turning point in the development of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography because, whereas the lexicographers of the earlier centuries usually borrowed from or adapted only one Spanish and English bilingual dictionary, namely, that of their predecessor, a new development occurs in the nineteenth century with the fusion of different Spanish and English bilingual dictionaries and their reduction into more compact format, for example, the combination, made by a group of English publishers in 1802, of the Connelly and the Neuman dictionary. The purpose of this study is to present a source of information which I hope will be useful to the lexicographer, the lexicologist, the phonetician, the philologist, and the literary historian. The procedure used in presenting this study is to take each dictionary in chronological order and consider it in the manner suggested in the following outline: I. Description of facts concerning the dictionary A. Brief introductory paragraph serving to identify the dictionary, to relate it to its predecessors, and to indicate in a general way the place it holds in lexicographical history B. Consideration of the dictionary as a volume - the printing and the format C. Faithful copy of the title page D. Sources of the dictionary with any relevant data concerning its compilation and publication Π. Description of the text of the dictionary A. Contents of the body of the dictionary

10

INTRODUCTION

1. Vocabulary selection: range and choice of entries, including idiomatic expressions and proverbs 2. Glosses (meaning discrimination, etc.) 3. Spelling (orthographical variants and accent marks) 4. Grammar (irregular forms, genders, use of articles and prepositions with vocabulary entry, etc.) 5. Etymology B. Organization of contents of the dictionary 1. Ordering of vocabulary entries in the alphabet 2. Ordering of expressions and other items in the alphabet 3. Reversibility in the two parts of the dictionary III. A brief conclusion with a short recapitulation of those lexicographical elements which set off the dictionary from its predecessors

0.2. OUTLINE OF PREVIOUS STUDIES

Several bibliographies offer valuable information concerning Spanish and English bilingual dictionaries. In the following list four such bibliographies are arranged in order of publication: William Knapp, A Concise Bibliography of Spanish Grammars and Dictionaries from the Earliest Period to the Definitive Edition of the Academy's Dictionary, 1490-1780 (Boston, 1884). Cipriano Muñoz y Manzano, Conde de la Viñaza, Biblioteca histórica de la filología castellana (Madrid, 1893). Luís Cardim, Gramaticas Anglo-Castelhanas e Castelhano-Anglicas (1586-1828) (Coimbra, 1931). Robert L. Collison, Dictionaries of Foreign Languages (New York, 1955). The section on dictionaries in the Biblioteca histórica is especially valuable because Viñaza copies title pages and parts of prefaces. The bibliographies usually offer slim listings with many works and editions omitted. However, we shall now consider nine different studies which go beyond mere bibliography. (1) In a study entitled "Language Helps for the Elizabethan Tradesman" (JEGP, XXX [1931], 335-47), Louis B. Wright devotes two pages, 343-4, to Spanish and English bilingual lexicography. (2) In a study entitled "Una distinción temprana de Έ ' y 'D' fricativas" (RFE, XVIII [1931], 15-23), Dámaso Alonso considers some aspects of Elizabethan Spanish and English bilingual lexicography. (3) In a study entitled "Bilingual Dictionaries of Shakespeare's Day" (PMLA, LII [Dec. 1937], 1005-18), DeWitt Talmage Starnes points out the borrowing of English definitions from Latin-English dictionaries by three lexicographers: John

INTRODUCTION

11

Florio (Italian-English), Rändle Cotgrave (French-English), and John Minsheu (Spanish-English). He also shows Minsheu's debt to Florio. (4) There is a study having to do with French and English bilingual lexicography: the 252-page book by Vera E. Smalley, The Sources of A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues by Randle Cotgrave (London, 1611), The Johns Hopkins Studies in Romance Literatures and Languages, Extra Vol. XXV (Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins Press, 1948). Smalley includes in her investigation a consideration of Cotgrave's borrowing from Minsheu. Pages 36-39 are concerned with problems of compilation but her work is mainly an example of a study of the sources of one dictionary. (5) There is a study having to do with Latin and English bilingual lexicography: the 427-page book by DeWitt Talmage Starnes, Renaissance Dictionaries, EnglishLatin and Latin-English (Austin, University of Texas Press, 1954). Some of the dictionaries which he treats were used by some of the compilers of Spanish and English bilingual dictionaries. (6) A study which embraces the entire group of Spanish and English bilingual lexicographers up to the middle of the nineteenth century was made by Amado Alonso: De la pronunciación medieval a la moderna en español, ed. Rafael Lapesa, posthumous pub., Biblioteca Románica Hispánica, ed. Dámaso Alonso, I: Tratados y Monografías (Madrid, Editorial Gredos, 1955). The lexicographical information provided in this study is not systematized, correlated, or indexed because the work encompasses grammars, dialogues, and manuals as well as dictionaries. It explores only one facet of lexicography, viz., pronunciation. But it is a brilliant and indispensable work. (7) A shorter study which parallels Amado Alonso's work by centering the same kind of investigation in the grammars and dictionaries of the early lexicographers was made by Otto Funke: "Spanische Sprachbücher im elisabethanischen England" (Studies in English Language and Literature [Wiener Beiträge zur Englischen Philologie, LXV], Stuttgart, Braumüller, 1957, 43-57). Funke directs his attention toward the pronunciation of English. (8) A chronological study of the Spanish and German bilingual dictionaries published in Germany was made by Wolfgang Schlipf and entitled "Einige Bemerkungen zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Spanischen Woerterbuchs in Deutschland". This work appeared in the Boletín de Filología, Publicaciones del Instituto de Filología, sección del Instituto de investigaciones histórico-culturales de la Facultad de Filosofía y Educación of the University of Chile (Santiago, Editorial Universitaria, S.A., 1958-60), IX (1956-7), 189-234; X (1958), 303-401; XI (1959), 87-132. One of the tasks to which Wolfgang Schlipf applied himself was the investigation of the sources of the dictionaries, as exemplified in the following comment (IX, 191), in which a relationship is indicated between the dictionary of E. A. Schmid and that of Captain John Stevens, who is one of the lexicographers in my own study:

12

INTRODUCTION

Das Werk beruht im wesentlichen auf dem Wortschatz, den das D i c c i o n a r i o der Akademie, die spanisch-französischen Wörterbücher von S o b r i n o und S é j o u r n a n t , das spanisch-englische Lexikon von S t e v e n s und das spanisch-holländische Diktionär von Η o r η k e η darbieten. Not only does Wolfgang Schlipf investigate sources and the dependence of lexicographers upon the work of their predecessors, he also considers at length the lexical inclusiveness of the dictionaries and the principles of inclusion used by the lexicographers. Different aspects of lexical inclusiveness are taken up systematically, such as the range and choice of the vocabulary words, the notation of etymology and pronunciation, and the providing of inflectional irregularities. Aspects of organization and execution are also considered, such as alphabetization, the insertion and ordering of expressions in the word list, format, and typography. (9) A recent study on the teaching of English in Spain touches on the whole range of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography up to the middle of the nineteenth century. This is La Enseñanza del inglés en España (desde la edad media hasta el siglo XIX) by Sofía Martín-Gamero, Biblioteca Románica Hispánica, ed. Dámaso Alonso, II: Estudios y Ensayos (Madrid, Editorial Gredos, 1961). Sofía Martín-Gamero is not solely interested in bilingual dictionaries; she also studies polyglot dictionaries, grammars, manuals, dialogues, and other pedagogical works. Many inaccuracies mar her copying of the title pages which she transcribes and her analysis of the contents and organization of the dictionaries and the methods of the lexicographers is often scant and inexact. I have tried to copy with great precision and my analysis has been extremely detailed and along entirely different lines from hers.

0.3. THE METHOD OF RESEARCH FOR THIS STUDY

The starting point in the research for this study was the drawing up of as complete a list as possible of Spanish and English bilingual dictionaries down to the end of the eighteenth century. I consulted (1) the bibliographies and lists of dictionaries contained in reference works of a general and special nature, all of which are listed in this study in the bibliography infra, pp. 120 ff.; (2) the Union Card Catalogue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and (3) the main and special files of the following libraries: the Library of the University of Pennsylvania, the Free Library of Philadelphia, the Library of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, the Library of the Hispanic Society of America (New York), the library at the center of Spanish studies in Bordeaux and the main library of the Faculté des lettres et sciences humaines of the University of Bordeaux; in Spain, the Biblioteca Nacional, the Biblioteca de Palacio, the Biblioteca de la Real Academia Española, the Biblioteca de la Real Academia de la Historia, and two libraries of the University of Madrid, the Biblio-

INTRODUCTION

13

teca de Derecho and the Biblioteca de Filosofía y Letras. Deserving special mention is the old subject-matter file at the Biblioteca Nacional because for many years only a file by authors has been kept there and no published catalogue of books at the Biblioteca Nacional has been available with a listing such as that available for the British Museum, the Bibliothèque Nationale, and the Library of Congress. The ascertaining of the existence of a dictionary and the securing of a copy of it in some way are patently indispensable. I would add a third indispensable step which though patent enough is nevertheless sometimes ignored by historians, reviewers, and other investigators of dictionaries. That step is the taking of a significant portion of the dictionary into consideration for purposes of evaluation. I did not start with the parti pris of certain favorite words for investigation. Instead, I took fair and representative samplings from each dictionary, collated them, and made qualitative analyses. The confrontations were made not for the purpose of proving preconceived notions but rather to discover data from which conclusions might be drawn. My samplings came first, my conclusions later.

0.4. A LIST OF SOME OF THE SPECIAL TERMS USED IN THIS WORK, WITH THEIR DEFINITIONS

bidirectional (in lexicography) of each part of a two-part bilingual dictionary: designed for the use of the native speakers of both languages bilingual (in lexicography) of a dictionary: compiled in two languages with the words of one language listed alphabetically and followed by their meanings in the other language English-Spanish Dictionary a bilingual (monodirectional or bidirectional) dictionary in which English is the source language and Spanish the target language gloss in bilingual lexicography: (1) a particularizing word or definition written in the source language and attached to the vocabulary entry; (2) a a word or group of words in the target language presented as an equivalent or equivalents of the vocabulary entry; b a definition in the target language of the vocabulary entry; c a particularizing word or definition attached to the target word or words; (3) the whole complex of words, definitions, and particularizing elements accompanying a vocabulary entry monodirectional (in lexicography) of a bilingual dictionary: designed for the use of the native speaker of only one of the two languages monolingual (in lexicography) of a dictionary: compiled in one language with the words listed alphabetically and followed by definitions in the same language run-on entry a vocabulary entry, with or without its definition, run on to another entry Spanish and English Dictionary a bilingual (monodirectional or bidirectional) dictionary consisting of two parts in one of which Spanish is the source language

14

INTRODUCTION

and English the target language and in the other of which English is the source language and Spanish the target language Spanish-English Dictionary a bilingual (monodirectional or bidirectional) dictionary in which Spanish is the source language and English the target language subentry a vocabulary entry which is subordinate to another vocabulary entry vocabulary word or vocabulary entry a word or group of words listed, alphabetically or as part of a related or associated group of terms, for the purpose of definition or identification; a main entry as contrasted to a subentry or run-on entry Newark, Delaware, January 1970

1. JOHN THORIUS, 1590

The earliest existing specimen of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography may well be the fourteen-page glossary of 1100 entries appended to a grammar, the title page of which reads as follows:1 The Spanish / GRAMMAR: / With certeine Rules teaching both the / Spanish and French tongues. / By which they that haue some knowledge in the French / tongue, may the easier attaine to the Spanish; and like- / wise they that haue the Spanish, with more facilitie / learne the French: and they that are acquaint- / ted with neither of them, learne either or / both. Made in Spanish, by M. An- / thonie de Corro. / With a Dictionarie adioyned vnto it, of all the Spanish / wordes cited in this Booke: and other more wordes / most necessarie for all such as desire the know- / ledge of the same tongue. / By lohn Thorius, Graduate in Oxenford. / Imprinted at London by lohn W o l f e . / 1590.

The work 8 is printed in a 4 to volume 13 x 1814. cm. and V2 cm. thick, in three typefaces: (1) roman for the Spanish words, (2) black letter for the English words, and (3) italic for the French words. The type is somewhat fat and coarse. There is no pagination. Printer's folio letters follow a modern alphabet except for the absence of the letters j and u, and the same alphabet is used for the ordering of the entries in the dictionary. The entries are arranged in two columns on each of the pages, each vocabulary word is capitalized, and no accent marks are used. Printer's errors are found on fol. A2 of the dictionary: Comentar for Cementar, and Comentario for Cementado. As the title page explains, this work is based on a grammar written by Antonio de Corro. The grammar had been written for Henry IV of France when Antonio de Corro was Henry's Spanish tutor in 1560.® It was later published in England 1 In this study the end of each line of quoted text is usually indicated by a solidus if the quotation is (1) a transcription of a title page or (2) a transcription of a portion of the body of a dictionary published before 1600. 1 STC No. 5790 listed by Pollard & Redgrave under Corro. The entry is dated April 7, 1590 in the Registers of the Company of Stationers (Arber, Π, 544). » Antonio de Corro or Anthonio de Corro or Antonius Corranus was a Sevillian whose tutorial

16

JOHN THORIUS, 1 5 9 0

as follows: Reglas Gramaticales para aprender la lengua española y francesa, confiriendo la una con la otra según el orden de las partes de la oracion latinas (Oxford, Joseph Barnes, 1586). The revision of this work by John Thorius was important enough to take its place in the library of the contemporary humanist scholar, Gabriel Harvey, who owned the copy of the Thorius grammar and dictionary and the copy of the Percyvall grammar and dictionary which are now part of the Huntington Collection.4 In the dictionary part, most of the glosses are equivalents. The dictionary begins: Abierto Abogacía Abolario Abonado Abrir to

open bribery a genealogy or pet- / tigree endowed, begifted, / made good open

Definitions and particularizing words are sometimes used: Agradable that which is thankful / to a man, pleasing, acceptable Parida a woman lately brought / tobed Xara the hearbe whereof Lauda- /num is made, which is a kind / of gfi much used in pomanders Inclusion depended not so much on contemporary usage as it did on presence in the grammar which preceded the dictionary part. The dictionary is an apparatus for the convenience of the user of the grammar.

duties for the prince had preceded a conversion to Protestantism, after which he fled Spain and became a preacher, according to Anthony à Wood, Athenœ oxonienses, II, 578, in the Italian church in London. Along with Cipriano de Valera he represented Peninsular reformers to sixteenth-century England; his paraphrases and commentaries on the Bible were translated from French or Latin and published; and the lectures he gave at Oxford achieved some popularity. See DNB sub Corro; RFE (1951), p. 221; NRFH (1951), p. 267; Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo, Historia de los heterodoxos españoles, 7 vols. (2d ed., Madrid, 1911-32), IV, 157; John Garrett Underhill, Spanish Literature in the England of the Tudors (New York, 1899), pp. 190-7 and passim. 4 This ownership is attested by Harvey's method of cross-indexing, presumably in his own handwriting. On the title page of the Thorius grammar, Harvey writes: "Percyuals Bibliotheca Hispanica. 1591", and on the title page of the Percyvall grammar, Harvey writes: "Corranus Spanish, τ French Grammen translated by M. Thorius." On the title page of Percyvall's dictionary he writes: "Hue meum Dictionarium Homogeneum propriè, et merè Hispanicum." At various points Harvey writes his own name or his initials. Gabriel Harvey was a member of Sir Philip Sidney's circle of friends much interested in things Spanish and in translating Spanish. Thorius dedicated a number of letters and sonnets to Harvey in a book of verse published in 1593 (Underhill, op. cit., pp. 196-7).

2. RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1591

In 1590 John Thorius had published nothing more than a glossary less than onefifth the size of the grammar to which it was appended, but in 1591 Richard Percyvall published a dictionary more than five times the size of the grammar which served as its preface and this constitutes the first real attempt at Spanish and English bilingual lexicography. The entry in the Stationers" Registers (Arber, II, 570) under the date December 26, 1590 reads as follows: "Master Watkins / Entred for his copie vnder t h < e h>andes of Master HARTWELL and the wardens Bibliotheca Hispanica Contayninge A Grammar with a Dictionary in iij Languages gathered out of diuerse good Aucthors. very profitable for the studious of the Spanyshe tonge. By R. PERCIUALL . . . vjd". The work (STC No. 19619) is printed in an unpaginated quarto volume 14 x I8V2 cm. and cm. thick. Printer's folio letters follow our present-day English alphabet except for the absence of / and U. The dictionary part runs for 184 pages with 70 or 75 entries on a page. The two letters at the top of each of the two columns into which a page is divided seem to indicate that most of the words occurring in that column have such alphabetical succession. These guide letters sometimes are composed of Ch and another letter or of LI and another letter. The printer uses a somewhat fat, coarse type perhaps related to a kind of Garamond bold but the typeface is not graceful. The vocabulary entry is set in roman, which is also the font used for the non-English words which sometimes immediately follow the vocabulary entry, e.g., the Latin word monasyllabum in the following entry: Ay monasyllabum, there is, there are, Est, / sunt. The English gloss is set in black letter, which is also the font used for those words which are included in the gloss but which are not part of the meaning, e.g., the words BY METAPHOR in the following entry: Badajo de campana, a clapper of a bell, / by metaphor, a dolt, an assehead, Cre- / pitaculum, stolidus, malleus campana.

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

18

The Latin gloss is set in italic, which is also the font used for those words which are included in the gloss but which are not part of the meaning, e.g., the words articulus fœmininus in the following entry: La, she, Articulus fœmininus, hœc, illa. The alphabet is described by Percyvall in his preface as follows: "The Alphabet is thus set, A, B, ca, co, cu, ça, ce, ci, ço, çu, eh, D, E, F, G, H, I, Y, j, L, 11, M, N, ñ, Ο, Ρ, Q, R, S, T, u, V, X, Z." However, in actual practice the letter / regularly precedes the letter I. The letter Y is used as a consonant in this alphabet except in the following words: Y, Yr, Yva, and Yzquierdo (cf. footnote 2 infra). The first title page reads as follows: BIBLIOTHECA / HISPANICA. / Containing a Grammar; / with a Dictionarie in English, and Latine; gathered out / of diuers good Authors: very / profitable for the studious / of the Spanish / toong. / By Richard Percyuall Gent. / The Dictionarie being inlarged with / the Latine, by the aduise and con- / ference of Master Thomas / DOYLEY Doctor / in Physicke. / Imprinted at London, by / lohn Iackson, for Ri- / chard Watkins. / 1591

SPANISH, /

The second title page reads as follows: BIBLIOTHEQE HISPANICA / PARS ALTERA. / CONTAINING A DICTIONARIE IN / SPANISH, ENGLISH, and LATINE: / gathered out of diuers good / Authors: very profitable / for the studious of / the Spanish / toong. / By RICHARD PERCYVALL gent. / Enlarged with the Latine, by the aduise / and conference of Master Thomas / DOYLEY Doctor in / Physicke. / Imprinted at London by lohn Iackson, / for Richard Watkins. / 1591

Let us explore the sources of this dictionary. Although many vocabulary entries and English glosses of the Thorius dictionary are duplicated exactly by Percyvall, who adds a comma after the vocabulary entry and adds the Latin gloss after the English gloss, they are of a kind in which duplication is, in some way, inevitable. For instance, if a one-word gloss of the word entry Abierto is desired, it is hard to see how Percyvall could have chosen any other word than open, which Thorius used. Duplication is not proof that any relationship existed between the two dictionaries. Indeed, the entries are often different: THORIUS

PERCYVALL

1590 Botica a shoppe

1591 Botica, an apothecaries shop, Pharmaco- / pceia.

Percyvall's admitted source, as announced on the title page, is the work of Dr. Thomas D'Oylie, a friend of the group of Spanish translators at Oxford, whose

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

19

printer John Wolfe obtained a license on October 19, 1590 to print a work recorded in the Stationers' Registers (Arber, II, 565) as follows: "John wolf / Entred for his copie vnder t h < e lx>andes of master H A R T W E L L and bothe the wardens, A Spanish grammer conformed to our Englishe Accydence. with a large dictionary e conteyninge Spanish, Latyn, and Englishe wordes, with a multitude of Spanishe Wördes more then are conteyned in the Calapine of x: languages or NEOBRECENSIS Dictionare. Set forth by T H O M A S D ' O Y L E Y Doctor in phisick with the cofirence of Natyve Spaniardes . . . vjd/n." Despite the fact that the work remained unpublished, the copyright was transferred by the widow of John Wolfe to John Pindley on April 27, 1612 (Arber, III, 483) and thereafter by the widow of John Pindley to Thomas Purslowe on November 2, 1613 (Arber, III, 535). Two sources of Dr. D'Oylie's work are mentioned in his title: the "Calapine of Christian languages" and "Neobrecensis". The first reference is to the Dictionarium of Ambrose Calepine of Bergamo, Italy. The first edition of this monolingual Latin dictionary (Reggio, 1502) was followed by at least sixteen editions published in different cities throughout Europe in the sixteenth century. The fact that Dr. D'Oylie referred to "Christian languages" means that he used one of the later editions which included several languages. The second reference is to the Aelij Antonij nebrissensis grammatici Lexicon ex sermone latino in hispaniensem (Salamanca, 1492) and undoubtedly also to Elio Antonio Lebrija's or Nebrija's Dictionum hispanarum in latinum sermonem (Salamanca, 1495?). A great many works of especial value to lexicographers had been published on the Continent in the sixteenth century,1 especially in Belgium, and Dr. D'Oylie may have brought some of them back with him when he returned from his practice in Belgium and Holland where between the years 1581-1585 he may well have felt the need to consult bilingual or polyglot vocabularies and dictionaries. The relationship between Dr. D'Oylie's dictionary and that of Percyvall is explained in Percyvall's preface as follows:

1

Polyglot works abounded. Here are some examples: SMALL POLYGLOT TOPICAL VOCABULARIES, e.g.: Le dictionaire des huict Languages: c'est a sçavoir Grec, Latin, Flamen, François, Espagnol, Italien, Anglois, & Alemán: fort utile & necessaire pour tous studieux & amateurs des lettres, nouvellement imprimé à Paris, corrigé & revue, Avec privilege (Paris, Pasquier le Tellier, dessus la porte St. Marcel, 1548). A close revision of other editions (Antwerp, 1534; Venice, 1537-41). LARGER POLYGLOT TOPICAL VOCABULARIES, e.g.: Adriaen de Jongh (Hadrian Junius), Nomenclátor omnium rerum propria nomina variis Unguis explicata indicans (Augsburg, 1555). Leyden ed. (1567), in six languages: Latin, Greek, Flemish, French, Italian, & Spanish. - POLYGLOT DIALOGUES, e.g.: Colloquia Familiaria cum Dictionario Quatuor Linguarum, Teutonica, Gallica, Latinœ, et Hispanice (Louvain, Bartholomy de Graue, 1560). This was one of the reworkings of the Vocabulare of Noël de Berlaimont (1530), ed. H. Heyndricx (Antwerp, 1576): English added. - POLYGLOT EDITIONS OF LITERARY WORKS, e.g.: Histoire de Aurelio et Isabel ... traduict en Quatre langues, Italien, Español, François, & Anglois (Antwerp, John Steelsio, 1556). - See Caroline B. Bourland, "The Spanish Schoole-Master and the polyglot derivatives of Noël de Berlaimont's Vocabulare", Revue Hispanique, LXXXI, 283-318 and "Algo sobre Gabriel Meurier Maestro de español de Amberes (1521-1597?)", HR, VI, No. 2, 139-152.

20

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

I chaunced to be acquainted with the learned Gentleman, Master Thomas Doyley doctor in Phisicke; who had begunne a Dictionarie in Spanish, English, and Latine, and seeing mee to bee more foreward to the presse then himselfe; very friendly gaue his consent to the publishing of mine; wishing me to adde the Latine to it as hee had begunne in his; which I performed, being not a little furthered therein by his aduise and conference. The "aduise and conference" may have included furnishing Percyvall with the sources which D'Oylie had encountered abroad. In any event we know that Percyvall blended two bilingual dictionaries: the Spanish-Latin dictionary of Nebrija (op. cit., ca. 1495) and the Spanish-Italian dictionary contained in the Italian and Spanish bilingual dictionary of Christoval de las Casas, Vocabvlario de las dos Lengvas Toscana y Castellana (Seville, 1570). Percyvall says of these two lexicographers in his preface: "I traced their steps." It is possible for us to take a glance over Percyvall's shoulder, so to speak, as he compiles his work. He says that he alphabetizes as Nebrija and Las Casas do. The use of the sequence, ca, co, cu, ça, ce, ci, ço, çu, ch is identical in the three lexicographers.2 Percyvall states that he uses Nebrija's lexicon in its entirety, even those words "framed and coined" by Nebrija. A comparison of the two dictionaries reveals that this claim is substantially true, although many times Percyvall composed only one vocabulary entry based upon more than one vocabulary entry in Nebrija. In the following confrontation Percyvall's entry includes the meanings of Nebrija's entries 1 and 5. NEBRIJA

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

1495 Fuente manantial.fons fontis Fuente pequeña.fonticulus.i. Fuente del pie.uola ç. Fuente delà palma delà mano.hir. Fuentes para lavar manos.malluuiç.arum

PERCYVALL

1591 Fuente, a fountaine, an ewre, Fons, malluui- / um.

Las Casas, who also made extensive use of Nebrija's dictionary in compiling his, made two entries out of the same borrowing as follows:

* In both Nebrija's and Las Casas' dictionaries words with initial yod and words with initial [i] are ordered in one listing. In Nebrija's they are ordered alphabetically under guide letter i but each word begins with the character e.g., ^jjazer, ^jgual. In Las Casas' the character Y is used for initial yod, e.g., Yazer, and the character I is used for initial [i], e.g., Igual (although the alphabetical succession of entries in this listing is not based upon the first letter of the words, i.e., the letters y and /)· Using characters Y and I as Las Casas does, Percyvall places the words with initial [i], e.g., Igual, in one alphabetical listing; he places the words with initial yod, e.g., Yazer, in another alphabetical listing immediately following. To summarize: both Nebrija and Las Casas use one listing but Percyvall uses two. Both Las Casas and Percyvall use the characters Y and I for words with initial yod and initial [i] but Nebrija uses only the character 3 · The divergency just described is the only one worthy of note in the alphabetization of the three lexicographers.

21

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1 LAS CASAS

1570 Fuente. Fontana, fonte. Fuente de lauar manos. Bacile, bacino. But it must be said that Percyvall includes in his dictionary more from Nebrija than Las Casas does. The following confrontation of vocabulary entries presents a typical picture of Percyvall's borrowing from Nebrija. SOME VOCABULARY ENTRIES NOT PRESENT IN LAS CASAS' DICTIONARY NEBRIJA

PERCYVALL

1495 Foraña cosa casi fiera o çaharefia Funda de almohada o colchon Ojeras hundidas Otros tantos

1591 Foraño quasi çaherefia Funda de almohado o colchon Ojeras hundidas Otros tantos

Despite Percyvall's reliance on Nebrija, it is on Las Casas that he depended for the basic framework of his word list. Many times both Las Casas and Percyvall will omit the same words from Nebrija (see entries 1, 2, and 4 below) and many times both Las Casas and Percyvall will enter words not listed by Nebrija (see entries 5, 6, 7, and 8 below) and usually these words are listed in the same sequence. NEBRIJA

LAS CASAS

PERCYVALL

1495 (1) Fisonomía ciencia physionymia.ç (2) Fisononomo sabidor della.physionymus.i (3) Fistola dolencia. phystula.ç

1570

1591

(4) Fistola de ojos dolencia.çgylopa ç. laca cosa magra, macer.a/um.exilis.e. (5 ) (6)

Fistola. Fistola, fistolo.

Fistola, a fistula, Fistula.

Fixar. Affigere, affisare, fissare. Fixado. Affiso, ficcato.

Fixar, to fasten, Figere. Fixado, fastened, Fixus.

22

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

(7)

Fisamente. Fisamente.

(8) .

Fixo. Fiso.

Fixamente, faste, surely, Firmiter. Fixo, faste, Fixus.

Although there are certain words which do not appear in either Percyvall's or Nebrija's dictionary but which do appear in Las Casas' (as for example Fragil, Fisica, and Ollero de vedriado), it is Percyvall who most often inserts a vocabulary entry not listed by the other two lexicographers. In a representative sampling (the word lists under letters F and O) Percyvall's contribution of distinctive entries not shared by the other two lexicographers numbers nine or ten to a page. Since there are 184 pages to Percyvall's dictionary, we can calculate from these samplings that the vocabulary words added to those from Nebrija and Las Casas amount to almost 2,000 in number, thus confirming Percyvall's own estimate of this addition when he referred in his preface to "casting in some small pittaunce of mine owne, amounting well neere two 2000 wordes", or fifteen per cent of the dictionary. Of these 2,000 vocabulary entries which Percyvall called his own, almost half are derived forms or expressions, such as Ospitalero. Percyvall may have developed these forms himself by applying some of the principles expounded in the grammar part of his work. Or he may have taken them over from Calepine's Dictionarium, which Dr. DOylie had used and which might well have included many derived forms because its list is organized etymologically, not alphabetically. After the derived forms are subtracted from Percyvall's 2,000 words, a thousand or more words remain. They must have come from either printed material or from informants. Our problem, therefore, may be stated as follows: from what printed material other than Nebrija's dictionary and Las Casas' and from which informants did Percyvall's one thousand fresh words come? Evidently it is true that Percyvall was as he says in his preface, "more foreward to the presse" than Dr. D'Oylie, for Dr. D'Oylie must not have had time to make full use of his sources. It fell to Percyvall to make use of these sources which Dr. D'Oylie could have used. One very probable source would be the dictionaries which included Latin as one of the languages, for to the Renaissance man the Latin language could serve as a control and a guide in much the same way that the already familiar languages of the Rosetta Stone aided the early translators of the hieroglyphics. With the aid of Latin, Percyvall was able to come to grips with the task of utilizing the polyglot vocabularies and other polyglot works published on the Continent. Belgium had been a center for such works and many of the polyglot works had crossed the Channel.8 Percyvall could have been well informed about Latin and English equiva3

Many polyglot or bilingual works from Belgium were translated, registered, and published in England in the two decades or so before Percyvall compiled his dictionary. Most of the following examples include Spanish as one of the languages:

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

23

lents because he had many Latin and English bilingual dictionaries to choose from.4 Another printed source would have been the works which were available in both Spanish and English. Percyvall might have had access to the Spanish original of many works which had been translated into English:5 at least fifty didactic, historical, literary, polemical, and religious works which included attempts at a scientific treatment in medical, military, nautical, and political fields as well as accounts of travel. The Spanish and English texts sometimes were parallel in the same volume.6 If books, then, were available for Percyvall's task, so were informants. These were readily available through his friendship and collaboration with Dr. D'Oylie as well as through his close professional association with Lord Burghley, on whose staff he performed yeoman's service in the deciphering and the translating of Spanish documents. Percyvall must have had entrée into the various circles of antiquarians and lexicographers and translators who were interested in things Spanish. He might have met men like Ascham, Bacon, Baker, Beale, Carew, Carey, 1568 Thresor de tous les livres d'Amadis de Gaule (Antwerp, 1560), trans. Thomas Paynel, The Treasurie of Amadis of Fraunce (London, 1568). 1578 Dictionaire colloques ou dialogues en quattre langues fflamen. ffrancoys. espaignol. et italien, withe the Englishe to be added thereto. Licensed September 12, 1578. 1580 Synonymorum sylva of Simon Pelegromius (first ed. 1537). Trans. "H. F." converted the Flemish headings or topics into English (London, 1580). 1585 Nomenclátor omnium rerum propria nomina variis of Adrian Junius was published at Antwerp, 1557 et seqq. Trans, (i.e., the addition of English) John Higgins (London, 1585). 1588 History of Aurelio and of Isabell. Licensed to be printed in four languages including Spanish, November 20, 1588. See footnote 1 supra p. 19 for the Antwerp ed. 4 In his definitive work, Renaissance Dictionaries (Austin, 1954), DeWitt Talmage Starnes describes and analyzes over a century of Latin and English bilingual lexicography. Works such as Thomas Thomas' Dictionarium lingues Latina et Anglicana (1587) and John Rider's Bibliotheca scholastica (1589) would have sufficed Percyvall. " Some of these translations are listed by Agnes Arber in her edition of the Registers of the Company of Stationers and they or their originals are sometimes included in the bibliographical listings of works like those of Ames, Nicolas Antonio, Brunet, Brydges, Foulché-Delbosc, Gallardo, Gayangos, Graesse, Haebler, Kennedy, Lowndes, Palau y Dulcet, Penny, Pollard & Redgrave, Quaritch, or Vindel. Following are several studies on the subject of translations. A SMALL SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS WHICH DEAL WITH THE SUBJECT OF TRANSLATIONS FROM THE SPANISH

Martin A. S. Hume, Spanish Influence on English Literature (London, Eveleigh Nash, 1905). Remigio Ugo Pane, English Translations from the Spanish 1484-1943 A Bibliography (New Brunswick, Rutgers University Press, 1944). Corrections & additions by Ernst G. Mathews, JEGP, XLIV, 387 ff. - Mary Patchell, The Palmerin Romances in Elizabethan Prose Fiction (New York, Columbia U. Press, 1947). - Dale B. J. Randall, The Golden Tapestry A Critical Survey of Non-chivalric Spanish Fiction in English Translation (1543-1657) (Durham, Duke University, 1963). - John Garrett Underhill, Spanish Literature in the England of the Tudors (New York, Macmillan, 1899). - Gustav Ungerer, Anglo-Spanish Relations in Tudor Literature (Bern, Francke, 1956). - See Appendix A for examples of English translations of Spanish works. • For example, Underhill lists the following: Théodore de Bèze, Ad serenissimam Elizabetham Anglice reginam (London, 1588), 8-lang. Latin epigram. Abraham Fraunce, compiler, The Arcadian Rhetorike; or, the praecepts of rhetorike made plaine by examples, Greeke, Latin, English, Italian, French, Spanish (London, 1588).

24

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1591

(Clifford, Corro, Dee, DeVere, Drake, Dyer, Fortescue, Fraunce, Gascoigne, Greville, Hakluyt, Hariot, Harris, Hartwell, Harvey, Hatton, Hoby, Howard, Jonson, Kerr, Lichfield, Lodge, Lyly, Moffett, Mountjoy, Munday, Puttenham, Raleigh, Rogers, Sidney, Spenser, Standen, Thorius, Valera, Walsingham, Wilcox, Wilson, and Wotton. He might have met women like Lady Knollys, Lady Elizabeth Russell, Lady Rich, the Countess of Bedford, Margaret Carey, and the Queen herself, who spoke Spanish fluently (according to Ungerer, op. cit., pp. 43-4). He might have consulted with the "Natyve Spaniardes" mentioned in the title of Dr. D'Oylie's dictionary. We know that two Spaniards were called upon for proofreading; Percyvall mentions them by name in the preface: I ranne it ouer twise with Don Pedro de Valdes, and Don Vasco de Sylua; to whome I had accesse, by the fauour of my worshipfull friend Maister Richard Drake, (a Gentleman as vertuouslie minded as any, to further any good attempt); and hauing by their helpe made it readie for the presse with the English inteipretation onely.

This lexicographical help had a surprising origin, the Invincible Armada. Don Pedro de Valdés had been the Capitán general in the squadron named Andalusia with 2,325 soldiers and 780 sailors under his command, and Don Basco de Mendoza y Silva had been a captain in command of a group of 79 soldiers on board the "urca San Andrés" in the squadron under the command of Juan López de Medina.7 The reliability of these informants can be judged from the fact that, as leaders, they would presumably have a knowledge of the current idiom of the people, the idiom of the court and the nobles, and the written language. The fact that the portion of the Armada captained by Don Pedro bore the name of Andalusia does not necessarily indicate his linguistic background (he was a native of Gijón). There is no reason to suspect that he had a good command of English, nor that Percyvall8 had a good command of Spanish. Don Pedro's suitability for lexicographical consultation is not necessarily lessened by his reputation for being impetuous, strong-headed, and independent.* The King of Spain had locked him up in 1581 for disobedience; later the court-martial released him on account of valor. His character reveals itself in his indignation at the treatment he received at the hands of his hosts.10 7

Cesáreo Fernández Duro, La Armada Invencible, 2 vols. (Madrid, 1884-5), Π, 39 (Doc. 101), 62 (Doc. 109). 8 The DNB says that Percyvall had spent four years in Spain as a youth in exile from his father, who had disapproved of his marriage. But in his preface he speaks of "having travailed (though at home) with a more curious endeavor . . . then many that have spent some years in the Countrie where the toonge is naturall." ' Although his flagship, the Santa Maria del Rosario, was in danger of sinking, he refused to budge when only one patache out of eight arrived for the rescue. Nor would he give up the half of the Armada's treasure kept on his ship. He bellowed over the side of the ship: "¿Que donde se aventuraba la vida de tantos caballeros é hidalgos, bien se podían aventurar los dineros?" The treasure was divided among all the men the next day. This incident is related by Cesáreo Fernández Duro, op. cit., I, 169 in "Appendix L" of that work. See also state papers concerning the defeat of the Armada, ed. Sir John Knox Laughton (.infra, p. 123). i« Pascual de Gayangos y Arce, Catalogue of the MSS in the Spanish Language in the British

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1591

25

To conclude the discussion of sources, Percyvall finds Latin glosses in Dr. D'Oylie's manuscript, in Nebrija's dictionary, in the English-Latin dictionaries, and perhaps in one of the Estienne French-Latin dictionaries, cf. Percyvall's Hyerax, s.v. Sacre, with Estienne's Sacer, Hierax, s.v. Sacre.11 Let us now describe the contents of the lexicon. As for the range and choice of the vocabulary entries, the interests of the Renaissance man in subjects such as natural history, law, and medicine find their place in those vocabulary entries which were originally glossed by Nebrija and Las Casas and which comprise the bulk of Percyvall's dictionary. One of Percyvall's original contributions is the collection of idiomatic, up-to-date, and useful words such as the following: Badajadas, ¡angeling of beb, Campana- / rum tinnitus. Bayben, a bob, a blow, alapa, colaphus. Boletines, little morsels of an orenge, lit- / de round stones, Pillulce, glarea. Brimbillada, marmelad, Cidoniatum. Cabe, impersonale, it is held, it is contei- / ned, it happeneth, Cadit, capnui, accid.it. Dias ha, some day past, lam diu. Fanfarron, a bragger, a brauer, Iactabun- / dus, gloriosus. Feeza, Blthines, Fœditas. Follon, a lewde person, Nequam. Frotar, to rub, Fricare. Fruslera, a iest, a mockery, Scomma. Hienes, the temples of the head, Tempora. Hiscal, a corde, a rope, Funis. Orruras, dregs, Faces. Rampojos, the pricks of briers, Tribuli, murex. Rampones, caukes in a horse shooe, Calca- / neum soleae equinae. Requiebros, lone toies, Gestus amatorij. Sarampión, a tetter, Impetigo. Zuiza, boD baiting, also a shew or muster / of soldiors, Bubetiœ, lustratio. Museum (London, Wm. Clowes & Sons, 1881), ΠΙ, 359, nos. 22, 23, lists two indignant letters by Don Pedro concerning his treatment at the home of Richard Drake. These letters are found s.v. Sec. V m , History of England, Add. 28,420 (16th & 17th cent.), fols. 85, 87 and consist of two holographs entitled: "Don Pedro de Valdés to the King; Brussels, 29 March, 1593", and "The same to the same; Brussels, 19 March, 1593". These titles are supplied by Pascual de Gayangos and in that order. However, one Spanish source says: "El enemigo tuvo mas misericordia de Valdes que nosotros." (MS of the Acad. Hist., Collección Salazar, L-23, no. 17.) Indeed, the rest of the Armada had left Don Pedro's disabled ship behind when Sir Francis Drake rescued him. Don Pedro was a prisoner of war who slept in the Captain's room and ate at the Captain's table, a prisoner whom Richard Drake allowed to go on hunting parties. See also, Espasa, p. 504, Dámaso Alonso, RFE, XVni, 15-23, and DNB s.v. Drake, Sir Francis. 11 This entry appears in a 1572 posthumous edition: Les Mots François ... tournez en latin (Paris, Nicolas Chesneau, 1572).

26

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

He did not ignore the new learning, the arts, and literature. Some of the new words he added on these subjects are treated as follows: Farças, playes, enterludes, Comedia. Obelo, a chapter, Capitulum. Obelisco, a tombe of a great king, Sepul- / chrum regium. Organista, a plaier on the organs, Orga- / nistes. Villancico, a sonet, Cantiuncula. He seems to be seeking not the erudite word but rather the word having to do with a subject of interest to the man in the street as well as to the man in the cloister. Many of the new entries tend to follow those interests natural to a people concerned with naval invasions.12 He introduces many words and definitions having to do with ships and the sea, with warfare, and with certain subjects connected with the military such as horses and military medicine. Following are examples selected from among many: Batallólas, the space in a galley between / the oares for soldiors to stände in, / Transtra. NAVAL WARFARE Bruscar, to beate a ships side with reede / burning, Rusco nauigia cálefacere. WARSHIPS Fanal, the lanterne in the admiral! ship, / Lucerna nauis prcetorice. WARFARE Faxina, boughes and stakes to make a / rampier, Materies. HORSES Feno, haye, Faertum. WARFARE Follajes, Mantelling in armes, florish- / ing, Mangonizatio. THE SEA Fondoso, deepe, Profundus. HORSES Forraje, forrage, Pabulum. MILITARY MEDICINE Langarotes, a kinde of gumme to cloase / wounds, Sarcocolla. SHIPS Ostay, a cord that goeth from the bolt- / sprit to the saile of the foremast, Funis / nauticus. RECONNAISSANCE Otero, a hillocke to stand upon to ouer- / looke the countrie, Specula. SHIPS Pôliça, the charter partie in a shippe, Syn- / graphum. NAVAL WARFARE

All parts of speech are well represented. Occasionally expressions are entered as run-on entries. One example of such an entry is as follows: Pro, buen pro os haga, much good do it / you, Profit. 11

But Percyvall includes neither the word Invencible nor the word Spanish in this brief entry: Armada, a fleet, Classis.

27

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

Let us now turn our attention to the gloss. The glosses sometimes attain a brevity such as is exemplified in the following typical example: Bautismo, Baptisme, Baptismus. Percyvall's gloss is usually simple and straightforward with one or two and sometimes three equivalents. On the average there is only one definition to a page and then it is never encyclopedic. Percyvall sometimes uses definitions as makeshift substitutes for an equivalent he does not know, such as in several examples given above, and in the examples below: Alexixa, a kinde of padding made of / wheate, Farciminis genus. Alexu, a kind of bisket made with honie, / Partis biscoctus melle conditus. Bixa, an herbe wherewith the Indians / paint themselues, Herba qua se pingunt / Indi. Broma, a worme that eateth holes in the / ships, Vermis oblongus, qui naues perforât. Garrova, a kind of frate or poise, Siliqua. Maravedí, the 34 part of a riall of plate, / Moneta genus. Tapetados, the inside of a cordouan skin / turned outwards in shooes or ierkins, / Corium inuersum. The Latin part of the gloss renders several services in this dictionary. First of all it provides information as to the part of speech of the vocabulary entry because of possible greater familiarity with the Latin word than with either the English or the Spanish word: Arrebatado, catched, Raptus.a. Secondly, it provides a Latin version of an English definition, as in several of the entries quoted above, e.g., Alexu, Bixa, and Broma. Sometimes the Latin definition is less a translation of the English definition than it is a new definition of the vocabulary entry, as in the following entry: Aorça, with a quarter winde, Vento alte- / rum puppis latus feriente. Thirdly, it translates the English equivalents of a series of glosses, sometimes each one and in the same sequence so that the Latin gloss amounts to a tag of the English gloss. This practice is exemplified by the following entry:1S Bivar, a warren, a place to keepe hens, / geese, or foule In, a fish poole, Viuarium, / auiarium, piscina. 18

Notice the parallelism between (1), (2), and (3).

Bivar,

ENGLISH

(1) a warren, (2) a place to keepe hens, geese, or foule in, (3) a fidi poole,

LATIN

(1) Viuarium, (2) auiarium, (3) piscina.

28

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1591

Lastly, as an exceptional service, the Latin gloss must perform all the work when the English gloss is missing, as in the following entry, which in Nebrija appears as "Virgo de donzella, flos çtatis."14 Virgo de donzella, Pellicula tenuis qua com- / pressa virgine, tum primum rumpitur, Eugium To the Renaissance man who was well versed in Latin, the Latin gloss was sometimes a more understandable one than the one in his own language, which had not become so fixed and unambiguous as Latin had. It might be well at this point of the discussion of the gloss to investigate the linguistic stage of the language testified to by the English glosses. Contemporary idiom was used, as shown by the use of leman, s.v. Abarraganada, to mean concubine rather than the 14th-century meaning, sweetheart (cf. Floris and Blancheflour, Auchinleck MS, Edinburgh). A conservative or at least not an avant-garde idiom was used as proved by: (1) the use of let, s.v. baraça, in the sense of hindrance as shown by part of the Latin gloss, 1mpedimentum; (2) an affinity for the Anglo-Saxon word rather than the still-tootechnical French word, e.g., "Adoracion, worshipping, Adoratio, supplicatio; (3) the use of Middle English participles such as redde, s.v. leydo; (4) the standard Elizabethan use of the old dative neuter personal pronoun him, which like the masculine dative personal pronoun had fused with the accusative form, and which was the common neuter personal pronoun for use in the accusative position (also, the use of a neuter genitive identical to a masculine genitive, e.g., infra p. 111 : "I haue diligently set the accent in his due place."). Percyvall's dictionary is a monodirectional, one-part, single-alphabet bilingual dictionary with Latin glosses added. It should not be called a polyglot dictionary even though Latin is appended. Percyvall's motive in adding Latin is patent: the Latin glosses are to serve as a control and a guide to the user. The user appreciated it no doubt even though the English was, as we have just seen, of a widely-accepted type. For one thing, the Latin served as a valuable source of meaning discrimination. Comprehensibility was made less onerous by the double glossing in two languages. Because of the Latin gloss such a brief entry as the following was feasible: 14 Although Percyvall's method here seems, at first blush, based on propriety, let us not forget that in the same period of history in which he compiled this entry, the word which he does not supply in the English gloss, was shouted from the stage of the Globe theatre in the line: "Ay, the heads of the maids, or their maidenheads; take it in what sense thou wilt." (Romeo and Juliette, Act I, scene 1.) Furthermore, Percyvall has no qualms about including the following entry in his dictionary: "Cofio, a womans priuitie, Cunnus." Spanish-speaking informants or the Belgian polyglot vocabularies could have supplied him with the equivalents for the related four-letter Anglo-Saxon words, of which there are several examples in his dictionary.

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1591

29

Oler, huelo, to smell, Olere, odorati. Las Casas had to make two entries to show the two meanings of smell: Oler ò dar olor. Olezzare. Oler recibiendo olor. Annasa- / re, fiutare, nasare, odorare. And Nebrija uses six different vocabulary entries: oler echar de si olor, oler assi un poco, oler a cabrón, oler para sacar por rastro, oler recibiendo olor, and oler bien echando olor. Las Casas and Nebrija each feels called upon to sprinkle throughout his dictionary a source-language word, yerua or ierva, to fill the same role as the modern label, bot. It is evident in the following confrontation that Las Casas and Nebrija tend to set particularizing words in the source language whereas Percyvall sets them in the target language or in Latin. NEBRIJA

LAS CASAS

1495 Onça pequeña. unciola.ç. Onça τ media. sescuncia sescunciç Onças dos de libra, sextans.antis

1570 Onça animal. Lonza. Onça de peso. Oncia.

PERCYVALL

1591 Onça, an ounce, the beast called an ounce / Vncia, panthera.

As in the preceding examples, meaning discrimination in Percyvall, Las Casas, and Nebrija is often handled by the use of a particularizing word or phrase placed in several ways in different positions in the entry. The purpose of these particularizing words is to explain the use of the vocabulary entry in a context in order to limit and particularize the meaning. In the case of transitive verbs, all three lexicographers usually place the particularizing word in the target language as part of the gloss, as for example, in the following entry from Percyvall: Matar, to kill, to murder, to destroy, to combate, to wring, to put out a can- / die, Interficere, pugnare, mactare, vrere, ex- / tinguere. This verb is transitive and needs a direct object to complete its meaning. However, unlike many transitive verbs which may take an almost unlimited variety of direct objects (for example, amar and matar itself when it means 'to kill, to murder, to destroy', or 'to combat'), this verb matar in the special meaning 'to put out' takes a direct object of only one meaning. Matar does not mean 'to put out' in the sense

30

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

of putting out the cat, a milk bottle, or a husband, etc.; it means 'to put out' only in the sense of putting out an appliance of some sort which gives light. 'Candle' is a good representative of such an appliance and while 'candle' is not part of the meaning of 'to put out', it is the only thing to which the action of 'putting out' can be applied when the verb matar is used in this sense. That is why our lexicographer and his successors for over three hundred years have translated matar in this sense by 'to put out a candle'. But in so doing they have equated a transitive verb (therefore, an incomplete word) with a gloss that is complete.15 For matar means simply 'to put out' and only a full expression matar una candela means 'to put out a candle'. How to translate matar and show at the same time that the action of the verb is limited to 'candle', this is the problem that Percyvall did not solve but to which he rather contributed an erroneous treatment that was to be followed by his successors for centuries. Likewise, some verbs take a subject of only one meaning. For example, the subject of apolillar can only be polilla. Percyvall makes a heroic attempt to show this in his translation, viz., 'to eat with mothes'. How translate apolillar and show at the same time that the action of the verb can be performed only by 'moth' is a problem that Percyvall and his successors did not solve either. He does a better job in the translation of rayar when he sets off the subject with a; in the gloss: 'to marke, to strake out, to make beames as the sunne'. The spelling used for both the vocabulary entry and the gloss is characteristic of the period to which the dictionary belongs (vide supra p. 28). Spellings like esforçado, quixote, and escarvadientes are present throughout. Few variants are given. One important aspect of spelling is capitalization. Percyvall follows a system in which there is no pretense of giving the user information as to whether or not a given word should be capitalized in actual use. He capitalizes all of the vocabulary entries except those beginning with ç, /, II, ñ, and u. In the cases of ç, j, ñ, and u his printer probably did not have the letters. Only the first word of a multiword entry is capitalized although exceptions to this do appear, such as: Boñuelo Almojavana, a cake, Placenta. The first word and, most often, all of the words of the English part of the gloss are set in lower case. Often, but only sporadically and less than a quarter of the time, a noun is capitalized, as follows: Bodegon, an alehouse, an Inne, Taberna, / caupona. The arbitrariness of this method is well exemplified in the following series: 15

Cf. Nebrija's equating of a verb and its object with a transitive gloss, as follows s.v. matar: Matar lo que alguno ama. orbo.as.auí

31

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

Drasgo de casa, Duende de casa, Trasgo de noche,

Robin goodfellowe, Robin goodfellow, robingoodfellow,

Incu- / bus. Incu- / bus. Incu- ¡ bus.

Days of the week of the English gloss are in lower case but months are in upper case. The first word of the Latin part of the gloss is capitalized. Exceptions are rare, such as trapetum in: Alfarge de molino de azeyte, an oil Mill, trapetum. The most typical practice for capitalization is exemplified as follows: Bernia vestidura, an irish rug, Vestís hiber- / nica. As for the phonetic spelling, the little which is given has to do with stress and even this help is sporadic. In his preface Percyvall discusses stress in a set of rules concerning what he calls "Euphonia" (see Appendix B). Exceptions to these rules of "Euphonia" are noted in the dictionary part by means of a written accent which, in practice, appears on not more than two per cent of the entries. Where stress is shown neither by rule nor by written accent, it may be indicated by the Latin gloss, according to the statement in the grammar part that Spanish words often keep the accent they had in Latin, e.g.: ultimo, the last, Vltimus. Although treatment by rule and/or accent mark includes most of the vocabulary words, there remain many entries which are not favored by any information about pronunciation, e.g., Oy, Oydo, Oydar. Although Percyvall wrote a separate grammar to be included with the dictionary, he evidently felt that a certain amount of grammar had a legitimate place in the dictionary itself. In several rare instances he supplied irregular forms, as follows: Tener, tengo, túve, tendré·, Yr, voy, iua, fue. When an irregular form is shown, it is most often the first person singular present indicative: Mover, muevo·, Oler, huelo; Oyr, oygo. Part-of-speech labels in Latin occur several times. A syntactical clue often indicates the part of speech: the preposition to before English infinitives; the suffix se affixed to reflexive Spanish verbs; an explanatory comment in the gloss of an adjective, such as: Pascual, belonging to Easter, Paschalis. or an article before an English noun. For those users who knew Latin better than either English or Spanish, the Latin gloss often supplied the grammatical clue for determining part-of-speech function, as in the following examples:

32

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

Arrebatado, catched, Raptus. a. Cochinillas, cochinilla, Musca infectoria. Let us now turn our attention to the organization of the dictionary. One of the first problems of organization is the ordering of the entries in the alphabet. The influence of the etymological arrangement of Nebrija and most of the sixteenthcentury lexicographers is apparent in the following ordering in Percyvall: Mirar Miradero Mirada Mira Mirado But the three methods of ordering words - topical, etymological, and alphabetical seem to so conflict in Percyvall as to render his order inconsistent. The following badly-scrambled series is typical: Claro Clarificar Clarecer Claridad Claramente Clarea Clarion Clavar Clavadura Clavazón Clavija Clavicordios Clavo Clavo de governalle Clave Clavo Clavo de gerofle Clavellinas It is true that in the series above the first four letters of the words are alphabetized and that was all that could be expected in sixteenth-century practice. But Percyvall does give some attention to all of the letters of a word; his order seems to be

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1591

33

alphabetical. Yet sometimes he groups words in an etymological arrangement as when he lists masculine forms first: dueño, dueña; ermano, ermana; siervo, sierva. Another time his order may be alphabetical as well as etymological, with the feminine form coming first: moça, moço. A lack of method is evident in the alphabetization of expressions. Whereas Las Casas maintains a separate entry for expressions, flush with the left-hand margin, e.g., Mirar en hito, Percyvall is partial to run-on entries, as follows: Hito, a marke, a white to shoote at, Meta, Mirar en hito, to looke earnestly up- / on, Intueri, obtueri. Whereas in Las Casas' word list Mirar en hito comes after Mirar in the succession of vocabulary entries, in Percyvall's word list it is neither a run-on entry nor a succeeding vocabulary entry after Mirar, but rather a run-on entry under Hito. At other times, Percyvall does alphabetize an expression according to its first word and enters it separately, but he follows the common sixteenth-century practice of not taking articles, prepositions, etc. into consideration in alphabetizing, as follows: Tener Tener el moço Tener en poco Tener de yr Sometimes Percyvall mixes together various methods found elsewhere in his dictionary, as when he glosses the first entry of an etymological series without run-on entries but groups the related expressions together in the very next entry, as follows: Beber, to drinke, Bibere. Bever al cabo, to drinke all, Ebibere, Beuer / a porfía, to drinke a vie, to carrowse, / Perpotare, certatim bibere. So often Percyvall's lexicographical techniques present an impression of careless indifference rather than careful forethought, as when his practice varies in the use of the definite article, the indefinite article, or no article at all, as exemplified in the following entries: Abenuz, Hebene tree, Hebenus. Abéto, a Firre tree, Abies. Acipres, cyprus trees, Cupressis. Acitára de Silla, the pannell or the saddle· / tree, Stragulum ligneum. He is quite consistent in omitting an article before a mass noun but this consistency

34

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

does not seem to be the result of a principle consciously formulated. In most other cases the user is left wondering about the reasons for the choice of the definite and the indefinite article, as in the following entry: Ronda, the round, a watch, Circuitus, lu- / stratoriœ excubia. A lack of method is evident when two words or variants of the same meaning are to be ordered in the alphabet. (1) They may be included in the same entry, e.g., Rustiqueza, rusticidad, rudenes, clow- / nishnes, Rusticitas. (2) One of the words may be cross-referenced to another word, as in case" like the following two examples: Boquear, vide Bocezar, ueco, vide Hueco. (3) The words may be ordered in their respective places in the alphabet, with identical definitions and without cross-referencing, as are Bissiesto and Vissiesto. A lack of method is evident when a word is to be ordered in the alphabet with multiple meanings. Sometimes the word is entered once for each part of speech involved, as follows: Baxo, lowe, humble, base, vile, Humilis, / imus, infimis. Baxo, under, underneath, Subter, subtus. Bajo de vientre, the bottome of the belly, / Abdomen. (The reason that bajo de vientre is entered separately is not necessarily that of orthography because we know from the testimony of a previous example, cf. rustiqueza, rusticidad, that orthographical disparity would not prevent the inclusion of bajo with baxo.) Sometimes the word is entered only once, and the grammatically disparate equivalents are thrown into a grab bag, as in the glosses of the following entries: Ahijado, adopted, a Godson, suckled, Ad- / optatus, susceptus, subrumas. Bavoso, slauering, a snaile, Saliuosus, Umax. Sobrado, excellent, passing, superfluous, / a lofte, a parlor, a dining chamber, Ex/ cellens, immodicus, superfluus, cœnaculum, / tabulatum. For whom was this dictionary written? That the compiler was not primarily concerned with the Spanish speaker who wished to read English is shown by the fact that he did not compile an English-Spanish part of the dictionary. That the compiler was not primarily concerned with the English speaker who wished to write or speak Spanish is shown by this lack of an English-Spanish part and by the cursory treat-

RICHARD PERCYVALL, 1 5 9 1

35

ment of Spanish grammar, capitalization, and pronunciation. That the compiler was not primarily concerned with the Spanish speaker who wished to write or speak English is shown by the following entry in which the assumption is obviously made that the user is a native English speaker: Verengena, a kinde of fruite common in / Spaine but here unknowne, Malum / insanum. [Italics on here are mine.] It seems, therefore, that Percyvall was primarily concerned with the needs of the native English speaker who wished to read Spanish.

3. WILLIAM STEPNEY, 1591

On January 13, 1591, "Master John Harrison the elder" received his copyright from the Company of Stationers (Arber, II, 573) for a manual and vocabulary (STC No. 23256), The Spanish Schoole-master, by William Stepney. The manual part includes one dialogue for each day of the week, an additional dialogue using mercantile expressions, some proverbs and prayers, and some idiomatic locutions. The reason given in the preface for compiling the work is: to help the user to be "a painefull labourer in his vocation" and "a good Christian", "a loyal subject to his Prince", and "a profitable member in the common wealth". Stepney*regrets that travel abroad delayed the compilation of the work, since now he is too late 'to frame a Grammar", for one had just been published "very exquisitely performed", presumably that of John Thorius or of Richard Percyvall. And also there had been published "a Dictionarie", presumably that of Richard Percyvall, whose license had been issued only eighteen days earlier than Stepney's. Probably Stepney prepared both the errata page, "Faultes escaped in the printing", and his preface after the printing of the body of his work; therefore he might well have had a copy of Percyvall's dictionary on hand when he wrote his preface. He rejoices in the fact that the work of his predecessors was "done for the benefite of our countrey-men" and thereby Stepney continues the selfless patriotic theme found in the prefaces of Thorius and Percyvall. The title page of Stepney's work reads as follows: THE SPANISH / Schoole-master. / CONTAINING SEVEN / Dialogues, according to euery day in the weeke, / and what is necessarie euerie day to be done, / wherein is also most plainly shewed the true and / perfect pronunciation of the Spanish tongue, / toward the furtherance of all those which are / desirous to learne the said tongue within / this our Realme of England. / Whereunto, besides seuen Dialogues, are annexed most fine / Prouerbs and sentences, as also the Lords prayer, the Ar- I ticles of our beliefe, the ten Commandements, and a / Vocabularie, with diuers other things / necessarie to be knowne in / the said tongue. / Newly collected and set forth by W. Stepney, professor of / the said tongue in the famous Citie of London. / Spes anchora tuta. / Imprinted at London by R. Field / for lohn Harison. / 1591. The dictionary part of this work entitled "El Vocabvlario" is a 69-page bilingual word list with topical arrangement of entries. The list is divided under two dozen

WILLIAM STEPNEY, 1 5 9 1

37

or so headings: colors, plants, titles, parts of the body, coins, crafts and trades, etc. The two languages gloss each other in parallel columns. Sometimes phrases or sentences appear in the listing, as for example: he hath his head upon London bridge 1 give almes to the poor prisoners for Gods sake we aske it

tiene la cabeça enarbolada sobre la puente de Londres dad limosna a los pobres captiuos por amor de Dios la pidimos

No alphabetical order is kept within each list, as can be seen in the following entries which appear one right after the other in the vocabulary: a theefe theeuerie a murderer a rauisher to rauish a mayden a cutpurse

vn ladrón ladronia un omiziano vn forçador forçar y corromper vna donzella vn cortador de bolsas

The inspiration for this work is certainly the polyglot Flemish works (see chapter Π, footnote 1), which also consisted of phrases and words grouped non-alphabetically under various headings. As in the polyglot vocabularies, Stepney's bilingual vocabulary includes a frank glossing of the everyday names of the bodily functions and of parts of the body, many words necessary for business, trade, and commerce, and simple terms in the field of natural history. This English vocabulary may well be a reworking of a Belgian counterpart which Stepney could have carried with him back to England. See Caroline B. Bourland's discussion in her article, "The Spanish Schoole-Master and the Polyglot Derivatives of Noël de Berlaimont's Vocabulare", Revue Hispanique, LXXXI (1933), Première Partie, 283-318.

1

This item could have been put to immediate use among Spanish sympathizers who had agreed to serve as a fifth column upon the coming of the Armada (see Calendar of state papers, Elizabeth, 3 vols., ed. Martin A. S. Hume [London, 1892-1895], m , 604). Sir John Arundel, for instance, was sent to the Tower in 1586. The Arundels were related by marriage to Richard Carew, a member of the circle of Spanish translators and antiquarians (Underhill, op. cit., p. 320). The dedication of Stepney's work is to Sir Robert Cecil; so we assume that the compiler sympathized with Elizabeth's cause.

4. JOHN MINSHEU, 1599

John Minsheu's 1599 work (STC No. 19620), A Dictionarie in Spanish and English, shares a 4 t o volume 18 X 25 cm. and 21/2 cm. thick with an 84-page grammar and a 68-page collection of dialogues. The dictionary consists of 391 paginated, ruled, triple-column pages with about 150 entries on a page and three-character guide letters at the top of each column. The typeface is much more graceful than that used by Percyvall's printer and may owe its inspiration to the royal typefounder John Day. The typography employed is the same as that employed in Percyvall's dictionary except for the use of italic for the English gloss (the Latin gloss is absent), and the sparing use of black letter, which is used only (1) in the English word list, (2) for nominative and verbal forms, and (3) the first time the noun or verb is introduced, e.g., "to Clocke like a hen", "a Clocke-hen, or any brooding birde", "a Clocke", "a Clocke maker". The alphabet follows this sequence: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, Τ, V, X, Y, Z. Four other letters of the alphabet, viz., ç, J, ñ, and u, are ordered as if they were, respectively, C, I, N, and V. Ch is not treated as a digraph but as two separate letters, and the same may be said of II. The alphabet is an English-oriented alphabet as contrasted with the Spanish-oriented alphabet which Percyvall took out of Nebrija and Las Casas. Minsheu had the Englishspeaking user in mind when he chose the alphabet. The title page reads as follows: A DICTIONARIE IN SPA- / NISH and ENGLISH, first published into the / English tongue by Ric. Perciuale Gent. Now enlarged and / amplified with many thousand words, as by this marke * to each of them / prefixed may appeere: together with the accenting of euery worde throughout the / whole Dictionarie, for the true pronunciation of the language, as also for the diuers signifi- / cation of one and the selfesame word: And for the learners ease and furtherance, the declining of / all hard and irregular verbs; and for the same cause the former order of the Alphabet is / altered, diuers hard and vncouth phrases and speeches out of sundry of the best / Authors explaned, with diuers necessarie notes and especiall directions / for all such as shall be desirous to attaine the per- / fection of the Spanish tongue. / All done by IOHN MINSHEU / Professor of Languages in London. / Hereunto for the further profite and pleasure of the learner / or delighted in this tongue, is annexed an ample English Dictionarie / Alphabetically set downe with the Spanish words thereunto adioyned, as / also an Alphabeticall Table of

39

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

the Arabicke and Moorish words, now / commonly receiued and vsed in the Spanish tongue, which / being dispersed in their seuerall due places throughout / the whole Dictionarie are marked thus t / by the same lohn Minsheu. / For the right vse of this worke, I referre you to the directions / before the Dictionarie, contriued in diuers points differing / from other Dictionaries heretofore set foorth. / Imprinted at London, by / Edm. Bollifant. / 1599 John Minsheu retained all of Richard Percyvall's dictionary almost down to the last syllable. And he added thousands of entries and an English-Spanish part. Several hundred of the words which he added were taken, surprisingly enough, out of one of Percyvall's sources: the dictionary by Christoval de las Casas. Some other entries came from the Italian-English part of an Italian and English bilingual dictionary by John Florio, A Worlde of Wördes; Or most copious and exact Dictionarie in Italian and English. It was printed in 1598 at London by Arnold Hatfield for Edward Blount and is the twin of Minsheu's dictionary in typography, typeface, and format. Minsheu proceeded as follows: he turned to a Spanish word in the Spanish-Italian dictionary of Las Casas and then used the Italian gloss to find the desired entry in the Italian-English dictionary of Florio. By the use of this mechanism Minsheu had at his disposal what is, in effect, a bilingual dictionary of Spanish vocabulary words and English glosses, through the intermediary of Italian. This method is proved and illustrated as follows (cf. supra, p. 27): PERCYVALL

1591 Alexixa, a kinde of pudding made of wheate,/ Farciminus genus. Alexu, a kinde of bisket made with boni e,/Pañis biscoctus melle conditus. Garrova, a kind of frute or pidse, Siliqua.

LAS CASAS

1570 Alexixa, Pollena.

Alexu, Sesamele.

Garroua, Caroba, Carobola, Corno-/la.

FLORIO

MINSHEU

1598

1599 t Alexixa, f . a pudding made of wheate,/ a pan pudding. fAlexú, or Alejú, kinde of bisket, or/ simnell made of honie and spice. fGarróva, f . a kinde of fruite, or of pulse/ growing on a tree.

Pollena, a kinde of panne or pot-pud-/ding. Sesamele, a kinde of simnell bread made/ with home and spice. Caróba, Caróbola, a fruite or pulse cal-/led Fenugreeke: properly the fruit or/ tree called the Carob tree, which beares/ a kinde of sweete cod or huske. Cornola, a carobe or carobe beane cod.

40

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

Minsheu also transcribed the English glosses from Florio of new words not contained in Percyvall when the Italian and Spanish were similar, as illustrated in the following confrontation: FLORIO

MINSHEU

1598 Hobo, a tree, the roote whereof if a man / hould but a piece of it in his mouth it / yeeldeth so much water as he shall feele / no thirst.

1599 •fHóbo, m. a fruit in the Indies. Also a / tree the roote whereof if a man holde / but a peece in his mouth, it yeeldeth so / much iuice that he shall feele no thirst.

In like fashion when the Latin and Spanish were similar, Minsheu copied out of Thomas Thomas' Dictionarium lingua Latinae et Anglicanae (Cambridge, 1587), as illustrated in the following confrontation: THOMAS 1

MINSHEU

1587 Tropeum . . . a token or marke of timber or stone set up in a place where enemies are vanquished, with their harnesse or other spoil hanged on it . . .

1599 Trophéo, a marke or token of timber / or stone set vp in a place where enimies / were vanquished, with their harnesse / or other spoile hanged thereon.

Minsheu also had access to and consulted polyglot and bilingual works published in Belgium. Following the grammar part of the work are quotations from Spanish authors with mention of editions printed at Antwerp. He may have consulted the Nomenclátor of Junius at this time because he used it in his polyglot work of 1617 (vide infra pp. 52-4) and in a preface in that work stated that its compilation had taken him twenty years. Therefore he would have been using it from 1597 on. It is nowhere evident that Minsheu consulted native informants for his bilingual dictionary although he mentions such informants in connection with his polyglot work (vide infra p. 53). Also in the preface to the polyglot work he claims to have traveled abroad as a young man. In the preface to his bilingual dictionary of 1599 the only source he admits to is the finding of new material "in Authors". Minsheu's preface of 1599 repeats the same patriotic protestations of service to his fellow man which characterized the prefaces of his predecessors but the acid tone of his preface marks a difference. He seems to be trying very hard to prove 1 I am indebted to Starnes, PMLA, Dec., 1937, p. 1011, for this transcription. This is the only transcription in this investigation not to come directly from the source.

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

41

a point. His preface with its learned citations in several languages conjures up a self-portrait of the well-read scholar. This erudition is a wellspring from which issue such contributions as the last eight pages of the dictionary, which contain a table of "Arabian and Moorish" words. Certainly this fount of learning should not dry up when the subject at hand is Latin. But in this respect subtraction, not addition, occurred. Dr. D'Oylie, whose name figures prominently on the title page of Percyvall's edition, had been credited with the Latin glosses but none of them appears in Minsheu's edition. Who, we wonder, wanted them to be removed? Did Minsheu have difficulties as far as borrowing and copyright were concerned? Some sort of understanding between Minsheu and Percyvall is implied in what Underhill, op. cit., p. 331, has to say, as follows [italics mine]: This dictionary at once became a recognized success, and a second edition was called for, which appeared in 1599. Perceval, however, had at that time obtained political employment, which furnished him with ample means of subsistence. The dictionary and grammar were therefore revised and sent to the press by John Minsheu, a teacher of languages.

But if Percyvall and Dr. D'Oylie had sought to protect their copyright on the dictionary, they would have been the enemies who Minsheu said in his preface had "so laboured that it might not be printed, that they left no stone vnturned which they thought might any waie hinder the same." Documentation pertaining to this problem does exist, as follows: (1) A special ruling in 1580 gave either of the two archbishops the privilege of bypassing the regular procedure in granting a copyright through the Stationers' company. Through the good offices of the Archbishop of Canterbury, this dictionary by Minsheu was licensed.* (2) Minsheu never admits in his preface that the dictionary had an antecedent. He refers only to "any that haue traueled in this kinde," an arch statement to make when referring to the very man whose name heads the title page. But Minsheu speaks as if Richard Percyvall is some far-off person bracketed with compilers of other lands: " . . . the Alphabet, I heere vse in this booke differing from Nebrissensis, Christóuall de Casas, and M. Perciuals in English..." This one mention of the name is all that occurs in the preface and it has the spelling Perciuals although the name is spelled Perciuale on the title page. Perhaps the printers found that they had to add the name on the title page when they sought to license the dictionary. (3) Minsheu's jaundiced description in the preface of one "puffed vp with pride & swollen with fat of fortune, & riches so metamorphosed," could have been occasioned by the meteoric rise to fame of Percyvall.* * Turn to Appendix C, infra pp. 113 ff. for the "copie" and a full discussion. * In 1586 Percyvall translated the secret state papers which warned the English government

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JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

(4) Minsheu's sensitivity to the charge of plagiarism is apparent when he belabors his enemies for "the churlish illiberalitie of their minds", and when he clutters his dictionary with marks of little value to the user in order to hug the mantle of honesty about his shoulders, as described in his words from the preface: And for the giuing notice of what I haue done without defrauding any thing from the labours of any that haue trauelled in this kinde, I haue made a difference of the words I haue merely added by a starre thus *, whereby it may be seene what and how much I haue enlarged by my long labour and paines: (5) Minsheu's reputation as a "rogue" is witnessed to by the famous Ben Jonson, who said that "Sharpham, Day, Dicker, were all rogues; and that Minshew was one." « Let us now describe the contents of the lexicon. Minsheu introduces a surprisingly small number of words which Percyvall had not entered in some form or other. Yet Minsheu achieves a fivefold increase in the number of entries over Percyvall. The increase largely results from the introduction of new forms for words already present in Percyvall, i.e., variant spellings and derived forms, and the inclusion of an English-Spanish part made up largely of words reversed from the Spanish-English part. When Minsheu does enter a new word, its value can sometimes be questioned. For example, consider the treatment of the following set of words etymologically and semantically related: fanal, farol, and faron. Although Minsheu's entries for fanal and faron are modeled on those of Percyvall, Minsheu also chooses to include farol, a word Percyvall seems to have avoided when he selected vocabulary entries from Las Casas. Las Casas lists farol but it is Minsheu who makes it into a bookish, encyclopedic entry, as follows: *Faról, a lanthorne standing on the / poope of the ship to giue light. Also a / tower or high place by the sea coast, / wherein were continually lights and / fires, which serued for seamen to see the / hauen and the safest entrance, of which / the tower Farol (about hälfe a mile / from the Groine Galizia in Spaine) / was named.

On the other hand, there are times when Minsheu does add an important word, for example, Fragil, which Percyvall had missed in Las Casas. Also, Minsheu took a step forward when he entered: that the Invincible Armada was to come to England. After this his fortune rose. Later he became a member of Commons and one of the proprietors of the new Virginia colony. The passage quoted above goes on as follows: "looking so proudly as if they were borne to be princes copanions, and lifting their heads so high as if they had beene bred to looke no lower then stars, hold in beggerly and base account learning and arte, foregetting now as the priest that euer he was parish clarke." 4 Notes of Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond of Hawthornden: January, MD.CJCIX., ed. David Laing (London, Shakespeare Society, 1842), p. 4.

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JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

*Múbles, moueables or goods moueables. The entry in Las Casas is: Muebles. Masseritie, mobili. Percyvall does not list the important plural form nor the important meaning of furniture: Mueble, mooueable, Mobilisi So even though Minsheu's spelling "Múbles" is questionable, its inclusion can be appreciated. To obtain this entry he probably used the edition of Las Casas by Camillo Camilli (Venice, Damián Zenaro, 1587) in which it reads: Mubles. Masseritie, mobili. This may well be a typographical error. Let us turn our attention to the glossing. Minsheu seldom corrects Percyvall although he sometimes does, as shown by the following confrontation: PERCYVALL

MINSHEU

1591 Cojon, the stones or collions, Coleus, testis.

1599 Cojónes, m. aillions, the stones of a man / or beast.

(Percyvall simply copied the singular form verbatim from Nebrija but attached a plural English gloss.) Minsheu's revisions for the most part are not corrections but additions tacked on to verbatim borrowings from Percyvall. One kind of addition frequently encountered is that of meaning discrimination. Percyvall did not always feel the need for meaning discrimination because he added a Latin gloss to the English gloss of almost every entry as in the one above, s.v. cojon. Minsheu on the other hand frequently adds a particularizing word or phrase as in the example above the words "of a man or beast", s.v. cojones. Just so, Percyvall glosses armada with: a fleet, classis but Minsheu with: a fleete of ships furnished for fight. The Englishman of the time might need some indication that armada was not the word for a Spanish merchant fleet but rather the word for a fleet of men-of-war. Not all of Minsheu's particularizing words are so valuable; some of them indeed may be either useless or misleading, e.g. a waue of the sea, s.v. O'nda. ' Minsheu transcribes Percyvall's entry ("Mueble, mooueaòle.") and enters it in the word list according to alphabetical order. It is separated from Múbles by several intervening entries.

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JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

The most frequent kind of addition encountered is that of amplification: Minsheu's practice of piling up equivalents on top of Percyvall's. Sometimes these additions add useful meanings as exemplified in the following confrontation: PERCYVALL

MINSHEU

1591 Librar, to deliuer, to make free, to weigh / money, Ponderare, liberare, pecuniam decer- / nere.

1599 Librár, to deliuer, to make jree, to giue a / bill or warrant to receiue money by, to / dispatch or rid.

In the following example also the amplification is exceedingly useful. In the Middle Ages the colors red and yellow had been confused in language and speech.4 In translating roxo, Nebrija, Las Casas, and Florio all give glosses which may be interpreted as including the concept of both red and yellow but Percyvall lists only yellow as an English gloss while Minsheu includes both colors, thus: PERCYVALL

1591 Roxo, yealow, Rutilis, flauus.

MINSHEU

1599 Róxo, or Rúvio, reddish yellow, blushZing.

Minsheu overdoes the amplification by redundantly piling up synonyms, as the following confrontation reveals: PERCYVALL

1591 Glosina, ghittonie, Ingliuuies, gula.

MINSHEU

1599 Golosina, /. gluttonie, gourmandise, de- / light in belly cheere.

Sometimes Minsheu follows the good lexicographical practice of providing an equivalent that is absent in Percyvall, which the user needs for an accurate translation, e.g., (English) clarion s.v. Clarión: PERCYVALL

MINSHEU

1591 Clarion, a kind of musicali instrument, / Instrumentum musicum.

1599 Clarion, m. an instrument of musicke / called a clarion.

Unfortunately Minsheu's additions are sometimes long definitions. • See "The Origin of Color-Names", by Francis A. Wood, MLN, XX, No. 8 (December 1905), 225-9.

45

JOHN MINSHEU, 1599 PERCYVALL

MINSHEU

1591 Codicillo de testamento, a codiali, Codi- / cillum.

1599 Codicillo de testaménto, a codicill, or / addition of some bequeaths, or altera- / tiort that a man before his death ad- / deth to Ms last will, after that it was / written.

However, the degree to which he uses long definitions must not be exaggerated, for a page of 150 entries usually contains only several definitions or encyclopedic entries. Most of the entries are free from definitions just as they are in Percyvall. Minsheu makes up for some of the deficiencies of Percyvall's cursory treatment of spelling and grammar in the following ways: (1) indication of stress by means of a written accent on virtually every Spanish vocabulary word; (2) indication of gender for almost every Spanish vocabulary noun entry, and many times for adjective entries, by means of the letter m for masculine and letter / for feminine; (3) provision of a more complete presentation of inflection of irregular verbs, as for example: Tener, Praes. Téngo, Tiénes, Tiéne, / 1. Praet. Túve, Tuviste, Túvo. Fut. / Tendré, or Terné, ás, á. Sub. Praes. / Ténga. Imperfect. Tuviéra, Ten- / dria, Tuviésse. Fut. Tuviére, to hold, / to apprehend, to keepe in, to know, to / perceiue. Let us describe the organization of this dictionary. Minsheu said in his preface: "For the learners more readie finding out of wordes in this Dictionarie, I bestowed a good deale of time and paines in bringing the wordes into the Alphabet." The following series of vocabulary words is a typical example of the execution of the avowed aim:7 Claro, *Clúva, *Clavádo, Clavadura, Clavár, Clavazón, Cláve, Clauél, Clavellinas. Derived forms are usually entered as main vocabulary entries in alphabetical order, as exemplified by the vocabulary words which follow oler: *Oleróso, *Olfácto, *Olfâro, Olfâto, *Olido, *Oliénte, *Olífero. It is evident that Minsheu tried to be careful in the alphabetical arrangement of his dictionary but slips do occur, as for example cháro before charlár, chirrivía before chino, and cientopies before cienteñál. 7 For Percyvall's treatment of the same series of words, vide supra p. 32. It must be noted that clauel is an orthographical inconsistency rather than a misplaced word because the u here stands for a v. Minsheu took this entry directly from Las Casas, who also spelled it clauel. Minsheu's pioneering in insisting upon alphabetical organization must be appreciated. Not all users were familiar with alphabetical organization. As late as 1604, Robert Cawdrey in the preface to his English monolingual dictionary feels called upon to urge the user to perform even so elementary a task in this regard as to learn the alphabet: If thou be desirous rightly and readily to understand and profit by this Table, and such like, then thou must learn the alphabet, to wit, the order of the letters as they stand, perfectly without book, and where every letter standeth; as (b) neere the beginning, (n) about the middest, and (t) toward the end.

46

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

When expressions are to be listed, one of the words of the expression is capitalized and this capitalized word determines the ordering of the whole expression. No discernible principle is apparent in the choice of the word to be capitalized. While the expression Comér vn bocádo sin assentârse has its first word, comer, capitalized, the expression bolvér en Náda has its third word, nada, capitalized, and the expression cogér água en Césto has its fourth word, cesto, capitalized. These three expressions are entered as subentries flush with the left-hand margin, and each is listed in the place in the alphabet that corresponds to the capitalized word. The principle is sometimes ignored, as in the case of Hazér aguáda, which is entered in the listing under A. Moreover, sometimes more than one word of an expression is capitalized, as A'gua de Azahár (ordered according to agua). Evidently capitalization was to be understood as preserving the priniciple of strict alphabetical order. However, Minsheu also followed an additional method of capitalization when he capitalized the roots of words and left their prefixes in lower case. In his directions to the reader, he explains this method and gives examples: Further to shew wherehence the compounds do arise, to know their Radix and originali, I make the composition in a smaller letter, and the simple in a greater, thus: absTenér, to abstaine, of Tenér, to hold, and abs, from; and so absTenér, to hold from or abstaine...

In ordering a word with this internal capitalization, the alphabetization follows the initial letter of the word, even though that letter is printed in lower case, e.g., aCariciár, which is in the listing of words beginning with letter A. The principle of Minsheu's alphabetization is further complicated because, as in Percyvall's dictionary, prepositions, articles, etc. do not count in the determination of alphabetical order. Therefore, many expressions are thrown out of alphabetical order, as in the following example: Comér, to eat, to dine. '"Comér vn bocado sin assentârse, to / eate a snatch and away, to eate a bit / standing. * Comér de górra, to dine or eate at any / others coast. A lack of method is evident when two or more words or variants of the same meaning are to be ordered alphabetically. They may be included in the same entry, e.g., "Vejés, or Vejez, age, old age." Or one may be cross-referenced to the other, as in the following examples: EXAMPLE A

(Two consecutive entries) •Cervéça, f . beere or ale. Cervéza, vide Cervéça.

EXAMPLE Β

(Two consecutive entries) Tóso, vide Fòsso, a ditch. Fòssa, or Fòsso, a ditch, a pit.

47

JOHN MINSHEU, 1599

Or each may be listed in its place in the alphabet with its variant and gloss, as in the following: *Vegezuélo, or Vejezuélo, a poore olde / man. *Vejezuélo, or Vegezuélo, a sillie olde / man. *Vegezuéla, or Vejezuéla, a silly olde / women. Vejezuéla, or Vegezuéla, an old wret- / ched woman. Evidently the variation in the above glosses is not to be construed as indicating difference in meaning. A lack of method is evident when a word is to be glossed with more than one meaning. Usually the word is entered once and its gloss includes the several meanings, e.g., "Véla, /. a vaile, a saile, a candle, a watch- / man." (Of course, expressions, containing vela are main entries, according to the practices already described.) Sometimes the word is entered more than once, as in the following example: Chibo, or Cabrón, a goate. * Chibo, or Cabrito, a kid. Sometimes the word is entered more than once, but more than one meaning is included in one of the entries, as in the following sequence: Cochinilla, f . the hearbe called Cuche- / male. Cochinilla, a certaine infectious flie, or a / yoong sucking pig. It is Minsheu who compiled what is, to my knowledge, the first English-Spanish part of a Spanish and English bilingual dictionary. He took the glosses from the Spanish-English part of his dictionary, rearranged them in alphabetical order, set the word vide or its abbreviation v. after each of them, and, in their respective positions, placed the Spanish entry words of the Spanish-English part of the dictionary. The method is exemplified in the following diagram:

Arróz, m.

Hice.

Rice, vide

Arróz.

48

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

Neither indication of gender nor inflectional irregularities of Spanish words is carried over to the English-Spanish part. However, the accent mark remains on Spanish words even after their reversal and separate Spanish vocabulary entries which offer alternative spellings of the same word usually show up in the same gloss after their reversal. Minsheu does not introduce comparable information for English words even though English has now become the source language and we conclude that he is not concerned with the needs of a Spanish-speaking user because he gives no help for English pronunciation and he adds no English inflectional irregularities. He does retain a great deal of meaning discrimination in the form of particularizing phrases which go through the reversal from target to source language virtually unchanged. To illustrate this last-mentioned practice, let us now look at the Spanish-English side for a gloss with a lengthy particularizing phrase. Consider the following: Córma, f . a little paire of stockes. Also a / clog of wood or such like for horses, or to / put on boyes feete that rurme from their / masters. There are two meanings or translations in this gloss. The first translation is taken over verbatim to the English-Spanish part of the dictionary in the following single, complete entry: a little paire of Stockes, vide Córma. The second translation is taken over to the English-Spanish part in revised but recognizable form in the following single, complete entry: a Clogge hanged about a dogs necke, or / about a boies legge that runneth away, / vide Córma. There was precedent for a dictionary with particularizing words or phrases in the source language. These are often present in Las Casas as shown in the following two consecutive entries: Ay donde estas. Costì, costinci, iui, / ve, vi. Ay, quexädose. Ah, ahi, ai, deh, oi. Source-language particularizing words or phrases are often present in Nebrija as shown in the following entries: Afeitar la barva o cabello.tödeo.es.como.is. Isla tierra cercada de agua, insula.ç. Ondoso lleno de ondas. undosus.a.um

49

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

But Minsheu outdoes his predecessors in the length of the source-language particularizing words or phrases, as for example in the following subentry, s.v. cardes: the queene, which is a different Card from / the English fashion, and is painted like / a man on horse-backe, and is called in / Spanish Cavállo. Minsheu's dictionary is not as reversible as Nebrija's. Although Minsheu follows the general outlines of Nebrija's method of compilation by reversals, he also departs from it by adding words not found in the Spanish-English part, e.g., ruinar, which does not appear in the Spanish-English part as a vocabulary word but is added at the tail end of a gloss in the English-Spanish part as follows: to Destroie, or spoile, vide Destruir, / Deshazér, Gastár, Ruinár. Some of these additions are subentries, e.g., queene above, and many of these added words are particularizing phrases as in the following example: Dios, m.

God.

God the creator and gouernour of all / things, v. Dios. The phrase "the creator and gouernour of all things" is taken verbatim from the 1589 or some earlier edition of John Rider's English-Latin dictionary, Bibliotheca scholastica: A Double Dictionarie. The borrowing from Rider is extensive and is well exemplified by the following comparison of two almost identical vocabulary entries appearing in both dictionaries: RIDER,

1589

To Pole, pill, or play the extortioner. 1 Expilo. 2 Exhaurio. MINSHEU,

1599

to Poll, pill or plaie the extortioner, v. / Hazér extorción. Even the typography is similar. And the Spanish gloss, Hazér extorción, is also an addition, for it appears nowhere as a vocabulary word, subentry, or run-on entry in the Spanish-English part. Nevertheless, the general principle of reversibility is not interfered with by these interpolations and it may be said that except for Nebrija's dictionary there is probably no other two-part bilingual dictionary which is more symmetrically reversible than Minsheu's.

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JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

It would seem that because of this reversibility the user ought to find a desired entry without undue difficulty. Such is not always the case because the user may be confused by the following peculiarities of organization: (1) A topical way of grouping entries sometimes infringes upon the alphabetical method which was Minsheu's rule in the Spanish-English part. Months of the year, days of the week, and suits of cards are listed respectively under moneth, day, and cardes. A topical organization is used for many compounds composed partly of words such as doue, tree, water, and hundreds of others. It must be said that usually Minsheu also lists such words alphabetically; that is, such a word appears twice in the English-Spanish part. However, lulie does not appear twice and murtday, tuesday, Wednesday, fryday, and satterday do not appear twice, nor do hundreds of other entries which are entered topically. Minsheu tells the reader in the preface that he had been working on a topical dictionary and we are reminded of Stepney's dictionary (q.v. supra, pp. 36 ff.) when we read Minsheu's comments, as follows: . . . another little Dictionary with generali heads, shewing the particular parts, as a man and his parts, a house with the implements therein, ships at sea, officers in war, trades and occupations, and divers other things.

Perhaps the compilation of this "little Dictionary" was to be modeled on the Belgian vocabularies (vide supra, p. 40). (2) Inconsistency is present throughout in regard to the choosing of the entry under which an expression is to be entered. If the user looked up the equivalent for the cry of turtledoves, he would find nothing which matches his needs under the vocabulary entry for crie. But if he looked under mourne he would find the following subentry: to Mourne or crie as a stocke or turtle doue, vide Arrullárse la paloma.

The corresponding entry on the other side of the dictionary reads: Arrullárse la palóma, or Tórtola, to / crie or mourne as stocke-doues doues vse to do.

and / turtle-

(3) The mechanical, thoughtless way in which Minsheu made his reversals results in meaningless entries. For example, the subentry a place full of water, s.v. water, is a perfectly useless source-language expression. It is an expression so general in its application that it could include the Thames River but we know that Minsheu means it to apply to an irrigation or drainage ditch because he sets the Spanish word Regadizo after it. To find a word in Minsheu's English-Spanish part the user often had to keep on looking and looking. The capricious organization of this part could detain the user as the maze in a sixteenth-century formal garden could baffle the searcher. Minsheu's dictionary as a whole presents a lexicographical advance over its

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 5 9 9

51

predecessors in so far as the Spanish entries are concerned, in the showing of gender, pronunciation, and irregular verb forms and in a creditable attempt at orderly alphabetization. However, Minsheu followed in Percyvall's monodirectional steps in disregarding the needs of the Spanish-speaking user, and he also set a pattern which was followed by successors in the inconsistent organization of both parts of the dictionary. Sincerity was not one of Minsheu's virtues. His slyness can lead even a serious scholar astray. Louis Cooper in an article, "Plagiarism in Spanish Dictionaries of the XVIth and XVIIth Centuries", Hispania, December, 1962, says (pp. 717-8): . . . Minsheu does, at least, acknowledge his debt to Percyvall . . . Minsheu . . . gave credit to compilers who preceded him . . . We have seen that Minsheu gave only grudging implicit acknowledgment to Percyvall and no credit at all to Thomas, Rider, and Florio.

5. JOHN MINSHEU, 1617

John Minsheu's Spanish-English dictionary of 1617 (STC No. 17949) is a glossary or index of about 55,000 entries on a page format measuring 19*/2 x 35 cm. bound in at the end of the 21 x 38 Vk cm. folio volume which contains the monumental work. Ήγεμών είς τάς γλώσσας or The Guide into the tongues (STC No. 17944), an encyclopedic polyglot work in eleven languages,1 listed on the title page as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

English British or Welsh Low Dutch High Dutch French Italian

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Spanish Portuguez Latine Greeke Hebrew, etc.

The "Guide" was sold at John Browne's bookshop in "Little Brittaine" but it was published and printed at Minsheu's expense and the debts incurred were paid by donors whose names are listed in the work. Perhaps it was the first time in the history of printed books in England that a public subscription was made to pay the costs of printing.4 The whole work has a Latin and an English title page and the Spanish-English dictionary has a separate title page in English which reads as follows: A MOST COPIOVS SPANISH DICTI- / ON ARIE, WITH LATINE AND ENGLISH (AND / sometime other Languages) and enlarged with diuers thousands of Words, with the Etymo- / logies, that is, the Reasons and Deriuations of all, or most part of Words in the Spa- / nish Tongue, that vnder the Name, the Nature, the Propertie, Qualitie, 1

Nine-language editions were published in 1625, 1626, and 1627. The "British or Welsh" and the Portuguese languages were absent from these editions and so was the Spanish-English dictionary of 187 pages. For information concerning polyglot work in the 17th century consult Martin-Gamero, pp. 69-73, 93-6. * "It was the first book ever published in England that appended a list of subscribers." Eclectic Magazine, Aug. 1881, Vol. 34, p. 241, quoted by S. A. Steger, American Dictionaries (Baltimore, 1913), p. 9.

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 6 1 7

53

Condi- / tion, Effect, Matter, Forme, Fashion or end of things are directly described: / Also referred in MINSHEV his Etymologicall Dictionary of / eleuen Languages, by figures; whereof the first shewes the / Page, and the second the number of Primitiue Words in / the same Dictionarie contained, that you may / also see the Etymologies of the other / tenne Tongues. / By the Studie, Labour, Industrie, and at the Charges of IOHN / MINSHEV Published and Printed. / Cum Gratia & Privilegio Regiae Maiestatis, & vendibles extant Londini apud / Ioannem Browne Bibliopolam in vico vocato little Brittaine. / And are to be sold at lohn Brownes shoppe a Bookebinder / in little Brittaine in London.

The Spanish-English dictionary is a glossary or vocabulary using words from the polylingual part of the work and from Minsheu's Spanish and English bilingual dictionary of 1599. Each Spanish vocabulary entry is glossed by equivalents first in Latin and then usually in English. Miscellaneous additions are sometimes present such as the following: (1) equivalents in a language other than Spanish, English, or Latin, (2) etymology, and (3) quotations from authorities such as Covarrubias. The Spanish-English dictionary is also an index because each entry bears crossreference numbers: the page number and entry number of the pertinent English vocabulary word in the polyglot dictionary. Apart from English, Spanish receives the most attention in the body of the polyglot dictionary and in addition, Spanish is the only one of the ten languages other than English to be set apart in a separate dictionary-index. Minsheu suggests in the preface, however, that the speakers of the other languages might like to construct such an index themselves so that they might have an apparatus by which to find equivalents in the other languages. There is no record that this do-it-yourself proposal resulted in the compilation of other indices. The Guide into the Tongues remains fully available only to those who read English and Spanish. Minsheu tells the user in the preface that the entire work was twenty years in the making: he went through "an Ocean of trauailes, troubles, and hard sufferings, and wants, the greater part of this twenty yeeres." That means that he started to compile this work at the same time that he was doing the edition of Percyvall (vide supra, pp. 38 ff.). According to this 1617 preface Minsheu had at Oxford "a company of certaine Strangers and Schollers at mine owne charge about the Worke there." He avowedly secured the copyright although there is not now any record of its registry at Stationers Hall (Arber V, lxxxi, c). On November 22, 1610 he received an "approbation and confirmation" of his work by "certayne learned men" and this approbation is set down in a written dated document with the seal of Oxford University affixed. His next move was to transfer his activities to Cambridge: "I made an end of the Dictionary Etymologicall of eleuen Languages in Oxford, and began and made an end of the Spanish in Cambridge." He apologizes in his preface for not including a section listing errata and says that he could not "winne out time" to do so. Resources for the compilation of this work included the Nomenclátor of Junius. Also available at this time were various seventeenth-century works such as those by Aldrete, Covarrubias, and Oudin. Possibly the English edition of the Janua

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JOHN MINSHEU, 1 6 1 7

Linguarum was published soon enough for his use. It was licensed on January 29, 1614 with final authorization on September 27, 1614 (Arber, III, 541) under the following title: Janua Linguarum the gate of Language, siue modus quo patefit aditus ad omnes linguas intelligendas industria patrum Hibernorum società JESU &c. Latine, Anglice, Gallice, Italice, Hispanice, conversa velim alias linguas quascunque. For more information concerning the Janua Linguarum see Sofia Martín-Gamero's La Enseñanza del inglés en España (Madrid, 1961), pp. 71-2.

6. JOHN MINSHEU, 1623

In 1623 John Haviland printed a Minsheu dictionary for Edward Blount, who shortly thereafter assigned his rights to William Aspley, who in turn sold out to Mathew Lownes. The rights were soon passed in the Lownes family from Mathew to Thomas to Humphrey, who shortly assigned the dictionary over to George Latham (Arber V, lxxxii, xcvii, xcviii). It was John Haviland who printed copies for all of these publishers and his name appears on the various title pages of the 1623 edition along with the name of one of the publishers, e.g., volume 3/48947 in the Biblioteca Nacional: "John Haviland for William Aspley, 1623". At first sight the 1623 edition looks like an identical copy of the dictionary printed by Edmund Bollifant in 1599. The pagination is identical and the text, typography, and format appear to be identical at the beginning of an examination of these two volumes. Upon closer inspection, it is apparent that the printers had not gone to the trouble of saving their forms for nearly a quarter of a century - a rather fantastic conjecture, in any event, in view of the printing procedures of that day in which only expensive movable type was used. Numeration by printer's folio letters is different and the 1623 edition is larger in format: 183/io cm. X 277/io cm. as compared with the 1599 format, 18 x 25 cm. This was without a doubt a completely reset job. But it was reset word for word and is not a revision; the only things new in the text are the new spellings and the new typographical errors. The production of this new edition was evidently profitable because the printer took legal steps to insure his right to print it, as shown in the following entry dated May 26, 1623 in the Stationers' Registers: John Havilond / Whereas master havilond is printing MINSHEWES Spanish Dictionary d I T IS ORDERED that he shall goe forward with the printing thereof paying vj in the pound to the poore, and that it shall not be printed for any other as long as he or any of his partenours shall shewe 50 of the said bookes, This is Done at a Court holden this Day vj d [Arber, IV, 97] Let us now take up the various parts of the volume from start to finish to point out occasional typographical differences while at the same time pointing out similarities between the 1623 and the 1599 editions. This method will also afford an

56

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 6 2 3

opportunity to present an exposition of the kind of material included in the entire volume along with the dictionary. (1) A comparison of the first title page in both editions shows a difference in typeface and in arrangement. The woodcut is the same in the two editions. There is a difference in the orthography: 1599 Dictionarie Perciuale throughout explaned

1623 Dictionary Percivale thorowout explained

1599 appeere tongue profite foorth

1623 appeare tongve profit forth

(2) The two-page dedication of 1599 is now four pages in 1623. Larger type is used. (3) A newly set-up four-page "To the Reader" is identical in content to the two-page "To the Reader" of 1599. (4) As far as size and style of type are concerned the "Directions for the understanding and use of this Dictionarie" look as if they have been saved from the edition of 1599, but an ornament now starts the page, the first page now ends at the second line of paragraph six, and the signature is "IOHN MINSHEU" and not the "IOHN MYNSHEU" of 1 5 9 9 .

(5) The two parts of the dictionary come next. Margins are not as even in the 1623 edition. The vocabulary entries seem to be set in a font identical to that used in 1599. The glosses are in italics ever so slightly higher and larger than in 1599. Evidently the vocabulary entries were reset, cf. 1599 "Théatro" with 1623 "Théatra". Spelling is modernized, s.v. Romance, (1599) 'toonge', (1623) 'tounge'; s.v. Biendezér, (1599) 'saie', (1623) 'say'. The abbreviation of vide varies: if it is v. in 1599 it sometimes is vide in 1623; if it is vide in 1599 it sometimes is v. in 1623; e.g., s.v. Tipstcdrs in the 1599 ed. and in the 1623 ed., and s.v. Tired in both editions. The spacing is sometimes different, as shown by the following example, spaced approximately as it appears on the page: 1599: a Copie or example, v. Còpia, Trasládo, Trasùnto. 1623: a Copie or example, v. Còpia, Trasládo, Trasùnto. However, the spacing of the 1599 edition is usually copied faithfully in minute detail. (6) The title page of the grammar shows the same kind of differences of typeface, spacing, and orthography already mentioned, for instance, yoong (1599) yovng (1623), onely (1599) - only (1623), etc.

JOHN MINSHEU, 1 6 2 3

57

(7) "To the . . . Gentlemen Students of Grayes Inné", a dedication, is newly composed by the printer but not newly written by the compiler. (8) The "To the Reader" of the grammar is set up anew with this time an ornament at the top of the page. (9) "The Proeme" has a larger ornament than in 1599 and is newly set with different spellings, for instance Romaine (1599) - Roman (1623). (10) Quotations from Authors, the refranes, the proverbs, etc. have been reset as witness the spelling differences, e.g., hart (1599) - heart (1623). (11) The title page of the Dialogues has woodcuts different from 1599 and presents the same kind of change in orthography and typeface as already noted in other parts of the work. (12) The dedication to "Don Eduardo Hobby" has been reset in a different typeface with a different ornament on the page. (13) The printer has changed the typeface and orthography of the Dialogues. There is a different ornament after "FINIS".

7. CAPTAIN JOHN STEVENS, 1705, 1706, 1726

The title page of a 1705 English-Spanish dictionary of 103 pages and approximately 20,000 vocabulary entries, the work of Captain John Stevens, reads as follows: A / D I C T I O N A R Y / E N G L I S H / A N D / S P A N I S H / L O N D O N / Printed for George Sawbridge, / at the Three Golden / Flower-de-luces in / Little Britain, 1705.

Captain Stevens was a translator of Spanish literature as well as a lexicographer.1 Although one might surmise that he was a sea captain whose interest in languages stemmed from trade and commerce, such was not the case. He was an officer in the English army with military experience in Ireland and perhaps in Portugal, according to the DNB. It is believed that his father was on the staff of an English ambassador to Spain; indeed, Stevens himself says in the preface (1706) concerning his knowledge of Spanish: "For my Knowledge in the Tongue I was bred to it from my Infancy." He was "probably an Irishman", the DNB reports. The following confrontation will make the fact obvious that Stevens and his publishers were well advised not to include the word new in the title of the dictionary of 1705. At first glance the passage seems to be a word-for-word revision of Minsheu. But is it readily obvious that there are additions and subtractions from Minsheu. Stevens removes the word vide or its abbreviation v. from the borrowed entries; he does not use black letter; he eliminates certain particularizing phrases, e.g., "or yoong hen", s.v. pullet, but keeps others, e.g., "of a ship", s.v. pulley·, he adds three new vocabulary entries: to pull down, to pull back, and pulp. MINSHEU

1599 to Pull, or pluck, v. Tirár to Pull vp by the rootes, v. Desraygár. Pulled, vide Tirádo. 1

STEVENS

1705 to Pull, or pluck, Tirár. to Pull up by the roots, Desraygár. Pulled, Tirádo.

Stevens published in 1706 a revision of Shelton's translation of Don Quixote. He did several translations including the Celestina and some of the works of Quevedo. For some of the details of his life consult The Journal of John Stevens, 1689-1691, ed. R. H. Murray (Oxford, 1912).

CAPTAIN J O H N STEVENS, 1 7 0 5 , 1 7 0 6 ,

a Pulling, vide Tirón

a Pullet, or yoong hen, vide Pólla. a Pulley, vide Carillo, Rodójo, Rodézno, Poléa. a Pulley of a ship, vide Poléa. a Pulpit, vide Pulpito.

1726

59

a Pulling, Tirón. to Pull down, Derribár. to Pull back, Retirár. a Pullet, Pólla. a Pulley, Carillo, Rodajo, Rodézno, Poléa. a Pulley of a ship, Poléa. Pulp, Púlpa. a Pulpit, Pulpito.

The 1705 English-Spanish dictionary was bound in the same volume with the 1706 Spanish-English dictionary of 415 pages and approximately 40,000 vocabulary entries, and this latter work, which came first in the volume, did have the word new on its title page as shown in the following transcription: A NEW / Spanish and English / DICTIONARY: / Collected from the / Best SPANISH AUTHORS, / Both A N C I E N T and MODERN. / CONTAINING / Several Thousand Words more than any other Dictionary·, / With their Etymology; Their Proper, Figurative, Burlesque and Cant / Significations; The Common Terms of Arts and Sciences; The Proper / Names of Men; The Surnames of Families, and an Account of them; The / Titles of the Nobility of Spain·, / Together with its Geography, and that of / the West Indies·, With the Names of such Provinces, Towns and Rivers in / other Parts which differ in Spanish from the English. / Also above Two Thousand Proverbs Literally Translated, with their Equivalents, / where any could be found; and many Thousands of Phrases and difficult / Expressions Explain'd. / All the Words throughout the Dictionary Accented, for the ascertaining of the / Pronunciation. / To which is added, A Copious / ENGLISH and SPANISH / DICTIONARY. / LIKEWISE / A SPANISH G R A M M A R , more Complete and Easy / than any hitherto extant: / WHEREIN / The SPANISH DIALOGUES that have been Publish'd are put / into Proper ENGLISH. / The Whole by / Captain JOHN STEVENS. / LONDON: / Printed for George Sawbridge, at the Three Flower-de-Luces / in Little Britain. MDCCVI.

Some copies of this huge folio volume 23 χ 37 cm. are 4 cm. thick but at least one copy is 7 cm. thick, the interleaved copy at the Biblioteca Nacional in Madrid (R/6000). The now-yellowed interleaves were lined by the printer in three columns like the text and are blank except for the inked notes made by a former owner. They are interleaved between each folio starting at the letter B. In both the interleaved and standard version of the volume there is no pagination, only printer's folio letters. Catchwords regularly appear at the bottom right-hand corner of each page - even between the two parts of the dictionary. (On folio ee 4 the letter A appears in the bottom right-hand corner and the next page is a title page which begins "A Dictionary . . . .") Guide letters at the top of each of the three columns into which a page is divided are the same as the first three letters of the last word in each column. In the body of the text guide letters consisting of two letters are sporadically and inconsistently inserted. Vocabulary entries are set in italics and

60

CAPTAIN JOHN STEVENS, 1 7 0 5 , 1 7 0 6 , 1 7 2 6

there are no run-on entries (although the proverbs are indented). Glosses are set in roman. The Spanish alphabetization is: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, I, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, Τ, V, U, Χ, Y, Z. There is no k, w, or Ñ (capital) in this alphabet. The letter ñ (small), however, is treated as a separate letter, although ch, II, rr, and ç are not so treated. The English alphabetization is: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, Τ, V, U, W, Y, Z. There is no letter X (capital). The main sources of the Spanish-English part of this dictionary are mentioned by the compiler in the preface: Words that have Minsh. or Ouditt after the English, are such as I find no where but in one of those Dictionaries, and therefore have just Cause to suspect that they are scarce good Spanish.

His dependence upon his predecessor Minsheu and upon one of the César Oudin Spanish and French bilingual dictionaries is exemplified in the following confrontation: MINSHEU

OUDIN 2

STEVENS

1599

1645

1706

Ru Rúa, rué large & spacieuse. cauallo de Rua, cheual de selle pour aller par les rues. RV

Rúa, a great Street. This word is little us'd in Spanish. Cavâllo de rúa, a fine Horse to prance about the Streets on. RU

•Ruán, a kinde of linnen cloth. Also the / towne Roan in Frounce.

RU'an, fine Linnen Cloath made at Roan in France.

In the following confrontation Stevens' vocabulary entries correspond with those of Oudin but Stevens orders them alphabetically. The vocabulary entries do not correspond exactly with those of Minsheu.

2

Le Tresor des devx langves espagnolle

et françoise

de Cesar Ovdin. Augmenté sur les

Mémoires de son Autheur. Ovtre vn bon nombre de dictions & de Phrases. Auec vne seconde Partie toute nouuelle, beaucoup plus ample qu'auparauant. Le tout corrigé & réduit en meilleur ordre, Par Antoine Ovdin, Secretaire Interprete de sa Majeste (Paris, Antoine de Sommaville, Avgvstin Covrbé, Nicolas & Jean de la Coste, 1645). The Spanish-French part comes first; the French-Spanish part, "toute nouuelle", comes last.

61

CAPTAIN JOHN STEVENS, 1 7 0 5 , 1 7 0 6 , 1 7 2 6 MINSHEU

OUDIN

STEVENS

1599 Rúcio, grey, dapple grey. Rúcio, as Rúcio rodádo, grey, dapple / grey.

1645 Rucio color, gris, couleur de cheual. Rucio rodado, gris pommelé, couleur de cheual. Rucio de la mancha, v« asrte.

1706 Rúcio, grey, only us'd in speaking of Beasts. Rúcio de la mancha, an Ass. Rúcio rodádo, a dapple grey.

The preceding confrontations also illustrate the fact that Stevens did not mark all of his borrowing from Minsheu and Oudin with the reference "Minsk." or "Oudin." In fact most of the words which he borrowed are not marked with an acknowledgment of source. Stevens claims in his preface: "In some places Spanish Authors are quoted for such Words as are not common." Entries in which Covarrubias' Tesoro is quoted, as for example s.v. coronél and s.v. maravedí and references to other authors are few and far between. Stevens claims that the dictionary was "the Work of several years" during which time he "collected" new words and expressions from about 150 works of literature, history, geography, and lexicography. These works are Usted prominently at the front of his dictionary on a page headed "A Catalogue of Authors from which this Dictionary is Collected." Some of these 150 works, of course, had to furnish the bookish material with which the dictionary is stuffed: the 2,000 proverbs mentioned on the title page, the names of towns, cities, rivers, etc., the titles of nobility, and the other additions also advertised on the title page. The edition of 1726 is a revision of the 1705 and the 1706 dictionaries. An important change between the 1726 work and the 1705-6 work is in the preface. In 1706 Stevens had said that the dictionary was compiled for his own amusement and pleasure but that he was convinced that he ought to publish the work "by the persuasion of some Gentlemen, Curious in that Tongue". In the 1726 edition, however, he scorns that statement when he says that "the commands of great men, and the importunity of friends" did not entice him into publishing his work. "The only inducement he has had", so runs Stevens' own statement, "has been from the Booksellers". Another important change to be noted is the elimination of the 1705-6 grammar and dialogues from the 1726 volume. The principle of their inclusion, and undoubtedly much of their content, had derived from Minsheu. This 172f. edition is the first dictionary in the history of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography not to share the volume in which it is contained with some other work s ach as a grammar or dialogues. The title page of the 1726 edition is printed in red and black and is divided into top and bottom halves. The top half is the English title page and the bottom half is a close translation, the Spanish title page, which reads as follows:

62

CAPTAIN JOHN STEVENS, 1 7 0 5 , 1 7 0 6 ,

1726

DICIONARIO / NUEVO / Español y Ingles, y Ingles y Español; / Mucho mas copioso que quantos hasta aora salido à luz. En el qual la Etymologia de las Palabras, con / sus varias Significaciones; / Términos de Artes y Sciencas, Nombres proprios de Hombres y Mugeres, Ape- / llidos de Casas o Familias, Títulos de Nobleza, la Geographia de España y de las / Indias Occidentales, y las principales Plantas que se crian en dichas partes. / A lo qual se ha añadido una immensidad de Refranes, Phrases, y Modos de hablar Obscuros, / Todos explicados à la Letra, con sus Equivalentes / Por el Capitan Don Juan STEVENS. / LONDON: / Printed for J. Darby, Α. Bettesworth, F. Fayram, J. Pemberton, C. Rivington, J. Hooke, F. Clay, J. Batley, and E. Symon. / M.DCC.XXVI.

The concluding words in English in the Spanish part of the title page as quoted above were to serve also for the English part of the page. As for the English and the Spanish preface, one is a close translation of the other, and they are side by side on the same pages in parallel columns. Aside from title page and preface, the only parts of this 1726 edition are the two parts of the dictionary; there are no dedication, listing of works used in the compilation, etc. The 1726 edition has been reset in a typeface different from that of 1706. The guide letters at the top of each column refer to the subdivisions in the body of the text. Catchwords are used as in 1706. A comparison of text and pages of the two unpaginated editions is as follows: 1705-6 1726 Result Format of body of dictionary: 1 7 x 3 1 cm. 17 x 21 cm. decrease in size Spanish-English: 415 pp. 640 pp. increase in no. of pp. English-Spanish: 103 pp. 176 pp. increase in no. of pp. It is apparent that the decrease in the size of the page in 1726 is balanced by the increased number of pages. The total number of entries remains about the same although a few new vocabulary entries have been added in the 1726 edition, e.g., nacardina, and some corrections have been made, e.g., s.v. nabal. But these changes are few and far between. Since the two editions are almost identical, we may consider them at the same time in our discussion of the learned character of Stevens' contributions to the dictionary of his predecessor. (1) Stevens copies or paraphrases little essays on various subjects. One of these disquisitions reads as follows: Eféta, this Word is Corrupted both as to the way of Speaking or Writing and the Signification, for it is us'd to signify that a Man stood firm in the Denial and could never be brought to speak the Truth of what was ask'd him, therefore they say such a one always said Efeta. That is, he discover'd nothing. The true word is Ephphéta, spoken by our Saviour when he Cur'd the Deaf and Dumb Man, and signifies he open'd, commanding his Mouth and Ears to be open'd to Speak and Hear. Therefore this Word is us'd in Baptism in imitation of our Saviour. But the generality of the People have made use of it to signify the Dumbness of a Man, who will not confess what is ask'd of him.

(2) Stevens copies or paraphrases encyclopedic information concerning places and

CAPTAIN JOHN STEVENS, 1 7 0 5 , 1 7 0 6 , 1 7 2 6

63

people. The entry of proper names (persons, towns, cities, rivers, etc.) had a solid precedent. They were distributed throughout the word list of the Calepinus although they were placed in separate sections in many other dictionaries. Nebrija uses one alphabet and includes proper names in the following way: Filipe nombre de varón. philippus.i. Francia region de europa, gallia.ç. Francia la aquitania. gallia aquitanica But Nebrija, I am sure, never imagined that some later practitioner of lexicography would think to enter in a bilingual dictionary the name of a little town with the number of its houses, monasteries, and convents. Stevens does all of this and more in hundreds of entries of which the following is an example: Corràl de Almuguér, a Town in Castile, 6 Leagues from Ocáña, belonging to the Knights of Santiago, or S. James the Apostle, seated in a Fruitful Plain, has 1000 Houses well built, but one Parish, one Monastery of Friers, and one of Nuns. (3) Stevens copies a wealth of proverbs and supplies explanations for them. The following entry is one of 2,000: 3 Prov. Desposádo dame un nábo. Cuérpo de mi con tanto rególo, Spouse give me a Turnip. Body of me what a deal of Daintiness. This is said to wretch'd Niggards, who when any thing is ask'd of them, tho never so reasonable, cry out, as if they were undone. The W o m a n asks but so poor a thing as a Turnip, and the covetous Churl thinks it a Dainty. One of Stevens' successors, Girai Delpino, did not think at all kindly of these proverbs or their explanations:4 . . . algunos años despues, pareció el Diccionario del Cap11. Stephens, obra que mejor se podría llamár, una coleccion de las mas fatuas y disparatadas consonancias, con el nombre de adagios Españoles, con ridiculos comentarios, sobre su verdadéro sentido y origen; y lo que mas me admira, es que omitio, essos proverbios expressivos, essas sentencias breves, sacadas de la experiencia y especulación de nuestros antiguos sabios, que en poco dicen mucho. Sadly it must be reported that Stevens' technique of glossing is characterized by the use of the leisurely exposition of learned and obscure meanings, e.g., the little 3

The proverb quoted here is s.v. nábo. For the version of the same proverb s.v. desposádo, vide infra p. 66. 4 From the preface to the Spanish-English part of Joseph Girai Delpino's Spanish and English bilingual dictionary, 1763.

64

CAPTAIN JOHN STEVENS, 1 7 0 5 , 1 7 0 6 , 1 7 2 6

disquisition s.v. Eclipse (Sp.-Eng. part); the use of redundancy, e.g., the unnecessary or redundant explanations after nine of the ten picaresque proverbs which liven up the vocabulary entry Cornudo; and the use of the discursive definition. Concerning the last-named habit, the following confrontation illustrates the fact that if Minsheu could write an encyclopedic entry, Stevens could write a longer one: MINSHEU

STEVENS

1599 Rúbrica, /. the marke in a booke, or a knot vnder ones name after he hath written it, as most vse, that it may not so easily be counterfeited.

1706 Rúbrica, a Mark they use in Spain, every Man according to his fancy, being a Knot, or some Flourish, either under the Name, or at the end of it to prevent Counterfeiting; or sometimes in Books of Accounts, or the like, they put it to every Leaf instead of the Name to show it has pass'd such an Office or been examin'd by such an Officer. It signifies also the Titles of the Laws, so call'd because they us'd to be in red Letters to distinguish them from the rest. It is also the Rubrick, that is the red Letters us'd in Prayer Books.

These habits of glossing at least resulted at times in providing meaning discrimination. In the following entry Stevens not only gives the user the right word but gives him the wrong word too as a contrast: Ama, a Mistress, not of Scholars, but of Servants, for she that Teaches Children is call'd Maestra. Also a Nurse. Gothick. Minsheu had been satisfied with the laconic "A'ma, f . a mistresse, a nurse" Sometimes undoubtedly, Stevens is led into the use of particularizing words because he has no part-of-speech labels. Thus, he tries in the following gloss to convey an intransitive meaning since the verb beat is so easily construed transitively: "to beat as the Heart does", s.v. latir. As for orthography, Stevens made no sweeping changes. In his preface he mentions the confusion of b and ν, χ and s, χ and j, and / and ph in Spanish words. In the body of the dictionary he cross-references alternate spellings in the manner of Minsheu. Some words such as the entry which he spells Rubion represent a definite choice on his part of one variant over the other. All of the vocabulary entries are capitalized and in the 1726 edition the Spanish vocabulary entries are entirely set in capital letters. The accent of each Spanish vocabulary entry is indicated by an acute accent

CAPTAIN JOHN STEVENS, 1 7 0 5 , 1 7 0 6 , 1 7 2 6

65

and in the 1726 edition by a grave accent if the accented syllable is final. The orthography of the glosses in the English language is characterized by the frequent use of capitalization, particularly of nouns. This practice is exemplified as follows: Póya, the quantity of Dough due to the Baker for Baking of Bread, instead of Money. Many of these nouns are not capitalized in the 1726 edition. In the spelling of verbs, English weak past participles are written with an apostrophe plus d instead of with ed, for example, talk'd, hang'd, proclaim'd, stopp'd, extoll'd, magnify'd, cedl'd, and us'd. The occasional etymologies in this dictionary are gleaned from the work of Doctor Bernardo José Aldrete, Del Origen y Principio de la Lengva Castellana, ò Romance que oy se vsa en España in the edition by Melchor Sanchez (Madrid, Gabriel de Leon, 1674) bound in with a 1674 edition of Covarrubias' Tesoro, or from the first edition (Rome, Carol Vulliet, 1606). This borrowing is shown in the following confrontation: ALDRETE

STEVENS

1674 Book II, § VI Del Romance antiguo de España y como los lenguas se mudan con el tiempo. folio 42T Bozero. Abogado.

1706

Cras. Mañana. folio 42y Gardingo. Por ventura Capitan de la guarda, ô Guarda mayor. folio 43* Xaheriz. Molino de azeyte. Book III, § XIV De los vocablos Godos que tenemos en el Romance, folio 86v Guantes. Vanta. Scaramuça. Schermus.

Bozéro, vid. Boçéro. Bocéro, an old Word us'd in the ancient Laws of Spain, signifying the same as Abogado. Crás, us'd Anciently for to Morrow, now out of date. Latin. Gardingo. Obs. the Captain of the Guard.

Xaheriz, Obs. an Oyl Mill, Arab.

Guánte, a Glove. Gothick, Vanta. Scaramúza. Vid. Escaramuza. Escaramùça, a skirmish. Gothick, Schermus.

66

CAPTAIN JOHN STEVENS, 1 7 0 5 , 1 7 0 6 , 1 7 2 6

Infrequently Stevens will refer to Mariana, e.g., s.v. yelmo. In Andrete "El Padre Iuan de Mariana" sometimes receives a reference, e.g., on fol. 87r. Stevens does not disturb Minsheu's way of organizing the dictionary. However, in the addition of the 2,000 proverbs, violence is sometimes done to the alphabetical order despite the good intentions voiced in the preface: The Proverbs are to be found under the first Substantive in them, or else at the Substantive there is a Reference where to find them. But if they be such as have no Substantive in them, then are they to be look'd for under the first Verb.

Some proverbs are listed under more than one entry with slightly different explanations. Compare the proverb s.v. nabo (vide supra, p. 63) with the version s.v. desposado: Prov. Desposádo dame un nábo, Cuérpo de mi con tanto rególo. Bridegroom give me a Turnip; Body of me why so much Daintiness. This they say to those who make much noise of little Matters, as Misers who think every Trifle enough to ruine them. Some proverbs are actually out of alphabetical order. For example, Minsheu inserts the following entry: Cabéllo, the hair. Lat: Capillus. He then follows this with the entry: Cabéllos, is also a preserve made of Carrots, which draws into fine threads like hairs. He continues with fifteen entries ordered as follows: cabellos with two locutions, cabello with six locutions, cabellos with one locution, cabello with one locution, cabellos with two locutions, cabello with two proverbs, and cabellos with one proverb. Furthermore the meanings of hair or sweetmeat are included helter-skelter in the arrangement just cited. It is still the English-speaking user to whom the compilation of this dictionary is directed. The two phrases, with us and as we say which I have italicized in the following two entries indicate the monodirectional character of Stevens' dictionary: Bodigo, a small Cake, or roll of Bread, which in some Villages in Spain, they offer in the Church, and are also us'd as rolls with us. Arab. s.v. Missa Prov. No sabér de la missa la média, Not to know half the Mass, is to be very ignorant, as we say, when a Man does not know the Lord's Prayer.

CAPTAIN JOHN STEVENS, 1 7 0 5 , 1 7 0 6 , 1 7 2 6

67

The two-to-one imbalance of the two parts of the dictionary also leads to the conclusion that he followed his predecessors in making the dictionary monodirectional. Because of the uncritical method of borrowing from Minsheu, Oudin, Aldrete, Covarrubias, and sundry reference works, because of the long-winded definitions, and because of the failure to show the gender of Spanish vocabulary noun entries while Minsheu furnished a perfectly adequate treatment of them, one would be hard put to say that much of a lexicographical advance had been made during the 106 years between Minsheu's dictionary and Stevens'. Certainly Stevens did not compile a work which affords a useful record of the inevitable linguistic changes which occur during a whole century.

8. PETER PINEDA, 1740

The first Spanish and English bilingual dictionary compiled by a Spaniard was based on the dictionary of Captain John Stevens and offered for sale as the work of Peter Pineda, an emigré who had fled from his native Andalusia for religious reasons.1 One of the English title pages supplies the information that he was the "author of the Spanish grammar and teacher of the Spanish Language in London". In so far as the title pages are concerned the English-speaking user was kept especially in mind because three of the title pages were written in English: one for the whole work, one for the Spanish-English part, and one for the English-Spanish part which follows.2 There is one title page in the Spanish language and it reads as follows: / DICIONARIO, / ESPAÑOL e INGLES / E / INGLES y ESPAÑOL. / QUE / La ETIMOLOGIA, de la PROPRIA, y METAPHORICA / SIGNIFICACION de las PALABRAS, / TÉRMINOS de ARTES y SCIENCIAS; / NOMBRES de HOMBRES, FAMILIAS, LUGARES, Y DE LAS / PRINCIPALES PLANTAS, / tanto / En ESPAÑA, como en

NUEVO

CONTIENE

l a s INDIAS-OCCIDENTALES,

/ JUNTO CON / L a s PALABRAS ARABIGAS y MORISCAS /

/ L E N G U A ESPAÑOLA. / CON LA / EXPLICACIÓN de las PALABRAS difíciles, PROVERBIOS, y FRASES / En DON QUIXOTE, y en los Otros graves AUTORES de dicha Lengua. / Corregièndo los ERRORES, que en los antecedentes DICIONARIOS avia, / añadiendo seis mil Palabras en el ESPAÑOL, y doze mil en el INGLES. / Muy necessario, y provechoso, para leèr, y entender, los LENGUAGES Español, è Ingles. / Por PEDRO PINEDA, / Autor de la GRAMATICA ESPAÑOLA, y Maestro de dicha Lengua en la Ciudad de Londres / EN LONDRES: / Por F. GYLES, T. WOODWARD, T. COX, J. CLARKE, RECEBIDAS EN LA

A . MILLAR, y P . VAILLANT. /

MDCCXL.

The large folio volume 23 X 3%y