Two Centuries of English Language Teaching and Learning in Spain: 1769-1970 9789048537501

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Two Centuries of English Language Teaching and Learning in Spain

Languages and Culture in History This series studies the role foreign languages have played in the creation of the linguistic and cultural heritage of Europe, both western and eastern, and at the individual, community, national or transnational level. At the heart of this series is the historical evolution of linguistic and cultural policies, internal as well as external, and their relationship with linguistic and cultural identities. The series takes an interdisciplinary approach to a variety of historical issues: the diffusion, the supply and the demand for foreign languages, the history of pedagogical practices, the historical relationship between languages in a given cultural context, the public and private use of foreign languages – in short, every way foreign languages intersect with local languages in the cultural realm. Series Editors Willem Frijhoff, Erasmus University Rotterdam Karene Sanchez-Summerer, Leiden University Editorial Board Members Gerda Hassler, University of Potsdam Douglas A. Kibbee, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Marie-Christine Kok Escalle, Utrecht University Joep Leerssen, University of Amsterdam Nicola McLelland, The University of Nottingham Despina Provata, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Konrad Schröder, University of Augsburg Valérie Spaëth, University of Paris III: Sorbonne Nouvelle Javier Suso López, University of Granada Pierre Swiggers, KU Leuven

Two Centuries of English Language Teaching and Learning in Spain 1769-1970

Alberto Lombardero Caparrós

Amsterdam University Press

The language in this volume has been edited by Mary Robitaille-Ibbett. Cover illustration: Courtesy of the ‘Casa/Museo Madre Alberta Giménez’ (Mother Alberta Giménez’s House and Museum), Palma de Mallorca, C/ Pureza, 12 Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout isbn 978 94 6298 628 2 e-isbn 978 90 4853 750 1 doi 10.5117/9789462986282 nur 616 | 632 © A. Lombardero Caparrós / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2019 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. Every effort has been made to obtain permission to use all copyrighted illustrations reproduced in this book. Nonetheless, whosoever believes to have rights to this material is advised to contact the publisher.

To my wife Mònica and to the apples of our eyes, Irene and Marina

Table of Contents Acknowledgements

9

Introduction: The historiography of FLT 11 The significance of the historiography of foreign language teaching 11 Approaches 12 Publications on the history of foreign language teaching in Spain 14 The historiography of ELT in Spain: A retrospective 15 Methodology of the present work 18 1. The inception of ELT in Spain (1769-1850) 1.1. Political and socio-cultural framework 1.2. The socio-cultural context 1.3. European FLT framework. 1.4. The origins of ELT in Spain: where and how 1.5. Conclusion

25 25 27 29 32 57

2. ELT in Spain (1850-1910), further development 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Spain 2.3. Conclusion

67 67 68 100

3. ELT in Spain between 1910 and 1970 111 3.1. Introduction 111 3.2. The new actors in ELT: Britain and the USA 113 3.3. Europe and Spain in the 1950s and 1960s: So close and so far away 118 3.4. The Spanish tradition 125 3.5. ELT in Spain between 1910 and 1970: The private sector 130 3.6. Overview of English manuals in Spain between 1910 and 1970 139 3.7. Teaching English beyond manuals: the exceptional cases of Juan Carrión and Patricia Shaw Fairman 149 3.8. Conclusion 150

Appendix I

159

Appendix II

193

Index

203

List of Figures Table 1. Table 2.

English manuals published in Spain between 1769 and 1899. 101 English manuals published in Spain between 1900 and 1970. 143

Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4.

Extract from Henry Mac Veigh’s Curso de inglés. Extract from John Shaw’s Curso de ingles. Extract from Eduardo Benot’s English course. Extract from Arturo Cuyàs’s bidirectional bilingual English-Spanish dictionary.

101 102 103 152



Acknowledgements

The present work represents the culmination of a nine-year single-handed research project. However, such deeds of endurance would have been unattainable without the generous, altruistic collaboration of a number of people I am deeply indebted to. First and foremost, my thanks to Professors Willem Frijhoff and Karéne Sanchez-Summerer, co-editors at Amsterdam University Press, for accepting my book proposal with open arms and to Louise Visser, AUP’s Managing Editor and Commissioning Editor Language Studies, for her precise and helpful guidance throughout the whole publishing process. Thanks also to Victoria Blud, AUP’s gatekeeper, Mary Robitaille-Ibbett, and Chantal Nicolaes, AUP’s Head of Desk Editing and Production, for their invaluable assistance in converting the manuscript into book form. In my process of becoming an Applied Linguist Historiographer there are three scholars – mentors, as it were – who have greatly contributed to my training in the ins and outs of historical research. I’m more grateful than I can say to Dr Juan Francisco García Bascuñana, former co-director of my doctoral thesis with whom I cemented a warm friendship, for spurring a burning interest in the historiography of foreign language teaching, and to Professor Anthony Pym, who allowed me to work as a research assistant on his project on Translation and Foreign Language Teaching and to become a member of his Intercultural Studies Group. We spent many a coffee-break together talking shop in a highly amicable manner. I am also grateful to Dr Richard Smith for his invitation to spend a three-month research stay in the Centre for Applied Linguistics at the University of Warwick. He proved to be a most encouraging and approachable scholar who guided me wisely in my training as a PhD student. I would like particularly to thank several colleagues who, either in person at Congresses or via e-mail, eagerly gave me a great hand with my research: Dr Vicente López Folgado, Dr Victoriano Gaviño Rodríguez, Dr Ignacio Fernández Sarasola, Dr Félix San Vicente, Dr María Luisa Calero Vaquera, and Dr Mar Vilar García. They all, at some point, not only satisfactorily responded to my queries but also shared some of their work with me in an altruistic manner. I am grateful to my colleagues at CESAG, Dr Xiskya Valladares Paguaga and Dr Francesc Vives Vidal, for their support at various stages of my research and for their firm friendship, and to Dr Julia Violero Álvarez, for having given me the golden opportunity to work at CESAG, thus allowing me to

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further develop professionally and to find the long-awaited peace of mind to write the present work. Special thanks to the staff from the National Library in Madrid and the National Library of Catalonia for their assistance, to the Spanish Public Libraries in Cádiz, Cáceres, Ávila, Asturias, Valladolid, Burgos, Zamora, Segovia, Maó, Badajoz, and Palma de Mallorca (Biblioteca Can Sales and Biblioteca Lluís Alemany), for their kind support and for sending me a partial or full copy of some of the manuals object of study in this work. Lastly, thanks are long overdue to my family, who have patiently suffered the impositions of a wandering scholar, and who have stood by me through what must at times have seemed a highly dubious endeavour.

Introduction: The historiography of FLT Abstract Introduces the main principles underlying the historiography of foreign language teaching and learning. Firstly, the chapter includes a historical overview of the most relevant academic literature in order to illustrate some of the principal approaches to this discipline in both national and international traditions. Secondly, it provides a comprehensive retrospective specif ically of the Spanish tradition of the history of English language teaching and learning, from its origins in the 1960s up to the present. Lastly, a full account of the methodology pursued in the rest of the book is given. Due to the multiple variables this type of research entails, we have opted out for an eclectic methodology which mainly revolves around a synchronic and diachronic study, including off-the-beaten-track sources such as historical journalism and personal accounts. Keywords: ELT history, Spain, methodology, eclecticism

The significance of the historiography of foreign language teaching Over the last few decades there has been a growing interest in the history of foreign language teaching (FLT), judging by the increasing number of publications in this field. To some extent, the recent consolidated influence of applied linguistics as an independent scientific discipline accounts for this interest in the historiography of foreign language teaching. Mackey (1965), Titone (1968), Stern (1983), Puren (1988), and Caravolas (2000) regard history as one of the fundamental mainstays of FLT. Titone (1968, 2) claims that ‘history can give us a perspective’ whereby past experiences can illustrate present trends in teaching as well as a criterion whereby the

Lombardero Caparrós, A., Two Centuries of English Language Teaching and Learning in Spain. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462986282/intro

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historically informed language teacher may assume a more critical view in relation to modern problems and solutions. Stern (1983, 76) believes that there is a paucity of studies in the historiography of language teaching: ‘Unfortunately the current state of historical documentation is far from satisfactory. Language teaching theory has a short memory’. Van Els et al. point out the future guidelines for a more factual and objective study of the historiography of FLT: Historical descriptions frequently have the unfortunate tendency to develop into broad abstractions […] Especially if the space available is limited, […], there is a danger that the historical reality will be distorted. In the case of the history of FLT this danger is especially acute because much remains hidden. Certain periods, especially before the 18th and 19th centuries, have not yet been described for many countries, and even for the best documented period, the last 150 years, many details are still unrecorded. (1984, 140)

Approaches The most common approach to the historiography of language teaching (henceforth, HLT) has been to describe the development diachronically from antiquity to the present day (Mackey 1965; Titone 1968; Rivers 1981). They all focus on a long-standing conflict of methods between formalism and activism – that is, between enquiry and practice – as the principal key to HLT. Mackey and Titone viewed the history of language teaching as a dual conflict between, on the one hand, the work of activist reformers between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries (Montaigne, Comenius, Locke, Basedow, Jacotot or Viëtor among others) and, on the other hand, the formalistic trend represented, particularly throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, by Meidenger, Ahn, Ollendorf and Ploetz. Kelly (1969), unlike most previous writers who were concerned with the development of teaching methods, widens the scope of historical studies by extending the historical approach to a large number of other features in language pedagogy, such as the choice of languages, changes in the objectives of language teaching, the role of the teacher, and so on. By doing this, Kelly introduces a synchronic approach into the study of HLT. Stern (1983) suggests that research on HLT needs both the synchronic and diachronic approaches to complement each other: that is, the synchronic study of language teaching and learning at a given stage in history (both in its social and educational context), and

Introduction: The historiogr aphy of FLT

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the diachronic description of the development of different features and aspects over time. Since Stern, studies on HLT have incorporated both the synchronic and diachronic approaches (see, for example, Michael 1987; Loonen 1991; Klippel 1994). In this regard, both the Dutch and German historiography of English language teaching (ELT) includes remarkable research, in contrast with other European countries. Pieter Loonen was one of the first Dutch pioneers to deal with this discipline. His book For to Learne to Buye and Sell: Learning English in the Low Dutch Area Between 1500-1800. A critical survey, provides a critical outline of ELT alongside an extensive bibliography containing forty primary sources. A few years later, a sequel to Loonen’s book entitled English in the Netherlands: A History of Foreign Language Teaching 1800-1920. With a Bibliography of Textbooks was written by F. A. Wilhelm (2005). German historiographers include Konrad Schröder (1980-85); Konrad Macht (1986-1990); Friederike Klippel (1994), and Helmut Glück (2002; 2013). Both the Netherlands and Germany seem to possess a more consolidated tradition of research into the historiography of ELT than Spain, mainly due to the fact that ELT started much earlier in those northern countries than in Spain, and therefore they have a longer tradition in the teaching of foreign languages. H. H. Stern (1983) laid the foundations for a more accurate study of the history of foreign language teaching. He classified the different approaches to the study of the history of FLT into two major groups: general surveys and studies of particular aspects. The former is subcategorized into two further types: the f irst comprises general chronological approaches such as Mackey (1965), Rivers (1981), Viña (2000), and Howatt and Widdowson (2004); the second includes studies on thematic treatment, such as Kelly (1969), Folgado (1988) or Wilhelm (1993). Studies on particular aspects are best represented by Maréchal (1972), Santoyo and Guardia (1982), Fischer et al. (2004) and Wilhelm (2005). Other recent historiographers have restricted their f ield of research to national chronological surveys. Such is the case of Balz Engler and Renate Haas, editors of European English Studies: Contributions Towards the History of a Discipline (2000), a collection of essays dealing with more or less self-conscious national surveys designed to contribute, at an academic level, to the construction of a nascent Pan-European perspective on the history of English at tertiary level. It is a far-reaching book encompassing most European countries: Portugal, Austria, Spain, Poland, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Serbia, France, Germany, Holland, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Romania.

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Publications on the history of foreign language teaching in Spain Despite the lack of a solid tradition of comprehensive historical studies on FLT, there has been a growing interest in the history and development of FLT in Spain since the 1990s. Apart from some rare exceptions, most of the academic literature produced in Spain is in the form of articles or brief monographs, which are not sufficient to obtain the most accurate possible picture of the whole development of FLT in Spain. Two exhaustive descriptions stand out in this sea of articles: the first is Calle Carabías, La enseñanza oficial de idiomas en España: Por una redefinición de la formación teórica del profesorado (The official teaching of languages in Spain: For a redefinition of teachers’ theoretical training, 1990). He outlines the evolution of FLT and the teaching profession in Spain from 1750 to 1990. Fernández and Suso’s 2001 work La didáctica de la lengua extranjera (Foreign language pedagogy) offers a detailed account of the fundamental theories by analysing some of the foreign language curricula both in primary and secondary schooling. Among the most relevant articles on the history of ELT, we may cite Morales et al. (2000) La enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras en España (Foreign language teaching in Spain); three articles written by María del Mar Viña Rouco –‘The teaching of foreign languages in Europe: a historical perspective on FLT in Spain’ (2002); ‘Metodología inductiva y deductiva en la enseñanza de las lenguas vivas en España en el siglo XIX’ (‘Inductive and deductive methodologies in the teaching of modern languages in Spain in the nineteenth century’, 2005), and ‘Un notable antecedente del enfoque comunicativo en la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras y de la apertura europeista en España de principios del siglo XX: Memoria histórica de la enseñanza de idiomas’ (‘A notorious antecedent of the communicative approach in FLT and the European opening in the early 20th century. Spain: a historical memory of language teaching’, 2009) – and finally, Botella and González,‘Los inicios de la enseñanza de las lenguas para fines específicos en el Real Colegio de Cirugía de la Armada de Cádiz’ (‘The beginnings of languages for specific purposes in El Real Colegio de Cirugía de la Armada of Cádiz’, 2007). The emergence of some academic associations specialized in the history of FLT in the recent past has also contributed to a major interest in the historiography of applied linguistics. In alphabetical order, APHELLE, Associação Portuguesa para a História do Ensino das Línguas e Literaturas Extranjeras (Portuguese Association for the History of Foreign Languages and Literature) in Portugal; CIRSIL, Centro Interuniversitario da Recerca sugla Istoria degli Insegnamenti Linguistici (Interuniversity Research Centre

Introduction: The historiogr aphy of FLT

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on the History of Linguistic Teaching) in Italy; and, HoLLT.net (History of Language Learning and Teaching) in Great Britain. We may mention, in passing, the SIHFLES or Société Internationale pour l’Histoire du Français Langue Étrangère ou Seconde (International Society for the History of French Language Teaching), which happens to be the oldest association of all, created in 1987. As for Spain, a case in point is SEHL, Sociedad Española de Historiografía Lingüística (Spanish Society of Linguistic Historiography) which, since 1995, has published articles on the history of the teaching of foreign languages, namely Spanish.

The historiography of ELT in Spain: A retrospective The first significant study on the history of ELT in Spain is Sofía Martín Gamero’s book La enseñanza del inglés en España: Desde la Edad Media hasta el siglo XIX (The teaching of English in Spain: From the Middle Ages to the nineteenth century), a doctoral thesis written in 1960 and published in an abridged version by Gredos in 1961. It is interesting to note that a few years before, the new degree in English Philology had arrived, first in 1952 in Salamanca and then in 1954 in Barcelona. As the author explains in her prologue, she delves into an unknown field: the (very minority) interest in the English language in Spain during those centuries. Furthermore, her work focuses on those instruments (grammars and dictionaries) to which ELT was confined, even though the main topic in her book is Anglo-Spanish cultural relations from a Spanish perspective: En esta obra se trata de ofrecer una historia del conocimiento y difusión de la lengua inglesa en España […] como contribución al estudio del desarrollo de las relaciones culturales entre Inglaterra y la Península. (Martín-Gamero 1961, Prologue) This work aims to provide a history of the knowledge and diffusion of the English language in Spain […] as a contribution to the study of the development of the cultural relations between England and the Peninsula.

In Martín-Gamero’s book, the various manuals for the teaching of English represent a cultural dimension that needs to be taken into consideration. Steiner writes that Gamero’s book contains ‘many inaccuracies […] and her analysis of the contents and organization of the dictionaries and the methods of the lexicographers are often scant and inexact’ (1970, 12). However, there

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is no doubt that her book paved the way for further research into the study of ELT in our country. Her book is one of the most often quoted among researchers (see Caravolas 2000; Stern 1983; Viña 2000, among others). Santoyo and Guardia (1982, 3-7), present a brief historical review of English studies in Spain in the first chapter of their book Treinta años de filología inglesa en la Universidad española (Thirty years of English Philology in Spanish universities). This book also provides an exhaustive compilation of all the undergraduate and doctoral theses written and defended in Spain between 1952 and 1982. From this same perspective, the AEDEAN, Asociación Española de Estudios Anglo-Norteamericanos (Spanish Association of AngloNorth American Studies), in their twenty-sixth Conference, celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of English studies in Spanish universities with a commemorative volume called Fifty Years of English Studies in Spain (1952-2002), published by the University of Santiago de Compostela in 2003. Unfortunately, no topics related to the historiography of ELT can be found in the proceedings of this commemorative congress. Vicente López Folgado wrote a doctoral thesis bearing the title Gramáticas inglesas publicadas en España en el siglo XVIII (English grammars published in Spain in the eighteenth century), published by the Complutense University of Madrid in 1988. The principles underlying his thesis are concerned with the historical linguistic development of grammars, with an empirical and rationalist epistemology. He lays special stress on grammatical theory between the sixteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century, with the intention of renewing that type of grammatical study. López’s viewpoint is that of unveiling the dense ideological fabric which underlies the grammars he studies. In reality, he surveys four grammars: two of them from the eighteenth century (Steffan 1784; Connelly 1784) and the other two from the early nineteenth century (Shipton 1812; Casey 1819). As with Martín-Gamero (1961), there is no chronological primary source bibliography of all the grammars published in Spain that would better enable the reader to assess the development of English teaching materials. The real innovation in López’s work, though, is his epistemological approach in tackling these historical grammars from an empirical stance. On top of that, he also refers to modern grammar theories in order to shed light on some complex historical linguistic points, which contribute to a better understanding of the evolution of historical linguistics. His historical work shares some common ground with that of Martín-Gamero, as both provide a cultural background to the diverse grammars mentioned in their works. However, the linguistic content stands out in López since it provides both a retrospective study of grammar theory and a thorough linguistic description of such grammars.

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This variety of approaches to the same theme of historical linguistics is an explicit indicator of the complex nature of language teaching, according to Stern (1983). Calle Carabías (1990) describes the historical development of FLT in Spain, although he narrows down his research to the study of the teachers’ activity in official secondary schooling since, according to this author, it is the only level where there are field-specific teachers. His study extends from 1750 until the late 1980s, mainly focusing on FLT teachers’ training. Sureda (1992) delves into the historiography of ELT in Menorca during the British occupation of the island in the eighteenth century in a book called L’aprenentatge de la llengua anglesa en el primer període de la dominació britànica a Menorca (1708-1756). Un alter mite a trencar? (The Learning of English in the first period of British domination in Menorca (1708-1756). Another myth to bust?). There is no mention of primary sources in terms of English manuals: suffice it to say that communication between the local Menorcan people and the British took place in French, since it was the lingua franca of the moment. With the onset of the twenty-first century, there has been an upsurge in historical accounts of ELT in Spain touching upon a wide array of aspects never studied before. Viña (2000) deals with foreign language methodology or didactics in her published thesis La enseñanza de las lenguas vivas en España (1800-1936), con especial referencia a la lengua inglesa (The teaching of modern languages in Spain (1800-1936), with special reference to the English language). She takes a quick look at some didactical French and English manuals as FLT materials, although the main aim of her work is to relate the methods used in FLT to a wider conceptual and methodological framework. Other contributions to the historiography of ELT include Monterrey’s two-part article Los estudios ingleses en España (1900-1950), (English Studies in Spain (1900-1950), 2003). The first part examines the curricula of both secondary and university education, while the second deals with the ideological and cultural context. Fernández Menéndez has written three different articles all dealing with ELT historiography: ‘Relación entre la antigua Carrera de comercio y el desarrollo de estudios ingleses: referido a la ciudad de Santander en el siglo XIX y primeros años del XX’ (The relation between the former Commerce Studies and the development of English studies: referred to the city of Santander in the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, 2009); ‘Métodos para la enseñanza del inglés durante el siglo XIX y primera mitad del XX’ (Methods for the teaching of English during the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth, 2011); and ‘La lengua inglesa y su profesorado en la legislación educativa de segunda enseñanza y de estudios mercantiles, 1836-1953’ (The

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English language and its teaching staff in the educational legislation of secondary schooling and commercial studies, 1836-1953, published 2012). Scholars in other disciplines belonging or close to the general field of linguistics have also begun to revisit their past history in a move towards a historiography of their own. In the case of translation studies, see Historia de la traducción en España (1750-1830), (The history of translation in Spain (1750-1830)), by Lafarga and Pegenaute (2004), and in lexicography, Molina García and Sánchez Benedito (2008) Diccionario Nuevo de las dos lenguas Española e Inglesa by Connelly and Higgins (1796-98) (New dictionary of the Spanish and English languages by Connelly and Higgins (1796-98)). Steiner wrote a seminal work entitled Two Centuries of Spanish and English Bilingual Lexicography (1590-1800) (1970), which laid the foundations for a more fixed tradition in the historiography of lexicography by and large. Other works, mainly monographs, on the history of lexicography include those by Santoyo (1974), Rizo and Valera (2000), Cazorla (2006), Fuster (2006) and Garriga Escribano and Gállego Paz (2008), to name just a few. To round off this section, a final word on a new trend in the all-encompassing historiography of ELT: the history of the teaching of pronunciation. This is best represented by Javier Villoria Prieto, who focuses on three eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Spanish pronunciation manuals for learning English, written by three key figures: Francisco Piferrer (2008), José de Urcullu (2007) and Juan Steffan (2011).

Methodology of the present work Foreign language teaching and learning is, to put it plainly, a cultural phenomenon that has accompanied humankind for centuries. This work adheres to such a fact, thus adding a bit of spice to it. Given the manifold approaches to a historiography of foreign language teaching and learning, ranging from general surveys to specific topics, as derived from the above-mentioned works, it becomes rather complex to follow a chartered route, as it were, when it comes to dealing with a specific historical tradition of ELT at a national level. It is even more complex if we consider how the different associations devoted to the historiography of foreign language teaching differ in their methodologies. Swiggers (2012) advocates a tripartite framework whereby we can approach historical studies: heuristic, hermeneutic and history writing. However innovative this may sound, however, the fact is that we still lack practical studies which may account for such a complex phenomenon.

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That said, in the present work I follow an eclectic methodology which revolves around primary sources and the historical context in which they were written, rather than on the limited framework of the history of methods. It is an interdisciplinary work, departing from an applied linguistic stance with forays into other disciplines such as history, the history of education, and sociology, thus giving it a cultural varnish. Other marginal sources such as personal documents, advertisements in the local press, and literary extracts have also been consulted, all focused on the experience of foreign language learning. Later, the book also treats several theoretical works that conveyed individual ideas on the status of foreign language teaching and learning across the period we are studying, both at a national and international level. This survey is just the tip of the iceberg. Several aspects still remain to be revealed, especially those relating to the hard-to-find marginal sources (such as diary entries, personal documents, and the like), whose surface I have only scratched in this work. The historical press abounds in references to advertised manuals, opinions on the suitability of foreign language teaching and learning, academies, and so on, which constitute very valuable contemporary insights for reconstructing our past ELT tradition. A full biographical account of all the manual writers is yet to be made; in most cases, hardly any information has been found in this respect. History is sometimes very slippery and whimsical. The present work concludes with the inclusion of two appendices which round off this study. The first is a corpus of all the English manuals published in Spain between 1769 and 1970 –almost two centuries of history compiled for the first time in a single book. In fact, a partial corpus, from 1769 to 1900, has been available since the completion of my PhD (Lombardero 2015). What is particularly novel about this corpus is the period 1900-1970. The second appendix is an article called La Simulació (The Simulation). It was the very first article in the Catalan review Quaderns D’Estudi (October 1915, Año (Year) 1, no. 1), a monthly publication specially aimed at teachers and professors. The director was the Catalan writer and philosopher Eugeni d’Ors i Rovira (1881-1954), who also happened to be the writer of the abovementioned article, although he signed it with the pseudonym El Guaita. The article deals with the topic of this survey: that is, the learning and teaching of modern languages. I deemed it highly necessary to rescue this article from oblivion, as it was written by one of the leading intellectuals of the time and his views on the topic are well worth reading for their priceless historical value.

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I do not regard this work as a final destination but as a starting point that may trigger further research in the years to come. There is common agreement amongst historiographers from different traditions on the need to join efforts and work in a collaborative way, in order to unearth the past of foreign language teaching and learning at a global level. May this goal be achieved some day, so that we can proudly establish a worldwide history of our discipline which, undoubtedly, will bear sufficient fruit to improve our everyday practice as language teachers, legislators, translators, and anyone interested in foreign language learning.

Bibliography Botella Rodríguez, Manuel, and Pilar González Rodríguez. 2007. ‘Los inicios de la enseñanza de las lenguas para fines específicos en el Real Colegio de Cirugía de la Armada de Cádiz.’ IBÉRICA 14: 59-78. http://www.aelfe.org/documents/14-04_botella.pdf. Accessed 23 April 2017. Calle Carabías, Quintín. 1990. La enseñanza oficial de idiomas en España. Por una redefinición teórica del profesorado. Doctoral thesis. Málaga: Secretariado de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Málaga. Caravolas, Jean-Antoine. 2000. Histoire de la didactique des langues au siècle des Lumières: précis et anthologie thématique. Québec: Presses Universitaires de Montreal. Casey, Guillermo. 1819. Gramática inglesa para uso de los españoles. Barcelona: Juan Francisco Piferrer, Impresor de S. M. Casey, William. 1846. Nueva Gramática Teorico y Práctica de la Lengua Alemana En Tres Partes: I Tratado Completo de la Pronunciación y Prosodia. II Definición Analítica de las Nueve Partes del Discurso. III Sintaxis o arte de coordenar los miembros en la oración. Barcelona: Imp. de José Tauló. Cazorla Vivas, María del Carmen, Narciso M. Contreras Izquierdo, Mª Ángeles García Aranda, and Mª Águeda Moreno Moreno (eds.). 2006. Estudios de Historia de la Lengua e Historiografía Lingüística. Valencia: AJIHLE. Connelly, Thomas. 1784. Gramática que contiene reglas faciles para pronunciar, y aprender metódicamente la lengua inglesa, [Etc.]. Madrid: Imprenta Real. El Guaita [Eugeni d’Ors i Rovira]. 1915. ‘La Simulació’. Quaderns d’Estudi1, no. 1: 3-7. Engler, Balz, and Renate Haas, eds. 2000. European English Studies: Contributions Towards the History of a Discipline. Leicester: Published for the European Society for the Study of English by the English Association. Fernández Fraile, María Eugenia, and Suso López, Javier. 2001. La didáctica de la lengua extranjera. Granada: Editorial Comares.

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Fernández Menéndez, María Antonia. 2012. ‘La lengua inglesa y su profesorado en la legislación educativa de segunda enseñanza y de estudios mercantiles, 1836-1953’. Tonos Digital 22.http://www.tonosdigital.es/ojs/index.php/tonos/ article/view/738. Accessed 14 February 2017. ———. 2011. ‘Métodos para la enseñanza del inglés durante el siglo XIX y primera mitad del XX’. Tonos Digital 21. ———. 2009. ‘Relación entre la vieja Carrera de Comercio y el desarrollo de estudios ingleses referido a la ciudad de Santander en el siglo XIX y primeros años del XX’. Tonos Digital 17. http://www.um.es/tonosdigital/znum17/secciones/ estudios-6-Santander.htm. Accessed 14 February 2017. Fischer, Denise, Juan F. García Bascuñana, and María Trinidad Gómez. 2004. Repertorio de gramáticas y manuales para la enseñanza del francés en España (1565-1940). Barcelona: PPU (Promociones y Publicaciones Universitarias). Folgado, Vicente López. 1988. Las gramáticas inglesas publicadas en España en el siglo XVIII. Colección Tesis Doctorales. No. 300/88. Madrid: Editorial de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Fuster Sirvent, Paula. 2008. ‘“A new Spanish and English dictionary” (1706). La obra del capitán John Stevens en la tradición lexicográfica plurilingüe’. In El diccionario como puente entre las lenguas y culturas del mundo, edited by Dolores Azorín Fernández,82-88. Actas del II Congreso Internacional de Lexicografía Hispánica. Alicante: Universidad de Alicante-Fundación. García Bascuñana, Juan F. (ed.). 2016. Diccionario de la historia de la enseñanza del francés en España (siglos XVI-XX). Entry: Chantreau, Pierre-Nicholas (Paris 1741 – Auch 1808), written by María Eugenia Fernández Fraile.www.grelinap. recerca.urv.cat/projectes/diccionario-historia-ensenanza-frances-espana/ es_index/. Accessed 12 October 2018. Garriga Escribano, Cecilio, and Raquel Gállego Paz. 2008. ‘Velázquez de la Cadena y la lexicografía bilingüe inglés / español’, in Proceedings of the XIII EURALEX International Congress, edited by Elisenda Bernal & Janet Ann De Cesaris, 1105-1114. Barcelona: IULA. Glück, Helmut, Mark Häberlein und Konrad Schröder. 2013. Mehrsprachigkeit in der Frühen Neuzeit. Die Reichsstädte Augsburg und Nürnberg vom 15. Bis ins frühe 19. Jahrhundert. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Glück, Helmut. 2002. Deutsch als Fremdsprache in Europa vom Mittelalter bis zur Barockzeit. Berlin: De Gruyter. Howatt, A. P. R., with H. G. Widdowson.2004. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kelly, Louis G. 1969. 25 Centuries of Language Teaching. Rowley: Newbury House. Klippel, Friedrericke. 1994. Englischlernen im 18 Und 19 Jahrhundert: die Geschichte der Lehrbücher und Unterrichtsmethoden. Münster: Nodus Publikationen.

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Lafarga, Francisco, and Luis Pegenaute. 2004. Historia de la traducción en España (1750-1830). Salamanca: Colegio de España. Lombardero Caparrós, Alberto. 2015. The Historiography of English Language Teaching in Spain: A Corpus of Grammars and Dictionaries (1769-1970). Doctoral thesis. University Rovira i Virgili. http://www.tdx.cat/handle/10803/318808. Accessed 15 March 2017. Loonen, Petrus Leonardus Maria. 1991. For to Learne to Buye and Sell: Learning English in the Low Dutch Area Between 1500 and 1800: ACritical Survey. Amsterdam: APA-Holland University Press. López Folgado, Vicente. 1986. Gramáticas inglesas publicadas en el siglo XVIII. Madrid: Universidad Complutense. Macht, Konrad. 1986-90. Methodengeschichte des Englischunterrichts. Band 1: 1800-1880. Band 2: 1880-1960. Band 3: 1960-1985. Augsburg: Universität Augsburg. Mackey William, Francis. 1965. Language Teaching Analysis. London: Longman. Maréchal, R.1972. Histoire de l’enseignement et de la méthodologie des langues vivantes en Belgique, des origines au début du XX Siècle. Paris, Brussels, Montreal: M. Didier. Martín-Gamero, Sofía. 1961. La enseñanza del inglés en España: (desde la edad media hasta el siglo XIX). Madrid: Gredos. Michael, Ian. 1987. The Teaching of English from the Sixteenth Century to 1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Molina García, Daniel, and Francisco Sánchez Benedito. 2008. Análisis del ‘Diccionario nuevo de las dos lenguas española é inglesa’ de Connelly & Higgins (1797-1798). Málaga: Publicaciones Universidad de Málaga. Monterrey, Tomás. 2003. ‘Los estudios ingleses en España (1900-1950): legislación curricular’. Atlantis 25, 1: 63-80. Morales Gálvez, Carmen, Laura Ocaña Villuendas, Alicio López Gayarre, Irene Arrimadas Gómez and Eulalia Ramírez Nueda. 2000. La enseñanza de las lenguas extranjeras en España. Madrid: Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, Centro de Investigación y Documentación Educativa http://www. mec.es/cide/publicaciones/textos/inv2000elee/inv2000elee.htm. Accessed 30 November 2017. Palacios Martínez, Ignacio M., María José López Couso, Patricia Fra López, and Elena Seoane Posse (eds.). 2003. Fifty Years of English Studies in Spain (1952-2002). A Commemorative Volume. Actas del XXVI Congreso de AEDEAN. Santiago de Compostela: Universidade, Servicio de Publicacións e Intercambio Científico. Puren, Christien. 1988. Histoire des méthodologies. Paris: Nathan, Clé Internationale. (Col. Didactique des langues étrangères). Rivers, Wilga M. 1981 [1968]. Teaching Foreign-Language Skills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

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Rizo Rodríguez, Alfonso J. R., and Salvador Valera Hernández. 2001. ‘Lexicografía bilingüe: el español y la lengua inglesa’. In Cinco siglos de lexicografía del español, edited by Ignacio Ahumada Lara: 341-380. Jaén: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Santoyo, Julio-César. 1974. ‘Richard Percyvall y el primer diccionario inglés-español’. Revista de Filología Inglesa 4: 67-87. Santoyo, Julio-César, and Pedro Guardia. 1982. Treinta años de filología inglesa en la Universidad española (1952-1982). Madrid: Alhambra. Schröder, Konrad. 1980-85. Linguarem recentium annales. Der Unterricht in den modernen europäischen Sprachen im deutschprachigen Raum. 4 vols. Augsburg: Universität Augsburg. Shipton, Jorge. 1812. Gramática para enseñar la lengua inglesa, 2nd ed. Cádiz: D. Manuel Ximenez Carreño. Steffan, Juan. 1784. Gramática inglesa, y Castellana o Arte metodico y Nuevo para aprender con facilidad el idioma ingles. Valencia: D. Manuel Peleguer. Steiner, Roger J. 1970. Two Centuries of Spanish and English Bilingual Lexicography (1590-1800). The Hague-Paris: Walter De Gruyter Inc. Stern, H. H. 1983. Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sureda i Carrió, Jeroni. 1992. L’aprenentatge de la llengua anglesa en el primer período de la dominació Britànica a Menorca (1708-1756). Un altre mite a trencar? Barcelona: Universidad de Barcelona. Swiggers, Pierre. 2012. ‘Linguistic Historiography: Object, Methodology, Modelization’. Todas as Letras 14, no. 1: 38-53. Titone, Renzo. 1968. Teaching Foreign Languages: An Historical Sketch. Washington: Georgetown University Press. Van Els, Theo et al. 1984. Applied Linguistics and the Learning and Teaching of Foreign Languages. London: Edward Arnold. Villoria Prieto, Javier. 2007. ‘Metodología y didáctica de la enseñanza de la pronunciación inglesa en España: José de Urcullu (1825)’. In Lecciones azules. Lengua, literatura y didáctica, edited by Remedios Sánchez, 185-200. Madrid: Visor. ———. 2008. ‘La enseñanza de la lengua inglesa en la España del XIX. Nueva (1845) y Novísima Gramática Inglesa (1864), de Antonio Bergnes de las Casas’. Quaderni del CIRSIL 8: 177-198. ———. 2010. ‘Juan Steffan y su instrucción o tratado para la enseñanza de la pronunciación del inglés’. Porta Linguarum: revista internacional de la didáctica de lenguas extranjeras 13: 131-147. Viña Rouco, María. 2000. La enseñanza de las lenguas vivas en España (1800-1936) con especial referencia a la lengua inglesa. Doctoral thesis. Santiago de Compostela: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela.

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———. 2002. ‘The Teaching of foreign languages in Europe: a historical perspective of ELT in Spain’. CAUCE, Revista de Filología y su Didáctica 25: 255-280. ———. 2005. ‘Metodología inductiva y deductiva en la enseñanza de lenguas vivas en España en el siglo XIX’. Porta Linguarum: An International and Interuniversity Journal of Foreign Language Didactics 4: 185-200. ———. 2009. ‘Un notable antecedente del enfoque comunicativo en la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras y de la apertura europeista en España de principios del siglo XX: Memoria histórica de la enseñanza de idiomas’. Porta Linguarum: An International and Interuniversity Journal of Foreign Language Didactics 11: 51-64. Wilhelm, Frans A. 1993. ‘Training FL Teachers in the Netherlands, 1795-1970: An Historical Outline’. In Five Hundred Years of Foreign Language Teaching in the Netherlands, edited by J. Noordegraaf and F. Vonk, 67-87. Amsterdam: Stichting Neerlandistiek VU; Münster: Nodus Publikationen. ———. 2005.English in the Netherlands: A History of Foreign Language Teaching 1800–1920; With a Bibliography of Textbooks. Utrecht: Gopher Publ.

1.

The inception of ELT in Spain (1769-1850) Abstract The first decades of the teaching and learning of the English language in Spain come under close scrutiny in this chapter, against a backdrop of socio-cultural and political turmoil. The first acts of official legislation on education are also dealt with to trace the (non-)inclusion of English as an independent subject in official curricula. At the same time, a more global and contrastive vision of foreign language teaching in Europe in terms of major innovations in the field is also accounted for. Regarding the Spanish tradition, the core topics dealt with are the official and private institutions where English was taught as well as how it was taught, laying special stress on some of the most published manuals in the period covered in this chapter. Keywords: ELT, Spain, official curricula, Thomas Connelly, Guillermo Casey

1.1.

Political and socio-cultural framework

At the outset of our period, Spain was no longer the empire whose heyday had lasted over a century and a half, between the ‘discovery’ of America in 1492 and the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, a civil war known as the War of the Spanish Succession, brought in a new royal dynasty. The Austro-German Habsburgs were taken over by the French Bourbons as stated in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Oliván and Sáez (2004: 140) depict the main guidelines of the Bourbon reforms, which reinforced the figure of the absolutist-driven king as being much like Louis XIV’s so-called motto L’État, c’est moi: La implantación del reformismo borbónico no sólo generó una serie de transformaciones en las instituciones políticas favorecedoras de la

Lombardero Caparrós, A., Two Centuries of English Language Teaching and Learning in Spain. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462986282/ch01

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centralización y de la globalización de la administración. Los hombres nuevos que tomaron las riendas del poder, se impregnaron de los aires ilustrados perceptibles en el ambiente intelectual y cultural del XVIII español. The deployment of the Bourbon reforms did not only generate a series of changes in political institutions favouring the centralization and globalization of the administration. The new men who took the reins of power were imbued with enlightenment ideas perceptible in the intellectual and cultural atmosphere of eighteenth-century Spain.1

This enlightened despotism, which originated in the Bourbons’ seizure of the Spanish throne, was to last until well into the nineteenth century, as we shall see. Meanwhile, the new centralized Spanish government initiated a series of reforms from a linguistic standpoint, which were generally addressed, above all, to the elites. They only affected the official spheres and manifestations of high culture. According to Baader (1981), the Enlightenment was a minority phenomenon in Spain. As for linguistic policies, two Royal Decrees by Carlos III stand out. Firstly, the Royal Decree of 23 June 1768 ordered that both primary and secondary education be carried out in Spanish (the general language) all over Spain, with the subsequent suppression of the other co-official languages such as Galician, Catalan and Basque. The same decree laid out that the judgements handed down by the Barcelona Court of Appeal, which had hitherto been written in Latin, were to be worded in Spanish (Eberenz 1992, 374). Secondly, a Royal Decree of 10 May 1770 imposed the Spanish language as the only one in all the colonies administered by the Council of the Indies, which in its original form, the Real y Supremo Consejo de Indias, was the most important organ of indigenous government (America and the Philippines). It offered advice to the king on executive, legislative and judicial functions. It was created in 1511 and suppressed by a Decree by the Courts of Cádiz on 17 April 1812. Despite not being an empire any longer, Spain still dominated a vast territory which included most of South and Central America. However, after the Peninsular War (1808-1814) a period of decolonisation began which ushered in awave of independence movements across SouthAmerican countries,2 which was to end with the loss of the last two Spanish colonies, Cuba and Puerto Rico, in 1898. 1 2

This translation and subsequent ones are the author’s. Argentina (1816); Mexico and Peru (1821); Uruguay (1825); Venezuela (1811).

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1.2.

27

The socio-cultural context

While the sixteenth century was the century of teachers, the seventeenth saw the consolidation of national grammars around Europe, with the exception of English, which had to wait until the following century for a ‘national’ grammar to be normalized. The eighteenth became the century of the first attempts at creating a secular education detached from the reins of the Church. This century witnessed the emergence of a cultural movement that swept across most European countries, and which was known as Aufklärung, Ilustración, Enlightenment, Philosophie des Lumières, Illuminismo. A different name for different realities, since it was not a synchronic process. The eighteenth century could also be called the century of educational reformers. For the first time, various intellectuals and statesmen across Europe (such as Locke in England, Condorcet in France or Jovellanos in Spain) became staunch supporters of secular education as a universal right, accessible to everyone, and devoid of the total control imposed by the Church. These great men contributed to instilling into their governments and their fellow countrymen the idea that education had to be modernized according to their times. Immanuel Kant, in an essay published in 1784 called Was ist Aufklärung? (What is the Enlightenment?), depicted the Zeitgeist of the eighteenth century with the Latin motto Sapere Aude! (Dare to know!). In this socio-cultural context, it is no surprise that the modernization of education included the study of foreign languages, even though according to Viña (2000, 111) they were treated as materias de adorno (ornamental subjects) towards the end of the century in Spain. Caravolas (2000, 185), referring to the eighteenth century, surmises that ‘la modernisation des programmes d’études et des méthodes d’enseignement en Espagne est faible avant la fin du siècle’ (the modernization of study programmes and teaching methods in Spain was rare until the turn of the century). Therefore the inclusion of English in an official curriculum was delayed until the nineteenth century, with more or less success depending on the country. Wilhelm accurately describes the presence of English in Holland before the period which was the object of his study, 1800-1920, although it could be extended to Spain and the rest of Europe as well: Prior to the nineteenth century, foreign language teaching, like so many other forms of teaching, was entirely a matter of private enterprise on the part of the teachers and a matter of private initiative on the part of the learner. (2005, 80).

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One of the main reasons why the English language was hardly ever studied in eighteenth-century Europe lies in the fact that French had been the lingua franca for almost two centuries. As a matter of fact, it would continue as such until well into the twentieth century, especially in Spain. Despite this bleak situation, favourable winds were blowing in Spain for ELT, mainly from the second half of the eighteenth century onwards, as the first linguistic manuals began to be published on Spanish soil. However, interest in the English language was anecdotal and limited at the time. The true innovation in eighteenth-century Spain was best represented by a group of intellectuals and some statesmen who, under the reign of Charles III, regarded the implementation of modern language teaching as a principal necessity for the sought-for modernization of the country promoted by the more progressive sectors in Spanish society. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, a certain group of Spanish intellectuals were popularly known as Novatores, a name that was perjorative and only used by their opponents. They should properly have been called Innovators or Reformers. They showed an interest in science coinciding with the European scientific revolution (1680-1720). They advocated for a rational explanation of reality and despised tradition and intellectual rigidity. Some of the leading figures in Spain include Feijoo, Gregorio Mayans, Diego M. Zapata and Juan Caramuel. They sympathised with and followed the major European works written by John Locke, Richard Simons, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Pierre Bayle, Isaac Newton, and others. They publicly expressed their preference for modern languages over classical ones. They contributed to paving the way for a major FLT presence towards the second half of the century. That said, I will mention four key socio-cultural facts that paved the way for the establishment of a new linguistic tradition in Spain, which ushered in the production of didactical books for learning English as a foreign language. Firstly, whereas political literature in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was fundamentally focused on the education of princes, the works of the Spanish reformers were geared towards the education of citizens in general. A case in point is the Instituto Asturiano (Asturian Institute), founded in 1794 by Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744-1811). It was open to people from all walks of life as a means to boost the economy in Asturias, Spain. Secondly, a turning point in eighteenth-century Spain was the expulsion of the Jesuits, which took place in 1767. Reforms in education were advanced in an attempt to fill the gap left by the religious order. Para-academic centres were founded which, unlike universities, which followed a more classical type of curriculum, pursued a utilitarian education that contemplated the

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study of foreign languages, mainly French and, to a lesser extent, Italian and English.Examples include Los Reales Estudios de San Isidro de Madrid (Royal Studies of Saint Isidro of Madrid), 1770; El Seminario de Nobles de Vergara (Seminary for Noblemen of Vergara), 1776; Las Sociedades Económicas de Amigos del País (Economic Societies of Fellow Countrymen), Thirdly, the first Spanish Bourbons founded Academies such as the Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy), founded by the Marquis de Villena in 1714; this was followed by the Real Academia de Historia (Royal Academy of History) in 1738, the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando (Royal Academy of Fine Arts of Saint Ferdinand) in 1752, and so on and so forth. The university reforms immediately after the expulsion of the Jesuits and the creation of new educational centres became the levers of official intervention in the field of culture. Lastly, the number of translated works increased significantly throughout the eighteenth century. It was not only literary works that were translated but also scientific ones. Concerning the latter, Roig (1995) traces some two hundred works translated from the following languages: French (149 titles), Italian (33 titles), English (12 titles) and German (3 titles). Translations from the English language began to appear from the second half of the eighteenth century onwards, coinciding with the publication of the first manuals for learning English, as we shall see briefly. To sum up, we can conclude that throughout this period, the linguistic policies in Spain had been those of the Spanish Crown, first the Habsburgs (in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries), who applied a non-coercive ‘hispanization’, and later the Bourbons (from the eighteenth century onwards), whose policies were centralist, top-down, state-run and fully pro-Spanish. The relatively successful Spanish linguistic innovation in the eighteenth century was dealt a huge blow between 1814 and 1833 under the rule of Ferdinand VII. It was one of the darkest periods in nineteenth-century Spanish history.

1.3.

European FLT framework.

By the time the RAE (Real Academia Española) was founded, there already existed two Academies, one Italian and one French, which exerted a significant influence in the creation of the RAE. The oldest was the Academia della Crusca Italiana (literally, the Italian Bran Academy), founded in Florence between 1582 and 1583;in the following century, the Académie Française (French Academy) was founded in 1637. As for the English language, TiekenBoon asserts that:

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During the eighteenth century, the English language was first codified into grammars and dictionaries, not at the instigation of an Academy as in France, Italy or Spain (and later, Sweden), but as a result of the efforts of individuals such as Robert Lowth, a clergyman who became bishop of London after he had written his famous grammar and Samuel Johnson, whose ‘Dictionary of the English Language’ came out in 1755. Including John Walker, author of the Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791). (2008, 6).

Unlike the Academy-based countries, Great Britain’s language codifiers learnt that no living language can be fixed and, as a consequence, have left us with a legacy of linguistic uncertainty. The hyperactive grammar writing of both the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Great Britain did not develop linguistic theory, but provided people with guidance on correct use. A case in point is Lindley Murray (1745-1826), whose English Grammar (1795) – together with the Abridgement (1797), the Exercises (1797), and the Key to the Exercises (1797) – became a bestseller soon after its publication in the English-speaking world.3 In 1799, Longman bought the rights for Murray’s works which sold some 50,000 copies annually (Monaghan 1996, 27). Murray’s success as a grammarian may lie in the fact that, far from being a speculative or philosophical grammarian, he underlined the descriptive, empiricist, autonomous and practical aspects of language. This can be seen in the use of notes and observations at the bottom of the pages in his grammar, which represented an innovative resource away from the uniform order of the several subjects in most grammars of the time. Such was the impact of Murray’s grammar during and beyond his lifetime that according to Tieken-Boon, ‘The translation of L. Murray’s English Grammar (1795) into many different languages is often taken as a starting point for the spread of English as a world language’ (1996, 301). In the Spanish-speaking world Murray’s textbooks failed to catch on, except for a translation of his Spelling Book written by Pedro Alonso O’Crowley in 1841 and entitled El spelling book ilustrado, con reglas fijas, claras y sencillas para leer el inglés (The illustrated spelling book, with fixed, clear and simple rules for reading English). As far as foreign language teaching is concerned, the eighteenth century witnessed a new wave of manuals that were to condition not only this first period of our study but the whole of the nineteenth century. Two countries stand out here – France and Germany. To some extent, they were to lead the mainstream world market in foreign language teaching manuals until the twentieth century. 3

Cf. Lyda Fens-de Zeeuw (2011) and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade (1996).

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Arguably one of the masterpieces of eighteenth-century foreign language teaching manuals was Pierre-Nicolas Chantreau’s (1781) Arte de hablar bien francés o gramática completa (The art of speaking French well, or complete grammar). Born in Paris in 1741 and a former student of Beauzée’s, in 1767 Chantreau arrived in Ávila, Spain, to teach French in the Real Academia Militar de Ávila (Royal Military Academy of Avila). This experience led him to publish his Arte (1781), a work that was to be re-edited up until 1905 by a wide range of adapters (including Alemany, Dupuy, Bergnes de las Casas, Hamonière), thus becoming the grammar par excellence for the teaching of the French language in the nineteenth century. 4 Chantreau’s Arte runs parallel to the publication of the Encyclopédie in France (1772), which meant he was acquainted with the linguistic reflections made in his native country, as can also be observed in the sources used to write his Arte. In this sense, he acknowledges the influence of French contemporary grammarians and authors such as Wailly, Du Marsais, Fromant, Condillac and Contaut, as well as Arnauld and Lancelot’s Port-Royal grammar (1660). Chantreau’s grammar is divided into three parts: a first part on pronunciation drawing largely on Galmace, a second part on morphology and a novel third part on syntax. Furthermore, the work included two extra sections. The first, as long as the three previous parts, is dedicated to everyday words in everyday sentences, and the second to an ‘arte de traducir’ (art of translating) based on Bouzée’s duality, a literal version versus a translation (variations guided by good usage to be achieved by the analysis of good authors). Chantreau’s innovative manual was produced with a strongly pedagogical objective removed from the cultural enrichment most manuals had aimed at until then, thus imposing a practical interest as the times required. Germany, and to be more precise Prussia, had also become a leading country in foreign language teaching innovation since the turn of the eighteenth century, when the classical or scholastic method of FLT, which mirrored the way classical languages were taught, came to be questioned by two manuals marking a turning point in the history of FLT. The first was a manual to teach and learn French written by Johann Valentin Meidinger (1756-1822) and entitled Praktische Französische Grammatik (Practical French Grammar), ([1783] 1804). Meidinger was a teacher of French and Italian in Frankfurt am Main and, according to Caravolas (2000, 151), he played a major role in the history of language teaching. His French grammar became a huge success 4 Cf. Diccionario de historia de la enseñanza del francés en España (siglos XVI-XX) (‘Dictionary of the history of the teaching of French in Spain (XVI-XX centuries’). Entry: Chantreau, PierreNicholas (Paris 1741 – Auch 1808), written by Maria Eugenia Fernández Fraile.

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all across Europe, reaching thirty-seven editions by 1857, and introduced the methodology commonly known as grammar-translation, which dominated the end of the eighteenth century and most of the nineteenth century. Following Meidinger’s grammar-translation course, in 1793 Johann Christian Fick wrote the first course for the English language, entitled Praktische englische Sprachlehre für Deutsche beiderlei Geschlechts, nach der in Meidingers französische Grammatik befolgten Methode (Practical English Course for Germans of both sexes, following the method of Meidinger’s French Grammar), as mentioned in Howatt and Widdowson (2004, 152). Thus, the grammar-translation method was born and came to dominate the FLT scene for most of the nineteenth century. Both Meidinger and Fick’s manuals influenced subsequent generations of language teachers in Germany, especially Franz Ahn (1796-1865) and H.G. Ollendorff (1803-1865), whose FLT manuals held sway over and influenced most of the nineteenthcentury foreign language market, thus bringing the grammar-translation method to its heyday between the 1830s and the late 1870s.

1.4.

The origins of ELT in Spain: where and how

In this section we trace the first institutions, both official and private, which included ELT in their curricula. At the same time, a historical account of the main methodologies followed in ELT will be provided, with attention to major worldwide trends. Although this section principally focuses on the English language, references to other modern languages will also be accounted for. 1.4.1.

Where was English taught between 1769 and 1850?

One of the first places where English was taught was in the Real Seminario de Nobles (Royal Seminary of Noblemen) of Madrid. According to Andújar, this was an institution created in 1725 destined to educate the nobility from Spain and the American colonies, but in the middle of the eighteenth century it began opening up to bourgeois society and its subsequent ‘militarization’ (2004, 201). There were other Seminaries for the nobility in Spain, such as Vergara (1776-1930) and Calatayud (1752-1767). As for the exact introduction of English at this elitist institution, there are diverse scholarly arguments that fail to reach a consensus. Aguilar (1980, 234) contends that the English language first appeared at the Seminario in 1770 as an optional subject, whereas Cervera (2007, 14) asserts that the French language was the only

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foreign language present between 1730 and 1784. Soubeyroux (1995, 208) claims that ‘Hasta 1785, la única lengua viva obligatoria fue el francés […] A partir de 1785, se diversificó la enseñanza de las lenguas, con la introducción del inglés’ (Until 1785, the only compulsory modern language was French […] From 1785 onwards, language teaching was diversified, with the introduction of English). However, new evidence shows the inaccuracy of Soubeyroux’s claim on the grounds that the teaching of English had, in fact, been introduced at the Seminary of Noblemen four years earlier on, in 1781, as we are about to see. The above-mentioned authors provide general accounts of the Seminary with very little information in reference to modern languages, let alone the English language. Needless to say, a full history of modern language teaching at the Seminary has yet to be written. Notwithstanding, it is important to mention that there exists a volume entitled Papeles Varios (Odd papers),5 consulted at the Biblioteca Nacional de España, containing relevant information concerning the English language at the Royal Seminary. In them, we learn about Certamen público de las lenguas Griega é Inglesa (Public examinations of the Greek and English languages) which sheds new light on how modern languages were tested in the eighteenth century. According to this document, the public examinations in English took place on 4 January 1781, at half past three in the afternoon. The appearance of this date on the document shows that English had been taught earlier than previously thought. The document goes on to mention that the English examinations were directed by Antonio Carbonell y Borja, the English teacher at the Seminary. Only two students participated in the event: Joseph Lorieri Alpuente and Antonio Quirós Mariño de Lovera. The document also includes a description of the different exercises in the tests. This is one of the earliest accounts of how modern languages were tested. In their original, the exercises required that: [Los estudiantes] Leerán en inglés, y traducirán en castellano los párrafos que se les señalen de la Historia Griega desde su principio hasta la muerte de Alexandro el grande, compuesta por el Dr. Goldsmith; de las obras políticas Filosóficas, y sobre el Comercio del señor Walter Raleigh, y de los viajes de Baretti. Igualmente volverán en inglés el trozo que se les diga de la obra intitulada Magazine des Enfants, escrita en Francés por Madame Beaumont, conforme a la práctica del Seminario, donde se procura que 5 This is a collection of manuscripts held at the Biblioteca Nacional de España, signature: R/23742.

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los que se dedican al inglés no olviden, antes conserven y adelanten el uso que hayan adquirido de la lengua francesa. [Students] will read in English, and translate into Spanish the indicated paragraphs of the Greek History from the beginning until the death of Alexander the Great, written by Dr. Goldsmith; from philosophical works on politics, and on commerce by Mr. Walter Raleigh, and from Baretti’s journeys. Likewise, they will translate into English a piece of the work called Magazine des Enfants, written in French by Madame Beaumont, according to the Seminary’s guidelines, where we try to ensure that those who study English do not forget, but maintain and progress in, the use of the French language they have acquired.

Unfortunately, there is no reference in the above quotation to any specific grammars or dictionaries which students might have used in their study of English. Furthermore, the final lines of the quotation hint at one key factor in the way English was learnt in the eighteenth century, which is also confirmed in the preface to the first English grammar published in Spain, written by Joaquin de San Pedro a few years earlier in 1769. I refer to the fact that English began to be learnt in Spain by means of French textbooks, such as grammars or reading books. The Spaniards’ first option in the timid foreign languages offering was French, as it was also the lingua franca of eighteenth-century Europe. Martín-Gamero provides further information about the continuity of English at the Seminary into the nineteenth century until 1836, the year it disappeared, after having been taken over by the University of Alcalá: En el Seminario de Nobles de Madrid se establece oficialmente la enseñanza del inglés por Real Orden de 13 de Agosto de 1804.[…] pasó a ocupar este cargo un tal Thomas Kearney. […] Los años de la Guerra de Independencia interrumpieron los estudios de lengua inglesa en el Seminario. Ha de pasar mucho tiempo para que vuelvan a establecerse. […] En el año 1827 se nombra un nuevo profesor de inglés: ‘Don Carlos Murphy’ […] [hasta 1835].(Martín-Gamero 1961, 199-203). In the Seminary of Noblemen in Madrid the teaching of English was off icially established by Royal Order of 13 August 1804. […] this post was taken by a Thomas Kearney. […] The years of The Peninsular War put a halt to the studies of English in the Seminary. Many years were to pass until their re-establishment. […] In 1827 a new English teacher was appointed: ‘Don Carlos Murphy’ […] [until 1835].

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Apart from the Seminary of Noblemen, other institutions which provided English courses at the turn of the eighteenth century according to MartínGamero (ibidem, 147-164) were: – El Real Instituto Asturiano, founded by Jovellanos, which started English classes in 1795 run by Juan Lespardá. – La Academia de Lenguas de Bartolomé Nesbit (Language Academy of Bartolomé Nesbit), who received a licence in 1787 to open up an English academy in Madrid. It was suspended in 1790 for political reasons (see Aguilar 1980, 241). – El Real Colegio de San Telmo (The Royal School of Saint Telmo), in Seville. English classes started in 1788. There was a similar institution in Malaga, too. – La Real Academia de Guardias Marinas (Royal Academy of Marine Guards), in Cádiz. Of the above-mentioned places that offered English classes in the eighteenth century, according to Martín-Gamero, it should be pointed out that further research into the Real Colegio Seminario de San Telmo de Sevilla and the Real Academia de Guardias Marinas has shed little light on the actual teaching of English in both institutions throughout the eighteenth century.6 As for the Real Academia de Guardias Marinas,7 in 1734, Juan Bautista Martín y San Martín offered his services to the Academy in order to cover the post of language teacher. He mastered Latin, Spanish, French, Italian, English and German, as well as having some basic notions of Greek and Portuguese. Yet Cedillo, the academy’s director, reports unfavourably, considering that the Academy is in greater need of other teachers, such as for drawing. The recruitment of San Martín would only delay cadets in the study of their principal subjects. The second failed attempt at introducing ELT in eighteenth-century Spain took place in 1788 (García Garralón 2007, 218-219) when in May of that year an Englishman offered his services as a teacher at the Colegio de San Telmo. He was an eighteen-year-old Londoner called Daniel Broomwell, who had arrived seriously ill in Seville on an English vessel. During his convalescence he had abjured his Protestant beliefs and embraced the Catholic religion. Under those circumstances, and intending to teach English, he applied 6 I owe these pieces of information to a personal communication, via email, from Dr Marta García Garralón received on 30 July 2014. 7 Museo Naval (Naval Museum) in Madrid. Legajo (Scroll) 80. Pedro Manuel Cedillo a José Patiño. Cádiz, 18 October 1734.

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for a post at the Colegio-Seminario, with the advantage of having done a year’s nautical studies and having the experience of several navigations to his credit. The new Secretary of the Navy, which was then beginning to function as a hierarchical superior organ of the Colegio-Seminario, did not back up part of the renewal plans implemented by the former secretary of the Council of Indies, which had been laid down in the ordinances of 1786. The correct and sufficient training of a modest merchant pilot needed no accessory studies such as English. That is how ELT was rejected twice in a century when there was not a consolidated concern about its suitability to be taught, despite some wishful thinking. These ill winds began to blow more favourably at the turn of the century with the implementation of ELT at the Real Instituto Asturiano de Náutica y Mineralogía (Royal Asturian Institute of Seamanship and Mineralogy). This institution is one of the oldest centres of secondary schooling in Spain. It was founded by the statesman Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos in 1794. Jovellanos, as stated earlier on, was a major figure of the Age of Enlightenment in Spain who advocated the teaching of modern languages, especially French and English. In 1802, Jovellanos wrote Memoria sobre educación pública (Treatise on Modern Education),8 a book that gave a new lease of life to modern languages, although it did not exert much influence on educational regulators in the short term. In fact, the whole title is Memoria sobre la Educación Pública o sea tratado teórico práctico de enseñanza con aplicación a las escuelas y colegios de niños (Treatise on modern education or theoretical-practical treatise on education applied to schools). The Treatise is considered to be Jovellanos’s major pedagogical work, even one of the first modern publications on education written in Spain. It was written while Jovellanos was imprisoned by the Inquisition in Mallorca on the grounds of his advanced ideas, between 1801 and 1808. This book expresses Jovellanos’s belief that education is the source of individual and national prosperity and must be universal and modern. He highlights natural sciences and modern languages, including the students’ native language; in other words, his book proposes something quite different from the traditional, classically-oriented education Jovellanos himself had received. Essentially, what Jovellanos understands by education is literary education, in contrast to physical education, which he suggests belongs to the ‘esfera del hogar’ (home sphere; 1802, 5). To achieve that, one of the first things to be done is to multiply the number of schools so that their proper distribution serves the purpose of instruction. Of special interest is the role 8

Cartuja de Valldemossa. Mallorca, 1802.

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that modern languages should play in education, which had usually favoured the study of classical languages. Jovellanos wondered whether it was fair to prefer their study in the Humanities, to the detriment and neglect of modern languages. Jovellanos even claimed that the study of Latin, Greek or Hebrew had become one of the obstacles which most deterred the progress of education in general. In Jovellanos’ own words: Un sistema de educación general que no sea imposible o quimérico debe renunciar a algunos de estos estudios. La razón señala desde luego las lenguas muertas.(Jovellanos 1802, 7). A system of general education which is not impossible or chimerical must put aside some of those studies. Reason points, of course, to the dead languages.

Jovellanos first advocates a thorough study of the Spanish language in order to perfect it, since neglecting its study will hinder progress in education. However, Jovellanos considers classical studies more appropriate for those following theological studies, or for the well-off person whose intention is not to have a profession at all. As suggested, Jovellanos had some scheme in mind concerning the study of modern languages in general education. In the chapter dedicated to languages, he highly recommends the study of modern languages for those who se hayan de consagrar a las ciencias exactas o naturales, y aún a las políticas y económicas, para los que hayan de seguir la carrera de las armas en mar o tierra, la diplomática, el comercio, las artes, etc. […] y señaladamente la de la inglesa y la francesa. (Jovellanos 1802, 11). plan to dedicate themselves to the natural or exact sciences, and even to political and economic sciences, for those following the arms race by sea or by land, diplomacy, commerce, the arts, and so on […] and especially the English and the French [languages].

Jovellanos goes on to assert that the study of English in particular should be deemed necessary in high school. As regards which of the two languages – either English or French – the student should choose, Jovellanos gives the following explanations: French offers a more universal, varied, methodical doctrine, more nicely expounded. It is linked more to our present interests and political relations. English, on the other hand, contains a more original,

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solid, uniform and, broadly speaking, a purer and deeper doctrine. It is more suited to the nature of the Spanish genius and character. Given Jovellanos’s reasons for the study of French and English, he concludes in an amicable manner, stating that anyone who aims to perfect their education should make an effort to study both languages. He himself had learnt both languages, and as far as English was concerned it must have come in very handy in order to befriend some British members of parliament, including Lord Holland, a nephew of Charles James Fox and, like his uncle, a member of the Whig party: Lord Holland was just 19 when he first visited Spain and he had been advised to visit Jovellanos in Gijón, Asturias. The young British Lord was deeply impressed by an enlightened Jovellanos, whom he never forgot. As time went by, he became one of his fondest friends. (Fernández Sarasola 2016, 65).

Their friendship, along with that of John Allen’s, Lord Holland’s personal doctor and expert on political issues, exerted a great influence on the first modern Spanish parliament: The first modern Spanish parliament, the Cadiz Cortes, assembled on 24 September 1810, followed the French revolutionary model. Spanish constitutionalism was therefore marked by conflict between French revolutionary beliefs, mainly supported by the liberals, and the British constitutional model, supported exclusively by Jovellanos and some faithful reformists that followed his instructions. (Ibidem, 81).

Other enlightened thinkers had also been in favour of the study of modern languages, such as Benito Jerónimo Feijoo and González Cañaveras9 earlier on in the eighteenth century but nobody had made the argument as explicitly as Jovellanos. However, his message did not get through and was forgotten until the 1830s, when a gradual (though modest) attempt was made to include modern languages in an official curriculum. A little later, in 1845, Jovellanos’s words from his Treatise on education (1802) still echo in Pidal’s Plan. The Plan General de Estudios (General Plan of Studies), or Pidal’s Plan (1845), originated at a time when the liberals were in power. This political party understood education in much the same way as the late eighteenth-century enlightened intellectuals such as Pablo Olavide or 9

Cf. María Eugenia Fernández Fraile (2009).

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Jovellanos himself: education as a public service. In the preliminary part, there are two relevant references which contributed to the consolidation of secondary education. The first strikes a very modern chord even though it was decreed more than a century and a half ago: La enseñanza de la juventud no es una mercancía que puede dejarse entregada a la codicia de los especuladores, ni debe equipararse a las demás industrias en que domina sólo el interés privado. (Pidal 1845, Preliminar). The education of youth is not a commodity that can be delivered to greedy speculators, nor should it be equal to the rest of industries where only private interests prevail.

The second poignant reference is very illuminating since it pinpoints Spain’s failures in matters of economics attributing the slow down to a lack of education for the young: En lo antiguo, [la educación secundaria] fijaba casi exclusivamente la atención en el estudio del latín más algunos conocimientos de filosofía escolástica, olvidando las ciencias naturales y exactas, cuyo abandono ha sido tan funesto a la industria española. Before, [Secondary education] paid almost exclusive attention to the study of Latin adding some knowledge of scholastic philosophy, neglecting natural and exact sciences, whose abandonment has been so terrible for Spanish industry.

As we can see, during the first half of the nineteenth century the introduction of FLT in general and of ELT in particular in formal Spanish education was very rare, and although the educational legislation began timidly to favour the study of modern languages in secondary schooling, we have to wait until the second half of the century for a significant presence of FLT in formal schooling, as we shall see in the next chapter. It was undoubtedly in the private sphere that FLT took a strong hold throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, as can be derived from the sources. In this context, Martín-Gamero (1961, 203-208) mentions El Colegio de San Mateo (the School of Saint Matthew), in Madrid, founded in 1821 and abolished two years later by a Royal order; the Academia de francés e inglés (the French and English Academy), a private academy set

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up by Juan Valera and Santiesteban in Madrid in 1817; the Ateneo de Madrid (the Athenaeum of Madrid), where a chair of English was created in 1820 by Antonio Garrido until 1823; the Academia privada (the Private Academy), set up by José Angel de Satrústegui in San Sebastián in 1833; and the Juntas de Comercio y Consulados (the Boards of Commerce and Consulates). The newly created foreign language schools also included English due to the increasing commerce with the United States and Britain. English was learnt in the Consulate of Seville (1803-1808), the Consulate of Bilbao (from 1821 onwards), the Board of Commerce in Madrid (1828-1840), and the Board of Commerce in Barcelona (1826-1851).10 The Colegio de san Felipe Neri (the School of Saint Philip Neri) in Cádiz, founded by Alberto Lista offered English classes from 1833 onwards. Since Martín-Gamero (1961) finished her studies in the early decades of the nineteenth century, we rely on further sources to discover other institutions – public or private – that included ELT in the first half of the nineteenth century. Viña (2000, 238-244) mentions the Sociedad Económica de Santiago (Economic Society of Santiago), where commercial studies included the study of French and English from 1845 onwards, and the Ateneo de Madrid, where a Mr. Olivan occupied an English chair in 1836. Botella and González (2007) develop a corpus of grammars and dictionaries held at the library of the Real Colegio de Cirugía de la Armada (Royal Army School of Surgery) (1748-1844) in Cádiz. The discovery of those grammars and dictionaries to learn foreign languages in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries leads them to assert that: Es de suponer que, si bien nunca figuraron en los programas académicos de los futuros cirujanos, el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras debió de adquirir gran importancia, máxime cuando un elevado número de alumnos estudiaba con manuales de procedencia extranjera y […] los profesores seleccionaban a algunos alumnos brillantes para ser enviados a completar su formación en universidades de Inglaterra y Francia. (Botella and González 2007, 61-63). It can be assumed that, though they have never appeared in the academic programmes of the surgeons-to-be, the learning of foreign languages must have gained great importance, especially given that a high number of students studied with foreign manuals and […] teachers chose some

10 Cf. Lombardero (2017a).

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brilliant students to be sent to universities in England and France in order to further their academic training.

I also found some evidence of ELT in private academies by consulting the historical press.11 To date, there are no thorough going studies on the existence of private academies that offered foreign language teaching in nineteenth-century Spain. Hopefully, future researchers will delve into this topic in order to gauge more precisely their true influence in the promotion of FLT in Spain. For the sake of brevity, I mention just two academies that were in vogue at the time in the city of Cádiz. In the newspaper Diario Mercantil de Cádiz of 23 April 1809, the master of languages Pascual Antonio Castellanos advertised private English classes in the city of Cádiz. Another advert, found in the same newspaper but published on the 4 February 1829, offered English classes at an academy of primary education in Casas de Madariaga, in the city of San Fernando, Cádiz. The director of this academy was the Presbyterian Narciso Feliu. As for other external influences of ELT in Spain, it is worth noting the special role played by the lone French reformer Pierre Charles Théodore Lafforgue, known as T. Robertson (1803-1871), and his influence in Spain during the first half of the nineteenth century. His Cours pratique, analytique, théorique et synthétique de langue anglaise (Practical, analytical, theoretical and synthetic course of the English language)12 came out in 1835 and was adapted for a Spanish public by Manuel de Moradillo in 1843 under a similar title: Método práctico, analítico, teórico y sintético de la lengua inglesa á imitación del sistema de T. Robertson (Practical, analytical, theoretical and synthetic course of the English language in an imitation of T. Robertson’s system).13 Robertson’s method will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2, since his influence was mostly felt in Spain during the second half of the nineteenth century. Moradillo’s first adaptation of Robertson’s Course was published only once in Spain. Viña (2005, 195-197) initially regards him as an advocate for the natural or inductive method in Spain, although a closer look at Moradillo’s work makes her conclude that ‘se siente atraído por la Metodología Natural pero no lleva a cabo sus principales fundamentos’ (he is lured into the Natural Method but he fails to carry out its fundamental principles). In a way, as we shall see in further chapters, inductive methods never caught on in Spain, which mostly favoured deductive approaches to FLT. 11 Two repositories stand out for Spain: the Hemeroteca Digital de la Biblioteca Nacional de España and the Biblioteca Virtual de Prensa Histórica. 12 Paris, Lance. 13 San Sebastián, Ignacio Ramón Baroja.

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1.4.2. How was English taught? Nowadays, in a post-method era in FLT, specialists such as Prabhu (1990) and Kumaravadivelu (1994) have mentioned the difficulty of finding pure methods in actual classroom practice, Prabhu talks about the impossibility of any one best method while Kumaravadivelu speaks of the futility of method. They reach the conclusion that methods do not exist (Crookes 2009, 4). However, by the time the first English grammar had been published in Spain, in 1769, the prevalent way of teaching FLT in Europe was the scholastic or classical method which Brown (1994) defines as a method ‘whose main focus was on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, translation of texts, doing written exercises’ (16). The first manuals published in Spain between 1769 and 1850 fit into the classical method and come under the grammar-translation umbrella, which is rooted in Rationalism combined with a formal or deductive approach to FLT. The actual works produced in the eighteenth century are tailored in the classical mould. We will have to wait until the nineteenth century for Meidinger and Fick to usher in what later detractors of their methods called the grammar-translation method. As for the eighteenth century, a total of four grammars and one bilingual dictionary comprise the total ELT production. In parallel with the texts themselves, we will consult their paratexts – i.e. front matter, prologues, introductions, and so on – in order to find evidence of the methods followed in them. Our corpus of eighteenth-century English grammars comprises f ive works published between 1769 and 1799. They are the following: Joaquin de San Pedro’s Gramática inglesa y española: unico arte para aprender el idioma Inglés, colegida de las mejores gramáticas de la Europa (English and Spanish grammar: the only way to learn the English language, deduced from the best grammars in Europe, 1769); Juan Steffan’s Gramática inglesa y castellana o Arte metódico y nuevo para aprender con facilidad el idioma inglés (English and Spanish grammar or methodical and new way to learn the English language with ease, 1784); Thomas Connelly’s Gramática que contiene reglas fáciles para pronunciar y aprender metódicamente la lengua inglesa (Grammar that contains easy rules to pronounce and learn the English language methodically, 1784); Jovellanos’s booklet called Rudimentos de la gramática inglesa (Rudiments of English grammar, 1795); finally, José González Torres de Navarra’s Ensayo práctico de simplificar el estudio de las lenguas escritas, verificado sobre la inglesa para exemplo de todas las demás (Practical essay to simplify

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the study of written languages, verified with the English language as an example of all the others, 1799). San Pedro’s grammar coincided, more or less, with the teaching of English in places such as the Real Seminario de Nobles (Royal Seminary of Noblemen) in Madrid, a school originally set up and run by Jesuits. It was published only once, by a Royal licence signed by Ignacio de Ygareda. After a brief introduction, the grammar deals with the eight parts of speech: nouns and adjectives as one category (following a classical categorisation), pronouns, the verb, prepositions, adverbs, conjunctions, and interjections. There then follows a thematic bilingual vocabulary that takes up almost half of the book, and the grammar concludes with eight pages devoted to two-column familiar phrases. This is, brief ly, the content of the f irst grammar published in Spain. It totals 168 pages and, like most grammars of the time, it follows a deductive approach to language teaching. However, the inclusion of a bilingual vocabulary and a section on familiar phrases gives it a somewhat functional air. The vocabulary (79-155) ranges from contemporary topics such as religion – Del mundo en general (Of the world in general); Oficios y dignidades Eclesiásticas (Churchmen, and Church Off icers); Oficios principales de Palacio que egercen los Domesticos del Rey de Inglaterra (Principal off icers and servants of the Houshold belonging to the King of England) – to everyday topics such as De comer (Eating); De las Artes, Ciencias, Profesiones, y profesores (the Arts, Sciences, Professions, and those who practise them); Del campo y la Agricultura (Husbandry). On the other hand, the familiar phrases (155-163) bear some modern samples of what we call today functional language: Expresiones de terneza. Para agradecer, y hacer cumplimientos de amistad (Expressions of kindness, to thank and compliment, or show a kindness); Para afirmar negar, y consentir, &c. (to aff irm, deny, consent, etc.): It is true Eso es verdad It is too true Eso es tan cierto To tell you the truth Para decirle à vmd. la verdad Really, it is so En efecto, eso es así Who doubts it Quien lo duda There’s no doubt on ’t No hay duda en eso I believe so Yo lo creo I believe not Yo no lo creo I say it is Yo digo que si (Joaquin de San Pedro 1769, 159-160)

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The rest of the grammars written in Spanish in eighteenth-century Spain follow a similar structure to San Pedro’s. Two of them were published in 1784, and both were written by British authors: Thomas Connelly’s Gramática que contiene reglas fáciles para pronunciar y aprender metódicamente la lengua inglesa, con muchas observaciones y notas críticas de los más célebres autores ingleses, especialmente de Lowth, Priestley, y Trinder (Grammar that contains easy rules to pronounce and learn the English language methodically, with many observations and critical notes from the most renowned English authors, especially from Lowth, Priestley, and Trinder); and Juan Steffan’s Gramática inglesa y castellana o Arte metódico y nuevo para aprender con facilidad el idioma inglés (English and Spanish grammar or new and methodical way of learning the English language easily). Both of them, unlike San Pedro, include an initial section on pronunciation. What is interesting about Connelly’s grammar is his minute treatment of pronunciation, to which he dedicates 145 pages, and also that he acknowledges his sources, Sheridan, Dyche, and Johnson, becoming the only author to do so in that century. Another innovative feature concerning his treatise on pronunciation is the use of a diacritical accent (´) on the stressed syllable of all the English words in his grammar in order to facilitate their pronunciation. The second part of his grammar (154-310) is dedicated to the nine parts of the sentence: like Steffan, and unlike San Pedro, Connelly includes the category of the article, and both Stefan and Connelly consider adjectives as a separate category from nouns. Both authors conclude their grammars by adding some extra content, which was a common feature at the time, such as familiar phrases and dialogues, although there exist some differences too. Connelly includes some fables by Fénelon (619-632) as extra material, a common literary resource to practise reading and translation in most European foreign language grammars of the time, and which was to continue in the first decades of the following century. He also includes some samples of letters (619-632), and a table of English coins, weights and measures (634-644). Meanwhile, Steffan introduces two novel sections. The first is dedicated to what today we call ‘false friends’ (235-257), and the second to marine terminology (323-326), the latter due mainly to his post as a language interpreter for the Royal Board of Commerce in the city of Valencia and as Vice Consul of his Majesty the King of England in the same city. In the prologue to his grammar (i-iv) Steffan criticizes the use by Spaniards of French grammars to learn English, especially those by Boyer and Miège, who were very popular in Spain at the time, considering them too old and with a tendency to present their grammar rules in a complex way, thus increasing the difficulties inherent in them. Of the five grammars published in the eighteenth century in Spain

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(see Appendix I), Connelly’s is the only one that was reprinted several times, four in total (in 1791, 1798, 1811, and 1814). Undoubtedly, an interest in ELT emerged in Spain for the first time during this period. The reasons for this lie in some of the prologues to those grammars. One example, Juan Steffan (1784, ii-iii), suggests the following reasons why English should be learnt: – For the learned men who want to widen their studies on those sabios Idiomas, cuyo cultivo adoptaron las Naciones ilustradas (wise Languages, whose study was adopted by the enlightened Nations) – For particular State or commercial reasons – For enriching political and literary Europe with Obras asombrosas (the amazing works) that [the British] han propagado maravillosamente entre las Naciones que tienen el don de pensar bien (have spread marvellously among the Nations which have the gift of well-thinking) – Because of el fuerte tráfico [literario] que existe entre la España, y la Inglaterra (the vigorous [literary] traffic between Spain and England). Among the reasons, the literary ones clearly outnumber those related to the State or, especially, commerce. Such was the Spanish cultural climate in which grammar-translation took root. In relation to the grammars themselves, they follow a similar layout as far as their content is concerned, although there are also significant differences. Joaquin de San Pedro (1769) and Torres de Navarra (1799) do not include a section on pronunciation even though the latter expresses the opinion that English pronunciation is very irregular and, therefore, no pronunciation rules are given. Juan Steffan (1784) dedicates the first 50 pages of his grammar to English pronunciation while Connelly (1784) almost doubles that number in his English grammar. Villoria summarizes Steffan’s method for teaching English pronunciation by stating that: El discípulo no debe enfrentarse nunca solo y por primera vez a ninguna lección de fonética de una lengua viva (ni de gramática, por supuesto), sin que antes el maestro se la haya leído primero y explicado después. (2010,142). Students should never be confronted with a phonetics lesson on their own and for the first time (nor with grammar, of course), unless teachers have read it first and explained it afterwards.

That is, Steffan positions the teacher’s voice as a crucial element in learning a language. In fact, several nineteenth-century authors (including Urcullu and

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Bergnes de las Casas) followed Steffan’s precept for the teaching of English pronunciation which is still valid today. Jovellanos (1795) gives pronunciation a paramount importance and becomes the first author to draw attention to the different regional British accents. He also advocates the teacher’s actual voice as the best means to tackle English pronunciation, which was certainly difficult for teachers to teach and would continue to be so for most of the nineteenth century, until the Reform Movement abruptly changed the situation with the creation of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1886 and the subsequent study of pronunciation as a scientific subject. During pre-IPA times, authors either devised their own systems to teach pronunciation or they simply ignored it. Martín-Gamero (1961, 166) states that Steffan’s grammar was ‘una traducción muy mal hecha y pésimamente adaptada […] de la gramática franco-inglesa de Boyer’ (a very bad and terrible adaptation of Boyer’s14 Franco-English grammar). Connelly (1784, prologue) criticizes Steffan for plagiarizing Berri’s and Boyer’s English grammars. Plagiarism had been, and still was, a very common practice among grammarians at a time when there were no laws on intellectual property. Connelly is the only author who acknowledges English sources. For the teaching of pronunciation, he followed Sheridan, Dyche and Johnson. His section on syntax includes critical notes from Lowth, Priestley and Trinder.15 However, the situation was to change slightly during the second half of the nineteenth century, as we shall see in the next chapter. As for the different parts of the sentence, San Pedro (1769) divides it into eight parts following the traditional scholastic method of learning Latin grammar. In this tradition, the noun comprises both substantives and adjectives. The remaining authors of our corpus veer away from this classical classification. Steffan includes ten parts (adding those of the article and the number). Connelly deals with nine parts (he removes the number but keeps the article), which was to become the norm in the nineteenth century. Connelly’s parts of the sentence are: article, substantive, pronoun, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. Both Jovellanos (1795) and Torres de Navarra (1799) fail to mention them. All of them include the word ‘grammar’ in their works except Jovellanos. San Pedro, Steffan and Connelly also include vocabularies, dialogues and 14 Abel Boyer, Grammaire angloise-françoise, par Messieurs Miège et Boyer (1745). 15 Thomas Sheridan, A General Dictionary of the English Language (1780); Thomas Dyche, A Guide to the English Tongue (1709); Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language (1755); Robert Lowth, A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762); William Martin Trinder, An Essay on English Grammar (1781); Joseph Priestley, The Rudiments of English Grammar (1761).

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familiar phrases treating grammars as all-encompassing linguistic texts much in the same tradition rooted in the Renaissance. In the last part of his grammar, as mentioned above, Steffan includes a short vocabulary of maritime terms whereas Connelly includes some examples of commercial letters, a table of coins and weights and measures. Torres de Navarra is the only eighteenth-century author who includes a section of English literary texts with their translation into Spanish between the lines, a device which was later to be adopted by many nineteenth-century authors. Indeed, it is Torres de Navarra who provides a more explicit method for ELT which, as explained by the author himself in his prologue, corresponds to the way he was taught English, using cortas Nociones generales de la lengua inglesa, para que las apuntara, leyera y comparara por algunos días; leerme cada día en Español un gran párrafo Ingles, palabra por palabra, repitiéndomele muchas veces; y hacerme que tartamudeara allí mismo, y presentara después por escrito la traducción, explicando analíticamente todas sus voces, y formando un Vocabulario manual de ellas para mi mejor memoria. (1799, 3). short general points of the English language, for me to write down, read and compare for a few days; read a long English paragraph in Spanish, word by word, repeating it many times; making me stutter right there, and hand in the written translation afterwards, explaining analytically all the words, and making a hand-written vocabulary of them for improving my memory.

Finally, it should be emphasized that prior to learning English, Torres de Navarra (1799, 4) required a previous knowledge of rhetoric and Spanish grammar. Certainly, access to ELT was of an elitist nature since only the elites had access to education, most of them having a private tutor or governess. Torres de Navarra’s above-mentioned account of how he learnt English indicates he must have had a tutor or governess who taught him English. That leads us to conclude that ELT developed at two different levels at the same time: in some official places, like the Seminary for Noblemen, and also by means of private tutors or governesses. For reasons of space, we cannot go further into this latter aspect of ELT. Hopefully, future works will direct their attention to this elusive topic, despite the fact that this type of historical research is very time-consuming and historical evidence is hard to come by due to the vast quantity of sources to be consulted (including the literature of the time, the press where tutors and governesses were likely to advertise, biographies, and so on).

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Of special interest is the only Spanish and English bilingual dictionary published in Spain between 1797 and 1798. It was written by Father Thomas Connelly, author of an English grammar in 1784 as we saw earlier on, in collaboration with his nephew Thomas Higgins, a Carmelite and family confessor at the Royal See of St. Ildephonsus. Considering that Connelly and Higgins took fourteen years to complete their dictionary, modern historiography has attached great importance to it for the evolution of bilingual dictionaries, not only for the English and Spanish languages but also for the other vernaculars. In an article by Cormier in The Oxford History of English Lexicography, she hints at some outstanding features; f irstly, it was the f irst bilingual bidirectional dictionary for the use of the native people in both countries published in Spain, and, secondly, their dictionary broke with the well-established tradition of compiling dictionaries that were based on those of predecessors (2009, 78-79). Steiner refers to this tradition by the name of ‘recension’, a term he defines as ‘a series of dictionaries each of which contains plagiarized material of the predecessors’ (1986, 229). In the same line, in 2007 Molina and Sánchez wrote the most extensive and profound analysis to date of Connelly and Higgins’s dictionary. Their book also includes a DVD of the first edition of the dictionary. Spanish and English bilingual lexicography had developed mainly outside Spain, especially in London, in the course of the first half of the eighteenth century. Most of the authors (Pineda, Del Pino) were Spanish emigrants settled in London. However, this trend was to change at the turn of the century when Thomas Connelly and his collaborator Thomas Higgins wrote the first bidirectional bilingual dictionary, Diccionario nuevo de las dos lenguas española é inglesa (New dictionary of the two languages Spanish and English). Published in Madrid by Pedro Julián Pereyra, this dictionary consists of two parts written in different years. The first part comprises a two-volume Spanish and English dictionary, totalling 2,053 pages and written in 1798. The second part, comprising a two-volume English and Spanish dictionary, was printed a year earlier, in 1797, and was slightly shorter than the first part, with a total of 1,395 pages. Molina and Sánchez regard this four-volume dictionary as a milestone in the history of lexicography for the following reasons: No es solo el hecho de que una obra de tal dimensión se publicara en España, sino, mucho más relevante, el hecho de que se tratara de un diccionario bilingüe con un método de compilación novedoso y, además, con una estructura bidireccional […] diseñado para el uso de los nativos

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de ambas lenguas, en el empeño por parte de los autores de que pudiera ser práctico en reproducción y en recepción tanto para hablantes de la lengua castellana como de la inglesa, un factor que avanza en casi doscientos años uno de los pilares fundamentales de la Lexicografía Pedagógica: el usuario del diccionario como foco al que deben ir dirigidas las innovaciones lexicográficas. (2007, 9). It is not only the fact that such a huge work was published in Spain but, much more relevant, the fact that it was a bilingual dictionary with a novel method of compilation and, furthermore, with a bi-directional structure […] designed for the use of native speakers of both languages, in the effort by the authors for it to be practical in reproduction and reception both towards Spanish and English speakers, a factor which advances in almost two centuries one of the fundamental pillars of pedagogical lexicography: dictionary users as the target focus all the lexicographical innovations should be directed to.

In relation to the novel compiling method of Connelly and Higgins’s dictionary, Steiner claims that: Connelly started his work with a clean slate. The printed result of this work shows that in compiling the dictionary he set out to create a completely new work out of the blending together of two monolingual dictionaries, one in English by D. Samuel Johnson and the other by the Real Academia (1970, 93).

Molina and Sánchez acknowledge Steiner’s comment on Connelly’s sources although they also note that: Es cierto que [Connelly] ‘corta y pega’ de los diccionarios que le sirven como fuente, pero siempre interpreta, adapta o reescribe las definiciones, con el objetivo de acoplar entre sí la de una lengua y otra (2007, 175). It is true that [Connelly] ‘cuts and pastes’ from the dictionaries he uses as sources, but he always interprets, adapts or re-writes the definitions, with the aim of interconnecting both languages.

The rest of the innovations Connelly creatively devised in the making of his dictionary can be summarized, according to Molina and Sánchez (ibidem, 173-175), as follows:

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– Connelly adds the translation of the definition into L2 as well as that of the examples and the phraseological units – Although some encyclopaedic information is given, the dictionary is fundamentally a dictionary for learners. Its pedagogical value is present on each of its pages – Connelly’s dictionary as a whole provides a lexical corpus with precise definitions in two languages complementing each other – Copious inclusion of phraseology, practically absent from Johnson’s dictionary – An illustrative use of examples with pedagogical purposes – A good visual arrangement of the information. Going back to grammar production, the nineteenth century yielded a fair number of manuals. One of the first authors who proved to be quite successful was Jorge Shipton. Hardly anything is known about his life except that he lived in Cádiz, his house being number 164 on the Hospital de Mugeres street, and that he had hispanized his f irst name. His Gramática para enseñar la lengua inglesa (Grammar for teaching the English language) was first published in 1810 by D. Manuel Ximenez Carreño. It went into four further reprints in 1812, 1818, 1823 and 1826 respectively. Although Shipton’s grammar is quite similar to those of his eighteenth-century predecessors, he includes some innovations such as the use of tables to explain English irregular verbs or the use of practical exercises to train students in the use of the different grammar rules and observations contained in this work. The twenty-eight pages of exercises consist of interlinear or word-for-word literal Spanish-English translation with some words given in English to help translation. Lastly, Shipton’s grammar includes, in the preface to his fifth edition (1826, iv-v), a summary of his teaching method, which can be considered a representative document of the way English was taught during the early nineteenth century. In Shipton’s method, students begin with the pronunciation of the alphabet, the vowels and diphthongs as well as the cardinal numbers, by means of reading them many times without allowing them to learn anything by heart until the fourth day. Then, students study some pages from the nomenclature (a thematic vocabulary) in order to practise both pronunciation and the learning of some words. After that, students go on to study the regular and the auxiliary verbs ‘To be’ and ‘To have’. Thus, they will understand the example sentences of the first lessons in the grammar. Then follows the study of analogy, beginning with the article and continuing with the nouns and pronouns, until reaching the verbs for the second time. At this

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stage, students learn the verbs by heart, including the subjunctive. Then they learn the verbs poder (can) and deber (must) as well as the reciprocal, reflexive and impersonal verbs, along with their respective sentences. After that, students learn the adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. From then on, they can start translating. Next, some irregular verbs with their sentences are learnt. Students should make two revisions of the irregular verbs, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions, since they appear regularly in sentences. Pronunciation is learnt by copying the teacher’s voice. With this method, Shipton claims – much to a modern reader’s surprise – that English can be learnt without effort in three months of regular study. Two more authors stand out in this period since their grammars reached a wider audience than previous ones. The first is William or Guillermo Casey, whose Nueva y completa gramática inglesa para uso de los españoles (New and Complete English grammar for the use of Spaniards) was first published in 1819 in Barcelona by Juan Francisco Piferrer. It was reprinted three more times in 1827, 1841 and 1846 respectively. In the preface to his third edition, Casey acknowledges the excellent reception of his grammar not only in Spain but in South America too. He was an English teacher for the Board of Commerce in Barcelona for twenty-five years, from 1826 until 1851. Alongside his grammar, Casey also wrote other ELT manuals such as The Anglo-Hispano Interpreter (1821 and 1836); A New English Version of the Lives of Cornelius Nepos from the original Latin (1828 and 1848), a manual to be used alongside his grammar; and Diccionario de la pronunciación crítica de la lengua inglesa, adaptado al uso de los españoles (1849), (Dictionary of the critical pronunciation of the English language). Furthermore, he was also a translator 16 and author of a German grammar (1846). Without doubt, Casey became a key figure in ELT in the first half of the nineteenth century in Spain, despite being much neglected (Lombardero 2017a). He died in 1857 in complete poverty, despite having had a non-negligible linguistic output over thirty years. The profession of language teacher at the time did not guarantee a satisfactory salary and that is why most foreign language teachers wrote manuals to make ends meet. Unfortunately, the publishing market was then in its infancy and royalties for language manuals were scant, owing to a lack of copyright laws that could protect an author’s rights against the widespread plagiarism of that time. Another author who also suffered the effects of plagiarism, although he became more famous than Casey, is José de Urcullu, a Spanish exile in London who earned his living writing school booklets for Rudolph Ackerman 16 Cf. Pegenaute (2002)

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who, at the time, was providing the recently-independent American republic with all sorts of school textbooks (Gaviño 2017, 122). Though not a linguist or grammarian by profession, Urcullu resorted to grammar writing as a means of survival in a foreign land. He had participated in the Peninsular War (1808-1814) as a Captain of infantry, and had to leave his native land in 1823 due to the persecution by Fernando VII’s regime (1823-1833) of all liberal intellectuals and military men. While in Spain, he had written some plays demonstrating his literary skills. In London, he became a translator of French and English; he translated Victor Hugo’s play Angelo, tyran de Padoue (1837) into Spanish and, most importantly, was the author of a much-reputed English grammar, as may be inferred from the large number of reprints it had. In 1825, Ackerman published Urcullu’s Gramática inglesa, reducida a veinte y dos lecciones (English grammar, reduced to twenty-two lessons). Outside London, the 1825 edition was plagiarized in subsequent decades in different cities around the world: in Paris, it reached a thirteenth edition in 1880,17 although there are further editions up until 1896. In New York, it was first published in 1827, reaching a fifth edition in 1839. In Philadelphia, it was first published in 1848 (from the seventh Paris edition) and later reedited in 1851. In Barcelona, there appeared plagiarized versions in 1840 and 1845. There is a joint edition of 1853, the tenth one, published in Madrid, Paris and New York. In Lisbon, it appeared in 1830. All the above-mentioned bootleg or plagiarized editions are copies of the 1825 London edition. On top of that, Urcullu himself made new revised editions of the original work in Porto (1840) and Cádiz (1845). The latter was further adapted by Francisco Javier Vingut in New York in 1855. Urcullu mentions two English sources for his English grammar: Cobbett and Lindley Murray, whose grammars were widely used in English and American primary schools for many decades from the end of the eighteenth century until the end of the nineteenth. However, his most acknowledged influence was the Italian Angelo Vergani whose Grammatica inglese ad uso degl’ italiani semplicizzata e ridotta a XXI lezione (c.1813), (English grammar for the use of Italians, simplified and reduced to twenty-one lessons), was largely reprinted in the first half of the nineteenth century. A new edition of Urcullu’s grammar personally arranged by him – apart from his 1825 London edition and the 1830 Oporto edition – was published for the first time in Spain in Cádiz in 1845, with a slightly different title, Gramática inglesa, reducida a veinte y siete lecciones (English grammar, reduced to twenty-seven lessons). The work begins with a detailed and 17 This edition can be consulted at the Biblioteca Nacional: BN (R) 1/29960.

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instructive section called Definiciones jenerales de las principales partes de la gramatica (General definitions of the main parts of grammar). In this very practical section, especially suited to students without any previous knowledge of grammar, he defines grammar as the art of speaking and writing correctly. This was the most common definition used by the various authors in our corpus, which dominated until the turn of the nineteenth century, when the word ‘art’ was altered to ‘science’ and grammars thus began to be defined as ‘the science of language’. Urcullu divides grammar into nine different parts; namely, article, noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. Thus, he follows the standard classification into nine parts inaugurated towards the end of the eighteenth century by the grammar of the Royal Spanish Academy, published in 1798, instead of the more classical division of grammar into ten parts (including the participle). In fact, most grammar writers adopted this standard classification throughout the nineteenth century. Urcullu’s part on Definiciones (Definitions) is followed by a short treatise on pronunciation, following other grammarians’ main guidelines of the time (alphabet, vowels, diphthongs, triphthongs and consonants). As stated earlier on, in the prefaces to his grammar Urcullu is quite reluctant to include pronunciation rules as he regards them as useless and a waste of time. Urcullu is of the idea, also followed by many authors at that time, that the best model to learn English pronunciation was that of the teacher’s viva voce. In that respect, Villoria (2008, 117-119) concludes that, although Urcullu presents a plain pronunciation, typical of a dictionary, based on close representations to the Spanish pronunciation, his advice in favour of a constant pronunciation is still valid today. He tried to facilitate the study of English pronunciation among Spaniards and, somehow, he was successful. After those preliminary remarks, Urcullu’s grammar comes into play, being divided into twenty-seven lessons. The average length of each lesson is roughly four pages and they all have a similar structure, which comprises, on the one hand, an explanation of a grammar point, always in Spanish, with examples in English and translated into Spanish. Urcullu compares the English and Spanish languages highlighting their similarities and differences. On the other hand, an ample use of footnotes is there as a back-up to the grammar explanations in each lesson. All the lessons show signs of a well-structured gradation, beginning with hard and fast rules, including their exceptions, and moving on to more specific rules. Urcullu’s grammar does not make a semantic classification of nouns (proper, common, collective and so on), which at that time was quite rare among other authors. Urcullu insists on a typology in

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relation to the forms (feminine, masculine, singular or plural), to introduce the variations of genre (lesson IX) and number (lesson IV) of different morphological classes. Referring to the specif ic case of French grammars, which could be extended to the English ones, published in Spain during the first half of the nineteenth century, Lépinette states that: Il semble que l’on peut déduire à bon droit que cette époque voit la disparition de la déclination dans les grammaires de FLE en Espagne […] la visée morphologique s’impose toujours, face à une tendance plus sémantique (qui serait plutôt réservée à la grammaire de LM [Langue Maternelle]) (2005, 287). It seems that one may reasonably deduce that this era sees the disappearance of declensions in foreign language grammars in Spain […] the morphological aspect always imposes itself, against a more semantic trend (which will be reserved rather for the mother-tongue grammars).

However, it is to the verb that Urcullu dedicates most lessons: a total of eight, a third of his grammar lessons, thus following a general trend among pedagogical grammar writers who regarded the verb as one of the most significant parts of the sentence. Urcullu (1845, 2) defines the verb as a ‘palabra que espresa accion, estado, acto, relativamente á personas, tiempo y modo’ (word that expresses action, state, act, in relation to people, time and mood). As it was very common in FL grammars of that time, the chapters or lessons devoted to the conjugations are highly developed, a trend which was to continue until the 1980s when the inf luence of communicative methods provoked, in some cases, the disappearance of tense conjugations. The f irst part of Urcullu’s grammar concludes with a section called Temas para poner en práctica las lecciones anteriores (Exercises to practise former lessons). In total, there are twenty-one temas, or interlinear texts, made up of Spanish sentences partially translated into English, thus helping students with their translations by having to fill in the blank spaces left by the author so that students can practise the different grammar points dealt with in the earlier twenty-seven lessons. Urcullu does not explain why he opted to place the temas after all the lessons, rather than after each lesson as was the norm among some Spanish grammar writers. He does, however, account for including some different famous quotations from English authors for the translation exercises (1845, v). A footnote on

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the first page of Urcullu’s Temas further clarifies that both the Spanish and English words between brackets are translated correctly and nothing should be taken away or added (1845, 152). Below is an example of a typical interlinear tema, number twelve on relative and interrogative pronouns, in Urcullus’s grammar: Parece que la justicia y la probidad se han hecho solamente para el pueblo. It seems justice probity are made only for people. Una señorita de Toledo, cuyo nombre era Victoria. El asunto de que Vd. Me ha young lady Toledo, name is Victoria. affair of you have hablado. ¿De quién es este sombrero? ¿Quién le ha dicho a Vd. eso? (Está en spoken. is this hat? has said you that? (It is customary uso dar) cuatro festines solemnes á los cuales son convidados los embajadores. to give) feast solemn are invited ambassador. Un hombre cuyos negocios van bien puede divertirse algo; pero un jóven cuyos man go well may amuse himself; but young fellow bienes consisten en un par de bueyes y una carreta, debe quedarse en casa á trabajar… property is pair ox cart, ought to stay at home to work… (Urcullu, 1845: 167)

The second part of Urcullu’s grammar begins with a double-column vocabulary of the most common adverbs, adjectives, verbs and nouns to begin to speak English (1845, 187-205). Then, the vocabulary is followed by thirteen familiar dialogues (ibidem, 205-222) combining thematic and pragmatic topics such as: to inquire after health, to know the time, breakfast, dinner, to write a letter, staying at an inn, and so on. After the dialogues, four pages are dedicated to terms of courtesy. Urcullu provides some bilingual examples and a final explanation on how to address different people. Then, some translation models are given in the guise of five texts (ibidem, 226-237). The third and last part of Urcullu’s grammar is divided into five different sections: an enlarged alphabetical list of the principal English particles or prepositions (ibidem, 252-286); then follow two novel sections: an alphabetical list of the most usual Latin abbreviations found in English newspapers, and some bilingual samples of commercial documents, respectively; a list of 1,225 English verbs with their particles (ibidem, 302-364); and, eventually, an enlarged alphabetical list of the most common English abbreviations used in written and spoken English (ibidem, 364-372). Gaviño (2017) concludes his insightful monograph on Urcullu’s grammar by stating that:

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su interés principal no es el ser original ni dogmático con la doctrina gramatical presentada; en su intención prima el carácter puramente utilitario o didáctico de la obra para el público. (134). his main interest is not to be original or dogmatic with the grammatical doctrine presented; in his intention there prevails the purely utilitarian or pedagogical character of the work for the public.

There is a clear layout in Urcullu’s all-encompassing grammar (Practical translation exercises, translation models, dialogues, vocabulary lists, a treatise on compound verbs with examples). The short number of lessons contrasts with other grammars published in Spain: Mountifield (1851, 1854, 1861) used sixty, seventy and eighty lessons respectively in the different editions of his English grammar, while Benot (1851, 1853, etc.) divided his English grammar into 110 lessons. It is important to highlight that the Spanish city of Cádiz had been a prosperous and thriving commercial centre since the second half of the eighteenth century. Of all the English manuals published in Spain throughout the nineteenth century, Cádiz ranked third, after Madrid and Barcelona (Lombardero 2015, 182). The city of Cádiz once again becomes the centre of our attention with the publication of an English manual written by an Irish woman, Magawly de Calry, the only female author of an English manual in the period covered in this chapter. Her full name once in Spain was María Teresa Magawly de Calry. Of Irish origin, she settled down in Cádiz where she opened the Colegio de San José (San José’s School) for ladies only. She is connected with the first Loreto foundation in Spain which was housed in Cádiz in 1851. She is the only female author of a textbook entitled Nuevo método para aprender el Inglés, fundado en la naturaleza de este idioma y en las reglas de su gramática. Y combinado con los principios del sistema de enseñanza mútua. Facilitando su estudio á los niños desde la edad mas tierna, y mui útil para todos (New method for learning English, founded on the nature of this language and the rules of its grammar. Facilitating its study for children from their infancy, and very useful to everyone: Cádiz, 1834). Esparza Torres and Niederehe (2012) state that Magawly was the editor when, in fact, she was the real author of the book. In library catalogues, the book is classified either as anonymous or written by several authors (V.V.A.A.): Biblioteca Pública de Cádiz (Public Library of Cádiz), Biblioteca Ateneu Maó (Library of the Atheneaum of Maó). My doctoral thesis (2015) shed new light on Magawly’s authorship of the grammar in question. Furthermore, a very recent study

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(Calero Vaquero 2017) not only confirms Magawly’s authorship but also highlights some innovative features, such as the distinctly empiricist and inductive character of Magawly’s manual, which prioritizes the use of the spoken language by first introducing her lessons of English phonetics and leaving grammar rules to the last stages of the teaching and learning process, despite the fact that Magawly no llega, sin embargo, a desterrar de sus páginas ciertos resabios de la tradicional enseñanza de lenguas, como es el aprecio que la autora muestra por la traducción (directa), por los ejercicios de lecturas de ‘buenos libros’ o por esas mismas explicaciones gramaticales que incluye como colofón al final de su programa educativo (ibidem, 246). does not manage, however, to wipe out certain lingering traces of the traditional teaching of languages from her pages, such as the author’s regard for the (direct) translation, for the reading exercises of ‘good books’ or for those grammatical explanations finally included at the end of her educational program.

1.5. Conclusion Since the invention of printing, the very first mass media in Europe, the vernaculars gradually gained more status and soon became an object of interest for scholars and teachers of languages. The diversity of materials soon profited from this new revolutionary technology. On top of that, the expansion of the world known to Europeans in the sixteenth century, including the Far East and America, provoked a massive development in communication and, therefore, in commercial and cultural exchange. Two major trends in FLT emerged. The first was best represented by Humanist scholars who followed a more classical way of presenting linguistic materials in the vernacular, such as Nebrija, Palsgrave, Percyvall, and others whose books were mainly published by royal presses. Their didactic purpose was more literary than communicative. The second trend encompasses all the masters of languages such as Calepin, Oudin, Berlaimont and Meurier, who devised true-to-life linguistic materials with a more communicative purpose so that traders and businessmen from different nationalities, who worked in the busiest trading centres in Europe, such as the quays of Belgian and Dutch harbour cities, could understand one another. The typology of manual users depended on global politics and each country’s internal affairs. In the

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sixteenth century, manual users were students, traders, courtiers, armies, scholars and travellers. By the seventeenth century, the main body of such users comprised the nobility (with the aid of a private tutor) and traders – much as it was in the eighteenth century – although the seventeenth also saw the first timid attempts at introducing FLT in formal education. The Prussian General Land Law was the first European attempt to take responsibility for institutionalized education, and in 1810 Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers which contributed to raise the level of teachers, including foreign language teachers. FLT was also introduced in private institutions (Spain). Notwithstanding, Latin remained the centre of secondary training, which was essential to access the University and the resulting opportunities for social climbing. This situation would begin to change from the first half of the nineteenth century onwards, due to the onset of Indo-European comparative philology and, therefore, the institutionalization of the historical and comparative study of languages as an academic principle. As for the grammars and dictionaries used in Spain to learn English, the following conclusions can be drawn: Until the second half of the eighteenth century, no grammars and dictionaries had been published to learn English in Spain. Before that, they had been published almost exclusively in London and, to a lesser extent, Paris, either by native speakers or political and religious exiles from Spain. The only manuals published in Spain before the eighteenth century were those in the French language. It had become the fashionable language in European courts from the mid-seventeenth century onwards, taking over from the Spanish language which had previously been Europe’s lingua franca. The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 and the liberation of maritime commerce with America in Spain brought about new opportunities to include FLT both in education and in the new commercial private institutions. Jovellanos’s booklet Rudiments of the English language and Juan Steffan’s English grammar are excellent examples of the two above-mentioned key political measures. The first English grammars published in Spain largely drew on French ones. Connelly and William Casey were two of the first grammarians to break with that tradition. Most translations from English authors derived from French translations as the French language was a sort of filter language in Spanish culture at that time. In actual fact, as early as 1784, Thomas Connelly proved to be a somewhat prophetic author when in the prologue to his English grammar he ventured to claim the universality of the English language two centuries before it came into effect:

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Los Caballeros y Negociantes Alemanes, Holandeses, Rusos, Suecos, Dinamarqueses, Españoles, y aun los Franceses, conociendo no solo las ventajas literarias, sino la utilidad en paz y en guerra de la lengua inglesa, extendida con su comercio en todas las partes del orbe, y hecha posteriormente más apreciable y necesaria su inteligencia por ser la que usan los Estados-Unidos de la nueva República Americana, se han dedicado a aprenderla con preferencia á todo otro idioma; de suerte que promete ser la lengua universal de trato y comunicación de nación con nación. (Connelly 1784, Prologue, vi). The German, Dutch, Russian, Swedish, Danish, Spanish, and even the French Gentlemen and Traders, knowing not only the literary advantages, but the utility of the English language in peace and at war, extended due to its commerce in all the parts of the world, and subsequently having made its intelligence more appreciable and necessary for being the language used by the United States of the new American Republic, they have dedicated themselves to learn it with preference to any other languages; in a way that it promises to become the universal language of dealing and communication among nations.

Bibliography Primary sources Arnauld, A., and C. Lancelot. 1660. Grammaire générale et raisonnée. Paris: Chez Pierre Le Petit. Benot, Eduardo. 1851. Nuevo método del Dr. Ollendorff para aprender á leer, hablar y escribir, una lengua cualquiera, adaptado al ingles. Cádiz: Imprenta, librería y litografía de la revista médica, a cargo de D. Juan B. de Gaona. ———. 1853. Método del Dr. Ollendorf, para aprender a leer, hablar y escribir un idioma cualquiera, adaptado al inglés: para uso de los alumnos del colegio de S. Felipe Neri de Cádiz. Cádiz: Imp., librería y litogr. de la Revista Médica, a cargo de Juan B. de Gaona. ———. 1858. Ollendorff reformado. Nuevo método para aprender a leer, hablar y escribirun idioma cualquiera adaptado al inglés. Cádiz: Imprenta de la Revista Médica. Boyer, Abel, and Guy Miège. 1745. Grammaire angloise-françoise. Paris: Briasson and David L’Aine.

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Casey, Guillermo. 1819. Gramática inglesa para uso de los españoles. Barcelona: Juan Francisco Piferrer, Impresor de S. M. ———. 1821. The Anglo-Hispano Interpreter, or A Practical Treatise on the English and Spanish Languages. Barcelona: Miguel y Tomas Gaspar. ——— [William]. 1828. A new English version of the lives of Cornelius Nepos from the original Latin [Etc.]. Barcelona: For John Francis Piferrer, One of His Majesty’s Printers. ———. 1846. Nueva Gramática Teorico y Práctica de la Lengua Alemana [Etc.]. Barcelona: Imp. de José Tauló. ———. 1849. A critical pronouncing dictionary of the English language [Etc.]. Barcelona: Imprenta de V. Torras y J. Corominas. Chantreau, Pierre-Nicolas. 1781. Arte de hablar bien francés, ó Gramática completa dividida en tres partes. Madrid: A. de Sancha. Connelly, Thomas. 1784. Gramática que contiene reglas faciles para pronunciar, y aprender metódicamente la lengua inglesa [Etc.]. Madrid: Imprenta Real. Connelly, Thomas, and Thomas Higgins. 1797. Diccionario nuevo de las dos lenguas española é inglesa, inglesa y española [Etc.]. Madrid: Imprenta Real. ———. 1798. Diccionario nuevo de las dos lenguas española é inglesa, inglesa y española [Etc.]. Madrid: Imprenta Real. Dyche, Thomas. 1709. A Guide to the English Tongue in Two Parts. London: Printed for Sam Butler. Fick, Johann Christian. 1793. Praktische englische Sprachlehre für Deutsche beiderlei Geschlechts, nach der in Meidingers französische Grammatik befolgten Methode. Erlangen: Author. Johnson, Samuel. 1755. A dictionary of the English language, in which the words are deduced from their originals and illustrated in their different significations by examples from the best writers. To which are prefixed a history of the language and an English grammar. London: W. Strahan. Jovellanos, Melchor Gaspar de. 1795. ‘Rudimentos de lengua inglesa’. In Venceslao de Linares y Pacheco. Obras del Excelentísimo señor D. Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos. Barcelona: Imprenta de D. Francisco Oliva. 1840. Kant, Immanuel. 1784. ‘Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?’ Berlinische Monatsschrift 12:481–494.http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/ kant_aufklaerung_1784. Lowth, Robert. 1762. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. London: J. Hughs. Reprint, London: Scolar Press, 1967. Magawly de Calry, María Teresa. 1834. Nuevo método para aprender el inglés [Etc.]. Cádiz: Imprenta de D. Domingo Feros, (A cargo de D. J. A. Pantoja). Meidinger, Johann Valentin. [1783] 1804. Praktische französische Grammatik wodurch man diese Sprache auf eine ganz neue und sehr leichte Art in kurzer Zeit gründlich erlernen kann heraus. Frankfurt: Author.

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Moradillo, Manuel de. 1843. Método práctico, analítico, teórico y sintético de la lengua inglesa. A imitación del sistema de T. Robertson. San Sebastián: Imprenta de Ignacio Ramón Baroja. Mountifield, Carlos. 1851. Novísimo curso práctico, analítico, teórico y sintético de lengua inglesa en 60 lecciones según el sistema del insigne T. Robertson y ordenado conforme a la gramática del docto Lindley Murray. Santiago de Compostela: Jacobo Souto e Hijo. Mountifield, William. 1854. Novísimo metodo teorico, practico, analitico y sintetico de lengua inglesa, uno de los mas completos que se han publicado hasta el dia. Para aprender sin cansar la memoria á traducir, hablar y escribir esta lengua en 70 dias. Madrid: Imprenta de Antonio Martínez. Mountifield, Anne. 1861. Nuevo método teórico y práctico de lengua inglesa: el mas completo de todos los que se han publicado hasta el dia, para aprender, sin cansar la memoria, á traducir, escribir y hablar esta lengua en 80 dias. Madrid: Imprenta de Mariano Saint de la Peña. Murray, Lindley. 1795. English Grammar, Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners. New York: Wilson, Spence and Mawman. Reprint, Menston: Scolar Press, 1968. ———. 1797a. English Exercises. New York: Wilson, Spence and Mawman. ———. 1797b. Abridgement of Murray’s English Grammar with an Appendix containing exercises in Orthography, Parsing, Syntax, and in Punctuation. Designed for the younger classes of learners. Derby: Charles and John Mozley. O’Crowley, Pedro Alonso. 1841. El Spelling book ilustrado, con reglas fijas, claras y sencillas para leer en Ingles; al que sirve de testo la bien conocida cartilla de Lindley Murray. El testo está tomado de la XLIII edición del espresado Spelling-Book. Cádiz: Imprenta de la Revista Médica. Pidal y Cardiano, Pedro José. 1845. Plan Pidal. https://www.upct.es/seeu/_as/ divulgacion_cyt_09/Libro_Historia_Ciencia/web/mapa-centros/plan_pidal. htm. Accessed 2 March 2017 Priestley, Joseph. 1761. The Rudiments of English Grammar, Adapted to the Use of Schools, with Observations on Style. London: R. Griffiths. Reprint, Menston: Scolar Press, 1970. Robertson, T. 1835. Cours pratique, analytique, théorique et synthétique de langue anglaise. Paris: Lance. San Pedro, Joaquín de. 1769. Gramática inglesa, y española: Unico arte para aprender el idioma inglés, colegida de las mejores gramáticas de la Europa. Madrid: Imprenta de Joseph Francisco Martínez Abad. Sheridan, Thomas. 1870. A General Dictionary of the English Language. London: Printed for J. Dodsley, Pall-Mall; C. Dilly, in the Poultry; and J. Wilkie, St Paul’s, Church-Yard. Shipton, Jorge. 1810. Gramática para enseñar la lengua inglesa. Cádiz: D. Manuel Ximenez Carreño.

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Steffan, Juan. 1784. Gramatica inglesa, y castellana o Arte metodico y nuevo para aprender con facilidad el idioma ingles. Valencia, en la Fundición, é Imprenta de D. Manuel Peleguer. Torres de Navarra, Joseph González: Ensayo práctico de simplificar el estudio de las lenguas escritas, verificado sobre la inglesa para exemplo de todas las demás. Madrid: Imprenta Real. Trinder, William Martin. 1781. An essay on the English grammar. London: the Author Urcullu, José. 1825. Gramática inglesa reducida á veinte y dos lecciones. London: R. Ackermann. ———. 1845. Gramática inglesa, reducida á veinte y siete lecciones. Nueva edición considerablemente aumentada y corregida por su autor Don José de Urcullu. Cádiz: Imprenta, Librería y Litografía de la Sociedad de la Revista Médica, á cargo de D. Vicente Caruana. Vergani, Angelo. [c. 1813. (1825)]. Grammatica inglese ad uso degl’italiani semplicizzata e ridotta a XXI lezioni. Livorno: Dalla tipografia La Fenice. Walker, John. 1791. A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language. London: Robinson. Reprint, Menston: Scolar Press, 1968.

Secondary sources Aguilar Piñal, Francisco. 1980. Los reales seminarios de nobles en la política ilustrada española. Madrid: Instituto de Cooperación Iberoamericana. Andújar Castillo, Francisco. 2004. ‘El Seminario de Nobles de Madrid en el siglo XVIII. Un estudio social’. Cuadernos de Historia Moderna 3: 201-225. http:// revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CHMO/article/view/CHMO0404220201A/22256. Accessed 15 May 2017. Baader, Horst. 1981. ‘La limitación de la Ilustración en España’. In II Simposio sobre el Padre Feijoo y su siglo, edited by Cátedra Feijóo, vol. 1, 41-50. Oviedo: Centro de Estudios del siglo XVIII. Botella Rodríguez, Manuel, and Pilar González Rodríguez. 2007. ‘Los inicios de la enseñanza de las lenguas para fines específicos en el Real Colegio de Cirugía de la Armada de Cádiz.’ IBÉRICA 14: 59-78. http://www.aelfe.org/documents/14-04_botella.pdf. Accessed 23 April 2017. Brown, H. Douglas. 1994. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, 3rd ed. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs Prentice Hall Regents. Calero Vaquera, María Luisa, and María Martínez-Atienza. 2017. ‘La enseñanza de las lenguas modernas en la España del siglo XIX. La aportación de María Teresa Magawly en su Nuevo método para aprender inglés (Cádiz, 1834)’. Beiträge zur Geschichte der Spracwissenschaft 27, no. 2: 209-252.

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Caravolas, Jean-Antoine. 2000. Histoire de la didactique des langues au siècle des Lumières: précis et anthologie thématique. Québec: Presses Universitaires de Montreal. Cervera Ferri, Pablo. 2007. La enseñanza de la economía en el Real Seminario de Nobles de Madrid (1770-1807). Ponencia leída en el V Encuentro de la Asociación Ibérica de Historia del Pensamiento Económico. Madrid, 12-14 de diciembre de 2007. Cormier, Monique. 2009. ‘Bilingual Dictionaries of the late Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’. In The Oxford history of English Lexicography. 65-85. Edited by Anthony Paul Cowie, Vol. I. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. Crookes, Graham. 2009. Values, Philosophies, and Beliefs in TESOL: Making a Statement. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eberenz, Rolf. 1992. ‘Spanish: Sprache und Gesetzgebung. Lengua y legislación’. In Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik, edited byGünther Holtus et al., I, 368-378. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer VI. Esparza Torres, Miguel Angel, and Hans Josef Niederehe. 2012. Bibliografía cronológica de la lingüística, la gramática y la lexicografía del Español (BICRES): Desde el año 1801 hasta el año 1860. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Fens-de-Zeeuw, Lyda. 2011. Lindley Murray (1745-1826), Quaker and Grammarian. Utrecht: Lot. https://www.lotpublications.nl/Documents/283_fulltext.pdf. Accessed 3 April 2017. Fernández Fraile, María Eugenia. 2009. ‘Juan Antonio González Cañaveras y la enseñanza de lenguas en el siglo XVIII’. In Documents pour l’histoire du français langue étrangère ou seconde, 42, 87-108. http://dhfles.revues.org/705. Accessed 12 May 2017. García Bascuñana, Juan F., ed. 2016. Diccionario de la historia de la enseñanza del francés en España (siglos XVI-XX). www.grelinap.recerca.urv.cat/projectes/ diccionario-historia-ensenanza-frances-espana/es_index/. Accessed 12 May 2017. García Garralón, Marta. 2007. Taller de Mareantes: el Real Colegio Seminario de San Telmo de Sevilla (1681-1847). Sevilla: Fundación Cajasol. Gaviño Rodríguez, Victoriano. 2017. ‘De la necesidad, virtud. La figura gramatical de José de Urcullu en el exilio’. In Las musas errantes. Cultura literaria y exilio en la España de la primera mitad del siglo XIX. 121-142. Edited by Alberto Romero Ferrer y David Loyola López.Gijón: Ediciones Trea. Howatt, A. P. R., with H. G. Widdowson. 2004. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jovellanos, Gaspar Melchor. 1802 [1993]. ‘Memoria sobre educación pública o sea, tratado teórico práctico de enseñanza, con aplicación a las escuelas y colegios de niños’. In G. M. de Jovellanos: Poesía, teatro, prosa, literature. 420-455. Edited by H. R. Polt. Madrid: Taurus.

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Kumaravadivelu, B. 1994. ‘The postmethod condition (e)merging strategies for second/ foreign language teaching’. TESOL Quarterly 28, no. 1: 27-48. Lépinette, Brigitte. 2005. ‘La linguistique des grammaires françaises publiées en Espagne dans la première moitié du XIXe siècle’. Historiographia lingüística 32: 273-307. Lombardero Caparrós, Alberto. 2015. The Historiography of English Language Teaching in Spain: A corpus of Grammars and Dictionaries (1769-1900). Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/318808. Accessed 15 March, 2017. ———. 2017a. ‘A “Particular History” of English Language Teaching in Nineteenthcentury Spain: The Board of Commerce School of English in Barcelona (18261851)’. Language & History 60/ 1: 21-34. Martín-Gamero, Sofía. 1961. La enseñanza del inglés en España: (desde la edad media hasta el siglo XIX). Madrid: Gredos. Molina García, Daniel, and Francisco Sánchez Benedito. 2007. Análisis del ‘Diccionario nuevo de las dos lenguas española é inglesa’ de Connelly & Higgins (1797-1798). Málaga: Publicaciones Universidad de Málaga. Monaghan, Charles. 1996. ‘Lindley Murray, American’. In 200 Years of Lindley Murray, edited by Ingrid Tieken-Boon von Ostade, 27-43. Münster: Nodus. Oliván Santaliestra, Laura, and Daniel Moisés Sáez Rivera. 2004. ‘La instauración de la monarquía borbónica y sus consecuencias intelectuales: el impulso ¿reformista? en el ámbito lingüístico y literario’. Res Diachronicae 3: 129-145. Pegenaute, Luis. 2002. ‘Guillermo Casey: Profesor, traductor y filólogo.’ In Neoclásicos y románticos ante la traducción, edited by Concepción Palacios Bernat et al., 185-204. Murcia: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia. Prabhu, N. S. 1990. ‘There is no best method. Why?’. TESOL Quarterly 24, no. 2: 161-176. Roig Morras, Carmen. 1995. ‘La traducción científica en el siglo XVIII: problemas y soluciones’. In Actas de los V Encuentros en tomo a la Traducción, edited by R. Martín Gaitero), 431-437. Madrid: Complutense. Sarasola, Ignacio Fernández. 2016. ‘“So, you want us to be Englishmen …” : Jovellanos and British Influence on Spain’s First Modern Parliament (1808–1810)’. Comparative Legal History 4, no. 1: 51-81. Soubeyroux, Jacques. 1995. ‘El real seminario de nobles de Madrid y la formación de las élites en el siglo XVIII’. Bulletin Hispanique 97, no. 1: 201-212. Steiner, Roger J. 1970. Two Centuries of Spanish and English Bilingual Lexicography (1590-1800). The Hague-Paris: Walter De Gruyter Inc. ———. 1986. ‘The Three-Century Recension in Spanish and English Lexicography’. In The history of lexicography. Papers from the Dictionary Research Centre at Exeter, edited by R. R. K. Hartmann, 229-239. Amsterdam: J. Benjamin.

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Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. 2008. ‘Henry Fowler and his Eighteenth-Century Predecessors’. Bulletin of The Henry Sweet Society for the History of Linguistic Ideas 51: 5-24. ———, ed. 1996. Two Hundred Years of Lindley Murray. Münster: Nodus Publikationen. Villoria Prieto, Javier. 2008. ‘La enseñanza de la lengua inglesa en la España del XIX. Nueva (1845) y Novísima Gramática Inglesa (1864), de Antonio Bergnes de las Casas’. Quaderni del CIRSIL 8: 177-198. ———. 2010. ‘Juan Steffan y su instrucción o tratado para la enseñanza de la pronunciación del inglés’. Porta Linguarum: revista internacional de la didáctica de lenguas extranjeras 13: 131-147. Viña Rouco, María. 2000. La enseñanza de las lenguas vivas en España (1800-1936) con especial referencia a la lengua inglesa. Doctoral thesis. Santiago de Compostela: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. ———. 2005. ‘Metodología inductiva y deductiva en la enseñanza de lenguas vivas en España en el siglo XIX’. Porta Linguarum: An International and Interuniversity Journal of Foreign Language Didactics 4: 185-200. Wilhelm, Frans A. 2005. English in the Netherlands: A History of Foreign Language Teaching 1800–1920; With a Bibliography of Textbooks. Utrecht: Gopher Publ.

Other sources Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid.R/23742. Papeles Varios [Various scrolls on the Royal Seminary of Noblemen].

Historical press Diario Mercantil de Cádiz, 23 April 1809 Diario Mercantil de Cádiz, 4 February 1829

2.

ELT in Spain (1850-1910), further development Abstract This chapter delves into the development of English language teaching and learning in Spain between 1850 and 1910. After a look at the official educational legislation in that period, which became more explicit for English language teaching, a thorough account of the most significant authors and their manuals is given, bearing in mind their underlying methodologies and how, in some cases, they corresponded to those of their mainstream European counterparts. Since the presence of English tuition was on the increase in this period, there is ample mention of both the official institutions and private academies that provided it in Spain. Lastly, some relevant theoretical works have been selected in order to better gauge how English and other foreign languages were taught and learnt. Keywords: ELT, Spain, Franz Ahn, Heinrich Ollendorff, T. Robertson, Eduardo Benot

2.1. Introduction As seen in the previous chapter, the implementation of ELT in Spain was a slow-moving and heterogeneous process mostly adopted by private institutions and geared towards the elites at a time when formal education, especially primary and secondary schooling, was in its infancy. However bleak the situation was, ELT gradually progressed, especially in the period covered in this chapter, leading to a somewhat stronger position as far as the steady publication of English manuals is concerned. Two factors came into play which account for the surge of a wider interest in learning English. Firstly, private institutions increased their offer in modern languages spurred by an emerging bourgeoisie and, secondly, formal education became a more established reality with the implementation of formal primary and

Lombardero Caparrós, A., Two Centuries of English Language Teaching and Learning in Spain. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2019 doi: 10.5117/9789462986282/ch02

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secondary schooling. Thus, the scope of modern language teaching widened, encompassing both private and official educational institutions. However slow this implementation would be, it would prove to be relentless. Special attention will be given to the main actors involved in the introduction of ELT such as official legislation, authors and their manuals (underlying foreign language methods), institutions and theoretical studies (i.e. public speeches, press and academic articles), which advocated the study of modern languages, laying special emphasis on the English language.

2.2. Spain 2.2.1. Official legislation: Public instruction and Commercial Studies The first three educational laws enacted in Spain since the onset of the Peninsular War (1808-1814) – Quintana’s Report (1813); General Regulation of Public Instruction (1821) and Calomarde’s Plan (1824) – failed to include modern languages. It was not until 1836 that the Duke of Rivas’s Plan included them, although it failed to specify which foreign languages should be studied. It was not until Pidal’s Plan (1845) that modern languages were included in an official curriculum in Spain. The French, English, and German languages were the lucky ones. This Plan consolidated the implementation of secondary schooling, being divided into a five-year introductory period called Elementary, and then followed by a two-year course called Special or ‘de Ampliación’ (Extensive). The Elementary period focused on the Humanities, which encompassed classical languages, regarded as the foundation of literature and good studies. The only modern language studied in that period was French, in the third and fourth years. The Special or Extensive secondary education comprised the study of both Arts and Sciences. According to Article 10 of Pidal’s Plan, one could graduate with a Degree in Arts if, after the Degree of Bachiller en Filosofía (Elementary education), the candidate completed the following studies in at least two years: mastery of the Latin language, Greek (two courses), English or German, Literature, and Philosophy. Those are all the references to modern languages in Pidal’s Plan. However, there is one final point worth mentioning which affects tertiary studies: Article 33 deals with the requirements to become a Doctor in Arts. Apart from the knowledge of classical languages and their literature, there is an explicit reference to Modern Foreign Literature. Nothing else is specified but, at least, this is the very first time that this type of studies formed part of the core curriculum in universities. According to Pidal’s Plan, the public

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examinations for a chair in a modern language that a candidate had to take in order to become a teacher at a Secondary School consisted of a public examination divided into three parts: – A speech which lasted between 30 and 45 minutes and it had to be written in French, English or German, depending on the language to be taught. The speech had to be written within 24 hours either in a University or in another building, in isolation and in complete confinement. (Article 203) – The second part dealt with the creation of a one-hour lesson on a topic to be chosen out of three. (Article 206). – The third and last exercise consisted of a one-hour examination of unrelated questions on diverse topics. (Article 210). A few years later, in 1857, La Ley Moyano (Moyano’s Law) was enacted. This was a turning point for Spanish education: it can be regarded as the law that laid the foundations of secondary education in Spain until 1970. In actual fact, there are two laws which are referred to as Moyano’s Law since both of them were proposed by the then Minister of Development Claudio Moyano: first the Ley de Bases de 17 de Julio de 1857 (Framework Law of 17 July 1857), which authorised the government to propose and enact a second law, a public education Act called the Ley de Instrucción Pública de 9 de Septiembre de 1857 (Public Education Act, 9 September 1857). The latter closed a cycle started in 1821 and prefigured by both Rivas’s (1836) and Pidal’s (1845) Plans. Regrettably, the status of modern languages did not change much after Pidal’s Plan (1845). French continued as the only modern language studied in secondary schools in the type of studies known as general studies, which then lasted six years. English became part of the studies of Aplicación (applied or technical studies) for two years. By the time this significant law was enacted in 1857, there were 15 million people in Spain, of whom around 75 per cent were illiterate. 2.5 million worked as labourers in agriculture and 260,000 people were extremely poor. These figures show the bleak socio-economic structure of pre-industrial Spain, with an educational system conceived for a static society. Things were only to change very slowly, but at least from Moyano’s Law onwards a few steps were taken to partially establish formal education. As for the legislation post-Moyano’s Law, it swung between less inclusion of modern languages (for instance in the Royal Decree of 25 October 1868 which, for the first time, excluded the teaching of Latin from Bachillerato, a pre-university course) and a major presence in official curricula (as in the Royal Decree of 13 August 1880, which apart from French and English

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also included German. Similarly the Royal Decree of 30 September 1887 expanded modern languages to Italian, French, English and German). Eventually, the Royal Decree of 24 July 1897 equated the status of modern language teachers with that of the other teachers in secondary education, following the example of the Royal Decree of 30 September 1887. Another crucial date for Spanish educational legislation is 1900. In that year, a separate Ministry of Education was created. Thereupon, education no longer depended on the Ministry of Development and went on to be called after its French counterpart, created back in 1824, ‘Ministerio de Instrucción Pública y Bellas Artes’ (Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts), according to the Royal Decree of 18 April 1900. The man behind this turning point in education was Antonio García Alix, the first Minister of Public Instruction. Another field where modern languages gained a permanent place in off icial curricula was commerce. We saw earlier on how some private institutions (Jovellanos’ Institute, 1792), and the Boards of Commerce (late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century) had implemented the study of modern languages. Fernández (2012, 10-12) refers to three key legislative moments which span from the first ordering of commercial studies to their consolidation. The first one is the Royal Decree of 11 September 1850, when commercial or mercantile schools were first officially created with the subsequent disappearance of the teaching mission of the Boards of Commerce. These studies were integrated into Secondary School Institutes (known as Estudios Especiales, Special Studies). In particular, they were implemented in Madrid, Barcelona, Cádiz, La Coruña, Malaga, Santander, Sevilla and Valencia. As for the modern languages, French and English were compulsory subjects leading to the title of Commerce Teacher. The same Decree stated that modern language teachers could work both at Institutes and in their Schools of Commerce. Consequently, it was in Institutes with a Commerce School where the incentive to provide English studies was higher, as new chairs were to be created according to their needs. Our second key piece of legislation was the Royal Decree of 23 March 1853, which divided commercial studies into two blocks: a three-year elementary level including the study of French (first and second years) and English (second and third years), plus an extra year that failed to include the teaching of modern languages. At that time, there existed Elementary Commerce Schools in Madrid, Alicante, Barcelona, Bilbao, Cádiz, La Coruña, Gran Canaria, Málaga, Ribadeo, Santander, Sevilla, Valencia and Vergara. Only Madrid offered higher commercial studies at the time. Gradually, this type of studies expanded throughout the second half of the nineteenth century.

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Table 1  English manuals published in Spain between 1769 and 1899

1890-1899

1880-1889

1870-1879

1860-1869

1850-1859

1840-1849

1830-1839

1820-1829

1810-1819

1800-1809

1769-1799

Manual output per decade : XVIII & XIX Centuries 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Lastly, the Royal Decree of 11 August 1887 marked a key moment in the development of commercial studies. This decree abolished the Estudios de Aplicación (set forth by Moyano’s Law) which had been implemented in some institutes, as seen above. Instead, the creation of Schools of Commerce left Institutes with general studies only, which included the study of French. In the newly-founded Schools of Commerce, the system of teaching modern languages continued much the same as in previous legislations, with the only difference being that German was replaced by Italian in Barcelona, Alicante and Málaga. The 1887 decree put an end to the educational legislation for this type of studies in nineteenth-century Spain. It would not be until 1970 that commercial studies were converted into a university degree in Business Science. 2.2.2. Authors and their manuals: underlying foreign language methods Whereas between 1769 and 1900 a total of sixty-four English manuals had been published, comprising grammars and dictionaries (Lombardero 2015, 183), the first decade of the twentieth century saw the publication of sixteen manuals, thus outnumbering the manual production of any decade in the nineteenth century. Certainly the production of manuals increased exponentially towards the end date of this general study in 1970. A closer look at English manual production in Spain since its outset in 1769 yields conclusive results. Whereas for the period covered in Chapter 1 – 1769-1850 – a total of twenty-seven manuals had been published, nearly twice as many were published in the period covered in this chapter, thus demonstrating a growing presence of English language teaching and learning

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not only throughout the second half of the nineteenth century but beyond, as we shall see. Despite these promising figures for the English language, the Spaniards’ first choice in terms of foreign languages was French and it was to remain so until the early 1980s. In a nutshell, the English language over the period studied in this book always played second fiddle to the French language. In view of the growing interest in the English language during the second half of the nineteenth century, we should discuss now those authors whose manuals were amongst the most widespread at the time. One is Eduardo Benot’s Nuevo método del Dr. Ollendoff para aprender á leer, hablar y escribir una lengua cualquiera, adaptado al inglés (Dr. Ollendorff’s new method to learn how to read, speak and write any languages, adapted to English). The subtitle further informs us about the main features of his method: Obra calculada para aprender este idioma en seis meses, seguida de un apéndice, y acompañada, en volúmen separado, de LA CLAVE DE LOS TEMAS y de un DICCIONARIO que por el órden de lecciones contiene todas las palabras y frases enseñadas en el testo, y la indicación de su prosodia. Revisada la parte inglesa por George Knowles Shaw. A manual calculated to learn this language in six months, followed by an appendix, and accompanied, in a separate volume, by the KEY TO THE TOPICS and a DICTIONARY that by the order of lessons contains all the words and phrases taught in the text, as well as the indication of their prosody. The English part is revised by George Knowles Shaw.

Eduardo Benot (1822-1907) was a renowned scientist and linguist who taught English at the Colegio de San Felipe Neri (School of Saint Philip Neri) in Cádiz in the 1850s. He was headmaster of the School between 1852 and 1868, as well as its owner. His English grammar became very popular, reaching eight reprints by 1898 and thirteen by 1929, the last printing. From its third edition in 1858 onwards, Benot’s English grammar was renamed Ollendorff reformado (Reformed Ollendorff). Benot also made Ollendorff’s versions for the French (1850), Italian (1852) and German (1853) languages. He was not the only author who adapted Ollendorff for the English language in Spain, although he was the most popular at the time. Other adapters of Ollendorff in Spain include John George Brown, whose Gramática española-inglesa: Sistema teórico-práctico por un nuevo método, modificación del Doctor Ollendorff (Spanish-English grammar: theoretical-practical system with a new method modified by Doctor Ollendorff), was published only once

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in 1858. Then in 1872 Lorenzo Reynal, who held a chair of English at the Instituto de Tarragona (Tarragona High School), published a booklet called Método Ollendorff adaptado á la correspondencia mercantil españolainglesa (Ollendorff’s Method adapted to Spanish-English commercial correspondence). It was published in Tarragona by Tort and Cusidó and it was the fourth of a six-book English course called Curso completo de lengua inglesa (Complete course of the English language). They were all published in the 1870s. Two further authors partially adapted Ollendorff for their English grammars, as they openly expressed either in their titles or prologues. The f irst is Bergnes de Las Casas, whose second edition of his English grammar (Barcelona, 1864), unlike the first (1845), includes the name of Ollendorff on the title page: Novísima gramática inglesa […] Nueva edición considerablemente mejorada […] para lo cual se han tenido presente todas las gramáticas inglesas publicadas hasta el día, inclusa la de G. H. OLLENDORFF (Newest English grammar […] New edition considerably improved […] hence all the English grammars published to the day have been taken into account, including G. H. OLLENDORFF’s). Our last Ollendorffian influence comes from William Mountifield’s work entitled Novísimo metodo teorico, practico, analitico y sintetico de lengua inglesa (Newest theoretical, practical, analytical and synthetic method of the English language), first published in 1851 and reaching a total of three reprints, the last in 1861. Going back to the roots, Heinrich Gottfried Ollendorff (1803-1865) had become a bestselling author thanks to his Method, launched in 1835 and called A new method of learning to read, write, and speak a language in six months. It first targeted English speakers who wanted to learn German. Later, he brought out courses to teach French (1843), Italian (1846), English (1848) and other languages. According to Howatt, the Ollendorff industry must have been a large-scale international publishing operation. All the courses were originally published by Ollendorff himself in Paris. Thereafter, his work appeared in London, New York, Berlin, Frankfurt and, in authorized adaptations, in many other cities. (1984, 141)

Benot was the most popular adapter of Ollendorff’s Method in Spain, as we have pointed out above. His adaptations were quite close to Ollendorff’s original works, whose features can be summed up as follows: – The promise one could learn a language in six months – His books are massive, two-volume affairs

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– Exercise examples are always given in the learner’s mother tongue for translation into the foreign language – They include two original features of interest: first, a curious and rather obscure system of interaction on which he based all his exercises (question/answer); secondly, a system of linguistic grading (Howatt and Widdowson 2004, 161-162). As for the exercises or temas (as not only Benot but most authors called them in Spanish), they are very repetitive and made up of loose sentences, thus failing to form a connected text. Each of the two hundred lessons is introduced by some Spanish/English bilingual vocabulary. Then comes the description of a grammar point along with some explanatory grammar (foot)notes, and then an exercise ranging from one to several temas. I have randomly selected exercise or tema 20 from lesson 20 (1865, 124;4th ed.) dedicated to irregular plurals as a typical example of what a tema consisted of: 20. Qué bizcochos tiene él? – Tiene sus bizcochos. – Tiene nuestro amigo nuestros hermosos tenedores? – No tiene nuestros hermosos tenedores. – Cuáles tiene? – Tiene los tenedorcitos que sus comerciantes tienen. –Qué escobas tiene su criado de V? – Tiene las escobas que sus buenos comerciantes tienen. – Tiene V. El saco que tiene mi criado? – No tengo el saco que tiene su criado de V. – Tiene V. El pollo que tiene mi cocinero ó el que el labrador tiene? – No tengo el que tiene su cocinero de V. Ni el que el labrador tiene. – Tiene su hermano de V. La cuchara que yo tengo ó la que V. Tiene? – No tiene la que V. Tiene ni la que yo tengo.

As the subtitle of this work reads, it is a work calculated to learn the language in a surprisingly short six-month period. There are 150 three-page lessons which take up approximately 90 per cent of the total manual, divided into six main sections corresponding to the six months supposed to be dedicated to the study of this work. By and large, it is a typical nineteenth-century grammar-translation text, with lots of disconnected sentences for translation. Another key author in this period who made some of the clearest and longest-lasting contributions, was Henry Mac Veigh.1 His full name was Henry Mac Veigh O’Hare; while in Spain, he hispanized his first name as Enrique. He was born on 2 December 1824 in County Down in Ireland, in 1 I would like to express my most sincere thanks to Andrés Mac Veigh Martínez de Lecea, great grandson to Henry Mac Veigh, for allowing me to make use of his family’s personal records, which hitherto had been kept private, in the family circle.

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the Parish of Iwllylish. By the age of 18 he was in Valladolid, where he spent some years, and then moved to Madrid where he became an English teacher at the Instituto Cardenal Cisneros (Cardinal Cisneros Institute) in 1845. He also taught English at the Madrid Athenaeum. By 1857, he was one of the private English teachers in vogue amongst the high society in Madrid, together with another teacher called Mr. Keys (La Época, 28 May 1857, under the heading Cartas Madrileñas (Letters from Madrid)).2 He married Jacoba Fernández y Núñez (b, 1838) in 1860. He died in Madrid on 7 September 1872. Mac Veigh’s name will always be associated with Franz Ahn (1796-1865), another German forerunner in foreign language teaching whose Praktischer Lehrgang zur schnellen und leichten Erlennung der französischen Sprache3 (A practical course to learn the French language fast and easily) was first published in 1834. It rapidly became a publishing success. Its first course was probably one of the most frequently edited foreign language manuals, reaching the staggering figure of over 220 reprints in the nineteenth century and 237 by 1921, thus becoming one of most impressive nineteenth-century editorial feats. Ahn’s adapter for the English language in Spain was Enrique (Henry) Mac Veigh whose book Método de Ahn. Curso de inglés arreglado al Castellano (Ahn’s Method. English course adapted to Castilian) was first published in 1859 in Madrid by Alejandro Gómez Fuentenebro. 4 By 1897 it had reached nineteen reprints, thus becoming the most popular English manual published in nineteenth-century Spain. Like Benot’s English course, it was also reprinted during the first decades of the twentieth century. Mac Veigh’s adaptation was a direct translation of Ahn’s English Course which, at the same time, mirrored Ahn’s French Method (1834). According to Howatt and Widdowson (2004, 159-160), Ahn’s Method had the following features: – Presented a new and easy method – Used the grammar-translation method more consistently and self-effacingly – His principal market was the private learner for whom a grammatical description and a bilingual approach were essential – There is a grammar summary, usually in the form of a paradigm, and about a dozen new vocabulary items, followed by a set of sentences to translate into the mother tongue 2 Source: http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000097571&page=3&search=%22M ac+veigh%22&lang=es) 3 Cologne, Dumont-Schauberg. 4 All the subsequent reprints were edited by Bailly-Baillière in Madrid, too. This publishing house was founded in 1848 by Carlos Bailly-Baillière and remained one of the most important publishing houses in the second half of the nineteenth century in Spain.

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– Sentences to translate into the foreign language, and no new teaching points – Ahn’s grammatical notes require only a minimum knowledge of grammar terminology: singular, plural, masculine, feminine – Useful vocabulary on the whole. Sentences are short and easy to translate – Intuitive feeling for simplicity. Indeed, Mac Veigh’s English course did not reach two hundred pages and this may account for its popularity. Unlike Benot’s English course, it included no literary pieces and the number of exercises or temas was reduced. However, both authors adopted the same loose, unconnected sentences, which made them an object of scorn or mockery in some Spanish circles towards the turn of the nineteenth century, especially in the case of Ahn’s Method (Lombardero 2017b). Of special interest is Ahn’s motto where he summarizes his methodology in a few simple words: Aprended un idioma extranjero como habeis aprendido vuestra lengua nativa: he aquí en pocas palabras el método que he seguido al escribir esta obrita. Es el método de la naturaleza misma, y el que emplea una madre cuando habla á su hijo, repitiéndole cien veces las mismas palabras, combinándolas imperceptiblemente, y logrando de esta manera hacerle hablar la lengua que ella habla. Aprender de este modo no es un estudio, es un entretenimiento. To learn a language in the same way you learned your mother tongue: in these few words is the method I have followed in writing this little book. It is nature’s method, that which a mother uses when talking to her child, repeating the same words a hundred times, combining them imperceptibly, and by these means, succeeding in making the child speak the language she herself speaks. Learning like this is not studying, it is entertainment.

It is odd to realise that the methodology predicated on this kind of native speaker’s view of language learning does not seem to be consistent with the examples given, in the sense that a child is unlikely to be using the sort of sentences that a mother would say to her child. It is even less likely that she would repeat: Have you seen my garden? I have seen your orchard. Has your brother any little flowers? He has some large flowers. I have none. Have you any? I have some. Has your little brother any meat? He has some flesh-meat.

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Have your parents bought some butcher’s meat? They have seen some flesh. Have you bought some flowers? I have seen some. My mother has no garden. (Mac Veigh 1881, 43)

As seen from those sentences, the exercise is somewhat inconsistent with the view that it is a natural method. However, what is interesting is that there are teaching phonics to convey sound and spelling (1-40) in the form of a poem: Small old hut Lame old horse Big white gate. Small white mice Fine wax doll Blind old man Small sharp pin Pure red wine (ibidem, 28)

Fine red rose Long wide lake Large hot fire Cold wet hens Nice ripe nuts Short fat man Big red lips

In one sense, there is actually quite a lot of innovation going on, within a fairly narrow range of activity types. The later version of Ahn involved translation of the grammar and the sentences, which were again fairly disconnected. Some sentences even have a kind of patriotic sense: ‘All the people of Madrid love their king and queen who are very good.’ (Mac Veigh 1881, 23). This kind of methodology continued throughout the nineteenth century, mainly based on isolated collections of sentences. There was no attempt to connect the language of the text to any sort of noticeable authenticity. An example of a typical exercise from Mac Veigh’s English course that embodies the type of translation exercises which were in vogue at the time is: I waken at six, rise at half past six, shave and wash at seven, dress at eight, and, after reading a little, I breakfast at nine. Do you not pray and hear mass before you breakfast? Yes, I do, on holidays. Then you are a very good man. Did you breakfast early? I did not. Did you read the book I lent you? No, I did not. I do read a great deal when I am in the country. I did pray to God when I was young, more than I do at present. (1884, 69, Tema 72)

We may mention in passing that Ahn never used the word ‘method’ in the title of his manuals, unlike his Spanish or American adapters. Apart from English, other FL adapters of Ahn’s Method in Spain include Francisco de

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Paula Hidalgo who wrote a Portuguese version of Ahn’s Method called Método de Ahn. Primer y segundo curso de portugués con la clave de temas (Ahn’s Method. First and second Portuguese courses with a key to the exercises; 1876, Madrid), and Camilo Vallés who wrote a version for the German language called Nuevo método para aprender alemán según el Sistema de F. Ahn (New method to learn German according to F. Ahn’s system; 1899, Madrid). The second edition to his Segundo and Tercer cursos (Second and Third Courses) were published in Madrid, too, in 1890 (Corvo 2012, 149-150). For the French language, Henry Mac Veigh himself adapted Ahn’s Method and it also proved to be highly popular, reaching its twentieth edition by 1899. Oddly enough and unlike the versions for the French and German languages, Mac Veigh’s English course never went beyond its first course (either for editorial reasons or others that are beyond our grasp). The decade of the 1850s marked something of a boom for new English grammars, as we have just seen. Our next grammar was also published at the beginning of that decade and what is significant about it is that a female author was involved in its subsequent editions. I refer to William Mountif ield’s work entitled Novísimo metodo teorico, practico, analitico y sintetico de lengua inglesa (1851). Anne Mountifield had come to Spain together with her husband, Carlos Mountifield, a former French teacher at Oxford University. It is of special interest to discover that the prologue in Mountif ield’s second edition is signed by Anne Mountif ield, due to the earlier death of her husband. In the third edition (1861) the author is Anne Mountifield. Even though the first edition of this grammar was solely authored by William, there is no doubt that his wife had also played a part in the work. Their grammar (1854, 128) includes a detailed explanation of their method for a practical teaching of English, which can be summarized as follows: the lesson begins by slowly reading the whole text, pronouncing the f irst word and explaining the value of the pronunciation signs. The same is done with the rest of the words. Then, students read the text two or three times slowly, isolating the sounds of each word. Next, they read the text word by word for a f ifth time under the teacher’s guidance and with suitable corrections. After that, students read the whole text uninterruptedly but very slowly until they can pronounce it in a satisfactory manner. Special attention is paid to pronouncing the stressed syllables with clarity, giving the value of soft ‘c’ to ‘sh’, banishing any hardness in the ‘r’, which is hardly perceptible, and the distinct pronunciation of all the final consonants. Once the text is correctly pronounced, students prepare the word-for-word translation by f irst pronouncing the English word with its corresponding Spanish

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version. Students close the book; then they slowly pronounce the English lesson and translate it word-by-word into Spanish. When this step poses no further diff iculties, students pronounce the same text in Spanish and translate it into English. Next, a student opens the book at the page of the text. The teacher holds a conversation with a student following the question/answer exercise. Answers must be given in English. Then the theoretical rules are explained. After that, a synthetic exercise is presented.5 Students write it in English and read it out, being asked by the teacher for its alternative translation whenever the student makes a mistake. Once fully written, students read all the sentences in English, one by one. Unless the number of students does not allow them to write the synthetic exercise during the lesson, it will be done in the interval between lessons. Whenever necessary, the teacher concludes his or her daily task by explaining the etymology and syntax of the text. All the editions included the above-mentioned teaching method showcased by William and Anne Mountifield. It was included in the manual’s two further reprints, between 1851 and 1861. Eventually, the Mountifields acknowledged the sources used in their grammar, namely Ollendorff and Robertson. Concerning the latter individual reformer, his English Course (1835) had become another worldwide success, being adapted in several countries. In Spain, in addition to Moradillo (1843) and the Mountifields in the 1850s and early 1860s, Bergnes de las Casas’s English grammar (1864, 2nd ed.) also acknowledged Robertson’s’ influence. Of the five parts his grammar is divided into (Analogy, Word Formation, Syntax, Orthography, and Appendix), the second, word formation, is largely drawn from Robertson, as Bergnes (1864) himself admitted: La segunda [Formación de las palabras], obra apreciabilísima de un inglés (M. Robertson), trata del mecanismo verbal de la lengua inglesa, de sus raíces, derivados y compuestos […]; y no puede menos de ser utilísima para los que deseen poseer fundamentalmente la lengua inglesa. (Prologue, v). The second [Word Formation], a work of the Englishman, Mr. Robertson, deals with the verbal mechanism of the English language, of its roots, endings and compounds […]; and it cannot fail to be highly useful for those who wish to fundamentally master the English tongue. 5 This consisted of a translation exercise from English into Spanish focused on a specif ic point of grammar.

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Bergnes’s reference to Mr. Robertson as an Englishman may be due to the French author’s pseudonym, which clearly has an English ring. After having compared both authors’ prologues and introductions to their works, everything leads me to think that Bergnes is referring to the French author T. Robertson. Both make reference to very similar expressions when referring to the parts of their works, if we compare Bergnes’ above-mentioned citation with Robertson’s (1839): La connaissance complète d’une langue vivante se compose des connaissances suivantes: – La science de la prononciation; – La science purement mnémotechnique des mots; – La science du mécanisme des mots ; c’est-à-dire de leur formation et de leurs inflexions; – La science des rapports des mots entre eux, ou de la construction des phrases. (Introduction, 6). The full knowledge of a modern language is made up of the following skills: – the science of pronunciation; – the purely mnemotechnical science of words; – the science of the mechanism of words; that is to say, of their formation and inflections; – the science of relating words to each other, or of the construction of sentences.

Before moving on to consider other Spanish adapters of Robertson, we should mention in passing the ins and outs of Robertson’s method. Rius (2010, 78) highlights the following features: – Method inspired by that of Jacotot6 – Grammar structured according to some objectives which, apart from theoretical knowledge, give priority to practical knowledge – Robertson begins with the study of a text, combining both theoretical and practical exercises 6 Jean Joseph Jacotot (1770-1840), in Howatt’s words, ‘saw language teaching as one dimension of a philosophy of universal education’, as expressed in his Enseignement universel, langue étrangère (1824). His doctrine was mainly based on the motto ‘All is in all’, or on the more explicit advice ‘learn something thoroughly and relate everything else to it’ (Howatt 1984, 151),

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– A text as the nucleus of each lesson, highlighting a practical approach and demoting the role of grammar rules to a second place – He progressively banishes the use of the mother tongue in class. As regards the contemporary impact of T. Robertson’s methodology, there is little doubt that he had his share, although less than that of Ahn and Ollendorff in Spain. However, this is not that case in North America, where the Venezuelan immigrant Pedro José Rojas wrote Nuevo curso práctico, analítico, teórico y sintético del idioma inglés, por T. Robertson. Adaptado al Castellano (New practical, analytical, theoretical and synthetic course of the English language, by T. Robertson. Adapted to Spanish). It must have been a real success following its first edition in 1850, considering that in 1917 the fifty-ninth edition was published in New York by Appleton and re-adapted by Marcos G. Purón. Despite this immediate success, Rojas’s adaptation was never published in Spain. However, Robertson’s influence was exerted in Spain as far as foreign languages other than English are concerned. Corvo (2012, 151-152) mentions the following works: Pedro de Barinaga’s (1843) Curso de lengua italiana, escrito con arreglo a las bases del método de Robertson (Course in the Italian language, written according to the bases of Robertson’s method), and Joaquin Mendizabal’s (1846) El Robertson español o sea curso práctico-teórico de lengua francesa (The Spanish Robertson or practical-theoretical course in the French language). We can see, then, that French and German lone reformers, who advocated a deductive methodology based on grammar rules and then some practice in the guise of translations, were amongst the most influential in nineteenthcentury Spain, perhaps with the exception of T. Robertson (although his Spanish adaptor, Manuel de Moradillo, failed to grasp the essence of his method). There is another special case that revolutionised FLT by the turn of the century worldwide, including Spain, and well into the twentieth century. I refer, of course, to the German Maximilien D. Berlitz (1852-1921). He became world-famous thanks to the foundation of the so-called Berlitz Schools, the first of which was created in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1878. His textbooks started to appear four years later (Howatt 1984, 203), the first in 1882 –a study of French entitled Méthode pour l’enseignement de la langue française dans les écoles Berlitz (Method for the teaching of the French language at the Berlitz Schools).7 A few years later, his English course appeared for the teaching of European immigrants who, on arriving in North America, knew not a single word of English and had no linguistic 7

Boston, Schoenhof, with E. Dubois.

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background. Its title was The Berlitz Method for Teaching Modern Languages. English Part (1888/92). Rius (2010, 79) summarizes the main features of the Berlitz Method as follows: – An intuitive and essentially practical method – Maximum emphasis on the spoken language – A systematic rejection of translation – No grammar explanations before learners reach a minimum knowledge of the new language – Priority given to the question-answer technique and to conversation – Native teachers for teaching the language being studied – An accessible easy-to-use guide for teachers. While Berlitz was publishing his f irst textbooks in 1882, Wilhelm Viëtor, a probationary teacher of English at various secondary schools in Germany, wrote a revolutionary pamphlet in that same year under the pseudonym of Quousque Tandem, called Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren (Language teaching must change direction). Howatt (1984, 169) asserts that: From 1882 onwards, there was a spate of publications, beginning with pamphlets and articles and, later, more substantial works […] Professional associations and societies were formed, notably the International Phonetic Association (IPA), and there were new journals and periodicals, of which the best known was the IPA’s Le Maître Phonétique, first published under that title in 1889.

The Movement was a remarkable display of international and interdisciplinary co-operation where the specialist phoneticians took as much interest in the classroom as the teachers did in the new science of phonetics. Thus, the Reform Movement came into effect. The founding members were the phoneticians Wilhelm Viëtor from Germany, Paul Passy from France, Otto Jespersen from Denmark and the intellectual leader of the Movement, Henry Sweet from England. Other members followed such as H. Klinghardt, J. Storm, W. H. Widgery, F. Franke, A. H. Sayce, and a host of others. Wilhelm (2009, 166) states that: The name ‘Reform’ is a broad, comprehensive term, as it does not point to one particular teaching method but refers to various principles grouped together under one heading.

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Howatt and Widdowson highlight three basic principles according to which the Reform or Direct Method had different interpretations at the time but no fundamental disagreement: these are the primacy of speech, the centrality of the connected text as the kernel of the teaching-learning process and the absolute priority of an oral methodology in the classroom (2004, 189). The same authors (ibidem) go on to assert that: In English the phrase ‘direct method’ was used almost exclusively to describe Berlitz courses, including in particular their ‘don’t translate dictum’. In French, on the other hand, the ‘methode directe’ was adopted by the government as the name for the new approach as a whole.

However revolutionary the direct method was, it undoubtedly moved a step forward despite being far from perfect. Along these lines, Rivers concludes that: It was the highly intelligent student with well-developed powers of induction who profited most from the method, which could be very discouraging and bewildering for the less talented. (1968, 20)

To sum up, Berlitz adopted a somewhat personalized version of the direct method, although it was never used by Berlitz and did not appear in his publications. In Chapter 3, we will examine the evolution of the direct method up until its demise in the late 1930s. Another key period in Spanish FLT historiography was embodied by a group of late nineteenth-century German authors whose English grammars were also published in Spain. All of them enjoyed a great success in the twentieth century, and even in the twenty-first in one case, mainly due to their deductive approach. The authors and works in question are: – Emile Otto and Gustavo Kordgien,8 Gramática sucinta de la lengua inglesa (Succint grammar of the English language). Also known as the Gaspey-Otto-Sauer Method, it was first published in Spain in 1884. Astonishingly, it reached its thirty-third edition in 2002. Its main adaptors in Spain were first Luigi Pavia and then, María Isabel Iglesias. – Dr Doppelheim, El inglés al alcance de los niños (English for children),first published in Barcelona in the 1890s by the editor Sopena. This author also wrote an English course for the self-taught called El inglés sin maestro (English without a teacher), which was very popular in the first decades of the twentieth century. 8

His name appears together with Emile Otto’s: Otto and Kordgien.

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Looking at these two works, there is no doubt that foreign authors played a key role in the diffusion of ELT manuals in Spain. This trend was to continue throughout the twentieth century when, apart from Spanish authors, German, French and British authors would broaden the market of ELT. The first decade of the twentieth century is a case in point. Of the sixteen English manuals or grammars published in Spain, ten were by foreign authors – C. A. Butlin (1908); James Connor (1904); Deinhardt (1910?); Digni de Cambray (1903); F. G. Dixon (1905); John James (1910); C. J. Mac Cónnell (1907); A. Rieu-Vernet (1900); Enrique Runge (1903?); Alfred Schlomann (1906) – and one of them is a Hispano-German adaptation of Rodolfo Degenhardt’s natural method written by H. Plate, Gustav Klares and Clodomiro Pérez Gutiérrez (1910). Foreign influence and foreign authors have all been part of the development of ELT in Spain from the start until the present day. National frontiers are simply non-existent for cultural products that move freely, no matter how restrictive some periods in history may have been. The period covered in this chapter was a somewhat peaceful spell for Spain and this may account for a higher presence of foreign language manuals promoted by a growing interest in contacts with other countries and their cultures. However, it was during this period that many an English manual bore the title of ‘Método teórico-práctico’, thus making a sort of mixed methodology very present in our corpus. Among the different authors who adopted this label, Francisco García Ayuso is of special interest since he was regarded as one of the most outstanding philologists in nineteenth-century Spain. He wrote an English grammar in 1880 which was used in his private academy, although it was never re-edited despite being a great work in my opinion. Be that as it may, I now analyse this piece of work by a highly-trained philologist in order to discover the ins and outs of the so called Método Teórico-Práctico that became so popular in Spain. Álvarez-Pedrosa provides an exhaustive biography of García Ayuso (1994) which can be summarized as follows. Ayuso was born in 1835 in Segovia, where he did his primary and secondary schooling, demonstrating a great ability to learn foreign and classical languages. From 1861 to 1866, he furthered his studies in the humanities at the Seminario del Escorial, gaining a bachelor’s degree with a special award. There, he learned French, English, German, Greek and Hebrew, which were all taught by J. J. Braun, a German philologist who had also published an English grammar (included in our corpus). Later, he went on to hold a chair of Hebrew, French and German in the Seminario de Ávila. In 1868, he spent two years at the University of Munich, attending conferences and courses by some of the most reputed German philologists of the time. Back in Spain, in 1870, Ayuso started an

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enriching career as a philologist. In 1871, he wrote one of his most outstanding works: El estudio de la filología en su relación con el Sánscrito (The study of philology in its relation to Sanskrit), which was translated into French in 1884. He also attended various Orientalist congresses in London (1874), Saint Petersburg (1876) and Berlin (1881). His career as an Orientalist was thwarted in 1877 when he failed to secure the first chair of Sanskrit in Spain at the Universidad Central in Madrid. Disillusioned, Ayuso turned to teaching languages privately, opening an academy of languages in Madrid which was also a publishing centre. Although English was not taught until the early 1880s, it soon became a highly popular academy where the following languages could be studied: French, Italian, Portuguese, German, Spanish for foreigners, Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Avestan, Persian, Comparative Grammar, Arabian, Hebrew, Syrian, Ethiopian and the Moroccan dialect. His work at the academy was combined with his chair of German at the Instituto de San Isidro. He became a member of the Royal Spanish Academy in 1893. Three years later, he passed away in Madrid. Ayuso’s Gramática inglesa. Método teórico-práctico, con un catecismo gramatical en Inglés, para aprender á hablar este idioma (English grammar. Theoretical-practical method, with a grammar catechism in English, to learn how to speak this language) starts off with a three-page prologue (v-viii) which marks the main guidelines of his grammar. On page v, Ayuso claims that for this grammar he has followed the same system as in his French Grammar (1879), which essentially consists of a methodical and ordered combination of theory and practice. As may be derived from the title page of all his FL grammars (French, English, German and Arabic), his methodology is a theoretical and practical one which is tantamount to following a deductive or mixed approach (first theory and then practice) to FLT. However, despite being a deductive method it also has some inductive features. This type of eclecticism was the norm for pre-reform or pre-direct method authors of grammars (Urcullu, Casey, Bergnes, Cornellas, Moradillo), and typical of a time when there was no prevalent named FLT methodology but rather single reformers whose methods were known by their authors’ names (such as Ollendorff, Robertson and Ahn). Ayuso (1880, Prologue: v) discarded natural or direct methods, and thus an inductive approach, against the premise that one cannot learn a foreign language the same way as children learn their mother tongue: El niño inconsciente aprende la lengua nativa mediante un ejercicio exclusivamente, práctico de muchos años; aplicar semejante sistema con las personas que raciocinan y discurren es un absurdo palpable.

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Unconscious children learn their native language by means of an exclusively practical exercise of many years; to apply such a system among people who reason and think is an outright absurdity.

Ayuso’s target audience is the juventud laboriosa (industrious youth). In a straightforward manner, like Benot (1851), he states: ‘No hemos compuesto una gramática para holgazanes’ (We have not written a grammar for the lazy. Prologue, vi). On the same lines, Ayuso (1880, vi) criticizes some teaching practices that lead to charlatanism or bad practice: Verdad es que á esto contribuyen también ciertos profesores que usando una indulgencia extremada en los exámenes, fomentan la desaplicación de los alumnos, con grave daño para el adelanto de las ciencias. It is true that this [bad practice] also encourages certain teachers who, using an extreme indulgence in examinations, foster students’ lack of application, seriously damaging the progress of science.

Ayuso’s plan in his grammar shows awareness of the complex anomalies of English orthography, which demands a special study and constant written exercises. This underlying deductive method mainly relies on writing as a means to an end. To achieve this, he multiplies examples and dedicates some lessons and parts of his grammar to pronunciation and reading. A striking feature of Ayuso’s prologue is that he ventured to promise that his method could be learnt in ten months by capable students. However, Ayuso was not the only author from our corpus who made similar bold promises: Benot (1851) suggested eight months to learn English with his method, Mountifield (1851) reduced the period even more to six months, and the shortest period found in our corpus is Urcullu’s four months. This may sound somewhat of a chimera to modern eyes when we know there are no royal roads to learn a foreign language in such a short time. Probably, this unrealistic promise corresponded more to a publisher’s strategy rather than to authors’ convictions although some authors may have believed in such a chimera. The key to the temas has been replaced by a list of the vocabulary that appears in the different temas. According to Ayuso, the inclusion of a key in grammar books only fosters students’ laziness. However, the exclusion of the key makes the manual more teacher-centred. He also includes a manual of letters, thus taking into account commercial students who were one of the most active groups of people who learnt foreign languages in

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Spain at the time. Familiar dialogues tend to be suppressed in Ayuso (1880, vii). Instead, the temas are nothing but a constant exercise of conversation and reasoning in a question and answer format. However, we can surmise that, after a closer look at all the temas, Ayuso fails to portray familiar or everyday situations in most cases, as there are no specific topics in them, such as travel, shopping and the like. In an act of honesty not followed by all the authors in our corpus, Ayuso acknowledges his sources for English grammar, though he does not highlight any specific influence. His sources include Braun, Mervoyer and Clifton, Robertson, Cornellas, Ahn, Ollendorff, Hall, Cuendias, Scipion, Georg, Perzy Sadler, Baskerville, Gilles, Murray, Smart and others. Three of his sources belong to our corpus (Braun, Cornellas and Cuendías), whereas the remaining ones refer to relevant European authors. Like in Urcullu (1845), and Mountifield (1851), Ayuso (1880) also refers to Lindley Murray whose English grammar, as we saw earlier on, was quite well-known in Spain too. Ayuso’s prologue concludes with a note at the bottom of its last page (vii) indicating the date and place it was written: Madrid, Setiembre de 1880. After this prologue, forty-eight lessons that take up almost two-thirds of the content of the whole book ensue. They are divided into two parts: Pronunciation (Lessons I-VII) and Analogy and Syntax (Lessons VIII-XLVIII). The part on pronunciation is a short seven-lesson treatise introducing some pronunciation rules (sixty in total) along with two-column bilingual examples and an Ejercicio de lectura (Reading exercise) at the end of each of the first seven lessons, thus following a deductive pattern. Ayuso provides examples with their figurative pronunciation and an accent on the stressed syllable. In the case of diphthongs, Ayuso is aware of some limits when it comes to confining them to rules, stating (1880: 10): ‘Las reglas sobre la pronunciación de los diptongos no son del todo fijas’ (The rules on the pronunciation of diphthongs are not at all fixed). In particular, Ayuso’s design of pronunciation consists in presenting the English alphabet, which is made up of twenty-six letters, followed by a makeshift pronunciation such as the sounds a>è, o>ó (‘è’ and ‘ó’ should be pronounced as a diphthong), j>che, k>ke, just to mention a few. All the consonants with which the letters are pronounced are strong ones. His plan goes on with a series of rules with examples and some observations that more or less follow, in its presentational structure, the same model as presented by all the grammar writers of his time as far as pronunciation is concerned; that is, alphabet, accent, vowel and consonant sounds represented by awkward symbols. The second part, Analogy and Syntax, comprises forty-one lessons structured into three parts: each lesson begins with some grammar rules, each followed by some

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bilingual examples but without either the figurative pronunciation of English words or an accent on the stressed syllable. Each lesson ends with a tema made up of two or three texts, depending on the lesson. In total, there are forty-eight temas. Each one comprises one text in English, another in Spanish and, usually, another called Para corregir (To be corrected). The inclusion of this third tema, in all except Lessons XL to XLVI, introduces a higher pedagogical device to reinforce students’ study of grammar, one of Ayuso’s main concerns. It focuses on errors that students must correct by re-writing their corrected sentences. By and large, Ayuso presents a clearly laid-out system of lessons, correctly numbered, providing overt grammatical explanations (sixty-one on Pronunciation and 332 on Analogy and Syntax), typical of a deductive methodology that may be called the grammar method, with the particularity that Ayuso also follows an inductive method in the treatment of temas. This combination of deductive (grammar) and inductive (exercises) methods makes Ayuso an eclectic author belonging to no specific mainstream method of the time, as was the norm in Spanish authors from our nineteenth-century corpus. As was also the norm among other English grammars in our corpus, Ayuso dedicates a third of the lessons to the verb, one of the key parts of grammars at the time. He uses conjugations only in specific cases (Lessons XXV, XXVI and XXIX): for the auxiliaries ‘to be’ and ‘to have’ and, like Urcullu did (1845), for regular verbs whose model verb is the verb ‘To call’. In the conjugations, he follows a Spanish model divided into Spanish tenses. For the rest of the lessons on verbs he provides a few sentences containing examples of different conjugations. Of special interest are Lessons XXXIV, on the one hand, and from Lessons XXXV to XXXIX, on the other. The former revolves around the use of some verbs which are easily confused, even today, among students: to say/to tell, to speak/to talk and to do/to make. He offers lots of examples, especially of the latter, providing well-structured bilingual lists of examples. Lessons XXXV up to XXXIX deal with irregular verbs. Ayuso classifies them in fifteen different groups according to their morphological changes, thus providing some sort of grading by presenting them in small groups instead of a whole list, as was the norm among other grammar authors. The last three lessons are filled with useful visual lists of bilingual vocabulary on the following topics respectively: compound verbs (thirteen pages), adjectives with their corresponding preposition and finally a list of verbs that usually go with a determined preposition (today: prepositional verbs). In fact, Ayuso is the only author from the corpus who establishes, for the first time, a difference between compound (today phrasal) verbs (Lesson

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XLVI) and prepositional verbs (Lesson XLVIII) unlike his predecessors who put all the verbs taking a preposition under the same heading: compound verbs. At this stage, after the forty-eight lessons, the grammar extras (40 per cent of the total content of the book) come into play. They are varied and heterogeneous and some of them cannot be found in other grammars from our corpus, thus making Ayuso’s grammar a kind of original work. First, there is a section called ‘Letterwriter’s manual’. It consists of twentyone pages showing different types of letters (from short extracts to full letters) classified by functional or pragmatic parameters (letters of invitation, acceptance, refusal, and so on). Since there is no Spanish translation, Ayuso’s main goal here is to promote reading, thus reinforcing orthography, one of Ayuso’s main concerns as explained earlier on. With this extra section on commercial letters, the second part of the grammar comes to an end. The next section is preceded by the title page Segundo Curso (Second Course). It encompasses five different parts: a ‘catechism’ of English grammar, syntax, versification, vocabulary and a list of abbreviations. As for the ‘catechism’, it is made up of twenty-five pages where grammar is explained in English in a question-answer format containing 214 rules. There are no exercises. The next part, on syntax, is a fifty-eight-page treatise likewise in a questionanswer format, with English as the metalanguage. A bilingual vocabulary list follows, which contains most of the words found in the forty-eight temas in Part I. Eventually, Ayuso’s grammar ends with a complete five-page list of abbreviations and an alphabetical index of the topics dealt with in the whole book. All the extras or additional material in Ayuso’s grammar are in English. Sadly, Ayuso fell victim to ostracism, as we have seen, and so must his English grammar have done, rather undeservedly. Such was the fate of one of the most significant Spanish intellectuals of this period. Meanwhile, the production of English manuals, especially from the second half of the century onwards, diversified. Apart from grammars and dictionaries, new manuals such as language guides and translation treatises also topped the market of foreign language teaching and learning. Against this general backdrop for grammar production in the nineteenth century, the 1850s also ushered in a new turning point for lexicography. In particular, as hinted at in the previous chapter, I am referring to the publication A Pronouncing Dictionary of the Spanish and English languages: Composed from the Spanish dictionaries of the Spanish Academy, Terreros, and Salvá. Upon the basis of Seoane’s edition of Neuman and Baretti, and from the English dictionaries Webster, Worcester, and Walker: with the addition of more than eight thousand words, idioms, and familiar phrases, the irregularities of all the verbs, and a grammatical synopsis of both languages, also a supplement

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of nautical terms. In two parts, Spanish-English, English-Spanish by Mariano Velázquez de la Cadena. Of Mexican origin, Velázquez was sent to the Seminary of Noblemen in Madrid at the age of seven, where presumably he studied English. He then became the Secretary to the King before moving to North America where he taught Spanish Philology at the University of Columbia. That is where he wrote his dictionary, which was published in 1852 in New York by D. Appleton & Co. Following that, a new edition of the dictionary was published practically every year until 1899 (Garriga and Gállego 2008, 1106). Two years later, in 1854, Velázquez made an abridged version of his dictionary entitled A Dictionary of the Spanish and English languages, abridged from the author’s larger work. The dictionary has continued to be published in different versions until the present day.9 The Catalan journalist and writer Arturo Cuyás Armengol (1845-1925), inspired by Velázquez, wrote his Appleton’s New Spanish-English and English-Spanish Dictionary Successor to Velazquez’s Abridged Dictionary in 1913 and it was widely published until the 1940s. Previously in 1876, Cuyàs had published a bilingual Spanish and English dictionary that was later to be renamed Gran diccionario inglés-español (Great English-Spanish Dictionary), written together with his brother Antonio Cuyás Armengol and in collaboration with Alberto del Castillo Yurrita (1928). It became a bestseller, in the modern sense of the word, during the first half of the twentieth century, being published in the USA, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. One of its major innovations was the inclusion of the IPA phonetic transcription. Going back to the nineteenth century, soon after Velazquez’s New York edition of 1852 there appeared new reprints of his dictionary in Madrid (1852, 1860, 1861), and Cádiz (1858, 1861, 1863). It is undoubtedly a highly compelling dictionary, not only because it was written by the Mexican Velázquez de la Cadena but also because it provided a captivating insight into the kind of people who were involved in producing materials at that time. Another innovative field of lexicography that became very popular was that of specialised or technical dictionaries, both bilingual Spanish and English and polyglot. In the nineteenth century, three of them hit the market, the first two dedicated to naval terminology – one by Martín Fernández de Navarrete (1831), with the collaboration of Timoteo O’Scanlan, the other by José de Lorenzo, 9 Edward Gray prepared a revised version in 1899 entitled A New Pronouncing Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages, and in 1959 Ida Navarro Hinojosa prepared another version entitled New Revised Velázquez Spanish and English Dictionary. At present, the dictionary is still published under the title Velázquez Spanish and English Dictionary.

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Gonzalo de Murga and Martín Ferreiro (1864). Both of them share the common trait of being Spanish dictionaries that include language equivalents in French, English, and Italian. The last dictionary published in that century was an English and Spanish bilingual technological dictionary written by Antonio Cañada y Gisbert (1878), a Captain and General of Infantry. It principally dealt with the army, warfare, and artillery, in addition to more than 16,000 words and technical phrases related to the arts, sciences, and industry. Grammars and dictionaries were not the only manuals written for teaching and learning foreign languages; there were also phrasebooks and conversational courses for travellers, which were very popular in the nineteenth century as well. Among them, we may note in passing: Pardal, Ochoa, Richard, Corona and Sadler, Guía novísima de conversaciones modernas en español y en inglés (Newest conversation guide in Spanish and English, 1853); Eugenio de Ochoa y Montel, Guía de la conversación españolfrancés-italiano-inglés al uso de los viajeros y los estudiantes (Conversation guide Spanish-French-Italian-English for the use of travellers and students, 1860); G. Hudson-Montague, Vademecun ó el compañero indispensable del estudiante y viajero español para el estudio del idioma inglés (Vademecun or the indispensable companion for Spanish students and travellers for the study of the English language, 1875); Luis Felipe Mantilla, Cartera de la conversación en inglés (English conversation guide, 1876). As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, other types of manuals include translation books such as Vicente Alcober y Largo, Traducción gradual del inglés (Gradual English translation, 1859); Eduardo Benot Traducción gradual del inglés (1895), among others, as well as literary anthologies such as Enrique Mac Veigh, The British classbook ó lecciones de literatura inglesa, precedidas de un compendio gramatical, con reglas y clave de pronunciación, y acompañado de un vocabulario al pié de cada página (The British classbook or lessons in English literature, preceded by a grammar compendium, with rules and a key to pronunciation, and accompanied by a vocabulary at the foot of every page, 1857); Eduardo Martín Peña, Colección de trozos escogidos: prosa y verso, lengua inglesa (Collection of selected texts: prose and verse, English language, 1881), and so on and so forth (see Appendix I). 2.2.3. Institutions and private academies We saw in Chapter 1 how the English language was incorporated as an extra subject in some institutions (such as the Seminary of Noblemen,) and gradually became part of the core studies in institutions such as the Boards of Commerce until their disappearance in 1857, as a consequence of

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the enactment of Moyano’s Law. All the Boards of Commerce depended on the Royal Consulate of Madrid. There, Sebastián Fábregas wrote his Método para aprender a leer el inglés por reglas, tanto en prosa como en verso (Method to learn how to read English by rules, both in prose and in verse, 1829), for the teaching of English in the Chair of Commerce. Athenaeums also played a key role in the inclusion of ELT across the country, especially the Ateneo de Madrid (Athenaeum of Madrid: founded in 1835 as the Scientific and Literary Athenaeum of Madrid), where English classes were given regularly. Some of the teachers who taught English there also produced English manuals for their students, as in the case of John Shaw’s 1877 manual, Nuevo curso teórico práctico de idioma inglés. Dado en el Ateneo Científico y Literario de Madrid en el año académico de 1876 á 1877 (New theoretical practical course in the English language. Given at the Scientific and Literary Athenaeum of Madrid in the academic year from 1876 to 1877). He also taught English in the Institute created by the Free School10 in 1876. By the enactment of Moyano’s Law in 1857 there was a secondary school institute in each provincial capital where technical subjects could be studied, thus incorporating the study of foreign languages. The same law stated that, from then on, the textbooks to be used in secondary schools were to be chosen by the Ministry of Development, which was in charge of education at the time. This can be seen in the Royal Order of 1 August 1868, by which the following English textbooks are approved for the Secondary Technical Studies:11 1. Gramática inglesa teórico-práctica para uso de los españoles (Theoreticalpractical English grammar for the use of Spaniards), by D. Clemente Cornellas. (Third edition). 2. Nueva gramática inglesa, curso teórico práctico (New English grammar, theoretical-practical course), by F. J. Braim. 3. Método de Ahn, primer curso de Inglés, arreglado al castellano (Ahn’s Method, first course in English, adapted to Spanish), by H. Mac Veigh. Our search for other official or private centres that included ELT in the period covered in this chapter draws on the work of Viña (2000, 244) who mentions 10 This was founded by a group of dissident university lecturers led by Ginés del Río in 1876. Their main goals were to create a religion-free education, away from dogma, by fostering sport and the study of the natural sciences. Ginés del Río (1839-1915) was a follower of the German philosopher Karl Christian Friedrich Krause (1781-1832) and his philosophical doctrine known as Krausism. 11 Source: La Esperanza. Periódico Monárquico. Monday,10 August 1868, 3. (http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0002486763&page=3&search=Segunda+ense%C3%B1anza+real+o rden+libros+de+testo&lang=ca). Accessed 12 October 2017.

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some private institutions such as the Real Colegio de San Lorenzo Del Escorial (Royal School of San Lorenzo Del Escorial) and the Carreras Especiales (Special or Technical degrees) as well as types of learners such as telegraph subdirectors, telegraphists, army engineers, and other official schools where English was taught such as schools for governesses, naval schools, and so on (ibidem, 259). Fernández Menéndez, meanwhile, mentions some private centres created in the second half of the nineteenth century in the city of Santander (2009, 3): the Colegio de San Juan Bautista de Santoña, founded in 1871, which included the study of the English and French languages; the Colegio de Ramales, founded in 1865, offering free classes in English and French; the Colegio La Utilidad, which offered English classes in the 1890s; the Colegio Academia de Mata, founded in 1900, offering the study of French, English and German following the Berlitz Method, and ‘The Devals School of Languages’, whose director was Mr. Devals. Devals contracted foreign teachers and was also an advocate for the Berlitz Method. The aim pursued in this school was to master conversation. In a work on women and foreign languages for commerce in nineteenth-century Spain,12 Gamarra (2007) also mentions a private institution for women called La Escuela de Comercio para Mujeres de la Asociación para la Enseñanza de la Mujer (AEM; School of Commerce for Women from the Association for Women’s Teaching).13 This school offered two-year courses including French and English in both of them ‘poniéndose énfasis en la conversación y correspondencia comercial en segundo curso’ (laying special stress on conversation and commercial correspondence in the second course. AEM 1878, 4, cited in Gamarra 2007, 39). It is clear from these examples that ELT had a much more real presence in nineteenth-century Spain than other foreign languages, namely German and Italian. In this regard, the 19 March 1889 edition of the Boletín Oficial de la Provincia de Tarragona (Official Bulletin of the Province of Tarragona) includes an article (number 12) concerning the General Post Office, which states: No podrá ascenderse á las categorías de Administradores y de Inspectores sin haber antes acreditado, mediante examen, suficiencia en lengua inglesa o alemana (No promotion to the categories of Administrators and Inspectors will be granted without having previously been accredited, by means of an examination, showing proficiency in English or German). 12 Mujeres y lenguas extranjeras para el comercio en el siglo XIX Español. Madrid: Editorial Complutense. 13 It was founded by Fernando de Castro in 1871 in Madrid. De Castro (1814-1874) was the rector of the Complutense University of Madrid at that time. He was one of the cornerstone figures of Spanish Krausism.

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Lastly, the historical press has proved to be an invaluable source of information on the private academies where English was taught. In order to cut a long story short, I include three adverts for private academies which confirm the growing presence of ELT in the second half of the nineteenth century. On page 4 of the newspaper El Impenitente, 21 December 1879, there is an advert which reads: COLEGIO DE INSTRUCCIÓN PRIMARIA Clases de adultos- Dibujo y Contabilidad Idiomas francés, inglés e italiano D. Eusebio Tarrés (Director). SCHOOL OF PRIMARY TEACHING. Adult classes. Drawing and Accountancy. French, English and Italian languages. Mr. Eusebio Tarrés (Headmaster).

On page 3 of the newspaper El Regional, 21 September 1899, another advert reads as follows: ESCUELA PRÁCTICO-MERCANTIL, C/ de la Muralla, 7, Figueras. D. SALVADOR BOSCH i ROIG. Perito-profesor mercantil y ex-catedrático de Teneduría de libros. Idiomas francés e inglés. PRACTICAL COMMERCE SCHOOL. Muralla Street, 7, Figueras [Girona, Catalonia]. Mr SALVADOR BOSCH i ROIG. Chartered accountant and teacher, ex-professor in Book-keeping. French and English languages.

Our final advert appeared at the end of José María Zubiria’s Traductor de Inglés (English Translator, 1886). The advert in question went as follows: ACADEMIA CATÓLICA, APPLETON-IN-WIDNES (A 4 leguas de Liverpool) Establecida en 1830 Dirigida por Messrs. R. Bradshaw é hijo desde 1866, y por Mr. R. Bradshaw por más de 40 años. Nuevo método de enseñar el inglés, siguiendo el cual, un joven extranjero de 15 á 18 años, bien instruido, puede obtener un conocimiento útil de esta lengua, en 6 meses, por 50 libras esterlinas. Los jóvenes españoles que deseen obtener informes completos de nuestro método de enseñanza, pueden dirigirse al Sr. D. J. M. de Zubiría, Fueros 6, Bilbao. CATHOLIC ACADEMY, APPLETON-IN-WIDNES. (4 leagues away from Liverpool). Established in 1830. Directed by Mr. R. Bradshaw and Son since 1886, and by Mr. R. Bradshaw for over 40 years. New method to

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teach English, by which a young well-instructed foreigner between the ages of 15 and 18 can achieve a useful knowledge of this language in six months for 50 pounds Sterling. The young Spaniards, who wish to obtain full reports on our teaching method, can address themselves to Mr. J. M. de Zubiría, 6 Fueros St., Bilbao.

The relevance of such an advert, probably the very first of its kind, lies in the fact that it advertises English language courses in Liverpool for foreign students, in our case for Spanish students – a buoyant business today, whose origins in Spain date back to the turn of the nineteenth century. 2.2.4. Theoretical works on ELT in Spain The study of ELT in Spain since its origin received little attention from social actors. However, as the nineteenth century went on, concerns about the benefits of including the study of modern languages at the expense of classical languages began to appear. González Cañaveras and Jovellanos were two intellectuals who first addressed this issue. After them, during the period we are studying in this chapter, more voices had their say. I include several opinions of the time taken from the press. Fernández (2001, 41) regards the nineteenth century as ‘el siglo del protagonismo de la prensa como medio de comunicación social’ (the century of the leading role of the press as a social means of communication). Despite the fact that it was an urban phenomenon, the cause which stopped the popular classes from accessing the press lay, once again, in the high illiteracy rates. Fernández (2001, 43) also concludes that: A pesar de la difusión del fenómeno, España nunca figuró en vanguardia de las naciones europeas en lectura de prensa, en cuanto se trataba de un bien reservado para los niveles superiores de la pirámide social, los que sabían leer… En 1900 poseer las capacidades de la lectura y escritura no constituía ya privilegio de una minoría. Despite the spread of the phenomenon, Spain never became a front-runner in the domain of the printed press in Europe since it was an asset reserved for the upper layers of the social pyramid, those who knew how to read… In 1900, the skills of reading and writing were no longer the privilege of a minority.

The first of our contemporary documents is a speech given by Antonio Alcalá Galiano, member of the Royal Spanish Academy, on the 29 September

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1861 and published that same year in Madrid by Imprenta Nacional14 entitled Que el estudio profundo y detenido de las lenguas extranjeras, lejos de contribuir al deterioro de la propia, sirve para conocerla y mejorarla con más acuerdo (That the deep and detailed study of foreign languages, far from contributing to the decay of our own, helps us to know and improve our own language). His speech is a plea in favour of the study of foreign languages in general, thus confronting some contemporary voices who advocated the purity of the Spanish language and were against the study of foreign languages. In particular, Alcalá refers to the English language in the following terms: su estudio servirá al buen uso de la nuestra neo-latina, sobre todo, si se hace de los escritos ingleses un careo con los franceses, de donde resultará quedar para los españoles muy disminuido el peligro de recibir del trato exclusivo con los últimos, no sólo los pensamientos, sino los modos de expresarlos. (1861, 20) its study will help the use of our neo-Latin language, above all, if the English writings are confronted with French ones, whence it will turn out that the danger for Spaniards of dealing exclusively with the latter will be weakened, not only the thoughts but the way of expressing them.

Our second document is an 1882 article written by the physician and philologist Celestino Tomás Escriche y Mieg (1844-1918) entitled La Enseñanza de las lenguas (The Teaching of languages), published in the Revista Contemporánea.15 Escriche claimed to know the reason why contemporary grammarians lagged behind at a time when such rapid progress had been achieved in other disciplines in their respective methods. Textbooks are partly to blame: Es una verdad que los libros destinados á enseñar lenguas extranjeras son en general tan sólo ‘artes’ de gramática, como decían los antiguos domines, y distan mucho del carácter racional, sin el que toda instrucción por necesidad es incompleta y poco sólida […] el verdadero abuso que de la memoria hacen los más de los profesores (1882, 18). 14 This can be accessed online at: http://www.bibliotecavirtualdeandalucia.es/catalogo/ consulta/registro.cmd?id=1001513. Accessed 29 September 2017. 15 15 September 1882. It was a cultural magazine, published in Madrid between 1875 and 1907 and founded by José del Perojo; it introduced positivist and neo-Kantian ideas into Spain.

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It is true that the books destined to teach foreign languages are in general just ‘arts’ of grammar, as the old masters said, and they are far from the rational character, without which all instruction out of necessity is incomplete and vague […] the true abuse of memory by most teachers [.]

But so are teachers: me ha parecido siempre absurdo contentarse, para las lenguas vivas, con profesores que por todo requisito las sepan hablar fácilmente, aunque sólo posean del castellano un imperfecto conocimiento. Semejantes profesores ni pueden suministrar una enseñanza comparada, ni es posible que posean las condiciones pedagógicas para tan importante magisterio. (Ibidem, 30). It has always seemed absurd to me to content oneself, for modern languages, with teachers whose only requirement is to speak them fluently, although their knowledge of Spanish is imperfect. Such teachers can neither provide a compared teaching, nor is it possible that they possess the pedagogical conditions for such an important job.

Escriche proposes a method which is based on the following principles: – To begin by duly classifying, giving exact definitions and logical divisions – To alternate analysis and synthesis – Competent teachers in linguistics. Thus, Escriche advocates a comparative study in foreign language learning, as it would provide a powerful means of retention far preferable to those empirical mnemonic resources, which though they help our memory are far from providing reason with clear and accurate ideas. Escriche ends up critizicing the theoretical-practical method, which was in vogue in Spain at the time. He does not mention any specific authors but among the authors who included such methods in Spain are William Mountifield (1861); J. J. Brown (1865); Fran Schütze (1874); John Shaw (1877); Eduardo Martín-Peña (1883), and Jaime Bosch i Bonet (1886). Our third contemporary document was found in the Diario de Reus,16 where on page 2 we learn about an unsigned piece of news entitled La Enseñanza de las Lenguas Vivas (The teaching of the living languages). It echoes the speech given by Lord Rosebery, dean of the University of Glasgow, on 20 November 1900, on the occasion of the opening of studies at that 16 Issue no. 273, 25 November 1900, 2.

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university. We have included this piece of news for its prophetic message as well as to allow us to gauge the spirit of a time which, despite referring to the specific case of Britain, could well refer to Spain. The article transcribes Lord Rosebery’s main ideas which can be outlined as follows: El siglo XX será un período de concurrencia internacional muy viva, casi encarnizada. Lord Rosebery critica energicamente la enseñanza inglesa. Se atribuye gran importancia a las lenguas muertas, y se desprecia las lenguas vivas […] No hay ningún país en donde se enseñen, en general, las lenguas vivas con método y provecho, de una manera práctica y con resultados prácticos, como no sea Alemania. The twentieth century will be a period of hot, almost fierce, international competition. Lord Rosebery bitterly criticizes the English teaching system. Great importance is given to dead languages, and the living languages are despised […] There is no country where the living languages, in general, are taught with method and benefit, in a practical manner and with practical results, except Germany.

No wonder, then, that Germany was a landmark as far as foreign language teaching and learning is concerned, not only for the British but also for Spain and beyond, if we are to consider the influence exerted by German foreign language manual writers. Our next account appeared in Revista Contemporánea,17 under the heading Discurso inaugural del Centro Asturiano a cargo de Antonio Balbín de Unquera. Académico, escritor y periodista (Opening speech of the Centro Asturiano by Antonio Balbín de Unquera. Academician, writer and journalist). The title of Balbín’s speech Las lenguas vivas y en especial el inglés (The living languages and in particular the English language) is probably one of the most exhaustive and innovative accounts included in this section and its author even makes reference, albeit indirectly, to the direct method, as we shall see. Due to its length, I will outline Balbín’s main ideas on the suitability of methods to teach and learn English. By the middle of his speech, Balbín asserts that: encontramos defectos en la antigua enseñanza, demasiado teórica y en la novísima, que pretende ser eminentemente práctica, y nos declaramos eclécticos, á fin de que se conozcan las lenguas extranjeras, no como 17 15 September 1904, 257-277.

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todos conocen la propia, sino como deben poseerlas aquellas personas que merecen la calificación de ilustradas. Resulta de lo dicho que nosotros respecto al método de enseñar lenguas extranjeras somos eclécticos; para los propósitos literarios no vemos otro mejor que el teórico y gramatical antiguo; para los fines prácticos de la conversación, escritura sin pretensiones literarias y comunicación, consideramos admisibles los métodos prácticos. Aún así, entendemos que debe descargarse, en gracia de la utilidad, el método teórico-gramatical de muchos pormenores– y lo prueban las nuevas gramáticas, reducidas casi a la lexicología– y que los métodos prácticos deben tomar una forma algo más científica, si queremos que los alumnos se den cuenta de lo que son y valen los idiomas que estudian. we find flaws in the old teaching, [which is] too theoretical, and in the most recent, which intends to be eminently practical, and we declare ourselves eclectic, so that foreign languages can be known, not like everybody knows their own, but the way those people who deserve to be qualified as learned must master them. For the purposes of the foregoing, we are eclectic with respect to the method of teaching foreign languages; for literary purposes we see none better than the old theoretical-grammatical; for the practical purposes of conversation, writing without literary claims and communication, we consider the practical methods eligible. However, we understand that, for the sake of utility, the theoretical-grammatical method must get rid of many details –as evidenced by modern grammars, almost reduced to lexicology– and that the practical methods must take a more scientific form, if we want students to realize what the languages they study are and are worth.

Balbín advocates f irmly for eclecticism as a valid strategy for modern language teaching and learning, which even today – in a post-method era – seems to be one of the most effective approaches to this type of studies. His references to the direct method, as the newest teaching, being eminently practical reveal that some Spanish intellectuals were aware of what was going on in the profession, at least at a European level. Finally, it should be emphasized that the press played a key role over this period, as it was the only means of communication available in order to keep up with the times. At this stage, I cannot fail to mention two further press extracts I came across during my research that highlight how significant a role the press played in the spread of news concerning ELT

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across the world. The first, chronologically, dates from 1878 and appeared in La Academia,18 a Hispano-Portuguese and Latin-American cultural magazine: an article on Japan states that one of the most amazing facts about that country is the development of the study of modern languages. In Tokyo alone, claims the article, there are 103 institutions where foreign languages are taught by 411 teachers, of whom 341 are Japanese and 70 are European. The item ends by reporting that the Japanese government sends some students overseas in order to f inish their degrees, having funded twenty-one of them in diverse European countries at that time. The second press extract appeared some years later, on 23 March 1892, in Las Baleares. This time the country in question is China and the news item is about commerce and the English language. It states that the English colony in China is very large, monopolizing the commerce of opium, cotton fabrics and other items, and for that reason, the English language is rapidly spreading within China. At first it was spoken by trading employees; later, with growing international relations, some Chinese were obliged to learn it; eventually, the study of European languages became generalized. The late Marquis Tseng 19 took a generous initiative in this matter: he procured for the Emperor the founding of a language school in Shanghai. The government commissioned eminent European teachers to teach at the school. Before long, similar schools were founded in Peking, Fu-Tcheu, Canton and Nankin; furthermore, 120 students were sent to America and many others to France and England. The article ends by mentioning that the same Emperor Kuang-Su dedicated himself to the study of English, together with other students from Tung-Weng School. However exotic these two news items may look, they are a sign of the interest in the study of modern languages even in far-off countries such as Japan and China.

2.3. Conclusion Since the second half of the nineteenth century, ELT had gradually become more widespread in Spain (see Table 1). From a general standpoint, the emergence of official secondary schooling, which first introduced technical studies in most cases, represented a boost in the English teaching profession. 18 15 July 1878, 18. 19 Marquis Tseng Chi-Tse (1839-1890); he was one of China’s earliest ministers to London, Paris and Saint Petersburg.

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Figure 1 Extract from Henry Mac Veigh’s Curso de inglés. This course became the most re-edited English manual in nineteenth-century Spain. Mac Veigh became the adaptor of Franz Ahn’s manuals for the French and English languages in Spain during the second half of the nineteenth century.

However, teachers’ salaries were low and they had to complement tuition with the writing of manuals, which were then used in class. In Spain foreign teachers of English were the exception in the nineteenth century. It is not surprising to discover that almost all the native British teachers between 1769 and 1910 were Irish. Ireland was mainly a Catholic country and its citizens were warmly welcomed in Catholic Spain. The further back we look, the more religion exerted an influence in Spain. This may explain the absence of teachers from England and other Protestant countries in both the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Two major trends made their appearance and revolutionised modern language teaching. The first was shaped by the influence of lone reformers such as Franz Ahn and H. G. Ollendorff, whose manuals were largely adopted in Spain and even beyond. They advocated a natural way of learning a foreign language, formerly proclaimed by Dufief in 1804. Other innovators in foreign language teaching, such as Gouin and Thomas Prendergast, failed to lure large audiences with their proposals. Much more successful were the reformers, our second major trend, who were associated with the direct method. They coined the term grammar-translation as a criticism of

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Figure 2 Extract from John Shaw’s Curso de ingles. It was published only once in Spain and it was used as the English manual in the English classes taught by Shaw himself at the Athenaeum of Madrid in the academic year 1876-1877.

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Figure 3 Extract from Eduardo Benot’s English course. It became the second most popular English manual in Spain, being frequently re-edited between the early 1850s and the late 1920s. Benot, a linguist and member of the Royal Spanish Academy, was one of the most influential adaptors of Heinrich Ollendorff’s manuals for the study of French, Italian, German and English in Spain.

previous reformers such as Ahn and Ollendorff and their adaptors. Their true innovation was to infuse foreign language teaching with a more scientific, positivist footing, laying special stress on the English language, thus leaving a permanent mark on the profession. Suffice it to say that two of the most innovative books on the study and learning of modern languages, real bestsellers at the time, were written by two leading reformers: Henry Sweet’s The Practical Study of Languages (1899) and Otto Jespersen’s How to Teach a Foreign Language (1904). Our next chapter completes our diachronic two-century journey. The twentieth century witnessed significant changes in the profession which, towards the last quarter of the century, saw the consolidation of ELT worldwide, thus gaining it the new status of lingua franca. This study, however, ends in 1970, coinciding with the beginning of what is now the mainstream methodology in foreign language teaching today: that is, the communicative approach to foreign language teaching. By that year, Spain began to officially acknowledge the importance of ELT at all levels of education, including universities which, as we shall see, took longer to implement English degrees and therefore to confer the status of scientific studies.

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Bibliography Primary sources Ahn, Franz. 1834. Praktischer Lehrlang zur schnellen und leichten Erlennung der französischen Sprache. Köln: Dumont-Schauberg. Alcober y Largo, Vicente. 1859. Traducción gradual del Inglés. Murcia: Anselmo Arques. Barinaga, Pedro de. 1843. Curso de lengua italiana, escrito con arreglo a las bases del método de Robertson. Madrid: Ignacio Boix. Benot, Eduardo. 1851. Nuevo método del Dr. Ollendorff para aprender á leer, hablar y escribir una lengua cualquiera. adaptado al inglés por Eduardo Benot. Clave de los temas. Cádiz: Imprenta, Librería y Litografía de la Revista Médica, Á cargo de D. Juan B. de Gaona. ———. 1895. Versiones inglesas ó Arte de traducir el Inglés. Madrid: Librería de la Viuda de Hernando y C. Bergnes de las Casas, Antonio. 1845. Nueva gramática inglesa, en la que se explican todas las dificultades de esta lengua; compuesta con presencia de las mejores gramáticas inglesas publicadas hasta el día. Barcelona: Establecimiento Tipográfico á cargo de D. Juan Oliveres. ———. 1864. Novísima Gramática Inglesa [Etc.]. Barcelona: Librería de D. Juan Oliveres, Editor, Impresor de S. M. Berlitz, Maximilien. 1882. Méthode pour l’enseignement de la langue française dans les écoles Berlitz, première partie. Boston: Schoenhof. With E. Dubois. ———. 1888/92. The Berlitz Method for Teaching Modern Languages. English Part. Books 1-2, 1888-90. Rev. American ed., First Book. New York: Berlitz; Boston: Schoenhof, 1892. ———. 1898/1903. The Berlitz Method for Teaching Modern Languages. English Part. Book 1, 10th rev. ed., 1898. Book 2, 22nd rev. ed. Berlin: Berlitz. Bosch y Bonet, Jaime. 1886. Método para aprender el inglés teórico y práctico para uso de los españoles con la pronunciación figurada. Palma: Tipografía de Viuda e Hijos de J. Gelabert. Braim, F. J. 186?. Nueva gramática inglesa, curso teórico-práctico. Braun, J. J. 1865. Nueva gramática inglesa. Curso teórico práctico. Madrid: Librería de A. Duran. Brown, John George. 1858. Gramática española: Sistema teórico-práctico por un nuevo método, modificación del Doctor Ollendorff. Barcelona: Librería de El Plus Ultra, Imprenta de Luis Tasso; Madrid: Librería de San Martín. Butlin, C. A. 1908. Nuevo método para aprender á leer, escribir y hablar inglés con vocabularios de las palabras inglesas. Barcelona: Tipografía Seix.

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Cañada y Gisbert, Antonio. 1878. Diccionario tecnológico inglés-español. Comprendiendo más de 16.000 voces y frases técnicas, correspondientes á las artes, ciencias, indústria, etc. Y principalmente al ejército, industria militar y material de artillería. Segovia: Imprenta de P. Ondero. Connor, James. 1904. Manual de conversación inglés-español para uso de viajeros y de aplicación en las escuelas. Madrid: Romo y Füssel, Librería Nacional y Extranjera. Cornellas, Clemente. 1868. Gramática inglesa teórico-práctica para el uso de los españoles, 4th ed. Madrid: Librería de la Publicidad. Cuyás Armengol, Arturo. 1913. Appleton’s New English-Spanish and Spanish-English Dictionary. New York: D. Appleton. Cuyás Armengol, Arturo, Antonio Cuyás Armengol, and Alberto del Castillo Yurrita. 1928. Gran diccionario inglés-español. Barcelona: Sociedad General de Publicaciones, S. A. Deinhardt, C. 1910?. Diccionario técnico ilustrado en seis lenguas: español, alemán, inglés, francés, ruso e italiano. Barcelona: Librería Nacional y Extranjera. Digny de Cambray, Alister. 1903. Gramática inglesa. Las Palmas: Tipografía de Domingo Solís y Lorenzo. Dixon, F. G. 1905. Método de inglés: curso práctico. Barcelona: Editorial Massé. Doppelheim, Dr. 189?. Los idiomas al alcance de los niños: Inglés. Con más de 600 grabados que representan las cosas más usuales de la vida, con la pronunciación figurada y un vocabulario de cerca de 2000 voces. Barcelona: Casa Editorial Sopena. Doppelheim, Dr. 1900. El inglés sin maestro. Barcelona: Casa Editorial Sopena. Dufief, N[icolas] G[ouin]. 1804. Nature displayed in her mode of teaching Language to men, applied to the French. 2 vols. Philadelphia: the Author. Fábregas, Sebastián. 1829. Método para aprender a leer el inglés por reglas, tanto en prosa como en verso. Madrid: Imprenta de D. José María Repullés. Fernández de Navarrete, Martín. 1831. Diccionario marítimo Español, que además de las definiciones de las voces con sus equivalentes en frances, ingles e italiano, contiene tres vocabularios de estos idiomas con las correspondientes castellanas. Redactado por orden del Rey nuestro señor. Madrid: Imprenta Real. García Ayuso, Francisco. Gramática inglesa. Método teórico-práctico para aprender á hablar este idioma. Con un catecismo gramatical en inglés, para aprender á hablar este idioma. Madrid: Academia de Lenguas, Imprenta, estereotipia y galvanoplastia de Aribau y Ca. Gray, Edward. 1899. A New Pronouncing Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages. New York: D. Appleton. Hudson-Montagne, H. 1875. Vademecun ó el Compañero indispensable del estudiante y viajero español para el estudio del idioma inglés. Manual de conversación fácil. Vol. I: Manual de Conversación; Vol II: Pronunciación y Gramática. Barcelona: Librería Mayol.

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Jacotot, Jean Joseph. 1824. Enseignement universel, langue étrangère. Louvain: De l’Imprimerie de H. De Pauw. James, John. 1910. Lengua inglesa. Reglas razonadas para hablar, escribir y traducir con facilidad y corrección el inglés. Barcelona: Herederos de Juan Gili. Lorenzo, José de, Gonzalo de Murga, Martín Ferreiro y Peralto. 1864. Diccionario marítimo español, que además de las voces de navegación y maniobra en los buques de vela, contiene las equivalencias en francés, inglés e italiano. Y las más usadas en los buques de vapor, formado con presencia de los mejores datos publicados hasta el día. Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de T. Fortanet. Mac Connell, C. J. 1907. Novísima gramática simplificada de la lengua inglesa. Curso completo gradual ordenado en lecciones teórico-prácticas. Madrid: Librería de Fernando Fé; London: Librería de David Nutt. Mac Veigh, Enrique. 1857. The British Classbook [Etc.]. Madrid: Alejandro Gomez Fuentenebro. Mac Veigh, H. 1859. Metodo de Ahn. Primer curso de inglés arreglado al castellano. Madrid: Imprenta de Don Alejandro Gomez Fuentenebro. ———. 1884. Método de Ahn. Curso de Inglés. Madrid: Carlos Bailly-Baillière. Mantilla, Luis Felipe. 1876. Conversación en inglés con la pronunciación figurada. New York: George R. Lockwood. Martín Peña, Eduardo. 1881. Colección de trozos escogidos: Prosa y verso: lengua inglesa. Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Gregorio Juste. ———. 1883. Gramática inglesa: Método teórico-práctico. Madrid: Imprenta de Gregorio Juste. Mendizabal, Joaquin. 1846. El Robertson español ó sea curso práctico-teórico de lengua francesa. Madrid: Antonio Yenes. Moradillo, Manuel de. 1843. Método práctico, analítico, teórico y sintético de la lengua inglesa. A imitación del sistema de T. Robertson. San Sebastián: Imprenta de Ignacio Ramón Baroja. Mountifield, William. 1854. Novísimo metodo teorico, practico, analitico y sintetico de lengua inglesa, uno de los mas completos que se han publicado hasta el dia. Para aprender sin cansar la memoria á traducir, hablar y escribir esta lengua en 70 dias. Madrid: Imprenta de Antonio Martínez. Navarro Hinojosa, Ida. 1959. New Revised Velázquez Spanish and English Dictionary. Chicago: Follett. Ochoa y Ronna [Montel], Eugenio de. 1860. Guía de la conversación español-francésitaliano-inglés. Paris: Hingray. Ollendorff, Heinrich Gottfried. 1835. Nouvelle méthode pour apprendre à lire, à écrire, et à parler une langue en six mois, appliquée à l’allemand. Paris: the Author.

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Otto, Emilio, Gustavo Kordigen. 1898. Gramática sucinta de la lengua inglesa: acompañada de numerosos ejercicios de traducción y lectura, 3rd ed. Madrid: Romo y Füssel; Heidelberg, Julio Groos. Pardal, Ochoa, Richard, Corona y Sadler. 1853. Guía (novísima) de conversaciones modernas en Español y en Inglés. Madrid: Carlos Bailly-Baillière. Paula Hidalgo, Francisco de. 1876. Método de Ahn. Primer y segundo curso de portugués con la clave de temas. Madrid: Carlos Bailly-Baillière. Pérez Gutiérrez, Clodomiro, and H. Plate-Kares. 1910. Método natural del Dr. Rodolfo Dogenhart para aprender la lengua inglesa acomodada al uso de los estudiantes españoles del original en alemán. Santander: Imprenta La Propaganda Católica. Reynal y Noguera, Lorenzo. 1872. Método Ollendorff adaptado á la correspondencia mercantil española-inglesa. Con una colección de modelos prácticos comentados y anotados. Y el sistema monetario, pesas y medidas de la Gran Bretaña. Tarragona: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Tort y Cusidó. Rieu-Vernet, A. 1900. A Modern Method of Teaching Modern Languages. Madrid: Arahuetes-Villoria. Robertson, T. 1835. Cours pratique, analytique, théorique et synthétique de langue anglaise. Paris: Lance. Rojas, Pedro José. 1850. Nuevo curso práctico, analítico, teórico y sintético del idioma inglés, por T. Robertson adaptado al castellano. New York: Appleton. Runge, Enrique. 1903?. Nuevo diccionario de bolsillo inglés-español y español-inglés. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili. Schlomann, Alfred. 1906. Diccionario técnico ilustrado en seis lenguas: español, alemán, inglés, francés, ruso e italiano. Barcelona: Librería Nacional y Extranjera; Münich: Oldenburg Verlag. Schütze, Francisco. 1874. Gramática teórico-práctica de la lengua inglesa. Barcelona: Imprenta de Tomas Gorchs. Shaw, John. 1877. Nuevo curso teórico práctico de idioma inglés, dado en el Ateneo Científico y Literario de Madrid en el año académico de 1876 á 1877. Madrid: Imprenta de Alejandro Gomez Fuentenebro. Urcullu, José. 1845. Gramática inglesa, reducida á veinte y siete lecciones. Nueva edición considerablemente aumentada y corregida por su autor Don José de Urcullu. Cádiz: Imprenta, Librería y Litografía de la Sociedad de la Revista Médica, á cargo de D. Vicente Caruana. Vallés, Camilo. 1899. Nuevo método para aprender alemán según el sistema de F. Ahn, 3rd ed. Madrid: Carlos Bailly-Baillière. Velázquez de la Cadena, Mariano. 1852. A pronouncing dictionary of the Spanish and English languages [Etc.]. New York: Appleton.

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———. 1854. Diccionario de pronunciación de las lenguas españolas e inglesa. New York: D. Appleton-Century. Zubiría, José María de. 1886. El traductor inglés, 3rd ed. Bilbao: Viuda de Delmas.

Secondary sources Álvarez-Pedrosa Nuñez, Juan Antonio. 1994. ‘La lingüística indoeuropea en España hasta 1930’. Revista Española de Lingüística 24: 1. 49-67. Balbín de Unquera, Antonio. 1904. ‘Las lenguas vivas y en especial el inglés’. Revista Contemporánea30, no. 653: 257-277. Corvo Sánchez, María José. 2012. ‘Historia y tradición en la enseñanza y aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras en Europa (IX): Siglo XIX, hacia el presente de la didáctica de lenguas modernas’. Babel-Afial 21: 137-166. Escriche y Mieg, Celestino Tomás. 1882. ‘La enseñanza de las lenguas’. Revista Contemporánea 41: 5-30. hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0002388312& search=&lang:ca. Accessed 11 June 2017. Fernández García, Antonio. 2001. ‘Los fundamentos de la España liberal (1834-1900). La sociedad, la economía y las formas de vida. Introducción’. In Historia de España Menéndez Pidal, edited by José María Jover Zamora, Vol. XXXIII, 1-45. Madrid: Espasa Calpe. Fernández Menéndez, María Antonia. 2009. ‘Relación entre la vieja Carrera de Comercio y el desarrollo de estudios ingleses referido a la ciudad de Santander en el siglo XIX y primeros años del XX’. Tonos Digital 17. http://www.um.es/ tonosdigital/znum17/secciones/estudios-6-Santander.htm. Accessed 14 February 2017. ———. 2012. ‘La lengua inglesa y su profesorado en la legislación educativa de segunda enseñanza y de estudios mercantiles, 1836-1953’. Tonos Digital 22. http://www.tonosdigital.es/ojs/index.php/tonos/article/view/738. Accessed 14 February2017. Gamarra Aragonés, Ana Isabel. 2007. Mujeres y lenguas extranjeras para el comercio en el siglo XIX. Madrid: Editorial Complutense. Garriga Escribano, Cecilio, and Raquel Gállego Paz. 2008. ‘Velázquez de la Cadena y la lexicografía bilingüe inglés / español’. In Proceedings of the XIII EURALEX International Congress, edited by Elisenda Bernal and Janet Ann DeCesaris, 1105-1114. Barcelona: IULA. Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Howatt, A. P. R. with H. G. Widdowson. 2004. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Jespersen, Otto. 1904. How to Teach a Foreign Language. London: S. Sonnenschein & Co. Lombardero Caparrós, Alberto. 2017b. ‘La influencia del método de Ahn en España en los siglos XIX y XX a través de una mirada a la prensa histórica’. Documents pour l’histoire du français langue étrangère ou seconde 58-59: 83-101. Rius Dalmau, María Inmaculada. 2010. Aprender francés en España entre 1876 y 1939: la labor de los centros de la Institución Libre de Enseñanza en el ámbito de las lenguas extranjeras. Barcelona: PPU. Rivers, Wilga M. 1981 [1968]. Teaching Foreign-Language Skills. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Sweet, Henry. 1899. The Practical Study of Languages: A Guide for Teachers and Learners. London: Dent. Viña Rouco, María. 2000. La enseñanza de las lenguas vivas en España (1800-1936) con especial referencia a la lengua inglesa. Doctoral thesis. Santiago de Compostela: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. Wilhelm, Frans. 2009. ‘Breeze or storm? The European Reform Movement and Dutch Foreign Language Teaching, c. 1880-1920’. Documents pour l’histoire du français langue étrangère ou seconde 43: 163-178.

Other sources Educational legislation Quintana’s Report (1813). General Regulation of Public Instruction (1821). Calomarde’s Plan (1824). Duke of Rivas’s Plan (1836). Pidal’s Plan (1845). Framework Law of 17 July, 1857). Public Education Act, 9 September 1857). Royal Order of 1 August 1868. Royal Decree 25 October 1868. Royal Decree of 13 August 1880. Royal Decree of 30 September 1887. Boletín Oficial de la Provincia de Tarragona, 19 March 1899. Royal Decree of 18 April 1900.

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Commercial studies legislation Royal Decree of 11 September 1850. Royal Decree of 23 March 1853. Royal Decree of 11 August 1887.

Historical Press La Época, 28 May 1857. La Esperanza. Periódico Monárquico, 10 August 1868. La Academia, 15 July 1878. El Impenitente, 21 December 1879. El Regional, 21 September 1899. Diario de Reus, 25 November 1900. Las Baleares, 23 March 1892.

3.

ELT in Spain between 1910 and 1970 Abstract Our final chapter surveys six decades of English language teaching and learning between 1910 and 1970, just when it was succeeding French as the world’s lingua franca. This period marks the consolidation of the presence of English at all levels of formal education in Spain, especially as we approach the end date of this study. Due to the evolution of the social sciences in general in the twentieth century, and of linguistics in particular, ELT became the object of scientific debate as never before. The chapter surveys official legislation, authors and their manuals and some theoretical works produced in Spain, not to mention the major contributions on the scientific study of English as a second language coming both from the United States and Great Britain. Keywords: XX century, ELT, Spain, Harold Palmer, Charles C. Fries

3.1. Introduction We started off this long journey when the First Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment were both ushering in a new era of inventions, social change, and the beginnings of free, universal state-run education across Europe. Each country adapted to those new paradigms in different ways. Southern European countries had largely based their economy on the agricultural and fishing industries and, with the exception of some Northern provinces, had hardly developed any manufacturing industries. The European struggle for power between conservatives or traditionalists, on the one hand, and liberals or French Revolution supporters on the other, dominated the nineteenth century. In Spain, four civil wars between 1833 and 1868 – known as the Guerras Carlistas (Carlist Wars) – had brought the country to bankruptcy several times, thus preventing it from achieving steady economic growth supported by well-funded education. Spanish state affairs worsened even further with the Hispano-American War in 1898,

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which dealt a huge blow to Spanish external affairs with the subsequent loss of their last South American colonies. In international affairs, the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, also known as the West Africa Conference, had alienated Spain from the colonisation of Africa, which was another hard blow to Spanish aspirations to keep up with other European powers on the geopolitical chessboard. Socially speaking, our last period is characterised by the emergence of many ‘-isms’, both in politics (socialism, communism, fascism) and in the arts (modernism, expressionism, cubism). The Second Industrial Revolution was under way, this time introducing most southern European countries to some degree of technological warfare. World War I (1914-18), Black Tuesday in 1929, World War II (1939-1945), and the Cold War (1947-1991) were the background to a new world marked by devastation and horror. However, as a consequence or cause of this bleak background, many feats were achieved towards social welfare, including universal suffrage, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the consolidation of a compulsory free and universal state-run education in three phases (primary, secondary and tertiary), among others. For the purposes of our study, this is the background to our picture of ELT in Spain. Likewise, the evolution of foreign language teaching and learning ran parallel to world affairs, on the one side, and to technology, on the other. In quantitative terms, four mainstream methodologies had dominated the foreign language market since the Renaissance era until the turn of the nineteenth century; these were the traditional method, the natural method, the incorrectly named grammar-translation method, and the direct method. To this list, we may also include the eclectic method, which always grew from existing methods. Other minor ‘methods’, such as the Gouin and Le Roy series method, Lambert Sauveur’s natural method, and the méthode maternelle of Irénée Carré, had little or no influence in Spain. In the first seven decades of the twentieth century, a battle for the best method was waged, yielding a total sum of six ‘new’ mainstream methods (the oral approach, the army method, the audiolingual method, the silent way, total physical response and the communicative approach) by the late 1970s. As we shall see, other ‘methods’ or approaches to foreign language teaching made their appearance throughout this period but they failed to spread worldwide. Each national tradition adapted or even created new ways to address foreign language teaching and learning. The following pages will focus on how Spain adapted to those revolutionary times as far as ELT is concerned.

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There is no doubt that the last period covered in this book represents a turning point in the evolution of foreign language teaching and learning: this was due not only to the inclusion of FLT in tertiary education, thus providing the study of languages with a well-deserved scientific footing, but also to the part played by technology, which was to become a boon companion of language teaching and learning throughout the century. Given the primary significance of this period in terms of English language teaching and learning, we consider it necessary to divert our attention momentarily from Spain and take a look at the innovations in ELT coming from Britain and the United States, which as we shall see in the next section were to influence ELT worldwide. Then, we will again turn our attention to Spain in a period when the French language, as stated above, was gradually yielding its worldwide supremacy in favour of the English language.

3.2.

The new actors in ELT: Britain and the USA

In the previous chapter we saw in passing how Britons such as Henry Sweet and Daniel Jones dedicated their professional careers to the scientific study of ELT from the standpoint of grammarian and phonetician respectively, as members of the Reform Movement in foreign language teaching. They worked and lived in England, a situation that was to change radically for the next generation of ELT innovators, who all happened to work and live overseas but ended up returning to Britain, as was the case with Harold E. Palmer (1877-1949), Albert Sydney Hornby (1898-1978), and Michael Philip West (1888-1973). The former two figures, together with the American Charles C. Fries (1887-1967), are regarded as the forerunners of the Scientific Period (1920-1970) in ELT (Howatt and Smith 2014). 3.2.1. Harold Edward Palmer At the age of twenty-five, Palmer began his career as an English teacher in Verviers, Belgium, where he followed the Berlitz Method. A year later, he opened his own small language school in Verviers, later to be known as the Institut Palmer. There, he wrote and published several textbooks for English, French, and Esperanto. The outbreak of war in 1914 forced him to leave Belgium. Between 1916 and 1922, he collaborated with Daniel Jones, who had invited Palmer to give a series of talks on methods of language teaching, first as a part-time research assistant in the Department of Phonetics at

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University College London and then, in 1922, as a full-time lecturer. In that same year, Palmer went to Japan to take up a post as Linguistic Adviser to the Japanese Department of Education until his death in 1949. Palmer was a prolific writer. Four books stand out as being of paramount significance for our purposes. The first is The Scientific Study and Teaching of Languages (1917), ‘which offered a theoretically motivated but eminent model of language teaching drawn from many years of personal experience’ (Smith 1999: Foreword by Howatt, vii). Secondly, there was his Principles of Language Study and The Oral Method of Teaching Languages, both in 1921, which ‘gave him a worldwide reputation as a teacher’ (Howatt and Widdowson 2004, 234-235). Thirdly came English Through Actions (1925), written together with his daughter Dorothée Palmer, ‘which gave English teachers workable activities and exercises to develop their pupil’s oral proficiency’ (ibidem). Lastly, Palmer’s International English Course (1944), intended for private study, began to be published in separate Italian, French, Spanish, Dutch, Polish and Czech editions, which were translated with the collaboration of a selected group of teachers attached to the University of London under Palmer’s and his publisher’s supervision. The Spanish version bears the title Curso Internacional de Inglés (1944).1 He is regarded as a leading figure in the twentieth-century history of English language teaching (Howatt 1984, 230) and, together with Henry Sweet, a pioneer in the development of applied English linguistics (Howatt 1984, 326-327; Titone 1968, 70-72; Stern 1983, 100), Palmer continued the task initiated by the late nineteenth-century reformers, and as Howatt has more recently stated: It is difficult to over-estimate Palmer’s contribution to twentieth-century English language teaching[…] After Palmer, ELT [i.e., (the British Approach to) English Language Teaching] was no longer merely a junior branch of modern language teaching, but an independent profession which led the way in applied linguistic innovation. (Howatt 1994, 291).

3.2.2. Albert Sydney Hornby Hornby was educated at University College London, where he obtained a degree in English Language and Literature in 1922. A year later he was 1 Spanish version of The International English Course. Adapted and translated by J. V. Barragán. London: Evans. Publication problems caused its withdrawal. It was re-issued by Oxford University Press in 1965.

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recruited to teach English in a provincial college in Japan. His interest in language teaching brought him into contact with the Tokyo Institute for Research into English Teaching (IRET) in 1931, directed at the time by Harold E. Palmer. Hornby was invited by Palmer to join his programme on vocabulary research at IRET. Their collaboration in Japan bore fruit in the achievement for which Hornby is chiefly remembered, the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English2 (Warwick ELT Archive’s Hall of Fame).3 Hornby’s name is also associated with the BBC course English by Radio: Listen and Teach (1952), which was broadcast in many parts of the world, including the Hispanic world. Upon his return to England in 1942, Hornby worked for the British Council in London, first as a lecturer and a teacher trainer and, from 1945 onwards, as Linguistic Advisor. At that time, he founded English Language Teaching (ELT) in 1946, 4 a journal which was to become highly influential for the profession, both as a channel for Hornby’s ideas and as a forum to create links between those interested in language teaching and developments in linguistic theory. Hornby edited ELT until 1952 and although expertise was thin on the ground, he managed to gather 119 articles during the first four years, of which nineteen were written by Hornby himself (Smith 2007, 2). Another key contributor to ELT was Michael West (see next subchapter). Eventually, Hornby also devised his own methodology, for which he coined the name Situational Approach. Officially presented in an article of ELT entitled ‘The Situational Approach in Language Teaching’ (1950), this new approach to language teaching was the result of both Palmer’s and Hornby’s collaboration at IRET since the 1930s. It can be considered an offshoot of the direct method, since its premises entail a sequenced language syllabus along with procedures for introducing each new item by linking it to a specific classroom situation. It pursued a more communicative approach to language teaching, although current situational approaches include real-life situations rather than being centred on the classroom alone. 2 First published in Tokyo in 1942 under the title An Idiomatic and Syntactic English Dictionary. In 1948 Oxford University Press published it in London; the new title was A Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, adding Advanced four years later (1952). Its third edition was in 1974 in collaboration with A. P. Cowie and J. Windsor Lewis. 3 The ELT Archive is held at the Centre for Applied Linguistics in the University of Warwick, England. Its convenor is Dr Richard Smith. Consulted online on 29 December 2017 at: https:// warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/research/collections/elt_archive/halloffame/. The entry is written by A. P. Cowie. 4 In 1973 it was renamed English Language Journal (ELJ), and from 1981 onwards simply ELT Journal.

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3.2.3. Michael Philip West After completing his studies at Oxford, West joined the Indian Education Service in 1912. He was first posted to the David Hare Training College in Calcutta but in 1913 he was transferred to the Teachers’ Training College in Dacca, Bangladesh, where he became the Principal from 1920 to 1932. Then, he returned to the UK and a year later he accepted the offer of a lectureship at the Ontario College of Education. His experience in India both as an English teacher in difficult circumstances and as a school inspector led him to discard the direct method, f irst promoted in India by P. C. Wren, due to the poor level of English demonstrated by Indian students despite their spending several hours a week on English subjects. His solution was the creation of a reading scheme called The New Method Readers, written in eleven months between 1926 and 1927. It proved a success not only in Bengal but in other countries such as Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Palestine, Persia (Iran), Nigeria, Kenya, and Uganda (Bond 1953, 118). On the success of the Method Readers, Howatt and Widdowson claim that: Later they were published for the world market in London along with other New Method series such as New Method Conversation (1933), New Method Composition (1938), and, of course, the New Method English Dictionary (1935), written jointly by West and J. G. Endicott. In addition, […], Harold Palmer contributed the New Method Grammar [1938] and also wrote a series of New Method English Practice books published in the same year. (2004, 282).

West became a prolific writer of textbooks for the publishing house Longmans, Green& Co. during the late 1920s and 1930s, which firmly established him as ‘the leading UK-based EFL materials writer of his day’ (Warwick ELT Archive: Hall of Fame webpage). His second major contribution to language teaching was his General Service List of English Words (1953), compiled and edited by Michael West himself. The original project had started at West’s initiative, with a grant from the Carnegie Corporation, to hold a conference of specialists in the selection of vocabulary in New York in 1934. One of the results of this conference was the establishment of a subcommittee made up of three Britons: West, Palmer, and Faucett; and the American E. L. Thorndike as a consultant. They submitted a report on vocabulary selection procedures and criteria, and drew up a draft list of words, known as the Interim Report on Vocabulary

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Selection for English as a Foreign Language (1936), or ‘The Carnegie Report’. West’s work included a final list of around 2,000 headwords, subclassified following grammatical and semantic parameters. Howatt and Widdowson underline that ‘These sub-categories were a major advance on previous word lists and greatly increased the pedagogical value of the work’ (2004, 289). 3.2.4. Charles Carpenter Fries Our last guest is the American linguist Charles C. Fries, born in Reading, Pennsylvania, USA. He spent most of his academic career at the University of Michigan where he developed programmes both in theoretical and applied linguistics. He was primarily concerned with how foreign languages could be learnt and taught. He and his wife, Agnes Carswell, developed the English Language Institute (ELI) at the same university in 1941, which pioneered methods and materials for teaching English to foreigners. Fries wrote the classic text Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language (1945), with a non-technical linguistic bias. Basically, he advocated a new approach to language learning called the Oral Approach, which bears a striking resemblance to Palmer’s Oral Method, thus showing the latter’s influence on Fries. The book was highly influential in the profession, being reprinted twelve times in just eleven years. His innovative way of going about foreign language teaching combined oral practice and material selection. This is the essence of his Oral Approach: It depends for its effectiveness not solely upon the fact that there is much oral practice in hearing and in speaking the foreign language, but also and fundamentally upon having satisfactory materials selected and arranged in accord with sound linguistic principles. (Fries 1945, 7).

Fries’s new approach to language learning thus arose from ‘the practical use of the linguistic scientist’s technique of language description in the choice and sequence of materials and the principles of method that issue from these materials’ (Fries 1945, 7). Fries was a member of the American Linguistic Society (founded in 1924) and its director from 1939 to 1940. He also served as Director of the Society’s Linguistic Institutes from 1936 to 1940 and from 1945 to 1947, a member and president of the National Council of Teachers of English, and a supporter and vice president of the Modern Language Association (established in 1883). Additionally, Fries became the first linguist to coin the term Applied Linguistics in reference to his innovative field of research, which was later

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to become the name of our profession. However, as Howatt and Widdowson claim, the term originally had a narrower sense that was to be broadened at the end of the 1950s: This rather baffling label first appeared in public in the USA in 1948[…] In the early years the term was understood in a more or less literal sense –the descriptive work of professional phoneticians and linguists was passed to ‘applied linguists’ who used their new ‘scientific’ data in making better language teaching materials – […] However, by the time it reached the UK in the name of the School of Applied Linguistics at the University of Edinburgh in 1957, it had acquired a rather broader meaning which included for instance a concern for language teaching methodology as well as materials. (2004, 243)

Arguably, the Anglo-Saxon tradition in ELT studies led to the foundation of Applied Linguistics departments first in North America and later in Britain and beyond, which infused ELT with a consolidated scientific bias which is still today the object of research and study, as demonstrated by the current presence of English Applied Linguistics departments in universities worldwide. We turn our attention now to the Spanish and other European traditions, to gauge how they responded to the major trends in ELT as supported by these Anglo-Saxon innovators.

3.3.

Europe and Spain in the 1950s and 1960s: So close and so far away

At a European level, after World War II research into the study of modern languages during the 1950s was also prolific, quite apart from the significant British and North American contributions. I have selected two traditions, the French and the Spanish, in order to provide two accounts from official language teachers at a secondary level of education. Their stories will provide an insight into how modern languages were learnt in post-war Europe. In a co-authored two-part article entitled ‘A propos de l’étude des langues vivantes’ (On the study of living languages),5 several language teachers make judicious remarks on how best to orientate one’s teaching of foreign languages, as well as on which innovative practices could be implemented so that students could be better prepared for their professional life. The 5

Cahiers Pédagogiques pour l’Enseignement du Second Degré, 15 October 1954, 140-147.

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first account comes from the lead author, Pierre Aron, an assistant teacher of German at the ENP (École Nationale Professionnelle) in Creil, France. In the first part of the article, which bears the title ‘Valeur d’un enseignement pratique’ (The value of a practical teaching method), Aron criticizes the restricted scope of foreign language teaching in secondary schools, where students are exposed to foreign languages for a limited number of hours. He advocates, by all possible means, repeated one-month stays abroad. Alternatively, the author proposes a less costly measure that consists in inviting students to attend some supplementary courses at the overcrowded faculties instead of lengthening secondary schooling. He then goes on to criticize the manuals used in all the French lycées, which cram students with grammar they end up forgetting by the end of the academic year. Two solutions are given. The first solution involves abandoning coursebooks, despite the fact that students would have wasted their energy and filled their memory with words they end up forgetting. The second solution is to waive a part of the manuals. A third option would be for teachers to write a manual themselves, but the harm seems to go deeper according to the author. A final complaint relates to the texts included in those manuals. According to the author, students should not read nineteenth-century texts, whose vocabulary had become archaic, and instead focus on their reading habits and everyday conversations. The justification of this absurdity, learning from old texts, lies in the cultural value attached to this type of teaching according to modern methodologies. Thus, the author questions the validity of such teaching. To remedy this situation, the author advocates practical teaching by a mixed method, combining memory (parsing) and free conversation. The second part of the aforementioned article deals with the role of audio-visual aids in language teaching, or ‘Les auxiliaries audio-visuels et l’enseignement des langues’ in the original. Its author, R. Denis, was an English teacher at the lycée in Metz. He proposes a qualitative classification between traditional audio-visual aids (blackboard; graphical documentation such as maps, prints, and class decoration; records used only by singing instructors for a long time), and modern audio-visual aids (recorder; radio; television). Despite the fact that he is clearly in favour of the latter, he claims that the language teachers of the time were entangled in a paradox: […] l’on fait plus de difficultés aux professeurs qui ont le plus besoin d’auxiliaires mécaniques pour affermir et enrichir leur enseignement de la langue parlée […], ils encouragent d’enthousiasme toute initiative propre à accroître la qualité de l’enseignement donné dans leur maison,

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mais ils sont en même temps comptables d’un des plus ridicules budgets du monde: celui de l’Education Nationale française. (Denis 1954, 145) […] Teachers are faced with many a difficulty when they need mechanical aids to reinforce and enrich their teaching of the spoken language […] they encourage enthusiastically any initiative to increase the quality of the teaching given in their classes, but they are also victims of one of the most ridiculous budgets in the world: that of the French National Education.

Given that the implementation of modern technology in the language classroom was far from satisfactory due to budgetary constraints, those centres which did count on it were faced with the question of how to make the best of it in the language classroom. In this regard, Denis puts forward two tests on how best to use the phonograph and the tape recorder in the language classroom. As for the former, it was by far the most accessible device to most language teachers and Denis recommended its use as follows: Classe de Seconde de l’enseignement technique. Matériel. – Cinq disques Linguaphone enregistrés à des vitesses différentes (de 60 à 100 mots-minute) par M. Butlin, rédacteur en chef de la revue English Language Teaching et ‘lecturer in phonetics’ à l’Université de Londres; dixhuit lettres commerciales sont enregistrées et forment une histoire suivie. Schéma d’une classe. – On distribue le texte polycopié, mais quatre ou cinq mots manquent; ces mots appartiennent au vocabulaire connu et sont copiés au tableau; ils illustrent en général un point de prononciation, par exemple la finale -ed. Explication par la méthode classique. Première audition. Les phrases à troussont ensuite complétées collectivement. Des questions et réponses sont échangées entre élèves. Deuxième audition, sans texte. Parfois arrêt en cours de route: quel est le dernier mot? le mot d’avant? le prochain mot? quelle est l’intonation? pourquoi? Mes élèves ont ainsi noté un ‘should’ enregistré à tort ‘shall’ par M. Butlin. Traduction orale et prise en note des mots nouveaux. Troisième audition, le texte étant complètementé lucidé (le magnétophone permettrait ici de changer de vitesse). Lecture par les élèves. Devoir. (Denis 1954, 146) Lower Sixth technical class Material – Five Linguaphone records recorded at different speeds (from 60 to 100 words per minute), by M. Butlin, chief editor of the review English Language Teaching and ‘lecturer in phonetics’ at the University of London; eighteen commercial letters are recorded and form a follow-up story.

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Lesson plan – A printed text is handed out, but four or f ive words are missing; the words have been learned previously and are copied onto the board; in general they show a pronunciation point, for example the ending -ed. Explanation by the classical method. First listening. The gapped sentences are then completed collectively. Students exchange questions and answers. Second listening, without the text. Sometimes stop randomly: what’s the last word? The previous one? The next one? What is the intonation? Why? My students have thus noticed a ‘should’ wrongly recorded as ‘shall’ by M. Butlin. Oral translation and writing-down of new words. Third listening, the text is fully elucidated (the tape-recorder allows one to change speed). Students’ reading. Homework.

Eventually, Denis concludes by stating that modern audio-visual aids do not replace a lesson. They top it off – although some lessons are so good that they need no topping. The debate on audio-visual aids remained open at the time. Back to Spain where our second account is brought by Waldo Merino Rubio, a French and English teacher in several Institutes and Schools of Commerce across Spain. In 1956 he obtained a Certificate as English teacher from the University of Michigan after having attended the English Language Institute for International Educators thanks to a fellowship granted by the American government. In 1955 he published an article entitled ‘El empleo de aparatos y métodos fono-auditivos para la enseñanza en el Instituto de Enseñanza Media ‘Juan de Encina’, de León’ (The use of phono-auditory devices and methods for teaching at the Institute of Secondary Education, ‘Juan de Encina’, in León). Although this is a particular account restricted to a high school in the north-western city of León, it could very well be extended to the rest of Spain as derived from Merino’s words in his article. The article in question begins by looking back at the poor technical aids a language teacher had in the 1940s. By 1946 English classrooms had a radio receiver to obtain foreign programmes devoted to French and English lessons. According to Merino, there were two drawbacks in the use of the radio. On the one hand, the signal was poor and, on the other, adjusting the classroom timetables to the programmes broadcast. Furthermore, the biggest problem in that decade was the acquisition of records owing to the low budget of institutes, a problem also in France as mentioned above, and the scarcity of good-quality records in the national market. Good records could be purchased abroad but they were expensive. Merino then moves on to tell us about his eight-week stay at the University of Strasbourg in

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the summer of 1951 in order to see the use of phono-aural methods and devices in foreign language classrooms. Consequently, a tape recorder and its corresponding equipment were first implemented in the academic year of 1953-1954 at the Institute Juan del Enzina of León together with the use of the Linguaphone advanced English course called Travel Course, which consisted of fifteen records. The record player used a longer-lasting microgroove system and this constituted state-of-the-art technology in the mid-1950s in Spain. Merino also describes a usual English class in the language lab which, as we shall see, took a firm scientific footing in terms of the study of phonetics and intonation. The class consisted of a phonetic analysis, a text to translate and comment on linguistically in class and the repetition of auditions so that each student could separate the phonic groups, nowadays known as prosodic units, of the text. Once the prosodic units were established, students proceeded to notice whether the voice was raised, lowered or kept the same tone inside each prosodic unit. Next, the corresponding pitch periods were drawn, selecting the stressed syllables. Merino (1955, 159) emphasises three benchmarks for the teaching of phonetics: correct articulation, enunciation of prosodic units, and adequate speaking rate of words. Needless to say, Merino was a highly-trained language teacher and his students must have learnt English successfully, especially those at an advanced level. In general, he deplores traditional methods as they penalized listening to the foreign language. At the same time, he regrets that no device had yet been invented able to alleviate the effort involved in learning a foreign language. The mastery of a foreign language, which takes effort and considerable attention, comprises three different steps, according to Merino (ibidem., 160): knowledge of grammatical structures, word formation and a progressive mastery of speech. He concludes his article with a final warning against the use of phono-aural means in the early stages of language learning, which would be much the same as going to a foreign country to learn a language without previous training. Certainly, modern technology was exerting a huge and somewhat complex influence on the development of modern language teaching, and this was coupled with low budgets in formal education, as seen in the particular cases of France and Spain. Another turning point, which was to revolutionize the profession of language teaching in Europe ever after, came in the aftermath of the Second World War with the foundation of the Council of Europe, an organisation that would prevent a return to totalitarian regimes and would defend fundamental freedoms, peace and democracy. The Council has been active in the promotion of modern language learning and teaching

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since the signature of the European Cultural Convention in 1954 as an intergovernmental organisation. John Trim informs us of the Council’s first steps in that regard: The first initiative came in 1957, when at the suggestion of the French Government, a Committee of Experts was set up to plan the development of Modern Language teaching in Europe. The first Intergovernmental Symposium was held in Paris to launch le Français fondamental, a specification of a basic vocabulary and grammar for the French language, and Voix et images de la France, a pioneering audio-visual course for adults learning French, also developed by the Centre de Recherche et Diffusion du Français (CREDIF). (Trim 2001, 2)

The creation of a plan for the development of modern language teaching in Europe thus ushered in a permanent positioning, which still lingers today, towards a joint solution to the complexities of modern language learning and teaching. Part of that plan included the foundation of the Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée or International Association of Applied Linguistics (AILA) in 1964 at an international Colloquium at the University of Nancy, France. Luis Grandía Mateu, who held a Chair in French at the Instituto de Enseñanza Media ‘Angel Ganivet’ of Granada, was the Spanish representative at the Council of Europe at the time. His article ‘El Consejo de Europa abre nuevos derroteros en la enseñanza de las lenguas modernas en los países occidentales’ (The Council of Europe opens new roads for the teaching of modern languages in Western countries)6 is a first-hand witness of the Council’s first steps towards a common plan for the teaching of modern languages: En el curso de los últimos cinco años los grandes países europeos han iniciado una verdadera revolución metodológica en la enseñanza de lenguas modernas partiendo, con rara unanimidad, de los postulados fundamentales de la lingüística aplicada y superando en brillantes Centros de investigación las directrices de las mismas escuelas americanas que, sin embargo, guardarán siempre para sí el mérito de haber iniciado estos estudios en el mundo […] el impulso de los nuevos Centros de Lingüística aplicada, laboratorios de investigación y Centros de enseñanza acelerada y especializada, tales como los de Estocolmo, Besançon, Universidad Libre de Bruselas, Leeds, London, Saint-Cloud, Goethe Institut, etc. […] 6 Revista de Enseñanza Media 141-144, 1369-1378.

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amenazan con dar al traste, afortunadamente, con todo lo que hay de periclitado en las viejas escuelas europeas en un plazo relativamente corto. (Grandía 1964, 1369) In the course of the last five years the great European countries have initiated a truly revolutionary methodology in the teaching of modern languages starting, in a rare show of unanimity, from the fundamental tenets of Applied Linguistics and surpassing, in brilliant Research Centres, the guidelines of the American Schools which, however, will always have the merit of having started this type of studies in the world […] the promotion of new Centres of Applied Linguistics, research labs, centres of accelerated and specialized teaching, such as those in Stockholm, Besançon, the Free University of Brussels, Leeds, London, Saint-Cloud, Goethe Institute, etc. […] fortunately threatens to reverse the old outdated European schools in a relatively short term.

As for the Council of Europe’s recommendations to plan the development of modern languages, Grandía lays special stress on teachers’ training concerning the handling of new technologies. They could be trained at either universities or teachers’ training colleges by means of conferences or advanced training courses. In the case of Spain, the Centro de Orientación Pedagógica (Centre for Pedagogical Orientation) had been doing so since 1957. Grandía also refers to the issue of language exams, which were far from satisfactory: Es tradicional en muchos países europeos, y desgraciadamente también en España, el empleo de sistemas de control de conocimientos lingüísticos puramente literarios o destinados a poner de relieve el pasivismo de la traducción directa. Es de urgente necesidad cambiar estos sistemas de pruebas por otros que sirvan para controlar, sobre todo y en primer lugar, las capacidades activas y orales del alumno. (Grandía 1964, 1375) It is traditional in many European countries, and unfortunately in Spain too, to use control systems for linguistic expertise that are purely literary or destined to bring to the fore the passiveness of direct translation. There is an urgent need to replace these testing systems by others that serve to control, above all and in the first place, students’ active and oral capabilities.

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Grandía concludes his article with a sort of prophetic message, heralding a new era in modern language teaching and learning close to the end date of our study which, in the case of Spain, was to come into effect a couple of decades later: Nuestra situación marginal y nuestro enfoque de la civilización y comprensión internacionales podrán traer, estamos seguros de ello, una nueva dimensión en profundidad al admirable Plan General de las lenguas modernas que realiza el Consejo de Europa, gracias al espíritu de colaboración entusiástica de los profesores de distintos países que están dispuestos a borrar los chauvinismos de escuela o nacionalistas a favor de la Europa que habrán de vivir las generaciones que se están formando en nuestras aulas. (Grandía 1964, 1378) Our marginal situation and our focus on international civilization and understanding will bring, we are sure of it, a new dimension in depth to the admirable Major Project in Modern Languages that the Council of Europe is conducting, thanks to the spirit of enthusiastic collaboration among the teachers from diverse countries who are willing to wipe away the schools’ chauvinism or nationalists in favour of a Europe that the generations being trained in our classroom will have to live in.

3.4.

The Spanish tradition

The period covered in this chapter depicts a country entangled in internal conflicts such as Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship (1923-1930), the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), and Franco’s dictatorship (1939-1975). Spain was a ‘neutral’ country in both World Wars and, consequently, was not included among the European countries that benefited from the Marshall Plan (1947). This had serious economic consequences for a country anchored in a fascist dictatorship, thus sinking the country into a ‘dark age’ fraught with repression. As a consequence, there were hordes of exiled people, much like in the first half of the nineteenth century, although towards the beginning of the 1960s the regime opened up somewhat to the world market due to the tourist boom Spain was going through at the time. Air travel contributed to a major mobility across countries and new communication needs arose in a much more interconnected world. The government’s idea was to offer a renewed, more modern, tolerant and integrating image of the regime, but, as it turned out, it was just an illusion.

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Our period concludes in 1970 for two main reasons. Firstly, due to the increasing numbers of ELT manuals published after 1970 in Spain, especially from the late 1970s, which would exceed the limits set forth in this study. Secondly, because this year marked a turning point in Spanish official education, with the enactment of Law 14/1970 on 4 August by the then Minister of Education, José Luis Villar Palasí. This law declared education compulsory until the age of fourteen. It meant a total reform of the whole Spanish educational system, from nursery to tertiary education. Primary and secondary schooling included the study of one foreign language, either French or English, thus giving the same official status to both languages for the first time. This situation was to change in favour of English as practically the sole foreign language studied in pre-university education in the early 1980s. Returning to the main topic in this chapter, we now move on to explore the main actors in the diffusion of ELT in the course of the previous sixtyyear period, apart from the manuals themselves which will be outlined in subchapter 3.6. 3. 4. 1. ELT in Spain between 1910 and 1970: Official legislation Whereas countries such as France, Argentina, Russia and Turkey had officially implemented the premises of the direct method in their secondary schooling curricula, Spain remained primarily loyal to a more traditional methodology, as exposed in the Royal Decree of 23 November 1900 by the then Minister of Education, García Alix, which stated that for the foreign language qualifying exams candidates should carry out three exercises consisting of: 1. Answering in writing three random questions on grammar sourced from a previously published questionnaire 2. Orally translating into Spanish several extracts from classical books written in the language related to the competition, namely French or English 3. Writing in either French or English on the fastest and most practical method in order to manage to translate, speak, and write that language. A great step forward towards the training of modern language teachers took place in 1911 with the creation of the Central School of Languages in Madrid, a forerunner of the present-day Official School of Languages, as specified in the Royal Order of 1 January 1911. It became the first public centre in charge of the teaching of modern languages to be dependent on the Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts, administratively attached to the Central University of Madrid from 1927 onwards (Royal Order of

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4 March). Initially, the languages taught included French, English and German and, subsequently, Italian and Portuguese (Royal Order of 15 January 1912). Language teaching was regulated in three-year courses: the first year entailed the introduction of the direct method for the teaching of vocabulary and phonetics, while the second and third were dedicated to the study of grammar (Monterrey 2003, 68). In 1913 the Certificado Oficial de Aptitud (Official Certificate of Competence) was created, enabling its holders to teach foreign languages in both official and private centres. Under Primo de Riveras’s government (1923-1930) two key initiatives were set forth, although only one of them, the University Language Institutes (Royal Decree of 18 February 1927), came into effect. The second, for the implementation of tertiary studies in Modern Literature, went unheeded. During the Second Republic (1931-1939), new measures were taken leading to the creation of a university degree in Modern Philology (Decree of 15 September 1931), whose final exam was to consist of both written and oral sections (Monterrey 2003, 72). The former included the translation of a Latin text, a composition on a topic of Spanish literature, a phonetic transcription of an English text and its translation into Spanish, a phonetic transcription of a Spanish text and its translation into English, and, finally, an English composition on an English language topic. The oral section included a philological explanation of a Spanish author, a philological explanation in English of a text in old and modern English, two questions on the history of Spanish and English literature (to be written in Spanish and English respectively) and the translation of a text into another modern language chosen by the student. However, when Franco seized power in 1939 he put an end to this type of studies by repealing republican legislation in educational matters. French became the only official foreign language in public education, thus forcing anyone who wanted to learn another foreign language to attend private classes. Monterrey depicts a desolate scenario between the onset of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and 1950: A causa de la ruina económica y del bloqueo internacional tras la Guerra Civil, el estudio de las lenguas modernas no figuraba entre las prioridades del Gobierno de Franco para la reconstrucción del país. (Monterrey 2003, 73) Owing to economic ruin and the international blockade after the Civil War, the study of modern languages was not included amongst the priorities of Franco’s Goverment for the reconstruction of the country.

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It was, therefore, a period dominated by elitism and discrimination in a dual educational system: one for the elites and another for the poorer classes. Things took a brighter turn from the 1950s onwards, a decade which marked a moment of a certain cultural openness which brought modern languages into the daylight once more as far as public education was concerned. The new measures can be briefly summarized as follows: – The green light was given to Modern Philology (English, French, German, and Italian) in tertiary education; f irst provisionally at the University of Salamanca in 1952, and then, def initively, at the Universities of Salamanca and Madrid in 1954 and Barcelona in 1955, coinciding with the admission of Spain as a member of the United Nations in 1955. – The creation of the School of Modern Languages at the University of Barcelona in 1953. It followed the guidelines of other similar European institutions previously founded such as Heidelberg (1929), Germeschein (1947), Washington (University of Georgetown, 1949), Munich (1952), Paris (University of Sorbonne, 1953), and especially the School of Interpreters of Geneva (1941).7 – The creation of the first Chair in Germanic Linguistics (English and German) at the Complutense University in Madrid in 1958 held by Emilio Lorenzo. In that same year, the first grants from the Fullbright Commission were made (Santoyo and Guardia 1982, 10). – The introduction of modern methodologies, such as the Situational Method or Thorndike’s List of the thousand most frequent words, by the most committed professionals in Spain (Monterrey 2003, 66). – The foundation of the review Filología Moderna (Modern Philology) in 1960 by Emilio Lorenzo. Thus, the 1950s marked a turning point for the evolution of ELT in Spain as shown by both the educational legislation and the pedagogical innovations, which boosted the renewal of foreign language teaching and of the English language in particular. Yet, much was left to be done as far as the evolution of English language teaching is concerned, as pinpointed by Emilio Lorenzo: Hacia 1950 el centenar y pico de institutos de enseñanza media de España sólo tenían una veintena de profesores de inglés con competencia oficialmente reconocida […] la enseñanza privada, que atendía a más de un 75% del censo de estudiantes de bachillerato, se conformaba, por lo 7

Cf. Monterrey (2003, 67).

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regular, con ofrecer sólo cursos de francés, lengua en que la oferta docente era más abundante. (1995, 262) Towards 1950 some one hundred secondary institutes in Spain counted on about twenty teachers of English with a competence that was officially recognized […] Private teaching, which catered for more than a 75% of the census of baccalaureate students, conformed, as a general rule, by offering only French courses, a language with a more abundant teaching offering.

The same author portrays a similar situation for the study of English in tertiary education at the time: Cuando en 1953 se estableció en Madrid la primera Licenciatura en Filología Inglesa de España, los alumnos de esta especialidad ya duplicaban en número a los de Filología Francesa […] duplicar, en ese contexto, no significaba mucho; no llegaban a 40 (1995, 263) When the first Degree in English Philology was established in 1953 in Spain, there were already twice as many students as in French Philology […] in this context, doubling did not mean much, as there were fewer than 40.

The 1960s witnessed an economic expansion as well as a process of industrialization and a school boom up to the end of our period of study – 1970, the year of the Ley General de Educación (General Law of Education) by the then Minister of Education and Science, José Luis Villar Palasí. This law meant a turning point in Spanish education after Moyano’s Law in 1857, as it brought about a democratisation and uniformity of public education, now divided for the first time into two mandatory levels: a basic general education between the ages of six and thirteen, followed by a three-year baccalaureate. The study of one foreign language, either French or English, was included in the curricula of both educational stages. From the early 1980s, English took over from French in both primary and secondary education at the same time, as the former was unquestionably becoming the world’s lingua franca. Our second body of educational legislation concerns commercial studies. Since the mid-nineteenth century, they had implemented the study of foreign languages, thus boosting this type of studies in Spain. As for the twentieth century, and more precisely during the period we are studying in this section, foreign language studies continued to play a key role. Fernández Menéndez (2012) asserts that:

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Los estudios de Comercio iban dirigidos a las clases medias y profesionales y en ellos era habitual la inclusión del idioma inglés porque era necesario a las profesiones mercantiles. Commerce studies were aimed at the middle classes and professionals and in them it was usual to include the English language, since it was necessary for the commercial professions.

A case in point was the reform of 1953 (Decree of 23 July) when the Commerce Schools were renamed Expert Commerce Schools and Professional Commerce Schools. In the former, French and English Chairs were established; in the latter, Chairs in French, English, and German. Of the five-year courses leading to the title of Chartered Accountant, one modern language was studied in the second, third and fourth courses and, in the further three-year courses leading to the title of Professor of Commerce, a modern language was studied in all courses. In both schools, the study of modern languages was compulsory and it entailed a methodology based on translation, writing, and conversation. Eventually, the General Law of Education of 1970 transformed commercial studies by integrating them into University Business Schools. They reached their heyday in the 1940s, with 19,460 students in the academic year of 19391940 increasing to the astonishing figure of 60,055 students in the academic year of 1947-1948 (Infante Díaz 2013, 246). In the following decades, a crisis arose due to the fact that the Faculties of Political and Economic Sciences, previously implemented in 1944, had absorbed most of the Commerce School students. It had to be a general educational law that would transform this type of studies, as mentioned earlier, thus putting an end to the existence of Commerce Schools as such after 120 years of existence.

3.5.

ELT in Spain between 1910 and 1970: The private sector

As hinted at previously, the private sector turned out to have a significant role to play in foreign language teaching and learning in Spain. This private sector comprised private academies as well as some private institutions. We have just seen how official schooling struggled to implement this type of studies due to ever-changing legislation and, worst of all, to the scarcity of economic resources and well-trained specialists. This led to the proliferation of many private ventures which filled the niche left by the somewhat inoperative governments, especially during Franco’s time. Thus, by and

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large, the private sector proved much more dynamic and innovative in terms of foreign language methodologies than official government legislators. Earlier on, we saw the foundation of the first Berlitz School of Languages in Boston in 1880. Six years later, they set up their headquarters in New York and three years later new school branches were opened up in London, Paris and Berlin. The one hundredth Berlitz School had been opened in 1900, the year the Berlitz Method was awarded two gold medals at the 1900 Universal Exhibition in Paris. Undoubtedly, Berlitz’s venture became the first multinational company dedicated to the teaching of modern languages. Between 1889 and the onset of World War I in 1914, the expansion of Berlitz Schools reached over four hundred branches worldwide. The head office in New York was also in charge of publishing all of Berlitz’s manuals. In one of them, Method for Teaching Modern Languages (1914), there are two pages advertising the expansion of the Berlitz Schools of Languages at the end of the book, a very common marketing practice in their manuals. There, we learn the addresses of most of the Berlitz Schools worldwide: in North America there were fourteen schools, with another three in South America (Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Montevideo); a further page is dedicated to all the branches in Europe (nine in France, fourteen in Great Britain, and nineteen in Germany, to mention only the countries with the largest number of Berlitz Schools). In southern Europe, Italy stands out, with eight branches, while Spain had four (Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, and Seville) and Portugal one, in Porto. The Barcelona branch opened its doors in 1916; by 1934 the Spanish branches broadened including schools in Granada, Malaga, Valencia and Sabadell. Nowadays, the School still exists under the name Berlitz Corporation. Apart from the Berlitz branches in Spain, other academies took over the Spanish market of modern language teaching during the period studied in this chapter. We will restrict our survey to those that also published their own teaching methods, for the sake of space and because they exercised some significant influence on the development of ELT at a national level. 3.5.1. El Instituto Linguaphone (The Linguaphone Institute) Founded in London in 1901 by Jacques Roston, a translator and language teacher born in Poland, The Linguaphone Institute became the first language training company to acknowledge the potential of first the wax cylinder and then of records in an attempt to introduce state-of-the-art technology into self-learning language courses. After the Berlitz School, it became the second worldwide language venture, with branches in Europe, Australia, South Africa and New

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Zealand. It opened a branch in the city of Barcelona in the 1920s, as seen in advertisements in the local press of the time. The very first reference dates from 1928 in the newspaper called El Imparcial,8 where a short news item states that Mr. Delfín Dalmau is to give a conference on the modern teaching of the living languages, with linguaphone illustrations by Bernard Shaw at the Arts Faculty of the University of Madrid. One year later, in the Catalan newspaper La Publicitat, there appeared an article entitled ‘El fonógraf te avui una gran utilitat’ (The phonograph is highly useful today), advertising language courses in French, English, Italian, German, Russian, and Esperanto.9 The only branch of the London-based Institute in Spain was in Barcelona (245 Valencia Street), but in the early 1930s the Institute opened a delegation in Madrid at 20 Luchana Street. Rather than a language school, this was a distribution centre where potential customers could either personally attend for a Linguaphone demonstration or send a voucher included in the press ads for further information on the courses. In the next chapter, further details on the Linguaphone methodology will be given. Similar ads appeared in the Spanish press during the 1930s. The company still exists under the same name today. 3.5.2. Escuelas Massé (Massé’s Schools) Jean-Raoul Massé Gausselan (1877-1963) studied at the University of Bordeaux, obtaining the diploma of State Teacher. He taught literature and languages at schools in Libourne and Arcachon. He settled down in Barcelona where he founded the Escuelas Massé, publishing his manuals in his own edition. He was also a language teacher for the Military Government of Barcelona and the Massé Methods were used in the training of army officials. A Royal Order by King Alphonse XIII, 15 April 1914, acknowledged Raoul Massé for the results obtained. The Escuelas Massé were situated in the Rambla de Estudios, at number 14, and at 2 Canuda Street. They were founded in 1905 and known as the International Institute. In 1911 the languages taught there included French, English (which were taught by F. Dixon, C. Barry, and Miss Mac Hugh), German and Spanish (La Vanguardia, 18 January 1911). In November 1929, we know a Miss Kinder taught the Curso Elemental de Inglés (Elementary 8 Issue dated 27 October 1928, page 7. (Consulted at: http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue. vm?id=0001035830&page=7&search=Instituto+Linguaphone&lang=c). Accessed 14 December 2017. 9 Issue dated 7 February 1929, page 3. (Consulted at: http://mdc2.cbuc.cat/cdm/compoundobject/collection/publicat22/id/4158/rec/1). Accessed 14 December, 2017.

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English Course) at the Massé Schools (La Vanguardia, 21 November 1929). The rest of English manuals by Massé are, in their original titles, the following: – English Method (Método de Inglés): Curso práctico – Curso superior – Complemento al Estudio del Inglés: Curso práctico(Complement to the Study of English: Practical course) – English Commercial Correspondence – Clave de los Temas para Inglés: First and Second Books (Key to English Exercises). Though dating Massé’s manuals is difficult, we know they were on the market for about half a century. Massé died at the age of 85 in Òrrius, in the province of Barcelona. 3.5.3. The Academy of English The Academy of English opened on 1 October 1932 in the central Catalonia Square of Barcelona. 10 It was exclusively dedicated to the teaching of English by native teachers and produced its own teaching material called Conversational English. The onset of the Spanish Civil War must have put a halt to its activities; the last reference to it in the historical press appears in 1935, whereafter nothing is known of it. 3.5.4. The British Council In 1940 Professor Walter Starkie, a former Spanish teacher at the University of Dublin and cultural attaché to the British Embassy in Madrid, opened the doors of the British Council with some twenty-five students. Known as El Instituto Británico (The British Institute) or simply ‘El Británico’ (The British), it was situated in Méndez Núñez Street, becoming the centrepiece of British cultural relations in Madrid in the context of the Second World War. Monterrey (2003, 72) hints at a double aim in the foundation of this private institution: first and foremost to spread British influence, but secondly to counteract the German influence in Spain promoted through German teaching centres. It turned out to be a highly successful initiative judging by the number of students registered, which reached fifteen hundred in 1943. Between 1940 and 1980 the Council implemented a bilingual curriculum for children between the ages of five and fourteen in primary education: English in the mornings and Spanish in the afternoons. 10 Catalunya Social, Year XI, Nº 581, 17 September 1932.

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In 1943 Dereck Traversi, a novelist specialising in Shakespeare’s works, opened the Catalan office of this institution in Barcelona. Like its Madrid counterpart, it also became highly successful, with 3,000 students registered in 1952. 3.5.5. North American private institutions The American presence in Spain dates back to 1797 with the establishment of the General Consulate of the USA, first directed by William Willis, who had been appointed by the second President of the United States, John Adams. Later on, the American Chamber of Commerce was established in Madrid in 1917. It was followed by the American Club in 1932, and the Casa Americana (American House) attached to the General Consulate of the USA, both in Barcelona. As for education, the first American institution that settled in Spain was the International Institute, originally called the Colegio Norteamericano (North American School).11 It was founded by William Gullick and Alice Gordon Gullick, a couple of Protestant missionaries from Boston who, encouraged by the new Spanish law on religious freedom enacted in 1869, had settled in Santander in 1871. In 1892 they opened up a school for girls in San Sebastián called the Colegio Norteamericano, with the co-operation of teachers who had graduated from East Coast American colleges for women (namely Smith, Mount Holyoke and Wellesley). In 1903 the Institute moved to Madrid at the request of the Free School board members, and in 1911 a new building was opened under the direction of Susan Huntington, who had formerly graduated from Wellesley College. She transformed the Institute and widened its study plan from pre-primary education to the baccalaureate. In 1916 there were twenty-five female student boarders from Spain, Peru, Puerto Rico, Hungary, Portugal, France and North America. From 1917 onwards the Institute cultivated a close relationship with the Junta de Ampliación de Estudios (Board of Extension of Studies) of Madrid by collaborating with the Instituto-Escuela (Institute School), not only in their shared premises but also in the girls’ boarding schools and in English classes. After a period of inactivity, due to first the Spanish Civil War and then the Second World War, it reopened its doors in 1950, thus resuming its old ties with American universities and colleges. In this new phase Middlebury College, Bryn Mawr College, Wesleyan University, Vassar College, New 11 The information gathered about this institution was obtained from its webpage at: www. ies.es. Accessed 10 October 2017.

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York University and others were gradually incorporated into this HispanoAmerican institution. Nowadays, it hosts study programmes abroad with Boston University, SUNY at Albany, Syracuse University, Stanford University, and the University of Southern California. On 5 December 2017 it celebrated its 125th anniversary. The second institution, chronologically speaking, was the Instituto de Estudios Norteamericanos (Institute of North American Studies), 12 co-founded in 1951 by the eminent doctor of medicine, Josep Maria Poal, in Barcelona. Its main aim was to foster American culture in Catalonia. Though the establishment of an English School was never one of the initial intentions of its founders, they ended up organising some courses due to the fragile economic situation of the Institute. Thus English classes first started in September 1959 under the supervision of the Director of English courses, Mr. Robert Hammastrand. Not only did the courses prove to be highly popular, but the Institute’s board also began organising the first summer courses for English teachers run by American native-speakers in daily sessions comprising theory, practice and debates on the systems and methods for teaching English. The first courses took place in Barcelona in 1961 from 10-29 July and in Pamplona from 17 August to 2 September. In 1962 the Institute had 336 affiliates and 1,058 students. It also benefitted from some funding by the American Embassy in Madrid at the time. Nowadays, it is an official centre for the TOEFL, GRE, SAT, and USMLE examinations, among others, which are essential in order to study in American universities. Finally, we may mention in passing the Anglo-American School, founded by Pedro de Verda in 1958 under contract to the American Navy. The Sixth Fleet was anchored in Barcelona at the time and the school served the needs of the officers’ children, also admitting some children from the city of Barcelona. Initially, it was a small seventy-pupil school for children between the ages of four and fourteen. Before the departure of the Navy, in 1988, the School had already become a much larger centre since the 1970s and continued its task providing a British curriculum for children and teenagers. 3.5.6. The Instituto-Escuela and the Escuela Plurilingüe Both institutions arose from an attempt at Europeanising Spain in terms of education. Both were offshoots of the Board of Extension of Studies, created by Royal Order of 11 January 1907 by the liberal minister Amalio Gimeno. José Castillejo (1877-1945) was its key figure and Secretary, a man 12 Cf. Palaudarias Martí (2010).

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who had belonged to the Free School13 since 1898, formerly as a student and then as a teacher, and whose main aim was to bring Spanish education up to European standards since the year of its foundation in 1876 by Francisco Giner de los Ríos (1839-1915). The Board’s main aim was twofold. Firstly, it became one of the first institutions to cater for teacher training in Spain, including modern languages, and, secondly, it fostered the creation of private non-profit educational ventures in order to foster innovative ideas on education. One of these might be a type of education that regarded modern languages as vital for the proper evolution of their students. Castillejo was a lawyer and pedagogue who devoted most of his life to the improvement of education. In actual fact, his dissertation for a PhD in Philosophy and Arts in 1915 was entitled La Educación en Inglaterra (Education in England).14 Castillejo (1919, 242) pinpointed fundamental errors in the pedagogical politics of Spain such as: – Making reforms in the regulations instead of reforming the teaching body – Carrying the instability and passions of political life into public instruction – Isolation from the scientif ic and pedagogical movements in other countries. Castillejo had been subsidized by the Free School to spend some months in France, Germany and England, not only to learn their respective languages but also to study their educational systems. He therefore had a state-of-the-art knowledge of European educational systems which positioned him as a leading figure in these matters in Spain at this point. At the same time, the Board of Extension of Studies’ permanent committee was composed of scientists and politicians from all parties. The Board’s President, from its foundation in 1907 until 1934, was Dr. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the highest scientific authority in the country, winner of the Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1906.

13 This was a pedagogical project and institution developed in Spain for over half a century, between 1876 and 1936, inspired by the philosophy of the German philosopher Karl Christian Friedich Krause (1781-1832), which advocated doctrinal tolerance and academic freedom from dogma. This philosophical current was introduced at the Central University of Madrid by Julián Sanz del Río (1814-1869), whose ideas revolved around the idea of becoming free from the influence of the Church on education. 14 Published in 1919 in Madrid by Ediciones de la Lectura. It was reprinted in 1930 by the same publisher under the title La educación en Inglaterra: sus ideales, su historia y su organización nacional (‘Education in England: its ideals, history and national organization’).

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The Instituto-Escuela was created in Madrid in 1918, providing a general education that comprised kindergarten, primary, and secondary schooling as well as the training of secondary school teachers-to-be. At the beginning of the Second Republic (1931-1939), there were three more centres in Barcelona, which depended on the Catalan Government or Generalitat, Valencia, and Seville, the latter two depending on cultural patronage in those cities. As we saw earlier on, the Board had joined forces with the American School for Girls, formerly opened in Madrid as the North American School, and American teachers were in charge of the teaching of English language and literature. As the Board’s Secretary, Castillejo’s main task was to provide allowances for students to broaden their studies abroad. For that reason, he sought relations with both South and North American institutions from 1910 onwards,15 as well as with European institutions such as the League of Nations between 1926 and 1928, and from 1932 onwards. There were 411 students at the Institute School of Madrid in the academic year 1920-21. A decade later, the number had soared to 1711 in the academic year 1933-34, (Palacios 1988, 97). As for modern languages, the plan was strict and efficient for training teachers. They studied two languages, to be chosen from French, English, and German, in two- to three-hour weekly classes run by native teachers and accompanied by compulsory stays abroad. They had exchanges and kept up correspondence with foreign educational centres: it was no wonder the status of modern languages in Spain improved remarkably with such measures. The methodology in use was not an end in itself but a means to reach the comprehension of books and documents. Rius (2007) summarises it as follows: – The use of the Direct Method was applied at the beginning, although not in a strict manner – The grammatical content was contingent upon the students’ difficulties or errors in their reading exercises – Translation was used as a comprehension and verification procedure of the students’ acquisition – The teachers’ intended aim consisted of using literal translation together with the direct method in order to improve students’ level of translation – The learning aim sought was comprehensive reading. 15 In South America, the Board had relations with the Spanish Cultural Institution of Buenos Aines (from 1914 onwards), Mexico (from 1925 onwards), and Cuba (from 1927 onwards). In North America, with the aforementioned Boston-based North American School, with the Rockefeller Institution (the International Health Board, from 1919 onwards, and the International Education Board, from 1920 onwards).

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Quite different was the objective pursued by the Escuela Plurilingüe (Plurilingual School), founded in Madrid in 1928. This was established to teach groups of four- and five-year-old children. Classes were in Spanish, although some subjects were taught in French and English by native teachers. The aim was that by the age of ten students be able to follow classes in those languages without any problem. This methodology, based on Castillejo’s project, strikes a chord with that of the present-day European Schools for the children of the European Union’s civil servants, and with the CLIL methodology. The advent of the Civil War put an end to these two innovative types of education where modern languages were given their due importance. Castillejo, who had married the Englishwoman Irene Claremont in 1920, joined her family in London some days after the outbreak of the Civil War when he learned he was going to be imprisoned by Franco’s authorities. He was to remain in London until his death in 1945. 3.5.7. The Mangold Institute We conclude this general overview of private language academies with a quick look at probably one of the most singular ventures that occurred in the history of modern language teaching in twentieth-century Spain. Walter Mangold was born in Brunswick, Germany in 1892, into an uppermiddle-class Jewish family. He began his working life in Hannover, acting as an agent for large international companies. During the Second World War he spent several years in a concentration camp where he organised reading and discussion groups for his fellow prisoners. At some point he must have escaped the German camp because it is known that he joined the French resistance movement; he then spent some time in a French concentration camp – from which he also escaped – and made his way through the Pyrenees in winter to Spain, where he was to spend the rest of his life. Impoverished, he rented a room in Madrid and started giving private lessons in English and other subjects. Since there was a great demand for language teaching at that time, he set up his own school, known as the Mangold Institute, which developed and expanded quickly.16At its peak, the school had over 3,000 students. Mangold had firm ideas about language teaching. He came to the conclusion that a better understanding between peoples, and consequently a lessening of conflict, could be achieved by improving communication between them. 16 Source: The Walter Mangold Fund Trust.

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He wrote his own textbooks, which led to the establishment of his own publishing firm, the Mangold Editorial. He died on 18 October 1983, aged 91, as a Spanish citizen. In later life, Mangold had sold his language business (1965), but nowadays his former language Institute is still up and running as a franchised company called Institutos Mangold (Mangold Institutes) with its headquarters in Gandía. Here ends our outline of ELT in contemporary Spain. It was a period marked by many political and social upheavals through which modern language teaching came of age, although this happened at a different pace in the official and private sectors. Concerning the latter, I have focused on some of the most relevant centres, although I am aware of the fact that this picture is unfinished, as many other smaller centres must have been operating all over Spain, not to mention the work carried out by private teachers, tutors or governesses who contributed to the country’s education in modern languages, especially English. A full history is yet to be written on the topic but I hope that these lines may inspire future, more thorough studies on a very complex period.

3.6.

Overview of English manuals in Spain between 1910 and 1970

It was not until 1906 that The Berlitz Series of books broke into the Spanish market. It was the beginning of the commercialisation, as it were, of the direct method. This was really intended to be a natural method with no translation. By 1961 there were Berlitz Schools in thirty cities across Spain. Berlitz did tend to dominate the private market during the f irst half of the twentieth century in Spain. The methodology that Berlitz was promoting, no translation and the idea that the direct method demonstrated everything, was not subsequently realised in the kinds of manuals that were produced later, such as Lewis Th. Girau’s 17 Método de inglés (English Method), El pequeño explorador de la lengua inglesa (The little explorer of the English language), and F. G. Dixon’s Método de inglés. Curso práctico (English Method. Practical course), to mention just three of the most popular at the time. Their manuals focused on translation as the means of conveying meaning, practising the essential grammar and introducing the vocabulary. We can note that these books are called ‘Methods of English’, method here meaning really the textbook rather 17 His real name was Luis Girau Iglesias.

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than the method itself. The method was a textbook and the textbook was a method. A case in point is Girau’s book. In the teacher’s note at the beginning of his English manual, Girau states his philosophy of language teaching: Gravísimo error pedagógico es considerar la práctica como base de estudio e inducir de ella reglas y preceptos. El sistema verdaderamente positivo para la enseñanza, no ya de los idiomas, sino también del saber humano en general, forzosamente ha de tener por base la teoría, la explicación. (1921, Prologue) It is the most serious pedagogical error to consider practice as the basis of learning and to infer rules and principles from it. The truly optimal way of learning – not just of languages but of knowledge in general – has to be totally based on theory and explanation.

Girau’s words represent the complete opposite of what Ahn himself had said half a century before. What is at stake here is not so much a tension between translation and direct method but between inductive approaches, where learners are simply exposed to lots and lots of examples with no grammatical explanations, and a deductive approach – as Girau is promoting here – which starts off with the description of grammar and then goes on to practise it through translation. This seemed to be very much the tension that was dominant in language teaching not just in Spain but worldwide in the early twentieth century. In short, we have a number of books: Girau, Massé-Dixon, Gabriel María Bruño that came out during the first decades of the twentieth century with long pages of grammatical paradigms. In the case of Bruño’s the language is incredibly archaic, as can be seen in the conjugation of the reflexive verb ‘to wash oneself’: Thou mayst wash thyself (1913, 87). Other books, which were quite popular in Spain in the 1940s and 1950s such as Girau’s, including the Método Kucera (Kucera’s Method), the Método de inglés, primer y segundo grado (English method, first and second courses) by Edelvives or F. T. D., which mainly produced school textbooks, were more interesting for their illustrations than the methodology, and the way they represented classrooms at the time – or teachers, for that matter, wearing suits and pointing at a blackboard while students are sitting listening to him. Not much has changed. Furthermore, most of the illustrations showed iconic emblems of Englishness, of what one can achieve in English.

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There were different ways of looking at language: by looking at the difficulties, as in Guillermo López Hipkiss, Las dificultades del inglés (1935); looking at it without difficulties, as in Cecil C. Porterm El inglés sin dificultades (19??); or looking at it without effort – Método diario Assimil’s El inglés sin esfuerzo became very famous in Spain in the 1970s and 1980s, especially for the first sentence in unit one: My tailor is rich. Something similar happened in Cuba with Jorrín’s English method between the 1920s and the 1950s and the famous phrases, Tom is a boy; Mary is a girl, two sentences that Cuban people, who knew no English, stated that they could say. In other cases, books were written in the twentieth century by any person who wanted to write a book on teaching English, where they were clearly not in total command of the language themselves. One example is Modesto Mackliff’s Método Mackliff de inglés (Mackliff’s English method, 1964) published both in Barcelona and Ecuador, where questions either to be translated or to be discussed dealt with all sorts of unrelated topics: Now, a few questions. – Ahora, unas pocas preguntas: What is the Mass? Do you know the Ten Commandments of God? Do you like to be taught helter skelter? [which seemed to be the idiom of the day] What were you waiving on arriving your parents? [Notice ‘waiving’ instead of waving] What is an inflation? What a man gives a woman to get her sex? Are you not tongue tied? (Mackliff 1964, 96)

Certainly, there was a wide range of quality in the materials produced. Technology also played its part. Earlier on, we saw the origin of the first English courses in the 1920s by the Linguaphone Institute’s records such as Bernard Shaw’s Spoken English and Broken English, and Linguaphone’s Conversational Course, written by A. Lloyd James, Professor of Phonetics at the University of London, and recorded by Prof. Daniel Jones, J. R. R. Tolkien, J. R. Firth, and Miss K. Forde, among others. This trend became highly popular worldwide in the 1960s. In 1965 the following course came out: Living English, a complete language course (El Inglés Viviente), which included forty lessons on four records. Sentences were repeated in English with their translation:

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I don’t care at all. Don’t say it. I don’t have anything to say. I have nothing to say. I’ll never say it. Nothing happened. I have nothing to do. I never see him. I’ve never seen him before. (Living English 1965, 45)

No me importa nada. No lo diga. No tengo nada que decir. No tengo nada que decir. Nunca lo diré. No ha pasado nada. No tengo nada que hacer. Nunca lo veo. Nunca lo he visto.

In the 1960s design was changing, although methodology was starting to change, too, as it came into contact with audio-lingualism and structuralism’s pattern drills. A close look at the English courses over the whole period studied in this book shows that, in most cases, the sentences presented lack of authenticity. The next major methodology was to come in 1977, just outside our period of study, represented by the communicative approach in a book called Starting Strategies by Brian Abbs and Ingrid Freebairn, preceded in 1975 by Circle White Strategies. Here we have a kind of notional-functional syllabus, an attempt to include more authentic texts, not so much in the language but in the people represented, such as engineers and blue-collar workers. Not many books before focused on working class or lower middleclass people. The twentieth century witnessed a blossoming of both bilingual and polyglot specialised dictionaries, especially in the 1960s, which coincided with major industrialization not only in Spain but worldwide. Along the same lines, Green agrees that: The twentieth century has seen lexicography expand as never before. Mass literacy and mass communications have guaranteed that the demand for dictionaries has continued to grow […] English is the language of scientific discourse, of airline pilots, of popular culture, of the Internet, of international communication, and of business. (1996, 440)

The areas covered by Spanish and English bilingual dictionaries, which slightly outnumbered their polyglot counterparts, included the Navy (Barbudo Duarte 1965), Commerce (Prat Gaballi 1963), Photography and Cinema (Madariaga 1968), Geoscience (Orellana Silva 1967), Electronics and Nuclear Power (Mataix Lorda 1969), Electrical Engineering and Electronics

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Table 2  English manuals published in Spain between 1900 and 1970 Manual output per decade: XX Century 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1900-1909 1910-1919 1920-1929 1930-1939 1940-1949 1950-1959 1960-1970

(Piraux 1966), Medicine (Ruiz Torres 1965), Commerce and Economy (Varela Colmeiro 1964), and Electromechanics (Weis Ballesteros 1966). Needless to say, the last period of our survey marks the rise and consolidation of ELT in Spain, timidly started from the mid-1850s onwards. The output of manuals, as shown in Table 2 above, demonstrates a rapid growth as we approach the final decades of our study. A thorough study of all the works is out of the question for the sake of space. We have already carried out a quick overview of some twentieth-century manuals, but at this point a closer look at some other manuals is also necessary in order to provide a more thorough analysis of the myriad of English manuals written in this period. The first of them is Inglés por el método natural (English by the natural method) published by The Nature Method Institute (NMI). It was a language course that only subscribers by mail could acquire. It consists of sixteen booklets which amount to over seven hundred pages. The course is divided into three parts and each of these is further subdivided into twenty lessons. The man behind this venture was Arthur Marinus Jensen (1923-1985), who also authored similar manuals for the French and Italian languages. In fact, the NMI had subsidiaries around the world: in New York, and in countries such as Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Holland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and, needless to say, in Spain (Barcelona). The NMI English course was authorized by the Spanish Ministry of Education (Ministerio de Educación Nacional). The first edition of the English course appeared in northern Europe in 1949. Unfortunately, there are no specific dates for the Spanish edition (despite having consulted this manual myself), although it must have been a few years after the 1949 edition, towards the end of the 1950s or, at latest, the early 1960s.

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The NMI’s language courses, categorizable under the nature method or inductive-contextual method, bear a striking resemblance to the Berlitz Institute’s method: that is, a non-explicit teaching of grammar and an exclusive use of the target language from the very beginning out of a graded comprehensible context. With the exception of the exclusive use of the target language, this methodology is also very similar to the Assimil method, one of the most popular methods in Spain since the mid-1960s. The NMI course begins with an introduction in Spanish (1-11) where the different parts of the course are explained. Some of the lessons are also preceded by instructions in Spanish on how best to deal with them. There then follows an introduction to phonetics (13-15), which includes a drawing of the main articulatory organs, and a description of the phonetic symbols in English (17-34), according to the IPA alphabet. The introductory booklet finishes with a four-page phonetic transcription of two Spanish texts in order to familiarize students with the Spanish transcription system. The actual course begins in the second booklet on page 9 after an eight-page study guide, but in fact the remaining lessons will follow the same pattern, with an interlinear text in English and its phonetic transcription just below. All lessons include the aid of images to help with vocabulary and at the end of the lesson there are gap-filling exercises with the solutions scrambled at the side. The topics included in all the lessons form a narrative of their own. Part I describes a typical English family’s life, Part II is the story of a holiday journey to England made by three young people while Part III tells the adventures of one of the three youngsters while working and in his free time in England. This is all there is to it. One can imagine how hard this course must have been to follow, especially without a teacher’s guide and for absolute beginners. As a matter of fact, the full copy I own contains several notes written on the booklets by a former user, but they only reach the end of part I – that is, the first twenty lessons. There are no further notes in the two remaining parts; somebody must have given it up as a bad job due to the tiring, repetitive tasks contained in the course. Everything leads us to conclude that it was not a very popular manual except for those interested in learning English through phonetic transcription. A more modern and scientific version of this nature method is the so-called natural approach developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Foreign writers of English manuals published in Spain have been the norm over the whole period covered in this book. This is also the case of our following author, the Frenchman A. J. Simian. He was the General Manager of the ‘Simian Institut’ of Valencia, a language academy opened in the early

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1920s. His English course bore the title How to Speak and to Write a Modern Language. New Scientific and Conversation Method (we will be looking at the second edition of 1924, as the first edition has not been found). In the front matter of the book we learn that Simian was formerly a Professor of the National Schools of France and of the Alliance Française of Barcelona. What is interesting about this course is the author’s ideas on foreign language learning and teaching as expressed in the paratexts. Firstly, in the preface to his method he resumes his main views as follows: To learn how to translate a living language is easy. […]. All methods are excellent. As regards the professor, the part he plays is secondary, limited only to serve as a dictionary always open at the page wanted, and giving the pupil the exact translation of the new or forgotten word. […]. In order to be able to speak a language, […], the ear and the tongue are in perfect harmony […], then only will the pronunciation become fluent and correct, then only will the pupil be able to speak with ease the language he is studying.(Simian 1924, Preface)

Simian is one of the first manual writers who explicitly recommended the use of the direct method or conversation method, as he calls it, in Spain. He does so in two different extracts of the paratexts preceding the actual beginning of the method. The first one appears towards the end of his introduction and the second, called ‘A few hints’, precedes the index at the beginning of the book: This delicate work of training the ear and the tongue I will style ‘physical or material’, and it is independent of the will of the pupil. It can only be confided to the knowledge and practical science of a specialist in the direct or conversation method. 1st The professor ought to bear in mind that this book is written according to the direct method which consists in associating the word with the object and to avail himself of the meaning of the words already known in order to discover that of the unknown words without translating the same, which I expressly forbid 2nd The pupil ought only to hear and to speak in the language he is learning 3rd The lesson must be taken with the book closed 4th The exercises at the end of each chapter should be done orally, the book of the pupil must be closed, before reading and writing the lessons. (Simian 1924, 6)

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His book is divided into twenty-four chapters, each dealing with a specific grammar point succinctly explained. Examples are then provided in text made up of unconnected sentences, followed by a set of questions on the text. Some lessons include lists of vocabulary only in English at the very beginning, followed by a set of texts and their respective question-exercise. Most lessons eventually include long ‘phonetical and diction exercises’ whose function is to drill a specific grammar point. An example of the latter from Chapter IX (dedicated to ‘The Future’) illustrates the type of practice both teacher and pupil did in class: 1. When I enter the room I greet my teacher. – 2. I shall say to him ‘Good morning, Sir’ in the morning and ‘Good afternoon, Sir’ in the afternoon. – 3. I shall also greet my school-fellows. – 4. I shall take a seat and I shall sit down. – 5. I shall put my books on the table before me.– 6. When the class ends I shall put them into my pocket. – 7. I shall go out saying ‘Good bye, Sir’. […] – 20. He will not hear anything because he will be deaf. The same exercise replacing I for they; you and he for we. (Simian 1924, 60; Exercise 17).

This was definitely an out-of-the-ordinary manual in Spain at the time since, as we have already pointed out, the main methodology followed in Spain was deductive (that is, grammar explanations followed by some translation exercises). However, it has been demonstrated that in some concrete cases like that of the Institut Simian, other innovative methodologies like the direct method were also pursued in Spain although they never became mainstream. In this regard, there has been no previous research done on the presence of the direct method in Spain as far as ELT is concerned, and this is a niche that needs more attention from language historiographers in the years to come. Investigating the direct method a bit more, there is another author from our corpus of twentieth-century manuals who did mention this, albeit in passing, and adapted it as we are about to see. Román Torner Soler was one of the several priests who authored an English manual from our corpus.18 His two-volume Curso completo de lengua inglesa (Complete course of the English language) was first edited in 1945 with subsequent editions in 1948 18 The presence of priests as manual writers diminished considerably in the twentieth century. However, their presence was felt more in the first two periods covered in this general survey. It suffices to mention Thomas Connelly and Thomas Higgins (eighteenth century), and Pedro Constansó Vila, Joaquín Faria Camargo, Bartolomé Gabarró, etc. (nineteenth century).

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and 1950. The copy analysed here corresponds to the third edition of 1950. On the title page we learn that this manual was approved by the National Council of Education in 1946 (Order 7 October 1946) and used as a textbook at the official Centres of teaching. In the preface to his course Torner presents the main guidelines of his methodology: El plan adoptado para esta obra intenta ser una solución entre las dos tendencias extremas del Método Directo y las llamadas gramáticas inglesas. El Método Directo resulta de hecho impracticable, y el simple estudio de la Gramática es un medio inadecuado para aprender un idioma vivo. (Torner 1950, Preface, vol. 1) The plan adopted in this work is intended to be a solution between the two extreme trends of the Direct Method and the so-called English grammars. The Direct Method proves to be, in fact, impracticable, and the simple study of Grammar is an unsuitable means to learn a living language.

Though he does not explicitly state his actual methodology, Torner seems to point at a third intermediate way or mixed methodology that includes some of the tenets of the direct method and the study of grammar. A closer look at the content of the twenty-five lessons included in the first volume of his English course yields the following pattern by order of appearance: a vocal drill to practise the pronunciation of English sounds according to the IPA alphabet, a grammar point with hardly any explanations – though Spanish translations are provided – a two-column vocabulary EnglishSpanish, a lesson drill consisting of several question-answer sentences to reinforce grammar, a section called ‘Reading and Translation’ made up of several single-sentence texts in English, a set of exercises and, in the last ten lessons, a final section called ‘Translation into English’. The first volume concludes with two appendices: the first is dedicated to the English accent, with some general hard and fast rules on stress, the contractions mostly used in conversational English, some abbreviations of the most common titles, and basic vocabulary on British currency, weights and measures with their equivalences. The second appendix provides synoptic grammar tables that include the conjugation of certain English verbs and a final list of irregular verbs. Some of the salient features included in Torner’s first volume, apart from the ample use of exercises, are the use of drawings and some photos of London’s main monuments (Big Ben, Piccadilly Circus, The Houses of Parliament), thus infusing his volume with some cultural aspects. Other notable features are the gradual exposition of grammar, the inclusion of

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some writing exercises (a Christmas Card, some letters, etc.), and, finally, the inclusion of some jokes: Two girls were doing Italy on an arranged tour. They were standing in front of St. Mark’s. ‘Elizabeth’, asked one, ‘is this Venice or Florence?’ ‘Consult your time-table’, was the reply. ‘If it’s Monday, it’s Florence; if it’s Tuesday it’s Venice’. (Torner 1950, 206) An old woman was always ailing. Her various diseases were to her the most interesting topic in the world, and apparently she thought they interested others also, for she talked of nothing else. One day a visitor found her eating a hearty meal and, naturally, asked her how she was. She sighed and answered: ‘I feel very well, but I always feel bad when I feel well, because I know I am going to feel worse afterwards’. (Torner 1950, 218)

Torner’s second volume, first edited in 1946, consists of thirty-five lessons each dedicated to everyday topics such as Education, At School, The Body, Health, The Seasons, Travelling, The Town, Religion, Football, The British Museum, etc. In an introductory note in the same volume, Torner acknowledges the London-based publisher Macmillan and Co. for allowing him to use some texts from the New Modern English Readers in his two volumes. Another peculiar paratext in the introductory second volume refers to the fact that Torner’s English course had been approved for print by the censor, Dr. Ginés Arimón. This was a common practice during the Spanish dictatorship (1939-1975), especially for those textbooks liable to be used in official Schools. The structure of the lessons in Torner’s second volume, thirty-five in total, is much the same as in the first one. After each topic has been presented in the text there follow a vocal drill, a grammar point, some exercises and, eventually, some direct and reverse translation exercises. Cultural topics include Lesson 33 devoted to Scotland, with some images and a poem by Robert Burns; Lesson 34 on Ireland, and Lesson 35 on the Government of England. This, in a nutshell, is Torner’s English course, which must have been widely used across Spain if we consider that there were 10,000 copies of the third edition in circulation. The inclusion of cultural topics and photos became quite usual in English manuals of the time (one of the forerunners in this type of content had been Lewis Th. Girau’s manuals used in his academies and, surely, beyond). As the 1950s went on other manuals took over in official education, especially audio-visual materials as this was to become the mainstream methodology in Spain from the mid-1950s and the 1960s.

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3.7.

Teaching English beyond manuals: the exceptional cases of Juan Carrión and Patricia Shaw Fairman

3.7.1

Juan Carrión and the Beatles

This is the story of how a modest English teacher, Juan Carrión (1924-2017), met John Lennon in Almeria in 1966, as Adolfo Iglesias explains (2014).19 Almeria had been the Spanish Hollywood since 1962, when David Lean filmed Lawrence of Arabia there. After this, North American and Spanish producers, as well as Italian film directors, chose the varied landscape of the poor and pure city of Almeria, with its desert, dunes and beaches. Everything was a cinema setting where thousands of landscapes could be housed so that films could become more profitable. John Lennon arrived in Almeria on the 19 September 1966 after having accepted a role in Richard Lester’s film How I Won the War (1967), a very personal project based on Patrick Ryan’s autobiographical book on the Second World War. At that time, Juan Carrión was living in Cartagena, Murcia, teaching English at his private academy. He used to play Beatles songs to his students in order for them to learn English: he listened to them on Radio Luxembourg and recorded their songs for use in class. It was certainly a novel way of going about the teaching of English at the time. On learning that John Lennon was staying in Almería, Carrión did not hesitate to pay him a visit. Four days after Lennon had arrived in Almeria, Carrión arrived there with the pressing goal of meeting Lennon. Thanks to the collaboration of some members of Lester’s cast, Carrión managed to contact Lennon a few days later, on 26 September. Carrión asked Lennon whether he could help him out with the correction of his notebooks that contained the lyrics Carrión had patiently transcribed from The Beatles’ records and which he used to teach English. A few days later, someone close to Lennon returned the notebooks to Carrión after they had been thoughtfully corrected along with a promise by Lennon: the next record to be released by the band would include the printed lyrics. Lennon’s note to Carrión ended with a good wish written by Lennon himself: ‘Good luck with the English!’ (Iglesias 2014, 170). One day in January 1967, Carrión got a parcel from London that contained a double A-side single: ‘Strawberry 19 I owe this piece of information on Juan Carrión to a conversation with the musicologist Dr. Francesc Vicens Vidal, a co-worker at CESAG, Centro de Educación Superior Alberta Giménez (Centre of Higher Education Alberta Giménez). As stated above, the source of this paramount meeting between two Johns, who changed a lot of people’s lives, is the splendid book Juan & John, by J. Adolfo Iglesias.

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Fields Forever’ – composed by Lennon while in Almería – and ‘Penny Lane’. Together with the single was the score, complete with the lyrics of those two songs. A few months later, in June, the album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band was released – with the lyrics printed on the back cover. Lennon had fulfilled his promise. That album became the first ever to include lyrics in the history of pop-rock. Lennon never mentioned this casual meeting with Carrión in any of his interviews, although he certainly kept a private correspondence with him. From then on, Carrión’s English classes were not to encounter any further problems as far as the correct transcript of The Beatles’ songs were concerned. In 2013, the Spanish film director David Trueba released his film Vivir es fácil con los ojos cerrados (Living is easy with eyes closed), named after one of the lines in the song ‘Strawberry Fields Forever’, and based on the story of the teacher of Cartagena. 3.7.2. English through the theatre Our second case comes from Patricia Shaw Fairman (1931-1998). After she had graduated in English and French Philology from the University of Leeds in 1954, she married José Millán Urdiales Campos, a French Philologist. Shaw also studied English Philology at the Central University of Madrid between 1956 and 1958, and then held a Chair in English at several Institutes in Spain, in Cuenca (1959-1961) and Barcelona (1961-1965), where she obtained a PhD in English Philology in 1965. Between 1966 and 1970 she held a Chair in English Philology at the University Central of Barcelona, holding office until 1970. As a matter of fact, Shaw became the first University Professor in English in the Barcelona University district. Towards 1971 she founded a theatre group affiliated with the University of Oviedo– the Oviedo University’s English Theatre Group – of which she was the director and leading promoter. Thanks to her initiative, it was possible to widen students’ command of English by staging plays in English for the first time. In 1988, the Queen of England, Elizabeth II, bestowed the Order of the British Empire on Shaw.

3.8. Conclusion If the nineteenth century had begun with a European crisis, as a consequence of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic invasions, the same can be said of the twentieth century with respect to the aftermath of the First World War. The status of French, Europe’s lingua franca since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, began to be questioned immediately after the Congress

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of Vienna in 1815, mainly due to an anti-French feeling that swept across the European nations. Yet the Congress proceedings were written in French, and the French language retained its dominance as the language of culture and diplomacy, especially in Spain. Things began to change slightly in the Treaty of Versailles (1919), which was written both in French and English. After World War II, however, the US took over from Britain’s Empire as a leading player in world geopolitics. The irruption of Anglo-Saxon pop culture in the 1960s in music, cinema, and the arts in general also contributed to a major diffusion of the English language worldwide. Our period thus concludes with the emergence of English as the world’s new lingua franca and, consequently, with its compulsory inclusion as the first foreign language in most official curricula at all levels of education in Spain. From a socio-linguistic standpoint, the offering of both English manuals and English tuition gradually grew as the twentieth century advanced. Official education prioritised the French language in general but, whenever possible, included the English language as well. However, it was the private sector that boosted the teaching of English in terms of academies or bilingual institutions such as the British Council. The latter was only affordable for an elitist minority. Those private actors also contributed to major innovations in the field rather than state-run education, which clung to a more traditional or classical view of foreign language teaching as a rule, despite the efforts to introduce novel methodologies, for example the direct method. Today, private academies are still to be found everywhere as a response to the relative failure of official compulsory education to provide students with a competence in the English language. There is ample evidence that the private sector was livelier and more innovative in the number of diverse ‘methods’ that appeared between the beginning of the twentieth century and 1970, in sharp contrast with the hegemony of the grammar-translation method in the previous century. The works produced in this battle of methods began to saturate the twentieth-century market for foreign language teaching: the timeline, in Spanish-speaking countries, can be summarized as follows: 1900: Direct / Natural Method 1910: Dogenhardt’s Method 1912: Montañés’s Polyglot, by George Dauphin 1921: The New Method British by Lewis Th. Girau 1930: Situational Method 1948: Active English 1950: Audiolingual Method 1970: Total Physical Response

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Figure 4 Extract from Arturo Cuyàs’s bidirectional bilingual English-Spanish dictionary. First published in the 1920s, it became one of the most popular and comprehensive dictionaries for the study of English until the early 1960s in Spain. It also included a brief grammar of the Spanish and English languages.

We can see ample evidence of the presence of advocates of the direct method in Spain, although further research is needed in order to gauge its real impact; however, we can venture to say that it was always marginal compared to a more traditional, deductive-driven type in Spain. The advent of new technologies in this period, ranging from Edison’s phonograph, to the radio in the 1920s, to the television in the 1950s, as well as the language

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lab in the 1960s, contributed to fostering new language materials that positively affected the spread of ELT. The tourism boom in the 1960s also created new demand among people who saw foreign language learning as a means of international communication. Our period thus ends with a beginning – the communication revolution in foreign language teaching, by which contextualized communication began to take precedence over form, paved the way for a post-method era that began in the 1990s and is still in vogue today. The twentieth century gradually brought about a democratization of education which, by the end of our period, had practically done away with illiteracy in Spain. I would like to finish this general overview by looking at the EF English Proficiency Index (EF EPI), which ranks countries by their English skills. The 2018 results are as follows: of a total of eighty countries, Argentina ranks twenty-fifth, Spain twenty-eighth. Of the twenty-seven countries ranked in Europe, Spain occupies the twenty-first position. Proficiency levels range through very high, high and medium to low and very low. Spain has a medium level; the top five countries with very high levels, are the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Singapore. There is still some way to go for Spain to level up with those countries with high or very high levels (twenty-two in total according to the EF EPI). Much work is yet to be done.

Bibliography Primary sources Abbs, Brian. 1975. Strategies: Student’s. London: Longman. Abbs, Brian and Ingrid Freebairn. 1977. Starting strategies. London: Longman. Barragán, J. V. 1944. Curso internacional de inglés. London: Evans. Bernard Shaw, George. 1928. Spoken English and Broken English. London: Linguaphone Institute. Berlitz, M. D. 1914. First Book for Teaching English. Berlin: Biebfried Cronbarch; New York: M. D. Berlitz; Paris: The Berlitz School; London: The Berlitz School; St. Petersburg: M. O. Wolff. Bruño, G[abriel] M[aría]. 1913. Método intuitivo de lengua inglesa hablada. Madrid; Santander: Viuda de F. Tours. Barbudo Duarte, Enrique. 1965. Diccionario marítimo inglés-español y español-inglés. Cádiz: Fragata. Chérel, A., and Pierre Soymier. 1955. El inglés sin esfuerzo: método diario Assimil. Madrid: Assimil.

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Delière, Jacques. 1968. Voix et images de France: Cours audio-visuel de français. Paris: Didier. Dixon, F. G. 1905. Método de inglés: curso práctico. Barcelona: Editorial Massé. FTD. 1930. Método de inglés. Primer grado. Barcelona: Editorial FTD. Gaballi, Prat. 1963. Diccionario de términos comerciales inglés-americano-español. Barcelona: Editorial Hispano Europea. Girau Lewis, Th. 1921. Método de inglés. Obra basada en procedimientos esencialmente prácticos y al alcance de todas las inteligencias. Barcelona: Magister. Hornby, Albert Sydney. 1942. Idiomatic and Syntactic English Dictionary. Tokyo: Institute for Research in Language Teaching. Hornby, A. S., H. Wakefield, and E. V. Gatenby. 1948. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford University Press. Kucera, Enrique. 19-?. Método Kucera inglés, primer curso o curso preparatorio. Barcelona: Editorial Kucera. López Hipkiss, Guillermo. 1935. Las dificultades del idioma inglés. Complemento de gramática y diccionario ingleses. Barcelona: Ediciones Hymsa. Lloyd James, Arthur. 193-?. Linguaphone Conversational Course. English. London: Linguaphone Institute. Mackliff, Modesto. 1964. Método Mackliff de inglés. Ecuador and Barcelona: Autor. Madariaga, Luis. 1968. Diccionario de fotografía y cine. Términos técnicos empleados en fotografía y cinematografía, con un vocabulario de más de 2100 voces en inglésespañol. Madrid: Tesoro. Marinus Jenson, Arthur. 195-? Inglés por el método natural. Barcelona: Instituto del Método Natural Internacional. Martín Genevieve A. y Adolfo Alfaro. 1965. Living English, a complete English course. El ingles viviente, un curso complete par alas personas de habla española. Barcelona: Idiomas Vivientes, S. A. Massé, Raoul. 1923. Método práctico de inglés. Método Massé-Dixon. Barcelona: Escuela Massé. Mataix Lorda, Mariano. 1969. Diccionario de electrónica y energía nuclear inglésespañol. Barcelona: Danae. Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale. 1959. Français fundamental (1er degré, 2e degré). Paris: Institut Pédagogique National. Orellana Silva, Ernesto. 1967. Diccionario inglés-español de ciencias de la Tierra. Madrid: Interciencia. Palmer, H. E., M. P. West, and L. Faucett. 1936. Interim report on vocabulary selection for the teaching of English as a foreign language. London: P. S. King & Son. Piraux, Henry. 1966. Diccionario Español-Inglés de la terminología relativa a eletrotecnia y electrónica. Barcelona: Técnicos Asociados.

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155

Porter, Cecil C. 19-?. El inglés sin dificultades. Barcelona: Imprenta Elzeviriana y Librería Carní, S. A. Ruiz Torres, Francisco. 1965. Diccionario inglés-español y español-inglés de medicina. Madrid: Alhambra. Simian, A. J. 1924. English. First Book. Madrid: Viuda de Miguel Sanchís. Snagge, John, David Lloyd, and Audrey Russell.1961. Linguaphone English travel course. London: Linguaphone Institute. Torner Soler, Román. 1945. Curso completo de lengua inglesa. Barcelona: Alma Mater. Varela Colmeiro, G. 1964. Diccionario comercial y económico moderno inglés-español. Madrid: Interciencia. Velázquez de la Cadena, Mariano. 1852. A Pronouncing Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages. New York: Appleton. Weis Ballesteros, Luis. 1966. Diccionario electromecánico Inglés-Español. Madrid: Artes Gráficas Reyes. West, Michel. 1926. The new method readers (new series) for teaching English Reading to foreign children. Calcutta: Longmans, Green. ———. 1953. A General Service List of English Words, with Semantic Frequencies and a Supplementary Word-List for the Writing of Popular Science and Technology. London: Longmans, Green.

Secondary sources Adolfo Iglesias, Javier. 2014. Juan & John: el profesor y Lennon en Almería para siempre. Almería: Editorial Círculo Rojo. Aron, Pierre. A. Picard, Denise Courette, François Louriou, and R. Denis.1954. ‘A propos de l’étude des langues vivantes’. In Cahiers Péedagogiques pour l’Enseignement du Second Degré 10, no. 2: 140-147. Bond, Otto Ferdinand. 1953. The Reading Method. An experiment in college french. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Castillejo Duarte, José. 1919. La educación en Inglaterra. Madrid: Ediciones de la Lectura. Denis, R. 1954. ‘Les auxiliaires audio-visuels’. Cahiers Pédagogiques pour l’Enseignement du Second Degré. 10è année, 2, 144-147. Escriche y Mieg, and Celestino Tomás. 1882. ‘La enseñanza de las lenguas’. In Revista Contemporánea, 41, 5-30. hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0002388312&s earch=&lang:ca. Accessed 11 June 2017. Fernández Menéndez, María Antonia. 2012. ‘La lengua inglesa y su profesorado en la legislación educativa de segunda enseñanza y de estudios mercantiles, 1836-1953’. Tonos Digital 22. http://www.tonosdigital.es/ojs/index.php/tonos/ article/view/738.Accessed 14 February 2017.

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Fries, Charles C. 1945. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. Rexdale: The University Press. García Bascuñana, Juan F., ed. 2016. Diccionario de la historia de la enseñanza del francés en España (siglos XVI-XX). www.grelinap.recerca.urv.cat/projectes/ diccionario-historia-ensenanza-frances-espana/es_index/. Accessed 16 December 2017. Grandía Mateu, Luis. 1964. ‘El Consejo de Europa abre nuevos derroteros en la enseñanza de las lenguas modernas en los países occidentales’. Revista de Enseñanza Media 141-144: 1369-1378. Green, Jonathon. 1996. Chasing the Sun. Dictionary-Makers and the Dictionaries they Made. London: Jonathan Cape. Hornby, Albert Sydney. 1950. ‘The Situational Approach in Language Teaching’. ELT Journal4, no. 4: 98-103. Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Howatt, A. P. R. with H. G. Widdowson.2004. A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Infante Díaz, Jorge. 2013. ‘La crisis de los estudios de comercio en España (1953-1970)’. Historia de la Educación: Revista interuniversitaria 32: 243-264. http://campus. usal.es/~revistas_trabajo/index.php/0212-0267/article/view/11292/11710. Accessed 28 September 2017. Lorenzo, Emilio. 1995. El anglicismo en la España de hoy. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. Merino Rubio, Waldo. 1955. ‘El empleo de aparatos y métodos fonoauditivos para la enseñanza en el Instituto de Enseñanza Media ‘Juan de Encina’, de León’. Revista de Educación 35-36: 156-160. Monterrey, Tomás. 2003. ‘Los estudios ingleses en España (1900-1950): legislación curricular’. In Atlantis 25, 1, 63-80. Palacios Bañuelos, Luis. 1988. Instituto-Escuela: historia de una renovación educativa. Madrid: Centro de Publicaciones del Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. Palaudarias Martí, Artur. 2010. Historia del Instituto de Estudios Norteamericanos de Barcelona (1951-62). Barcelona: Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona. http://hdl.handle.net/2445/24082. Accessed 13 January 2018. Palmer, Harold E. 1917. Scientific Study and Teaching of Languages. London: George G. Harrap. ———. 1921. The Oral Method of Teaching Languages: A Monograph on Conversational Methods. Cambridge: W. Heffer. ———. 1921. The Principles of Language-Study. London: Harrap. Palmer, Harold E, and Dorothee Palmer. 1925. English Through Actions. Tokyo: Kaitakusha.

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Rius, Dalmau, María Inmaculada. 2007. La enseñanza de las lenguas modernas: una importante labor de la ILE’. Boletín de la Institución Libre de Enseñanza 68: 55-65. Santoyo, Julio-César, and Pedro Guardia. 1982. Treinta años de filología inglesa en la Universidad española (1952-1982). Madrid: Alhambra. Smith, Richard C. 1999. The Writings of Harold E. Palmer: An Overview. Tokyo: Honno-Tomosha. Stern, H. H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP. Titone, Renzo. 1968. Teaching Foreign Languages: An Historical Sketch. Washington, Georgetown University Press. West, Michael Philip, ed. 1953. General Service List of English Words. London: Longmans, Green.

Other sources Educational Legislation Royal Decree of 23 November 1900. Royal Order of 11 January 1907. Royal Order of 1 January 1911. Royal Order of 15 January 1912. Royal Decree of 18 February 1927. Royal Order of 4 March 1927. Decree of 15 September 1931. General Law on Education 14/1970 of 4 August.

Commercial studies legislation Decree of 23 July 1953.

Historical press La Vanguardia, 18 January 1911 El Imparcial, 27 October 1928 La Publicitat, 7 February 1929 La Vanguardia, 21 November 1929 Catalunya Social, 17 September 1932

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Online sources The Walter Mangold Fund Trust (http://www.mangoldtrust.org.au/). EF English Proficiency Index (https://www.ef.com/ca/epi/). Warwick ELT Archive: Hall of Fame (https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/research/ collections/elt_archive/halloffame/west/life).



Appendix I

A chronological corpus of English manuals published in Spain between 1769 and 1970 1769

1784

1784

1794

1797

1798

San Pedro, Joaquín de: Gramática inglesa, y española: Unico arte para aprender el idioma inglés, colegida de las mejores gramáticas de la Europa. Madrid: Imprenta de Joseph Francisco Martínez Abad. Connelly, Thomas: Gramática que contiene reglas faciles para pronunciar, y aprender metódicamente la lengua inglesa, con muchas observaciones, y notas críticas de los más célebres autores puramente ingleses, especialmente de Lowth, Priestley, y Trinder. Compuesta Por el P. Fr. Thomás Connelly, religioso y dominico, y confesor de la familia de S.M.C. Madrid: Imprenta Real. Steffan, Juan: Gramatica inglesa, y castellana o Arte metodico y nuevo para aprender con facilidad el idioma ingles. Valencia: en la Fundición, é Imprenta de D. Manuel Peleguer. Jovellanos, Melchor Gaspar de: ‘Rudimentos de lengua inglesa’. In Venceslao de Linares y Pacheco. Obras del Excelentísimo señor D. Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos. Barcelona: Imprenta de D. Francisco Oliva. 1840. Connelly, Thomas and Higgins, Thomas: Diccionario nuevo de las dos lenguas española é inglesa, inglesa y española, que contiene las significaciones de sus voces, con sus diferentes usos, los términos de artes, ciencias y oficios; las construcciones, idiomas y proverbios que se usan en cada una de ellas: Todo extractado de sus mejores autores, y considerablemente aumentado por… Parte segunda que contiene el Inglés antes del Castellano. Madrid: Imprenta Real. Connelly, Thomas and Higgins, Thomas: Diccionario nuevo de las dos lenguas española é inglesa, inglesa y española, que contiene las significaciones de sus voces, con sus diferentes usos, los términos de artes, ciencias y oficios; las construcciones, idiomas y proverbios que se usan en cada una de ellas: Todo extractado de sus

160 

1799

1803

1804

1810 1813

1815 1819 1820 1821

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mejores autores, y considerablemente aumentado por… Parte primera que contiene el Castellano antes del Inglés. Madrid: Imprenta Real. Torres de Navarra, Joseph González: Ensayo práctico de simplificar el estudio de las lenguas escritas, verificado sobre la inglesa para exemplo de todas las demás. Madrid: Imprenta Real. Gattel, Claude Marie: Nuevo diccionario portátil Español é Inglés, compuesto segun los mejores diccionarios que hasta ahora han salido a luz en ambas naciones. Valencia: P. J. Mallen y Ca. Frutos, Josef de: Diccionario manual de voces necesarias para el trato común en las cinco lenguas Española, Italiana, Francesa, Inglesa y Latina. Para facilitar eluso de ellas a los que las aprenden. Madrid: Imprenta de Gomez Fuentenebro y Compañía. Shipton, Jorge: Gramática para enseñar la lengua inglesa. Cádiz: D. Manuel Ximenez Carreño. Casey, William: Principios de ortología inglesa ó Principios de Pronunciación inglesa. Dedícalos á la juventud española.1 Mahón: En la Imprenta de Pedro Antonio Serra. Faria y Camargo, Joaquín: Gramática inglesa. Madrid: Imprenta del Colegio Nacional de Sordo-Mudos y Ciegos. Casey Moore, Guillermo: Gramática inglesa para uso de los españoles. Barcelona: Juan Francisco Piferrer, Impresor de S. M. Ruiz, Manuel G. J.: Compendio de gramática inglesa o Método fácil para aprender los españoles esta lengua con propiedad. San Sebastián: Imprenta de Ignacio Ramón. D. P. D. L. (or P. D. L., unknown author): Gramática inglesa. Método práctico simplificado para aprender por sí solo, y en poco tiempo, á pronunciar el idioma Inglés, y á traducirlo al Español. Segunda edición corregida

1 The book bears no author’s name, only an anonymous reference: Un Mahonés. However, everything indicates that Casey himself was the writer of this booklet considering he moved from Barcelona to the island of Maó during the Peninsular War (1808-1814) and that he had been working as an English teacher there.

161

Appendix I

1821

1828

1829 1829 1831

1834

con esmero y aumentada con mil cuatro cientas voces. Oviedo: Oficina de Pedregal y C. Feraud, Francisco G.: Gramática anglo-española en 4 partes. 1ª Trata de la ortografía y alfabeto Inglés, con su verdadero método de pronunciar esta lengua. 2ª La etimología, con ejemplos apropiados á cada parte de la oración. 3ª La sintaxis, que contiene todas las reglas de la gramática inglesa, comparadas con la castellana. 4. Trata de la prosodia, versificación, puntuación y de las figuras de esta lengua, con un vocabulario alfabético mercantil & con frases idiomáticas. Bilbao: D. Pedro Antonio Apraiz. Casey, William: A new English version of the lives of Cornelius Nepos from the original Latin, embellished with cuts, and numerical references to English syntax by way of facilitating the difficulties of this tongue to Spanish learners, with directions for knowing and translating the English compound verbs, to which is added an alphabetical table in English and Spanish of all the proper names of persons and places throughout the work. Barcelona: For John Francis Piferrer, One of His Majesty’s Printers. Fábregas, Sebastian: Método para aprender a leer el inglés por reglas, tanto en prosa como en verso. Madrid: Imprenta de D. José María Repullés. Fábregas, Sebastian: Método para aprender á leer el Inglés por reglas, tanto en prosa como en verso. Madrid: Imprenta de Repullés. Navarrete, Martín Fernández de [O’Scanlan, Timoteo]: Diccionario marítimo Español, que además de las definiciones de las voces con sus equivalentes en frances, ingles e italiano, contiene tres vocabularios de estos idiomas con las correspondientes castellanas. Redactado por orden del Rey nuestro señor. Madrid: Imprenta Real. Magawly de Calry, María Teresa: Nuevo método para aprender el inglés, fundado en la naturaleza de este idioma y en las reglas de su gramática. Y combinado con los principios del sistema de enseñanza mútua. Facilitando su estudio á los niños desde la edad mas tierna, y mui útil para todos. Dividido en tres partes.

162 

1835

1836

1837

1837 1837

T wo Centuries of English L anguage Teaching and Learning in Spain

Cádiz: Imprenta de D. Domingo Feros, (A cargo de D. J. A. Pantoja). Casey, Guillermo / William: The Anglo-Hispano interpreter, or a practical treatise on the English and Spanish languages, calculated for the respective use of both nations, in four parts. Containing: 1. A copious vocabulary of words most commonly occurring in familiar discourse. 2. A large collection of dialogues on various subjects and habitual circumstances of human life. 3. A series of idiomatic expressions, adages and proverbial sayings with their accurate equivalence in both languages. 4. Specimens of epistolary style on a variety of useful and entertainingmatters: mercantile correspondence, or letters on all sorts of commercial transactions, together with precedents of bills of lading, invoices, accounts-current, accounts of insurance, bills of exchange, promissory notes, receipts and endorsements. To which is added an appendix exhibiting historical, oratorical, allegorical and poetical extracts from the most renowned English and Spanish writers, designed to exercise the learner in reading and translation. Barcelona: Francis Oliva. Borràs, José: Diccionario citador de máximas, Proverbios, frases y sentencias escogidas de los autores clásicos, latinos, franceses, ingleses é italianos. Barcelona: Imprenta de Indar. Ainsa Royo, Manuel: Gramática práctica, para hablar, leer y escribir por principios gramaticales los idiomas Castellano, inglés, francés e italiano. Sinnecesidad de maestros. Para uso de los españoles. Barcelona: Imprenta de Valentin Torras. Ainsa Royo, Manuel: Nuevo vocabulario de los idiomas modernos: español, inglés, francés e italiano. Barcelona: Imprenta de Miguel Borrás. Casey, William: Bellezas del Telémaco ó Recopilación selecta de mácsimas morales y Políticas en Español, Francés, Inglés é Italiano.Por el autor de la Nueva y completa gramática inglesa para uso de los españoles, del Intérprete Anglo-Hispano y de otras obras elementales. Barcelona: Imprenta de Miguel Borrás.

163

Appendix I

1839 1840

1841

1842

1843

1845

1845

1846 1846 1847

Fábregas, Sebastián: Gramática inglesa para uso de los españoles. Madrid: Imprenta de D. José María Repollés. Bergnes de las Casas, Antonio: Crestomatia inglesa, ó sea selectas de los escritores mas eminentes de la Gran Bretaña, Asi en verso como en prosa, empezando por lo mas fácil y pasando de este progresivamente a lo mas difícil; con análisis gramatical y filológico, al principio palabra por palabra y mas adelante en las construcciones peculiares de la lengua inglesa y sus idiotismos. Barcelona: Imprenta de A. Bergnes. O’Crowley, Pedro Alonso: El Spelling book ilustrado, con reglas fijas, claras y sencillas para leer en Ingles; al que sirve de testo la bien conocida cartilla deLindley Murray. El testo está tomado de la XLIII edición del espresado Spelling-Book. Cádiz: Imprenta de la Revista Médica. Ochoa y Montel, Eugenio de: Guía de la conversación Español-Francés-Italiano-Inglés al uso de los viajeros y los estudiantes. Paris: Carlos Hingray; Madrid: Casimiro Monier. Moradillo, Manuel de: Método práctico, analítico, teórico y sintético de la lengua inglesa. A imitación del sistema de T. Robertson. San Sebastián: Imprenta de Ignacio Ramón Baroja. Bergnes de las Casas, Antonio: Nueva gramática inglesa, en la que se explican todas las dificultades de esta lengua; compuesta con presencia de las mejores gramáticas inglesas publicadas hasta el día. Barcelona: Establecimiento Tipográfico a cargo de D. Juan Oliveres. Urcullu, José: Gramática inglesa, reducida á veinte y siete lecciones. Nueva edición considerablemente aumentada y corregida por su autor Don José de Urcullu. Cádiz: Imprenta, Librería y Litografía de la Sociedad de la Revista Médica, á cargo de D. Vicente Caruana. Faria y Camargo, Joaquín: Frases selectas en Prosa y verso precedidos de un tratado sobre las Partículas inglesas. Madrid: D. José Redondo Calleja. Soler, Julio: Nuevo método para aprender el idioma inglés. Tomo I. Barcelona: Librería Española. Piferrer, Francisco: El idioma inglés puesto al alcance de todos. Método natural para aprender el inglés de un

164 

1848 1849

1849 1851

1851

1852

T wo Centuries of English L anguage Teaching and Learning in Spain

modo fácil y agradable sin cansar la memoria. Madrid: Librería Casimiro. Piferrer, Francisco: Tratado completo de los verbos ingleses. Seguido de un compendio de gramática inglesa. Madrid: Imprenta de D. José Repullés. Casey Moore, Guillermo: A critical pronouncing dictionary of the English language Adapted to the use of Spanish learners desirous of acquiring the genuine pronunciation of this tongue, wherein are accented, divided and syllabically pronounced all the words in English, according to the systems of Walker, Sheridan and other English lexicographers. Preceded by euphonical schemes of the several sounds of the vowels, diphtongs, triphtongs, mute letters, etc. without any need of what is falsely called “Figurative Pronunciation”. Barcelona: Imprenta de V. Torras y J. Corominas. Martínez Espinosa y Tacón, Juan José: Diccionario marino Español-Inglés é Inglés-Español para el uso del Colegio Naval. Madrid: Imprenta de J. Martin Alegría. Benot, Eduardo: Nuevo método del Dr. Ollendorff para aprender à leer, hablar y escribir una lengua cualquiera. Adaptado al inglés por Eduardo Benot. Obra calculada para aprender este idioma en seis meses, seguida de un apéndice, y acompañada, en volumen separado, de la clave de los temas y de un diccionario que por el órden de lecciones contiene todas las palabras y frases enseñadas en el testo, y la indicación de su prosodia. Revisada la parte inglesa por George Knowles Shaw. Cádiz: Imprenta, Librería y Litografía de la Revista Médica, Á cargo de D. Juan B. de Gaona. Benot, Eduardo: Nuevo método del Dr. Ollendorff para aprender á leer, hablar y escribir una lengua cualquiera. adaptado al inglés por Eduardo Benot. Clave de los temas. Cádiz: Imprenta, Librería y Litografía de la Revista Médica, Á cargo de D. Juan B. de Gaona. Piferrer, Francisco: El idioma inglés puesto al alcance de todos. Método natural para aprender el inglés de un modo fácil y agradable sin cansar la memoria aumentada y corregida por el autor. Madrid: José Repullés. 2ª ed.

Appendix I

1852 1853 1854

1857

1858

1858

1858

165

Piferrer, Francisco: Tratado práctico-teórico de la sintaxis inglesa para uso de los españoles. Madrid: Despacho de libros de la calle de Preciados. Pardal, Ochoa, Richard, Corona y Sadler: Guía (novísima) de conversaciones modernas en Español y en Inglés. Madrid: Carlos Bailly-Bailliere. Mountifield, William: Novísimo metodo teorico, practico, analitico y sintetico de lengua inglesa, uno de los mas completos que se han publicado hasta el dia. Para aprender sin cansar la memoria á traducir, hablar y escribir esta lengua en 70 dias. Madrid: Imprenta de Antonio Martínez. 2ª ed. Mac Veigh, Enrique: The British classbook ó Lecciones de literatura inglesa, Precedidas de un compendio gramatical, con reglas y clave de pronunciación, y acompañadas de un vocabulario al pié (sic) de cada página. Madrid: Alejandro Gómez Fuentenebro. Note: Page 1 provides a new title page with the following title Introducción á la lectura y traducción de la lengua inglesa, bearing the same printing place and year. Velázquez de la Cadena, Mariano: A pronouncing dictionary of the Spanish and English languages: Composed from the Spanish dictionaries of the Spanish Academy, Terreros, and Salvá, upon the basis of Seoane’s edition of Neuman and Baretti, and From the English Dictionaries Webster, Worcester, and Walker: with the addition of more than eight thousand words, idioms, and familiar phrases, the irregularities of all the verbs, and a grammatical synopsis of both languages, also a supplement of nautical terms. In two Parts, I. Spanish-English, II. English-Spanish. Top title page: Seoane’s Neuman and Baretti—By Velazquez. Cádiz: Imprenta de la Revista Medica. Brown, John George: Gramática española: Sistema teórico-práctico por un nuevo método, modificación del Doctor Ollendorff. Barcelona: Librería de El Plus Ultra, Imprenta de Luis Tasso; Madrid: Librería de San Martín. Cuendias, Manuel Galo: Curso de lengua inglesa. Madrid: Imprenta de Julián Peña, Impresor del Ministerio de Fomento.

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1859 1859 1860

1861

1864

1864

1865 1865

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Alcober y Largo, Vicente: Traducción gradual del Inglés. Murcia: Anselmo Arques. Soler, Julio: Nuevo método para aprender los idiomas francés, italiano é inglés. Mahon: Juan Fábregas y Pascual. Alcober y Largo, Vicente: Compendio de la lengua inglesa en tres partes: 1ª La gramática, ó sea un extracto del método lexiológico y hermenéutico fundado en la etimología, analogía y onomatopeya. 2ª Un vocabulario de pronunciación figurada. 3ª Un programa ó cuestionario para los exámenes de inglés. Murcia: Imprenta de Anselmo Arques. Bordas, Luis: Método para aprender á traducir del Inglés al Castellano sin necesidad de maestro. Redactado para uso de los españoles por Mr. Sadrobsíul [Luis Bordas]. Barcelona: Imprenta y Librería Politécnica de Tomás Gorchs. Bergnes de las Casas, Antonio: Novísima Gramática Inglesa en la que se explican todas las dificultades de la lengua por D. Antonio Bergnes de las Casas, NuevaEdición considerablemente mejorada, y aumentada con temas ó ejercicios y vocabularios aplicables á las diversas reglas, así en la analogía como en la sintáxis, para lo cual se han tenido presente todas las gramáticas inglesas publicadas hasta el dia, incluso la de G. H. Ollendorff. Con la clave de los temas por separado. Barcelona: Librería de D. Juan Oliveres, Editor, Impresor de S. M. Lorenzo, José de; Murga, Gonzalo de; Ferreiro y Peralto, Martín: Diccionario marítimo español, que además de las voces de navegación y maniobra en los buques de vela, contiene las equivalencias en francés, inglés e italiano. Y las más usadas en los buques de vapor, formado con presencia de los mejores datos publicados hasta el día. Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de T. Fortanet. Braun, J. J.: Nueva gramática inglesa. Curso teórico práctico. Madrid: Librería de A. Duran. Díaz-Peña y Kearsing, Hernando: Método para aprender con facilidad y en poco tiempo la lengua inglesa. Con esplicaciones claras y sencillas de todas las partes de la oración, ilustradas con copiosos ejemplos. Al alcance

Appendix I

1868 186? 1872

1874 1875

1875

1877

1877

1878

167

de todas las inteligencias. Barcelona: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Ramirez. Cornellas, Clemente: Gramática inglesa teórico-práctica para el uso de los españoles. Madrid: Librería de la Publicidad. 4ª ed. Braim, F. J.: Nueva gramática inglesa, curso teórico-práctico.2 Reynal y Noguera, Lorenzo: Método Ollendorff adaptado á la correspondencia mercantil española-inglesa. Con una colección de modelos prácticos comentados y anotados. Y el sistema monetario, pesas y medidas de la Gran Bretaña. Tarragona: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Tort y Cusidó. Schütze, Francisco: Gramática teórico-práctica de la lengua inglesa. Barcelona: Imprenta de Tomas Gorchs. Hudson-Montague, G.: Vademecun ó el Compañero indispensable del estudiante y viajero español para el estudio del idioma inglés. Manual de conversación fácil. Vol. I.-Manual de Conversación; Vol II.-Pronunciación y Gramática. Barcelona: Librería Mayol. Reynal y Noguera, Lorenzo: Sinópsis de la lengua inglesa con la pronunciación figurada según los mejores autores ingleses Dr. Johnson, Walker, Sheridan. Tarragona: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Tort y Cusidó. Hudson-Montague, G.: El Lector Inglés, ó Lecturas Graduadas de Trozos Selectos de la Literatura Clásica Inglesa. Método Práctico, Enteramente Nuevo, para Aprender á Deletrear, Acentuar, Pronunciar y Leer la Lengua Inglesa. Barcelona: Librería de A. Verdaguer. Shaw, John: Nuevo curso teórico práctico de idioma inglés, dado en el Ateneo Científico y Literario de Madrid en el año académico de 1876 á 1877. Madrid: Imprenta de Alejandro Gomez Fuentenebro. Cañada y Gisbert, Antonio: Diccionario tecnológico inglés-español. Comprendiendo más de 16.000 voces y frases técnicas, correspondientes á las artes, ciencias, indústria, etc. Y principalmente al ejército, industria

2 No further information has been accessible. The only reference to this work appears in La Correspondencia de España (12 Agosto 1868, p. 4) as one of the three works recommended for secondary schooling by the Spanish government.

168 

187? 188? 1880

1881

1881 1881

1883

1883 1883 1884

1884

T wo Centuries of English L anguage Teaching and Learning in Spain

militar y material de artillería. Segovia: Imprenta de P. Ondero. Reynal, Lorenzo: Breve y razonado metodo para el estudio de la lengua inglesa. Tarragona: José Antonio Nel-lo. Zubiría, José María de: El corresponsal Inglés. Manual de correspondencia mercantil dedicada a las Escuelas de Comercio. Madrid: Fernando Fé; Bilbao: Viuda de Delmas. Garcia Ayuso, Francisco: Gramática inglesa. Método teórico-práctico para aprender á hablar este idioma. Con un catecismo gramatical en inglés, para aprender á hablar este idioma. Madrid: Academia de Lenguas, Imprenta, estereotipia y galvanoplastia de Aribau y Ca. Corzanego, Antonio: Gramática inglesa: método filosófico-sintético-práctico. Edición corregida con conciencia durante la práctica de 35 años. Valencia: Imprenta de Domenech. Martín Peña, Eduardo: Colección de trozos escogidos: Prosa y verso: lengua inglesa. Madrid: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Gregorio Juste. Reynal y Noguera, Lorenzo: Estudios comparativos sobre la construcción, régimen y concordancia de las lenguas española e inglesa. Tarragona: Imprenta de Puigrubí y Aris. García Ayuso, Francisco: Libro de lectura inglesa ó Colección de obras y Piezas de los mejores clásicos en Prosa y verso ordenadas y anotadas. Madrid: Academia de Lenguas. Martín-Peña, Eduardo: Gramática inglesa: Método teórico-práctico. Madrid: Imprenta de Gregorio Juste. Rode, Enrique: El moderno Ollendorff inglés intuitivo o Método teórico-práctico para aprender con facilidad y perfección la lengua inglesa. Madrid: Imprenta J. García. MacVeigh, Henry: Método de Ahn. Curso de inglés arreglado al castellano.Por el profesor H. MacVeigh. Precedido de reglas y ejercicios de lectura, y seguido de un apéndice gramatical, con listas de voces, diálogos, etc. Madrid: Carlos Bailly-Bailliere. Librería Extranjera y Nacional, Científica y Literaria. 7ª ed. Reynal y Noguera, Lorenzo: Programa para la asignatura de “Lengua Inglesa”.En los Estudios Generales de

169

Appendix I

1885 1886

1886

1886 1887 1887/8

1891 1891 1892 1893 1894

Segunda Enseñanza, y en los de Aplicación al Comercio. Tarragona: Imp. De F. Arís é Hijo. Blasco Amigó, Manuel: Gramática inglesa. Método teórico-práctico. Coruña: Establecimiento Tipográfico de la “Voz de Galicia”. Bosch y Bonet, Jaime: Método para aprender el inglés teórico y práctico para uso de los españoles con la pronunciación figurada. Palma: Tipografía de Viuda e Hijos de J. Gelabert. Gabarró, Bartolomé: Gramática pentáglota para aprender el castellano, catalán, italiano, francés é inglés con numerosos temas en todos estos cinco idiomas. Escrita expresamente para las escuelas de la confederación española, ateneos, colegios, institutos, hombres de estudio, viajantes, aficionados y comercio. Barcelona: Imprenta de Redondo y Xumetra. Zubiria, José María de: El traductor inglés. Bilbao: Viuda de Delmas. 3rd ed. Lahme V. Schutz, Enrique: Gramática inglesa. Madrid: Enrique Rubiños. Clairac Y Sáenz, Pelayo: Diccionario general de arquitectura é ingeniería. Que comprende todas las voces y locuciones castellanas, tanto antiguas como modernas, usadas en las diversas artes de la construcción, con sus etimologías, citas de autoridades, historia, datos prácticos y sus equivalencias en francés, inglés é italiano. 5 vol. Madrid: Talleres de impresión y reproducción de Zaragozano y Jaime. Vega y Muñoz, Miguel de: Elementos de lengua inglesa. Sevilla: Gironés y Orduña. Zubiría, José María de: Compendio bilingüe de gramática inglesa. Madrid: Imprenta de Fernando Fé; Bilbao: Viuda Delmas. Blasco Amigó, Manuel: Traductor de Inglés. Barcelona: Luis Tasso. García Gutiérrez, Agustín: Programa de lengua inglesa, primero, segundo y tercer curso. Cádiz: Imprenta de la Revista Médica de D. Federico Joly. García Gutiérrez, Agustín: English and spanish commercial vocabulary. Four-hundred terms and principal

170 

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abreviatures. Cádiz: Imprenta de la Revista Médica, de D. Federico Joly. Benot, Eduardo: Versiones inglesas ó Arte de traducir el 1895 Inglés. Madrid: Librería de la Viuda de Hernando y C. 1896 Constansó y Vila, Pedro: Gramática inglesa: con un tratado completo de conversación. Barcelona: Imprenta y librería de Montserrat. Huelín y Arssu, Carlos: Compendio de gramática 1896 inglesa. Madrid: Librería de Fernando Fé. Terry y Rivas, Antonio: Diccionario marítimo Inglés1896 Español y vocabulario marítimo Español-Inglés. Obra útil para las marinas militar y mercante, cónsules, armadores, consignatarios, maquinistas navales, agentes comerciales, sociedades de seguros, etc. etc. Madrid: Imprenta del Ministerio de Marina. Otto, Emilio and Kordigen, Gustavo: Gramática sucinta 1898 de la lengua inglesa: acompañada de numerosos ejercicios de traducción y lectura. Madrid: Romo y Füssel; Heidelberg, Julio Groos. 3ª ed. Terry y Rivas, Antonio: Diccionario de los términos y 1899 frases de marina: español-francés-inglés: obra útil para las marinas militar y mercante, cónsules, armadores, consignatarios, maquinistas navales, agentes comerciales, sociedades de seguros, etc. Madrid: Imprenta del Ministerio de Marina. Frost Bailly, Antonio: New guide to modern conversatios 18?? in Spanish and English / Nueva guía de conversaciones modernas en Español é Inglés. Madrid: Casa Editorial Bailly-Bailliere. 189?/190? Domenech, Estanislao: Gramática inglesa. Barcelona: Librería y Tipografía Católica de Hijo de Miguel Casals. 189?/190? Doppelheim, Dr.: Los idiomas al alcance de los niños: Inglés. Con más de 600 grabados que representan las cosas más usuales de la vida, con la pronunciación figurada y un vocabulario de cerca de 2000 voces. Barcelona: Casa Editorial Sopena. 1900 Rieu-Vernet, A.: A modern method of teaching modern languages. Madrid: Arahuetes-Villoria.

Appendix I

1901 1903 1903? 1904 1904

1904 1905 1906 1906

1907 1907 1907

1908

171

Méndez Bejarano, Mario: Gramática inglesa teóricopráctica con notas históricas y lexicológicas. Madrid: Estudio Tipográfico De la Viuda é Hijos de M. Tello. Digny de Cambray, Alister: Gramática inglesa. Las Palmas: Tipografía de Domingo Solís y Lorenzo. Runge, Enrique. Nuevo diccionario de bolsillo inglésespañol y español-inglés. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili. Casadesús (Vila), José: Estudio del idioma inglés: gramática, complementos, ejercicios, diálogos, florilegio, programa. Barcelona: Imprenta y Litografía de José Cunill Sala. Casadesús (Vila), José. El inglés en tres cursos: nuevos métodos para aprender inglés en tres meses. Primer curso: traducción; Segundo curso: conversación; Gramática: curso tercero. Barcelona: Sopena. Connor, James: Manual de conversación inglés-español para uso de viajeros y de aplicación en las escuelas. Madrid: Romo y Füssel, Librería Nacional y Extranjera. Dixon, F. G. : Método de inglés: curso práctico. Barcelona: Editorial Massé. Meca Tudela, J.: Gramática práctica de la lengua inglesa con la pronunciación figurada de todas las palabras. Barcelona: Toribio Taberner. Schlomann, Alfred: Diccionario técnico ilustrado en seis lenguas: español, alemán, inglés, francés, ruso e italiano. Barcelona: Librería Nacional y Extranjera; Münich: Oldenburg Verlag. Gil Juste, Germán: Vocabulario militar español-inglés e inglés-español. Madrid: El Trabajo. González Bermúdez, Juan. Fairhill: Curso rápido de idioma inglés y rapsodia literaria. Vigo: Imprenta y Librería Ramón S. Fernández. Mac Connell, C. J. : Novísima gramática simplificada de la lengua inglesa. Curso completo gradual ordenado en lecciones teórico-prácticas. Madrid: Librería de Fernando Fé; Londres: Librería de David Nutt. Butlin, C. A. : Nuevo método para aprender á leer, escribir y hablar inglés con vocabularios de las palabras inglesas. Barcelona: Tipografía Seix.

172 

1908 1908 1909

1909?

1910 1910

1910 1910? 1911 1911 1912 1912 1912 1912

T wo Centuries of English L anguage Teaching and Learning in Spain

González Cobos, Ignacio: Elementos de lengua inglesa: Gramática, ejercicios de traducción, trozos de lectura, etc. Salamanca: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Calatrava. González Cobos, Ignacio: A modern method of teaching moder languages. First book. Zaragoza: Manuel Sevilla. González Cobos, Ignacio: Gramática sucinta de la lengua inglesa acompañada de numerosos ejercicios de traducción y lectura. Barcelona: Herder; Heidelberg: Julio Groos. Pérez García, Mauricio y Alfredo Martínez Leal: Morris-Alfred: Método teórico-práctico para la enseñanza del inglés. Toledo: Imp. y Lib. de la Viuda é Hijos de J. Peláez. James, John: Lengua inglesa. Reglas razonadas para hablar, escribir y traducir con facilidad y corrección el inglés. Barcelona: Herederos de Juan Gili. Pérez Gutiérrez, Clodomiro y H. Plate-Kares: Método natural del Dr. Rodolfo Dogenhart para aprender la lengua inglesa acomodada al uso de los estudiantes españoles del original en alemán. Santander: Imprenta La Propaganda Católica. Reyes Rodríguez, Rafael: Gramática sucinta de lengua inglesa. Sistema Otto. Madrid: Sucesores de Hernando. Deinhardt, C. Diccionario técnico ilustrado en seis lenguas: español, alemán, inglés, francés, ruso e italiano. Barcelona: Librería Nacional y Extranjera. James, John: Lengua inglesa: reglas razonadas para hablar, escribir y traducir con facilidad y corrección el inglés. Barcelona: Herederos de Juan Gili. Reyes Rodríguez, Rafael: El traductor de inglés. Oviedo: Uria Hermanos. Blanchard Plasencia, Antonio: Método para el estudio del inglés con pronunciación figurada. Primer curso. Santander: Imprenta de R. G. Arce. Cándido, M. : Curso de inglés para niños. Método práctico y fácil. Barcelona: B. Herder. Domenech, Estanislao: Gramática inglesa. Barcelona: Tipografía Católica. Marquínez Isasi, Salvador: El idioma inglés. Método práctico gramatical. Zaragoza: Imprenta Heraldo de Aragón.

173

Appendix I

1912 1913 1914 1914 1914? 1915 1915

1916 1916 1916

1917 1917 1917 1917

Pal.las: Diccionario enciclopédico manual en cinco idiomas: español, francés, inglés, alemán e italiano. Barcelona: Librería de Francisco Sintes. Bruño, G(abriel) M(aría): Método intuitivo de lengua inglesa hablada. Madrid; Santander: Viuda de F. Tours. Anónimo: Método para el estudio de idiomas: Inglés. Conversación, método I. C. S. Madrid: Centro Internacional de Enseñanza. Aliaga Romagosa, Joaquín: Gramática inglesa. Valencia: Domenech. Casares (Sánchez), Julio. Novísimo diccionario inglésespañol y español-inglés. Madrid: Estrada Hermanos. Alvarez Aranda, Antonio: Traductor de inglés con ejercicios prácticos y de conversación. Barcelona: Librería de Agustín Bosch. Casuso Velasco, Alfredo: Gramática inglesa. Primer curso. Método práctico del idioma inglés. Desenvolvimiento gradual del idioma. Santander: La Propaganda Católica. Derqui Morilla, Carlos Manuel: Gramática españolainglesa. Vergara: Tipografía “El Santísimo Rosario”. Mori Menéndez, Manuel: Nociones elementales de la gramática inglesa. Gijón: Imprenta El Comercio. Rocaful y Pol, Rafael: Inglés práctico-marítimo. Manual de conversaciones, vocabulario de los términos y frases técnicas empleadas en las marinas militar y mercante, con pronunciación figurada. Cádiz: Librería de la Marina eds. Follick, M(ontefiore): Nueva gramática inglesa, única con la pronunciación sujeta á reglas. Madrid: Imprenta Gráfica Excelsior. Masriera i Colomer, Artur: Diccionario de diccionarios castellano, latino, portugués, francés, italiano, catalán, inglés y alemán. Barcelona: Montaner i Simón. Pérez Hervás, José: Diccionario de correspondencia comercial castellano, francés, italiano, inglés y alemán. Barcelona: Editorial Europeoamericana. Sancho Bruno, Julián Vicente: Gramática comparada anglo-española. Estudio crítico de las oraciones impersonales. Valencia: Imprenta Hijos de F. Vives Mora.

174 

1919

1919 1920 1920

ca. 1920 1920? 1921 1921 1921 1922 1922 1922 1922 1923

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Herrero Segarra, Zacarías: Selección de temas y cartas familiares y comerciales para traducir al español y retraducir el inglés. Zaragoza: Tipografía La Crónica de Aragón. Martínez Ferrando, Daniel: Nuevo método práctico gramatical para el estudio de la lengua inglesa. Barcelona: Imprenta Verdaguer. Cuyás Armengol, Arturo: Appleton’s new spanish-english and english-spanish dictionary successor to Velazquez’s abridged dictionary. Barcelona: Librería de Agustín Bosch. Cuyás Armengol, Arturo: Ejercicios de conversación inglesa. Obra compuesta de 3600 preguntas en inglés e ilustrada con 24 tricromías para que pueda servir de texto en la enseñanza del inglés en las escuelas. Barcelona: Ricardo Ratti. Glymmor Rouse, Lea: El inglés sin maestro en 15 lecciones. Barcelona: Publicaciones Mundial. Riera y Soler, Pablo J.: Inglés: guía de curso. Barcelona: J. Torrellas. Girau Lewis, Th.: Método de inglés. Obra basada en procedimientos esencialmente prácticos y al alcance de todas las inteligencias. Barcelona: Magister. Girau Lewis, Th.: Curso completo de correspondencia inglesa. Barcelona: Ricardo Ratti. Rumeau, Adolphe: Curso práctico completo de correspondencia inglesa y española aplicado al comercio y a la industria. Madrid: Espasa. Arenas, Victoriano: Lecciones prácticas de inglés con pronunciación figurada. Oviedo: Imprenta El Carbayón. Arenas, Victoriano: Trozos selectos y graduados de inglés con pronunciación figurada. Oviedo: Imprenta El Carbayón. Arenas, Victoriano: Método intuitivo de lengua inglesa hablada. considerablemente mejorada. Madrid: Estanislao Maestre. Arenas, Victoriano: Ejercicios de terminología técnica inglesa. Barcelona: Ricardo Ratti. Anónimo: Reglamento internacional de football association. Vocabulario inglés-español. Barcelona: Unión Librera de Editores.

175

Appendix I

1923

1923 1924 1924 1924 1924 1926

1927 1927 1927 1927 1928 1$1 1929 1929

Kameke, Richard-Ratti: Practical English. Gramática elemental y ejercicios prácticos de inglés, con transcripción fonética para la exacta pronunciación de todas las voces. Barcelona: Ricardo Ratti. Massé, Raoul: Método práctico de inglés. Método MasséDixon. Barcelona: Escuela Massé. Belausteguigoitia, Pedro José de: Método original sinóptico de inglés y español. Barcelona: Artes Gráficas Sucesores de Henrich. Fabra, Pompeu: Gramàtica amglesa. Barcelona: Editorial Catalana. Mathes, H.: Nuevo método de frases comerciales en los cuatro idiomas: español, inglés, alemán y francés. Bilbao: H. Mathes. Simian, A. J. : English. First Book. Madrid: Viuda de Miguel Sanchís. Pavia, Luigi: Gramática de la lengua inglesa con ejercicios de versión, lecturas y diálogos. Heidelberg: Julio Groos; Madrid: Adrián Romo; Barcelona: Librería Nacional y Extranjera. Díaz de Mendoza y Serrano, Fernando: Gramática inglesa. Madrid: Tipografía Moderna. Díaz de Mendoza y Serrano, Fernando: Trozos escogidos de literatura inglesa. Madrid: Tipografía Moderna. Díaz de Mendoza y Serrano, Fernando: Trozos de lectura inglesa y cartas comerciales. Sevilla: Bergali. Parejo Santos, Ildefonso: Nuevo método rápido de idioma inglés. Traducción yuxtapuesta. Sevilla: Gómez Hermanos. Motle, George: Inglés familiar comercial. Nuevo método práctico y breve. Barcelona: Editorial Cultura. Álvarez Aranda, Carlos Ramspott: Curso de lengua inglesa. Primer curso. Madrid: Revista de Educación Familiar. 3rd ed. Garrón Ruiz, José: Curso de inglés para niños.3 Navarro Dagnino, Juan: Vocabulario marítimo inglésespañol, español-inglés. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili.

3 The only reference to this book has been found in the historical press, in the Unión Ilustrada, 28 April 1929.

176 

1929

1929 1929

1929 192?

192? 192? 1930 1930 1930 1930 1930 1930

4

T wo Centuries of English L anguage Teaching and Learning in Spain

Neira, Miguel: Pequeña enciclopedia y diccionario hotelero astronómico en cuatro idiomas: francés, español, inglés e italiano para el personal de hoteles y restaurantes. Madrid: Sucesores de Rivadeneira. Offinger, H. : Diccionario técnico de bolsillo en tres lenguas: alemán, inglés, español. Barcelona: Sociedad General de Publicaciones. Ojea, Severino: Síntesis de fonética inglesa con un curso científico-práctico para, con exactitud y rapidez sorprendentes, aprender a pronunciar correctamente al leer y hablar inglés. Barcelona: Autor. Seaber, R. : Método de inglés. 4 Castel, Mario [Bartolomé Gabarró]. Idioma mundial o Gramática exáglota del castellano, catalán, italiano, francés, inglés y alemán, confrontados para comunicarse la sociedad moderna de la post-guerra. Útil a profesores, alumnos, centros de cultura, etc. Barcelona: Revista Mario Castel. Chown, Horace S. Anglophone, curso de inglés. Barcelona: Gramófono. Mirmán Constantín, Mario. Nuevo método teóricopráctico de lengua inglesa. Primer curso. Sevilla: Autor. Casadesús (Vila), José. ¿Quiere Usted traducir y hablar inglés?. Barcelona: Ramón Sopena. Heyworth, Spencer: El idioma inglés. Nuevo método práctico. Gramática, ejercicios, conversación. Madrid: Imprenta Cervantina. Elliot, Arthur Valentine Philip & W. F. Mackey & J. A. Noonan: Listen and Speak: curso de inglés para principiantes. Madrid: Alhambra. Seaber, R.: Gramática de la lengua inglesa. Primer curso. Sevilla: Imprenta Eulogio de las Heras. Seaber, R.: Segundo curso de la gramática de la lengua inglesa. Sevilla: Imprenta y Librería de Eulogio de las Heras. Vaughan, H. Francis: Método Vaughan. Método práctico para la enseñanza del inglés. Barcelona: Escuela Inglesa Vaughan.

According to an ad in the press of the time. The actual manual has not been found.

Appendix I

1931 1931 1931 1931 1933 1933 1934

1935 1936? 1937 1938 1939 1939 1939 1939

177

Bentz López, Jesús: Guía del traductor inglés con vocabulario, pronunciación figurada y aclaraciones gramaticales. Madrid: Tipografía Prensa Moderna. Emrich, Frederic William: Método práctico de inglés: primer curso. Barcelona: Prácticas. Fulford, F. A. : Modern English Reader. Lecturas, anécdotas, trozos escogidos, traducciones, modismos, etc. Barcelona: Editorial y Escuelas Massé. Roberston, Ricardo (Richard): Diccionario inglésespañol y español-inglés. Revisado, ampliado y puesto al día. Barcelona: Ramón Sopena. Mac Ragh, Stephen: Diccionario Amaltea inglés y español de modismos, jergas, argot, frases y palabras que no están incluidas en los diccionarios. Barcelona: Librería Sintes. Zanelli, Arturo: Gramática inglesa con un apéndice de lecturas y diccionario práctico. Santiago: Imprenta Universo. Robertson, (Theodore): Métodos Robertson. ¿Quiere usted saber inglés en diez días? Método práctico y sencillo para hablar inglés por medio de la pronunciación figurada. Barcelona: Ramón Sopena. López Hipkiss, Guillermo: Las dificultades del idioma inglés. Complemento de gramática y diccionario ingleses. Barcelona: Ediciones Hymsa. Merino Rodríguez, Manuel: Gran diccionario inglésespañol con la colaboración de Alberto del Castillo Yurrita. Barcelona: Hymsa. Checa López, Gregorio: Compendio de gramática inglesa y ejercicios de traducción. Zaragoza: Talleres Gráficos El Noticiero. Carvajal Domínguez, Teodoro: Gramática inglesa y trozos de traducción. Método teórico-práctico. Zamora: Tipografía Comercial. Carvajal Domínguez, Teodoro: El traductor de inglés. Primer curso. Ávila: Senén Martín Díaz. Rodríguez Echániz, Pedro: Gramática inglesa. Vitoria: Editorial Social Católica. Verdaguer (Travesi), Joaquín: Gramática inglesa, primer curso. Barcelona: Autor. Verdaguer (Travesi), Joaquín: Gramática inglesa, segundo curso. Palma de Mallorca: Mn. Alcover.

178 

193? 193? 1940 1940 1940

1$1 1$1 1941 1942

1942 1942 1942 1942 1943

1943

T wo Centuries of English L anguage Teaching and Learning in Spain

Dariel, Dr.: Vocabulario español-inglés. Barcelona: Maucci. Meyer, Henry: ¿Quiere Usted aprender inglés sin maestro? Barcelona: Ramón Sopena. Castillo Yurrita, Alberto: Diccionario inglés-español. Tortosa: Librería Viladrich. Morera Vilella, Juan: La Discoteca políglota: Método bilingüe español-inglés. San Sebastián: Ediciones Bilinguafónicas Columbia. Parejo Santos, Ildefonso: Nuevo método de idioma inglés. Gramática, lecturas amenas, anécdotas selectas, guía de la conversación y correspondencia. Sevilla: Rodríguez Giménez. 2ª ed. Frías-Sucre Giraud, Alejandro. Novísimo diccionario comercial español-inglés, inglés-español. Madrid; Barcelona: Juventut. Pastor Andreu, Amaro. Curso elemental de inglés para químicos y estudiantes de química= Elementary English for Chemistry students. Valencia: Imprenta J. Domènech. Perrin Thomé, Guillermo y Fernando Oriega Olea: Método práctico-gramatical de lengua inglesa. Madrid: Ediciones Españolas, S. A. Perrin Thomé, Guillermo y Fernando Oriega Olea: Nociones de gramática inglesa seguidas de una breve historia de la lengua inglesa y de extensos vocabularios inglés-español y español-inglés. Madrid: M. Aguilar. García Rodríguez, Casiano: Gramática inglesa. Madrid: Imprenta Gran Capitán. García Rodríguez, Casiano: Epítome de la gramática inglesa. Madrid: Gran Capitán. García Rodríguez, Casiano: Método Kucera inglés. Curso de conversación. Primer libro. Barcelona: Editorial Kucera. Vizcuete y Picón, Pelayo: Nociones de gramática inglesa. Madrid: M. Aguilar. Abalo y Abad, José María: Gramática inglesa segundo curso. Método teórico-práctico adaptado al cuestionario oficial. Ávila: Editorial, Tipografía y Encuadernación de Senén Martín Díaz. Abalo y Abad, José María: El inglés sin maestro: método práctico y sencillísimo para aprender la lengua inglesa,

Appendix I

1943 1944 1944 1944 1944 1944 1944 1944 1945 1945 1945 1945 1945 1945 1945 1945 1945

179

seguido de vocabularios inglés-español y español-inglés. Barcelona: Sopena. Fernández Rodríguez, Juan: Método completo de lengua inglesa. Gijón: Imprenta Minerva. Gallostra Coello, Concepción: Inglés. Método práctico, primer curso. Madrid: Victoriano Suárez. Gallostra Coello, Concepción: Nuevo método de inglés. Curso elemental. Barcelona: Rauter. Heras, Eduvigis de las. Nuevo método de inglés: The English Reader. Barcelona: Rauter. Hicks-Mudd, John Philip: Nuevo método de inglés: curso elemental. Barcelona: Rauter. Leek, Ben J. : Guía para el estudio del idioma inglés. Gramática. Madrid: M. Aguilar. Llorens Ebrat, Julio: Gramática inglesa práctica. Prólogo de Walter Starkie. Barcelona: Casa Provincial de Caridad. Llorens Ebrat, Julio: Lengua inglesa, literatura, correspondencia comercial. Barcelona: Casa P. De Caridad. Hicks-Mudd, John Philip: 100 temas para traducir del inglés al español. Barcelona: Rauter. Hicks-Mudd, John Philip: Nuevo método de inglés: curso superior. Barcelona: Rauter. Llorens Ebrat, Julio: The new British method. Método de inglés. Libro segundo. Barcelona: Gráfica Casulleras. Martínez Amador, Emilio M.: Diccionario inglésespañol y español-inglés. Barcelona: Ramón Sopena. Morera Vilella, J.: Curso poliglophone CCC de inglés: grado primero. San Sebastián: Cursos Linguafónicos de la Academia CCC. Romaní LLuch, Arturo: Gramática inglesa. Obra especialmente adaptada para el estudio del idioma en centros de enseñanza. Zaragoza: Librería General, cop. Roy-Stevenson, Francis Poubennec: Método práctico y progresivo de la lengua inglesa adaptado para el primero y segundo cursos. Madrid: Editorial Reyes. Sánchez de las Casas, M.: Vocabulario de inglés básico. Idioma internacional basado en 850 palabras. Madrid: Dossat. Sander, Peter: Diccionario ilustrado de radio y TV con todos los términos técnicos modernos explicados en

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1947 1$1 1$1

1948 1948 1948 1948

1948

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español y su traducción al italiano, francés, inglés y alemán. Madrid: Sociedad Editora Ibérica. VvAa: English Method= Método de inglés. First course. Madrid: Ediciones Bruño. Alvarez Casado, Adolfo: Primer libro de inglés. Madrid: Casalva Kelly, Brian: Curso elemental de lengua inglesa. Primera parte. Madrid: Editorial Hispánica. Kelly, Brian: Método Kucera inglés. Segundo curso o curso elemental. Barcelona: Editorial Kucera. Plans y Sanz de Bremond, F(ructuoso): Diccionario inglés-español y español-inglés de términos médicos y biológicos. Madrid: Librería Editorial Científico-Médica. Vehils Antoja, F. J. : Inglés. Dibujos lingüísticopedagógicos. Modelo Sinopton. Sistema registrado, el método para ver toda la gramática en un momento. Madrid: Gráficas Sanfray. Vehils Antoja, F. J. : Inglés sintético, sinóptico e intuitivo. Modelo Praktikón. Madrid: Autor. Cerquella, Carlos: Gramática inglesa: en cuadros esquemáticos. Madrid: EPESA. Estudios Fredendorff-Norris: Curso de inglés: estudio elemental de lengua inglesa en colaboración con Radio Nacional de España: 1947-1948. Madrid: Estudios Fredendorff-Norris. Allen de Rosselló, Alberta: The kid family. Primero y segundo año de inglés para señoritas. Gramática y lectura. Barcelona: Librería Bosch. Fernández Rodríguez, Juan. Inglés técnico comercial: para el segundo curso de este idioma en las Escuelas de Comercio. Gijón: Imprenta Minerva. Gámir Sandoval, Alfonso: Gramática inglesa y ejercicios graduados de composición. Granada: Imprenta de José María ventura. Mangold, Walter: Inglés a su gusto. English as you like it. La gramática, voces y modelos esenciales del inglés para “defenderse” en tres meses condensado en conversaciones amenas a la vida corriente. Madrid: The Mangold Institute. Mangold, Walter: Active English. “Inglés Activo” para estudiantes de habla española. Método psicopedagógico

181

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1948 1949 1949 1949 1950 1950 1950 1950 1951 1951 1951 1952? 1952 1952 1952 1952

con amplios ejercicios de fonética. Curso elemental. Madrid: Mangold. Mangold, Walter: Ejercicios de lengua inglesa. Lecturas escogidas, correspondencia mercantil, breves apuntes de literatura inglesa. Zaragoza: Librería General. Mangold, Walter: Nuevo método de inglés. Curso superior. Barcelona: Rauter. 2ª ed. Mangold, Walter: Lengua y literatura inglesa. Barcelona: Casa P. de C., Imprenta-Escuela. Potter, Basil: Inglés para españoles. Curso elemental. Barcelona: Juventud. Anónimo: El inglés fácil y ameno. [Publicación mensual periódica]. Zaragoza: Editorial Paustian. Castillo, Carlos et al: Diccionario inglés-español y español-inglés. Recopilado por C. C. y Otto Bond con la ayuda de Bárbara M. García. Madrid: Aguilar. Hicks, David: Inglés por radio: La familia Parker. Lecciones en conversación inglesa que radiará el servicio español de la BBC de Londres. Madrid: Alhambra. Torner Soler, Roman: Curso completo de lengua inglesa. Barcelona: Alma Mater. 2 vol. Conesa Martínez, Joaquín: Síntesis de gramática inglesa. Cartagena: Imprenta Garrido. Conesa Martínez, Joaquín: Correspondencia comercial inglesa. Barcelona: Casa P. de Caridad. Merino Rodríguez, Manuel: Diccionario de ingeniería mecánica inglés-español. Madrid: Claridad. García de Andóin, Florentín: Curso de inglés. Valladolid: Cristo Rey. Merino Rodríguez, Manuel: Curso de lengua inglesa para centros de enseñanza profesional y técnica. Gijón: Autor. Merino Rodríguez, Manuel: Gramática inglesa II, formación de palabras: Sintaxis. Palma de Mallorca: Mn. Alcover. 3ª ed. Reith, Louise and C. John Allen: Idiomatic English.Book one. Madrid: Instituto Moderno de Idiomas Vox. Roy-Stevenson, Francis Poubennec: Método práctico de lengua inglesa para alumnos adelantados. Cursos 3º y 4º. Madrid: Ediciones Claridad. 2ª ed.

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1955 1955 1955 1955 1955 1955 1955

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Merino Rodríguez, Manuel: El pequeño explorador de la lengua inglesa. Primeros pasos en el estudio del idioma inglés. Barcelona: Colección Magister. Merino Rodríguez, Manuel: Ejercicios de inglés. Curso elemental. Barcelona: Casa P. de Caridad, Imprenta Escuela. Merino Rodríguez, Manuel.:Active English merry-goround. A dynamic review of modern English analysed and explained for advanced students. Madrid: Mangold. Merino Rodríguez, Manuel: La teledicción. Clave de los sonidos del inglés. Madrid: Editorial Mangold. Perpiñá Pieras, Ramón: Método moderno de Inglés práctico. Palma de Mallorca: Imprenta Mosén Álvarez. Criado de Val, Manuel: Fisonomía del idioma español: características comparadas con las del francés, italiano, portugués, inglés y alemán. Madrid: Aguilar. Criado de Val, Manuel: Inglés para españoles. Curso superior. Barcelona: Juventud. 2ª ed. Sangrán, Joaquín: Gramática inglesa. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria: Colegio de San Ignacio Loyola. Verdaguer Travesi, Joaquín: Medical English. Curso de inglés especialmente destinado a los señores médicos que deseen aprender a traducir textos científicos de su profesión. Palma: Imprenta de Bernardo Ferragut. 2ª ed. Countries, R.: Aprenda inglés en España. Madrid: Autor. Countries, R.: Método Kucera inglés, tercer curso o curso superior. Barcelona: Editorial Kucera. 5ª ed. Countries, R.: New Active English. Madrid: Mangold. 6ª ed. Fitzgibbon, John P.: Hablando se aprende inglés: curso de inglés para españoles. Madrid: Alhambra. Laffay, A.; H. Kerst & Álvaro de Zárate: Glosta I. Método moderno de inglés. Madrid: “Cultura Clásica y Moderna”, (Tipografía Artística). Renshaw, José Guzmán: Método teórico-práctico de lengua inglesa. Primer y segundo cursos. Valladolid: Librería Santarén. 2 vol. 2ª ed. Oltra Costa, Román: Curso de inglés por correspondencia. Resumen de gramática inglesa. Barcelona: AFHA Instituto Internacional de Enseñanza por Correspondencia, Editorial Cooperativa.

Appendix I

1955

183

Sill, Henry: Interesting English. Un texto completo, ameno y rápido para aprender a repasar el inglés corriente con o sin profesor. Madrid: Victoriano Suárez. 1955 Stevens, Sidney F.: A guide to English commercial practice. Madrid: Alhambra. 1956 Anónimo: Páginas de inglés: selectas de autores británicos y norteamericanos: textos adecuados para un curso superior. Madrid: Esplendor. Maseres, A. D.: El intérprete español-inglés para conver1956 sar en inglés, sin previo estudio del idioma. Valencia: Gior. Palmer, John.: Gramática de la lengua inglesa com1956 parada a la lengua española. Madrid: Biográfica Española. Rossi, Carlo: El inglés de los Estados Unidos. Barcelona: 1956 Bosch. 2ª ed. Rosa Clarke de Armando, Angelina & C. W. Yates: An 1957 English course for adults. Madrid: Ediciones Cultural Inglesa. Rossi, Carlo: Calling all beginners. Curso para los que 1957 comienzan o reanudan el estudio del inglés. Madrid: Alhambra. Rossi, Carlo: Curso de inglés. Aprobado para 5º año de 1957 Bachillerato. Madrid: Mangold. Rossi, Carlo: The link, between elementary and wider 1957 English. Madrid: Mangold. Moore, W. G.: Diccionario de geografía acompañado 1957 de un vocabulario inglés-español formado por todos los artículos incluidos en la obra. Madrid: Dossat. Anónimo: Diccionario de aforismos, proverbios y 1958 refranes con su interpretación para el empleo adecuado y con equivalencias en 5 idiomas: latin, francés, italiano, inglés y alemán. Barcelona: Sintes. 1958 Eckersley, C. E.: Essential English for freign students. Madrid: Alhambra. 1958 Eckersley, C. E.: Calling all Beginners. Un curso de lengua inglesa para todos. Madrid: Alhambra. 1958 Hornby, A. S.: Revise your English. Curso de gramática superior inglesa, con discos. Madrid: Editorial Alhambra. 1958 Idiomas Sanivet: Gramática inglesa fundamental. Fundamental English Grammar. Granada: Idiomas Sanivet. Idiomas Ganivet: Gramática inglesa. Curso medio. 1958 Barcelona: Idiomas Ganivet.

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1958

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Idiomas Ganivet: Modern English I. An elementary course. Madrid: Editorial Mangold. Idiomas Ganivet: Modern English in the office. Tercer 1958 curso de bachillerato laboral. Modalidad administrativa. Madrid: Mangold. 1958 Idiomas Ganivet: Quick progress. Gramática inglesa, curso elemental. Madrid: Mangold. Llovet Catalá, José María: Curso de inglés por cor1958 respondencia. Barcelona: Afha. Anónimo: Diccionario de química y de productos 1959 químicos español-inglés, inglés-español. Barcelona: Omega, Cop. Anónimo: Diccionario ilustrado Daimon español, 1959 francés, inglés y alemán. Barcelona: IFESA-Carlo Erba. Anónimo: First steps in English: Segundo curso. Madrid: Bruno. 1959 Chaicosqui, Frank: Método práctico de inglés. Adaptado 1959 de acuerdo a los programas de Bachillerato, Normal y Comercio. Madrid: Gráficas Canales. 2ª ed. Delfs, Robert: Briam’s short English grammar. Madrid: 1959 Agarthis Press. Fitzgibbon, John Paul: Conversations I: easy English 1959 spoken quickly. Everyday dialogues. Madrid: Hispavox. Fitzgibbon, John Paul: Modern English III. An advanced 1959 course. Madrid: Mangold. Noguer i Comet, Ramón: Gramática elemental de la 1959 lengua inglesa. Barcelona: Bosch, Cop. Goicoechea Ocerinjáuregui, María del Pilar: English at 1959 work. Madrid: Mangold. 2vol. Anónimo: El intérprete internacional de bolsillo. Dic1960 cionario de 6 idiomas: español, inglés,francés, alemán, italiano, portugués; método práctico y sencillo para hablar y traducir. Barcelona: Ramón Sopena. 1960 Anónimo: Curso de inglés por correspondencia. Barcelona: Delta. 1960-1961 Instituto Americano: Curso de inglés práctico. Madrid: Instituto Americano. 1960? Cerquella, Carlos.:El inglés en tres cursos: nuevos métodos para aprender inglés en tres meses; Primer curso: traducción; Segundo curso: conversación; Gramática: curso tercero. Barcelona: Sopena.

185

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1960 1960 1960 1960

1960 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1962 1962 1962

Carreres Calatayud, F. de A.: Curso completo de lengua inglesa.Madrid: Prensa Española. Carreres Calatayud, F. de A.: Business in English. El inglés comercial y financiero, with specimen letters recorded by the BBC. Madrid: Alhambra. Mangold, Walter: A mirror of the english speaking world. Madrid: Mangold. Marshall, Delfin C.: The English you need= El inglés que Usted necesita: curso completo de inglés moderno. Revisado por Carmen Mary Boyle; Ilustraciones de Angel Crespo. Madrid: Dos Continentes. Stevens, Sydney F.: Business in English. El inglés comercial y financiero, with specimen letters recorded by the BBC. Madrid: Alhambra. 2nd ed. Andrew, M. F.: Diccionario inglés español, español inglés. Barcelona: Inter, D. L. Elliot, A, V. P. y Noonan, J. A.: English for today. Traducido y adaptado al español por C. Watkins. Madrid: Alhambra. 3v. Eurovox: El inglés de los ingleses: curso completo. Madrid: Imprenta “Heroes”. 20 records and 7 leaflets. Fitzgibbon, John Paul: Inglés, curso de perfeccionamiento: Antología de literatura. Madrid: ESDE, Enciclopedia Sonora de la Enseñanza. Iglesias Barba, María Isabel: Gramática sucinta de la lengua inglesa. Barcelona: Herder; Heidelberg: J. Groos. Iglesias Barba, María Isabel: Gramática inglesa. Curso elemental. Barcelona: Escuela de la Casa Provincial de la Caridad. Iglesias Barba, María Isabel: My first English workbook. Madrid: Mangold. Iglesias Barba, María Isabel: My second English workbook. Madrid: Mangold. Allen, W. Stannard: Keep up your English= Cultive su inglés: curso de revisión y perfeccionamiento. Madrid: Alhambra. Bosser Gamundi, Ana: Diccionario español-inglés e inglés-español. Barcelona: Zeus. Campo Agud, Joaquín: Método universal Campo para cursos de inglés en clases colectivas adaptado a los

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programas oficiales del Bachillerato. Zaragoza: Instituto Central y Dirección de Estudios de la Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca. 6 vol. 1962 Campo Agud, Joaquín: Gramática inglesa, curso superior. Zaragoza: Librería General. 1962 Marín Aguilá, Juan: Manual del profesor. Instrucciones para el maestro sobre el método Marín de inglés. Madrid: Compañía Bibliográfica Española. Sánchez Huelves, Pablo: Curso de inglés por correspond1962 encia con o sin discos. San Sebastián: Academia A. E. I. Gaballi, P. Prat: Diccionario de términos comerciales 1963 inglés-americano-español. Barcelona: Editorial Hispano Europea. Geneviève A., Martín y Adolfo Alfaro: El inglés viviente: 1963 manual de conversación. Basado en el método ideado por Ralph Weiman. Barcelona: Seix Barral. Leal y Leal, Luis: Diccionario naval inglés-español y 1963 español-inglés. Madrid: Editorial Naval, DL. Leal y Leal, Luis: Modern English I. Madrid: Mangold. 1963 Molinero Santamaría, Ponciano: English by tape. A new 1963 method of teaching english and using the latest developments in Taperecording. Barcelona: Orpei. Plaut, Julio: Listen and Speak. A natural way to English. 1963 Madrid: Editorial Mangold. Plaut, Julio: Inglés para españoles, curso medio. Barce1963 lona: Juventud. Knauf, Hans: Curso de inglés Vergara. Barcelona: Vergara, Cop. 1964 Mac Cragh, Esteban: Nuevo diccionario inglés-español, 1964 español-inglés. Barcelona: Juventud. Madariaga, Luis: Alemán e inglés, terminología química. 1964 Ejercicios de traducción directa. Salamanca: imprenta Núñez. 1964 Massé, E. L. Curso práctico de inglés comercial. Barcelona: Massé, DL. 1964 Tweney, C. F. & L.E.C. Hughes. Chamber’s diccionario tecnológico inglés-francés-alemán-español.Barcelona: Omega. Varela Colmeiro, G. Diccionario comercialny económico 1964 moderno inglés-español. 1965 Anónimo. English spoken, curso completo: traducción castellana y gramática. Barcelona: Herder.

Appendix I

1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965

1965 1965 1966 1966 1966 1966 1966 1966

187

Anónimo. Diccionario técnico-gráfico del automovil en alemán, inglés, francés y español, con instrucciones prácticas para el automovilista. Barcelona: Editorial Blume. Barbudo Duarte, Enrique: Diccionario marítimo inglésespañol y español-inglés. Cádiz: Fragata. Instituto Master: Curso de conversación inglesa. Madrid: Instituto Master. Instituto Parramón: Curso de inglés enseñanza programada. Barcelona: Instituto Parramón. Langley, Michael and Terrie Peppiatt: Universal English. Madrid: Linguadisc. Macarulla, D.: Diccionario inglés. Barcelona: Editorial Ramón Sopena. Macarulla, D.: Modern English II. A new intermediate course. Madrid: Mangold. Novoa González, Emilio: Terminología usual en la ciencia y en la técnica de la telecomunicación: españolfrancés-inglés. Francés-inglés-español. Inglés-españolfrancés. Madrid: Paraninfo. Rivera Ponce, Moisés: Robert and Rose: Curso de inglés para principiantes. Madrid: Ediciones Susaeta. Ruiz Torres, francisco: Diccionario inglés-español y español-inglés de medicina. Madrid: Alhambra. Anónimo: Elsevier diccionario náutico en cinco idiomas: inglés, francés, italiano, español, alemán. Bilbao: Editorial Urmo. Benedetto, Ubaldo et al.: Gran diccionario general inglés-español, español-inglés. Madrid; Buenos Aires: EDAF. Casas Cadillo, Rogelio: Palabras más usadas del idioma inglés. Madrid: Gráficas Norte Magnolias. Haycraft, J.: Getting on in English= progrese en su inglés: un curso para estudios de grado intermedio. Madrid: Alhambra. Piraux, Henry: Diccionario español-inglés de la terminología relativa a eletrotecnia y electrónica. Barcelona: Técnicos Asociados. Reader’s Digest: El inglés de hoy. Nuevo método para aprender y perfeccionar el inglés. Madrid: Selección del Reader’s Digest. 24 records by Fonogram.

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1968 1968 1968 1968

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Rivera Ponce, Moisés: Bill and Jenny: Curso de inglés para principiantes. Madrid: Eds. Susaeta. Rivera Ponce, Moisés: John and Carol: Curso de inglés para principiantes. Madrid: Ediciones Susaeta. Segditsas, P. E.: Diccionario Náutico Elsevier en cinco idiomas: inglés, francés, italiano, español, alemán. Bilbao: Urmo. 3v. Weis Ballesteros, Luis: Diccionario electro-mecánico inglés-español. Madrid: Artes Gráficas Reyes. Anónimo: Gramática inglesa: visualphone. Barcelona: Afha, Cop. Anónimo: Diccionario manual inglés-espanol, españolinglés. Barcelona: Biblograf, DL: Anónimo: Diccionario de metalurgia Elsevier en seis idiomas: inglés/americano, francés, español, italiano, holandés y alemán. Bilbao: Urmo. Álvarez Lowell, Mercedes: Antología de Voces amigas : selección de textos de lectura y gramaticales para estudiantes de lenguas modernas. Madrid: Alhambra. Orellana Silva, Ernesto: Diccionario inglés-español de ciencias de la Tierra. Madrid: Interciencia. Utley, Derek: Aprendamos inglés con Daniel y Ana. Barcelona: Vergara. Yartz, J.: In-clar: español-inglés con más de 1000 frases usuales en el inglés que se habla hoy. Barcelona: Favencia. Álvarez Lowell, Mercedes: Guiones didácticos de inglés: complementarios de las emisiones radiofónicas. Madrid: Dirección General de Enseñanza Media por Radio y Televisión. Bohigas i Rossell, Mauricio: Gran diccionario Cuyás Inglés-español, Español-inglés. Barcelona: Hymsa. Campo Agud, Joaquín: Clase de inglés. English through newspapers. Zaragoza: Idiomas Campo. Hostench Ribé, Concepción: Inglés en casa. Enseñanza programada. Colección de 12 discos-libros para aprender inglés desde el propio hogar. Barcelona: Instituto Parramon. Kent, Mary [Cándida do Rego Rodríguez]: El inglés que los niños necesitan: curso completo de inglés para niños. Madrid: Dos Continentes, DL.

Appendix I

1968

1968 1968 1968 1968 1968 1968 1969 1969 1969 1969

1969 1969 1969 1969 1969 1969 1969

189

Madariaga, Luis: Diccionario de fotografía y cine. Términos técnicos empleados en fotografía y cinematografía, con un vocabulario de más de 2100 voces en inglés-español. Madrid: Tesoro. Menent Ripoll, José: Libro de conversación hotelera en inglés. Barcelona: (Gestetner) J. Valette. Ollero García, Juan Antonio: El laboratorio de idiomas. Madrid: Imprenta Gráficas Díaz. Rivera Ponce, Moisés: Peter and Betty: Curso de inglés, libro segundo. Madrid: Ediciones Susaeta. Rivera Ponce, Moisés: Tom and Lucy: Curso de inglés. Libro tercero. Madrid: Ediciones Susaeta. Vidal Garcés: Diccionario tecnológico de la nutrición animal inglés-español. Madrid: Iruma, S. L. Yartz, J.: Peter and Molly (Geoffrey Broughton). Madrid: Alhambra. Anónimo: Diálogos en inglés. Gramática ilustrada. Madrid. Anónimo: A comparative English grammar. Madrid: Agarthi Press. Anónimo: El inglés de hoy [Enreg. Sonor]. Madrid. Abelló de Lamarca, Isabel: Estudio del idioma inglés: vamos a enterder, conocer y comprender a los ingleses. Barcelona: Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales. Bader, Olivier: Diccionario enciclopédico de metalurgia español-francés-inglés. Barcelona: ETA. Echevarría Rivera, Luis Eduardo: Estructuras básicas de la lengua inglesa. Madrid: Prensa Española. Echevarría Rivera, Luis Eduardo: Everyday verbal idioms = Modismos verbales cotidianos. Madrid: Alhambra, DL. Echevarría Rivera, Luis Eduardo: Round the world in English. English by radio teaches the world. Madrid: Alhambra. Mataix Lorda, Mariano: Diccionario de electrónica y energía nuclear inglés-español. Barcelona: Danae. Merino (Bustamante), José: Las dificultades idiomáticas del inglés. Madrid: Alhambra. Tallón Cejudo, Manuel: Curso de inglés. Madrid: Institución de Enseñanzas Técnicas.

190 

1970

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Arribas Rodríguez, María Joséfa et al.: English practice. Book I. Learning English structures through oral drill. Madrid: Mangold. 1970 Boards, Joseph M.: Inglés facil. Barcelona; Bogotá: Bruguera. 1970 Centro Experimental de Lingüística Aplicada: Look, Listen, and Speak I, II. Método audiovisual de inglés. Madrid: Enosa. 2 vol. Jordana, Ricardo: Diccionario inglés-español y español1970 inglés. Barcelona: Ramón Sopena. Jordana, Ricardo: New modern English I. Madrid: Mangold. 1970 Slim, John: English by television: un curso para prin1970 cipiantes con algunos conocimientos de inglés. Asesor lingüístico Geoffrey Broughton; textos de John Wiles et al. Madrid: Alhambra. Smith, Colin: Diccionario moderno Langenscheidt de los 1970 idiomas inglés y español. Madrid; Berlín: Héroes, S:A; Langenscheidt. Sopena, Ricardo: Diccionario inglés-español y español1970 inglés. Revisado, ampliado y puesto al día. Barcelona: Ramón Sopena. Subirá, Carlo:. Gramática inglesa. Primer curso. Barce1970 lona: Multicop. Chabas López, José: Diccionario inglés-español de termi19?? nología química, farmacéutica y bioquímica. Barcelona: Rauter. Porter, Cecil C.: El inglés sin dificultades. Barcelona: 19?? Imprenta Elzeviriana. Elliot, A. V. P.: Listen and speak. Curso de inglés para 19?? principiantes. Primera parte,lecciones 1-25. Madrid: Alhambra. Elliot, A. V. P.: Gramática de la lengua inglesa. Madrid: 19?? Sucesores de Rivadeneyra. Kucera, Enrique: Método Kucera inglés, primer curso o 19?? curso preparatorio. Barcelona: Editorial Kucera. 19?? Lizarraga, Francisco: Diccionario técnico inglés-español y español-inglés para uso de los ejércitos de tierra, mar y aire. Madrid: Compañía Bibliografías. 19?? Parramón, José María: Curso de inglés por correspondencia AFHA. Barcelona: AFHA. Undated Cerquella, Carlos: The new British method. Método de Inglés. Libro primero. Barcelona: Editorial Magister.

Appendix I

Undated Ibo Alfaro, Manuel: Elements de la langue anglaise. Jaén: Imprenta de Ibo Alfaro. Undated Mirman Constantin, Mario: First steps in English. Segundo curso. Madrid: Bruno. Undated Torrents dels Prats, A.: Diccionario de dificultades de inglés. Barcelona: Editorial Juventut. Undated Torrents dels Prats, A.: Diccionario de inglés americano. Barcelona: Editorial Juventut. Undated Frias-Sucre Giraud, Alejandro: Diccionario comercial español-inglés e inglés-español. El Secretario. Barcelona: Editorial Joventut.

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Appendix II Original article written by El Guaita extracted from Quaderns d’Estudi (1915) and subsequent English translation

La Simulació Hi ha un mètode tradicional en l’aprenentatge de les llengües. Com qualsevol altre mètode pedagògic, aquest implícitament es fonamenta en una psicología, en una filosofía. En el cas present són la psicología i la filosofía de l’intel·lectualisme. Es tracta d’arribar a la possessió de conceptes, els més amples possibles. L’instrument llavores consisteix en l’estudi i repàs d’un còs doctrinal, suficientment sistemàtic, expressament preceptiu. L’anomenen Gramàtica. Dicta el mestre o narra el llibre, a cada lliçó, unes quantes regles d’aquest codi, una de les parts d’aquest conjunt, una de les zones orgàniques d’aquest còs. – un capítol de la gramàtica. Al capítol un dia dictat, se’n van poc a poc afegint d’altres i altres. Prova el deixeble de retenir-los a la memoria. Quan aquesta ja és rica d’alguns, ell comença d’encarar-se amb la realitat, frase a traduir, pensament a retre en la llengua nova. I tracta de reduir els immediats problemes que el cas suscita a les regles, més o menys amples, més o menys terminants, que aquella preceptiva li dictava, – és a dir, d’esvair lo concret de la nova donada empírica en la generalitat del concepte adquirit. L’artif ici d’aquest mètode, la seva dif icultat, la seva lentitut, la seva ineficacia relativa – absoluta i tot, si ell algún cop hagués estat aplicat rigorosament segons els seus principis propis– forçaren de pensar, però, en un moment donat, en la conveniencia de substituir-lo. Era en temps d’ideología romàntica i, recollint doctrina d’alguns precursors, ja matiners, en la materia, es va demanar: ‘Per què, fugint del xorc artifici, no ens aniríem de dret a la naturalesa? Per què no provaríem de substituir per aquesta, aquell? Quin és el procès natural en l’aprenentatge de les llengües? Es el que segueix, i molt sovint amb rapidesa sorprenedora, aquell que es troba en terra estrangera i li convé de no trigar a donar-se entendre en l’idioma del país. Es el mètode empíric, el mètode de l’inducció. El cas particular és experimentat com a tal, i com a tal retingut, sense reducció a regla previa. La pràctica multiplica els casos anàlegs, i la ment que aquesta multiplicitat experimenta, percebeix sense dificultat l’analogía de les solucions. Oint parlar un idioma, avesant-se als noms que les coses prenen en ell, provant directament de parlar-lo,

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s’arriba a la seva possessió. Prou, doncs, de gramàtica: que la pràctica la substitueixi. Prou, doncs, d’artifici: que la natura prengui son lloc.’ Observem, no obstant, de passada, com els postulats de l’intel·lectualisme, propis del mètode tradicional, continúen sent els del nou mètode. L’esperit és pres en ell com un dipòsit –com un dipòsit i no com una font– i s’espera de l’acumulació, de la suma de donades empíriques, la formació inconscient de la regla general, és a dir, del concepte que surti a rebre el problema nou, en entrar aquest dins el camp de la consciencia. A un herbartià no li caldrà variar una coma de la seva psicología per explicar el mètode tradicional en l’aprenentatge de les llengües o per explicar el mètode nou. Ve, doncs, que aquest es posa a la pràctica. Som a la petita cambra d’una Escola de llengües. Hi ha una taula: a l’una banda el deixeble, a l’altra el professor; damunt ella un llibre i un llapis. Diu el professor, pronunciant amb èmfasi les paraules: Das ist ein Buch. – Das ist ein Bleistift … El deixeble ha sentit en un instant els noms de dos objectes; i com es repetíen dos cops un demostratiu i el verb cabdal. Aquelles paraules li són dites dos cops més, dèu, vint. Són canviades de fórmula, llegides amb altres, deslligades. S’experimenta de seguida l’adquisició: Was ist das? – Ein Buch. – Was ist das? – Ein Bleistift… I ell surt d’allí amb la joia d’un opulent botí d’aprenentatge i amb l’esperança d’un bon resultat rapidíssimament assolit. – Es només al cap de la primera mesada d’aquesta prova quan ve el desengany. Es només quan les nominacions d’objectes s’han acumulat per cents de mils de vegades i les repeticions han esdevingut mecàniques i òrfanes de tensió, i ha sobrevingut l’enuig, que es comprèn la dificultat formidable de l’avençar, un cop s’ha deixat enrera les gratíssimes primeres etapes del camí. Es només si es reflexiona sobre les lleis i els límits mateixos d’aquest mètode, que es comprèn com el càstig d’esterilitat en puniría l’intent si aquest es volía desenrotllar en rigor de principis, ni més ni menys que s’esdevindría amb el mètode gramatical… Però el bon sentit vetlla. Ningú no somnía en aplicar cap dels dos mètodes amb rigor exclusiu. Qui dicta regla de gramàtica, pluralisa, com aquell que no fa res, els exemples, per tal d’omplir una mica amb la viva solidesa de lo empíric, la buidor de lo conceptual. Aquell altre, en canvi, que es vana d’ensenyar per mitjà de l’exercici pràctic, insinúa, però, subrepticiament, entre tema i tema, entre llista i llista de mots, alguna bella reglona de gramàtica, per tal d’abreviar, amb un cop enèrgic en les dreceres de lo conceptual, l’interminable camí de lo empíric. I així s’esdevé que tan mateix, els idiomes sien apresos. I aquí es presenta a l’investigador la qüestió teòrica. Còm se fa que allí on el procés de natura obté un admirable resultat, hagi de fracassar supinament el procés pedagògic que n’imita la marxa? Per què, si el que es troba en terra estrangera, aprèn de pressa i còmodament només que sentint i assajant-se

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a parlar, no obté això mateix el que en son país i sotmès als exercicis d’una Escola de llengües, s’aplica també a sentir, s’aplica a provar? Ah! És que aquella imitació del procés natural ha oblidat tot just l’element essencial en aquest! És que en imitar la naturalesa hem oblidat que precisament lo que feia aquesta fecunda és l’absencia d’imitació, en aquella, l’absencia de ficció, l’absencia de simulació. Per aquell que es troba en terra estrangera, cada problema de llenguatge que se li proposa és un problema real, a la qual solució correspòn en ell un interès real. Per aquell altre que fa l’aprenentatge sota un mestre, el ‘cas pràctic’ que aquest li presenta és un problema fingit, al qual no correspòn sinó l’interès remot – i que únicament una gran força de voluntat pot fer present– d’arribar un dia a conèixer el llenguatge. Saber o no saber el nom del peix, en alemany, representa per al viatger, en el restaurant de Bremen, menjar-ne o no menjar-ne. Per una paraula ben dita guanyarà el somriure d’una minyona, per una paraula mal dita perdrà l’últim tren. Què cosa guanyarà, què perdrà de moment, ara, l’alumne del que professa segons mètode ‘intuitiu’, si ara, – aquest cop – quan li mostren la llapidera, en lloc de pronunciar la paraula Bleistift,pronuncía la paraula pencil? Esperit és creació, cal no perdre-ho mai de vista. No arxiu de percepcions, no dipòsit de nocions, sinó autònoma font d’idees. No εργον, – aplicant aquí la sentencia de Humboldt sobre el llenguatge– sinò ενεργεıα: no fixe resultat, sinó movent energía. Esperit és creació, i ja en podeu furnir-li d’aliment, i dins ell acumular tantes percepcions, tantes nocions com volgueu, que si ell no es troba en actitut d’interès, en activitat projectora, en necessitat de produir, tota la feina resultarà inútil. I si aquesta necessitat, aquesta activitat, aquesta actitut no existeixen, res al món, cap fórmula ni mètode no les sabria imitar… – Però això que cal no perdre de vista, és justament allò que perden de vista els postulats de l’intel·lectualisme estret. Un psicòleg moremecanico, un usual seguidor de Herbart, no descobrint des del punt de vista de l’aprenentatge de l’idioma, entre la situació del que es troba en terra estrangera i la del que assisteix als cursos d’una escola ‘pràctica’, sinó una diferencia quantitativa, haurà de sorprendre’s en comparar els resultats respectius d’aquestes dues situacions. Però al que ha observat sense prejudicis la mena autònoma de l’energía espiritual, lo que el sorprendría justament, fóra que aquells resultats poguessin ni tan sols acomparar-se. Quina fórmula, quin mètode, doncs, quan l’escolasticisme gramàtic és rebutjat, quan s’ha descobert el vici d’orígen d’un empirisme miop? Fórmula, cap; mètode, tots. Principis per a l’activitat docent, dos principis. L’un, entrar en la natura. Però entrar en ella, no escarnir-la. Entrar en la natura, en el jòc de son procés autèntic d’interès, quan no es pugui amb l’estada en terra estrangera, amb la pràctica fecundíssima de les traduccions; que en elles sí,

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que l’interès és real; en elles sí, que l’esperit, – per necessitat present, directa, immediata– crea. Llenci’s el deixeble a la traducció com aquell que es llença en mar; no és possible apendre una llengua sense, d’abans de saber-la, traduir. ‘Les llengües –ens deia, ja fa estona, el nostre vell mestre d’alemany– són places fortes que no es poden conquistar per assedi: cal pendre-les per assalt’. Cal llençar-se, volant, en mig de les dificultats, cremar les naus al darrera, col·locar-se en situació d’ interès real, tan real, que sia el de vèncer o sucumbir… – Segón principi: No renegar de l’artifici tampoc; no renegar de l’art. Pendre bé la gramàtica en son paper de simplificadora, d’anticipadora, de racionalisadora, i per consegüent, de facilitadora i abreujadora. Conèixer la seva potencia, com se coneixen els seus límits. Natura, – natura veritable, no copia – i també cultura. Tot menys pretesa d’imitació, falsificació servil i maldestra… En pedagogía l’enemic no té per nom Cultura, com Rousseau va creure. No té per nom Natura, com va creure Port-Royal. En pedagogía, l’enemic – el gran enemic – la causa de tot fracàs, la causa de tota esterilitat, la causa de tota fadiga, – té per nom Simulació. I la primera paraula que cal dir a professors i mestres, la primera que convindría que tots recordessin en obrir les tasques dels QVADERNS, és aquesta: Sinceritat, sinceritat, sinceritat! El Guaita

The Simulation1 There exists a traditional method in language learning that is implicitly grounded in psychology and philosophy, in the same guise as other pedagogical methods. In our case it is the psychology and philosophy of intellectualism. What is at stake is the possession of concepts, the more the better. The instrument, then, implies the study and revision of a doctrinal core, systematic enough and expressly perceptive. Such an instrument is called Grammar. The teacher dictates or explains the book, in every lesson; a few rules of this code, one of the parts of the whole, one of the organic areas of the core, for instance a chapter of the grammar. Dictation gradually becomes a central part. The student tries to learn these rules by heart. When one’s memory is already rich in precepts, one begins to face reality: a sentence to translate, a thought to be spoken aloud in a new language. The same student tries to reduce to rules the oncoming problems that the case raises, more or less 1

My own translation.

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wide and decisive, dictated by that teaching. That is, to unravel the specific from the new empirical wave in the generalisation of the concept acquired. The artificiality of this method, its difficulty, its slowness, its relative inefficiency–absolute and total if it had ever been strictly applied according to its own principles– led to thinking at a certain moment, though, about the suitability of replacing it. It was in times of romantic ideology, and being influenced by some forerunners on the topic, very early indeed, that the question was asked: Why, escaping from artificial unfruitfulness, would we not go straight to nature? Why would we not try to change one for another? Which is the natural process of language learning? It is the following: the empirical or inductive method. Many a time, at a stunning pace, the person who is in a foreign land will find it more convenient not to take too long to make him/herself understood in that country’s language. The particular case is experienced and retained likewise, without any previous reduction to a rule. Practice multiplies similar cases, and the mind which experiments with such multiplicity effortlessly perceives the analogy of the solutions. By listening to a language, by anticipating the names that are attached to things, by trying to speak it aloud in a straightforward manner, one ends up mastering it. Enough, then, of grammar: let it be replaced by practice. No artificiality any more: let nature take its place. Let us see, however, at a glance, how the tenets of intellectualism, typical of the traditional method, continue to be those of the new method. The spirit sees it as a container – not a fountain– and one expects the unconscious formation of the general rule from the accumulation of the total empirical data; that is, of the concept facing a new problem as it enters into the conscious level. A Herbartian will not need to change a comma of his/her psychology to explain either the traditional method in language learning or the new method. The new method, then, is put into practice. We are in a small room in a language school. There is a table: a student on one side and a teacher on the other as well as a book and a pencil on it. The teacher says, marking his/her words, Das ist ein Buch. – Das ist ein Bleistift. The student has just heard, in an instant, the names of two objects and how both the determiner and the main verb were repeated twice. The same words are repeated to the student twice more, or ten, twenty times. Their formula changes, they are read out together with some other detached ones. Acquisition is experienced all of a sudden: Was ist das? – Ein Buch. – Was ist das? – Ein Bleistift. The student leaves the school joyfully and with the treasure of learning and with the hope of a very rapidly acquired result. One month later, disillusionment takes over. Once the naming of things has piled up by thousands and repetitions

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have become mechanical and deprived of excitement, with disappointment taking over, one realises the incredible difficulty of progressing once the pleasing earlier stages of the process of learning have been left behind. Only by reflecting on the laws and the limits of this method can one really understand how this sterile punishment would thwart the attempt as long as it is developed according to some principles. It could then be parallel to the Grammar Method. But good sense prevails. Nobody dreams of applying either of the two methods to the fullest. Anyone, dictating a grammar rule or some examples in order to fill the emptiness of conceptuality with the living solidity of empiricism, generalises in the same manner as someone who does nothing. However, those who are proud to teach through practical exercises surreptitiously hint at some beautiful lines of grammar in order to reduce the never-ending path of empiricism with an energetic blow at the short cuts of conceptuality. And this is, however, the way languages are learnt. At this point, the researcher is faced with a theoretical question. How come the process of nature gets wonderful results and the pedagogical process, which imitates it, is a total failure? Why does a person in a foreign land learn a language more quickly and with more comfort by simply listening and practising speaking, while the same person, in his/her own country and in a language school, does not get the same results? Ah! The reason for this is that the imitation of the natural process has omitted the essential element of the natural process. By imitating nature, we have forgotten that what really made it fruitful is the absence of imitation, fiction and simulation. For the person in a foreign land, each problem in relation to language is a real problem. For the person who learns with the help of a teacher, the ‘practical case’ is a simulated problem, which is given a distant interest, and it can only be made present with a very strong will to manage to know the language one day. To know or not to know the name of the fish, in German, represents to the traveller, in a restaurant in Bremen, eating it or not eating it. For a well-pronounced word, one will gain a waitress’s smile; for a mispronunciation, one will miss the last train. What will the student, with an ‘inductive’ method, gain? What will he miss for the time being if this time, when he is shown a pencil, instead of pronouncing the word Bleistift, he pronounces the word pencil? The mind is creation, one should never forget this. It is not an archive of perceptions or a container of notions but an autonomous source of ideas. Not εργον– applying Humboldt’s conception of language–but ενεργεıα: no fixed result but energy in motion. The mind is creation, and you can feed it by accumulating as many perceptions and notions into it as you want, but if it does not feel an interest in a projecting activity, in a need to produce, all

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the work will become fruitless. Besides, if these needs, tasks or aptitudes do not exist, nothing in the world, no formula nor method, would know how to imitate them. But, what we should not overlook is what the narrow-minded tenets of intellectualism do overlook. A psychologist more mecanico, a usual follower of Herbart, discovering between the ‘foreign land’ situation and that of a school nothing but a quantitative difference from the standpoint of language learning, will surely be surprised after comparing the respective results of both situations. But one who has observed the autonomous nature of the spiritual energy without prejudice would be amazed in fairness to see that those results were beyond comparison. Which formula or method, then, when the grammar scholasticism is rejected, when the vice-like origin of a short-sighted empiricism has been discovered? No formula and all methods. Two principles for the teaching task. The first, to enter into nature and not imitate it. To enter into the playfulness of its authentic interest process, when one cannot stay abroad, together with the fruitful practice of translation, because the interest in translation is real. In translation, the spirit does create out of a present, direct and immediate need. Let the student be thrown into translation as the diver dives into the sea. You cannot learn how to swim without first going into water. It is impossible to learn a language without previously translating it. ‘Languages’ – as my old teacher of German used to say –‘are garrisons which cannot be conquered by siege: it is necessary to take them by storm’. One has to launch into them, flying, among their difficulties, to burn one’s boats in the rear, to place oneself in a real-interest situation, so real that it becomes a matter of conquest or defeat. Second principle: do not disown artificiality either; do not break away completely from art. Take grammar in its simplifying, anticipatory and rationalising role in a good way and, therefore, in its facilitating and abbreviating role. Be aware of its prowess as well as its limits. Nature, a true one and not a copy of it, and culture. Everything but an aspiration to imitation, to a servile and awkward falsification. In pedagogy, culture is not the enemy’s name, as Rousseau thought. It is not called Nature, as Port-Royal thought. The real big enemy in pedagogy, the cause of failure, of sterility, of all fatigue, is called Simulation. And the very first word we must say to teachers, the first one they all should remember, on opening up the tasks of QVADERNS, is this one: Sincerity, sincerity, sincerity! El Guaita. [Nom de plume of Eugeni d’Ors]



Author biography

Alberto Lombardero Caparrós was born in Badalona, Catalonia, in 1968. He received his degree of Master of Arts (English) at the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1994. He was a freelance teacher of English, Spanish and Elementary German until 2009. Before receiving a Master’s degree in Vocational Training (English) at the University Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, in 2010. Five years later, he earned his PhD in English Applied Linguistics with a cum laude and European mention, which included a three-month stay as a visiting researcher under the supervision of Dr Richard Smith in the Centre of Applied Linguistics at the University of Warwick, England. He has been a lecturer of English at the private university CESAG (Centro de Educación Superior Alberta Giménez) since 2017. His principal research interests are English language teaching methodologies and the historiography of English language teaching in Spain. He has published on the history of ELT in Spain in Language and History, Documents pour l’histoire du français langue étrangère ou seconde, and Signo y Seña, among others. He is currently involved in a research project on the history of translation and foreign language teaching in nineteenth-century Spain, directed and supervised by Dr Luis Pegenaute and Dr Francisco Lafarga.

Index Abbs, Brian 142 Ackerman, Rudolph 16, 52 Ahn, Franz 32, 75-78, 81, 85, 87, 101, 103, 140 Alcalá Galiano, Antonio 95-96 Aron, Pierre 119 Ayuso, Francisco García 84-89 Balbín de Unquera, Antonio 98-99 Barragán, J. V. 114 Beaumont, Madame 33 Benot, Eduardo 56, 72-74, 79-80, 86, 91, 103 Bergnes de las Casas, Antonio 31, 46, 73, 79-80, 85 Berlitz, Maximilien D. 81-83, 131, 139 Bosch i Roig 94 Bosch i Bonet 97 Braim, F. J. 92 Braun, J. J. 84, 97 Broomwell, Daniel 35 Bruño, Gabriel María 140 Calry, Magawly 56 Cañada y Gisbert, Antonio 91 Cañaveras, González 38, 95 Caramuel, Juan 28 Carbonell y Borja, Antonio 33 Carrión, Juan 149-150 Carswell, Agnes 117 Casey, William [Guillermo] 51, 58, 85 Castellanos, Pascual Antonio 41 Castillejo, José 135-138 Claremont, Irene 138 Connelly, Thomas 42-44, 48-50, 58-59 Constansó Vila, Pedro 146 Cornellas, Clemente 85, 92 Cuyás Armengol, Arturo 90 Dalmau, Delfín 132 Denis, R. 119-120 Devals 93 Dixon, F. G. 132, 139-140 Doppelheim, Dr 83 Dufief 101 Emperor Kuang-Su 100 Endicott, J. G. 116 Escriche y Mieg, Tomás 96-97 Fábregas, Sebastián 92 Feijoo, Benito Jerónimo 21, 28 Feliu, Narciso 41 Fernández de Navarrete, Martín 90 Ferreiro, Martín 91 Fick, Johann Christian 32 Firth, J. R. 141

Forde, K. 141 Freebairn, Ingrid 142 Fries, Charles C. 113, 117-118 Gabarró, Bartolomé 146 Garrido, Antonio 40 George Brown, John 72 Gimeno, Amalio 135 Girau, Lewis Th. 139-140, 148, 151 Gordon Gullick, Alice 134 Gouin 101 Grandía Mateu, Luis 123-125 Gray, Edward 90 Gullick, William 134 Hammastrand, Robert 135 Hidalgo, Paula 78 Higgins, Thomas 48 Hornby, Albert S. 113-115 Iglesias, Adolfo 149 Jacotot, Jean Joseph 80 Jespersen, Otto 82, 103 Johnson, Samuel 30 Jones, Daniel 113, 141 Jovellanos, Gaspar Melchor 27-28, 36-39, 42, 58, 95 Kant, Immanuel 27 Kearney, Thomas 34 Kordgien, Gustavo 83 Krause, Karl Christian F. 136 Kucera 140 Lean, David 149 Lennon, John 149 Lespardá, Juan 35 Lester, Richard 149-150 Lista, Alberto 40 Locke, John 27 Lord Rosebery 97-98 Lorenzo, Emilio 128 Lorenzo, José de 90 Lloyd, James A. 141 Mackliff, Modesto 141 Mac Veigh, Henry 74-78, 91-92, 101 Mangold, Walter 138-139 Maria Poal, Josep 135 Marinus Jensen, Arthur 143 Marquis de Villena 29 Marquis Tseng 100 Martín-Peña, Eduardo 97 Martín y San Martín, Juan Bautista 35

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Massé Gausselan, Jean-Raoul 132-133 Mayans, Gregorio 28 Meidinger, Valentin 31 Merino Rubio, Waldo 121-122 Moradillo, Manuel de 41, 79, 81, 85 Mountifield, Anne 78-79 Mountifield, William 56, 73, 78-79, 86-87, 97 Murga, Gonzalo de 91 Murray, Lindley 30, 52, 87 Navarro Hinojosa, Ida 90 Nesbit, Bartolomé 35 O’Crowley, Pedro Alonso 30 O’Scanlan, Timoteo 90 Ollendorff, H. G. 32, 72-73, 87, 101, 103 Otto, Emile 83 Palmer, Dorothée 113 Palmer, Harold E. 113-117 Passy, Paul 82 Perojo, José del 96 Prendergast, Thomas 101 Ramón y Cajal, Santiago 136 Reynal, Lorenzo 73 Río, Ginés del 92, 136 Robertson, T. 41, 79-81 Roston, Jacques 131 Ryan, Patrick 149 San Pedro, Joaquín de 42-44, 46 Sanz del Río, Julián 136 Satrústegui, Angel de 40 Schütze, Fran 97

Shaw, Bernard 141 Shaw Fairman, Patricia 150 Shaw, John 92, 97, 102 Shipton, Jorge 50-51 Simian, A. J. 144-146 Starkie, Walter 133 Steffan, Juan 42-47, 58 Sweet, Henry 82, 103, 114 The Beatles 149 Tarrés, Eusebio 94 Thorndike, E. L. 116, 128 Tolkien, J. R. R. 141 Torner Soler, Román 146-148 Torres de Navarra, José 42, 45, 47 Traversi, Dereck 133 Trim, John 123 Urcullu, José de 45, 51-57, 85-87 Valera Santiesteban, Juan 40 Vallés, Camilo 78 Velázquez de la Cadena, Mariano 90 Verda, Pedro de 135 Vergani, Angelo 52 Viëtor, Wilhelm 82 Villar Palasí, José Luis 126, 129 Walker, John 30 West, Michael 113, 115-117 Willis, William 134 Wren, P. C. 116 Zapata, Diego M. 28 Zubiría, José María 94