Transforming Learning : International Perspectives [1 ed.] 9781443899154, 9781443896931

Citation preview

Transforming Learning

Transforming Learning: International Perspectives Edited by

Babalola J. Ogunkola and Stacey Blackman

Transforming Learning: International Perspectives Edited by Babalola J. Ogunkola and Stacey Blackman This book first published 2016 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2016 by Babalola J. Ogunkola, Stacey Blackman and contributors Cover image Art Deco Sunburst by Mark Grenier © 123RF Limited, 2016 Proofreader Lloyd Barton All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-9693-4 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-9693-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Illustrations .................................................................................... vii List of Tables .............................................................................................. ix Introduction ................................................................................................. x Babalola J. Ogunkola and Stacey Blackman Chapter One................................................................................................. 1 Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance Tracey Little Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 25 ‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses to Poetry through a Hands-on Approach to the Teaching of Poetry in a Rural, Non-traditional Jamaican High School Aisha Spencer Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 53 The Use of Music and Movement as a Part of the Arts on the Social Skills and Emotional Growth of Children in an Early Childhood Classroom Renè Level Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 91 Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation Dennis A. Conrad, Laura A. Brown, Lisa M. Philip, Jessica Bentley and Dyanis Popova Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 131 Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality in Special Education Yvel C. Crevecoeur

vi

Table of Contents

Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 157 STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools Peter Joong, Joy Baker-Gibson, Anne-Marie Chai, Nalini Ramsawak-Jodha, Damian Welsh and Peter Wintz Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 198 Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology: Student and Teacher Perceptions of the Use of Questioning and Feedback Kirsty N. Phillip Chapter Eight........................................................................................... 238 Innovation Transformation, Computer Technology and Students’ Holistic Development: Stakeholders’ Perceptions of a 1:1 Laptop Project in Tobago Dorian A. Barrow, Beular Mitchell and Nichole N. Kent List of Contributors ................................................................................. 272

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 2-1 Mean Scores of CSEC English B Examination Results between 2008-2014 Fig. 2-2 Examples of ‘Literary Paper Manipulatives’ Fig. 2-3 Examples of ‘Literary Paper Manipulatives’ Fig. 3-1 Frequency of Activities and Behaviours Observed Fig. 3-2 Frequency of Activities and Behaviours Observed after Intervention Fig. 3-3 Comparison of Pre Test and Post Test Fig. 3-4 Teachers’ Responses to Question Three of Questionnaire Fig. 3-5 Teachers’ Responses to Question Four of Questionnaire Fig. 3-6 Response of Teachers on Question One of Questionnaire Fig. 3-7 Response of Teachers on Question Three of Questionnaire Fig. 3-8 Response of Teachers on Question Five of Questionnaire Fig. 3-9 Response of Teachers on Question Six of Questionnaire Fig. 3-10 Response of Teachers on Question Eleven of Questionnaire Fig. 3-11 Response of Teachers on Question Twelve of Questionnaire Fig. 3-12 How Music and Movement is used in the Early Childhood Classroom Fig. 3-13 Teachers’ Knowledge of the Relationship between Music and Movement and Holistic Development Fig. 5-1 Universal Design for Learning Guidelines (Framework) Fig. 6-1 Engineering Design Process Fig. 6-2 Arduino Projects Fig. 6-3 UWI Grade 9 Problem Solving Competition Fig. A-1 Teacher Directed Instruction Planning Format Fig. B-1 Arduino Fig. 7-1 Emergent themes of student’s perceptions of questioning and feedback during instruction Fig. 7-2 Frequency of responses for peer feedback questionnaire Fig. 7-3 Emergent themes of my perceptions of formative assessment using questioning and feedback during instruction Fig. 7-4 An illustration of my interpretation of the complexity of communication using questioning and feedback as a formative assessment strategy Fig. 8-1 Frick’s (2000) Systems Theory Model of Education

viii

List of Illustrations

Fig. 8-2 A Visual Mapping Levels of Laptop Use on to Rogers’ Innovation Transformation Continuum

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1 Mean Scores of CSEC English B Examination Results between 2008-2014 Table 3-1 Provision made for Music and Movement in the Early Childhood Classroom Table 4-1 Selected Student Calypsonians and Calypsos Table 6-1 Math Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching Methods Table 6-2 Science Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching Methods Table 6-3 Students’ Perceptions of Teaching Methods in Mathematics Table 6-4 Students’ Perceptions of Teaching Methods in Senior Science Table 6-5 Sample lessons Table 6-6 Students’ Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviour Table 6-7 Students’ Attitudes towards GSP Table 7-1 Characteristics of formative and summative assessment Table 7-2 Aspects of formative assessment Table 7-3 Stages of the Action-reflection cycle Table 7-4 Pre-assigned codes Table 8-1 Distribution of the participants by stakeholder category Table 8-2 Time students spend using 1:1 laptop when doing school work Table 8-3 ANOVA source table for significance (F): Time students spend using 1:1 laptops when doing school work Table 8-4 Tukey’s HSD. Comparison of time students spend using 1:1 laptops when doing school work Table 8-5 Stakeholders view of the 1:1 laptop project Table 8-6 ANOVA source table for significance (F): Stakeholders view of the 1:1 laptop project Table 8-7 Tukey’s HSD. Comparison of stakeholders’ view of the 1:1 laptop project

INTRODUCTION BABALOLA J. OGUNKOLA AND STACEY BLACKMAN

‘If teachers are to help learners who begin and proceed differently to reach similar outcomes, they will need to be able to engage in disciplined experimentation, incisive interpretations of complex events, and rigorous reflections to adjust their teaching based on student outcomes.’ —Linda Darling-Hammond, 2006

We live in an environment that is characterised by change, complexity and paradox. It is therefore not surprising that internationally, educators, psychologists and educational researchers are stressing the need for us to change and employ a new array of innovative and interactive pedagogic methodologies so as to transform learning, leading to required changes for the acquisition of 21st century skills among learners at all levels of education. This is a call for us to break away from traditional paradigms and plunge into more innovative, productive and relevant methodologies that are capable of harnessing the resources inherent in learners in order to address prevailing practical learning challenges. Moreover, the technological progress made so far has led to greater interconnectedness globally and has generated more opportunities for exchange, cooperation and even synergy among disciplines. These changes have sparked the emergence of a new global context for learning that has implications for education; hence this book contains international perspectives in terms of the contexts in which the investigations reported in this book were situated. Although many books have presented many approaches to transforming learning in different contexts, there is still a dearth of research-based approaches coming out of investigations in classrooms. This book aims at filling this gap. Therefore, we feel this work is timely and provides a much-needed transformatory approach to learning. For instance, the eight chapters are mainly a compendium of materials on using poetry pedagogy in English Literature classrooms, music and movement for improving social skills and emotional growth of children, ‘calypso’ pedagogy,

Transforming Learning: International Perspectives

xi

universal design for learning to mitigate disproportionality in special education, questioning feedback and formative assessment. Evidently, this book provides a bridge over the gap between state-ofthe-art research and classroom practice. The fact that the contributors are from different disciplines including science education, inclusive education, language arts, early childhood education, etc. shows the multi-disciplinary nature of the perspectives in the book. The contributors drew clear connections between the theory, research and instructional application in each of the chapters. The ultimate goal of the researchers is to have teachers try their hands at the transformative approaches in their classes, hence the quotation at the beginning of this introduction. In a nutshell, this book is a valuable contribution to education internationally. Education Institutes or Schools in Universities, Teacher Training Colleges and education professional development agents will find this book a great companion.

CHAPTER ONE INCLUSION: A PRACTICAL REALITY OR A UTOPIAN STANCE TRACEY LITTLE

Over the years, there have been many children with special needs entering classrooms in Trinidad and Tobago. This situation has sparked much controversy from parents and teachers alike because of the lack of preparedness or the perceived unwillingness of teachers to accommodate them. These stakeholders have called for appropriate teacher education, improved culturally responsive pedagogy, greater student and parent centred school cultures, and more authentic assessments. These modifications are all proposed as a means to make inclusive practices for students with disabilities more effective and sustainable; and to contribute to educational transformation.

Purpose This paper seeks to explore whether or not inclusion is a practical reality or utopian stance in the island of Trinidad and Tobago. In this chapter I argue that inclusion for children with disabilities remains a utopian ideal due to systemic challenges that include: teacher attitudes toward including children with disabilities, teacher efficacy, teacher professionalism, the employment of traditional pedagogy and curriculum practices and a bureaucratic system that prioritizes its distribution of wealth. These challenges make inclusion difficult to achieve in reality. I share my perspectives as learner, teacher, and parent. I inform my perspective as an experiential learner and researcher through the opinions of other practicing teachers and students regarding the impact of inclusion on their lives.

2

Chapter One

I acknowledge that the local education system has fostered a climate of competitiveness and cognitive complexity, which marginalized many students, particularly those with disabilities or who were at risk of failure because of these and other socioeconomic factors. Recently, in Trinidad and Tobago, there has been the inclusion of arts-related and other nonacademic activities that could possibly enable a student with learning and other developmental challenges to develop academically through a personal system of metacognition, where students are able to understand how they learn, to apply this knowledge to their learning, and so, improve performance. The questions that prompted this inquiry are: (1) How do these activities balance off with the more academic subject-specific curricula and what impact would this have on children at-risk for failure? (2) What does transformation in our educational climate truly mean and how does the reality of inclusion epitomize this background?

The Context For many years, education in Trinidad and Tobago, while celebrated for its output of scholars globally, has been a bedrock of elitism and relatively intolerant of children who did not learn in the traditional way and at an acceptable pace. For the most part, its education system has perpetuated a structure of exclusion from its years of Exhibition to the Common Entrance Examination and on to the Secondary Entrance Examination. Exclusion in the sense that schools and classrooms were not designed or prepared for the “other” learner in the classrooms, teachers were not trained to facilitate the capabilities of the “other” learner and classroom management practices did not reflect the knowledge of nonacademic learners. Exclusion creates an imbalance in the system to the point where some students are locked out of the learning context because of an incapacity to support their special needs. Research by Booth and Ainscow (2002, p. 3) explores means of reducing the barriers to participation and achieving inclusion by examining the approaches to teaching and learning, building and maintaining positive relationships between teachers and parents, making infrastructural changes to playgrounds and classrooms and developing the whole person. In Trinidad and Tobago teachers still rely on traditional approaches to teaching and learning which do not truly involve students in their own learning process. Several other dynamics, such as the student’s home and community environment outside of the control of schools, are likely to impede the development of a transformative education system.

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

3

However, strides have recently been taken by the Government to assume a position in favour of inclusion. These positions were taken subsequent to the United Nations Rights of the Child, Education for All, and the Caribbean Symposium on Inclusive Education.

The Problem Despite the rhetoric, a modest amount of policy, and even fewer systems and practice, inclusive education as it applies to ‘differentlyabled’ learners seems to be handicapped. A major indicator seems to be a lack of political will to make the hard economic decisions that provide all schools and communities with the human and physical resources necessary to facilitate and sustain such transformational change. Many students with disabilities, and others considered to be at risk due to a culture of pervasive failure, are frustrated. The politicizing of educational reform, failing bureaucracy, inflexible curricula, along with the unpreparedness of many teachers, and the underutilization of available expertise when available, are all implicated. Consequently, these students may demonstrate self-destructive tendencies or retaliatory behaviour towards situations and to others. Citizens and educators cannot afford to be passive in the light of such educational inequity and discrimination.

Framing the Challenges Inclusion There are myriad interpretations of inclusion that all generally cover the same tenets, as they each seek to expose the concept of this innovative philosophy. The importance of supporting policies, a transformational theoretical framework in favour of inclusion and an understanding that a special needs system does not constitute inclusion, must be considered when defining this controversial topic. The definitions, however, range from the very simple to the most complex. When I think about transformation, I see a riveting move from the rigidity of the classroom space and structure with which I am familiar, to a more routine and dynamic one that engages every child. I ponder my experiences as an educator and the extent to which I can successfully infuse new research, technology and classroom management techniques into the standard operating procedures of my classroom and still achieve the completion of the school curriculum, without compromising the learning capacity of any child. Along this vein, I view transformation as a paradigm shift from the

4

Chapter One

known into the unknown and from the traditional into something novel and contemporary that can elevate me as an educator, all of my students as effective thinkers and learners, and my environment. It further means that I have to very carefully analyse these opposing sentiments or extremes in order to plan for these transformative changes. Inclusion is ideal for schools in Trinidad and Tobago given the increase in number of the students at-risk for failure in schools. Inclusion is defined by Buffum et al (2009, p. 208) as “the policy of placing students with special needs in general education classes for the majority of the school day.” While I concur with this definition, I would expand on it by stating that not only should it be the policy of placing students but also the practice of embracing their needs in the mainstream classroom through transforming curricula, teacher and student attitudes and vision. Cipkin & Rizza (2009) interpreted inclusion as, “a term that expresses commitment to educate each child to the maximum extent appropriate, in the school or the classroom, he would otherwise attend if he did not have a special need.” (p.1). This view of inclusion was echoed by Rogers (1993) cited in Bouck (2006). Rogers articulated that “rather than take the child to the services, bring the support services to the child and requires only that the child will benefit from being in the class.” (p. 1). Essentially, educating a child with special needs in a regular classroom ensures that he is provided with quality education that supports his specific learning needs, even though he is a student in the mainstream. This raises the question of the factors that determine quality in the inclusive classroom and the extent to which they are detectable in local classrooms. Conrad et al (2010) view inclusion as involving the reduction of exclusionary practices in education by creating and sustaining welcoming school communities. External factors such as the environment from which the children come can have a negative impact on the student with learning challenges. Bronfenbrenner (1975) developed the socio-ecological model, which demonstrates the harrowing effects of a child’s environment on his holistic development. Although not a perfect and foolproof system, one must admit that there are those teachers who put measures in place to give their time and expertise, albeit not specialized, to facilitating the needs of some of the children who are considered to be at-risk. There is, therefore, a direct correlation between Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model and successful inclusion. Based upon this theory, one may conclude that there are factors that militate against inclusion and others that facilitate it, outside of the classroom context. The interrelationship between the school and the student’s environment heavily

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

5

impacts upon inclusive systems since the values and norms that are reflected in his environment may build tensions within an inclusive ideology that schools may be attempting to construct.

Barriers to Inclusion in Trinidad & Tobago There have been recognizable attempts by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago and the MOE, to create a culture of inclusion in schools. However, as mentioned previously, there are factors that hinder its becoming a practical reality. Always, the ethos of competition and rigidity of local education systems raises arguments against inclusion becoming a practical reality. The Anti-Inclusion Argument. As previously mentioned, debate exists over inclusion. Anti-inclusion arguments by Tornillo (1994) involve concern over how inclusion will change the learning environment for mainstream students, as demands are placed on teachers to attend to special needs, while simultaneously attempting to teach regular classes. In “Inclusion in the Classroom,” the Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities lists “fear that general education classrooms will be disrupted if students with disabilities are included” as a barrier to inclusion. Conversely, the research is conclusive that children in the mainstream are not negatively affected and that arguments against inclusion are often entrenched in attitudes that are prejudicial.

Bureaucracy Trinidad and Tobago’s Vision 2020 (2007-2010) was the Government’s vehicle to steer the country towards developing nation status by the year 2020. It was based on five pillars: competitive business, caring society, innovative people, effective government and sound infrastructure and environment. Drawn out of these pillars were the following objectives: (1) excellence in innovation (2) a seamless, self-renewing high quality education system (3) a highly skilled, talented and knowledgeable workforce (4) to channel our culture so it becomes a fundamental tool for innovation and creativity. While, the Government saw this plan as economic transformation, one might argue that it has also been a means towards educational transformation. The empowerment of the workforce to increase productivity has its genesis in a quality education system and consequently, this Vision 2020 sought to strengthen early childhood, primary and secondary education.

6

Chapter One

Educational Initiatives Several educational initiatives were established in order to elicit evidence that would support the implementation of inclusive policies and practices in schools throughout Trinidad and Tobago. They may be considered as steps towards inclusion becoming a practical reality. Teachers influence the successful implementation of inclusionary practices in the classroom. Their perspectives and perceptions are reflected in their behaviour towards the children who are at-risk for failure. Consequently, they trigger reactions from their contemporaries, and we will have a look at some of these feedbacks. With the growing knowledge about learning challenges, teachers are becoming more aware of and more vigilant in identifying children who may be at-risk for failure. However, many feel that they are ill-equipped to manage children with learning challenges in their mainstream classrooms. Student Support Services. Approximately ten years ago, the Student Support Services (SSS) was created by the MOE to advocate for students with perceived learning disabilities. It was previously known as the Guidance Unit, but expanded the services to include diagnostic specialists and behavioural and clinical psychologists. The SSS arm of the MOE was set up as an intervention unit and the facilitators were dispatched to schools where they assessed children who had been earmarked for having hidden challenges. Notwithstanding its importance, the SSS Unit is significantly understaffed, which means that to every facilitator there are several schools. The contention here is that this creates a draining effect on the individuals, which is likely to present itself as a demoralizing factor on the psyche. Naturally, any teacher who feels drained and demoralized will experience decreased output in performance, thus as the dominoes continue to fall, the students become adversely affected. Seamless Education. In 2008, there was the creation of the Trinidad and Tobago Seamless Education System Project: Early Childhood Care and Education Study. In this report, it was indicated that many children with disabilities, although at school age, are at home rather than at school. It was emphasized that “integrating children with disabilities in regular classroom settings has many benefits for the child and society as a whole” (p. 60). The study goes on to state that collaboration between Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) and Primary School stakeholders “can share knowledge and resources and conduct early screening and identification efforts together” (p. 60). In 2007, such a project (outlined in subsequent paragraph) was started, in order to determine the next steps for early intervention strategies for children who were deemed at-risk in certain developmental areas.

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

7

The ICAN Project. In 2007, the Ministry of Health, in collaboration with the Trinidad and Tobago Association for the Hearing Impaired, NOVA (a Canadian Group) and the Rotary Club of Trinidad and Tobago, embarked on a project that was to provide screening and assessment services for children in eight (8) primary and (8) ECCE centres. The screening encompassed the auditory, vision and neuro-developmental elements with a view to the formulation and implementation of an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). This Project was managed by the International Children’s Academy for Neurodevelopment (ICAN). The programme was launched in 2007, and in 2015 the results of the efficacy of the screening that took place are still outstanding.

Teachers’ Perceptions, Perspectives and the Curricula Ainscow (1998) posits that inclusive education is really a social process of growth, where people inquire into their own context to see how it can be developed. Inclusion, he affirms, engages people in making sense of their experience and exploring ways to move forward. Teachers then need to challenge themselves, their thoughts and ideas in order to transform themselves as agents of change. In my opinion teaching, being the vocation that it is, requires all teachers to go the extra mile to ensure that no child in their mainstream classrooms is left behind or is left feeling demoralized by the system. To be truly appreciative of inclusive ideology, it is imperative that we listen to the overt and also underlying stories of teachers’ experiences with inclusion. Reyes (1996) identified that many teachers remain and teach in their zone of comfort in the absence of adequate training to interact with the “other” child in their mainstream classrooms. (cited in Speece & Keogh, 1996, p.129). If teachers, in general, would discard the abstraction of “other,” the healing of some of the pre-conditioned ideologies could begin and a way charted towards true inclusion and transformation could commence. From the moment the notion of “other” enters the mainstream classroom, it injects the opposing idea of “exclusion” which is a direct barrier to the success of inclusion and the creation of an inclusive culture. This is in contrast to Hobgood and Ormsby’s appeal that teachers must balance the high-stakes accountability without failing the needs of diverse learners in the classrooms (Hobgood & Ormsby, 2010). Inclusionary practices depend in part on the beliefs of teachers about the nature of disability, along with their roles and responsibilities in working with students (Jordan et al, 2009). The role of the educators in schools is vast and embraces that of effective transmitter of knowledge

8

Chapter One

and instructional leader. However, this begs the question of the degree to which the perceptions about inclusive practices impact their interactions with these students. A Responsive Curricula. A view of inclusion and transformation in education in Trinidad and Tobago cannot be given in isolation of the current educational climate and structure, because it is against this background that we may determine the extent to which full or even partial inclusion may be achieved in local schools. The educational climate is one of competition and, having been not only in the early childhood sector, but also in the primary school sector, I have seen the harmful effects of highstakes tests. DeLisle (2012) states that this process of selection for secondary schools, although a legacy, was used as a “guise for reform” (p.109) the same standardized test called by a different name. Initially, the Common Entrance Examination (CEE) was introduced in the 1960’s at standard 5 placement, the success of which determined the secondary school that the student would attend. This standardized test comprised multiple-choice questions in Mathematics, Language Arts, Science and Social Studies. However, to many it was perceived as a badge of success and failure. The schools of choice were Junior Secondary Schools, Government Secondary Schools, prestigious Convents and Colleges and then there was “no pass.” The fear of not passing or attaining the Junior Secondary status was a daunting one for all students because of the level of education. The negative psychological impact on the students (for instance, fear, increased pressure to be successful, illness) paved the way for the creation of the Continuous Assessment Programme (CAP). With the introduction of CAP, the transition took place from the CEE to the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA), also at standard 5 placement and which served the same purpose as the CEE. I have seen an otherwise high achieving child, excelling in classroom tests, endure a complete “shutdown” during the SEA examination and fail according to self-imposed standards. It stands to reason, therefore, that any child with learning challenges is doubly at-risk for failure in school. In avoidance of this, there needs to be a paradigm shift in the traditional pedagogy of teaching, learning and assessment that is still so prevalent in our schools. It is not enough to say that we want to establish inclusive schools if we are not prepared to go the distance.

Who am I? Using an experiential approach (Kolb, 2014) to this chapter, warrants that I reflect upon my personal experiences, in order to truly demonstrate

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

9

from where and how my position on inclusion has emerged. I share these through the lenses of student, teacher, and remedial specialist. I describe myself as an assimilist experiential learner. This means that I develop my knowledge and meaning from reflection and the testing of these concepts through logic, new experiences, and theories (Kolb). As a teenaged student of St. Joseph’s Convent, Port-of-Spain, I was surrounded by many girls who were very quick thinkers. Unlike some of them, I always had to study and give myself time to process information so that I got it just right. I had an English teacher who was very good at the art of teaching, but merciless on her students. She wrote in my notebook one day, in the presence of my classmates and in huge, red letters, “YOU ARE DISOBEDIENT.” This, because she taught a new topic mere minutes prior and gave an exercise that she wanted to grade immediately after, based on a skill that was just taught. Was I the only one who did not get it right the first time? I do not know because I was too busy being sucked into my moment of sheer humiliation. What were the effects on me and on my subsequent performance? I became withdrawn in her class and would study and work at home. I stopped working for her in class and began working towards the CXC Examinations. What deterred me was my English teacher’s impatience, arrogance and her demoralizing words, particularly in a public forum, and what comforted me was the support that was given to me by my peers. This single experience left an indelible impression on my mind, to the point where not only did I wish to dedicate my choice of profession to working with young children, but also to children who were at-risk for failure in school. I think that not many of my classmates recognized that each of us learned at different paces and in different ways. After all, we each had to have demonstrated a certain ability in order to be there within that prestigious institution. Perhaps, I, too, was guilty of the same attitude until this happened to me. In retrospect, had this not been my experience, I may not have developed this passion and sensitivity for inclusive education. As an adult and still a learner, I believe that we have evolved too far in the realm of education, for the inclusion of students who experience learning challenges to still be presented as problematic. As societal norms would have it, these students should be in special schools and not in the regular classrooms. It is my philosophy that every child can learn, albeit at his own pace. However, to keep them “bottled-up” together and not have them interact with the average student and experience the quality of learning that is offered in the mainstream classroom, essentially robs them of the opportunity to maximize their fullest potentials.

10

Chapter One

The field of education is a dynamic and ever-changing one that requires one to be consistently apprised of advancements in the discipline, open-minded about all of the contemporary possibilities in education and willing to be transformational leaders in education despite the challenges. Moreover, it means having to use that new knowledge to assist all students, and to enhance professional development.

My Experience As an Early Childhood Educator, my priority is to ensure that my services reach every child. To accomplish this, I signed up for the Private, Public Partnership because it subsidizes the school fees for families. In January of 2014, I signed up one six-year old, Theresa, who was diagnosed with a hearing impairment in November of 2014. I signed her up for the third term of the academic year in April of 2015 and was told that she would not be accommodated at 6 (six) years of age. I argued the point that it was the completion of the academic year and that she was signed up and subsidized in the second term, when she had turned 6 (six) years of age. Why is it different now? I was told that the Cabinet had taken the decision that they would not be engaging children with special needs, let alone 6 (six) year olds. The Student Payment Claim Form asks for specific information in terms of numbers of children at the ages 3 (three), 4 (four) and 5+ (5 plus) years. What does “5+” mean, no specifications were given. At a mandatory Provider’s meeting at the Learning Resource Centre in 2014, the question arose as to why a six- year old would still be attending preschool and the response was “Yes, if the child has a special need.” A special need does not vanish in three months. Living in an impoverished state does not typically change overnight. Where is the consistency to the system and why the change in policy during an academic year? How is this little girl, whose first time at a pre-school was September, 2014 and who does not have all of the requisite skills to enter into the primary school system, to receive a quality education? The Salamanca Statement asked that Governments adopt a policy of inclusive education, enrolling all children in regular schools, unless there are compelling reasons for doing otherwise. Can Theresa’s case not be a convincing one? To register her for Primary school will compromise her learning and to place her in a special school is likely to further stunt her development. The Holistic Primary School in Trinidad is a fully inclusive school, which enjoys the support of both the parents and the teachers who understand the inclusive ideology of the institution. From inception, the

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

11

administration of the school and teachers practice integration at all levels. The teacher/student ratio is 9 to 1 for most of the classes and the highest is 12 to 1 (as opposed to the government schools where the student numbers are significantly higher), a paradise group for any teacher. As an educator and remedial specialist, I have seen inclusion work for children who have either perceived or diagnosed learning challenges. One may argue that this may not be the case for all of these students and this will remain an area of contention, since there are arguments both for and against inclusion. In these situations all of the stakeholders work together to achieve the desired outcomes of the process. The thoughts and actions of these teachers are what propelled them towards working with the children, as well as alongside their specialized aides. It is noteworthy that this is a private school that is funded through fees and fundraising. Teacher training is both on-going and holistic.

Methodology For the purposes of this paper, I use an experiential approach (Kolb, 2014), combined with sequential mixed methodology (Ivankova, Creswell & Stick, 2006). I acknowledge that I am a novice using a mixed methodology sequential approach, and struggled to determine the procedure for deciding on the various phases and choice of respective respondents. Using the survey and interview process provided a rich basis for my conclusions. I considered my experiences in conjunction with the opinions of other respondents, through information collected by a survey of 22 teachers, qualitative interviews of 18 teachers, and a focus group interview of 10 students. The approach involved an iterative process, collecting information through survey method and then through qualitative interviewing. The strategy facilitated more information to confirm or negate my perspectives, initial findings from the earlier phase, as well as to verify and generalize findings (Creswell & Plano Clark 2007). The first phase of data collection involved a survey of 22 teachers. In the second phase, I used a focus group interview of ten students and their parents from my remedial class. The questions were intended to explore their general perspectives on the expectations and challenges regarding inclusion and pertinent changes in the curriculum. I obtained consent from all of the parents. It was primarily a matter of including the children's voices (Clough, 2000; Lundy, 2007). In seeking to explore the perspectives of these teachers and students regarding their experience of inclusion, I have three guiding questions: (1)

12

Chapter One

What is the overall view of teachers about their readiness for inclusion? (2) How do the students feel about their inclusive experience and, more specifically, the curriculum regarding the Continuous Assessment Programme (CAP): and (3) What is the way forward for inclusion in Trinidad and Tobago? Question one was answered through a survey of 19 close ended questions and the qualitative interviewing of eighteen teachers. Question two was answered using a focus group comprising of ten students and their parents. Their responses to nine sub-questions formed the basis of the argument.

Analysis Through Constant Comparative Method, the transcripts of the focus group interviews of ten students were analysed for emergent themes. This method of analysis provides the researcher with key information and facilitates emergent themes even from the start of the data collection process. Audio recordings and transcripts were developed and reviewed multiple times to ensure accuracy of the transcriptions. Member checking to verify information was also utilized for the purpose of accuracy. Results of emergent themes were then scrutinized to see if there was any relationship or verification with the survey results, narrative analysis, and my experiences.

Findings The subsequent findings from the survey and interviews are presented here.

The Survey Results from the survey of 22 teacher responses revealed a high level of resistance to inclusion. Participants considered it unfair for politicians and school administrators to expect that teachers in mainstream classrooms would be able to appropriately intervene with students presenting learning challenges in the classroom. Yanoff (2007) affirms this by stating that “the classroom teacher cannot and should not be expected to be a specialist in each area of special education nor should the parents or administrators demand it.” (p. 3). Forty-six percent of the respondents felt that they were ill-equipped primarily because this was not their area of expertise, neither

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

13

was it an area of interest for them. It was found that among the teachers who participated in the survey, 55% were very willing to facilitate the needs of the students with learning challenges in their mainstream classrooms. Of significance, 18% of the teachers did not believe that inclusion was possible in mainstream schools. They taught to texts and stipulated curricula because of the depth of the content in each area. There was little or no time left to truly individualize instruction or build into the teaching plan so that every student could be attended to in the classroom. For them, concerns stemmed from issues of time management and curriculum completion. Of the twenty-two teachers who participated in the survey, only one [4.5%] reported that the SSS made its presence felt in the schools. Further, eighty-two percent of respondents claimed that while they may know of the SSS, the services appear to reach some schools and not others, particularly those in depressed areas or those with high rates of crime. The bureaucratic process of applying to the SSS was both an arduous and fruitless one. It was their understanding that the process for requesting these services began with the written request from the school’s principal. The parent must then take the letter to the Unit and make an appointment to bring the student in to be assessed.

Interviews In face-to-face interviews with eighteen teachers, there was unanimity that the inclusion of children with learning challenges and other special needs is possible in the regular classroom. However, all respondents also emphasized that the level of training provided to teachers is inadequate. We do not feel prepared because while it provides some information, it does not give the level of expertise that allows us to remediate our charges. The training is not specialized enough [T6].

Another teacher [T14] admitted that the Government Early Childhood Care and Education Centre (ECCE) where she works does not have the “challenge of inclusion” so that specialized training is not a significant issue. She shared that this is so because: the Administrator turns away parents whose children exhibit learning and other developmental deficiencies because “they are too much trouble.”

Several teachers admitted to avoiding responsibilities for teaching such students. For example:

14

Chapter One Once a student has been deemed learning challenged, I would refer him to a special school so that his ‘need’ may be addressed [T11].

This strategy has its consequences, as shared by another [T1] notes: It would be difficult to re-integrate a child back into the mainstream classroom once he has been taken out and sent to a special school. This is mainly because he would not have been exposed to the level and rate of work or content that the other students would have been engaging in.

In [T1’s] point of view, such a student will likely keep falling behind and is liable to always be at-risk for failure. An inclusive policy framework, encompassing teacher training and professional development, is created to accommodate these children and when not embraced by all of the pertinent stakeholders, its efficacy is likely to be diminished. Forlin (2001) suggested that many teachers may not possess the necessary knowledge, dispositions and skills to support inclusion in their classrooms, which presents a barrier to the development of inclusion and inclusive ideology. Inadequate training then compromises the quality of teaching and learning that are afforded these students, teacher confidence and teacher professionalism. Teacher professionalism here, in no way questions the integrity and competence of the teacher who supports the view that special needs students are better fitted to special schools. As it relates to inclusion, Pantic and Florian (2015) advocated that teachers need to become agents of change “who challenge the status quo” and work collaboratively with colleagues and families to support the development and learning of all their students.

Focus Group Interview Ten students, monitored by parents, were involved in a focus group interview. The students were selected because they all demonstrated significant learning challenges in the classroom and were impacted by the government’s expanding curriculum. Asked about their thoughts on the introduction of the subjects, the students echoed much frustration. For S13, new subjects were not optional. “They are adding new subjects so this is a lot of work and even more revision. That’s real stress. ”

S8 also experienced increased anxiety, despite parental support.

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

15

My first thought was how I was going to make this work, with all of my home-work and other studies and then I have remedial. But I had to make it work because it was for marks [S8].

Another student shared, “I felt relieved that I was getting an opportunity for extra marks but I felt the stress because there was a lot of work.” [S6]

On one hand, the diversification of the curriculum sought to address the challenges for students who were at-risk for failure, while, in reality, students were faced with a sense of overload and anxiety to what they considered to be “an already challenging school day” [S13]. Beyond the added curricula, and in preparation for its implementation, the Ministry of Education (MOE) had designed a CAC Information for Parents Handbook (2010) that included planned outcomes. Essentially the added curricula and handbook were aimed at happy and motivated learners, improved academic performance, and stakeholder satisfaction. The focus group interview brought attention to evaluation. One of the students [S5] shared that at his school, the teachers “added ten marks (points) to their essay-grades to ensure that they obtain the bare passing mark for the ELA”.

While on one hand, he admitted that it was a dishonest practice, he was conversely accepting of it. “It wasn’t right, but we would fail if she didn’t do that” [S5]. The focus group interview underscored the importance of soliciting student and parent input. For instance, another common view that arose from them was, had they been introduced to the subjects earlier than Standard 4 and 5 placements, they would have been better prepared to achieve success. This positive perspective was evidenced, despite the many academic challenges they faced, which had propelled their parents in the direction of remediation. Their sentiments were echoed by 92% of the respondents who participated in the questionnaire [Q12]. The English Language Arts (ELA) Component of the CAC was an area of anxiety for the students. They recounted the lengthy process of planning their essays, writing them, highlighting the errors, rewriting the passage correctly and editing for mistakes. If there were any, the sentences needed to be manipulated so that they read precisely. This was done not for one, but for several essays. For them it was an extraordinarily lengthy process and there was not enough time to complete the tasks. These students were primarily those who encountered challenges with reading, writing and

16

Chapter One

comprehending. Incidentally, they were the same students who would have benefitted from the Pilot Programme that was to be launched subsequent to the teachers being trained by the Dyslexia Association.

Discussion Three themes emerged from the survey of 22 teachers and interviews of 18 teachers. These can be identified as, resistance by teachers and the need for responsiveness by the Ministry of Education. Teacher resistance was associated with a sense of un-readiness because of inadequate professional preparation. This was also reinforced by their view that they were not being afforded adequate support from personnel; and that the SSS were less responsive than expected. The focus group portrayed resistance from students who felt stressed and unconvinced about the purpose of extending the curricula and a need for more comprehensive program evaluation of the government’s initiatives. The findings reveal that while attempting to practice inclusion, exclusionary practices are still quite evident, for instance, the continued standardized testing trajectory. Perhaps this is primarily because local culture still promotes an elitist educational society and education system, which contradicts the promises made to the United Nations, regarding the promotion of inclusion and inclusive ideology in education. There is also a need for a clear set of policies and guidelines to evaluate student performance and best practice by teachers. This commitment must ensure that the realities (infrastructural and educational) are put in place to facilitate this transformational process and must include the parents in the decision-making progression. Ekins and Grimes (2009) postulate, “if schools do not seek actively to create an inclusive culture, there is no point trying to develop inclusive policies” (p.133). The overarching issue seems to be that the Government and the other related ministries have not truly identified the major challenges in the system as they relate to including the students who learn differently, into the mainstream classroom. The first factor is the timeliness of the release of programmes which the findings revealed to be introduced at Standard Four when it should be implemented much earlier. It takes into account the period during which the programmes are released to the students and the likelihood that the content would be rushed in order to be completed within a given time frame. Inevitably, this would compromise student output in terms of the quality of work that is produced. It would also impact the ability of all students to absorb this new information and apply it successfully under stressful situations. Buffum et al (2009) stated that

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

17

“allowing sufficient time is critical to student learning. We know that virtually every student can learn if we provide him with targeted instruction and sufficient time to learn” (p. 63). A lack of effective and consistent training of teachers is also a critical factor that impedes the success of inclusion of students with learning challenges in the classroom. According to Rieser (2013), “for inclusion to be effective for all children, teacher training should be informed by the paradigm shift underlying the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with disabilities. This includes modifications to learning programmes, curricula and assessments”. Drawing on the findings, many teachers are not trained to manage the curriculum, which often has to be modified to accommodate students who learn differently. With the introduction of the CAC subjects, practically speaking, the teachers are trained for a period of three months, where years of training is the prerequisite for most of the content. In other words, the student’s success in these fields may now be at the mercy of objectivity versus subjectivity. Additionally, having untrained teachers mark or grade music and art projects can equally problematic if it is perceived as dependent on the personal interpretation of the teachers. The demographic data related to the teachers’ level of training indicated that 94% had no background in either music or art. [5%] were qualified in music and “found that those without backgrounds in the arts would be challenged to teach it.” The next factor is the lack of programme monitoring which puts the success of programmes created by the MOE at-risk for failure. Although it may appear that there is an attempt to put measures in place to ensure that inclusion works, the challenges with teachers implementing these, create a barrier. With monitoring systems in place, documentation of the effects of its implementation could be drawn upon and used when its evaluation for effectiveness is in question. Findings from the interviews with the students revealed that the manner in which the CAC subject activities were delivered prevented the development of creativity because they are told what to do. The effect of such only stifles the potential of students who learn best through music and art, for instance.

Conclusion and Implications While in many countries, inclusion is linked to law, policy, and rigorous evaluation, Trinidad and Tobago appear uncertain as to its way forward towards achieving inclusion. Inclusion is a feat to be considered and can work once the specialized teachers are utilized to attend to the needs of the students at-risk for failure in the mainstream classroom.

18

Chapter One

Inclusion is workable and can become a practical reality, however, programmes must to be restructured and simplified to the levels of the students. The distribution of wealth and of the country’s resources has to be taken into consideration when determining what the financial setbacks are, if any, to creating inclusive school communities. It is clear that there must be an established teacher/student ratio in order for inclusion to be successful. As it stands, in many local classrooms there are between 30 to 40 children to just one teacher and in some cases one teacher trainee or no other support system. The controversial slant is that teacher trainees are a cheaper alternative to placing an additional trained or specialized teacher in the classrooms. Alternatively, in the private school system, the school principals allow trained and specialized aides to work alongside children who encounter academic challenges. It should be noted that the respective parent sources the individual and pays for the service. A clearer understanding of inclusion can be realized by considering the culture of the local education system and the history behind its development. From colonial days to present, our system of schooling has been based upon prestige, merit, race and religion. It is uncertain as to whether or not we would ever be freed of these chains that bind us so tightly to exclusion regardless of the measures that are put in place. Unless these yardsticks are fully discarded, inclusion will always be a challenge to fulfill. One of the ways in which this rejection of exclusionary practices can occur is by enforcing the education laws and policies for registering and integrating children into schools. This I believe is the beginning, since this adherence to policies would foster a shared vision of inclusion, and a developing mindset for a transformative inclusive culture. It is difficult to say how long it would take us to adopt inclusion as a mandatory practice in schools throughout Trinidad and Tobago. The hope is that the Government, the Ministry of Education and the teachers overcome the challenges that have been presented throughout this paper in order for full inclusion to become a reality. To introduce visual and arts related subjects into the curriculum should mean that students are taught concepts through these media and be assessed accordingly. In view of this sentiment, visual and arts based subjects should not be offered completely in isolation of academic subjectmatter. In this way there is a clear connection between the curriculum and children’s holistic abilities. The MOE’s aim was to present the children with an avenue for favourable outcomes at school with the introduction of the CAC programme. The scope for high exemplification of same was compromised still by the fact that the student had to compete for marks.

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

19

Kelshall (2015), Chairman of the Dyslexia Association of Trinidad and Tobago, proposed that the extended curriculum, while beneficial for students with learning challenges, should be examined since it places students with dyslexia in an even more pressured situation than before. It is unfortunate that accountability for the degree to which all students understand the curriculum lies with the teachers, since they have many odds that are stacked up against them. In Trinidad and Tobago, these odds range from the inability of some teachers to adapt or tweak the growing curriculum to target the needs of every student to the limited time that is available for topic completion.

Implications There is a need for the Government of Trinidad and Tobago to become more proactive in developing and maintaining checks and balances to ensure the sustainability, equity and efficacy of programmes that have been piloted, with the intention of facilitating full inclusion in mainstream classrooms. [Based on the findings from the focus group, CAC and ELA were found to lack efficacy in relation to how they were presented to students with learning challenges]. This also needs to be followed through for non-profit organizations that are set up to coordinate and implement services that identify children who are at-risk for their development. It is critical that the factors that work against inclusion be taken into account in order for the imperfections in the education system and in ‘planned programmes’ to be rectified or redesigned to ensure the success of every child. The results of [Q13] presented issues of grading and assessment, as they relate to CAC subjects. Critical thought and consideration must be given to reducing reliance on standardized testing in favour of authentic assessments or other means of promoting students to subsequent levels of education. The difficulty would arise in determining how staggered the education system would become in order to invite this transformation. Such a move cannot be accomplished in a singular manner, rather it must be done incrementally so that the teachers and students alike would become accepting of it and the MOE and other relevant bodies would have sufficient time within which to consider policy change. Standardized testing is a nest for exclusionary practices to rest upon and in order for inclusion to become a reality, such practices must be eradicated. Pilgrim (1989) cited in Namsoo and Armstrong (1999) indicated that one of the functions of the Special Education Unit of the MOE in Trinidad and Tobago would be “organizing programmes for the training of teachers

20

Chapter One

in skills necessary for the provision of special remedial services to mildly handicapped children in normal schools” (p. 34). Admittedly, the teachers are being trained to work with students who have learning challenges in the mainstream classroom, however, with a packed curriculum how effective would this be when teachers are drained? At primary school level, the teachers are general teachers in that they teach all subjects. The university degree programmes at the University of the West Indies (UWI), University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT) and the Catholic Religious Educational Development Institute (CREDI), offer courses along these lines but ensure that there are special education or inclusion components. There is now an additional curriculum, but no specialized teachers in many of the schools. Although this curriculum was intended to cater to all children, without the pertinent support, it would neither be effectively managed nor implemented. The recommendation, therefore, is that specialized teachers be used to facilitate and deliver the teaching of the CAC subjects to “free-up” the teachers to teach the regular subjects. [Q15] of the survey raised the issue of the need for the Government to increase funding to the education sector. This would support the acquisition of adequate equipment for every child, as well as facilitate an investment in and introduction to assistive technologies, which will benefit many students with learning challenges in the mainstream classrooms. Special needs facilitators, who were among the respondents, supported the view that there needed to be alternatives to pen or pencil and paper considering the technological advancements that have been adopted by our society. A child who experiences immature fine motor skills at standards 4 and 5 placement can be given an alternative means of completing activities through the use of a computer or a typewriter. This will allow him to complete his activities in a more efficient time frame. Any programme fostering inclusive ideologies must be introduced at the first year level so that the children are prepared and become accustomed to the routine and the expectations. Secondly, there must be a clear distinction between a special needs programme and an inclusive one, because the prospects of both are different.

The Way Forward For Inclusion in Trinidad and Tobago The way forward to achieving inclusion in practice will require three ingredients which involve the teacher fully. First, the teachers must be well-trained and caring educators since this will enable them to respond to the needs of and empower all of their students in an informed and selective manner. Second, a balanced curriculum creates opportunities for the

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

21

development of metacognition and meta-learning and will further facilitate concept and skill mastery in various areas. In this way, the students will experience a sense of how they learn best and, with the guidance of their teachers, be able to apply it to their learning context. Finally, we have seen the importance of engaging students’ voices to the point where they are able to express their understandings and experiences of curriculum implementation and suggest ways for improving it. The above cannot be realized without x First, funding to support the purchase of assistive technologies (AT), the provision of an adequate supply of resources for every student, and the recruitment of specialized teachers rather than teaching assistants. x Second, sustained professional development courses in the field which will assist teachers in holding their own in classrooms while still attending to the needs of each child, challenged or not. x Thirdly, transformation of teacher attitudes in an already developed and ingrained mindset. x Fourthly, curriculum adaptations must reflect high expectations and allow students to be given choice and opportunities to learn how they learn most effectively (Starnes and Paris, 2008, p. 70).

References Booth, Tony and Mel Ainscow. 2002. Index for inclusion: Developing learning and participa tion in schools. UK: Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education. Booth, Tony and Mel Ainscow. 1998. From them to us. New York: Psychology Press. Bouck, Emily. 2006. “Spotlight on inclusion: What research and practice is telling the field.” Electronic Journal of Inclusive Education 1:10. Buffum, Austin, Mike Mattos, and Chris Weber. 2009. Pyramid response to intervention: RTI, professional learning communities, and how to respond when kids don’t learn. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. Cipkin, Gregory and Frank T.Rizza. 2009. “The attitude of teachers on inclusion.” nummarius.com/The_Attitude_of_Teachers_on_Inclusion.pdf. Clough, Peter. 2000. “Tales from the edge: Narratives at the borders of inclusive ideology. “ Insider perspectives on inclusion: raising voices,

22

Chapter One

raising issues, edited by Michele Moore Sheffield: Philip Armstrong Publications. Conrad, Dennis, Nicole Paul, Suzanne Charles, and Kirk Felix. 2000. “Special schools and the search for social justice in Trinidad and Tobago.” Caribbean Curriculum 17:59-84. Creswell, John W., and Vicki L. Plano Clark 2007 Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Darling-Hammond, Linda. 1997. The right to learn: A blueprint for schools that work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. De Lisle, Jerome, Harrilal Seecharan, and Aya Taliba Ayodike. "Is the Trinidad and Tobago education system structured to facilitate optimum human capital development? New findings on the relationship between education structures and outcomes from National and International Assessments." In 10th SALISES Annual Conference, Cave Hill, Barbados. Retrieved from: http:stauwi.edu/conferences/09/salises /documents/J% 20De% 20Lisle. pdf. 2010. DeLisle, Jerome. 2012. “Secondary school entrance examinations in the Caribbean: Legacy, policy and evidence within an era of seamless education.” Caribbean Curriculum 19:109- 143. Dewey, John. 1997. Experience & Education. New York: Simon & Schuster. Duhaney, Laurel M. and Devon C Duhaney. 2000. “Assistive technology: Meeting the needs of learners with disabilities.” International Journal of Instructional Media.27:393-402. Ekins, Alison & Grimes, Peter. 2009. “Inclusion: Developing an effective whole school approach .UK, McGraw-Hill Education Fenell, Zachary. 2013. “What’s inclusion? Theory and practice.” http://www.specialeducationguide.com/pre-k-12/inclusion/whatsinclusion-theory-and-practice/. Flavell, John H. 1979. “Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry.”American Psychologist 34:906-911. Florian, Lani and Martyn Rouse. 2009. “The inclusive practice project in Scotland.” Teacher and teacher education 25:594-601. Forlin, Chris. 2001. “Inclusion: Identifying potential stressors for regular class teachers.” Educational Research 43(3) 235-245 Fuchs, Lynn. 1996. “Models of classroom instruction: Implications for students with learning disabilities.” Research on classroom ecologies: Implications for inclusion of children with learning disabilities, edited

Inclusion: A Practical Reality or a Utopian Stance

23

by Deborah Speece and Barbara Keogh. 81-87. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishing. Gardner, Howard. 1991. The unschooled mind: How children think and how schools should teach. New York: Basic Books. Gentry, James. (1990). “What is Experiential Learning”. In James Gentry, Guide to business gaming and experiential learning. Association for Business Simulation and Experiential Learning. Government of Trinidad and Tobago. 2007. “Vision 2020 operational plan 2007-2010.” Port-of-Spain: Ministry of Planning. Government of Trinidad and Tobago .2008.Trinidad and Tobago seamless education system project. Massachusetts: Education Development Centre. Hobgood, Bobby and Lauren Ormsby. 2010. “Inclusion in the 21st century classroom: Differentiating with technology.” Reaching every learner: Differentiating instruction in theory and practice. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC School of Education. Ivankova, Nataliya V., John W. Creswell and Sheldon L. Stick (2006). “Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design: From Theory to Practice”. Retrieved from: http://wtgrantmixedmethods.com/sites/default/files/literature/Ivankova %20etal_2006_mixed%20methods%20sequential%20design.pdf. Jordan, Anne, Eileen Schwartz, and Donna McGhie-Richmond. 2009. “Preparing teachers for inclusive classrooms.” Teacher education for inclusive education 25:535-542. Kolb, David. 2014. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (2nd Edition). Pearson FT Press. Lundy, Laura. 2000. “Voice is not enough: Conceptualizing article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.” British Educational Journal 33:927-942. Ministry of Education. 2007. CAC information for parents handbook. Trinidad and Tobago: Government Printery. Namsoo, Ann Cheryl and Derrick Armstrong. 1999. “Human rights and the struggle for inclusive education in Trinidad and Tobago.” Disability, human rights and education, edited by Felicity Armstrong and Len Barton Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. 24-37. Pantiü, Nataša & Florian, Lani. 2015. “Developing teachers as agents of inclusion and social Justice”. Education Inquiry 6:3 Reyes, Elba I. "Constructing knowledge in inclusive classrooms: What students know and teachers need to know." Research on classroom ecologies: Implications for inclusion of children with learning disabilities (1996): 125-140.

24

Chapter One

Rieser, Richard. 2013. “Building teacher confidence and competence to include children with disabilities. UNICEF. Speece, Deborah and Barbara. 1996. Research on classroom ecologies: Implications for inclusion of children with learning disabilities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Starnes, BobAnn and Cynthia Paris. 2008. “Choosing to learn” Human development: Article 16. 70-75. NY: McGraw Hill. UNESCO.1994. The Salamanca Statement And Framework For Action On Special Needs Education. Adopted By The World Conference On Special Needs Education: Access and Quali ty. Salamanca, Spain, June 7-10, 2014. United Nations. 1989. “Convention on the rights of the child.” http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx. UNESCO. 2000. Education for all: Meeting our collective commitments. UNESCO. Retrieved from: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-theinternational-agenda/education-for-all/ Williams, Sian. 2007. Caribbean symposium on inclusive education. UNESCO: International Bureau of Education. Yanoff, Jerome. 2007. The classroom teachers’ inclusion handbook: Practical methods for integrating students with special needs. Chicago: Arthur Coyle Press.

CHAPTER TWO ‘EXPERIENCING POETRY’: TRANSFORMING STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES AND RESPONSES TO POETRY THROUGH A HANDS-ON APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF POETRY IN A RURAL, NON-TRADITIONAL JAMAICAN HIGH SCHOOL AISHA SPENCER

‘I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.’ (Chinese proverb)

Introduction The teaching of poetry continues to be an area which poses great challenge to both teachers and students across the globe. Pedagogical approaches and strategies for the teaching of poetry have tended to involve what John Gerber (1970) has defined as ‘agonizing procedures’ which often encourage students to turn away from, rather than run towards, classroom moments with poetry. In this chapter, I focus on the value of both traditional and contemporary positions on active learning to the teaching of poetry. Through the use of an instrumental case study design, the chapter describes how the attitudes and responses of a group of Grade eleven students became transformed with the use of literary paper manipulatives - a term I have coined to speak of a hands-on learning strategy for teaching poetry. Any process of transformation involves reflection, revision and the restructuring of one’s experience. As Jack Mezirow (2009, 22) argues in his discussion of a transformative learning

26

Chapter Two

theory, “how one categorizes experiences, beliefs, people, events and the self involves frames of references…” which shape “…our thoughts, feelings and habits”Ǥ To transform students’ attitudes and responses to poetry in a twenty-first century literature classroom demands a shift from an early 20th century approach to the teaching of poetry, which focused on elevating the text above the student, to a late 20th century responseoriented approach to the teaching of poetry which places the student at the centre of the literary experience.

Some Challenges in Student Responses to Poetry as outlined by CSEC English B Paper 1 Reports Although examination results ought not to be the main marker used to determine students’ success in engaging with any particular genre of literature, the Caribbean Secondary Examination Certificate (CSEC) results for the poetry section of the English B, Paper 1 examination, demonstrate a high level of fluctuation between the years 2008 and 2014 (see table and line graph below). Since students are engaging with unseen poetry pieces for this component of the CSEC English B examination, a brief exploration of both the results and the examinersǯ discussions on these results is important because studentsǯ responses to this paper highlight some of the gaps which exist in their literary skills and competencies. Additionally, the focus for this examination paper is not on the studentǯs use of English Language (though examiners have discussed the importance of competence in this area) but instead on the studentǯs literary competence. This enables exclusive focus on the challenges students face when attempting to understand and respond to poetry and offers insight into why students often have a negative attitude towards poetry. The fluctuation in the mean scores for the poetry section of the CSEC English B Paper 1 examination over the last seven years becomes significant through the discussion offered by examiners about these scores. These discussions suggest that the overall performance of students is based heavily on the ability of students to interpret the figurative meanings in a poem and to offer written responses about these poems, which demonstrate literary knowledge and competence. The June 2008 CSEC English B report, for example, pointed out that ‘parts of questions requiring simple recall were consistently done well, but analysis of situations proved difficult for weaker candidates (CSEC English B Report for June 2008).

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

27

Table 2-1 Mean Scores of CSEC English B Examination Results between 2008 – 2014 Mean Scores of CSEC English B Examination Results between 2008-2014 YEAR DRAMA POETRY PROSE 2008 6.18 5.54 5.03 2009 7.02 4.9 8.43 2010 11 10.49 7.47 2011 10.22 8.32 8.09 2012 12.06 10.74 10.12 2013 10.85 11.59 11.88 2014 11.22 9.76 9.69 (Data collated from the various CSEC English B examination reports between 2008-2014 - www.cxc.org .) Fig. 2-1 Mean Scores of CSEC English B Examination Results

14 12

Mean Scores

10 8 6 DRAMA POETRY PROSE

4 2 0 2008

2009

2010

2011 Year

2012

2013

2014

(Data collated from the various CSEC English B examination reports between 2008 - 2014 - www.cxc.org .)

28

Chapter Two

In June 2011, only 18% of the candidates scored full marks on the CSEC English B Paper 1Poetry question, and one of the suggestions from examiners was that classroom practice should have as part of its focus the process of ‘teaching students how devices are used in poetry, beyond their [the students’] ability to identify the devices’ (CSEC English B Report for June 2011). Again, in June 2014, the CSEC English B Paper 1 report revealed that only 16% of those who attempted the Poetry question on the paper gained full marks (CSEC English B Report for June 2014). Examiners’ discussions on what posed challenges for these students, included the fact that some students ‘did not go on to fully explain how’ particular techniques functioned in the poem being examined. These scores and the report suggest the need for creative and practical approaches and strategies to the teaching of poetry. The CSEC English B report for June 2011, requests that ‘students…be taught the strategies that will assist them in arriving at meaning based on a thoughtful processing of the events described’ (CSEC English B Paper 1 June 2011). This chapter therefore promotes the use of literary paper manipulatives as one such strategy and demonstrates how this strategy is able to transform the poor attitudes and weak responses of secondary school students to the poems they encounter in the Poetry classroom.

Research Question The chapter will report from a larger study on response-oriented approaches and strategies to the teaching of Poetry in the Jamaican English Literature classroom. In the larger study, I use qualitative research methods to assess how the use of the reader response approach to the teaching of Poetry, encourages students to find pleasure in their engagement with poems and helps students to better understand and respond to various types of poetry, with specific focus on those poems on the CSEC English B syllabus. One of the three research questions guiding the direction of this larger study will be presented in this chapter. This research question is: How are students’ negative attitudes and weak responses to poetry transformed through the use of literary paper manipulatives in a rural, nontraditional, Grade 11, English Literature classroom in Jamaica?

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

29

Methodology: Carving Out the Process of Research An action based research methodology, utilizing a case study design, was undertaken in a non-traditional, rural, high school in Jamaica, during the first term of the school year in 2014. Non-traditional high schools in Jamaica are high schools that are often classified as having low academic achievers, many of whom are from low socio-economic backgrounds (this type of school will be further described later on in the chapter). Interviews with the classroom teacher and the students, details from the researcher’s observations, and document analyses of the teacher’s lesson plan evaluations and samples of students’written responses to poetry questions, demonstrate the positive changes that occurred when a hands-on learning approach was applied to the teaching of poetry. The unit of analysis for this case study is therefore the poetry pedagogy being utilized to help to change the attitudes and responses of students to poetry.

Review of Literature Poetry pedagogy in the English Literature classroom Although there have been some positive shifts in the teaching of poetry over the past decade, a specialized focus on poetry pedagogy, remains limited. Many Language and Literature classrooms continue to be characterized by traditional modes of teaching poetry, which are focused on imparting knowledge about the form and content of poetry, rather than providing opportunities for helping students to experience poetry. There is therefore a need to move further away from what Gary Snapper (2015, 40) terms Ǯreductive, de-aestheticized approachesǯ which often Ǯdisable the textǯ and end up pushing students further and further away from being able to connect meaningfully with the text.

Why Poetry is believed to be challenging Many secondary school students are resistant to classroom moments with poetry because of past experiences they have had which were characterized by pedagogical approaches barring them from experiencing the pleasure of poetry. Dymoke, Lambirth and Wilson (2015, 6) explain too that teachers also have a similar response as ‘[f]or too long poetry has been the area of English teaching that attracts only the sympathetic and guilty sighs of many teachers...who have arguably had their attention distracted by the demand of targets, tests and league tables’. Both teachers

30

Chapter Two

and students therefore seem to feel threatened by a lack of knowledge not simply of the poem but also what their responses ought to be to the poem. The traditional focus which centres solely on discussions on poetic form along with the seemingly rigid boundaries determining how one ought to read, interpret and respond to poetry have, it seems, pushed many teachers and students away from the desire to engage with poems.

How we teach poetry matters Constructivist theories of learning support the notion that ‘…the individual construes her or his world by creating coherences among diverse experiences’(Davis, Sumara, Luce-Kapler 2015, 72). The secondary school classroom therefore needs to be one which provides opportunities for students to appreciate different perspectives and different ways of approaching situations while at the same time allowing students to see connections in the diversity of these experiences as part of the benefits of learning. In the field of Literature, constructivism becomes more specifically located through a reader response approach to the teaching of Literature. The Reader Response theory was developed by Louise Rosenblatt in the late 1930s. It speaks of a symbiotic relationship between the reader and the text where meaning does not merely exist within the boundaries of the text itself (as has been promoted through formalist and traditional concepts of meaning-making), but also through the experiences the reader brings to the text during the process of reading. The student’s attitude towards and ability to respond to the literary text is therefore largely dependent on aspects of the text which provide an avenue for connection with the reader’s experience. When the reader is able to read the text through the layers of experience he or she brings to the text, he or she is more likely to have a positive attitude towards and meaningful engagement with the subject.

Hands-on Learning Learning needs to then move away from belonging solely to the Ǯknowingǯ domain to existing within a practical, tangible domain. When we speak of Ǯpracticalityǯ, we automatically invoke the concept of active learning, often referred to as Ǯhands-on learningǯ. Hands-on learning finds its roots in constructivist educational principles attributed to psychologists and philosophers such as Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and John Dewey, who though espousing different approaches to the acquisition and use of knowledge, all supported the premise that learning ought to be experiential

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

31

and that knowledge ought to be constructed or made, not passively acquired. This view is grounded in the understanding that pedagogy ought to be framed within principles of transaction rather than transmission, where classroom experiences are not characterized by students absorbing and regurgitating information poured into them by their teachers, but instead by problem-solving moments, where students are actively involved in the process of learning, through experiences which result in ‘growth and creativity in their subsequent experiences’ (Dewey 1997, 28). Hands-on learning is not new to education. Mathematics and Science educators have, for over a century, promoted the use of hands-on learning to help make the experience of learning more meaningful and valuable to students in classrooms across the world. Within this context, it is much easier to understand the function and value of hands-on learning because one can observe how students might use their hands to work out the perimeter of an object they are given or pour water into a flask and determine the volume of the contents within that flask. It is a much more difficult task to envision how students might be similarly engaged using their hands in a Poetry classroom, which has traditionally been characterized by mental activity, restricted whole class discussion and structured, written responses. Yet, there are Scholastic workbooks and other curriculum advisory documents written by educators or learning specialists across the United States and the United Kingdom, which offer many lists and examples of ‘hands-on’activities teachers might use in an English Literature class (see Van Zile, S., 2001).These resources lose their effectiveness however, if they are used by teachers who do not understand the principles of hands-on learning and how this approach might be directly used to nurture very specific literary skills. Such skills include the ability to describe the tone being used in the poem and to comment on the effect of the use of literary devices in the poem.

Hands-on Learning and the teaching of Poetry The focus of a hands-on approach to learning in the Poetry classroom is therefore not merely about utilizing a variety of Ǯhands-onǯ activities. It is more importantly about determining what will equip students to discover meaning in the poems they read and in turn help them to effectively construct formal responses on the poem based on the meanings they have ascertained. In order for the use of hands-on activities to become a transformative feature in the Poetry classroom therefore, hands-on activities have to be understood within a specific conceptual framework that allows teachers to not simply use them, but to use them effectively

32

Chapter Two

and specifically, to encourage, sustain and deepen student responses to literature. Through active learning then, there will be a shift from merely burdening the student with isolated literary content to utilizing literary approaches to the teaching of poetry which seek to Ǯsupport learner agency and interest through more profound connections to the subject matterǯ (Davis, Dennis and Luce-Kapler, 2015, 98). Dymoke, Lambirth and Wilson (2015, 2) in their discussion of why poetry pedagogy matters, argue that Ǯnon-rhetorical, systematic research on poetry pedagogy is scant compared with other genresǯ. Recent texts on the teaching of Literature have certainly stressed the need for more dynamic, stimulating methods of teaching young people poetry (Carter and Long (1991); Sheridan (1993)), but very few have in fact moved away from the theoretical offerings of sweeping generalizations or the mere description of activities to providing very specific, step-by-step models of teaching poetry in the secondary school classroom (Milner and Milner, 2008); Probst (2004); Dymoke, Lambirth and Wilson (2015)). Poems are crafted in a special and unique way and students have to be taught how to understand and respond to the poems they might encounter. Elaine Showalter (2003, 65) argues that Ǯ[t]he poetic territory immediately presents problems because it comes with a specialized technical languageǯ. Poetic structures of writing rarely imitate the structures characterizing the common genres of writing (such as persuasive or expository writing) with which students are used to engaging. As a result, students have to be taught to understand how meaning is produced through the linguistic features and patterns in a poem. It is a studentǯs inability to explain this abstract presentation of meaning in the poem through his or her own voice and style of written expression that can be seen as one of the biggest challenges for both students and teachers in the Literature classroom. Well known educator, John Holt (1976, 165), in his book How Children Learn, discusses the view that Ǯǥthe only way children can learn to get meaning out of symbols, [is] to turn other peopleǯs symbols into a kind of reality or a mental model of reality, [is] to turn their own reality into symbolsǯ. The point he raises is very valuable for English educators because it points to the fact that for students to be able to read and understand the abstract and symbolic qualities of poetry, they must be taught to first understand how to see their own experiences in an abstract and symbolic way. Showalter (2003, 68) insists that Ǯǥtelling the students about [poetry] is not the same as involving them in itǯ. Hands-on activities have to be placed within a strategic hands-on learning framework in order for them to deepen student responses to poetry. If they are thrown into a lesson purposely or with the mere hope of stimulating the student, their use will

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

33

prove insignificant in helping to develop studentsǯ literary competencies. Davis, Dennis and Luce-Kapler (2015, 100) demonstrate the importance of such an outlook through their discussion on the impact of methodology on a studentǯs mindset. Their belief is that Ǯǥtasks and emphases that focus studentsǯ attentions on the dynamics of learning and knowing (rather than on themselves and their abilities or inabilities) are more likely to contribute to growth mindsetsǯ (100). It is these Ǯgrowth mindsetsǯ that will give the students the confidence to respond to the poem based on both their knowledge and experience of poetry. The theory behind the use of the literary paper manipulatives is therefore that for ‘real’ learning to take place, students need to be active participants of the learning process themselves, rather than be receptacles which merely collect the words of knowledge launched from the mouths of their teachers. According to Santrock (2008, 45), the vision of children as ‘active, constructive thinkers’ is an important one which was first introduced to us by Jean Piaget in the late 1960s. Piaget’s educational belief was that ‘…concepts do not emerge all of a sudden, full-blown, but instead emerge through a series of partial accomplishments that lead to increasingly comprehensive understanding (Haith and Benson in Santrock 2008, 45). Showalterǯs (2003, 68) discussions on the teaching of poetry would seem to support the use of these literary manipulatives as she promotes the view that ‘[p]oetry is well suited to the active classroom…’ Through a reader response frame, active learning is therefore able to transform the negative attitudes and weak responses of students to Poetry, by providing hands-on opportunities for students to learn how to interpret and respond to the poems they read.

The Sample Hilary Frances High had five Grade 11 groups. The case of focus for this case study was selected from an Option Group which was made up of students who had selected English Literature as one of the subjects they would sit for their external CSEC examination process. This group made up the purposive sample for the case study. The group will be referred to from here on as Grade 11 Wonder. The teacher for this Option Group was Ms. Perkins, an enthusiastic woman in her mid-thirties, who taught both English Language and English Literature. There were 28 students in Ms. Perkin’s Grade 11 class: 17 girls and 11 boys. The group comprised students who were selected from what the school had labeled as ‘the lower stream’ of the Grade 11 year group, based on Ms. Perkins explanation of how the group had been classified. All but two students in this class were

34

Chapter Two

performing below their current grade level in most subjects and 89% of the students were unable to speak Standard English with even a small degree of fluency. Most of these students disliked poetry and openly confessed in their interviews, that they saw poetry as ‘boring’ and they detested ‘reading poems’.

The Context According to Snapper (2015, 31), the practice of resisting poetry based on students’ negative experiences of the subject area, is ‘a common feature of ‘main school’ English classes’ worldwide. The question we need to ask, Snapper (2015, 33) suggests, is not ‘to what extent the problem is poetry, but rather to what extent many of the issues students have with poetry stem from ‘…what is done with poetry in the curriculum?’ Although there has been a rebranding of sorts in Jamaica with regard to what was originally classified and known as the "non-traditional" secondary school, arising from an attempt to remove the stigma which was associated with these schools, the reality remains that these schools continue to have limited access to educational resources and have students who are largely from low socio-economic backgrounds, are typically lacking in motivation to learn, and are low achievers. While leaders in the Jamaican education system continue to express their desire to see transformation within these institutions, these characteristics tend to dictate how these schools are perceived and how they function within the society. These perceptions affect both teacher and student motivation. On the outside Hilary Frances High looked fairly appealing. The entrance to the school seemed to have been recently painted and there was a brightly painted sign at the gate with the school’s name. The exterior walls of the staff room, administrative offices and classrooms had also been recently painted. There were signs painted on to some of the walls which encouraged students to be diligent, show courtesy and display care for their surroundings. There was also, however, poor ventilation in some of the classrooms and excessive noise as students loitered in corridors or around classrooms while classes were in session. Many times, students were late for classes and sauntered in without the necessary tools for class, including their Poetry text, which was the set text on the syllabus, A World of Poetry. Students seemed curious about my presence as I came in and out of the school grounds week after week, but eventually they seemed to accept me as one of their own.

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

35

My Role as a Participant-Observer As participant-observer in the research process, I had weekly meetings with Ms. Perkins, either via Skype or face to face. I constructed lesson plans based on the reflections she offered of Group 11 Wonder and based on our decision to use a response-oriented active learning approach to the teaching of Poetry in this group. Ms. Perkins had the opportunity to review all lesson plans at least three days prior to the Poetry lesson and would in turn provide the necessary feedback. Ms. Perkins and I also evaluated whether or not the plans could work based on students’ levels and the periods of time for which the Poetry class was slotted during the week. As participant-observer, I recorded field notes for each class and at various points during the lesson offered Ms. Perkins support by walking around the classroom and helping students who were uncertain or needed guidance to complete their tasks. At specific points during the lesson, while Ms. Perkins guided whole class discussions or provided instructions for students, I would sit with different groups of students to ensure that they understood what was expected of them and to offer guidance where I could.

Data Collection: Putting Things in Place To ensure triangulation, Ǯmultiple sources of evidenceǯ (Yin 2003, 83) were used to collect data. Data were collected through: semi-structured interviews with the teacher and students, participant-observation, lesson plans, teacher evaluations of lessons and samples of studentsǯ work. There were two semi-structured interviews with Ms. Perkins Ȃ one at the start of the action intervention programme and one at the end. There were also two semi-structured interviews with students. The first one occurred approximately three weeks prior to the end of the intervention and the second one occurred at the very end of the intervention. There were two interviews with the students because of challenges with time and the availability of students at particular points towards the end of the intervention programme. Students written pieces were collected to analyse any changes in their written response to poetry and notes were recorded through the participant-observation process. Lesson plan evaluations were copied to ascertain the teacherǯs levels of motivation and any shifts in her own paradigm as a teacher of Literature, and specifically of Poetry, during the four months in which the research was conducted.

36

Chapter Two

Data Analysis: Attempting to Understand the Situation The data analysis for this action research intervention occurred through a case study design which utilized the categorical aggregation of specific occurrences or learning events in the Poetry classroom. The semistructured interviews with Ms. Perkins and the students were transcribed and coded by hand using different coloured sticky-note paper strips, based on the recurrence of particular themes and patterns, three of which will be presented through my description of the case in this chapter. Documents and observation notes were analyzed through the same coding system as the interviews and the information gleaned from documents was assessed, particularly as they reflected the themes and patterns already established through the analyses of the interviews. These themes were then used to respond to the research question of focus for this chapter.

Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses to the Teaching of Poetry Through A Hands-On Approach to Poetry Pedagogy In order to create change, one has to understand in a very specific way what needs to be changed. The experiences of both teachers and students in Literature classrooms across Jamaica are either submerged solely in language-based discussions or are discussed in very broad ways. This often restricts the extent to which effective and sustainable transformation can occur in our English Literature classrooms. According to Edward Taylor (2009, 3) in his discussion on how to set the stage for transformative learning, he notes that, ‘fostering transformative learning is seen as teaching for change…’. This action research programme focused on using a practical approach to the teaching of poetry to transform the negative attitudes and weak responses of students to poetry. The findings from the case study design will be presented predominantly in narrative form, with the use of pictures in particular sections of the discussion. My first semi-structured interview with Ms. Perkins took place in a computer laboratory. We made our way to the back of the room, battling with chairs and tables that had been thrown down as part of a redecorating process which seemed to be happening at the school. Ms. Perkins explained that we had about an hour to speak and then she would need to rush off to teach a class. She explained that she would continue the interview after the class, if I was willing to wait. I assured her I would wait. This interview provided me with a portrait of Grade 11 Wonder prior

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

37

to the action intervention programme, from the teacherǯs perspective. What allowed for a balanced picture of Grade 11 Wonder were the studentsǯ perspectives gleaned from the interviews with the students from this group, prior to the action intervention programme. Both interviews will form the basis for the first section of the narrative which will focus on the situation of the case before the action intervention programme.

Understanding the case prior to the action intervention programme Poetry classes for Grade 11 Wonder were characterized by four main types of activity: note taking, writing essays, line by line interpretations and Question and Answer routines. These types of activites framed the way students were taught to engage with poetry. Ms. Perkins felt that other tasks could be given to the students but did not believe students were interested enough in the subject to participate meaningfully in any other type of task. She admitted that while she ‘start[ed] off feeling very excited every year at the thought of teaching poetry for CSEC English B’, she would end up feeling ‘very shot down after the first couple of classes’ as a result of the negative attitude of the students to the poems of focus for each class.

Note-taking: Depending solely on the Teacher’s Knowledge of Poetry Many of the students in Grade 11 Wonder mentioned that they often found classes ‘boring’ because most of their time in the class was spent ‘taking notes’. This was a situation that both the teacher and the students of the class found frustrating, yet it continued because Ms. Perkins felt that, as the teacher, ‘you want to ensure that you get certain themes and points across to the students’. The students, too, resigned themselves to taking notes because it was something they believed they had to do ‘if you are in an exam setting’. At the time of the intervention, Ms. Perkins had been teaching poetry for over fourteen years, with six of those years having been spent teaching CSEC English Literature. As a result, she gradually resigned herself to giving notes on the poems, hoping that the students would read and internalize the information given to them. Ms. Perkins believed that the higher the grade, the more impossible it was for her to have students experience pleasure in reading and responding to poetry. She felt it was ‘a challenge at times to keep the momentum because at this stage [Grade 11] you are really aiming to cover certain

38

Chapter Two

things.’ Although she was dissatisfied with how the students were learning, she felt comforted by the fact that they would receive information from her. She felt that though she could not ‘make it fun’ for the students, she could ensure that ‘all the key concepts are mastered’ by having students record her own academic opinions on the poem and in their notebooks. Ms. Perkins also explained that she didn’t think it was possible to merge pleasure with an analytical focus on the poems, because she believed ‘that you gain one at the cost of another’. Despite the fact that both the teacher and the students were dissatisfied with this method, note-taking was a major method used to help students attain knowledge of the poetic content. Yet, despite the reasoning behind the use of this method, students’ results at the end of each month did not demonstrate that the students were able to respond effectively to questions on the poems being studied, nor did their responses in the classroom suggest that they had understood the poems. Although the teacher assumed that note-taking provided students with ‘answers’ to help them respond both orally and in writing to the poem, the act of note-taking actually caused a greater level of disconnection between the student and the poem, because they were understanding the poem through the teacher’s interpretation of the poem, rather than via the meaning discovered through their own action-based engagement with the poem. Lisa, a cheerful and energetic student who was always present and on time, told me that ‘We get lots of notes Miss, so we have the information. Is just that we do not really understand everything.’ Joel had nodded in agreement. He continued the discussion: ‘Sometime we no really understand what Miss trying to say in some of the notes. We get it [notes] everyday, but we no really understand.’ It became clear that note-taking was seen as a negative reality for the students which, rather than encouraging, actually ended up obstructing their ability to respond meaningfully to the poem. Ms. Perkins admitted that she ‘spoon-fed them and then after that … expected them to look at it and tell [her] what the poem showed about what [she had] said’. The students, therefore, totally relied on Ms. Perkins to gain knowledge on what another female student, Deandra, (one of the students in the group) called, ‘the important things’, on the poem being studied. For Deandra, ‘important things’ referred to the aspects of knowledge about the poem that would be tested on the CSEC English B examination. This leads into our next major theme.

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

39

Writing Essays as a main class task: Using Examination-based Curricula to shape students’ learning experiences in the classroom Since students received notes, Ms. Perkins felt that it was important to test how much they had retained by having them write essay-type responses to particular questions set on the poems being studied. When asked about how students responded to this task, Ms. Perkins admitted that students often Ǯseemed completely uninterested in the subjectǯ. She also noted that ‘they dislike writing’. She believed that the students in the group had the potential to perform better but that this was thwarted by their ‘poor attitude to poetry’. She felt the students needed to ‘get serious’ and realize that this was not ‘Literature at the Grades 7-9 level’, but that their performance in Literature during this final year of their schooling would have an impact on the options which would be made available to them once they graduated. Yet, the students’ responses in their interviews revealed that their negative attitudes to the task were as a result of this predominantly Exam-focused methodology, which seemed to cause them to feel inhibited and uncertain when preparing their written responses to these essay questions they were given in class. Ashley, for example, a very talkative student in the group, felt that she could not understand what was expected of her ‘from the essay questions [the students] got’ in class. ‘Sometimes we don’t know what to say’, Ashley explained. ‘We just kind a do what we can do.’ Another student, Jazeel, stated that once he saw the question, he simply ‘answered but never think ‘bout what I was saying’. It became evident through the student interviews therefore, that students felt isolated when participating in the task of writing essays on particular poems in class. Their learning experience was stunted by a process which required them to present regurgitated pieces of information and did not afford them a set of opportunities through which to actively negotiate meaning for themselves and to meaningfully express their own, valid opinions on the poem. It was clear that students knew what an essay ‘looked like’. ‘Even though we don’t like to write it, Miss teach us the way the essay must look’, Karisha chimed in, when a small group of students from the class were asked to share what caused them to not like ‘essay writing’. The other students nodded in agreement. It was therefore not the structure of the essay which was a problem, and their written responses testified to this. The majority of students in the class were able to present essays which were written in paragraphs and which introduced the poem and the poet at the start of the written response. Paula, who was seen as one of the class clowns because of her tendency to laugh about

40

Chapter Two

everything, was asked to contribute how she felt when asked to complete an essay question in class. After smiling and looking all around, she responded vibrantly, ‘I don’t think things are explained in a way that help me to understand the poem Miss’. The students’ responses in the interviews therefore suggested that students did not feel effectively equipped to respond to the questions they were requested to do in class and pointed to the fact that they also felt intimidated by the dominant focus often given to this type of writing task in the Poetry classes.

Unstructured Whole Class Discussions: A lack of or limited scaffolding Ms. Perkins shared the fact that she ‘liked the general discussion’ moments which took place in her class. She felt that when ‘the students were placed on their own to do the work, they ended up wasting time or sometimes did not understand what to do’. Ms. Perkins evaluation of the success of general discussions, however, was based on the fact that the ‘students would often give sensible answers’ and that when they did this, she was able to ‘feel a sense of satisfaction that at least what we were discussing was helping them to understand the text’. I believe that these discussions did in fact help the students to understand aspects of the text. The challenge, however, was that their ability to retain information was restricted by the fact that they were not actively engaged in capturing the information coming out of these discussions. Unlike Ms. Perkins, the students, though they felt they understood some of what was being said during whole class discussions, complained in their interviews of ‘feeling lost’ or ‘left out’ of these discussions. Additionally, students felt that their voice was neither heard nor represented in the discussion. Deandra, Mia and Daniel felt that sometimes only ‘certain’ students were given the opportunity to voice their opinions. ‘True some a we noh know the answer same way like some others Miss, then we noh get fi talk’, Daniel argued. Interesting too was Mia’s comment that ‘…so much things are said, we can’t remember everything and sometimes one person chat so long, you forget what you were gonna say’. Whole class discussion has its merits and is considered a positive feature of the Literature classroom, but unstructured use of this technique can often create a sense of confusion among students. Students in Grade 11 Wonder lacked a sense of where they fit in the discussion and were unsure of what was expected of them in the lesson. Importantly too, they left the discussion unaware of how to categorize all the knowledge they

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

41

had acquired on the text and so though many thoughts were shared during the discussion, students actually left the classroom without a clear sense of how the various aspects of the content being discussed fit together. This section has highlighted some of the traditional methods which were being used in the Grade 11 Wonder Poetry class prior to the introduction of the action intervention programme. Data analysis from the interviews with both the teacher and the students suggested that these traditional methods were contributing to the negative attitudes and responses of students to poetry. The final section of this chapter will now examine the way in which the attitudes and responses of students of Grade 11 Wonder as described above, were transformed through the use of an Active Learning Response-oriented approach to the teaching of Poetry which occurred specifically through the use of Literary Paper Manipulatives in the classroom.

Using Literary Paper Manipulatives to Transform Student Attitudes and Responses to Poetry Understanding the case during and after the action intervention programme For the purposes of the action intervention programme, I coined the term ǮLiterary Paper Manipulatives’to refer to hands-on paper tasks which are characterized by a literary focus. The use of Literary Paper Manipulatives in the Literature classroom promotes the belief that by engaging students with small pieces of poetic knowledge and experience, over a period of time, students are gradually able to make sense of the whole picture for themselves. The three main types of Literary Paper Manipulatives which were used in the action research programme were: Graphic Organizers, Visual Stimuli and Poetry Response Sheets. Graphic Organizers represent information in a concise and sectionalized manner through the use of various types of diagrams, maps and charts. Visual Stimuli refer to the use of pictures and images used to help evoke emotion or stimulate thought. Poetry Response Sheets refer to templates of various kinds which are used to develop studentsǯ oral and written expression on poetry. For the purposes of this chapter, I will provide examples of specific sessions which utilized each type of literary paper manipulative that had been previously defined.

42

Chapter Two

Using Literary Paper Manipulatives lessened students’ resistance to engaging with poems Students murmured and their eyes shone with excitement as Ms. Perkins told them to hurry and take their seats and get ready to look at the nature pictures which were on their desks. One picture was placed in between two desks. Daniel, a tall boy who usually had his school bag slung across his chest, was the first to engage Ms. Perkins in conversation. ‘Is what going on Miss?’ he asked. The students were aware that something different was happening and seemed to be interested in finding out what it was all about. We selected the poem ‘A Contemplation Upon Flowers’ as the first poem of focus for the programme because Ms. Perkins felt that previous encounters with nature poems had been unsuccessful. ‘They did not see the point of reading a poem that had something to do with flowers,’ Ms. Perkins stated. ‘Especially the boys…’ As we discussed how this poem could be introduced to students therefore, the decision was taken to see if through a shift in methodology, students might be more inclined to engage with the poem in a more effective manner. As we had planned prior to this first session, Ms. Perkins zoomed in on the types of skill students would need to help them interpret and respond to the poem, ‘A Contemplation Upon Flowers’.

Helping students to understand the function of symbols in poetry The first step was to have students select an element of nature which reminded them of an important event or a special person in their lives. The students were told that the emotions evoked could be as a result of the experience being perceived by them as a ‘bad’ or ‘good’ experience. Students were given a ruled 3” by 5” index card on which to create a Tchart and jot down the name of the element of nature they had chosen on one side and why this element would evoke either a negative or positive response from them, on the other side of the T chart. When they returned to the class, there was a mix of emotions on display. Some students were already laughing with each other about the elements of nature selected, others were quiet and came in with their written responses but they did not converse with anyone and then a few came in evidently upset. Ms. Perkins and I had discussed the possibilities of these various emotional reactions and so we looked at each other, feeling that we were off to a good start.

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

43

As teachers of English, we tend to think that students ought to always have a positive response to a poem or they are unable to appreciate it. This is not so, however. It is their emotional response to it – whether negative or positive – which helps the student to analyze and respond meaningfully to the poem. Those who did not go on the outside to select their element of nature were asked to focus on the nature pictures which had been cut out from magazines and to choose a particular element from the picture which reminded them of a good or bad memory. The students were then asked to circle the images on the picture and then explain the reason they chose certain aspects of nature. When they came inside, students were given a graphic organizer in the shape of a flower and everyone was asked to listen to the poem as it was read by one of their classmates. By the time Ms. Perkins had the students read the poem, they were ready and raring to go. Daniel however slumped in his chair when the student started reading the poem. Once, the student had finished reading the poem, Ms. Perkins asked the students to look at their ‘flower graphic organizer’ and to place the word ‘Flowers’ in the circular part. They were then asked to work in pairs to write down the characteristic of the flower being celebrated by the poet in each of the petals on the ‘flower graphic organizer’. Daniel and some of his friends got to work immediately. His entire body language became transformed. When this activity had been completed, Ms. Perkins engaged students in a discussion on the qualities of the flowers being celebrated by the persona and pulled into that discussion the pervious nature symbols the students had chosen to represent their own experiences. Little water droplets had been placed above the flower on the graphic organizer sheet and students were asked to fill those in with the literary devices which were used to help to the poet to get his message across. One student of each pair then shared with the rest of the class one device selected and explained what it was used to do. When asked about what she was able to gain from the experience of using the literary paper manipulatives to arrive at her own understanding of the poem, Mia energetically shared that students ‘were being taught in a way that teens could relate to miss…instead of the ordinary reading and dictating miss…That was a big difference – a big plus.’ By personally connecting with a theme or issue in a poem therefore, students were better able to understand and articulate their opinions about the poem. According to Mia, ‘putting my thoughts on paper about nature before I looked at the flower poem didn’t make me look at the surface things about the poem only. We also went beneath...'.’ What helped Mia to see ‘beneath’, as she called it, was the way in which she was able to trace

44

Chapter Two

her own actions when explaining why the element of nature means something to her and was the fact that she could now connect those actions with those of the poet who describes the thoughts which occur when he celebrates particular positive characteristics about the flower. By first allowing the students to connect elements of nature with their own experiences, in a visual and hands-on manner, the teacher was better able to create the space which would foster their own understanding of the personaǯs thoughts as he reflected on the Ǯflowersǯ. By also continuing this experience with the task of filling in a graphic organizer based on the poemǯs details, students were beginning to see for themselves, the pieces of poetic information which needed to be extracted to help readers arrive at a valid interpretation. Daniel explained that doing the hands-on tasks prior to and during the reading of the poem, helped him to change his approach to reading and interpreting the poem. ‘What stand out for me’, he said, ‘is that I did not just read the poem and start answering the question. I read it and I think before I answer based on the information I have in the flower [graphic organizer used with the poem)’. This response demonstrated that students’ experience of poetry in the class saw them shifting from being reliant on the teacher to becoming independent learners who recognized that they played an important role in the processes of interpretation and response.

Using Literary Paper Manipulatives encouraged student independence and self-confidence in their engagement with poems When all the students had returned to their respective seats, Ms. Perkins allowed for some discussion time by asking specific students to look back at the responses on their index cards. A number of students began to shout out various pieces of information based on what they had written, which for them was similar to what the poet had written. Ms. Perkins then explained that in the same way that students were able to use their particular elements of nature to speak about an important situation or person in their lives, so too were poets able to use elements of nature in their efforts to speak about things in life which had impacted them in a deep way. Students did not merely complete hands-on activities therefore. They completed these hands-on activities through a philosophical approach which embraced both reader-response and active learning principles. Janet, a timid but proactive young lady in the group, articulated the effect the hands-on tasks had on her own attitude towards studying poetry.

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

45

When asked to explain one of the benefits of using the hands-on tasks to respond to the poems studied in class, Janet’s explanation was: ‘Well miss, I’m more confident because after I started reading the poem based on how I was feeling I wrote down my feeling and get meaning from my feelings which could help me get the meaning from the poem.’ Jazeel nodded his head in agreement with Janet’s statement and added that although he wondered ‘is what this Miss a do now’ when the programme first started, he became ‘better at analyzing poems’ and ‘gained more confidence because of the fun that [he] found’ when completing the tasks. When asked to expand on what he saw as being ‘fun’, Jazeel explained that ‘what we had to do with the tasks felt like Maths miss. I feel like I was in a Maths class. We have to solve the thing…solve the puzzle like…find out how it work…and then show everybody how it work. I did like that!’ Daniel explained that he ‘hate[d] reading, but when I hear Miss ask us to do something in the flower, I start to feel that maybe this won’t be so bad after all.’ He smiled and continued: ‘When we finished Miss, I feel good. Like I understand what the man was writing. Before, I never get one thing bout this flower thing.’ By allowing students to personally connect with the poem’s content in this way, the door was opened for students to be more affectively attuned to the poem’s content in ‘A Contemplation Upon Flowers’. The poem was therefore not only read, more importantly, it was experienced by the students.

Using Literary Paper Manipulatives motivated students to express themselves orally and in writing about poems The oral expression As the students are the ones at the centre of this literary experience, shaping their own knowledge of and connection to the poems through the use of these manipulatives, motivates them to express their opinions about various issues, in the classroom. Their motivation then propels them to new spaces of learning where they can move from a simple or basic understanding of a concept to having a deeper, more critical response to the poetic. As a result of the fact that the literary manipulatives are crafted based on a set of literary skills and concepts, specifically related to the poem, students are able to actively learn how to read, interpret and respond to poetry, through what they Ǯdoǯ with these manipulatives. Showalterǯs view captures the significance of this teaching approach when she argues that Ǯ[t]he potential power of teaching poetry depends on active student engagement with both poetic language and meaningǯ (Showalter 2003, 69).

46

Chapter Two

Mia explained that she liked Ǯthe activities because when I do the things like that [use the literary paper manipulatives] I get to know what I have to say moreǥand I get to understandǥso I speak moreǥǯ During the month of October, the students were asked to watch a brief documentary of the events leading up to the brutal death of Emmet Hill, a young African-American boy who received great attention from Martin Luther King Jnr because of the racial beliefs and practices which had led to the death of this young boy. Guided whole class discussion and question and answer sessions provided the opportunity for students to speak about what they were hearing, seeing, feeling and thinking about the issue of focus. After watching this video, the students were asked to brainstorm all the emotions they experienced while watching the video. They were then asked to go into groups and place these emotions in different categories, starting first with those emotions which were positive and those which were negative. This activity was done to help the students begin to understand how to analyze the Ǯeffectǯ that visual and aural images have on the reader; one of the major challenges CSEC reports say students face when responding to the unseen poem on the English B Paper 1 examination. The students were then given a short article with a picture of Dr. Martin Luther King in the midst of both black and white people standing in various positions on a street. Before reading the article, the students were asked to jot down, in a square with lines, the various images they saw in the picture. Once this was done, they were asked to discuss their jottings with various members of their groups, and then the leader of each group would share the recorded information with the rest of the class. They were then to fill out a Poetry Response Sheet which focused on what the images helped to convey about the situation in the picture. The images captured were phenomenal for a set of students who were previously classified as Ǯunable to do Literatureǯ by some of the English teachers with whom Ms. Perkins conversed. Students shared expressions such as Ǯthe whites stand away from the blacksǯ, Ǯhis face looks tiredǯ, Ǯthe womenǯs bosoms are packed up with angerǯ and so on. The classroom was filled with activity as students then attempted to fill out the Poetry Response Sheets. The template began with a writing prompt which stated: ǮThe image ___________________ demonstrated that ________________.ǯ Students peered into each otherǯs papers, nudged each other in the side to get responses quickly and chattered about their ideas, while Ms. Perkins and I walked around the room, offering assistance wherever and whenever it was needed. Kimberley, a lover of poetry and a well-spoken student, voiced her opinion about the way the

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

47

tasks helped students to feel better equipped to participate orally in class. She shared that Ǯthe persons I hear speaking out I did not use to hear them speaking out. The programme pulled everybody out. Now the people who didnǯt speak before are in competition with the persons who usually spoke. Itǯs crazy!ǯ She laughed. Her laughter indicated her level of surprise about this outcome. When the Poetry Response sheets were filled out and students had shared their thoughts in the class, Ms. Perkins then asked various students to read different sections of the article beneath the picture. The article spoke of the need for peaceful protests and the need to stand against racism, especially racism against children. Students were now able to connect their own thoughts based on the images with those expressed in the article. Ms. Perkins then requested that students, in their groups, circle important words in the article that they believed would help to convey the central idea. Once this was done, students shared their selections with the rest of the class who had the opportunity to comment on the choices made. Since they had something with which to compare the information in the article, students were more attentive and felt more confident about articulating their opinions on what was presented in the article. Ms. Perkins then asked students to write a group poem using the words which were circled in the passage. This activity took longer than expected, but it yielded some powerful poetry. One example of the poems written as a result of this activity was entitled ǮThat Mondayǯ. It read: Monday, June 1966 I was presiding over regular staff. Heard Meredith had been shot Freedom MarchǥMississippi. There was anger throughout the room. Then, a momentary hush. Then outrage came again from every corner of the room. (Group 2, Grade 11 Wonder)

There is so much that could be discussed about what the completion of this task revealed, but my focus will be on the oral (and written) responses of the students. It is noteworthy that the fluent use of Standard English is present in a poem created by predominantly Creole-based speakers. This of course is because they were asked to use the words and information in the passage to express the meaning of the article poetically. By this time, they had heard the language being modeled through the use of the documentary and the reading of the passage by various members of the

48

Chapter Two

class. As a result of the all the tasks that had been completed orally and in writing, many students expressed how boldly they felt about reading their poems aloud. For the last thirty minutes of this particular session, Ms. Perkins distributed the poem ǮDreaming Black Boyǯ by James Berry to the students in the class. As they received the poems, students became tense and quiet. It was amazing to note the lack of movement and conversation in a class that was otherwise described by Ms. Perkins, as a room echoing with Ǯcomplaints and murmursǯ about students not wanting to engage with poetry. Once the second stanza was read, the tension heightened. I wish torch throwers of night would burn lights for decent times. Wish plotters in pyjamas would pray for themselves. Wish people wouldnǯt talk as if I dropped from Mars.(A World of Poetry for CXC(1994, 108)

Daniel reflected on that classroom experience and noted, ǮMiss, if we never watch the video and do all those things before we read the poem, we wouldnǯt did get it.ǯ He discussed the fact that it was through all that had been completed and discussed as a result of the use of the literary paper manipulatives that each student was able Ǯto feel the poemǥto really understand what this boy was feeling.ǯ According to Ms. Perkins, Ǯbecause students were able to build on section after section of the experience being articulated in the poem, they were analyzing without even realizing it and voicing their own analyses without hesitationǯ. The literary paper manipulatives allowed students to connect the poetic with the personal and as a result Ǯdemystifiedǯ the poetic, while allowing them to still experience the emotion evoked by poetry. The written expression A transformation in student responses was also noticed in the students written responses to questions on the poems being studied. In her postinterview with me, Ms. Perkins expressed her belief that Ǯthe greatest achievement of the programme was the improvement in the writing skills of the studentsǯ. She delightedly explained that Ǯit was a pleasureǯ to read their responses in a final test she gave them at the end of the programme. She discussed the fact that because some of the hands-on tasks had required students to record specific lines of the poem in supplying evidence on some of the poetry response sheets given for specific poems, students were able to better incorporate Ǯdirect examples from the poemsǯ

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

49

whereas before their details on the poems were, according to Ms. Perkins, Ǯscant and vagueǯ. The student participants also thought they had improved tremendously in their ability to express themselves in writing about the poems they had studied. According to Jazeel, one of the activities which stood out for him, was Ǯthe activity where we were put in pairs and we were given a task to go up and read a poem on the wall and then one at a time we had to remember different parts of the poem and then come back and write them down on a piece of paper. After we write it down, we had to say what the lines mean.ǯ He chuckled. ǮIt did hard Miss but it helped me remember the poem when I had to answer a question about the poem one time in class.ǯ Other activities included comparing poems through the use of Venn diagrams, webbing and clustering diagrams on the board and in their notebooks, creating cartoon illustrations of particular aspects of setting or displays of emotion in specific poems, and completing poetry response sheets which utilized writing templates. The literary paper manipulatives encouraged students to write because they allowed students to present their ideas and content from the poems in stages. The narrative poetry organizer and writing template based on the poem ǮTheme for English Bǯ, showed in Fig. 2-2, for example, helped students to represent large pieces of information in smaller, more comprehensible ways. This enabled them to process the meanings in the poem gradually, rather than all at once and so allowed for better retention and comprehension of the poetic content and consequently, deepened studentsǯ written responses to the poem. Students responses on the poetry response sheets for the poem ǮChildhood Tracksǯ (see Fig. 2-3) by James Berry, also demonstrated their level of engagement with the poem. As a result of the fact that the template provided on the response sheet already had the start, middle and end of sentences based on thoughts on the poems, students were able to focus more on their interpretations of the poemǯs meaning. Although these sentences were presented in part to students, however, they still had to find the appropriate vocabulary items, phrases and sometimes complete sentences needed to effectively complete the response sheet. Activities like these allowed students to build their writing skills through the demonstration of a variety of accurate ways of how to present written expression on the poemǯs meaning. They provided students with the opportunity to learn how to build their own responses to poems at a slower pace than is customary in a Poetry class where the teacherǯs major concern is to hurry and complete the poem on the syllabus.

50

Chapter Two

mples of ‘Literaary Paper Manip pulatives’ Fig. 2-2 Exam

Narrative Poetrry organizer with a paragrapph writing template below w which was based on the pooem in question.

Pieces off a poem cut up to be reasssembled by students w who recorded, in writingg, a reason for thee ordering of each sttrip.

Fig. 2-3 Exam mples of ‘Literaary Paper Manip pulatives’

‘Experiencing Poetry’: Transforming Students’ Attitudes and Responses

51

There was a very quiet and self-conscious student by the name of Eliza, who demonstrated an important change offered through the programme with regard to the transformation of students’ written expression. In my interview with her, she expressed her belief that ‘this class kind of helped me to manage my other subjects because ‘first time I couldn’t write an essay but now I can write better grammatically. In other classes, when they say you should write an essay, they don’t actually explain how, but I learnt how with the way I had to put down my thoughts with the paper things we get to use.’ It became apparent, therefore, that through the programme and the subsequent analysis of the data coming out of the programme, students’ ability to respond in writing to CSEC-based questions on Poetry was heavily dependent on the type of scaffolding they received through the use of the literary paper manipulatives in the class.

Conclusion There needs to be a clear understanding of both whyand howhands-on activities ought to be used to teach Poetry. The use of these activities does not merely provide stimulation and excitement but also allows students to discover and experience a world of poetry for themselves. What the students do with literary paper manipulatives, as demonstrated throughout this chapter, helps to build an awareness of and ability to respond to, the literary and linguistic features of the poetic text. The manipulatives also help to demonstrate to students, through the completion of the physical tasks they are given to do, the ways these features are used by the poet, to produce and enhance meaning. According to Davis, Dennis and LuceKapler 2015, 105), Ǯall abstract knowing is rooted in bodily experienceǯ. Through their physical engagement with literary paper manipulatives based on a particular poem, students acquire the literary skills needed to effectively read and respond to the poems they study. As teacher Diane Middlebrow suggests in Elaine Showalter’s Teaching Literature (2003, 65), ‘…students need direct encounter with poetry, not just abstractions’. If we truly desire to see transformation in our Poetry classrooms, then we need to begin to acknowledge the significant role active learning is able to play in shaping the experiencing of poetry for secondary school students across the Caribbean.

52

Chapter Two

References Davis, Brent, Sumara Dennis and Rebecca Luce-Kapler.2015. Engaging Minds: Cultures of Education and Practices of Teaching. Oxon: Taylor and Francis. Dymoke, Sue, Andrew Lambirth and Anthony Wilson.2015. Making Poetry Matter: International Research on Poetry Pedagogy. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Dewey, John. 1997. Experience and Education. New York: Touch stone. Holt, John. 1976. How Children Learn. Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd. McWatt, Mark and Hazel Simmons-McDonald.1994. A World of Poetry for CXC. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers. Mezirow, Jack, Edward Taylor and Associates. 2009. Transformative Learning in Practice: Insights from Community, Workplace and Higher Education. California: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Santrock, John W.2003. Life Span Development. New York: McGraw Hill Companies, Inc. Showalter, Elaine.2003. Teaching Literature. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Snapper, Gary. 2015. ‘Exploring Resistance to Poetry in Advanced English Studies’ in Making Poetry Matter: International Research on Poetry Pedagogy. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Taylor, Edward. 2009. Fostering Transformative Learning’ in Transformative Learning in Practice: Insights from Community, Work place, and Higher Education. California: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Yin, Robert K. 2003.Case Study Research: Design and Methods. 3rd Edition. London: Sage Publications, Inc.

CHAPTER THREE THE USE OF MUSIC AND MOVEMENT AS A PART OF THE ARTS ON THE SOCIAL SKILLS AND EMOTIONAL GROWTH OF CHILDREN IN AN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOM RENÈ LEVEL

Background Teachers and other caregivers in early childhood must be made aware of the need to provide successful learning for those children who come from different backgrounds and with a wide range of abilities. Keeney (1997) posited that this awareness will become apparent from an understanding that children’s ability and development has implications for the kind of experiences that are developmentally appropriate for each child. Good programmes provide experiences that contribute and help children become responsible persons who care about and show concern for others (Jalongo & Isenberg, 2006). Early childhood programmes should therefore be sensitive to and supportive of the development of the child. Music and movement is natural and is visible in every aspect of life. It is therefore quite acceptable to include music in educational programmes for young children. Music develops positive relationships for young children. This is essential for their emotional growth and encourages positive supportive relationships which are essential for healthy, emotional and social development (Berk, 2006; Craig, 1999). Music fosters creativity and imagination, two other very important functions in early childhood which are vitally important to its development. Article 31 of the United Nations Rights of the Child (2002) recognizes the right of young children to maintain and develop creative potentials. It states that every child has the right “to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities

54

Chapter Three

appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts” (Barrows, 2001), 363. It is therefore the responsibility of educators and caregivers to provide creative experiences to improve children’s development. Music and movement creates joy through aesthetic, inspirational movements and opportunities to make sense out of the chaos of society. Experiences with music and movement using the “whole music’ approach, that is, integrating music and movement in learning across disciplines, will include a variety of pieces from other cultures as music is utilized across the curriculum. If students are to develop their potential creativity in music and movement it is best they be allowed to express themselves through activities which will enable them to use their imagination. Music and movement should be integrated into the curriculum throughout the day as it has the power to reach every child as they share songs and rhymes, play instruments, chant singing games, listen to, create and move to music. Research by Keeney notes that it is important to integrate music and movement in the curriculum. He states that, “teachers who understand stages of development, individual differences and how the brain processes knowledge holistically will ... [know] how to integrate music with other subjects” (cited in Hart, Burts and Charlesworth, 1997, 104). He further added that “of all of the subjects in the early childhood curriculum, music is the least understood even though the most widely used. It is taken for granted, and has a low position on the hierarchy of curriculum subjects and when included, it is often times used as a diversion to keep children occupied or as a way of controlling them”. Hildebrandt (1998) expressed the view that “although we strive to honour and encourage children’s creativity in all areas of development, sometimes music gets lost in the process” (reference with page number).

The Importance of Music in the Classroom The researcher’s choice of topic is influenced by her personal experiences as a counsellor and her interest in psychology. The researcher has realized that using the arts can enhance the child’s development. It is therefore on this presupposition that the researcher focuses on two elements of the arts, music and movement, to enhance children’s learning. Music helps children understand other people and their cultures and this increases opportunities for social and emotional development. Music also provides a means of enrichment and growth for every child. The researcher believes that young children have the right to engage in musical

The Use of Music and Movement

55

experiences that are based on action art not a performing art, in that, it will help increase their abilities in other subjects. The children the researcher will be observing for this study have poor social skills. The group of children she worked with lacked music and movement in their activities, although the literature reveals that music and movement are contributing factors to children’s development (Tucker & Davies, 1995). Through discussion with the early childhood teachers it was noted that when music and movement was included in the daily activities, it took place mainly during devotion and at other times to get the children settled for transition between lessons. The researcher realized that teachers experienced challenges with classroom management. The literature suggests that the creative arts subjects like music and movement can minimize inappropriate behaviour in the classroom. It is on this premise, that the researcher carried out an investigation to determine how music and movements can be used to enhance learning in the early childhood classroom.

Statement of the Problem Poor social skills are a concern in the area of early childhood development and in particular for groups of five year olds who exhibit disruptive behaviour that hinders their academic performance. It is hoped that using music and movement to enhance learning will help to alleviate this concern.

Purpose of the Study The main objective of this study was to investigate the use of music and movement in the early childhood classroom. In the researcher’s capacity as a counsellor in various schools and with some troubled children, the researcher surmised that infusing her programme with music and movement helped her interactions with children who were viewed as disruptive. In addition, the researcher wished to examine teachers’ attitude towards the use of music and movement; the provision made for its inclusion in the classroom environment and determine what knowledge teachers have of the importance of music and movement in the early childhood classroom.

56

Chapter Three

Significance of the Study Early childhood education is integral to the development of children and so too are the types of programmes used to enhance their development. It is therefore the intention of the researcher to find out the extent to which teachers use music and movement in the early childhood classroom. The findings of this investigation can shed light on how music and movement can be incorporated into curriculum planning and used by teachers to assist in childhood development. The findings will serve to convince and enlighten teachers’ practices, particularly early childhood teachers so that they will see the value of music and movement experiences for young children. They should thus be motivated and empowered to incorporate more of these activities into the classroom as a strategy to promote optimal development and subsequently alleviate inappropriate behaviours in the classroom. Curriculum writers can use the findings to incorporate music and movement activities in programmes for young children. In doing this, music activities will be better understood by “novice teachers” and they will be able to integrate music and movement activities more effectively. The findings can also assist parents and caregivers of children with various ideas on how to make provisions for and use music and movement with young children, thus making the classroom environment an exciting place where children will want to come every day.

Review Literature Although the primary purpose of school is to promote academic skills, it also bears some responsibility for the social development of children. The social behaviour of children can either enhance or undermine their learning and their academic performance can impact their behaviour and social skills in a positive or negative way. Education functions both as an agent of change and to reflect changes which have already taken place in young children. Kemple, Batey and Hartle, 2004 contended that “in order to help young children successfully negotiate stages of ... development, we need children to be highly motivated to work hard in the face of difficulties, to expect the best of them and feel confident enough to ask for help when needed.

The next section will explore the definitions of music and movement, its value and purpose in the lives of young children as well as review the

The Use of Music and Movement

57

literature on the attitudes and knowledge of teachers towards the use of music and movement for young children.

What is Music and Movement? Music is something that people listen to, then decide whether they like it or dislike it; while movement is the art of moving or being able to move. Composers will disagree with our theory and define music and movement as inter-related. Benward and Saker (2008) posited that music is something that arouse the interest of people and is pleasurable while movement is the displacement of an organism from one place to another. Suffice it to say with music one tends to move towards the beat and therefore it is inter-related. Benward and Saker (2008) further postulated that music and movement is exact, specific and demand exact acoustics. Movement is self-contained and forms part of musical composition or musical form. Movements are sometimes performed separately but when combined with music it often enhances the performance of a complete work which requires all the movements to be performed in succession.

What is Music and Movement for Young Children? The creative arts is used to describe multi-disciplinary forms of expression in the visual and performing arts. It is generally used as an umbrella for drama, music, dance, visual arts, and literature references. Music and movement are aspects of the arts that include singing, playing instruments, creating music, listening, moving. Dancing to music is a form of musical expression which can enhance children’s holistic development, so that they are able to function effectively in society and become responsible citizens. According to Keeney, 1997, as the global economy changes “the most important skills our children will need to thrive in the future are [those relating to] knowing how to learn, passion and curiosity, people skills and creativity. During the early years of children’s life is when these skills are manifested and cultivated. Research findings revealed that children respond to music very early, and this concurs with McDonald’s (1979) argument when she stated that learning music starts the same time as any other learning. As children listen to music in their environment they become creative and express their abilities through movement, singing and playing of instruments. Young children learn most and best when they are actively engaged in the teaching and learning process. Eliason and Jenkins (2003) posited that

58

Chapter Three

play is the primary vehicle for music and movement experiences. Music in the early childhood environment at school does not require specific skills and competencies. Children can be engaged in a range of activities from simple listening or observing to joining in as an active participant (Humpal & Wolf, 2003). Kemple, Batey and Hartle (2004, 30), strongly believe that “the early childhood years are prime time to capitalize on children’s innate musical spontaneity and to encourage their natural inclination to sing, move and play with sounds”. Movement is a natural response to music and young children’s reactions are many and varied as they put their whole self into their movement. Duffy (1998) postulated that “there is a natural connection between music and body movement” (p. 71). For movement to connect with music successfully there is the need for careful planning. While some children might be thrilled to take part in movement activities, some may be shy and hesitant. Children might be asked to simply jump or stomp to the beat of a drum, or interpret and follow suggestions to discover their own creative way to move (Feeney, Christensen & Moravick, 2006).

The Value and Purpose of Music and Movement to Young Children Music and movement experiences contribute to the physical, intellectual, social and emotional maturity of every child. In Jamaica, the Ministry of Education and Youth in the Revised Primary Curriculum for grades 1-3, outlined that the principles that governs music and movement “have a central role to play in this curriculum if we are to produce adults who will, in turn, bring about growth and lasting development in our society” (p. 318). It is also their belief that music and movement enables cross learning where lessons are so structured that one discipline facilitates learning in another. For example, Mathematical concepts can be taught through music and language taught through movement. Greata’s (2006) view supports this idea she stated that “nearly all preschool environments use music as a wonderful teaching tool. Often, through music a concept is taught and learned more easily than through any other teaching method” (Greata 2006, 115). Learning concepts about the basic components of music is what musical development is all about. Children can learn these musical skills through singing, playing instruments, creating, moving and listening (Keeney, 1997). These skills can be explored in developmentally appropriate ways for all age groups as part of the school curriculum in an effort to improve learning. It is widely accepted by a great number of

The Use of Music and Movement

59

persons that music makes a pleasant addition to the early childhood curriculum, but much importance is not given to it. This seems contrary when music is so prevalent in society and its influence so compelling. Bredekamp and Copple (1997) asserted that appropriate channels should provide “daily opportunities for aesthetic expression and appreciation through art and music. Children experiment and enjoy various forms of dramatic play, music and dance” (p. 132). However, music is seen as a diversion or once a week activity, in other words, music is disconnected from programme goals and objectives even though children are natural explorers of sounds and creators of music. Tucker and Davies (1995) highlight the importance of music in children’s holistic development. Music should be part of young children’s daily routine as it has the power to reach every child as they share songs, rhymes and chant singing games. Music and movement is an excellent way to experience and examine the content being taught. Hyson and Christiansen (1997) posited that children can gain valuable learning opportunities when interacting. Teachers can capitalize on this and lead and guide children in confronting and reflecting on different issues together, so as to come up with acceptable solutions. Weinberger (1998) postulated that “ new brain research shows not only that music is fun, but also that it improves our brain development and even enhances skills in other subjects such language acquisition, reading readiness, general intellectual development; fostering positive attitudes; lowering truancy; promote social development, personality adjustment and self-worth”. (Peery, 1993).

Teacher’s Attitude towards Music and Movement for Young Children The Pioneers of education for younger children such as Rosseau, Frobel and Dewey (1778)developed the child-centred perspective where emphasis is placed on qualities of ‘expression’, ‘feelings’, and ‘involvement’ so children can enjoy, explore and discover themselves. Swanwick (1990) argues that schools have a unique contribution to make and this contribution can be explored inter-culturally in any curriculum. Educators over the years have become more aware of the importance of music in education. Hughes (1995) stated that “the naturalness of music is evident in the fact that children ... will spontaneously sing while engaged in other forms of play. Little wonder, then, that music is so often found in the educational experience of young children” (p. 195).

60

Chapter Three

Music and movement occurs naturally and should be included in the curriculum. According to Edwards (2006), the inclusion of music and movement in the classroom is for enjoyment. She further pointed out that “through music and movement, young children express themselves, explore space, develop language and communication skills, increase sensory awareness and express themselves through rhythm, gesture, time and space” (p. 102). By removing time limits on performances and creating a relaxed, comfortable setting with a variety of materials, creativity in the classroom can be fostered. Teachers should show enthusiasm and a love for music and movement by clapping, tapping feet and or dancing when sharing music with young children (Feeney, Christiansen & Moravcik, 2006). Positive attitudes are the key, since in developing enthusiasm, the teacher’s own feelings will be “caught” by the children, rather than taught to them (Eliason & Jenkins, 2003). It should be the desire of every early childhood teacher to have creative expression a central part of their classroom, as this allows children to be more interactive and more interested in learning. Swanwick (1990), posited that “teachers who believe that music is merely a pleasurable but meaningless activity are hardly likely to have professional confidence when it comes to fighting for resources, or negotiating for time with colleagues from other curriculum areas” (pp 21-22). Teachers’ involvement in and ability to provide musical activities in many interesting and challenging ways will set the stage for children becoming interested imitators. When teachers and children become engrossed in participating in music and movement this usually leads to further exploring and discovery. Haines and Gerber (1984) stated that “the teacher’s positive attitude and approach to musical experiences are crucial factors in the young child’s success in music. Interest and enthusiasm about music are the most important teacher’s attributes” (Hanes and Gerber, 1984), 32. Hendrick and Weissman (2007) claimed that “music should be part of the life of the school throughout the day and definitely not relegated just to group time” (p.278). Music and movement is generally regarded as a group activity initiated by the teacher, but children sing, compose and dance at any time throughout the day. Music should therefore be encouraged and incorporated in daily activities (Jalongo & Isenberg, 2006; McDonald, 1979). In schools, the musical aspect is relegated to a position of low esteem and is often neglected by many teachers. “Teachers fail to help children acquire the knowledge and skills inherent in ... music” (Brendekamp & Copple, 1997, p. 132). The many benefits to be derived should eliminate the neglect given music and movement in early childhood classrooms and cannot be readily excused.

The Use of Music and Movement

61

The history of primary schools in Jamaica reveals that the teaching of music has been taken for granted and as a consequence held a low position on the hierarchy of curriculum subjects. Hirsh (2004) substantiated this claim by stating “the importance of music often goes unrecognized. Music is usually an extra activity that is added to fill time ...” (p. 99). Educators and teachers often express their views on the importance of music in children’s holistic development (Johnson & Brown, 1995; Tucker & Davies, 1995). However, this view does not correspond with what actually occurs in the classroom, and therefore music and movement continues to play a minor role. Chenfeld (2006) stated that a growing number of anxious parents seem concerned that their children may be wasting precious learning time with [different] kinds of games and imaginative play. They believe what some policy makers are saying, that in a super-competitive, technological society, we need to start preparing our children at very early ages for success and achievement (p. 34-35).

This is not supported by others who are of the view that music plays a vital role in the lives of children (Brewer, 2004; Maxim, 1990; Wortham, 2002). In early childhood classrooms, the teaching of music is usually the responsibility of the classroom teacher as subject specialists are not usually placed at this level in the system. Teachers who enjoy music regardless of their ability or training will have children who are responsive and involved (Eliason & Jenkins, 2003). Some teachers’ musical ability due to limited competence is compounded by large classes, location and design of school and provision made for teaching music and time allotted. “All children deserve a rich musical environment in which to learn to sing, to play music, to move and to listen. Music is also a valuable tool for helping children gain content knowledge and make sense of their experiences” (Brewer, 2004).

Provisions made for the Use of Music and Movement in the Classroom of Young Children Many early childhood classrooms in Jamaica lack adequate space. The physical setting, the quality of equipment and materials are important considerations in music and movement as children need plenty room and a clear space for movement. Where there is inadequate space, children will be unable to move around freely, and as such will lose interest and be less involved in activities. The need for adequate space is endorsed by Decker

62

Chapter Three

and Decker (2005), when they suggested that adequate space is particularly important for child initiated activities and group projects. An early childhood classroom should be equipped with musical instruments because they are of great interest and value to young children. The making of music by playing of instruments is one of the most exciting and creative aspect of the creative arts experience (Edwards, 2006). Instruments can either be purchased, improvised, or made by teachers and children. It is recommended that instruments be made of sturdy material, be age appropriate, at levels that children can easily reach and manageable. The use of musical instruments support movement as children move to the sounds of instruments.

The Teacher’s Role in Fostering Music and Movement Creativity in Young Children Young children are active learners using their physical and sensory capacity to explore and understand their environment. Wortham (2002) believes that parents and other adults (teachers) can encourage the learning and development of musical skills in children encouraging and facilitating this activity by reacting in interesting and appropriate ways that will resonate with children. An awareness of the developmental characteristics of children at an early childhood level will better equip teachers to provide the types of activities that children will love and benefit from. Seefeldt and Barbour (1998) postulate that it is dependent on teachers to make music and movement successful. They firmly believe that early childhood teachers have a crucial role to play in fostering children’s musical ability. Young children need many activities such as walking, running, marching, clapping and hopping to develop confidence in their movement skills. Opportunities should also be provided for them to explore their bodies and discover what the different parts can do (Greata, 2006). On a daily basis, teachers in early childhood classrooms engage children in songs, rhymes, finger plays and games that require them to move their body parts to rhythms and beats in songs. Hirsh (2004) emphasizes the fact that it is crucial that teachers understand the importance of music and movement and its ultimate benefits. In concluding, it is to be noted that music and movement should be a part of every day for the young child with the main objective being for the enjoyment of the child. Emphasis should therefore be on the child, the enjoyment and the process. Music has the power to reach all children through shared songs, rhymes, chants, singing games. Music and movement creates and adds joy and fun to learning in a less formal

The Use of Music and Movement

63

environment and creates inspirational moments and opportunities to make sense out of chaos. These activities serve as gateways to involving individuals and groups of young children in holistic development. Students become excited when something different is introduced into their normal routine of learning. When the arts are involved in the lesson, students are more animated and more involved. This may result in a little more chatter than usual but the end result is one of satisfaction that the teacher or the care-giver feels. Using music and movement in the lessons will enhance students’ learning and build their self-esteem. It also creates more scope for socialization and interaction among students. Young children tend to be open and friendly and tend to respond positively to play. They see music and movement as a sort of play and this will get them more interested and build them holistically. Learning is more powerful when it is connected to the world that exists outside the classroom or to our experiences or prior knowledge. Music and movement not only exist in the classroom but it is a part of our Jamaican culture that exists all around us. Responses to music and movement vary among students but activities associated with it should not be underestimated. Music and movement activities encourage children to practice their mobility, coordination and creativity skills. This will bring out the little dancer or singer by using simple songs and movement or letting them create their own songs and dances. According to Brewer 2004 young children use the creative process to make sense of what they are learning and to apply the concepts to both practical and creative experiences. According to Greata, 2006 children gravitate to music and naturally some will move when they hear music. Early childhood music and movement activities enhance children’s motor skills, coordination and stimulate the imagination. Movement is a great way to burn children’s excess energy, while providing parents and teachers a way of providing various types of music and movement activities. Children are sensitive to musical sound and respond freely and joyfully to different tempos and beats. At the same time they discover new and different ways to use their bodies and voices and communicate with each other. Exploring music and movement helps to develop the language of the child. It enhances and expands the child’s repertoire of communication skills and abilities. They play with words as they change the lyrics to familiar songs or make up chants to accompany their play activity. As with all areas of the curriculum, developmentally appropriate music and movement activities will only be successful if the teacher understands why music and movement are important tools for assisting children in

64

Chapter Three

constructing knowledge about their world and helping them make sense of their experiences. Music and movement activities can develop children’s mental capacity and intellect which will help them to think creatively. It not only helps them but encourages them to ask questions. As previously stated by these theorists music and movement help children become more involved in the lessons and more aware of their surroundings. This will in turn facilitate mastery of the physical self, in that, they begin to understand what they can do with their bodies as they run, balance, stretch, crawl, sing and skip. Through music and movement, children learn more acceptable outlets to express feelings and relieve tension and convey a specific mood through which children reveal their feelings and emotions. It can also create an imaginary world that stimulates a child’s creativity. The world of early childhood music and movement activities can span far and wide simply with the use of the imagination. Music and movement is an important lesson for children and encourages them to be engaged.

Hypothesis The use of music and movement, a part of the arts, will improve learning in early childhood students and thus enable them to maximize their full potential and enhance their emotional growth and social skills.

Research Questions This research was guided by the following questions. ¾ What was the teacher’s attitude towards the use of music and movement in the early childhood classroom? ¾ What knowledge did teachers in the early childhood classrooms have of the importance of music and movement in the development of children? ¾ In what ways did the classroom environment accommodate the inclusion of music and movement in the daily organized activities? ¾ How did the children feel about the inclusion of music and movement in their daily activities?

Methodology Action Research is important in our educational systems as it provides a framework for qualitative and quantitative investigations by teachers and

The Use of Music and Movement

65

researchers. According to Brennan and Noffke cited in Carson and Sumana (1997), action research is particularly concerned with exploring reflexively, how research can contribute to the empowerment of teachers and thereby alter what occurs in schools and teacher education programmes. Action research not only benefit teachers but other stakeholders that are interested in the educational system and seek ways to improve it. Action research is beneficial to individuals such as teacher researchers who identify problems within the educational system and are willing to alleviate the problems by making exemplary contributions for instructional improvement; which include formulating a plan, carrying out an intervention, evaluating the outcomes and making the necessary recommendations to the relevant stakeholders. Mills (2003), states that “Action research is any systematic inquiry conducted by teacher researchers, principals, school counsellors or other stakeholders in the teaching – learning environment to gather information about the ways that their particular schools operate, how they teach and how well their students learn”. An Action research is evaluative as it allows the researcher to make comparisons between previous and current situations; it is supported by group interactions as two or more persons or teachers can work together on the research and it is also recognized as a set of actions that are monitored overtime by use of a variety of data collection methods such as interviews, observations, tests and questionnaires. As more and more demands are made on the teacher for improved educational output, successful attempts at problem solving not only assure parents and other constituents of interests, but also make for a more confident and innovative professional (Jones, 2001). The key question here is- what is the problem that you took action on and how did you engage in the action research planning cycle? What did you do at each stage of the cycle? So, less on what the literature says Action research is and more on what you did as part of an action research investigation. Gay (1996), states that “sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals represent the larger group from which they were selected”. Since it might not be possible to obtain information on the entire population, sampling was done in order to gain information about the larger group, the population. The study was conducted in an early childhood institution. The school was chosen out of convenience; however, it was found that this school environment catered to a rich source of interaction in many creative expressions and extra-curricular activities. The children are involved in Jamaica Cultural Development Commission Festival of Arts competition

66

Chapter Three

and presents items of songs, dance and musical pieces at official school functions. There are four classes at the school and the research was carried out in these classes. The sampling technique used was convenience sampling. Convenience sampling was used as the students that were selected are easily accessible and useful as a pilot project. The students were chosen from one the two five year old classes. There are five classes at the school with one class having two teachers while the other classes have one teacher each. The selection of this age group was based on the fact that the researcher had done an intervention with a group of five year olds and had seen how music and movement had influenced the group. They were more cooperative, motivated and interested in learning. The class has a population of twenty-eight students, eighteen boys and ten girls, but due to time constraint, a random sampling was done. According to Bastick & Matalon (2004), in random sampling “you cannot know beforehand which members of the population will be selected to be in the sample and ... each member of the population under consideration has an equal chance of being selected” (p.37). The decision was to select ten students of the number of student in the class. All names were written on paper and placed in a box and ten were selected – six boys and four girls. The ten students selected as participants would be required to say how they feel about music and movement and lessons in which it was integrated. Convenience sampling was used in selecting the teachers for the research as was stated in the previous paragraph. The teachers were selected because they were the care-givers of the class and easily accessible. This sample comprised the six teachers and the principal that were at the school. Twenty-eight percent of the teachers are in the 26-30 year age range with the most mature in the range above, that is, the 31-35 year age group. However, fourteen percent are in the 36-45 year age range. All the teachers are female and diploma trained, four in the area of early childhood education and three in primary education. The years of experience range from five months to fifteen years.

Instrumentation In order to gain an in-depth description and understanding that qualitative research requires, there is the need to utilize a variety of methods and data collection strategies. According to Gay (2001), “a typical qualitative study involves a number of data collection strategies” (p. 120). On the other hand, Leedy and Ormrod (2001) stated that “a quantitative study is used to answer questions about relationships among

The Use of Music and Movement

67

measured variables with the purpose of explaining, and controlling phenomena” (p. 101). These questions that the researcher seeks the answers to are being confirmed in the utilization of the instruments used to collect the data so the relationship between variables can be established. Instruments that will be used to collect data for this research will include: ™ ™ ™ ™ ™

The teacher’s questionnaire Teacher’s interview Student’s informal interview Children’s observation checklist Classroom environmental checklist

The Teacher’s Questionnaire Bastick and Matalon (2004) posited that a “questionnaire is a measure that presents a set of written questions to which all individuals in a sample are asked to respond” (p. 318). The questionnaire was divided into two sections, A and B. Section A sought biographical data and consisted of ten items while Section B was a five point rating scale with ten items, to gather data on teachers’ knowledge and attitude towards music and movement. The Likert scale is used to measure attitudes and feelings as indicated by degree (Bastick & Matalon, 2004). The items in Section B were based on a five point Likert scale and were rated as stated below for those items requiring a positive response: Strongly Agree (SA) = 5 Agree (A) = 4 Undecided (U) = 3 Disagree (D) = 2 Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1. The opposite was applied to those requiring a negative response: (SD = 5 D=5 U=3 A=2 SA = 1) Items 1, 3 and 10 sought responses to the development of comprehension skills in response to research question 1: What was the teachers’ attitude towards the use of music and movement in the early childhood classroom? Two examples of these items with the desired responses are given below:

68

Chapter Three

SA A U D SD Item 2: It is easy to integrate music and movement activities with other subject areas (¥) ( ) () () () Item 11: Music and movement activities create too much noise in the early childhood classroom () () () () (¥)

Teachers’ Interview Gay (1996) posits that an observation is usually supplemented by a document such as informal interview. This is endorsed by Leedy and Ormrod (2001) who conclude that “unstructured interviews are ... more flexible and more likely to yield information that the teacher hadn’t planned to ask for” (p. 159). The assertions of these researchers are what guided the researcher’s decision to interview the teachers and students to gather data. This instrument was compiled based on research questions 1 and 2 and has ten open-ended items. They were geared towards collecting information on the use of music and movement, the knowledge of its importance to children and its integration in lessons. The first three items provided data on music training. They were: Item 1: Do you have any training in the teaching and use of music and movement in early childhood education? If yes, explain? Item 2: Do you need further training to enhance your skill in the use of music and movement in the classroom? Item 3: Do staff development workshops address the area of music and movement? Item 4-6 were designed to obtain responses to research question 1: What was the teachers’ attitude towards the use of music and movement in the early childhood classroom? The following are two examples: Item 4b: If yes, how do you use music and movement in your lessons? Item 6: In your opinion, do you think it could be integrated in the curriculum? Explain how. Items 7-10 sought to obtain responses to research question 2 which states “What knowledge did teachers in early childhood classrooms have of the importance of music and movement in children’s development? Two examples of these items were:

The Use of Music and Movement

69

Item 7: In your opinion, is music and movement important to young children’s social development? Say why or why not. Item 10: How do you think music and movement help in cognitive and language development?

Students Informal Interview This instrument consisted of sixteen items which were written in response to a research question, to gather information on the activities children like to participate in and how they feel about music and movement activities. Some items that sought information on the types of activities that accommodate the inclusion of music and movement were items 4, 12 and 14. They were as follows: Item 4: Does your teacher let you sing songs when learning Mathematics? Items 12: Which instrument do you like to play best? Item 14: Apart from the instruments, what else do you use to make music? Items 1, 3 and 15 provided information on the children’s feelings and attitude towards music and movement and are listed below: Item 1: Dou you enjoy singing in class? Why? Item 3: Do you think music and movement is important in school? Item 15: How do you feel when singing, dancing and making music?

Checklist/Pre-Test The pre-test administered to students was a checklist. The behaviours that were observed could only be observed as they occur naturally in the classroom environment. “The intent is to record and study behaviours as it occurs naturally” (Gay, 1996). The classroom setting is the ideal place to observe the children, under the guidance of their teacher, participating in activities and displaying behaviours that are expressions of their musical self. The teacher provided the experiences the children need. Gay and Airasian (2003) contended that direct observation is an interesting way to be directly involved in a teaching/learning classroom situation and so these two exercises were performed in order to enhance and enrich the investigation. The checklist consisted of twelve items which were geared towards activities and behaviours that are expected responses of children to music and movement in early childhood classrooms. The observation was

70

Chapter Three

conducted at different times throughout the day, over three days; since music and movement occur at various times during the daily activities in early childhood classrooms. Some of the activities and behaviours that were being looked for included children’s free expression of releasing emotional tension display of individual creativity and making musical sounds on their own outside of schedule time.

The Classroom Environment Checklist This instrument was designed in order to get a first-hand view of the provisions made for music and movement in the classroom. It contains a list of resources that should be present in the classroom to enhance the teaching of music and movement as well as to identify the presence or absence of appropriate materials and props; such as cassettes, tape recorders, drums, shakers, hoops and costumes; in the early childhood classroom. The items were rated using “Yes” and “No” responses. Apart from the list of resources, the following were also included: presence of a musical centre and enough space for music and movement activities. (See Appendix for a complete sample of checklist)

Post-test The same checklist used in the pre-test was also used for the post-test. This was done to ascertain information to determine if music and movement improved the children’s learning and also to determine the success of the implementation of the strategy in the programme

Intervention Having decided on the instruments to be used and the sampling required, the researcher needed to gain access to the school. She therefore approached the principal with a formal letter explaining the nature of the investigation. The principal was quite accommodating and cooperative. On a return visit to make further arrangements, the researcher was introduced to the teachers who were expected to participate in the investigation. She explained to them what she was about to embark on and they were quite willing to assist her in completing her course of study. The researcher further presented them with a formal letter explaining what is required of them and a form to sign giving their consent to the agreement. She then visited the 5 year old class that the sample would be taken from and explained to the class teacher what she would be doing. The class

The Use of Music and Movement

71

teacher was also presented with a formal letter explaining the purpose of the investigation. The researcher spent some time with the class so as to get acquainted with the children, build friendships, establish rapport and gain their trust (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). She hoped this would make them feel more relaxed and comfortable when she returned to administer the instruments. Convenience sampling was conducted and the children who were chosen were given a letter with a consent form attached for their parents to sign explaining the purpose of the investigation and seeking their permission. A time was scheduled for observations and interview and to hand out the questionnaire. As teachers at the time were busy, they were given the questionnaire to take home which they all returned the following day. The teachers’ interview was carried out during class time and during lunch time when teachers were relaxing. When administering the observation using the checklist, the researcher sat to the side in order to get a good view of the expressions on teachers’ and children’s faces. The researcher interpreted children’s facial expressions (smiles) and nodding the head (up and down) as an indication that they were pleased. While frowns and shaking heads (from left to right) indicated they were not enthused. She looked for behaviours and expressions that occurred when music and movement activities were introduced to the children.

Presentation of data Data collected during the programme of intervention were recorded and results are presented in graphs. A bar chart was used to graph the pretest scores which showed the students’ involvement before intervention. Another bar graph was used to show the improvement in the students’ involvement after intervention was done. A line graph was used to compare the involvement of students before and after intervention. The questionnaire used to elicit the teachers’ responses was represented on various graphs. However, not all the questions were represented only those that demanded specific attention. These graphs will tell the researcher if the intervention was successful and the limitations experienced. The appropriateness of data collection instruments in securing the relevant data is critical. The places and persons from where and from who data will be derived must be clearly designated and presented accordingly. Data collected during the programme of intervention were recorded and results are presented in graphs. The checklist that was used as a pre-test was used to ascertain the level of involvement and the result is presented in Figure 3.1.

Chapter Three

72

Fig. 3-1 Frequency of Activities and Behaviours Observed

Integration…

Teacher…

Repeat…

Individual…

Musical…

Play…

Imitate actions

Body…

Laugh, clap,…

Pupil…

Expression…

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Free…

Number of Times Observed

Graph Showing Pre-Test Checklist

Students

Activities and Behaviours

The data shown above was obtained from the observation checklist which was used as a pre-test. On the first day, all twelve activities and behaviours on the checklist were observed, some more than others. The behaviour/activity observed most often was students’ expression of joy. This occurred twelve times throughout the first day’s activities. Students were inhibited, possibly due to the researcher’s presence, and so the responses did not last for very long. The behaviour/activity that occurred next was the playing of instruments. This was observed ten times and students were seen moving to the rhythms being played. The boys tended to be rowdy in a good way and displayed enjoyment in their style of playing the instruments. Observation of teacher behaviours occured next and these included guiding and encouraging children, and integrating music and movement across disciplines. These were observed eleven times each and indicated that this trained teacher in early childhood knew the importance and benefits that students can derive from music and movement. She was able to carry out many of these behaviours and activities during through out the day. Three other behaviours/activities observed being done at a satisfactory rate were “using body percussion”, “making musical sounds on desks,

The Use of Music and Movement

73

chairs and tables” and “repeating activities on own outside of schedule time”. These were carried out nine, eight and seven times respectively. The behaviours least observed included “displaying of individual creativity”, “showing musical appreciation and sensitivity by clapping, cheering others along” , and free expression. These were observed three, two and four times respectively. These outcomes probably stem from the fact that this was the first day of intervention and students were not so comfortable with the researcher. Fig. 3-2 Frequency of Activities and Behaviours Observed after Intervention

Number of Times observed

Graph Showing Post Test Checklist 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Students

Activities and Behaviours

The data shown on the graph above was obtained from the observation checklist which was used as a post test on the last day of the observation. This checklist was used both as the pre-test an dthe post test. Over the three day period of observation, all twelve activities and behaviours on the checklist were observed. The post test scores reflected improvement in students’ progress after intervention and their acceptance of music and movement. The behaviour/activity observed most often was children’s expressions of joy. This was observed seventeen times over the three-day

Chapter Three

74

period. The children opened up to the researcher and this enabled the researcher to move more freely among them. From the behaviour of the children they expressed enjoyment during the intervention and looked forward to the use of music and movement in their lessons. Playing of instruments and body percussion were the behaviours/activities that were observed next. These were observed fourteen times while the other behaviours /activities were observed satisfactorily a number of times. However, the behaviour/activity of teacher guiding and encouraging students and integration across disciplines were observed fifteen times each. This shows that although the teacher knew the importance and benefits of music and movement, she used what the researcher did to improve on her knowledge. Fig. 3-3 Comparison of Pre Test and Post Test

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Free expression… Expression of joy Pupil participation Body percussion Laugh, clap,… Imitate actions Play instruments Musical sounds… Individual… Repeat ativities… Teacher guides… Integration…

Number Of Time sObserved

Graph Showing Comparison of Pre Test and Post Test Scores of Checklist

Pre Test Post Test

Activities and Behaviours

Other behaviours/activities observed were “using body percussion”, “making musical sounds on desks, chairs and tables” and “repeating activities on own outside of schedule time”. These were carried out twelve, eleven and ten times respectively. The other behaviours observed also showed improvement and these included “displaying individual creativity”, “showing musical appreciation and sensitivity by clapping,

The Use of Music and Movement

75

cheering others along” , and free expression. These were observed nine, ten and eight times respectively. These outcomes probably stemmed from the fact that the class was divided by chalkboards, shouting is not encouraged and children began to suppress their feelings. In comparing the scores of the students on the pre-test and post-test, it is obvious that the use of music and movement helped children to develop their social skills and emotional growth. With reference to the behaviour/activity of expression of joy and playing of instruments showed an increase in the number of times they were observed. Children displayed more excitement after intervention and this was also seen in their individual creativity and participation. These behaviours/activities increased in number over the observation period. It was noted that children felt more a part of the activities and thus they were able to participate more and display their creativity. Behaviours/activities of body percussion, laughing, clapping, stomping, jumping and imitating actions increased from ten to twelve, respectively in terms of the number of times they were observed. All the behaviours/activities were increased in the number of times they were observed. Children showed interest and enjoyment in activities and interacted more with each other. The teacher tended to guide and encourage them more and integration across disciplines was observed more frequently. All ten students were able to take part in activities and this showed evidence of an increase in their behaviours and attitudes. This shows that using music and movement as an intervention can help children to attain growth in social and emotional and development. However, with more opportunities to guide and work with these students, there are signs for greater improvement. The data collected from the environmental checklist was used to answer research question 3. The results are shown in Table 3-1 below. The items were checked according to whether or not they were present. One point was awarded to the items that were present and zero to those that were not. Based on the comments and data collected, the environment had 16 of the items from a list of 20 which amount to 80%. The four that were not available and are important for helping to foster music and movement were headphones, bells, maracas and props for movement. However of the 16 available items, eight or 50% were wooden blocks, tambourine, rhythm sticks, drums, recorders, shakers and audio cassettes/compact disc with children’s songs and variety of song, were sufficient for the needs of the class. The instruments were mostly improvised and the audio cassettes and compact disc belonged to the teacher. Nine instruments which include the drums, recorders and tambourines were kept in the staff room.

Chapter Three

76

Table 3-1 Provision made for Music and Movement in the Early Childhood Classroom Available and Sufficient

Available and Stored in Staff Insufficient Room 1.Audio cassettes/CDs with 1.Music Centre 1.Tape Recorder/ children’s songs 2.Space CD Player 2.Audio Cassettes/CDs with 3.Cymbals 2.Drums variety of songs 4.Tape 3.Cymbals 3.Rhythm sticks Recorder/CD 4.Tambourines 4.Wooden Blocks Player 5.Triangles 5.Shakers 5.Triangles 6.Guitar 6.Recorders 6.Guitar 7.Recorders 7.Tambourines 7.Xylophone 8.Xylophone 8.Drums 8.Harmonica 9.Harmonica When comparing the provision available at the school, this was done against expectations of what should be present (Brewer, 2004). The evidence indicates that while 16 of the items were present only eight were adequate in serving the needs of the whole class.

Teachers’ Responses to Questions on Questionnaire The figures below show teachers’ responses on select questions on the questionnaire. These figures indicate teachers’ agreement or disagreement with the items relating to attitude and how best to use music and movement in the classroom.

Section A The graph below shows the responses of teachers to question three, section A of questionnaire. Findings indicate that the teachers of this school are all qualified. All seven teachers including the principal who were interviewed are trained up to the diploma level. However, two were in the process of becoming trained graduates as they were pursuing degrees in early childhood. This did not detract from how they perceived the use of music and movement in the classroom. As was stated the staff is highly qualified as most of them have over five years’ experience teaching at this level.

The Use of Music and Movement

77

Figure 3-4 Teachers’ Responses to Question Three of Questionnaire

Number of Teachers

Question 3: Level of Qualification 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Teachers

Qualifications Fig. 3-5 Teachers’ Responses to Question Four of Questionnaire

Question 4: Area of Specialty 0% Early Childhood Education Primary Education

43% 57%

Secondary Education Other

It is generally understood that teachers who specialized in early childhood education and teach in this context are better equipped than colleagues who trained and taught in other specializations. Four of the

Chapter Three

78

teachers interviewed were specially trained for the early childhood area while three were trained for the primary field. It was noticed by the researcher that the all teachers responded favourably to the use of music and movement, however, the teachers trained in early childhood education tended to be more receptive to its inclusion. The teachers who were trained for primary education gave their input and admitted that teaching at an early childhood institution had enhance how they approached teaching particular areas. They admitted that they used music and movement but mostly in an effort to quiet the children.

Section B Fig. 3-6 Response of Teachers on Question One of Questionnaire

Question 1 of Section B of Questionnaire 0% Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree 100% Question one of section B of the questionnaire states that early childhood teachers need to be trained in the use of music and movement in order to integrate it effectively in programmes for young children. From the graph above 100% of teachers strongly agreed that teachers need to be trained in the use of music and movement in order to improve children’s social and emotional development. They all see the use of music and movement as important agents to help with children’s development.

Thee Use of Music and Movementt

79

Fig. 3-7 Respponse of Teacheers on Question n Three of Quesstionnaire

Question n 3 of Section B of Questioonnaire

Sttrongly Agreee Aggree Unndecided 71%

Diisagree Sttrongly Disagrree

Questionn three states that music an nd movementt activities are vital in young childrren’s lives. All A teachers qu uestioned agreeed with this statement. s However, fiive teachers agreed a more strongly s with this question n and this amounted too 71%, whilee 29% agreed d but not as strongly. It was also noticed by tthe researcherr that the teacchers who agrreed strongly were the ones that w were trained in early childhood educaation along with w one primary trained. This sugggested that th he teachers ackknowledged the t use of music and m movement in thhe classroom and how it caan benefit the children. c All teachhers interview wed strongly agreed that muusic and moveement can serve enhannce children’s social develo opment. This amounted to 100% as all teachers said they havve used music and movemeent to “get” ch hildren to interact withh them and their peers. Thee all agreed hoowever, that music m and movement ccan be integratted across sub bject areas andd has proven extremely e useful.

Chapter Three

80

Fig. 3-8 Response of Teachers on Question Five of Questionnaire

Question 5: Music and movement activities can serve to enhance children's social development 0% 0%

Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Strongly Disagree Disagree

100% Fig. 3-9 Response of Teachers on Question Six of Questionnaire

Question 6: Music and movement activities can serve to enhance children's emotional development. 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0%

Teachers

Six teachers strongly agreed with this question, which is 84%, and one teacher agreed which is 14%. They all arrived at a consensus that music and movement is important to the child’s emotional development as it helps the child to seek answers to questions, ask questions and not to accept everything at face value.

Thee Use of Music and Movementt

81

Fig. 3-10 Ressponse of Teachhers on Question Eleven of Quuestionnaire

Q Question 11: Music M and mo ovement activvities create ttoo much noiise in the earlly childhood cclassroom.

0%

14% S Strongly Agreee A Agree U Undecided D Disagree

86%

S Strongly Disaagree

Based oon the responses 86% sttrongly disaggreed that music m and movement aactivities creaated too mucch noise in thhe classroom m. All the teachers queestioned disaggreed that music and movem ment activitiees created too much nnoise in the cllassroom. How wever, it wass noted by th hese same teachers thaat if these activities a are not monitoreed they can result in disruptions aand not be efffective to the development d oof the child.

Chapter Three T

82

Fig. 3-11 Ressponse of Teachhers on Question Twelve of Quuestionnaire

Qu uestion 12: Ch hildren enjoy y singing and moving to th he beat of songgs, so they ca an be used to reinforce important concepts Strongly D Disagree D Disagree Unndecided

Teachers T

Agree Stronglly Agree 0% 20% 40% 60% 6 80% 1000% Based on the responsses 100% stro ongly agreed that children n enjoyed singing andd moving to the beat of songs. By ddoing this music m and movement ccan be used to t reinforce im mportant conccepts. All thee teachers noted that w when music annd movementt is involved iin the lessonss children tend to remeember the conncepts being taught t and caan relate betteer to what was taught. How teaachers use muusic and mov vement has a bearing on teachers’ attitudes. W While all the usses are valid, using it for ffun and enjoyment and to get childrren settled annd calm is seccondary to thee major benefits to be derived from m music and movement. Humpal annd Wolf (2003) cites research thaat supports thee value of mussic and movem ment in learniing, some of which aare “organizinng and firing g patterns inn the cerebraal cortex, strenghteninng creativity and spatial- temporal reassoning and enhancing e print conceppts and prewriiting skills’ (p. 104).

Thee Use of Music and Movementt

83

Fig. 3-12 How w Music and Movement M is useed in the Early C Childhood Classsroom

Funn and Enjjoyment Intrroduce Lesson n

13% 9% 26%

17% 13%

22%

Teaach Concepts

Devvelop Motor Skiills

The infoormation gathhered from iteems 4-6 on thhe teacher’s interview schedule prrovided valuaable informatiion about its use. All the teachers indicated thhat they use music and movement iin their lessons; and responses ass to how it waas used were many and varried. Five of the t seven teachers, inccluding the fouur trained Earrly Childhoodd teachers said d that they used music and movement to teach co oncepts. T1, T T2 and T3 ussed music and movemeent to get chilldren settled and a ready for llessons, whilee 4 (57%) of the teachhers, includinng the princip pal, used muusic and mov vement to introduce leessons. It waas noted that only the fouur teachers who w were trained in E Early ChildhoodEducation used music aand movemen nt to help with the dvvelopment off motor skills. The possibbility is thatt primary teachers aree failing to reecognise that children in G Grades 1-3 in n primary schools are included in Early E Childhood and still nneed activities that will help to enhaance their devvelopment. Although by thhe age of fivee children are perform ming purposeeful movemeents, they w will become better at performing controlled acccurate movements as theey grow (Craig, 1999; Kostelnik, S Soderman & Whiren, W 2004). In respoonse to item 6 – “Do you th hink music annd movement could be integrated in the curricuulum?” One teacher t remar arked that, “th he music curriculum is not teacheer-friendly esp pecially for tteachers who have no formal trainning. Ideas off how and what to do in music and movement m

Chapter Three T

84

lessons wouuld be helpfu ful.” These seentiments aree supported by b Greta (2006) whoo posited thatt adults need d good know wledge of how w to use various mussic activities soo that they beccome beneficiial to children n. M Fig.3-13 Teacchers’ Knowleddge of the Relaationship betweeen Music and Movement and Holistic D Development

Percentage

T Teachers Knoowledge of th he Relationsh hip between Music and Movement M 100% % 90% % 80% % 70% % 60% % 50% % 40% % 30% % 20% % 10% % 0% %

Emotional Social Physical Cognitive/Laanguage

T1 T2 T T3 T4 T5 T6 T T7 Teachers

Items 7--1 on the teaachers’ interview schedulee provided daata which indicated thaat teachers aree quite knowleedgeable abouut the benefitss of music and movem ment to youngg children’s development. d All the teach hers were aware of thhe emotional benefits child dren can derivve through music m and movement. T These were exxpressed in th he following w ways: “free their minds from stress””, “forget neggative things in i their lives””, and “settle and calm them”. Seveenty one perrcent of the teachers t exprressed that music m and movement hhelp childrenn physically and a 86% kneew of the beenefits to children’s ssocial develoopment whilee 100% knew w of the beenefits of cognitive/lannguage development. T1 and a T4 had kknowledge in only two domains butt still demonsttrated that they y knew of thee benefits to ch hildren.

The Use of Music and Movement

85

Findings The findings revealed that music and movement is valuable in the early childhood classroom. All the students displayed improvement at the end of the intervention. Daily use of music and movement in their lessons increased their social and emotional development and motor skills. Based on the information presented the following findings were revealed: 1. Approximately 85.7% of the teachers had positive attitudes towards the inclusion and use of music and movement in the early childhood classroom, while 14.28% used it but it did not matter if it was included or not. 2. Children are not given much opportunity to be creative in organizing their own musical compositions. 3. Many teachers use music and movement haphazardly to keep children occupied, keep them quiet and/or under control. 4. Of the seven teachers, five had a good knowledge of the importance of music and movement and thought it was good for children’s all-rounded development. 5. All the teachers used songs with repetitive lines and phrases so that children can have fun and enjoy themselves. 6. Teachers trained in early childhood education used music and movement to help develop children’s motor skills and to teach concepts, whereas the teachers trained at the primary level used similar songs mainly for transitions, to get children settled and exposed to different types of songs. 7. Provision made at the school to facilitate music and movement in the early childhood classroom was inadequate. Although there are a variety of instruments, they serve the entire school and are kept in the staffroom. Teachers have access to them but find it tedious to retrieve them each time they are needed. 8. The classes had a fair number of improvised instruments but they all provided similar sounds. 9. There is inadequate space for facilitating developmentally appropriate music and movement activities, as the classrooms are small and outside is dusty. 10. Children generally had positive feelings about music and movement. Eight of them expressed the desire for more activities that incorporated movement and movement. A small number of students disliked movement activities because it was not their

86

Chapter Three

preferred way of learning or did not wish to participate in such activities when feeling unwell. 11. All the children interviewed enjoyed the songs especially those at devotion. They commented that they felt “happy” and “nice”. This showed that children enjoyed singing and moving as this provides positive feelings. 12. Fifty percent (50%) of the children enjoyed singing songs because it gave them the opportunity to dance. This number included one boy who is a ‘Popcaan’ fan and loves his songs. The other fifty percent (50%) preferred playing the instruments especially the drum.

Conclusions and Implications The study was conducted to investigate the use of music and movement, a part of the arts, to improve learning in early childhood students and enabled them to maximize their full potential and enhance their emotional growth and social skills. The data collected was presented and discussed and in this section a summary of the main conclusion, implications and recommendations will be presented relating to the topic. During the eight weeks intervention with the group of ten students, the researcher realized that all students have an innate ability to learn and interact with their peers in a comfortable way. Teachers need to use and plan interesting lessons using strategies effectively to cater to all students so as to develop them holistically. At present many teachers fail to use music activities because they do not understand musical terms, phrases and expressions. There are often times that teachers in early childhood education are perceived by their peers as being ‘just like the children’, in that, they love to play and thus they are branded as ‘time wasters’. Early childhood programmes today are geared towards the holistic development of children and one way to encourage this process is through the use of music and movement. The materials and experiences that children interact with have remarkable influence on their development and although they are in limited supply, teachers should make use of those available to them. The researcher therefore urges early childhood teachers, caregivers and practitioners to take up the challenge of making music and movement a part of children’s daily activities. Music truly belongs in Early Childhood classrooms to aid the holistic development of young children. It was evident that not all students are capable of learning in large groups as they are often find it difficult to understand concepts resulting in

The Use of Music and Movement

87

them being withdrawn and showing no concern for their education. However, with the inclusion of music and movement children can be more open and be able to express themselves freely without fear of embarrassment. This will also give them a chance to develop their social skills and self-esteem. The results of the pre-test showed that some children can be recalcitrant and withdrawn as shown in figure 3.1. Experiences have taught the researcher that it is important that students are made comfortable with both the person implementing the strategy and the strategy itself. Having gained knowledge about the use of music and movement activities, the researcher can now say that she will be more competent in assisting students in developing their social skills and emotional growth.

Implications The extent to which music and movement is used with young children has implications for classroom practice and education in general. The likely consequences of these findings suggest the following: 1. If children are to benefit from music and movement activities, teachers need to develop and display enthusiasm and positive attitude for children to model. 2. Teachers who view music and movement as unimportant will impact the programme negatively, posing possible hindrances to the teaching/learning process. 3. Displaying positive attitudes towards music and movement will likely help to create an environment conducive to learning. 4. Teachers who are negligent in engaging children at the early childhood level in music and movement activities are likely depriving themselves and students of an effective teaching/learning strategy. 5. Teachers’ ability to provide developmentally appropriate music and movement activities for young children is likely to increase if they are to understand their role and what is involved. 6. If music and movement was timetabled and adequate provisions made for its inclusion, then its usefulness and importance would probably be better highlighted and children’s learning and holistic development might be greatly enhanced. 7. Children’s developmental domains may be enhanced if they are exposed to developmentally appropriate activities in music and movement.

88

Chapter Three

8. If children are exposed to more music and movement activities, it is likely that those who are shy and withdrawn will become active participants. 9. When children feel “happy” and “nice” when engaged in music and movement activities, it implies that their social and emotional development will be influenced positively, thereby producing morally respectable citizen.

References Barrows, Christine.2001. Children’s rights: Caribbean realities. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers. Bastick, Tony and Barbara A. Matalon.2004.Research: New and practical approaches. Kingston: Chalkboard Press. Benward, Bruce and Marilyn Saker. 2008. Music in Theory and Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. Berk, Laura E. 2006.Child development. Boston: Pearson Education. Bredekamp, Sue and Carol Copple, eds.1997.Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Brewer, Jo Ann. 2004. Introduction to early childhood education: Preschool through primary grades. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Chenfeld, Mimi Brodsky. 2006. “Wanna play?” Young children 61 (November): 34--35 Craig, Grace J. 1991. Human development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Decker, Celia A. and John R Decker. 2005. Planning and administering early childhood programs. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Duffy, Bernadette. 1998. Supporting creativity and imagination in the early years. Philadelphia: Open University Press,. Edwards, Linda C. 2006. The creative arts: A process approach for teachers and children. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Edwards, Linda, Kathleen M. Bayless and Marjorie E. Ramsey. 2009. Music and movement: A way of life for the young child. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Eliason, Claudia and Loa Jenkins.2003.A practical guide to early childhood curriculum. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Feeney Stephanie, Doris Christensen and Eva Moravcik. 2006. Who am I in the lives of children? New Jersey: Pearson Education. Gay, Lorraine R. 2006. Educational research: competencies for analysis and application. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

The Use of Music and Movement

89

Gay, Lorraine R, and Peter W. Airasian.2003. Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application, 6th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Greata, Joanne. 2006. An introduction to music in early childhood education. New York: Thomson Delmar Learning. Haines, Beatrice J.E. and Linda L. Gerber. 1984. Leading young children to music. Ohio: Charles E.Merrill. Hart, Craig H., Diane C. Burts, and Rosalind Charlesworth.1997. Integrated curriculum an developmentally appropriate practice: Birth to age eight. Albany: State University of New York. Hendrick, Joanne and Patricia Weissman.2007.Total learning: Developmental curriculum for the young child. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Hilderbrandt, Carolyn.1998. “Creativity in music and early childhood.” Young children 53(6): 68--73. Hirsch, Rae Ann.2004.Early childhood curriculum: Incorporating multiple intelligences, Developmentally appropriate practice and play. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Hughes, Fergus P.1995.Children, play and development. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Humpal, Marcia Earl and Jan Wolf.2003. “Music in the inclusive environment.” Young children58 (2): 103--107. Hyson, Marion C. and Shawn L. Christiansen.1997. “Developmentally appropriate guidance and the integrated Curriculum”, In Integrated Curriculum and Developmentally Appropriate Practices: Birth to Age Eight, edited by Craig H. Hart, Diane C. Burts & Rosalind Charlesworth, 285--312. New York: State University of New York. Jalongo, Mary Renck and Joan Packer Isenberg. 2006. Creative thinking and arts based learning: Preschool through fourth grade. New Jersey: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Johnson, Myrtle A. and Monica M.Brown.1995. “Creativity and the learning environment: Jamaican early childhood schools.” Caribbean Journal of Education 17(2): 279--298. Kenney, Susan.1997. “Music in the developmentally appropriate curriculum”, In Integrated Curriculum and Developmentally Appropriate Practices: Birth to Age Eight, edited by Craig H. Hart, Diane C. Burts & Rosalind Charlesworth, 103--144. New York: State University of New York. Kemple, Kristen M., Jacqueline J. Batey and Lynn C. Hartle.2004.“Music play: Creating centres for musical play and exploration.” Young Children 59(4): 30--31.

90

Chapter Three

Leedy, Paul D. and Jeanne EllisOrmrod.2001.Practical research: Planning and design. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Maxim, George W. 1990. The sourcebook: activities for infants and young children. Ohio: Merrill. McDonald, Dorothy T.1979. Music in our lives: The early years. Washington DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Mills, Geoffrey E. 2000. Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall. Ministry of Education and Culture.1999. Revised primary curriculum: Curriculum guide grades 1-3. Kingston: Author. Peery, J. Craig.1993. “Music in early childhood education”. In Handbook of research on the education of young children, edited by Bernard Spodek, 207--223. New York: McMillian. Pollan, Michael.2006. The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals. New York: Penguin. Riverside Publishing Company.1984. Websters II new riverside dictionary. New York: Berkley Books. Seefeldt, Carol and Nita Barbour.1988. Early childhood education: an introduction. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Swanwick, Keith. 2003. Music, mind and education. New York: Routledge. Tucker, Joan Marcia and Rose Davies.1995. “Music as Stimulus for Learning in the Classroom.” Caribbean Journal of Education 17(2): 299--306. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 1989. Conventions on the rights of the child, Article 21. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved October 7, 2011 from www.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm Ward, Geoffrey C, and Ken Burns. 2007. The War: An Intimate History, 1941–1945. New York: Knopf. Weinberger, Norman N. 1998. “The Music in Our Minds.” How the Brain Learns 56 (November): 36--40 Wortham, Sue C. 2002.Early childhood curriculum: Developmental bases for learning and teaching. New Jersey: Pearson education.

CHAPTER FOUR CALYPSO PEDAGOGY AS AN AGENT OF EDUCATIONAL TRANSFORMATION DENNIS A. CONRAD, LAURA A. BROWN, LISA M. PHILIP, JESSICA BENTLEY AND DYANIS POPOVA

While it is generally accepted that Calypso’s roots can be traced back to Africa, although shaped by colonizing forces (Liverpool, 2003), its influence has since extended beyond Caribbean borders. From rap to reggae, the impact of Calypso’s musical ‘stylings’ can be clearly heard. However, as performance art, Calypso encapsulates more than simple rhyming lines and catchy rhythms; it is, as Toussaint (2009) expressed, “…one of the most social, musical art forms and, through its own adjustment and transformation, highlights the changing modalities of the societies of the English-speaking Caribbean” (p. 137). Not only has Calypso become part of the Trinidad Carnival tradition, it has evolved into a kind of oral history of Trinidad and Tobago [Trinbago], capturing the many social, political and economic challenges faced over decades of change (Rohlehr 2001). More recently, Calypso has been described as a “popular practice of social resistance” (Phillips, 2006, p. 67).

Valuing What is Ours There is a growing number of disaffected, disengaged at risk learners and youth, largely comprising boys in the Caribbean region (Inter-American Development Bank, 2014; Ryan, Rampersad, Bernard, Mohammed & Thorpe (2013), World Bank, 2003). There is a need, then, to engage such learners through more culturally responsive teaching and critical pedagogy (Conrad, Jaikaransingh, & Popova, 2012; Popova, Conrad, Philip, Conrad

92

Chapter Four

& Mohammed, 2015) that connects rhythm, identity, nation building, and history (Newsday, 2012).  In 2003, the popular middle class perception was that many Caribbean communities, along with supportive families and communities, enjoy a ‘good education’was challenged by the World Bank’s Report Caribbean Development Issues and Policy Directions. The report revealed that youths had among their concerns: the low relevance of education; its high academic focus; irresponsiveness to learners’ culture, personal needs and talents; dated curriculum; insecurity related to gang cultures in schools; the ineffectiveness of teachers; and peer pressure.  Ryan, Rampersad, Bernard, Mohammed and Thorpe (2013), also referred to as the Ryan Report on Engaging Youth at Risk, appealed for the establishment of smaller learning communities, the fostering of more positive relationships between teachers, students, and families; the recruitment and training of more empathetic and responsive teachers; and more personalized and engaging instruction through the Arts. Further, the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) in 2014 identified a growing at-risk student population, associated with disaffection and disengagement. This population was characterized by the lack of opportunities at -- or a sense of community with -- schools; poor or no relationships with adult stakeholders; poverty; absenteeism; low academic performance; and crime and violence. Such concerns are not new, having been expressed through folk narratives like the spoken word, poetry, rapso and Calypsos for decades. Calypsos like ‘Another Day in Paradise,’‘Missing Generation’and ‘Little Black Boy’ have passionately addressed these. Rohlehr (2013, 2001) comments in rich detail about the pervasive critique of education by Calypsonians over the years. We propose through this study to explore the use of the Calypso as a means of engaging students in the broader understanding of education; one that goes beyond high stakes assessment. The Calypso is offered as a means of facilitating students in locating and expressing their voices through more student-centric, culturally responsive curricula that incorporate accessible, socially relevant local resources (Accioly de Amorim, 2009; Conrad, Forteau-Jaikaransingh, & Popova, 2013); and connects the history, identity, and rhythm of the region. Indeed, in the words of the Mighty Chalkdust “It will be giving our students the opportunity to get real education and, secondly, it will be making sure that our students themselves preserve the heritage for future generations” (Liverpool in Newsday, 2012). 

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

93

Review of the Literature Monarch Kelvin Pope (sobriquet the Mighty Duke) describes Calypso in the following way: [T]he words that we rhyme and sing Is only half the thing . . . It is a feeling which comes from deep within; A tale of joy or one of suffering; It's an editorial in song of the life that we undergo. That and only that, I know, is true calypso." 

 David Rudder, another esteemed Calypsonian adds that Calypso:   is a living vibration Rooted deep within my Caribbean belly Lyrics to make a politician cringe Or turn a woman's body into jelly It is a sweet soca music, calypso You could ah never refuse it, calypso It make you shake like a Shango now, calypso Why it is you shaking you don't know That's calypso

Calypso, then, is about lyrics and message, purpose, music, dance, and spirit. It is from the people, to the people, for the people. It is the song and message of the folk that “represents the promise and confusion of the collective Creole space” (Popova, McEwen, & Bristol, 2015, p. 4). But beyond that, Calypso, in itself, is an interaction, a conversation. While there is a singular performer, the audience is still integral to the performance as a whole. The singer often becomes the voice of the people, expressing what is in their minds and hearts (Holder, 2001, p. 147), yet the people are also provided their own voice through a “call and response” (Toissant, 2009, p. 141) tradition stemming from chantwell/griot performances that preceded modern day calypso (Riggio, 2004). This kind of active engagement is unique to Calypso. As Greaves (1998) describes, audience members are encouraged to call out and repeat particular words or phrases that highlight the purpose for the calypso (p.43). This, in turn, promotes a unique, more intimate relationship between singer and audience. In addition, Phillips (2006) notes that Calypsonian language often uses metaphor, metonymy, polysemy, and other literary devices that “. . . when used appropriately, they invite the development of a cognitive process,

94

Chapter Four

that helps in unveiling of the hidden meanings contained in these linguistic symbols, thereby increasing the awareness of those involved, and hence the potential for the audience to take action in a direction that, ultimately, can bring about resolution of the audience’s prevailing issue”(p. 64). At the same time, it is important to remember that Calypso is a product of those who support it. Political organizations, church organizations, Carnival committee members, and others hold a stake in the Calypsos that are performed (Guilbalt, 2005, p. 41). Thus, changes in power and agendas often impact the content and style of calypso performances.  Fournillier (2009) notes that while some Calypsos have been associated with promiscuity and sexual misconduct, the music itself has moved in new directions (p. 90). Further studies of Calypso music highlight its denigration of women (Devonish 2011; Mahabir 2010; Springer & Thorington 2008); however, this too continues to evolve as calypso, once a male-dominated activity, is transforming rapidly. With more women and girls competing in calypso competitions, these female performers have seized what was once used against them and taken ownership of it to empower themselves. They are, in a sense, taking back their sexuality versus letting it be imposed upon them (Mahabir, 2001, p. 411). Additionally, Calypso has maintained, if not increased, its political focus on the issues important to the Caribbean people, becoming enactments of the struggles and rhetoric found in society (Rohlehr, 2001, p 21). Bruno (2011) emphasizes that much of current Calypso content covers important political, economic and social issues, even some difficult, often avoided topics such as domestic violence, prostitution, and murder (p. 9). What makes this acceptable? Through the music medium, such commentary on social, political and economic issues may, in fact, be more readily accessible and acceptable to audiences and, indeed, even help them develop new perspectives (Phillips, 2006, p. 54). Calypsos, then, whether through direct commentary, satire, or double entendre in style and political, social, comedic, or party oriented in content, represents the people’s conscience and consciousness. Two important aspects of this representation are commentary on the educational system and use as an educational tool for and of the people. 

Calypso and Education Popova, McEwen, and Bristol (2015), Rohlehr (2013), Liverpool (2012; 2006) Conrad, Jaikaransingh, and Popova (2012) and Joseph (2009) are among those who have explored the relationship between calypso and education. Popova et al. consider the role of the calypso as an

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

95

expression and cultural production that can be used to understand social, historical, and cultural dynamics of the Caribbean. In their introduction, the authors summarize their research examining Calypso's potential to address issues of multiculturalism, diversity, and social stratification in educational contexts, specifically for educational development. In Rohlehr’s (2013) comprehensive examination of the role of Calypsos in critiquing educational provision by the state between 1956 and 2011, the esteemed professor notes how the art form projects colonial education. Further, Rohlehr effectively demonstrates how through Calypso “the legacies of such a system have been contested, persist, and resist change” (p. 207). Through the lens of the calypsonians, the value, relevance, effectiveness, and biases of education are debated with the people. According to Rohlehr, these include “the quality, scope and content of education, [with] a scathing scrutiny of syllabi, teachers, schools, textbooks and methods of discipline” (p. 193).  Hollis Liverpool, cultural anthropologist and renowned calypsonian, has, on multiple occasions, shared his vision for incorporating Calypsos formally into the school curricula. He identifies potential roles of Calypso, including their use in the teaching and shaping of people’s social and economic history, cultural identity, creativity, and patriotism. Further, he contends that the Calypso is an effective tool to engage and motivate learners (Newsday, 2012): Whether it is biology . . . science or social studies, there are Calypsos for everything . . . but the teachers don’t teach them. What we need to do is to bring the calypso into the classroom not just [for] singing, composing, or teaching music but to teach lessons of history . . . and sociology (The Anguillan, May, 19, 2006). 

 Conrad, Jaikaransingh, and Popova (2012) refer to Rapso, an evolution of the genre, as the poetry of Calypso and emphasize how the lyrical content can be used as “. . . a dynamic means of presenting, expressing, engaging with and constructing transformative knowledge”(p.21). Conrad et al. posit that the lyrical content can be used to develop and enhance literacy and citizenship education. Joseph (2009) also portrays the Calypso as a tool for developing literacy. She suggests that discussions centered on the role and the construction of Calypsos and their relationship to history, carnival and pan music can enhance writing and comprehension activities. 

96

Chapter Four

In the Classroom It is these political, social and economic connections that make the Calypso appropriate for use in classrooms at all levels. However, there is clearly a gap in the transfer of such potential. While studies like Rohlehr (2013) consider how Calypsos have addressed education, Fournillier, (2009) shares its appropriateness within the school culture. Others, like Jackson and Henderson (1995), and Morin (1989), look at numerous ways Calypsos can and should be incorporated into current curriculum. From Ǯmasǯmaking, or the making of the carnival costumes, (Fournillier, 2001), to the inclusion of a steel band [orchestra made up of different types of steel drums] curriculum (Morin, 1989), teachers are looking for ways to engage and educate their students through local culture. They see the value of multiculturalism in schools, and, like Conrad, et al. (2013), view Calypso as “a dynamic means of presenting, expressing, engaging with, and constructing transformative knowledge” (p. 23).  In an age of testing and accountability, we understand the fear that comes with moving away from prescribed curricula. At the same time, we recognize the growing need for young people to be able to distinguish themselves from others, and to have a voice. As Fournillier (2009) states, “there is a need for a pedagogy that facilitates the development of teachers who are not afraid to take risks . . . there is need to remove the distinction and division between academic and creative” (p.100). Thus, while some may see the inclusion of Calypso as simply a fun distraction from “real” learning, we see it as a way to transform education in such a way that both students and facilitators are offered opportunities to actively engage in critical thinking, speaking and writing that not only result in a better understanding of the Caribbean culture and issues like cultural pluralism (Morin, 1989) but, like the Calypso, allows students to participate in social activism. We want young people to learn, to grow, and to make our world a better place, but “we can only be open to the needs of the world if we are open to a deeper awareness and understanding of ourselves”(Kritskaya & Dirkx, 2000, p. 4).

Transforming Education Transformative education and pedagogy (Freire, 1970; Mezirow, 1997) has most often been associated with the study of adult learners and conscientization, with the overarching idea that “self-reflection can lead to significant personal transformations” (Mezirow, 1997, p.7). However, more recent studies (Brown, 2004; Kritskaya & Dirkx, 2000; Nohl, 2015;

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

97

Nuangchalerm & Prachagool, 2010) propose transformative environments as essential in a multitude of settings, with instructors and students of all ages. What helps create these transformative environments are teachers who allow students to both process and experience social conflict and critically reflect upon their own personal assumptions when interpreting or communicating ideas or engaging in problem solving (Mezirow, 1997). Each of us walks into new experiences with some basic assumptions of the world around us and where we fit (Brown, 2004), and through the inclusion of Calypso in classrooms, teachers can help students navigate these assumptions in easily relatable ways. Nuangchalerm and Prachagool (2010) contend that this kind of reflective practice also allows for “new possibilities for promoting depth of understanding and personal relationship with course content”(p. 98). Each Calypso tells a story, and within that story often lies an issue in need of resolution. If students are given opportunities to hear other student voices and see themselves as agents of change, then there is the possibility of moving them beyond the curriculum to accomplish what Calypso itself intends: namely, to move people to transform and transcend their social conditions (Holder, 2001, p. 147). This engagement of cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and use of performance that Calypso affords, is the catalyst that can transform both the learning context (transformational) and the learner (transformative) Guy, 2010; Kim & Slapac, 2015).

Method Introducing the Co-researchers We conduct this study through the lens of educators with diverse backgrounds and experience. The team comprises two professors from the State University of New York, two graduate students with expertise with diverse learners, and one doctoral student, serving as a critical friend. As such, we have not attempted any formal linguistic or content analysis. Instead, through collaboration, optimum engagement with the experience of Calypsos, and a thorough exploration of the selected material, we use writing as inquiry (Richardson, 2000; Richardson & St. Pierre, 2005). This helps to frame our investigation and delve into the complexities of using Calypso as an educational resource.  Jessica is completing her MSED in Special Education at SUNY Potsdam, having already completed a first degree in Mathematics and Special Education. She is new to Calypso and very interested in advocacy and self-advocacy for students with disabilities, particularly Autism

98

Chapter Four

Spectrum Disorders. Lisa is in the final phase of her Master’s in Adult and Continuing Education in Trinidad. She holds a B.Ed. in Special Education and has always had an interest in culture, even if primarily as an observer. Currently teaching pupils for the SEA, she has a keen interest in student engagement and culturally responsive pedagogy and anticipates using this medium to engage adult learners.  Dyanis is a Trinidadian born PhD candidate at Virginia Tech. Her research interests focus on Curriculum and Instruction, namely the Teaching of English as a Second Language and Multicultural Education, especially as they relate to social justice and critical pedagogy. As an international student and teaching assistant, she uses multicultural centric literature in her courses.  Laura is Coordinator of the Adolescence English Education program and Assistant Professor of Education at the State University of New York at Potsdam in northern New York where she teaches courses to undergraduate and graduate teacher candidates. She has always been a lover of reading, poetry, and music. She continues to infuse fiction, including works that are culturally and linguistically diverse, within her courses.  Dennis serves as Chair of the Department of Inclusive and Special Education at SUNY Potsdam. As with Laura and Dyanis, he uses poetry and integrates fiction into most of his courses. He has also used the Calypso.  These five co-authors, three who are very familiar with Calypsos and two new to the art form, began this project following a discussion between Dyanis and Dennis while completing a previous paper on Rapso – the poetry of Calypso. Lisa, Laura and Jessica subsequently joined the project.

Data Collection This is a qualitative study within the framework of a narrative inquiry. We are making the lyrical content of the Calypso, the narratives of interviewees, and our perspectives as co-authors the objects of data analysis. We use a thematic approach to identify and focus on individual and social meanings related to the use of calypso and pedagogy.  In creating the narratives, we follow four phases. First, we identify Calypsos that address educational themes as sung by adult calypsonians to demonstrate the long established relationship between education and the art form. Secondly, we transcribe selected Calypsos sung at the 2012 Junior Monarch Competition held in Trinidad, and retrieved from a

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

99

collection on DVD; along with two other songs identified by the coauthors. Thirdly, we include narratives from interviews with three aficionados and teachers involved with the production or use of Calypsos in schools. One interviewee is associated with the management of the competition. We explore the attitudes of and issues faced by teachers involved in these competitions. In a final phase, we share our reflections as the co-authors on how Calypso might contribute to their teaching. 

Guiding Questions There are two guiding questions. The first question is: How can Calypso as sung at school competitions be used as agents of transformation in education? The second question is: What are the challenges facing the use of Calypsos as agents of transformation in education? These guiding questions are aimed at exploring how Calypsos might be utilized in classrooms as a pedagogical tool to engage and transform learners.  The co-authors discuss and summarize their perspectives and how they believe these might influence and improve their pedagogical practice; which is typical of the self-study of teaching approach. The co-authors also decided to utilize a critical friend for reviewing our findings and to challenge any positions that may be under- or overrepresented. Self-study of teaching promotes and provokes self-reflection, critical analysis, and dialogue about improving one’s teaching through the arts, in this case the calypso. Exploring how Calypsos can be used pedagogically will also help subjects to improve the organizing and managing of such events and enhance and gain new insights into how Calypsos can be used in pedagogy.  After subjectively selecting three Calypsos as sung by students, we individually and collaboratively explored how specific content might be used in classrooms. We considered their relevance in developing language and communication skills and encouraging critical thinking and social advocacy.

Analysis In analyzing this collection of these folk narratives (Bascom, 1965), the co-researchers use an eclectic approach that views Calypso as folk narrative and as a living, organic phenomenon. As folk narrative, the Calypso allows participants and performers to escape their possible sense of repressions by society, it validates and challenges culture, and serves as a means of social pressure over leaders (Bascom, 1965). Further, the

100

Chapter Four

Calypso can be used as a pedagogical tool to facilitate critical thinking, reinforce values, develop performance, communication skills, and encourage social advocacy and action. For the analysis of the narratives, we use the Constant Comparative Method (CCM) as developed by Strauss and Corbin, (1998) and Glaser (1965). This is linked but not limited to Grounded Theory (Creswell, 2013; Chamaz, 2006). The CCM uses simultaneous data collection and analysis (Chamaz) that include the development and use of coding, and memoing to determine themes or concepts. These are then filtered through numerous discussions, as we, the co-authors, acknowledge biases and concerns, sharing and navigating individual experiences, biases, and interests. Being a group of co-authors with different experiential and cultural backgrounds, we anticipated a broad range of emergent themes and participated in a deep level of questioning and reflection as we strive to understand lyrical content and determine pedagogical applications. The Constant comparison ensures that all narratives are systematically compared to all other data in the set. This is important when you have multiple co-researchers will varied orientations. In this a primarily inductive process, the themes are elicited from the raw data, namely the Calypsos lyrics, interviews from teachers, and reflections of co-authors, through repeated examination of narratives, generating of codes using words, phrases, stanzas and comparison (Fram, 2013; Glaser, 1965).  Through the lenses of a contemporary narrative inquiry, we treat the Calypso as a distinct form of discourse and action encompassing socially situated interactive performances shaped and influenced by social realities (Chase, 2005). 

Findings We present the findings of the study according to the sets of narratives used. These include Voices from the Calypso Exemplars, Voices from Student-Calypsonians, and Teacher Voices. Voices from the Calypsonian Exemplars Here we recognize, as supported by Rohlehr (2013) that education has been a pervasive topic addressed by calypsonians through the decades. Calypso identified education as the key to personal and professional success, urging citizens young and old to embrace the opportunities afforded. Yet Calypso also challenged the effectiveness of schooling, the inappropriateness of the curriculum and the lethargy of teachers. 

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

101

Education as Key As early as 1967, Sparrow, who supported the efforts of the government of the era, appealed to students to take schooling seriously through his calypso “Education.”He sang “Children go to school and learn well, otherwise later on in life you go catch real hell.”He continued: To be recognized anywhere you go, You gotta have your certificate to show To enjoy any kind of happiness, Knowledge is the key to success (Sparrow, 1967).

 Gypsy, in his lament and appeal to the ‘little black boy,’ echoed Sparrow’s plea with “Education is the key to get you off the streets and off poverty.” This calypso as most discussed here, proved to be very popular and ardently discussed. Education in Trinidad and Tobago and indeed the Caribbean is deemed as critical to success and, ultimately, a fulfilling life.  Responsive Curricula Critiques of education, however, are often evidenced through Calypsos. Sparrow’s “Dan is the Man in the Van”(1963) focused on curricula and claimed the literature utilized in classrooms was not relevant:  De poems an’de lessons dey write an’sen’from England  Impress me dey were trying to cultivate comedians!  Comic books made more sense: you know it’s fictitious, without pretence.  Cutteridge wanted to keep us in ignorance!  Tell me if dis eh chupidness:  Humpy-Dumpty sat on a wall!  Humpy-Dumpy did fall!  Goosey, Goosey Gyander? Where shall I wander?  Ding, dong, dell  Pussy in de well! 

 In “Teach the Right History” (1969), Chalkdust also noted a lack of relevancy and lobbied for curricula that was less Eurocentric and more focused on local stories, culture, and heroes. Chalkdust complained:    We know so much about England,  Buccaneers, Eskimos, and Red Indian  If a tourist should come today We in trouble if she ask bout Camboulay And the history of calypso, 

102

Chapter Four our children and them don’t know They never hear about Hell Yard, Bar Twenty or Tokyo,  So I want to see Life stories of Lord Executor, Growler, Attilla, Invader, and Killer

 In “Black Inventions” (1969), Chalkdust similarly complained,   In books today, Black people work don’t show Oh Yes, children ….technology, science and … Is only white scientist they see But tell them Who built the first rocket was Banneker, a black man G.T.Sampson started the clothes dryer, a black man Today when ya watch that electric light A black slave Lattimer had foresight 

 Almost thirty years later, the calypsonian Composer (1996) continued the appeal to teachers to use more culturally relevant pedagogy and materials:   They don’t know what to teach these children in school Every year they changing And changing book. Still the children coming out a big set of Mooks  Teaching them bout life quite in Germany When they should be teaching how to live right here properly.

 Prowler (1969), moved away from the relevancy of materials and more toward educational inclusion. He articulated support proposed for technical/vocational education with his “Build More Trade Schools.” Advocating for the unemployed and less academically inclined of the population, he exhorted: “. . . those whose mental capacity is limited, I think they should not be restricted”[Prowler].  Unknown, as quoted in Liverpool (2003), focused on the teachers themselves and challenged their commitment to helping students learn:   they worse than the jamette in the concrete  yard, they does only work 5 hours a day,  and they want the colonial secretary’s pay”(p.18). 

 He, like so many others, expressed his disdain at the educational system. Yet while Sparrow, Composer, and Chalkdust challenged curricular content,

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

103

and Prowler endorsed the need to provide alternatives to traditional academic learning, Unknown blasted teachers’lack of professionalism. He focused on the fact that many teachers were ‘moonlighting’as taxi drivers, salesmen, and other business owners, putting their energy into making more money rather than teaching their students. In the singing of “Brain Drain” (1968), Chalkdust also commented on the populace’s negative view of teachers. This reaction was in response to those teachers who left their home country and went abroad seeking opportunities to enhance credentials and income.  Just because some teachers go away To improve their status and their pay Many people calling this thing brain drain But I say they should be shame They eh see Horace James and Errol John Teaching drums to foreign sons? 

 Stalin (1972) felt the need to present a “New Portrait of Trinidad.” This was in response to the acclaimed “Portrait of Trinidad”rendered by the Mighty Sniper (1965). Sniper had sung:   Trinidad is my land  And of it I am proud and glad  But I can’t understand  Why some people does talk it bad”

 In Stalin’s version of 1972, he informed the now more conscious public, following the Black Power Revolution of 1970 that:  No more are our students ranked among the best No more are our scholars passing every test, But dropping out of school every day in this island

  By the 1990’s Calypsos like Luta’s “Think Again” (1991) and “Change the System”(1995) questioned the very philosophy and policies of education, claiming that citizens seemed not to know or care that “the system”was frustrating students and the youth.  We have an education system that allows you to be a fool  from the day you enter until the day you leave school The ed system as it is today  is frustrating the youths and leading them astray.  When they fail common entrance we does send them to junior sec

Chapter Four

104

Although we know by their performance they just eh ready yet And is my automatic promotion they moving from class to class After five years of that they graduate no smarter than a jackass. We got to change the system Bring it back as it used to be Master standard two before you move up to standard three Change the system let we make it performance based  Or taxpayers money will continue to be going to waste (Luta, 1995).

 Other calypsos queried the very relevance and equity of a formal education. Mudada’s (1976) “Papers no use” and Explainer’s “Strings” (1980) both complained that even after graduating from school, students’ successes were determined by “not what you know but who know you.” Explainer was asserting that it’s neither what you know, nor even who you knew but who knows [values] you that determine your employability. Mudada’s treatise specifically asked why, in seeking employment, you needed the following:    . . . what they want 10 applications,  20 recommendations, 15 Olevels,  you got to show them how you capable [and]  despite all your paper and you eh have a healthy godfather,  your papers no use. 

 For Mudada and other calypsonians, education had lost its purpose, and their songs clearly reflect this loss of faith in a system seen as broken and purposeless.   Failing Schools or Failing Students Calypso also presented the implications of an educational system which appeared to be at odds with the working people. Addressing this, calypsonian Gypsy appealed to one section of the population:  Look in the front see who’s the doctor  look in the back and see who’s the lawyer Look in the bank see who’s the banker,  Look at the business see who’s the owner Look at the staff see who’s the worker Look at the very drugs and see who is the dan . . . Look in the jails and see who you see too  A lot of little black boys just like you Little black boy, get up and learn





Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

105

Three calypsonians responded to Gypsy’s commentary. Pink Panther (1998) with his “Truth about the Little Black Boy” asked Gypsy and others to come off the Black Boy’s back. He asserted that success is not anti-Black and that Gypsy should take another look.  It had a certain part in yuh song Yuh ask the little Black boy to look around Look around and see all who is doctor Who is lawyer and who is banker As though the Black boy ent have no degree . . . never went university As though his intellectual capacity Is strictly consistent with URP [Unemployment Relief Programme]

 The calypsonian, Original Defosto Himself [ODH] with his song “Educated Donkeys” argued that it is the educated people who pose the ultimate danger to society and humanity, inferring that education is not the key to get you off the street and off poverty. He celebrated famous black persons who he claims were not formally educated; these included Sammy Davis Junior, Marcus Garvey, and Uriah Buzz Butler. According to ODH “Educated Donkeys”ǡ“All dem degrees mean nothing without morals and integrity.” Delamo’s (1998), response was more direct in countering Gypsy’s apparent negativism.  What about all them little Black boy  [who] working hard and very conscious You didn’t differentiate; you attack all of them hard and vicious Now I admit many little Black boys going astray But we have to educate, motivate and show them the way If they are to make a meaningful contribution

  He went on:   A little Black boy give the world Mathematics Put these facts in your lyrics So little black boys could be proud of their heritage A little Black boy build the first university At Timbuktu and from that everybody copy Today any Jane and John could get a degree That’s why Gypsy song is a sacrilege To be a little Black boy is a privilege. 





106

Chapter Four

While not blaming education directly, concern about the student population was extended to the young women in schools as well. Gypsy, in singing “Susan” a few years earlier, reflected on how students were falling victims to materialism. She, a promising thirteen year old student from a respectable family, was compromised by drugs and the glamour of the city.   From the time she land in the city  the girl bounce up with bad company she start following strangers and Yvonne drinking smoking sniffing getting high  and don't care if she live or die She mother come to town and she start to cry  Susan you only running all round  you only funking down the town You wouldn't take no time to think Girl watch at how much thing you drink Susan you really take this is for a joke

 Terror’s (1978) “Madness,” along with Ella Andell’s “Missing Generation”(1996) and David Rudder’s “Another Day in Paradise”(1995) commented on the implications of not responding adequately or appropriately to the challenges and realities of some educational experiences. Terror shared his respect for educational progress, while empathizing with the frustration of the youths, who, having applied themselves academically, now felt alienated.   . . . can’t get a job  So they start to lime That is a sign  Education a waste of time  I think it is sad Ridiculous, both shameful and bad  Educated youths  Lots are going mad 

 Almost twenty years later, Andall, searching for disaffected youths and their children amidst their sounds of anger, shared this:   Look behind every sound of thunder  Search beneath every mound of dirt  There you‘ll find the price of our behaviour  hiding from the cause of their hurt  Look out there goes another lonely son or daughter 

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

107

With unshed tears and smiles we‘ve never seen  Lets all reach out and snatch just one from their Destroyer  And change that heart to one that‘s pure and clean

 In Rudder’s “Another day in Paradise,” one year earlier, he shared the pain of accepting the corruption of society. Students’ school bags, once filled with books and learning tools, now contained knives, guns and pathways to the jailhouse. He cried out against the death of hope:   Long ago every mother and father want their sons to be doctor or lawyer so now we full up with doctor and lawyer knife in the hand or a wig on their head sah  The new greeks the old leader say  beat your books, and let we break away  That was then but now its beasts we creating  a funny thing though the eras relating cause when a gorgon shoot another gorgon the doctor job is to stitch up the organ the lawyer job is to keep him out of jail He back on the street ... terror on your tail

 Both Sparrow in “Education”and Funny in “Read a Book,” appealed to children directly to take education seriously. Sparrow shared:  Without an education in your head Your whole life will be pure misery, you better off dead For there is simply no room in this whole wide world For an uneducated little boy or girl Don't allow idle companions to lead you astray To earn tomorrow you got to learn today. 

The funny man of calypso, Funny, appealed directly to students, seeking their ‘oh yes’responses, while urging them to read.   Children Children You want to grow up to be bright and prosperous Oh yes oh yes Children Children Don’t You know the future depends on all of us  Oh yes oh yes Well go to school Obey the rule Don't be a fool  You must obey what teacher say everyday Listen too your homework is not a joke Don't be a mook or a crook Read a book Lemme hear you say 

Chapter Four

108 Get hooked on a book  Get something and read 

 And Rudder again through “Another day in Paradise’ attempted to console himself and the nation’s children with:  Children children don’t you be blue forgive us for killing the good in some of you  ‘We bring you in the world just to mash up your mind.’ ‘I tell you so’shouts the lord of the swine.  But in this land of the wandering soul  Making yourself is the only way you control  “In spite of”, is your key to the light Your fight will be alright, just hold tight 

Rudder advised the youth to believe in themselves, learn how to roll with the punches, and recognize how and when to respond in the absence of social justice. We see then through the artistry of the Calypso, a consciousness of the role of education in shaping a post-colonial society. This consciousness manifests itself as hope, despair, importance, and irrelevance. Often the lyrics reflected the political or philosophical lens of the calypsonian as the peoples’representative.   A Celebration of Student-Calypsonians  From reviewing and analyzing the efforts of the student calypsonians, we are most impressed by their spirit, potential, and products. One coauthor questioned the quality of the audio, while another speculated on the need for student performers to optimally use the microphone and enunciate more clearly.  The Pool To limit the number of transcripts that would have had to be completed, the co-authors opted to individually select three songs as performed on the compilation of performances at the Junior Monarch competition held in Trinidad in 2012. There were also two special guest artistes, one each from St Maarten and Barbados, who won their country’s 2011 Junior Monarch competitions. Altogether there were sixteen (16) performers, nine (9) being girls. In selecting performers, we also opted to not rank our interpretation of any of their performances. In addition to the performers on the DVD, some were chosen by more than one co-author, we decided to add the winning singers for the 2012 competition in Barbados and the 2013 Trinidad. In our uncontested

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

109

opinion, the selected Calypsos offered the most potential in terms of content and articulation for use in our classrooms. The following represent our choices. Table 4-1 Selected Student Calypsonians and Calypsos  Selected Student Calypsonians LAURA

JESS

DENNIS

LISA

Marq Pierre - A TEENAGERS PLIGHT

Denisia Martinbor (Guest artiste 2010 winner from St. Maarten) - ABSTENANCE

Helon Francis  - I AM IN LOVE WITH YOU

Sherisse Collymoore - A PLEA FROM THE CHILDREN Ronaldo London  - STOP FOR A MOMENT

Toni White - DON’T RUSH

Samantha "Sammy G" Greaves (Guest artiste 2010 winner from Barbados) - HIV  Rivaldo London - PUT KAISO IN SCHOOLS Aaron Duncan - AH LEARNING

Sherisse Collymore - A PLEA FROM THE CHILDREN

Marq Pierre - A TEENAGERS PLIGHT

Aaron Duncan - AH LEARNING

Specially added:  Barbados Junior Monarch 2012 Aisha Mandisa Butcher’s HIV Trinbago Junior Monarch 2013 Marq Pierre WHAT IF WE KNEW

 Denisia Martinboar, the guest artiste from St Maarten, appeals to female students to avoid the repercussions of teen pregnancy. The song promotes abstinence and listening to parents. It also demonizes young men, portraying them as dishonest and only focused on one thing: using flattery to pressure young women into sexual activity.  My little sisters, please listen to me. I see too many cases of early pregnancy. Stressing your parents, spoiling your future, Losing the opportunity of being a teenager. What is the hurry, sisters can’t you wait?

 The Calypso “HIV” rendered by guest artiste Samantha ‘Sammy G’ Greaves, the 2011 Barbados Junior Monarch, shares advice to young

110

Chapter Four

people about the importance of prevention and being tested for HIV.   HIV is the master of disguise/ you can never see it with ya naked eye/  It don’t have no race or color/ No religion or no gender/  That’s why in this time you have to be wise/Like a vampire . . . way it does shop at night/ It does bites you and sucks out all your life/ It spends time mentally and physically breaking you down/  Until you get 6 feet under the ground/Hear me/ I tell you protect yourself/ Don't wreck your self  you got to keep HIV away I tell you protect yourself Don't wreck yourself you must go get tested right away 

 Toni White’s calypso “Don’t Rush” is also about teenagers making good choices. The focus here is on education and staying in school in order to have a good future. Much like the previous song referring to teen pregnancy, this song addresses the poor decisions young people often make in trying to grow up too soon, which forces them to assume responsibilities for which they are not yet prepared. Parents, once again, are seen as wise, and young people are encouraged to listen to them in order to avoid pitfalls. This song emphasizes an “independent point of view”and, as with song #1, cautions about sex, drugs, violence and crime.  Life is what you make it; careful not to break it You could have a joyful or perilous trip Take it easy, take your time to grow up Don’t rush (x3) Our mind is a terrible thing to waste So education is an asset that you must embrace Be a shining light, to make your future bright Must be focused to complete your journey Try not to be a vessel that’s empty To be a real success, you’ve got to stay in school Keep on the right path and don’t be a fool

 Marq Pierre’s calypso, “A Teenager's Plight,” continues teenagers’ lamentations. This song discusses the perils of being a teenager, noting that there is a lot of uncertainty and difficulty in trying to live up to others’ expectations. Parents, in this case, are seen as hypocrites. They give young people so many contradictory messages that teens become confused about making appropriate decisions. Still, the larger message seems to focus on being yourself – of trying to make sense of the world and work through those mixed messages.

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

111

the list of uncertainties, they start showing Seems like young and old don’t know what it means Some say sit for a while and you’re no longer a child Your responsibility resting on your shoulder But there are high percentages that are giving us mixed messages In the passage of time as we grow older  They say you’re irresponsible; though you’re grown Why don’t you act your age? Yet you’re too small to make decisions on your own Your uplifting conversations you must engage They say don’t raise your voice in here unless there is a fire And go move your things; they’re not a servant you hire.

 In “A Plea from the Children” Sherisse Collymoore also sings about confusion and trickery but on a larger scale. This calypso zeroes in on allegations of hypocrisy coming from the world and its media. She challenges the contradictions of speaking about keeping peace while constantly discussing and waging war and destruction. The questions being asked are, “How can we children all live in peace when everything demonstrated is contradictory to peace? How are children supposed to help solve the problem of war when that is all we read about?”Once again, adults, who are supposed to have all of the answers, appear to produce mixed messages:  So help us solve this jigsaw how can we children talk it out When our eyes are fixed on the Middle East And war is all we read about How can we children all live in peace? Nuclear warheads on the increase How can we children all live in peace? . . . Yet when any youth faces an enemy They tell us to use our communication skills . . . we can only reap from the seeds that you sew Your policies today will only die out tomorrow Using weapons of war

 The ninth calypso “Stop for a Moment” by Ronaldo London shares perspectives on national pride. The song comments on how families used to teach each other traditional values; young people were taught the correct way to act and to respect and treat others. “This place was a paradise”asserts that things have since changed for the worse. The lyrics invite the audience to come together to share a little love, noting that “love is the answer.”

112

Chapter Four My granny always told how much she loved this country And how this place was so nice You could borrow some sugar from your neighbor This place was a paradise Children were taught when they were young To say grace at the table Before you ate every meal You were to say good morning to elders 

 The second London in the competition, Rivaldo London, sang his rendition of “Put Kaiso in Schools.” Kaiso is another way of saying Calypso. This calypsonian makes the proposal to include Calypso in schools, as posited by this paper. London asserts that Calypsos offer a unique and engaging way to learn about culture and history. Calypso, London contends, tells the stories of the people, whether they be women or men. The singer “begs” that these be put in the curriculum so these stories can “live on forever.”  Do you know about the plantation Slaves ... they brought them to plant sugar Do you know how they use to bring/breed them to cut cane to make SUGAR Do you know how the slaves used to sing to express their feelings Do you know that Is how calypso  gots its beginnings Do you know about the chantwells the first singers of calypso Dem is the things you should be teaching we at those schools here in Trinbago and look ah begging the people  put the kaiso in schools yes Put the kaiso in school yes

 The calypsonian, Aaron Duncan, in his song “Ah Learning”argues that he has found balance in singing Calypso, Kaiso and getting a good education. In this personalized song (using I), Duncan responds to the audience’s question: How can you continuously perform and travel while still keeping up with your schoolwork? He celebrates the importance of his education, expressing that his parents keep him grounded and consistently remind him that while music is important, education is even more important. Therefore, even though he is excelling in his musical endeavors, he recognizes the importance of being advised by his elders in order to stay on track. 

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

113

Boy you always on stage Hardly in your class Aaron how you manage? It must be a task Mommy told me I must learn this and use it as a golden rule Learning also takes place outside of school When I travel through the West Indies it helps to unravel my social studies  mommy tell me take out a map know exactly where we are then she puts me on her lap and tells me that I will GO FAR once I stay humble and willing to open my brain’my experiences would not be in vain so when you see me sitting at an interview Ah learning  must wait on a sign when to take my cue Ah learning when I speak must watch meh verbs and meh tense Ah learning  and the answers I give must make plenty sense Ah learning

 The fifteenth singer and thirteenth contestant, Helon Francis, sings and plays the national instrument, the steel band, with his rendition of the patriotic song “I Am In Love With You”. He speaks of trials, hurricanes, racism, Black Power revolution, attempted coup, and crime, yet he celebrates the successes, like literacy, the steelpan, carnival, and the bright future he sees for his country.  In the life of a nation there is consideration  that 50 years is a great milestone  It is time for reflecting and for evaluating whether it excels on its own So if what teacher say is true My Trinbago I’m proud of you  And you deserve credit because it is due Many people just can’t believe all the thing while those nations falling downs that you have achieved And so I can be happy that I’m a Trini Your economy still booming while indignation falling down here Your democracy still looming human rights they still abound oh My Trinbago beautiful Trinbago I pledge my life to thee Oh sweet Trinbago, Fantastic Trinbago Just from me, Happy Golden Jubilee

     Two other Calypsos were recommended by one co-researcher. These were from the Junior Monarch 2012 of Barbados, Aisha. Mandisa Butcher and the 2013 Junior Monarch, Marq Pierre. 

114

Chapter Four

In Marq’s song “What If We Knew,” the idea of achieving one’s dreams despite many obstacles is, once again, introduced. The calypso focuses on independent thinking, maximizing one’s resources in order to reach one’s goals, and the impact of technology in the lives of teenagers. Marq stresses that one has to believe in oneself because “Our dreams is the only thing that remains.”  If you’re told that in twenty years you would be the Prime Minister Tell me how that prediction will shape your life Would you be involved in actions that are sinister Or avoid situations that could end in turmoil and strive

And later on, he continues:  In the age of technology where the world is at our fingertips And we make computers our new kingdom We must take great care when we are making video clips On false move the world sees and could un-toss in years to come  Because they could pull your file since the days you were a child And see what you did and did not do when you were a teen Cause each past misdemeanour could dampen our future So we should strive in keeping our record clean.  

The calypso “My Advice”by Aisha Mandisa Butcher appeals to young ladies to take their time growing up.  When I was six, I wanted to be seven When I was seven, I wanted to be eight I always wanted to be grow up,  I was enthusiastic couldn't wait My mother beg me to slow ma roll Mandisa you must learn how to wait But me wid my big head and powerful self I learn my lesson too late  I use to go to bed early,  Just to dream bout what I wanted to be Singer, actress, dancer, reporter  I had to be seen on TV Little did I know the more I grow The more distracted I would be So at thirteen instead of studying I was out there chasing money

 This song focuses on the repercussions of a young girl’s wrong choices

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

115

in growing up too quickly; specifically getting pregnant and contracting HIV. In this case, the singer portrays herself as the victim. She discusses the effects of her poor decisions and urges the audience to learn from her mistakes and to make education a top priority. This song emphasizes how young people should listen to their elders and take their time growing up because they only get one chance at life. In addition, the decisions made as a teen can negatively impact others.  My parents couldn't believe their eyes,  When they see my stomach start to rise I assumed they knew I was sexually active But they were acting so surprised The look they gave me when I admitted  Told me they were tired of my lies And in two-twos they had a suitcase packed And tell me get the hell out their lives I had no idea what to do,  No idea of what was in store for me And to mek it worst  I was uncertain of who was my baby daddy But de next set of news I gave to them Nearly killed them instantly Cause not only was I pregnant But I had contracted HIV

 When looking at the above Calypsos as a whole, there are definite connective threads. These songs represent the concerns of young people and the difficulties that come with growing up. There is a strong focus on not only the responsibilities of youth today but also on the advantages and repercussions that may come from the making of particular decisions. At every corner, there is a liar or a contradictory message that could potentially cause adolescents to make bad choices, ruining all chances of them reaching their goals and dreams. These songs express the desire for young people to reach their potential, specifically through education. Although some of the selections specifically address schooling, many frame education as something that also takes place outside of the school walls and importantly, comes through learning from your elders and the mistakes of others. These songs also provide an emphasis on individuality, with the understanding that being your own person and standing up for yourself is no easy task. Teens are expected to act more appropriately in certain ways but are then told they are not old enough for other responsibilities, so it puts them in a difficult situation. Who do I listen to? Who can I trust?

116

Chapter Four

Family is certainly valued, as several of the songs point to parents and elders as being wise, but it is not idealized. Adults are shown as imperfect, which means youth still need to find their own way if they are to make a future for themselves. There is a lot riding on the decisions that they will eventually make, as the impact, both good and bad, could spread to the nation and the world.  While some of the songs focus more on individual stories and how the listeners can learn from them, others have a wider message that involves national pride and an understanding of global issues. Still, the overriding theme for all is the same: in creating a positive future, there are many obstacles that must be overcome, and the only way to overcome these is to make good decisions, maintain values, stay in school, and avoid anything that could potentially get in the way, like drugs, sex and violence, and war.  Teacher Voices  All the teachers interviewed were positive and full of confidence for the future of Calypso citing writing, communication, performance, creativity, and interdisciplinary benefits. Challenges were also identified.  The three educators interviewed, although not all involved in the Junior Monarch Competition, used Calypso in their teaching. The first, Thora Best, is a former school principal and the Chair of the Junior Calypso Committee of the Trinidad and Tobago Unified Calypsonians Organization (TUCO). A second, Zeno Obi Constance, is a renowned cultural and calypso archivist, historian and aficionado who teaches at a secondary school. The third, CL, is a less experienced teacher --but no less committed to the calypso art form-- at a rural elementary school. 

Calypsos as Agents of Transformation Both Thora and Zeno have been involved in teaching and culture for over 42 years and have always had a love for the arts. Zeno explains:  [I have] Been teaching since I left school in 1972 only interrupted by my sojourn at UWI [University of the West Indies] from 74 to 77. Taught Spanish, English, Lit, Social Studies, Drama, Theatre Arts, basketball. Always loved kaiso (remembering listening to the 1961 Dimanche Gras when I was 8 or 9) and in fact I sang very unsuccessfully in the UWI competition. Ah buss bad [laughing out loud] 

 Zeno shares that he began researching calypso or kaiso, as he refers to it, while on [the university] campus and did his thesis on Bro. Valentino, a famed social-commentator. Zeno has also been an avid calypso collector

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

117

since 1977. He collects Calypsos on any format “. . . cassette, CD, DVD, video everything.” Zeno is also a founding member of the now defunct Calypso Collectors Association. Thora is heavily involved in the Choral Speaking, Junior Carnival Committee, and the Junior Monarch calypso competition. I remember early o’clock having left Mausica [teachers college] and going to teach at St. Dominic’s in Morvant. I met George Martin, another young teacher who wrote children’s Calypsos. The Jr Calypso Competition was just evolving . . . we had the Carnival Development Committee in those days and we had Phyllis Mitchell who foresaw a role for young calypsonians. 

The Transformative Potential While neither Zeno nor CL are directly involved in the junior calypso monarch competitions, they have both been involved in calypso and, along with Thora, celebrate the transformative influence of the Calypsos. All recall exemplary Calypsos as sung by students and adults alike. CL remembers the confidence of Machel Montano and Heather McIntosh as students singing in the junior monarch competitions. Both are now professionals and megastars in their own right.  Thora remembers Andrew Baptiste who won the second iteration of the calypso competition in 1977 and Cleopatra St. Rose’s “Teach me by Calypso” in 1979. She applauds and encourages efforts to use more indigenous or localized culture. For her, Calypsos have always been an important part of her teaching and conceptualizing learning.     Before I even got involved in applying theories like Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences. I have always used those strategies in my classroom teaching. To me it was just a natural fit. I have used Calypsos to mold confidence, presentation, composition and improve writing. 

 Zeno supports this.  I have always since leaving UWI used kaiso to teach ALL subjects. I used them as examples, as sing along, in the graduation ceremonies, in the drama productions . . . even have a script a play with a calypsonian as the lead [role]. 

 The process of transforming attitudes and practices associated with Calypsos was no quick thing, Thora emphasizes, sharing the committee’s transformation from:

118

Chapter Four . . . a Roving Tent where we sought to take children around the country to display their craft to the others. These were just children who loved singing calypso. In those days there was not much money in it and the children just did it for fun and they just wanted to emulate the older calypsonians. And so we would go across the country taking them to different schools and they would sing and dance. Eventually we decided that we must also help eradicate some of negative stereotypes or ‘bad behaviors’associated with some the older calypsonians.

    Thora shared that the committee had to create standards and modules that addressed deportment, grooming, stagecraft, diction, singing, and interviewing skills. This was also extended to the development of workshops like the Junior Calypso Vacation Camp that utilized over 10 modules, covering key elements of the Calypso, including calypso-writing skills. Older calypsonians came and talked to the youth on the history of the calypso and provided tips for success.  [which] in the early days had a bad rap where it was only ‘duncy’, ‘watless’people who would be calypsonians. That the values that Calypsos espoused were not of the best so you didn’t want your children to be involved in that and so we tried to eradicate that. 

 Thora also emphasizes that a large part of this transformation of the system and the young calypsonians were facilitated by the support of the Ministry of Education (MOE).  The MOE has always been involved in the competition and because the MOE was involved one of the things we looked at was that the children must be all rounded in their education. You must not give up one for the other. So your grades must stay up and that kinda thing. Not that if a child wasn’t academically strong, we wouldn’t let them sing calypso . . . we will also help you. If you were a calypsonian and we found that you are learning differently we would try to help you.

 Thora spoke of success stories where former junior calypso monarchs are now professionals in their own right. She shared on Ezekiel York, Heather Macintosh, Karen Asche, Patrice Roberts, and Machel Montano. She explained that the Junior Monarch competition itself is governed by a Committee and a set of rules and regulations.  You have to be a bonafide pupil in a school because the MOE is in conjunction with TUCO that runs the competition. It is from five to nineteen and the difference with us and an ordinary Jr. Calypso Competition is that even though we choose a monarch we give out twenty

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

119

nine other prizes . . . for best jr composer singer as I said fifteen to nineteen, best jr composer in younger age groups, best party composer, best nation building calypso, best calypso for pan, calypso for family life, calypso on the environment, calypso on HIV Aids awareness.  

Thora also celebrates the active support of some parents who have contributed to the success of the Committee and shows. One other area she attributes to positive changes is the role of the Universities, one that now offers degrees in music/calypso. While Zeno and CL both emphasize that Calypsos are incorporated through the curriculum informally, Thora asserts that Calypsos should be formally incorporated. Zeno has no major problem with the Junior Monarch Competition and that his students typically embrace Calypsos in the classroom.   I have found that contrary to popular belief young people do not mind the kaiso. When presented in the context of a play or song or dance they take part eagerly.

 Zeno celebrates and underscores his commitment and involvement.   I have actually written four full-length calypso musicals - de Roaring 70's, The Road Make to Walk, Eric the Musical, Master Mi Minor. He [Zeno] shared his musical “The Road make to Walk” that examines the musical career of Calypso’s Grandmaster, Lord Kitchener, arguably one of the greatest calypsonian-musicians. The event chronicles events beginning with Kitchener’ successful entry into calypso with “Green Fig” in 1944. The script takes the audience on Lord Kitchener’s journey from Trinidad to England, then back to Trinidad in 1963. It concludes with his death in 2000. The play also comments on the state of Calypso and the direction it is taking and offers a slice of society as it passes through the periods of the birth of the steel band and the coming of Soca, both cultural facets that Kitchener mastered.

Challenges Zeno does not identify any major challenge, beyond accessing materials, that a teacher might encounter when planning to use Calypsos.     The MAIN problem with teaching and using kaiso in the classroom is the sourcing of the music and lyrics. As a collector I have them both but the average teacher will find it difficult to have [these] at his/her disposal. Some of us have a network so we pass the music along when needed.



120

Chapter Four

CL shares a similar concern and notes the efforts he has made in gaining access to calypso lyrics. He also discusses the raising of teacher consciousness and readiness to use the art form.  Most times I had to find a tape or a YouTube clip and play it multiple times to guestimate the lyrics. With children performers not yet enunciating effectively, sometimes fumbling over words, it could be a nightmare. Yet it has always been worth it. So over the years I have a few songs like Shadow’s ‘Poverty is hell’, and Rudder’s “Another day in Paradise’and “Democracy.”

 CL also stresses the apathy of many teachers who seem to be disconnected from their culture.  Is like they just don't like calypso because it smacks too much of intelligentsia. They want to hear lyrics like Machel’“Ah want to live meh life.” They can tell you all about Virgo Romain and Nicki Minaj songs. Not that I have anything against these songs or singers. I just find that as teachers they should be more into the culture as a means of liberating the students. They themselves need a course in “calypso as a teaching tool”. For Thora, from the competition and committee perspective, the major challenge is record keeping and artefact archiving. That is what we are trying to get done now. I could give you a list of all the winners, but we don’t have any real history. Last year TUCO, the umbrella body, produced a book. I quarrelled with them bitterly. I find that even in the magazine the Juniors don’t get enough play in it. They were going to correct that. 

 Other challenges include teacher apathy, as many teachers do not see the poetry in the calypso nor do they value poetry as a pedagogical tool.  They have to understand that we have to go from the known to the unknown and the known is what you hear on the radio everyday your calypso and so on. For years Debbie Jacob has been promoting/lobbying to use the calypso in addition to looking outside, re Shakespeare, Woodsworth etc. and all the rest of it unknown. Remember, they were the calypsonians of their day. We have such Calypsos that are . . . profound; or . . . humorous. [Teachers] can use that as the known. Having used the calypso they can go to the Shakespeare.

 A third concern is the stigma attached to many Calypsos, specifically due to the use of double entendre. Teachers want to avoid creating instances where students are exposed to that. A fourth challenge is managing the role of parents. 

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

121

Before [they] didn’t want their children to sing calypso but times have changed now where parents are encouraging the children to sing calypso . . . but some parents are in it for the wrong reasons and not pushing it to develop the child’s talent but for the money. So they must go to every competition because for the appearance fees. 

 A fifth challenge, Thora identifies, is associated with gender.  In the workshop there were more young ladies than there were boys and I don’t know why. What I have found is that young boys gravitate to the hip hop and the soca but those who stay in the calypso . . . are doing quite well.

 However, Thora contends that the challenge is not with bias towards one gender over the other from the committee or teacher community.  I think both male and female have equal opportunity in calypso but the boys have other challenges to deal with because you know our boys are at risk. Whereas a girl will go and sit and learn the words of a calypso, the boys not doing that.

 A final challenge is determining days for activities that will not negatively impact students’academics. Teachers object that students often miss the same subjects or their weekly Friday tests.  So the Roving tent goes out on staggered days. . . . We have the parents pledge that they will get the notes etc for the secondary school students. For primary school students we talk to the class teacher to make sure that they give the missed information to the students. Another reason for not going out on Friday was because students missed weekly test. 

Co-researcher Perspectives We, the authors comprising two professors, one research and teaching assistant, and two teachers generally concur with the use and potential of the calypso in our classrooms. Jessica shares that: The ultimate goal of teaching is to have students become truly interested, invested and passionate about the material and ideas they are discovering. We want our students to become lifelong learners, and using calypsos is one way to help accomplish this goal [JB]. 

122

Chapter Four

Pedagogical Possibilities Dyanis, Jessica, and Lisa remain optimistic about the possibilities of using Calypsos in their classrooms. Jessica underscores the value of giving students choices, and so increasing their levels of investment and engagement. She shares “So students will be working on verbal and nonverbal communication, writing styles and conventions, presentation, and gathering information.” Lisa sees across curricula applications from Values and Virtues, Mathematics, English Language Arts, Social Studies, Music, and even PE. She had even invited a calypsonian to speak to her students. She adds: Using calypsos that students can relate to allows them to having a better appreciation of the grammatical terms and they are able to identify with what is being said. My students can review lyrics of song, rewrite in Standard English. They can identify the rhymes in the lyrics.

 Dyanis stoutly shares that she believes that the benefits of using calypso in the classroom outweigh the challenges.  I enjoy taking time to select the most appropriate options for my students but to be honest, sometimes my selections have fallen off that mark. I have used those times as learning and teaching opportunities in order to hone my practice, encourage student feedback, and as examples of quick thinking.

 For Laura, Calypsos are important tools that offer students opportunities to critically analyze and evaluate texts, as well as develop their own arguments. Close reading of selected Calypsos for such elements as word choice, phrasing, organization, imagery, repetition, audience and purpose can prove to be an effective form of engagement. Dennis, Jessica, and Laura all stress that the role of the Calypso is to give students a creative voice to artistically express concerns or share perspectives.  This is a genre that clearly demonstrates how young people can achieve greatness, make a difference in their own communities and prove that their voices are, indeed, worth hearing [Laura].

 Dennis has used Calypsos in his higher education courses, particularly to address social justice issues. For him however, it is primarily about the lyrics. Once these are developed or accessed, he encourages critical analysis, modification, and representation. Only then does he introduce the particular calypso music. This might vary according to the song or calypsonian, but “lyrics are critical”. 

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

123

These represent the concerns of the folk. To me, Calypsos are really folk narratives set to specific rhythms, and as such the same considerations may be applied to the use of folk songs in a typical classroom, whether it’s in the Caribbean region, North America or elsewhere.

 We, Dyanis, Jessica, Laura, Lisa, and Dennis as co-researchers, and CL, CY, and Thora our Caribbean-based respondents, all use the Calypso in our classrooms with different purposes and activities. What connects us pedagogically is our willingness and commitment to its use; our celebration of the differences in the voices presented in these ‘folk narratives’; the critical self-reflection we utilize; and our willingness to engage students in multiple ways of learning (Kim & Slapak, 2015). 

The Challenges Jessica and Lisa remain rather cautious about how time constraints might impact their use of using Calypsos. Lisa nevertheless notes how teaching has become more about preparing for the test than preparing for living and active citizenship education. She suggests some caution about the use of songs with double entendre, which might alarm some parents or the school management. For Dyanis, the challenge is navigating some idiomatic expressions, which can cause confusion among her U.S. students because many are socio-culturally specific. Dennis recommends the development and use of more internet sites to access Calypso lyrics. Maybe the Ministry of Education or the Calypsonians Association should develop lyric banks where Calypsos and their lyrics can be readily accessed for classroom teaching purposes.   The task of transcribing a calypso off YouTube, the radio, or other media format is daunting. Even more so if you are not a person familiar with the accent of the person singing or the context being referred to [Dennis].

Conclusions and Implications We, the co-authors contend that the Calypso offers a transformational experience for teaching and learning. Many classrooms that are characterized by teaching for the test, can become a topically sensitive, socially conscious, and active context where students share a commitment to equity in diversity (Shields, 2013). This experience might be accomplished through the frames of music, drama, communication, content development, historical, cultural and socio-economic analysis (Liverpool in Newsday, 2012; Rohlehr, 2013).

124

Chapter Four

Further, the lives of individual students, teachers and other stakeholders involved with using Calypso can themselves be transformed. Student skills associated with reflective listening, performing, writing, critiquing, are all enhanced. Students are engaged and afforded multiple ways of demonstrating their content mastery, developing their community centric and socially conscious ‘voice’, and becoming advocates for the voiceless. Indeed, the Calypso facilitates critical reflection, provides rich opportunities to deconstruct and reconstruct meanings and knowledge, recognizes privilege and power, and values community and culture. The Calypso, can change learning context and learner; facilitating both the transformational and transformative (Sheilds, 2013). 

Pedagogical Considerations Emerging results reveal that Calypsos go beyond performance and aesthetics, offering opportunities for teachers to engage all students, while developing language, communication (Mezirow, 1997), and critical thinking skills, and facilitating opportunities for social action (Holder, 2001). Stakeholders’ perspectives reveal a rich appreciation of student potential and resourcefulness, along with a concern for commercialization. Students will be afforded opportunities to develop skills like transcribing, translating, and modifying lyrics, and explore the poetry of the calypso (Conrad, Forteau-Jaikaransingh, & Popova (2013). Further, students will find opportunities to form new alliances and other skills related to communication, second language teaching, social justice, and advocacy. 

Links to Common Core For teachers outside of the Caribbean who wish to utilize the Calypsos but fear a lack of connection to the curriculum, we felt it important to emphasize that there are a large number of links that can be made to the New York State Common Core ELA standards. This is used as an example, since Laura, one of the co-researchers, uses the Calypso within her ESL courses and is at a New York State university. Some of the strongest connections are as follows: Reading Anchor Standard 6-12: Responding to Literature.  11. Respond to literature by employing knowledge of literary language, textual features, and forms to read and comprehend, reflect upon, and interpret literary texts from a variety of genres and a wide spectrum of American and world cultures.

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

125

Like poetry, the Calypso can offer students not only a unique textual format to study, with multiple stanzas and refrains, but they can also introduce them to a number of different literary elements, such as repetition, rhyme scheme, and meter. In addition, Calypsos, particularly those as written and sung by students, often focus on the plight of youth and identify common struggles and obstacles, as well as offer unique insights/perspectives regarding the difficulties of growing up, which is something to which all young people can relate. When addressing the standards, students are also expected to make personal, cultural, and thematic connections between texts. The use of Calypsos would help facilitate this process as Calypsos provide a connection to a different culture, while maintaining a meaningful link to adolescents regardless of geographical location. There is also a link to the ELA Standards for History/Social Studies that asks students to compare the point of view of two or more authors, looking at reasoning and use of rhetoric. Since content is often similar, students can look at how performers approached the songs differently. Speaking and Listening Standards 6-12: Comprehension and Collaboration: This standard involves analyzing the purpose of information presented in diverse media and formats (e.g. visually, quantitatively, orally), and evaluating the motives (e.g. social, commercial, political) behind its presentation. Since Calypsos are also about presentation, students can go beyond the study of the lyrics as text and view the actual performances. In doing so, students have the opportunity to hear and analyze the message as well as see how the music and individual performances (giving consideration to dress, body language, etc.) potentially impact/enhance that message. Students can also delve into the purpose of calypso as communication. What or who, exactly, is driving these songs and competitions? What argument is being made? In addition, since students are expected (in the Writing standards –11.) to create literary texts in multiple forms, including video and art, they could easily develop their own Calypsos by choosing a message and staging their own performances of the text for a specific audience and purpose. This would allow students to move their learning beyond the classroom, as opportunities could be developed for students to perform for parents, classmates and community members on relevant issues.

126

Chapter Four

Implications While Calypso is alive and well in its many forms in the Caribbean, there is a need to find its place as a pedagogical tool. Because of the misunderstandings of its function and conflicts with its origins, there are stakeholders who might frown on its use in the classroom. Thus, it is up to the educators to share the message that Calypso goes beyond creed and race. It is the narrative and voice of the folk and should be celebrated as such (Conrad, Forteau-Jaikaransingh, & Popova, 2012; Newsday, 2012). TUCO and its Junior Monarch Committee, the Teachers Association, the Ministry of the Arts and Multiculturalism, and the Ministry of Education’s Curriculum Division-- among other stakeholders-- should be developing and offering teacher education courses that use Calypso as pedagogy. It is an important aspect of culturally responsive teaching.  Beyond the Caribbean region, learners in New York, for example, might benefit from exploring how the Calypso can be used in the classroom. This might include a cultural appreciation of the calypso art form and recognition of similarities with poetry, and folk music. Educators in New York might also be encouraged to work with Caribbean populations.  Using the Calypso as a transnational and intercultural pedagogical tool (Kim & Slapac, 2010) has the potential for forming new alliances that enhance skills related to intercultural understanding and communication, second language teaching, social justice, and advocacy. Indeed, educators might further encourage their learning communities to recognize the importance of encouraging participation and the sharing of ‘voices’ that address democracy and justice in the schools and community. The role and responsibilities of educators and teacher educators, however, will also warrant critical reflection and review of instructional principles, to facilitate a transformational experience. These should include a deliberate linking of student experiences with their contexts, confronting the frames of reference used by teachers and students, and a recognition of the influence and impact of institutionalized contexts and frames on student learning and pedagogical practice (Nuangchalerm & Prachagool, 2010).

References Accioly de Amorim, Ana C. 2009. "Literacy and Numeracy in Select Countries of the Caribbean." Caribbean Development Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank. December 2-3. http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=35298928.

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

127

Ajayi, Lasisi. 2008. "Meaning-making, Multimodal Represenation, and Transformative Pedagogy: An Exploration of Meaning Construction Instructional Practices in an ESL High School Classroom." Journal of Language, Identity and Education 7: 206-229. Bascom, William. 1965. "The Forms of Folklore: Prose Narratives." The Journal of American Folklore 78, no. 307: 3-20. Brown, Kathleen M. 2004. "Leadership for Social Justice and Equity: Weaving a Transformative Framework for Pedagogy." Educational Administration Quarterly 40, no. 1: 77-108. Chase, Susan E. 2005. "Narrative Inquiry: Multiple Lenses, Approaches, Voices." In The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, by Norman Denzin and Yonna S. Lincoln, 651-679. California: Sage. Conrad, Dennis, Forteau-Jaikaransingh, Beulah and Popova, Dyanis. 2013. "Poetry to Rapso: Localized Narrative in the Classroom." Caribbean Curriculum 20: 1-29. Creswell, John W. 2013. Qualitative Inquiry and Research DesignChoosing Among Five Approaches. California: Sage. Cuffy, David. 2013. "The Indo Trini Role in Calypso." Guardian Newspapers. http://www.guardian.co.tt/carnival/2013-01-26/indo-trinirole-calypso. Devonish, Hubert. 2011. "Wine, Women and Song: The More Things Change..." Sexuality and Culture 201, no. 15: 332-344. Fournillier, Janice B. 2009. "Mas' Making and Pedagogy: Imagined Possibilities." The Qualitative Report 14, no. 1: 81-104. Fram, Sheila M. 2013. "The Constant Comparative Method Outside of Grounded Theory." The Qualitative Report 18, no. 1: 1-25. Freire, Paulo. 1970.Pedagogy of the Oppressed. London: Penguin. Gay, Geneva. 2010. Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research and Practice . New York: Teachers College Press. Glaser, Barney G. 1965. "The Constant Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis." Social Problems 12, no. 4: 436-445. Greaves, Gail-Ann. 1998. "Call-response in Selected Calypsos of Political Commentary from the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago." Journal of Black Studies 29, no. 1: 34-50. Guilbault, Jocelyne. 2005. "Audible Entanglements: Nation and Disasporas in Trinidad's Calypso Music Scene." Small-Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism 17: 40-63. Holder, Winthrop R. 2001. "Notting Eh Strange: Black Stalin Speaks!" Small Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism 9: 140-158. Inter-American Development Bank. 2015. "At-Risk Youth: An Urgent Challenge for the Caribbean."

128

Chapter Four

http://www.iadb.org/en/topics/education/at-risk-youth-an-urgentchallenge-for-the-caribbean,6649.html. Jackson, Fran R., and Henderson, Lana T. 2009. Balancing the Curricula in the Arts: The Caribbean Connection. Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago. Washington DC: Center for International Education North Carolina Central University, Durham. Joseph, Barbara. Some Reflections on Calypso, Pan and School Literacy. 2009. https://www.oercommons.org/courses/some-reflections-on-calypsopan-and-school-literacy. Kim, Sujin, and Slapaca, Alina.2015. "Culturally Responsive Transformative Pedagogy in the Transformational Era: Critical Perspectives." Educational Studies: A Journal of the American Education Studies Association 5, no. 1: 17-27. Kritskaya, Olga V., and Dirkx, John M., 2000. "Leadership Development as Transformative Pedagogy. From Transformative Learning." Academy of Human Reseource Development. Michigan State University. Liverpool, Hollis Urban L. 2015. "Chalkdust's Eulogy For the Mighty Duke: What is Calypso." TriniSoca.com. http://www.trinisoca.com/duke/220109b.html. —. 2003. From the Horse's Mouth. Juba Publications,. Mahabir, Cynthia. 2001. "The Rise of Calypso Feminism: Gender and Musical Politics in the Calypso." Popular Music 20, no. 3: 409-430. Mezirow, Jack. 1997. "Transformative Learning: Theory to Practice." New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education 7: 5-12. Morin, Francine L. 1989. Elementary School Steelband: A Curriculum and Instructional Plan for Canadian Schools. Descriptive Report, University of North Dakota. Newsday. 2012. Chalkdust: Use Calypso to Teach. August Monday, http://newsday.co.tt/hotline/0,165059.html. Nohl, Arnd-Michael. 2015. "Typical Phases of Transformative Learning: A Practice Based Model." Adult Education Quarterly 65, no. 1): 35-49. Nuangchalerm, Prasart, and Prachagool, Veena. "Promoting Transformative Learning of Preservice Teachers Through Contemplative Practices." Asian Social Science 6, no. 1 (2010): 95-99. Phillips, Everard M. "Recognising the Language of Calypso as Symbolic Action in Resolving Conflict in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago." Caribbean Quarterly 52, no. 1 (2006): 53-73. Popova, D, Conrad, Dennis A., Phillip, Lisa M., Conrad, Deborah, J., and Mohammed, Antonia. 2015. "Recollections and Representations of

Calypso Pedagogy as an Agent of Educational Transformation

129

Folk in the Classroom: Teacher Perspectives." Unpublished Manuscript. Popova, Dyanis, McEwen, Celina, and Bristol, Laurette. 2013. "One Nation Under One Groove: Calypso and Multicultural Education." Paper Presented at the annual meeting for the American Education Research Association. San Francisco, California, April 27- May 1. Reed, Judith, and Black, Deborah J. 2006. "Towards a Pedagogy of Transformative Teacher Education." Multicultural Education 14, no. 2 : 34-39. Richardson, L, and St. Pierre, Elizabeth A. 2005. "Writing a Method of Inquiry." In The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, by S. Lincoln Norman K. Denzin and Yvonne, 959-978. California: Sage. Richardson, Laurel. 2000."Writing: A Method of Inquiry." In Handbook of Qualitative Research, by Norman K. Denzin and Yvonne S. Lincoln, 923-948. California: Sage. Riggio, Milla C. 2004. Carnival: Culture in Action-The Trinidad Experience. New York: Routledge. Rohlehr, Gordon. 2013. "Calypso, Education and Community in Trinidad and Tobago from the 1940s to 2011." Tout Moun Caribbean Journal of Cultural Studies 2, no. 1: 1-58. —. 2001. "The Calypsonia as Artist: Freedom and Responsibility." Small Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism 9: 1-26. Rudder, David. Calypso Music. 1987. http://islandlyrics.com/lyricsdavid_rudder-calypso_music_1987.htm. Ryan, Selwyn, Rampersad, Indira, Bernad, Lennox, Mohammed, Patricia, and Thorpe, Majorie. 2013. “No Time to Quit: Engaging Youth At Risk- Executive Report of the Committee on Young Males and Crime in Trinidad and Tobago.”. //www.ttparliament.org/documents/2197.pdf Shields, Carolyn M. 2010. "Transformative Leadership: Working for Equity in Diverse Contexts." Educational Administration Quarterly 46, no. 4: 558-589. Springer, Jennifer T. 2008. "Roll it Gal: Alison Hinds, Female Empowerment and Calypso." Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism 8, no. 1: 93-129. Stalin, Black. 1972. A New Portrait of Trinidad. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8e15iiyHteM.. Strauss, Anselm, and Corbin, Juliet M. 1998. Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. California: Sage. Taylor, Edward W. 2006. "The Challenge of Teaching for Change." New Directions in Adult and Continuing Education 112: 91-95.

130

Chapter Four

Toussaint, Michael. 2009. "Trinidad Calypso as Postmodernism in the Diaspora: Linking Rhythms, Lyrics and the Ancestral Spirits." Research in African Literature 40, no. 1: 139-144.

CHAPTER FIVE USING UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING TO MITIGATE DISPROPORTIONALITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION YVEL C. CREVECOEUR

A picture of classroom diversity around the world consists of more than the cultural, linguistic, and racial makeup of the various peoples that comprise the total world population; diversity also includes other variables, such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status. A 2014 United Nations report indicated that, “…the current state of the world’s population is one of unprecedented diversity and change, reflected in new patterns of fertility, mortality, migration, urbanization and ageing” (iii). From 2014 to 2050, projections indicate that the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Republic of Tanzania, the U.S., and Uganda may account for more than half of the world’s population growth, with India projected to become the most populous country in 2028 (United Nations 2014). With these projected global demographic changes come numerous educational opportunities and challenges.

Transforming Education–An Imperative Although most educators welcome diversity and the opportunities it offers, inevitably, they will encounter challenges in attempting to transform pedagogical practices within their respective educational systems if the variability in student learning is not addressed. Variability is reflected in the heterogeneity of general education classrooms, or within homogeneous groups of students—whether categorized with a disability or not—and a greater focus on the specific heterogeneous needs of students is warranted. In our current educational environment, there exists an unarticulated moral imperative whereby there is a need to:(1) diagnose

132

Chapter Five

students’ present levels of performance appropriately;(2) design and implement curricula and instructional strategies that address the specific academic and social needs of students, and (3) evaluate the effects of curricular and instructional strategies based on students’ responses. In the past, there was a greater focus on determining the overall areas of need for students and designing instructional practices that improved students’ academic and social knowledge and skills. Currently, educators engage in practices that support the specific cognitive and social needs of individual students within general education classrooms by integrating norm-referenced, standardized, summative, and/or social-behavioral types of assessments, curricula, and instruction in more systematic and complementary ways; this is often implemented through customized interventions (e.g., Bloom 1985; CAST 2011; Lloyd and Lloyd 2015; Meyer, Rose, and Gordon 2014;Rueda and Stillman 2012).This focus on aligning the specific learning characteristics of students with the stimuli presented moves us away from a standardized approach to one in which we can begin to improve our ability to proactively select, redesign, or design assessments, curricula, and instructional practices that are consistent with students’ present levels of performance. While the former approach is likely to have deleterious effects on academic achievement and students’ self-efficacy, the latter approach focuses on providing flexible options that match the learning characteristics of students from the outset (CAST 2011; Meyer, Rose, and Gordon 2014). Unfortunately, the latter proposition has yet to be realized fully. The lack of a consistent focus on students’ individual needs in wholegroup educational settings seemingly has contributed to placements in special education that traditionally include a disproportionate number of pre-K-12 students with labels such as minorities or English-language learners (e.g., Artiles et al. 2005; Gage et al. 2013; Skiba et al. 2008; Sullivan 2011; Waitoller, Artiles, and Cheney 2009). However, Morgan et al. (2015) indicated recently that students labelled as minorities were under represented disproportionately in special education. When these two lines of research are considered together, the constant in disproportionality research seems to indicate that students are not receiving the social and instructional support they need to function optimally within general education classrooms—whether they are expressed as over- or underrepresented in special education. Therefore, it appears that we have not taken full advantage of the variability within individuals and must change the ways in which we approach education in general education classrooms to improve the learning outcomes of all students.

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

133

For the most part, the manner in which educators present information in curricula and deliver instruction can make learning difficulties either more apparent or non-existent in classrooms. More and more pre-K-12 and postsecondary educators are using frameworks to help them address the cultural, linguistic, and/or instructional barriers students encounter (e.g. Echevarria, Vogt, and Short 2013; McGuire, Scott, and Shaw 2006). One framework that has garnered significant attention over the past decade, the Universal Design for Learning (UDL), is often viewed as a transformative tool that education stakeholders can use to improve the unique and overlapping needs of all students within diverse classrooms. In particular, education stakeholders use the UDL framework to (1) design flexible curricula, assessments, and instructional practices, and (2) improve academic and affective engagement for English-language learners who come to classrooms with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and for students with disabilities. UDL has been expressed as “…a trans disciplinary framework that facilitates interaction between researchers from the learning sciences and professionals within education, focused on problems of common interest” (Rappolt-Schlichtmann et al. 2013, 1211). This statement suggests that multiple stakeholders in education may use the UDL framework in collaborative ways to mitigate some of the inflexible learning environments students encounter in pre-K-12 schools. In this chapter, the idea of a transformative approach to education is reiterated while describing the UDL framework and emphasizing the need to move away from a one-size-fits-all approach to one that considers, from the outset, the unique characteristics of all learners in classrooms. Second, the nature of the interaction between student variability and curricular and instructional design is described briefly. Third, an overview of U.S. laws is provided in order to contextualize the definition of universal design and UDL within overall educational practice in the U.S. Fourth, the chapter’s hypothesis, purpose, and guiding question are presented before the methods and results sections. Fifth, an updated literature search based on the criteria of Crevecoeur et al. (2014) and a general overview of the literature on disproportionality in special education contextualizes why the UDL framework should be used as a tool by educators to transform their pedagogical practices and to address two challenges that have the potential influence disproportionality in special education. The chapter closes with a discussion, implications, and concluding remarks.

134

Chapter Five

What is Universal Design for Learning? Since the 1990s, researchers at CAST (formerly known as the Centre for Applied Special Technology) have been testing the principles of UDL in school-based environments, articulating to education stakeholders that well-designed curricula and practices provide access and preferences to a broader range of students by “eliminating barriers without eliminating the necessary challenges” (CAST 2011, 3).This focus on improving access for a wider range of students while addressing individual needs in the design or redesign of curricula and instructional practices is a significant first step to improving student engagement. In the following quote, Meyer, Rose, and Gordon (2014) used global positioning systems (GPSs) as an exemplar to describe UDL as a transformative innovation: Some [GPSs] respond to changes in traffic patterns and suggest alternatives to escape a jam. And in most cases, the GPS is very accurate, leading to the desired outcome for almost every user, on almost every trip.1 Education needs this kind of innovation—emphasizing flexibility and individuality—to re-make the way teaching and learning happens. We believe universal design for learning (UDL) is that transformative innovation. (48; brackets added)

If education stakeholders use UDL as a barometer, then there is an increased likelihood that they will be able to address individual learning differences within whole and small-group instructional configurations. As a field, we must move away from relatively fixed educational contexts and protocols, engage students where they are academically, and monitor how curricula and instruction affect students’ social and emotional responses in individual, small, or whole-group instructional formats. Fortunately, some school districts are at the forefront in exploring the utility of UDL at a systems level. Education stakeholders in U.S. school districts are also exploring the UDL framework as a systems-change framework to improve student outcomes. The work on systems change with CAST and education stakeholders from four diverse school districts has produced descriptive findings that suggested that professional learning communities have facilitated positive collaborative experiences and improvements in stakeholder expertise (DuFour 2004; Ganley and Ralabate 2013; National Centre on UDL 2012). The three principles and associated brain networks in the UDL framework are designed to provide multiple means of: (1) engagement (the “why” of learning–affective networks); (2) representation (the “what” of learning–recognition networks), and (3) action and expression (the “how”

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

135

of learning–the strategic networks), which represent learners who are purposeful and motivated, resourceful and knowledgeable, and strategic and goal-directed, respectively (Meyer, Rose, and Gordon 2014). Under each of the three principles, there are nine corresponding guidelines that include 30 checkpoints (or guideline descriptors). “The UDL Guidelines help educators manage resources and challenges in the learning environment to move students’ perception of the environment in a positive direction” (Meyer, Rose, and Gordon 2014, 9). Within UDL environments, educators set the stage to enable students to demonstrate their understanding and how they learn best. This is operationalized through available resources and materials and supporting students to persist through educator or self-set learning tasks, resulting in sustained engagement. For example, educators may use the checkpoint, Use of Multiple Media for Communication under the guideline, Provide Options for Expression and Communication, which is listed under the principle of Action & Expression, to provide flexible options to students who need to use assistive technologies as supportive tools to demonstrate mastery of lesson objectives. In Figure 5-1 you will notice that the alternate version of the UDL framework is reorganized: the engagement principle is represented first, the former bottom and top rows of the guidelines are now reversed, and the former checkpoint 6.3 has been eliminated. These are the only changes; the research basis for the framework remains the same (Meyer, Rose, and Gordon 2014).

Student Variability and Instructional Design On a daily basis in classrooms across the U.S.—and in other countries—teachers from pre-kindergarten to professors at institutions of higher education encounter academic and social variability among students of similar ages. Such student variability is an opportunity for educators to enrich academic environments by engaging all students with meaningful content and activities that address individual differences in learning and social skills, but with the added caveat that students must engage with them in multiple and varied ways.

136

Chapter Five

Fig. 5-1 Universal Design for Learning Guidelines (Framework)

Note. (C) Copyright CAST 2013. Used with permission. All rights reserved. http://udltheorypractice.cast.org

As world populations become increasingly diverse, the superficial differences in the labels (e.g., Black, White, female, male) we use to compare groups of peoples within a nation or from two or more nations may become less apparent when educators investigate the inherent variability found within individuals ascribed these labels. Because of the nature of the factors that affect classroom learning (e.g., required pacing of grade-level curricula, class sizes, etc.), educators have tended to focus more on ameliorating content performance differences between students at the group level because of the limited opportunities they have to target consistently the specific, individual differences students demonstrate within and across content areas. Instead, educators and education stakeholders must continue to improve the overall instructional design of educational contexts through the use of flexible curricula and instructional practices that enhance students’ academic responses (e.g., Fischer and Bidell 2006; Grigorenko and Sternberg 1997; van Geert and Fischer

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

137

2009). Notwithstanding the factors that are related to diversity (e.g., culture, language, etc.) and based on the instructional stimuli educators present in classrooms, students will consistently (1) interpret the same information differently, and (2) respond commensurate with how they vary naturally. This latter point is particularly germane, because wider ranges of variability within classrooms will result when there are mismatches between the stimuli presented and how students currently learn (see current views of learning in Domings, Crevecoeur, and Ralabate 2014). Therefore, education stakeholders must first take into consideration all of the ways in which students within general education classrooms vary before designing curricula and instruction that matches their learning needs within specific contexts.

Legislative Background for Universal Design U.S. laws and some current educational practices worldwide reflect the elements of the principles of universal design1 (UD). Ronald Mace and colleagues from the Center for Universal Design (CUD) at North Carolina State University conceptualized the seven principles of universal design to guide designers in developing environments and products that allow the widest range of consumer access and use (CUD 1997; for additional background on UD, see McGuire, Scott, and Shaw 2006). Education stakeholders can use UD principles to help them design or redesign curricula and instructional practices proactively, and to establish policies that improve access to the general education curriculum for students who experience difficulties demonstrating their knowledge and skills.

Universal Design and Assistive Technology in U.S. Laws Pre-K-12 educators have the potential to maximize learning for all students in academic environments that may or may not include assistive technologies. UD was defined initially in the “Assistive Technology (ATA) Act of 1998” (Pub. L. No. 105-394, 112 Stat. 3634-3635) and is defined currently in the ATA of 2004 as: …a concept or philosophy for designing and delivering products and services that are usable by people with the widest possible range of functional capabilities, which include products and services that are 1

UD Principles–1: Equitable Use, 2: Flexibility in Use, 3: Simple and Intuitive Use, 4: Perceptible Information, 5: Tolerance for Error, 6: Low Physical Effort, and 7: Size and Space for Approach and Use.

138

Chapter Five directly accessible2 (without requiring assistive technologies) and products and services that are interoperable with assistive technologies. (Pub. L. No. 108-364, 118 Stat. 1714)

UD was mentioned once in reference to making technology accessible without further modifications or adaptations in the “Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997” (Pub. L. No. 105-17), but is not mentioned in the “No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001” (Pub. L. No. 107-110).Subsequently, in 2004, the “Individuals with Disabilities Improvement (IDEIA) Act”3 (Pub. L. No. 108-446) included UD in a range of areas, covering standards, assessments, curricula, instructional methods, and technologies, including assistive technologies.

UDL and the U.S. Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 In the latter half of the first decade of the 21st century, the incorporation of UDL became evident in the “Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008” and in the “2010 National Educational Technology Plan” (c.f., Section 2422 of NCLB Act of 2001). In these documents, greater attention was paid to defining and articulating the use of UDL to improve learners’ opportunities to access the general education curriculum. The efforts of the researchers at CAST and their school-based partners have resulted in contributions to the field that supported the inclusion of UDL in the “Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008” (HEOA, Pub. L. No. 110-315), where it is defined as: …a scientifically valid framework for guiding educational practice that— (A) provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways students respond or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students are engaged; and (B) reduces barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accommodations, supports, and challenges, and maintains high achievement expectations for all students, including students with disabilities and students who are limited English proficient. (P.L. No. 110-315, 122 Stat. 3088)

Although the provisions in the HEOA (2008) target teacher education, the logic applies to pre-K-12 educators as well. As expressed now, the HEOA (2008) provisions indicate that to improve K-12 students’ educational opportunities and success at postsecondary institutions, faculty 2

Note. In the ATA of 2004, “accessible” replaced the term “usable” from the ATA of 1998. 3 Note. For the definition of UD, IDEIA 2004 refers readers to the ATA of 1998.

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

139

members in teacher preparation programs can incorporate the principles of UDL to prepare teachers in such areas as the: (1) application of researchbased instructional methods and strategies, (2) integration of technology into curricula and instruction, and (3) incorporation of accessible curricula and instructional practices to increase academic achievement. It is also feasible for postsecondary faculty members outside of teacher education to use the UDL framework to improve their students’ learning opportunities. These improvements should include: (1) implementing the best available teaching practices, (2) integrating technology with curricula and instructional practices, and (3) making curricula and instructional practices accessible to the broadest range of students. As noted in the HEOA (2008), faculty members, administrators, and staff at the postsecondary level may also incorporate UDL principles into activities such as professional development, summer institutes, and distance learning courses. All postsecondary faculty members can use the UDL framework to help them meet the academic needs of a wider range of students by attending proactively to students who might encounter curricular or instructional barriers, including those with disabilities and their English-language learner peers who may or may not have identified disabilities.

Chapter Hypothesis, Purpose, and Guiding Question The foundation for this chapter is the idea that using the UDL framework in educational contexts would likely increase access, participation, and progress within general education classrooms (see Hitchcock et al. 2002; IDEA 1997), and thereby ensure educational equity for all students. The hypothesis that undergirds the purpose of this chapter is that if educators use the principles of UDL to plan and implement instruction and assessment and to evaluate the instructional and assessment outcomes of all diverse pre-K-12 students in general education classrooms, then the incidence of disproportionality in special education would no longer be an issue for students now categorized as minorities. This hypothesis warrants a brief description of the emergence of UDL in education research. There is an abundance of literature on the use of UDL in educational practice, but currently, few intervention studies have been reviewed using the 2014 evidence-based practice (EBPs) research designs of the Council for Exceptional Children (Crevecoeur et al. 2014). With a greater awareness of designs that enable researchers to infer causation, it is this author’s hope that researchers in special education will continue to embed and test the various elements of the UDL principles systematically.

140

Chapter Five

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the potential benefits of using universal design principles in frameworks such as UDL to proactively (1) teach typical and at-risk students, including students with disabilities, English-language learners, and students with disabilities from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds; and (2) reduce disproportionality in special education. If we assume that the UDL framework will be used as a tool to help education stakeholders mitigate the difficulties students experience in learning environments, as well as any future disproportionality in special education, then the guiding question for this chapter is: “What variables of interest should education stakeholders address as challenges to mitigate disproportionality in special education when implementing the UDL framework within educational systems?”

Methods Introducing the Author Yvel is currently an assistant professor of special education, and in January 2016, will become the director of the graduate Program in Special Education at The City College of New York (of the City University of New York [CUNY]). Part of his research and teaching agenda is to support pre-service, newly inducted, as well as veteran special educators to learn how to identify, select, implement, and evaluate evidence-based practices within UDL environments. As a former public school educator and staff developer who experienced difficulties identifying strategies that were proven effective for a range of diverse students in general education classrooms, Yvel understands the need for a transformative approach to educate diverse students. He attempted, and continues to this day, to address the specific needs of diverse students considered at risk for academic failure at the pre-K-12 and postsecondary levels. During his career, Yvel advanced his education and training, and concurrently secured additional teaching and administration/supervision certifications4 to further develop his knowledge and skill sets. He completed an inresidence 2013 postdoctoral Leadership Fellowship in UDL at Boston College and CAST, Inc. His training and experiences have led him to realize that, regardless of educators’ education and training, in order to 4 Connecticut Certifications: K-6 Elementary Education, Bilingual Elementary Education (Language: Haitian-Creole), Pre-K-12 Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, K-12 Comprehensive Special Education, and Intermediate Administration and Supervision (e.g., assistant principal to associate superintendent)

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

141

move beyond the common introductory parlance of UDL 101 or the sole application of UDL principles in learning contexts, educators at all levels must also study their own practices with the support of colleagues who serve as critical evaluators (for examples of self-study, see Hamilton, Smith, and Worthington 2008; Loughran 2010).

Search Criteria and Interrater Reliability The literature review for this chapter included (1) an overview of the literature on disproportionality in special education, and (2) an updated literature search based on the criteria of Crevecoeur et al. (2014). The disproportionality review encompassed, for example, peer-reviewed articles that included:(1) analyses of student data (e.g., special education placement patterns/assessment outcomes/disability risk; e.g., MacSwan and Rolstad 2006; Morgan et al. 2015; Sullivan and Bal 2013);(2) perspectives from demographic analyses (of schools and special education; e.g. Artiles et al. 2010; Ford 2012),and (3) a meta-analysis of English-language learners with disabilities (e.g., Gage et al. 2013). The key focal point in the systematic review of the UDL literature included evidence-based practices in special education (Council for Exceptional Children 2014), in which the aforementioned types of articles were used to help identify variables of interest that education stakeholders should address as challenges to disproportionality research within educational systems. Other articles were used to supplement findings and claims in order to characterize further the context of disproportionality in special education; for example, articles such as Abedi’s (2006) psychometric issues in English-language learner assessments and special education eligibility, or Beaujean and McLaughlin’s (2014) invariant differences on the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales between Black and White referred students. In this chapter, the basis for the conceptual claims about the challenges educators face in mitigating disproportionality in special education were contingent on the most current experimental studies that have used UDL as a key feature in the interventions and employed research designs that permit causal inferences. In 2014, the Council for Exceptional Children announced that experimental group comparison (randomized, quasi-, and regression-discontinuity) and single-subject designs were considered acceptable methods to infer causation. Therefore, the search criteria for peer-reviewed journal articles on UDL in this chapter mirrored the final Crevecoeur et al. (2014) search criteria with one exception; this search did not include the EBSCO host database Education Source because it was not

142

Chapter Five

an available option. In the first keyword field, the following keywords, and Boolean were used: “universal design for learning” OR “universal design.” In the second keyword field, a total of four searches were conducted at the elementary, middle, and high school levels (secondary school/education/grade was also used as terms). The major criteria for the UDL search included the following: (1) Setting: K-12; (2) Years: updated from August 2014 through August 2015 (original search was January 1984 to June 2014); (3) Geographical location: U.S.; (4) Language: English; (5) Intervention research designs: group comparison and single-subject (or mixed methods that included these designs); (6) peer-reviewed articles; (7) researchers in identified articles used UDL principles/features in the design of curricula and/or instructional practices (no review on whether dependent variables included UDL features); and (8) articles were excluded if both a treatment group and a comparison (i.e., testing another strategy, method, etc.) or control group were not included in an experimental group comparison study or single-subject study within mixed method studies. Studies that compared one treatment group to another treatment group with similar instructional design features also were not considered (e.g., Hall et al. 2015). For additional details and article summaries, see the link to Crevecoeur et al. (2014) in the references.

Results The search criteria resulted in 13 initial hits; duplicates were removed from each of the four searches. Next, each of the four searches was reviewed for duplicates across the searches. This resulted in a pool of nine articles being eligible for review. After applying Crevecoeur et al.’s (2014) criteria, the final articles included were King-Sears et al. (2015) and Knight et al. (2015). The purpose of King-Sears et al.’s (2015) exploratory, two-week group-comparison study was to investigate the effects of chemistry lessons with UDL features on high school students with and without disabilities. Two teams of co-teachers at two high schools from the South Atlantic region of the U.S. were assigned randomly at the classroom level to treatment and comparison conditions. These conditions included general education students (treatment, n = 17; comparison, n = 24) and students classified with the following disabilities: autism (treatment, n = 1; comparison, n = 1); emotional disturbance (treatment, n = 0; comparison, n = 1); learning disabilities (treatment, n = 4; comparison, n = 6); other health impairments (treatment, n = 1; comparison, n = 4), and speech/language disabilities (treatment, n = 1; comparison, n = 0). All

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

143

participants in the treatment and comparison conditions were included in analyses if they were present for all sessions (total of 3 sessions, 90 minutes per session for each condition).The treatment condition focused on mole conversions with UDL features/supports, while the comparison condition calculated mole conversions as executed typically prior to the exploratory investigation. Two video-clip segments were selected randomly across two 90-minute teaching sessions—School 1 had 100% fidelity and School 2 had 57% fidelity. A social validity questionnaire was administered to treatment participants after the four-week delayed posttest; treatment participants found the support helpful overall. All participants were administered a pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) results indicated no significant differences for condition (UDL vs. Comparison), but consistently found significant differences for population (general education vs. high incidence disabilities) and interaction effects for condition and population. The differences between students with disabilities in the treatment condition versus those in the comparison condition favored the UDL treatment group on both the posttest (ES = 0.80) and the delayed posttest (ES = 0.97). The finding for general education students was not as favorable— those in the treatment condition did not do as well as students in the comparison condition. As expressed by King-Sears et al. (2015), “Because comparable gains were not evident for GED [general education] students (per negative ESs = –0.53 for post-test and –0.49 for delayed post-test), this raises questions about the utility of the UDL treatment for typically achieving students” (93). The major implication of this study is that future experimental studies must explore the effects of UDL within the same learning environment for various types of learners comprised of students with and without disabilities. This study did shed some light on how the design of learning environments produces differential effects for diverse students. The purpose of Knight et al.’s (2015) pilot, multiple probe with four autistic participants with an embedded ABCD design study was to evaluate modifications to CAST’s Book BuilderTM, an authoring tool, for vocabulary, literal comprehension, and application questions. The context of the study was a middle school resource classroom that included six students, ranging from grades 6 to 8, one special education teacher, and one paraprofessional. The experimenter was a graduate student in a master’s degree counseling program. Observers were two special education doctoral students. Fidelity of implementation throughout the study was recorded at 100% for each observation. A satisfaction survey for Book BuilderTM was administered to the special and general education

144

Chapter Five

teachers, and the four participants. Responses from the survey indicated overall satisfaction and suggestions for improvement (e.g., “a way to reorganize/respond to student errors, as there was no way to guarantee they will follow coach’s directions,” 94). As for the intervention, Book BuilderTM, was used to present expository science text to students, and the researchers developed the eText content from the middle school curriculum. Results indicated that “…it appears as though all phases of using BB were improved from baseline for three out of four participants, however, data instability and threats to internal validity make the results untenable” (95). Knight et al. (2015) indicated that findings from the satisfaction survey of the stakeholders were high, but findings for “treatment outcomes were less tenable due to time constraints and issues with internal validity” (96).The major implication of this study is that instructional design features must be consistent with the needs and interests of the students within an intervention in order to improve the growth trajectories of student consistently over time.

Analysis Although the search criteria used to identify the two eligible articles mirrored Crevecoeur et al.’s (2014) UDL K-12 literature review of group comparison and single-subject intervention studies, the analysis was different. For this chapter, the author re-reviewed the final pool of articles from Crevecoeur et al. (2014) and reviewed the two articles that met the criteria from the August 2014 through August 2015 updated search. Next, the author engaged in a critical discussion with a 2010 UDL Leadership Fellow, Dr. Elizabeth S. Hartmann (Hamilton, Smith, and Worthington 2008; Loughran 2010), who also reviewed the two articles and shared insights on the findings from Crevecoeur et al. (2014). Major personal communication discussion points for the Crevecoeur et al. (2014) literature review and the updated 2015 literature review revolved around article findings and issues relating to (1) opportunities to engage with the UDL principles, whether as the implementer/interventionist or as a student; and (2) length of time required to demonstrate expertise in UDL as an implementer/interventionist, and as a student (i.e., becoming an expert learner). In addition, discussions included the wider issue of reform and the ways in which education stakeholders could mitigate issues related to disproportionality in special education and improve the fidelity of UDL implementation. The analyses of the final pool of articles were related solely to the guiding question in this chapter and did not include specific analyses of the three questions from Crevecoeur et al. (2014). The variables

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

145

of interest found to be conceptual markers for further investigation were (1) implementers/interventionists and students, and (2) time. Although Morgan et al. (2015) stated that minorities are underrepresented in special education, these results showed that, according to the preponderance of research in special education, minority and disadvantaged students are represented disproportionally in special education.

Findings Using UDL as a Framework to Reduce Disproportionality To address the research question, the variables that education stakeholders should consider in order to mitigate disproportionality in special education when implementing the UDL framework within educational systems are (1) supporting the specific needs of implementers/interventionists and students, and (2) providing sufficient time to implementers/interventionists and students (i.e., human resources)to demonstrate expertise in UDL. When taken together, the logic herein is to provide targeted instruction and practice for an appropriate amount of time, as determined by students’ responses to curricula and instruction. These two of many challenges, human resources and time, may call on education stakeholders to re-evaluate and adjust how pre- and in-service teachers are trained to address the diverse needs of students who are too often misdiagnosed for special education, including those who are not diagnosed for the wrong reasons (i.e., issues with testing biases, norming of tests, etc.). To accomplish the goal of appropriate diagnosis and identification of students for special education, direct-contact educators need more training and time to (1) learn about their students’ academic and social/cultural needs, and (2) test the consistency between the universal options used and students’ learning characteristics.

Resources: The Human Dynamic Despite a greater awareness of the positive implications of UDL environments, faculty members still know little about how to implement UDL effectively into teacher education programs (King, Williams, and Warren 2011). More research is needed to confirm the efficacy of UDL with diverse populations, and the ways teachers and teacher educators plan, implement, and evaluate the use of UDL. In addition, fiscal budgets at all levels will most likely not increase to the degree necessary to provide education stakeholders with all of the professional development and

146

Chapter Five

material resources required to address the range of variability found within diverse classrooms. If this is truly the case for most, if not all, schools or school systems, then a closer look at how education stakeholders could improve efficiency and effectiveness in classrooms is warranted. As Coburn (2003) noted, “…because classrooms are situated in and inextricably linked to the broader school and system, teachers are better able to sustain change when there are mechanisms in place at multiple levels of the system to support their efforts” (p. 6). Therefore, the recognition that educators’ roles are linked inextricably to the broader system further supports the need for them to be part of a decision-making process that takes into account new ways of examining disproportionality. With this in mind, the issue of disproportionality becomes more than an issue of access to the general education curriculum via the over- or underrepresentation of students in special education; it becomes an issue that requires a re-examination of equity and the responsiveness of our society to variables that tend to predict the complexities of disproportionality (Artiles 2009; Ford 2012; Morgan et al. 2015; Sullivan and Bal 2013). As Ford (2012) indicated, disproportionality does not lie in variables associated with students alone; it includes a lack of educators that reflect the students they teach. This teacher variable is exacerbated by the rate of teacher mobility. In 2008-2009, public and private school teachers reported leaving teaching to work in occupations outside of education (8.9 and 17.4%, respectively), and among these groups of teachers, 40.8% of public school teachers and 15.5% of private school teachers reported that there were better learning opportunities outside of education (Keigher 2010). With learner demographics expected to change greatly over the upcoming years (Kena et al. 2015), it is necessary to focus on consistent improvements in school conditions through shared responsibilities between teachers and administrators in order to facilitate the transition from product- to process-oriented paradigms. However, in order for this to occur, it is necessary to help teachers transition from their traditional roles, in which they focus primarily on improving achievement scores through instruction alone, to roles in which they and administrators plan and implement concurrent ways to improve overall social-cultural conditions that translate to improved student outcomes. The UDL framework can be used as an anchor to begin this developmental transformation, because it forces stakeholders to focus on the affective and academic needs of students.

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

147

Time: Opportunities to Practice As with any new practice, educators also need more time to engage in multiple, varied opportunities to experience UDL and to monitor how students respond to universally-designed curricula and instruction. The issue of time is particularly germane due to the expanding U.S. population and its diverse racial/ethnic makeup. As classrooms become more diverse, educators must spend more time establishing cultural norms and expectations that all students can understand and embrace to enable them to flourish academically and socially. With diversity comes more academic variability. Kena et al. (2015) indicated that in 2012-2013, the racial/ethnic enrolment in public schools reflected a 51% to 49% split, favouring students identified as White compared to those identified as non-White (i.e., American Indian/Alaska Native, 1.07%; Asian/Pacific Islander, 5.13%; Black, 15.70%; Hispanic, 24.30%; Two or More Races, 2.80%). English-language learners (9.20%) and students with disabilities ages 3-21 (12.95%) represent 22.15% of this population. The demographics for 2012-2013 also indicated that approximately 35% of the 6.4 million U.S. students receiving special education services were diagnosed with specific learning disabilities (Kena et al. 2015). It is important to note that students with specific learning disabilities present learning characteristics (e.g., inconsistencies) that are generally difficult to identify within inclusive classrooms by less knowledgeable educators who are still developing their skills. These students are often characterized as having “hidden disabilities,” and therefore, are either overlooked or misidentified as having other disabilities, such as emotional disturbances, even when the exclusion of other factors, such as culture, proficiency in the language of instruction, or other environmental factors are considered (see IDEIA 2004). In short, the disproportionate representation in special education of children and youth who are considered minorities can be reflected in both the overrepresentation and underrepresentation of these students based on a number of variables (e.g., race, ethnicity, culture, language, etc.). Regardless of the intrinsic factors that may affect learning, some students persist and engage positively in academic environments where they are able to develop socialization skills while building cultural capital; or the inverse may occur, in which negative learning experiences limit or inhibit their opportunities to socialize with peers and teachers, resulting in cultural mismatches that foster deprivation and educational inequities (Artiles et al. 2010; Bourdieu and Passeron 1977; Harry and Klingner 2006; Spring 2001).Therefore, to mitigate such experiences, education stakeholders should reconceptualise how they approach curricular and

148

Chapter Five

instructional planning and implementation, and provide all students sufficient time to learn concepts and content through robust, flexible options within environments. One of the ways to accomplish this is to assign the most skilled educators to the most challenging school districts, because they are more knowledgeable about and skilled in maximizing student learning.

Discussion The focus of this chapter was to provide an overview of the potential of the UDL framework to mitigate disproportionality in special education for students currently categorized as minorities. The logic for using UDL is applicable to the design and redesign of curricular and instructional practices that address student variability specifically. In the present climate, pre-K-12 educators’ pedagogical behaviours tend to focus on using progress monitoring and outcome assessment data to inform initial instructional decisions and subsequent adjustments to instruction, with the goal of increased rates of academic and social growth. Educators are now more aware of the links between constructs in assessments and curricular and instructional strategies. However, disproportionality continues to exist in the same academic and social-behavioural assessments between students labelled Black and White (e.g., Beaujean and McGlaughlin 2014), as well as between minorities and Whites for out-of-school suspensions and expulsions, including evidence that students with disabilities are being removed from schools at double the rate of those without (e.g., Porowski, O’Conner, and Passa 2014). In addition, there is a critical need to investigate the misalignment of assessments with culturally and linguistically diverse students and the degree to which assessment data affect placements in schools (e.g., Abedi 2006; MacSwan and Rolstad 2006). These aforementioned points should provide the impetus for improving or developing new ways to explore inter-related issues, such as access, accommodations, and assessment systems for English-language learners with and without disabilities, and their native-English speaking peers with disabilities (e.g., Bailey and Carroll 2015; Lane and Leventhal 2015; Thurlow and Kopriva 2015). The ways in which students vary academically, culturally, linguistically, and/or socially in classrooms warrant an educational imperative that requires, at a minimum, shifts in how we approach teaching and learning for all students within general education classrooms without negating the possibility of actual educational reform. The use of the UDL framework is one way education stakeholders may improve learning outcomes in

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

149

educational contexts, because the focus is on removing or reducing the barriers in curricula and instruction, rather than exploring issues related solely to students. Instead of designing and embedding universal features within general education environments for students who struggle academically, education stakeholders may use UDL as a transformative approach for all students, while addressing simultaneously the issues related to disproportionality in special education. With that said, the two major challenges identified in this chapter were implementers/interventionists and students (i.e., human resources) and time.

Implications Although educators may use UDL principles to empower teacher candidates, teachers, and administrators to remove barriers from curricula, develop lesson plans that go beyond a one-sized-fits-all approach, and embrace pedagogical practices that are learner-centred (Jiménez, Graf, and Rose 2007), there is still more work that needs to be done to make classrooms more welcoming to diverse students. At the same time, researchers must make systematic strides in implementing new frameworks as guides to help them reduce disproportionality by, for example, testing the efficacy of UDL and other education frameworks empirically to begin to establish a stronger evidence base (e.g., Crevecoeur et al. 2014; Rao, Ok, and Bryant 2014; Roberts et al. 2011). Although the potential is there in special education, and the general contributions of UDL are beginning to emerge through the integration of universal design principles in interventions that were designed using evidence-based research methods (for additional types of UDL used within causal research designs, see Crevecoeur et al. 2014), the overall evidence of the specific contributions of universal design principles is still in the developmental phase. With that said, and due in part to the number of embedded variables that can comprise these types of universal frameworks, we may never know the isolated contributions of universal design principles, and therefore, must move forward cautiously (see Kennedy et al. 2014; McGuire, Scott, and Shaw 2006). However, this is acceptable if we recognize that some of the strengths of these frameworks reside in promoting awareness of what tends to work for specific types of students, and under which academic and social conditions we are able to mitigate unwanted outcomes such as disproportionality in special education. In this way, we come one step closer to designing assessments, instruction, and interventions that align directly with students’ cultures and learning characteristics.

150

Chapter Five

Conclusion The two challenges referenced herein were human resources and time. Specifically, the educational system needs additional (1) resources, primarily in the form of expert personnel who know how to make positive use of students’ cultures as a catalyst to improve social interactions and the associated links with academic achievement and (2) time to allow themselves and students sufficient interactions with engaging curricula, instructional methods, and materials to become experts. If this is the case, then the hope is that we will be able to reduce significantly the disproportionate representation of pre-K-12 students from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds in special education within the U.S. and beyond.

Author’s Note I would like to give my special thanks to Dr. Elizabeth S. Hartmann at Lasell College, Newton, MA. The completion of this chapter would not have been possible without her feedback.

References Assistive Technology Act of 1998, Pub.L. No. 105-394, 112 Stat.3627 (1998). Accessed December 14, 2013, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-105publ394/pdf/PLAW105publ394.pdf. Assistive Technology Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-364, 118 Stat. 1707 (2004). Accessed December 14, 2013, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-118/pdf/STATUTE-118Pg1707.pdf. Abedi, Jamal. 2006. “Psychometric Issues in the ELL Assessment and Special Eligibility.” Teachers College Record108, no. 11: 2282-2303. Artiles, Alfredo J. 2009. “Re-Framing Disproportionality Research: Outline of a Cultural-Historical Paradigm.” Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners 11, no. 2: 24-37. Artiles, Alfredo J., Kozleski, Elizabeth B., Trent, Stanley C.,Osher, David, and Ortiz, Alba.2010. “Justifying and Explaining Disproportionality, 1968-2008: A Critique of Underlying Views of Culture.” Exceptional Children 76, no. 3: 279-299. Artiles, Alfredo J., Rueda, Robert, Salazar, Jesús J. and Higareda, Ignacio. 2005. “Within-Group Diversity in Minority Disproportionate

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

151

Representation: English Language Learners in Urban School Districts.” Exceptional Children 71, no. 3: 283-300. Bailey, Alison L., and Carroll, Patricia E. 2015. “Assessment of English Language Learners in the Era of New Academic Standards.” Review of Research in Education 39, no. 1: 253-294. Beaujean, A. Alexander, and McGlaughlin, Sean M. 2014. “Invariance in the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales for Black and White Referred Students.” Psychological Assessment 26, no. 4: 1394-1399. Bloom, Benjamin.1985. Developing Talent in Young People. New York: Ballantine Books. Bourdieu, Pierre, and Passeron, Jean-Claude. 1977. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. CAST. 2011. Universal Design for Learning (Guidelines Version 2.0).Wakefield, MA: Author. Center for Universal Design.1997.The Principles of Universal Design, Version 2.0.Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University. Accessed January 12, 2015, http://www.ncsu.edu/ncsu/design/cud/about_ud/udprinciplestext.htm. Coburn, Cynthia E. 2003. “Rethinking Scale: Moving Beyond Numbers to Deep and Lasting Change.” Educational Researcher 32, no. 6: 3-12. Council for Exceptional Children.2014.Council for Exceptional Children Standards for Evidence-based Practices in Special Education. Arlington, VA: Author. Accessed June 13, 2014, https://www.cec.sped.org/~/media/Files/Standards/Evidence%20based %20Practices%20and%20Practice/EBP%20FINAL.pdf. Crevecoeur, Yvel C., Sorenson, Sarah E., Mayorga, Victor and Gonzalez, Adrianna P.2014. “Universal Design for Learning in K-12 Educational Settings: A Review of Group Comparison and Single-Subject Intervention Studies.” Journal of Special Education Apprenticeship 3,no. 2: 1-23.Accessed January 12, 2015, http://josea.info/index.php. Domings, Yvonne, Crevecoeur, Yvel C. and Ralabate, Patricia K. 2014.“Universal Design for Learning: Meeting the Needs of Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders.” In Technology Tools for Students with Autism: Innovations that Enhance Independence and Learning, edited by Katharina I. Boser, Matthew S. Goodwin, and Sarah C. Wayland, 21-41. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. DuFour, Richard. 2004. “What is a Professional Learning Community?” Educational Leadership61no.8: 6-11. Echevarria, Jana J., Vogt, Mary Ellen and Short, Deborah J.2013. Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners (4thed.). New York: Pearson Education.

152

Chapter Five

Fischer, Kurt W., andBidell,Thomas R. 2006. “Dynamic Development of Action, Thought and Emotion.” In Theoretical Models of Human Development. Handbook of Child Psychology (6th ed., Vol. 1), edited by William Damon and Richard M. Lerner,313–399. New York: Wiley. Ford, Donna Y. 2012. “Culturally Different Students in Special Education: Looking Backward to Move Forward.” Exceptional Children 78 no. 4: 391-405. Ganley, Patricia, and Ralabate, Patricia K.2013. “UDL Implementation: A Tale of Four Districts.” National Center on Universal Design for Learning. Accessed August 24, 2015, http://www.udlcenter.org/implementation/fourdistricts. Gage, Nicholas, Gersten, Russell, Sugai, George, and Newman-Gonchar, Rebecca. 2013.“Disproportionality of English Learners with Emotional and/or Behavioral Disorders: A Comparative Meta-Analysis with English Learners with Learning Disabilities.” Behavioral Disorders 38, no. 3: 123-136. Grigorenko, Elena, and Sternberg, Richard J.(Eds.). 1997. Intelligence, Heredity, and Environment. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Hall, Tracey E., Cohen, Nicole, Vue, Ge, and Ganley, Patricia. 2015. “Addressing Learning Disabilities with UDL and Technology: Strategic Reader.” Learning Disabilities Quarterly [special series] 38, no. 2: 72-83. Hamilton, Mary Lynn, Smith, Laura and Worthington, Kristen. 2008. “Fitting the Methodology with the Research: An Exploration of Narrative, Self-Study, and Auto-Ethnography.” Studying Teacher Education 4, no. 1: 17-28. Harry, Beth, and Klingner, Jannette. 2006. Why Are So Many Minority Students in Special Education? New York: Teachers College Press. Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008, Pub.L. No. 110-315, 122 Stat. 3078(2008).Accessed December 14, 2013, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-110publ315/pdf/PLAW110publ315.pdf. Hitchcock, Chuck, Meyer, Anne, Rose, David and Jackson, Richard. 2002. Technical Brief: Access, Participation, and Progress in the General Education Classroom. Wakefield, MA: National Centre on Accessing the General Education Curriculum (CAST, Inc.). Accessed September, 8 2015,

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

153

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=C88F4A2C6 A8CCFC063697C77D2054C1A?doi=10.1.1.529.9078&rep=rep1&typ e=pdf. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997, Pub.L. No. 105-17, 111 Stat. 37 (1997). Accessed December 14, 2013, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-105publ17/pdf/PLAW105publ17.pdf. Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Pub.L.No. 108-446, 118 Stat. 2647 (2004).Accessed December 14, 2013, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-108publ446/pdf/PLAW108publ446.pdf. Jiménez, Terese C., Graf, Victoria L., and Rose, Ernest. 2007.“Gaining Access to General Education: The Promise of Universal Design for Learning.” Issues in Teacher Education 16, no. 2:41-54. Keigher, Ashley. Teacher Attrition and Mobility: Results from the 2008-09 Teacher Follow-up Survey (NCES 2010-353). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2010. Accessed December 11, 2011, http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=28. Kennedy, Michael J., Thomas, Cathy N., Meyer, J. Patrick, Alves, Kat D. and Lloyd, John W.2014. “Using Evidence-Based Multimedia to Improve Vocabulary Performance of Adolescents with LD: A UDL Approach.” Learning Disability Quarterly [special issue]37, no. 2: 7186. doi 10.1177/0731948713507262. King, Laura H., Williams, Jennifer B. and Warren, Sandra H. 2011. “Preparing and Supporting Teachers for 21st Century Expectations through Universal Design for Learning.” Morality in Education 77, no. 2:51-55. King-Sears, Margaret E., Johnson, Todd M., Berkeley, Sheri, Weiss, Margaret P., Peters-Burton, Erin E., Evmenova, Anya S., Menditto, and Hursh, Jennifer C. 2015. “An Exploratory Study of Universal Design for Teaching Chemistry to Students with and without Disabilities.” Learning Disabilities Quarterly [special series] 38, no. 2: 84-96. Knight, Victoria F., Wood, Charles, L., Spooner, Fred, Browder, Diane M., and O’Brien, Christopher P. 2015. “An Exploratory Study Using Science eTexts with Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder.” Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities 30, no. 2: 86-99. Lane, Suzanne, and Leventhal, Brian. 2015. “Psychometric Challenges in Assessing English Language Learners and Students with Disabilities.” Review of Research in Education 39, no. 1: 165-214.

154

Chapter Five

Lloyd, John Wills, and Lloyd, Patricia A. 2015. “Reinforcing Success: What Special Education Could Learn from its Earlier Accomplishments.” Remedial and Special Education 36, no. 2: 77-82. Loughran, John. 2010. “Seeking Knowledge for Teaching Teaching: Moving Beyond Stories.” Studying Teacher Education 6, no. 3: 221226. MacSwan, Jeff, and Rolstad, Kellie. 2006. “How Language Proficiency Tests Mislead Us About Ability: Implications for English Language Learner Placement in Special Education.” Teachers College Record 108, no. 11: 2304-2328. Meyer, Anne, Rose, David H., and Gordon, David. 2014. Universal Design for Learning: Theory and Practice. Wakefield, MA: CAST. Accessed May 30, 2015, http://www.cast.org/our-work/publications/ 2014/universal-design-learning-theory-practice-udl-meyer.html#.VYe A7xNVhBd. McGuire, Joan M., Scott, Sally S., and Shaw, Stan F. 2006. “Universal Design and its Applications in Educational Environments.” Remedial and Special Education 27, no. 3: 166-175. Morgan, Paul L., Farkas, George, Hillemeier, Marianne M. Mattison, Richard, Maczuga, Steve, Li,Hui, and Cook, Michael. 2015. “Minorities are Disproportionately Underrepresented in Special Education: Longitudinal Evidence across Five Disability Conditions.” Educational Researcher 44, no. 5: 278-292. National Center on Universal Design for Learning. 2012. “Learner Variability and Universal Design for Learning” [Online seminar presentation]. UDL Series, No. 2. Accessed August 24, 2015, http://udlseries.udlcenter.org/presentations/learner_variability.html. Porowski, Allan, O’Conner, Rosemarie, and Passa, Aikaterini. 2014. “Disproportionality in School Discipline: An Assessment of Trends in Maryland, 2009-12. (REL 2014-017).” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Mid-Atlantic. Accessed July 17, 2015, http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/midatlantic/pdf/REL_2014033.pdf. Rao, Kavita, Ok, Min W., and Bryant, Brian R. 2014.“A Review of Research on Universal Design Educational Models.” Remedial and Special Education 35, no. 3: 153-166. doi 10.1177/0741932513518980. Rappolt-Schlichtmann, Gabrielle, Daley, Samantha G., Lim, Seoin, Lapinski, Scott, Robinson, Kristin H., and Johnson, Mindy. 2013. “Universal Design for Learning and Elementary School Science:

Using Universal Design for Learning to Mitigate Disproportionality

155

Exploring the Efficacy, Use, and Perceptions of a Web-based Science Notebook.” Journal of Educational Psychology105, no. 4: 1210-1225. doi 10.1037/a0033217 Roberts, Kelly D., Park, Hye J., Brown, Steven, and Cook, Bryan. 2011. “Universal Design for Instruction in Postsecondary Education: A Systematic Review of Empirically Based Articles.” Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability 24, no. 1: 5-15. Rueda, Robert, and Stillman, Jamy. 2012. “The 21st Century Teacher: A Cultural Perspective.” Journal of Teacher Education 63, no. 4: 245253. Skiba, Russell J., Simmons, Ada B., Ritter, Shana, Gibb, Ashley C., Rausch, M. Karega, Cuadrado, Jason, and Chung, Choong-Geun. 2008. “Achieving Equity in Special Education: History, Status, and Current Challenges.” Exceptional Children74, no. 3: 264-288. Spring, Joel.2001.The American School: 1649-2000 (5th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. Sullivan, Amanda L. 2011. “Disproportionality in Special Education Identification and Placement of English Language Learners.” Exceptional Children 77, no. 3: 317-334. Sullivan, Amanda L., and Bal, Ayin. 2013.“Disproportionality in Special Education: Effects of Individual and School Variables on Disability Risk.” Exceptional Children79, no. 4: 475-494. Thurlow, Martha L., and Kopriva, Rebecca J. 2015. “Advancing Accessibility and Accommodations in Content Assessments for Students with Disabilities and English Learners.” Review of Research in Education 39, no. 1: 331-369. United Nations, Department of Economic & Social Affairs. 2014. Concise Report on the World Population Situation in 2014. New York: United Nations. Accessed May 15, 2015, http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/trends /concise-report2014.shtml. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. 2010. Transforming American Education: Learning Powered by Technology. Washington, D.C.: Author. Accessed August 8, 2014, http://www.ed.gov/sites/default/files/netp2010.pdf. van Geert, P., and Fischer, Kurt W.2009. “Dynamic Systems and the Quest for Individual-based Models of Change and Development.” In Toward a Unified Theory of Development: Connectionism and Dynamic Systems Theory Re-considered, edited by John P. Spencer, Michael S.C. Thomas, and James L. McClelland, 313–336. New York: Oxford University Press.

156

Chapter Five

Waitoller, Federico R., Artiles, Alfredo J. and Cheney, Douglas A. 2010. “The Miner’s Canary: A Review of Overrepresentation Research and Explanations.” The Journal of Special Education 44, no. 2: 29-49. doi 10.1177/0022466908329226.

CHAPTER SIX STEM STRATEGIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS PETER JOONG, JOY BAKER-GIBSON, ANNE-MARIE CHAI, NALINI RAMSAWAK-JODHA, DAMIAN WELSH AND PETER WINTZ

Background and Introduction “STEM Education” has been defined as a comprehensive and interdisciplinary teaching and learning approach, especially for the four disciplines (i.e., Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) (Capraro, Capraro & Morgan, 2013; Gonzalez & Kuenzi, 2012). Capraro and Han (2014) claimed that “most people believe there is a positive effect for STEM education and easily assume that STEM integrated education influences teachers’ instructional strategies and students’ attitude and academic achievement, positively” (p. xv). In recent years, policymakers, teachers, parents, and students have embraced the idea of STEM-focused schools as a way to raise Mathematics and Science achievement, improve economic competitiveness, and increase job prospects for next-generation workers. Caribbean countries are no different. Science and Mathematics are taught too often as isolated subjects in school, and too few students choose to pursue studies in STEM disciplines. The Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) examinations are used to assess and certify a student's academic achievement after five years of secondary school. Data from the Jamaica Ministry of Education (MOE) over six years (2008-2013) revealed that on the average, among the 25,000-30,000 Grade 11 students who sat the examinations, one-third (33%) passed Mathematics and 50-60% passed English. Of interest to this study is the number of Mathematics passes. The percentages of passes in Mathematics are similar in Guyana (n = 14,000

158

Chapter Six

students) and Trinidad (n = 19,000 students). CSEC data also showed that each year in Jamaica there is a limited number of senior Secondary students (10-20% of the students or about 5,000-6,000) enrolled in STEM subjects (Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Computer Science). On the average, 60% of the students passed each subject. This means that each year in Jamaica approximately 3,000 students (6-12% of secondary school cohort) are qualified for post-secondary studies in STEM subjects. This percentage is almost the same in Trinidad and Guyana. This problem is no different in the United States and many other jurisdictions. National test scores suggest that many students in the United States finish the middle grades underprepared in STEM subjects (Stohlmann, Moore, McClelland & Roehrig, 2011). CSEC data confirmed that it is definitely a problem in the Caribbean. As Caribbean countries wish to compete in a global economy which demands innovation, classroom teachers are asked to integrate STEM education into their lessons. Although the majority of students will not likely pursue STEM specific careers, they will benefit from STEM literacy in other facets of their lives (National Research Council, 2009). Specifically, Mathematics and Science teachers in secondary schools are strongly recommended to incorporate Technology and Engineering components in their classrooms. One reason behind the push for integration may be because educators and teachers believe STEM education contributes to deepening students’ understanding of content (Kuenzi, 2008; Capraro & Han, 2014). Another reason is because educators have argued that Mathematics and Science can be learned more effectively when taught in a rich applied environment such as the Engineering or Technology contexts (Dugger, 1993; Capraro & Han, 2014). The third reason is that integration inspires or motivates students to be actively engaged in their learning (Meyrick, 2012; Capraro & Han, 2014). The recently released CSEC results in Jamaica indicated that grades for Additional Mathematics and Integrated Science declined by 7.7%, Biology declined by 9%, Chemistry by 13.5%, Physics by 15.5%, and Human and Social Biology by 17.5%. The decline in science-related subjects has been attributed to changes in the syllabus and the types of questions tested on the exams. According to Dr. Singh-Wilmot, lecturer at the University of West Indies, there were more questions on application of knowledge rather than recall (Jamaica Gleaner, Aug. 17, 2015). She also attributed the decline in performance to the poor state of Science and Science Education in the Jamaica. Many educational issues facing secondary education such as poor student behaviours, low achievement, and high dropout rate can be attributed to students’ lack of motivation

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

159

(Klem & Connell, 2004). STEM education can be used to address some of these issues. Schools must provide an engaging curriculum that captures the interests of our students. They must develop expert learners, capable of becoming the next generation of Mathematicians, Scientists and Engineers. Policymakers and teachers understand that schools should focus on STEM but often they do not know or understand how to integrate STEM within current curriculum models. What can be done to help increase the number of adequately prepared students entering STEM fields? How do we create an instructional environment meeting the needs of all learners while applying authentic tasks and real-world applications, engaging all learners within our current school models? How do we design and implement strategies and projects that engage students, teachers and educators in STEM-rich learning activities? STEM implementation continues to be a concern and is a major focus of the National Science Foundation (2015) in the United States. The same problem exists in the Caribbean. According to Paul West, writing for the Jamaica Gleaner (April 7, 2013), an “essential component [to improving STEM education] should be education and training” of both teachers and students, from the primary level through to the tertiary levels of education. In addition, there is a lack of Ministry of Education curriculum standards and policies aligning STEM education with the secondary school subject curriculum (Kuenzi, 2008), especially in the Caribbean countries. Then there is a problem of resources. The principal of Jamaica College, Ruel Reid, has argued that schools will need to be properly resourced for STEM education to be effective. In an interview with the Jamaica Gleaner (May 5, 2015), he said, "The resources for a STEM roll out just do not exist." Classroom teachers in the Caribbean and other jurisdictions struggle with how the respective country’s curriculum policy and standards can be integrated into STEM lessons, with what are the best STEM practices, and what are the benefits for students and educators? One way to increase student interest, engagement, and achievement in STEM disciplines may be through a more realistic, integrated approach to learning. Integrated education is "a holistic approach that links the disciplines so that the learning becomes connected, focused, meaningful, and relevant to learners" (Smith & Karr-Kidwell, 2000, p. 22). While integrated curriculum is not a new idea, integrated STEM curriculum is relatively new, and there is a need for research to improve and describe the impact of integrated STEM education curricula and how to integrate STEM. This chapter seeks to shed light on the features and practices of STEM schools and provides STEM strategies for stakeholders, in particular teachers.

160

Chapter Six

This chapter begins with a literature review conducted on characteristics of STEM Schools and Lessons, effective Teaching/Learning strategies, Professional Development for STEM Education and STEM Partnerships. After the literature review, the chapter describes a comparative study that was conducted by the authors to investigate teachers’ and students’ perceptions of how teachers in Jamaica, Guyana, and Trinidad are implementing secondary school reforms. Conclusions related to STEM subjects will be discussed. The second half of this chapter describes the newly formed STEM Academies in Jamaica. This is followed by four research projects that are related to STEM integration in Secondary schools in Jamaica. These projects were conducted by Graduate students at the School of Education, Mona, University of the West Indies. This chapter ends with a Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations.

Literature Review There has been very little research on STEM schools, and where research does exist, it is decidedly mixed (Hansen, 2013). The articles selected for review provide practical strategies and implications for STEM education for secondary administrators, teachers and students. They include research studies on characteristics of STEM schools and lessons and STEM strategies for regular students, low-achieving students, and students with special needs. The articles also provide strategies for how secondary teachers can integrate a STEM interdisciplinary instructional approach into their specific content and how secondary students might benefit from STEM integrated learning. The articles also describe preservice and in-service professional development programs on STEM education.

Characteristics of STEM Schools and STEM Lessons What do STEM-focused schools actually look like? Bruce-Davis et al. (2014) conducted a qualitative study to investigate the perceptions of administrators, teachers and students on the characteristics of the curricular and instructional strategies and practices at six STEM schools. They spent two days at each sample school and interviewed (individual and focus-group) sample administrators, teachers, and students. Three themes emerged from their data: 1. a common vision of challenging and engaging environments, 2. a focus on solving real-world problems, and

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

161

3. an appreciation of academic and affective support in challenging environments. Characteristics of STEM Schools Stephanie Pace Marshall (2010), the Founding President of the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy for High school students academically talented in STEM, considered what STEM schools could or should be: Characteristics of STEM Schools Stephanie Pace Marshall (2010, pp.53-54) 1. Ensure that learning is a live encounter. Learners are actively engaged in experiences that identify, ignite, and develop their passion and unique potentials. 2. Personalize learning pathways. Learners are guided to discover their own interests, passions and metacognitive predispositions, and learning strategies for developing their minds well. 3. Create a holistic and authentic learning landscape in (a) curriculum, (b) instruction, and (c) assessment. The curriculum is centred around realworld problems and applications framed by the learner’s prior knowledge, lived experience, and the world’s and community’s “real needs.” Inclusive STEM schools aim to raise the STEM achievement of underrepresented students. Lynch, Behrend, Burton, & Means (2013) conducted a study on Inclusive STEM-focused High schools. They proposed ten critical components. Components of Inclusive STEM-focused High Schools (Lynch et al., 2013, pp. 5-7) 1. STEM-focused curriculum 2. Reform instructional strategies and project-based learning 3. Integrated, innovative technology use 4. Blended formal/informal learning beyond the typical school week, or year 5. Real-world STEM partnerships 6. Early college-level coursework 7. Well-prepared STEM teaching staff 8. Inclusive STEM mission 9. Administrative structure 10. Supports for underrepresented students.

day,

162

Chapter Six

Characteristics of STEM Lessons Anne Jolly (2014) described six characteristics of a great STEM lesson in Education Week. An online search of “STEM lessons” will yield plenty of suggestions including lesson plans. Characteristics of STEM lessons (Anne Jolly, Education Week, 2014) 1. STEM lessons focus on real-world issues and problems. In STEM lessons, students address real social, economic, and environmental problems and seek solutions. 2. STEM lessons are guided by the Engineering design process. The process takes students from identifying a problem or a design challenge to creating and developing a solution. If you search for “engineering design process images” online, you’ll find many charts to guide you, but most have the same basic steps. In this process, students define problems, conduct background research, develop multiple ideas for solutions, develop and create a prototype, and then test, evaluate, and redesign them. 3. STEM lessons immerse students in hands-on inquiry and open-ended exploration. In STEM lessons, the path to learning is open ended. The students’ work is hands-on and collaborative, and decisions about solutions are student-generated. Students work in teams to control their own ideas and design their own investigations. 4. STEM lessons involve students in productive teamwork. 5. STEM lessons apply rigorous Mathematics and Science content to what students are learning. In STEM lessons, teachers should purposely connect and integrate content from Mathematics and Science courses. Collaboration with other Mathematics and/or Science teachers in planning lessons is the key. Students can then begin to see that Science and Mathematics are not isolated subjects, but work together to solve problems. This adds relevance to their Mathematics and Science learning. 6. STEM lessons allow for multiple right answers and reframe failure as a necessary part of learning. The STEM environment offers rich possibilities for creative solutions. When designing and testing prototypes, teams may flounder and fail to solve the problem. They are expected to learn from what went wrong, and try again. Case Study of a STEM School in the United States Morrison, McDuffie, & French (2015) conducted a case study to identify key components of teaching and learning in a STEM school. Data

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

163

were collected through interviews with teachers and students, classroom observations, student surveys, and student standardized test scores. Results indicated that the teaching and learning at the school were typically inquiry and problem based and that student motivation, collaboration, and social interactions were strong due to the environment of inquiry and problem-based teaching and learning. For example, the norm was teachers starting out a class or unit by engaging students in developing a KWL chart. The teachers instilled in them a classroom environment so that all ideas should be expressed. In the technology classes observed, the students were actively engaged, learning real-world applicable skills to solve problems. Students expressed how much they had learned about technology relevant to their world. For example, one teacher articulated how the students were expected to apply their knowledge from science classes about simple machines and trigonometric principles from their Mathematics class to complete the project which involved designing a screw or a bolt using design software. Throughout their first two years at the school, students completed an integrated STEM project during each trimester. Comparative Case Design of Ten STEM Focused High Schools in the United States Catherine Scott (2012) conducted a comparative case design to identify key components of STEM High school designs. Data collected include websites, standardized test scores, interviews, and published articles. Results indicate that students who attend STEM-focused High schools outperformed their peers at similar institutions. Although programs varied, a common theme that emerged from these schools was a focus on more rigorous course requirements with electives centred on STEM content and application. STEM High schools use a variety of instructional technologies, including computers with internet access, graphing calculators, probe ware, and other digital data collection instruments. All schools had computer labs available during and after school hours while 30 percent issued personal computers to all faculty and students. Technology was used to deliver inquiry-based lessons, engage in research, produce and present projects, and to engage parents through an online parent portal. Students who attended STEM schools were engaged in realworld problem solving and completed internships and/or a capstone projects to fulfil graduation requirements. The findings in this study are significant because they indicate that many students, when given the opportunity and support, are able to successfully complete rigorous STEM academic programs that go beyond the basic graduation.

164

Chapter Six

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools The National Science Board (NSB, 2010; Honey, Pearson & Schweingruber, 2014) stressed that schools must nurture STEM talents and guide their career decisions. It must begin in the elementary grades and include inquiry-based learning, peer collaboration, technological applications, and open-ended, real world problem solving. A rich problembased/inquiry STEM curriculum along with explicit instruction on teaching practices and teacher professional development are key features necessary for STEM implementation. Students must be given opportunities to solve real-world problems (Robinson, Dailey, & Hughes, 2014).

Brainstorming and Motivating Activity with yo-yos Brainstorming is a creativity technique in which a group of people (or an individual person) spontaneously generates a set of ideas to find the solution to a particular problem. Ning Fang (2013) conducted an experiment “brainstorming with yo-yos,” to increase High school students’ interest in learning Physics. The activity also aims to inspire students’ interest in STEM education. A total of 122 High school students participated. A yo-yo was provided to each student. They worked in teams of four to identify, via collaborative brainstorming, as many yo-yo-related Physics concepts as possible. For example, when a yoyo drops, it has a “velocity.” The winning team identified 31 out of 50 possible Physics concepts. “Brainstorming” helped students to connect what they learnt to a realworld application and hence to develop an interest in learning STEM. Many students used words such as “fun,” “play,” “hands-on,” and “reallife,” to describe their experiences. Representative student comments were “This session gets me very excited about taking Physics next year” and “I loved how many concepts were covered in just an hour and a half.” Instructors were recommended to incorporate the mind-mapping technique to make brainstorming more effective and to simultaneously enhance student learning. IT/STEM afterschool program Duran, Hoft, Lawson, Medjahed, & Orady (2014) conducted an exploratory study to examine the impact of a collaborative inquiry- and design-based afterschool program on urban secondary students’ IT/STEM learning. The study used a mixed methods design, pre- and post-test, involving 77 Grade 10 participants within two cohort groups, each

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

165

participating in an 18-month intervention period. Data were also collected from an analysis of the participants’ projects and follow-up interviews. Findings indicate that the program had a significant impact on students’ technology and IT/STEM skills, frequency of technology use, and understanding of IT use in STEM-oriented fields. Some degree of impact on attitude changes toward IT/STEM and career aspirations in these fields was also in evidence. Intervention involved two different but interrelated phases over an eighteen-month cycle through summer and school-year activities. Phase 1 (Capacity Building) was for sample Grade 10 students to increase IT/STEM knowledge and skills in workshops for 54 hours over the first nine months of the program. Phase 2 (Design Year) started with summer camp followed by a series of site-based sessions for each individual design team and a whole-group meeting near the end of the school year. The Design Year ended with a Techno/Career fair. The overarching task of each design team was to develop inquiry-based authentic projects that were of at least Science Fair quality using one or more content specific IT tools explored during Phase 1 and stimulating ideas/experiences gained during the summer camp. During Phase 2, students were expected to spend approximately four hours per week on their projects for 30 weeks. See example in STEM Strategy #2 on Integration of Environmental Education in Mathematics. Integrating Mobile Devices As mobile devices become increasingly pervasive among youth, the new digital divide between informal ways and formal instruction of using those tools has narrowed. White and Martin (2012, p.26) claimed that “those informal digital practices may provide uniquely powerful resources around which to organize innovative and engaging instructional approaches.” They claimed that many of the ways students are already using Smart Phones and Tablets, e.g. to take photos, videos and audios of school events or for note-taking, create artefacts such as documents and photo slide shows - correspond to core aspects of disciplinary practice in STEM. Vignettes they gave include: x Shiloh and Jason, two seventh graders are making videos to capture and model linear change. x Yesenia and Beatriz are interviewing their classmates about their fondness for alligators and jellyfish, and tabulating the results to test hypotheses about bias.

166

Chapter Six

x Earl is building an interactive, three-dimensional representation of musical melodies. x Andrew is creating parametric equations for the motion of his clock. These vignettes capture a sample of student inquiry projects and activities during a two-week pilot study exploring digital practices learners already engage in and substantive aspects of Mathematical practice. In randomized control trials with eighth-grade Algebra classes, students who used iPads loaded with digital textbook apps performed about the same as those who used a conventional paper text (White & Martin, 2012). More importantly, most Caribbean students or schools can now afford the cost of these mobile devices. See example in STEM Strategy #1 on Integration of Tablets in Schools. Engineering Education Program and Project-Based Approach In K-12 studies, most students are not exposed to topics in Engineering. Quality K-12 curricular materials in STEM topics are scarce and most teachers have not been trained to incorporate these topics (e.g. Engineering, Technology) into their curriculum and instruction (Kimmel, Carpinelli, Burr-Alexander, & Rockland, 2006).Rockland, Bloom, Carpinelli, Burr-Alexander, Hirsch, & Kimmel (2010) explored the best practices for bringing Engineering into the secondary Science and Mathematics curriculum. One approach is the integration of Engineering concepts and applications in Science and Mathematics curriculum and instruction. Another approach is using projects that utilize concepts representing the merger of Medicine, Robotics, and Information Technology. They concluded that Engineering Design Process can provide a context that would support teachers in teaching about scientific inquiry since these processes are paralleled in nature and have similar problem solving characteristics. Figure6-1 is a diagram of the Engineering Design Process suggested by Ganesh (2011).

STEM M Strategies in Secondary S Schoools

167

Fig. 6-1 Enggineering Desiggn Process (Ganesh, 2011).Ussed with permiission. All rights reserveed.

he problem; ideentify its needs and Identify the Problem - understand th constrainnts. Gather IInformation - Conduct C research to gather and organize inform mation applicablle to the problem m. Imagine - Imagining a soolution begins witth brainstorming as many new ideeas or ments on old ideaas as you can. improvem Plan - Seelect one or moree of the most apprropriate new ideaas from previous stage and creaate an action plann for each idea. Each E plan should include drawings and descriptiions. Follow your plan((s) to build your design. d Build - F Test - Evvaluate how the built b design(s) sollve the needs of th the problem. Student tteams used this engineering e design process throughhout the project-b based challengee.

Ganesh & Fulton (22011) conducted researchh on the design and implementattion of an Engineering E Education E Proogram in fou ur middle schools. Thhe experiences were offereed over a tw wo-year period to 116

168

Chapter Six

students in two cohorts as a year-round extracurricular program, similar to the IT/STEM afterschool program described above. The characteristics of the Program were: x Multiple hands-on learning experiences so students discovered for themselves the means to solve the posed project challenge; x Deliberate use of the Engineering-Design Process to solve each project challenge; x Access to high quality technologies and tools necessary to meet the project challenge; x Apprenticeship opportunities for learners with Engineers and undergraduate Engineering students; x Use the learning cycle method (engage, explore, explain, expand, evaluate) for instructional planning; x Use of questioning strategies and learning facilitation techniques that promoted student centred learning experiences; Project-Based Approach is an instructional strategy that helps students apply content knowledge to authentic problems which require critical thinking and increases students’ responsibility for learning and guidance (Ganesh & Fulton, 2011, p. 29). K-12 Science education has a rich history in the development of project-based Science where the emphasis is on learner centred inquiry-based instruction and learner construction of knowledge through practice and reflection. It is ideally suited for work in small groups with a teacher/facilitator. Projects embedded in Engineering Design give learners the opportunity to explore: a) design, b) testing, and c) the production of tools, technology, structures, and materials (Ganesh & Fulton, 2011). Integration of Engineering concepts and applications into Secondary Curriculum Many K-12 classes in the United States and Canada are infusing engineering content into their traditional Mathematics and Science courses (Carr, Bennett, & Strobel, 2012). The National Research Council (2009) put ‘‘improved learning and achievement in Science and Mathematics’’ (p. 49) first on a list of reasons to teach K-12 Engineering. However, empirical research on the efficacy of K-12 STEM integration is limited. Valtorta and Berland (2015) recently conducted a study on student work involving a unit from a high school engineering course. The sample included 31 secondary students with only one female. They had to design a pinhole camera by working through a version of the Engineering design

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

169

process as shown in Figure 1. Video data were used to identify episodes of students discussing Mathematics and Science concepts. Using discourse analysis, the authors found that students successfully applied familiar concepts to their Engineering design project in eight out of the eleven episodes without teacher prompting when the concepts were familiar. However, explicit teacher prompting and instruction regarding the integration of less familiar concepts did not seem to facilitate student use of those concepts. The authors suggested that if teachers want students applying complex concepts in the context of engineering, they have to be careful about how to frame the Science or Mathematics instruction so that the connections to the project are apparent to students (Valtorta and Berland, 2015). Integrated curricula include problems and activities that cross subject lines and more closely resemble STEM problems and real-life activities. For example, Narode (2011) described an integrated lesson in which students designed a container to hold a litre of milk. Students used Mathematics to find the volume of containers. They used Engineering design concepts, such as designing a container from which it is easy to drink milk. Linsenmeier, Harris, and Olds (2002) developed a unit in which students were challenged to determine ‘‘how much food is needed by an astronaut per day for a two week space mission in order to satisfy metabolic demands and not gain or lose weight’’ (p. 213). Problems or projects like these do not fit easily into traditional school curricula. Thus making it difficult for teachers to design, implement and assess. The Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education is dedicated to the subject. Its website is http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/jpeer/. Foutz, Navarro, Hill, & Thompson (2011) researched a district wide implementation of a project-based curriculum in 6th–8th grade that integrated Science, Mathematics, and Agricultural Engineering in the United States. They found that the initiative also improved standardized test scores. A study by Schnittka (2012) found that integrated Engineering Design lessons can engage students with learning disabilities who may not be as comfortable with traditional classroom instructions. Integrated Engineering classes can also have a positive impact on students’ learning attitudes towards STEM subjects (Redmond, Thomas, High, Scott, Jordan, & Dockers, 2011; Tseng, Chi-Chang, Lou, & Chen, 2011).

Case Study: Toronto District School Board, Canada In the Science and Robotics program at John Polanyi Collegiate Institute (JPCI) in Toronto, students learn Arduino, game programming and robotics. The Head of the program is Vernon Kee. This program is an

170

Chapter Six

example of Integration of Engineering concepts and applications into Secondary Curriculum. Students develop projects that follow their interests and other curricula. For example, current students have built their own 3d printer, made wearable electronics with their own designs, built cool robots and more in this enriched high school program. See Appendix B for more information and sample student projects. Runnymede Collegiate Institute in Toronto has a winning FIRST Robotics Team. FIRST Robotics (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology) is an extra-curricular program where students, teachers and parents collaboratively design and build a robot within a set period in competitions. Runnymede has taken part for 10 years and is ranked 8th in Canada. This program is another example of Integration of Engineering concepts and applications into Secondary Curriculum. Both programmes used the Arduino technology platform described below. Innovative technology lights up John Polanyi CI (TDSB, 2015) Students were inspired to create innovative projects integrating Arduino technology and limited only by their imagination. Arudino allows students to create innovative devices through an open-source electronics platform. From motors for robots, to lights and sound to enhance art, Arduino brings motion, sight, sound, and interactivity to student projects. Wall-E, Dancing Baby Groot, Robo Darth Vader and a Polar Bear DJ were some of the robotic creations of students in the JPCI SMR program that utilized Arduino's ability for robotic motion control. Others were able to integrate art and technology (STEAM) to make things like a Totoro light up music box, which integrated the use of multi-coloured lights and an mp3 player all programmed by the student. Fig. 6-2 Arduino Projects. Used with permission. All rights reserved.

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

171

Strategies for Professional Development in STEM Well-qualified teachers have been shown to make a marked difference in improving student learning (Nye, Konstantopoulos, & Hedges, 2004). In 2012, the Jamaica Education Minister Mr. Thwaites said that only 16 per cent of Mathematics teachers were actually qualified to teach the subject. As it turned out, a 2011 Ministry of Education census had shown that only nine per cent of Mathematics teachers at the secondary level were qualified to teach the subject to grade 11, while 40 per cent of the teachers at the secondary level were unqualified in Mathematics. Similar problems exist in Science subject areas. In fact, the Ministry of Education will be providing 100 scholarships and bursaries to teacher trainees specialising in Mathematics and Science subject areas (Jamaica Observer, August 17, 2015). How do we develop STEM teachers with teachers already in the classroom? This is a problem not only in the Caribbean but also in the United States and other jurisdictions. Murphy and Mancini-Samuelson (2012) believed that the rigorous coursework of STEM can be daunting for most teachers. They asserted that teachers should be able to model innovative, STEM content rich lessons and curriculum, engaging all learners in hands on inquiry based approaches. Beaudoin, Johnston, Jones, & Waggett (2013) agreed that the need for quality teachers in STEM fields has been well documented in the United States. Teacher education and professional development can be greatly increased by developing partnerships with universities. In doing so, K-12 teachers in all jurisdictions will get the training and workshops they desire from faculty members on specific pedagogical and content area needs. Ed Reeve (2014) in an article on “STEM Thinking!” recommended STEM teachers must become STEM Thinkers and “take the challenge of learning more about the STEM areas and begin showing students how they are connected” and “show their students how STEM is involved in most of the products and systems they use in their daily lives” (p. 9). Ed believed that STEM Thinking can lead teachers “to become STEM integrators who can teach students how to apply STEM subject matter in a variety of "realworld" inquiry-based learning activities” (p. 9). For example, a teacher may develop a lesson on greenhouses to challenge students to use the "engineering design" process to build a greenhouse that keeps the temperature in a specified range. Students may design a taste test for different brands of Cola. Ed continued to say that “students STEM Thinkers may be able to gain a better understanding of the concepts, principles, and practices of STEM as they begin to see the ‘big picture’ of STEM, and may develop an interest in pursuing a STEM career.” (p. 9)

172

Chapter Six

Catherine Elizabeth Scott (2012) conducted a comparative study of ten STEM High schools. Schools in this study stressed the importance of having a dedicated time set as a priority for teachers to work together. Principals scheduled time for teachers to collaborate and participate in professional development activities. The teaching staff of one High school was responsible for selecting curriculum and developing and delivering integrated lessons. At another school, individual teachers were selected to work with university partners to develop real-world integrated inquiry experiences for students.

Study on Secondary Reforms in Trinidad, Jamaica and Guyana We recently conducted a comparative study to investigate teachers’ and students’ perceptions of how teachers in Jamaica, Guyana, and Trinidad are implementing secondary school reforms. Areas of interest included curriculum, teaching and assessment strategies, classroom management, and integration of technology. Major sources of data were anonymous surveys for teachers and students. Sample questions involved 5-point Likert scales of how often teaching, assessment, and management strategies are used, amount of planning and support. In each country, 2022 sample schools were conveniently selected. At each sample school, 25 randomly selected teachers and two representative classes were asked to complete the surveys. Surveys are designed to provide a synthesis of what happens in the classrooms from the stakeholders’ perspectives. The curricula in all three countries are 5 years in length leading to the CSEC examinations. The reforms focused on student-centred learning such as activity-based lessons, group work and use of technology. In fact, Trinidad and Guyana have specific Laptop programs. Tables 1 and 2 show teachers` self-reporting of teaching strategies they always/often use. Tables 3 and 4 show the students` perceptions of the teaching methods always/often used by Mathematics and Science teachers. With a few exceptions, there is agreement between the teachers’ and students’ perceptions on how often certain strategies were used. It appears that teachers’ talk is a predominant strategy, followed closely by discussions, questioning and individual desk work, all of which are teacher-directed pedagogies. As for activity-based lessons, it appears that sample Maths/Science teachers in Jamaica and Guyana were using more activities than was the case in Trinidad. About a third of the teachers used group work and student presentations. Technology is only sometimes or rarely used by most teachers, even with the Laptop initiatives. In general, sample teachers used a variety of teaching strategies. However, they appeared to

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

173

have serious classroom management problems as over 40% of the sample students and teachers claimed that the behaviours of other students in the classroom were affecting their work. In Science, it is the case that more than half of the sample Science teachers and over 40% of the students claimed that they conducted only a few experiments and demonstrations. As for assessment strategies, it appeared that sample teachers always/often used tests, examinations, class work and homework/ assignments. Between 60-70% of students respondents would like to attend university/college after secondary studies. Table 6-1 Math Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching Methods (% Always/Often Used)

Teacher Talk Individual Work Group Work Discussion Activity Learning Computer/Internet AV/DVD Presentations Demo/Exp/Drama Questioning A lot of time for Class Management

Jamaica n = 41

Trinidad n = 52

Guyana n =42

48% 70% 28% 75% 45% 15% 5% 18% 24% 88% 41%

67% 77% 33% 59% 31% 6% 14% 19% 25% 92% 55%

53% 73% 36% 74% 71% 15% 2% 31% 41% 86% 46%

Table 6-2 Science Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching Methods (% Always/Often Used)

Teacher Talk Individual Work Group Work Discussion Activity Learning Computer/Internet AV/DVD Presentations

Jamaica

Trinidad

Guyana

55% 67% 41% 64% 64% 15% 28% 34%

71% 51% 42% 63% 51% 20% 20% 38%

38% 51% 51% 83% 68% 13% 5% 60%

174

Demo/Exp/Drama Questioning A lot of time for Class Management

Chapter Six

62% 94% 35%

59% 88% 45%

57% 92% 38%

Table 6-3 Students’ Perceptions of Teaching Methods in Mathematics (% Always/Often Used)

Teacher Talk Individual Work Group Work Discussion Activity Learning Computer/Internet AV/DVD Presentations Demo/Exp/Drama Questioning Class behaviours affecting learning

Jamaica n = 659 75% 73% 26% 67% 64% 8% 8% 23% 30% 75% 52%

Trinidad n = 740 76% 71% 36% 59% 44% 15% 15% 32% 29% 77% 49%

Guyana n = 624 80% 80% 35% 73% 61% 9% 9% 39% 28% 79% 39%

Table 6-4 Students’ Perceptions of Teaching Methods in Senior Science (% Always/Often Used)

Teacher Talk Individual Work Group Work Discussion Activity Learning Computer/Internet AV/DVD Presentations Demo/Exp/Drama Questioning Class behaviours affecting learning

Jamaica n = 317 78% 69% 38% 70% 63% 12% 11% 23% 45% 75% 46%

Trinidad n = 188 74% 62% 31% 61% 55% 20% 14% 40% 40% 66% 38%

Guyana n = 199 73% 61% 36% 64% 48% 7% 5% 34% 48% 72% 43%

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

175

Table 5: Typical Teachers’ Comments in Open-Ended Questions “With the use of more Technology students have shown more interests in learning and performance has improved.” (13 sample teachers commented on the positive use of Technology in the three countries) “Students have grown more indifferent as learning is seen as a chore and not as a stepping stone to success. They are distracted by various Technology and Social Media.” (27 sample teachers commented on the negative aspects of Technology in the three countries) “With introduction of laptop, students’ performance has declined. Students use laptop for entertainment.” (11 sample teachers in Trinidad) “Attitude toward education has been on a downward spiral or negative. Students are not motivated, lack interest, with indifferent attitudes or simply don’t care.” (47 sample teachers in Trinidad, 23 sample teachers in Jamaica and 18 sample teachers in Guyana) “Breakdown in discipline, decline in behavior.” (17 sample teachers in Trinidad and 13 sample teachers in Jamaica) “Students are not reading and doing their homework and assignments since they know that even if they do not pass the Exam they are still being promoted to the next grade.” (32 sample teachers in Guyana) “Fewer students are taking Science subjects in the Senior Grades.” (9 sample teachers in the three countries) “The CXC (Caribbean Examinations Council) exam has become too watered-down.” (20 sample teachers in the three countries)

Conclusions related to STEM from Reform Study Using the above survey results, possible reasons why a limited number of senior Secondary students (10-20% of the students, e.g. about 5,0006,000 in Jamaica) is enrolled in STEM subjects in the Caribbean:

176

Chapter Six

1. Lack of interest and poor attitudes of students (this came out very clearly in the open-ended comments by both sample teachers and students). However, more than half of the sample students wish to attend university/college after secondary studies. 2. Lack of activities including experiments and demonstrations due to teachers and/or lack of resources. 3. Little use of Technology and internet. 4. Poor Mathematics skills which are needed in most STEM subjects.

STEM Academies in Jamaica STEM academy is an institution that uses Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics as the base for the structuring and timetabling of its programmes. The Jamaica Ministry of Education has established seven academies each with a focus on specific skills. The academies will prepare students on selected career pathways so that the students can advance their careers in particular industries and at tertiary institutions. The Ministry envisioned that the academies would be closely linked to the country’s economic sectors and anchored in the philosophy that strong STEM skills are not only essential for a well-rounded education, but also critical for the economic competitiveness. The Education Minister has appointed seven industry leaders to spearhead the transformation that will produce persons qualified for employment in several sectors (Gleaner, May 4, 2015). Dr. McLean, Chief Education Officer says: “Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics will be fully infused in a practical way so that you develop the skills in a project-type problem-based environment to ensure that what is being taught and learnt will become real and applicable.” She added: "In the upper school - grades 10 and 11 - students will be offered competency-based training to make them job-ready." The Chief Education Officer continued: "In the lower grades, STEM, along with technical vocational education and training, will be emphasized in the curriculum. Over time, the school is expected to be transformed into a STEM academy." (McIntosh, 2014) Each academy is closely aligned to an industry in Jamaica which are: 1. Logistics and Transport, including land, sea and air. 2. Built Environment, including roads, bridges, and physical infrastructure. 3. Science and Mathematics.

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

177

4. Information and Communication Technologies and BusinessProcessing Outsourcing. 5. Agronomy, Farm Management and Food Processing. 6. Livestock and Small Ruminant Farming. 7. Telecommunications and New Media Technologies including Internet and Cable. The Minister claimed that: “with this kind of partnership, students would be better prepared to meet specific skill needs immediately after leaving the secondary level.” (Gleaner, May 4, 2015). Workshops and training will be provided for teachers in the academies. In September 2015, eight additional schools will either be transformed into full STEM academies, or have the subjects incorporated into their curricula.

Research on STEM Strategies in Jamaican Secondary Schools STEM Strategy #1: Integration of Tablets in the Schools The tablet is quickly becoming one of the most widely used educational tools. Apps (in the tablets) are powerful, intuitive, and engaging, perfect tools to supplement and enriching STEM experiences. Tablets were issued to students and teachers in 50 primary and secondary schools in Jamaica and several schools in Guyana and Trinidad. Several graduate students at the UWI Mona School of Education have conducted action research on the effectiveness of integrating tablets in teaching Mathematics. The studies also aimed at identifying effective pedagogical strategies. One study involved a tenth-grade class consisting of 43 male students in a low-performing secondary school in downtown Kingston. Pre- and post-tests were used to measure the performance in Mathematics. Seven integrated lessons were administered. Results indicated that sample students achieved a higher class average in the post-test. The paired sample mean difference t-test showed t = -6.166, df = 27, p < 0.05, which implies significant statistical improvement in students’ performance in Mathematics with tablet integration. Tablet integration has been successful in supporting learner autonomy in most students. This, however, was a gradual process. This implies that consistent use of student-oriented activities instilled a culture of learner autonomy in students. Tablet integration supported higher order thinking skills among participating students. Tablet integration also fostered a positive change in students’ and teachers’ dispositions towards Mathematics and STEM education. The following tablet integration strategies are applicable to the realities of any classroom:

178

Chapter Six

1. Identify a suitable application (app) for the lesson. 2. Develop proficiency in application deployment, use and troubleshooting by practicing. 3. Plan integration lesson (with colleagues if possible) and contingency concrete lesson in the event of technology failure. 4. Document significant occurrences and critical reflection in the lesson. Most educational apps are available for free at any App Stores. They can be used for five types of lessons in any subject areas in primary or secondary schools. 1. Drills, Practice and Homework, e.g. English Listening, IXL Math, homework solver, etc. 2. Textbook format, e.g. Complete Chemistry, Shakespeare, Mathematics™, etc. 3. Notes and Formulas, e.g. High School Physics, Trigonometry Quick Reference, etc. 4. Tools, e.g. World Map, Graphing calculator, Piano, etc. 5. Teaching, e.g. Khan Academy, Geogebra, 3D Bones etc. STEM Strategy #2: Greening STEM: Integration of Environmental Education in the Schools The environment is a compelling context for teaching STEM as it provides teachers with a diverse range of real-world challenges that engage students with hands-on opportunities to apply and reinforce STEM concepts across many subject areas. Several graduate students at the UWI Mona School of Education have conducted research studies on the effectiveness of integration of Environmental Education in teaching Mathematics. This quasi-experimental study investigated the effect of integrating Environmental Education in Mathematics classes on students’ Mathematics performance and Environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. It also investigated the strategies that teachers used for integration. This study involved two sample secondary schools and one sample primary school in Jamaica. Intervention involved six lessons on Measurement and Statistics. Major sources of data were pre- and post-test for students on Mathematics achievement and “Environmental attitudes scale” designed for this study. Qualitative data was obtained through the use of interviews, open-ended questions in student surveys, and student reflections. They were useful for triangulation and getting students to suggest solutions to local environmental issues.

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

179

Table 6-5 Sample lessons Topic Brushing your teeth leaving water on Pollution Source in Jamaica Typical household water use The 3 R’s (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)

Area of Focus in Mathematics Measurement (Volume and Unit Conversion) and Statistics (Interpreting Bar Graphs) Statistics (Interpreting Pie Chart and Bar Graphs) Statistics (Data Collection and Constructing Pie Charts and Bar Graphs) Measurement (Volume and Surface area of Solids using Reused Papers and Cardboard)

The lesson plan used for “Brushing your teeth leaving water on” is in Appendix A. The mean score of the Mathematics achievement pre-test is 46.3 (SD = 10.8) while the mean for the post-test is 62.7 (SD = 12.8) for one sample High school students. The mean difference between the pretest and post-test is 16.4. Mean difference t-test indicates a significant difference in students’ achievement scores between the pre-test and posttest (t = 8.738, df = 43, p = .000). Table 6-6 Students’ Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviour (% of Agree responses) Area of Focus We have environmental problems in my country. I am worried about the effect of air and water pollution on the health of people Plastic bags are not good for our environment. I save electricity (e.g. turn off lights) I recycle when I can I reuse materials as much as possible I can influence an environmental solution as part of a group.

Pre-test (N = 188) 73%

Post Test (N= 201) 94%

71%

84%

52% 72% 46% 37% 49%

83% 92% 81% 65% 78%

Sample results in the students’ Environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour scale in Table 1 indicated that the integration of environmental education into Mathematics has impacted positively on the sample students. Most students became more aware of the environmental

180

Chapter Six

issues and changed their attitudes and behaviours. Also, the results revealed that the participants were “more confident that they can influence an environmental solution as part of a group.” In the post-test sample students were also asked in an open-ended question to describe an environmental problem in their community in Jamaica and suggest possible solutions, 189 students replied. The most frequent reply was garbage. Problems include burning garbage and pollution of the gullies where people throw their garbage (mentioned by 115 student respondents). Possible solutions include putting more bins, stopping the burning garbage, providing more garbage trucks to pick up waste, and to educate people. Some of the students indicated in their journals that they now felt more competent to inform other individuals such as their family members about environmental issues such as pollution and the need to conserve on water and electricity Numerous teaching strategies were found to be used by sample teachers to integrate EE in the Mathematics classes. They included the use of real world problems, recycled materials, Mathematical models, and the use of technology (Internet and YouTube). The IT/STEM afterschool program described in the literature review is similar to this intervention. In this study, sample teachers believed that these activities would help to engage students and help them to connect with real life situations (Lydia, 2011; Rickinson, 2002). It can be concluded that these activities will also help students to become more independent and critical thinkers which is vital to them in learning Mathematical concepts and solving problems. Athman & Monroe (2001), Spiropoulou et al. (2005), Calderia (2008) and Lydia (2011) had similar conclusions. The integration of Environmental Education in Mathematics classes also provides the opportunity to move away from traditional teaching into constructivist approaches. Similar research projects were conducted in Nanning, China and Guyana. STEM Strategy #3: Integration of Technology in the Schools Numerous graduate students at the UWI Mona School of Education have conducted research on the effectiveness of integrating Technology in the form of computer software - Geometer Sketchpad (GSP) or Geogebra in teaching Mathematics. The studies also aimed at identifying effective pedagogical strategies. One quasi-experimental study involved Grade 8 students in a Geometry Unit. Results showed that students using the GSP software performed significantly better than students who learned by the traditional approach. Post-test results in Mathematics showed that the mean of the control group (n = 44) was 61.8% compared to a higher mean of 80.2% for the experimental group (n = 45). T-test indicated this

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

181

difference was significant (t = 22.817, df = 43, p < .05). Table 2 indicated that the integration of Technology (GSP) into Mathematics has impacted positively on the sample students and the reasons why. Table 6-7Students’ Attitudes towards GSP (n = 45) Agree

Disagree

I enjoy using GSP

89%

11%

GSP is easy to use

96%

4%

GSP helps me to understand

80%

13%

GSP Makes me feel comfortable

86%

2%

I feel confident

62%

26%

GSP allows me to visualize

80%

12%

Results of the study confirmed with findings from the literature review: Use of Technology helped to enhance students’ enthusiasm and interest in Mathematics, thereby improving their performance (Ayub, 2009). Visualisations of concepts with the use of GSP promote and enhance students’ performance in Geometry (Johari, Chan, Ramli, & Ahmat, 2010).Students felt confident about trying new problems with the GSP from such they developed a better attitude towards Geometry and Mathematics in general (Noraini, 2007). The use of GSP helped teachers to have a better knowledge of their students’ conceptual understanding which aids in teaching, lesson preparation and more so, students’ performance (O’Donnell, 2011; Dimakos et. al., 2010).With the aid of GSP students may acquire problem solving and reasoning skills (Hoong, 2003). As tohow teachers can use GSP to teach Geometry, the following strategies were recommended:

Chapter Six

182

• •

Teacher instructs on Geometry concepts while demonstrating to students using GSP Students manipulate software by selecting the required features that would be used for learning the particular concept being taught, e.g. circle theorem Students are given activities sometimes provided with examples to guide their investigations and geometric explorations Students explore, investigate, make conjectures, make conclusions, and arrive at solutions to problems posed; they interact with the software and also with colleagues and their teacher to verify problems .

• •

STEM Strategy #4: STEM’s Performance Tasks in Mathematics In a recent article “Problem-solving missing from maths education — Benjamin” published in the Jamaica Observer (December 15, 2015), the National Mathematics Coordinator Dr Tamika Benjamin told Mathematics teachers from Eastern Jamaica that “very often the tasks set by teachers are focused on finding answers to questions that already dictate the algorithm to be used to find the solution ...problem solving requires students to find solutions without knowing what method to use.” “You have to allow students to use their own strategies; do not restrict them,” Dr. Benjamin stressed, noting that while questions may have one answer, problems may have multiple solutions. She also posited that “the tasks set must deal with situations that are natural to the students and should centre on core mathematical concepts which they should learn. That approach, she said, should lend itself to students justifying and explaining their answers.” (Jamaica Observer, 2015). In addition, she urged teachers to use a variety of strategies to engage students. Lou, Shih, Ray, & Tseng (2011) conducted an exploratory study on the impact of problem-based learning (PBL) strategies on STEM knowledge integration and attitudes among female Taiwanese senior high school students. PBL is a skill that places a learner in a meaningful learning situation that is focused on the solution to a problem taken from a real situation. The results of the study indicate that PBL strategies: (1) can enhance students’ attitudes toward STEM learning and help them explore future career choices; (2) can help lead students to experience integrated STEM knowledge and complete a task; (3) can help students to gain more solid Science and Mathematics knowledge. Performance Task is a form of PBL except that PBL is a teaching strategy whereas performance task is usually a form of assessment.

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

183

STEM’s Performance Tasks are built from the Understanding by Design (UbD) framework (Wiggins & McTighe, 2003) and present realworld problems. It has developed 100+ performance tasks/projects and associated rubrics based on various subject and career areas. The tasks used authentic scenarios. The website is http://www.definedstem.com/. Jay McTighe also compiled a collection of performance task websites in: http://jaymctighe.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Resourcesfor-Mathematice-and-STEM-Tasks.pdf UWI Mona School of Education has advocated the use of both UbD and performance tasks as both teaching and assessment strategies. The following performance task was used at UWI Grade 9 Problems Solving Competition for over 50 school teams in March 2015. On National Heroes Day, I saw a large crowd downtown. I was curious and watched. A high school student (15-16 year old) set up a gambling booth using a soft drink bottle crate with 24 slots similar to the one you will be using. Each slot had a Jamaican bill of different amounts ($50, $100, $500, and $1000). Each gambler must pay $100 for a crumpled paper ball. He/she will throw the paper ball standing about six feet from the crate. He/she will win whatever is in the slot. If the paper ball missed the crate, it doesn’t count, try again. The task for your team is to decide, with Mathematical justifications, how much money to put into each one of the 24 slots in the crate, in order to maximize the earnings for the student. Your team will be assessed on your understanding of the task and the Mathematics involved to solve the problem, planning and execution of the task and solving the problem accurately with justifications in Mathematics, communication between teammates and in writing up the solution and the team’s cooperation with each other. See rubric for these criteria on the back. Each team should toss the crumpled paper ball a minimum of 15 times to find out where it lands. Record the slot number each time. Use numbers below for the slots for the trials and writing your solutions. N.B. This is a fictitious event. Please do not try to do this.

184

Chapter Six

The Third International Mathematics and Science Study, known as TIMSS 1995, was the largest and most ambitious international study of student achievement in Mathematics and Science. Extensive international information about the teaching and learning of Mathematics and Science was collected from students, teachers, and principals. The twelve TIMSS95 Performance Assessments with scoring rubrics are available from its website. (http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss1995i/Items.html) Numerous graduate students at the UWI Mona School of Education have conducted research on performance assessments. One action study provided a picture of how performance assessments were used in a Jamaican secondary school. The sample consisted of forty-two Grade 9 students with their Mathematics teacher. Results indicate that a majority of the students (59.5%) were confident in their ability to do the performance task. Most (61.9%) of the respondents indicated that they were able to complete the task assigned with a high degree of accuracy. These results confirmed the findings of Baker, O’Neill and Linn (1993), Wiggins (1993) and Fan & Zhu (2008). Some of the students interviewed expressed a change in their attitude towards Mathematics after being exposed to performance tasks. One of the reasons cited was that they had now realized the reason for learning Mathematics, since they had experienced how to use Mathematics to solve real-life problems. When asked about any noticeable change in the students’ attitudes towards Mathematics, the sample teacher indicated that she had seen greater participation of the students. Students were using different approaches to answer the questions. She said: “Because I am aware of how students view Maths I am trying to ensure that students can identify how Mathematics is connected to real life. As much as possible I try to demonstrate how to use Mathematics or explain how the Mathematics being taught can be used to solve problems.”

Since the introduction of performance task, the students have stated that they are now investing more time in learning Mathematics and are more attentive to what is being taught. This is mainly due to the fact that the questions given as performance tasks often require a greater level of thinking and of understanding the underlying concepts that are related to the tasks. One student said, “At first I was not used to it because most time we used to get questions to work out but now we get the chance to do or make things.”

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

185

The general consensus of the student participants was that performance tasks allowed them to create models, and conduct demonstration and presentations. These activities provided opportunities for students to be active participants in their learning. Brown, Campione, Weber and McGilly (1992) have found that many students have mastered the Mathematics curriculum without being able to apply the knowledge in authentic situations. Generally, the students are more engaged when they are given tasks to perform. The sample teachers in this study commented that because students often have to work cooperatively and present their assignments to the class, this has tremendously improved their writing and communication skills. Results of this study concurred with the statements by Dr. Benjamin in the Jamaica Observer. Kane, Khatri, Reeve and Adamson (1997) found that performance assessment can more accurately reflect students’ achievement than traditional tests because it is a more valid indicator of their ability to apply knowledge.

Summary and Conclusions National test scores including CSEC in the Caribbean countries and the results of the Secondary Reform Study conducted by the authors suggested that too few students choose or are prepared to continue their studies in the STEM areas. There are many benefits to developing STEM education. It contributes to deepening students’ understanding of content (Kuenzi, 2008; Capraro & Han, 2014). It also motivates students to be actively engaged in their learning (Meyrick, 2012; Capraro & Han, 2014). Educators have argued that Mathematics and Science can be learned more effectively when taught in a rich applied environment such as the Engineering or Technology contexts (Dugger, 1993; Capraro & Han, 2014).Therefore, Mathematics and Science teachers in Secondary schools are strongly recommended to incorporate Technology and Engineering components in their classrooms. However, STEM implementation continues to be a concern and is a major focus of the National Science Foundation (2015) in the United States. It’s no different in the Caribbean countries. Classroom teachers in the Caribbean and other jurisdictions struggle with how their respective country’s curriculum policy and standards can be integrated into STEM lessons, with what are the best STEM practices. According to Paul West, writing for the Jamaica Gleaner (2013, p. 4), an “essential component [to improving STEM education] should be education and training” of both teachers and students. Then there is a problem of resources. One way to increase student interest, engagement, and achievement in STEM

186

Chapter Six

disciplines may be through a more realistic, integrated approach to learning. Integrated education is "a holistic approach that links the disciplines so that the learning becomes more connected and focused, meaningful, and relevant to learners" (Smith & Karr-Kidwell, 2000, p. 22). Science and Mathematics, too often, are taught as isolated subjects in schools. It’s difficult to integrate Mathematics and Science for most teachers. With STEM education, teachers have to incorporate Technology and Engineering components in their classrooms. In the literature review conducted on characteristics of STEM Schools, the curriculum is centered on real-world problems and applications framed by the learner’s prior knowledge, lived experience, and the world’s and community’s “real needs.” In STEM lessons, teachers should purposely connect and integrate content from Mathematics and Science courses. Teaching/Learning strategies include project-based learning where students are immersed in hands-on inquiry, problem-based learning and open-ended explorations, working in teams, and using innovative technology. STEM schools should have well-prepared STEM teaching staff, relevant resources and real-world STEM partnerships. Teacher collaboration in planning lessons is the key. Sample activities from the Literature review are included in this chapter. They include: 1. Brainstorming and Motivating Activity with yo-yos 2. IT/STEM afterschool program 1. Integrating Mobile Device 2. Engineering Education Program 3. Project-Based Approach 4. Integration of Engineering concepts and applications 5. Strategies for Professional Development in STEM After the Literature review, this Chapter describes a comparative study that was conducted to investigate teachers’ and students’ perceptions of how teachers in Jamaica, Guyana, and Trinidad are implementing secondary school reforms. Areas of interest include the curriculum, teaching and assessment strategies, classroom management, and integration of technology. Results and conclusions relating to STEM subjects are described. The results indicate possible reasons why only a limited number of senior secondary students in the Caribbean are enrolled in STEM subjects. These are: 1. Lack of interest and poor attitudes of students (this came out very clearly in the open-ended comments by both sample teachers and

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

187

students). However, more than half of the sample students wish to attend university/college after secondary school. 2. Lack of activities in Science/Mathematics classes including experiments and demonstrations due to teachers and/or lack of resources. 3. Little use of Technology and Internet. 4. Poor Mathematics skills which are needed in most STEM subjects. The second half of this Chapter describes the newly formed STEM Academies in Jamaica. This is followed by four research projects that are related to STEM integrations in Secondary schools in Jamaica. These projects were conducted by Graduate students at the School of Education, Mona, University of the West Indies. STEM Strategy #1: Integration of Tablets in the Schools STEM Strategy #2: Greening STEM: Integration of Environmental Education in the Schools STEM Strategy #3: Integration of Technology in the Schools STEM Strategy #4: STEM’s Performance Tasks in Mathematics

Recommendations Hughes (2009) stated that, “unfortunately the number of wellintentioned institutions, educators, and potential employers touting STEM far surpasses those who have brought the idea to fruition” (as cited in Brown, Brown, Reardon, & Merrill, 2011, p. 9). This statement applies to the Caribbean countries. So how do we bring STEM ideas to fruition? A one size fits all model does not exist when it comes to STEM education. Leaders within the school organization must look inward and identify what their students, teachers, and community needs are. After Needs Assessment the following steps can be adopted: Step 1: Create a STEM Vision in collaboration between all stakeholders: The vision must be in common language while explicitly stating the meaning and purpose of STEM. Step 2: Engage all Learners to set STEM goals for the school: STEM goals must provide an educational environment that meets the various needs of its students while providing engaging and real world applications in preparation for the future. Step 3: Develop Integrated STEM Curriculum: "STEM" is not limited to Mathematics and Science, but embraces each STEM discipline and its unique needs with an integrative approach.

188

Chapter Six

Schools along with the school leader, staff, and community need to develop specific STEM programs aligned with areas of concentration that meet the needs of their student body and community. Step 4: STEM teaching and learning: "focuses on authentic content and problems, using hands-on, technological tools, equipment, and procedures in innovative ways to help solve human wants and needs" (Merrill, 2009) Step 5: Tiered Instruction: This first starts with the development of an engaging curriculum with tiered instruction, scaffolded learning, and flexibility within the learning environment. Ensuring these processes can set the foundation for lower level learners within the school organization. It is imperative that these processes start early, focusing on lower grades building the confidence of learners who struggle in the fields of Mathematics and Science. Step 6: Develop STEM Educators: Beaudion, Johnston, Jones, & Waggett (2013) cite the need for high quality educators in STEM fields and that these educators are the key component to a successful educational experience. Keeping this in mind, STEM schools must provide training and professional development to those educators already in their buildings and if needed, recruit other STEM educators. Collaborations among educators in the school and with local universities and industries are necessary. Currently the Caribbean is at an educational crossroads and its fate lies in the success of its schools and teachers in educating future leaders. By better understanding exactly which aspects of the STEM school experience influence student outcomes, research can inform policy decisions surrounding best practice within STEM education. This chapter seeks to shed light on the features and practices of STEM schools and provides STEM strategies for stakeholders, in particular teachers. It provides modest insights into how teachers can initiate and improve STEM education in their classrooms. Of particular importance is the impact of the STEM strategies on achievement and career of students in the Caribbean and other jurisdictions.

References Athman, J., & Monroe, M. 2001. “Elements of Effective Environmental Education Programs.” Retrieved from www.d.umn.edu/~kgilbert/.../Elements%20of%20Effective%20EE.pdf Ayub, A. F., Baker, K. A., Tarmizi, R. A., Yunus, A. S. 2009. “Effect of utilizing Geometer’s Sketchpad on Performance and Mathematical Thinking of Secondary Mathematics Learners: An Initial Exploration.”

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

189

International Journal Of Education and Information Technologies, 3(1). Baker, E. L., O'Neill, H. F., Jr., &Linn, R. L. 1993. “Policy and Validity Prospects for Performance-based Assessments.” American Psychologist, 48, 1210-1218. Beaudoin, C. R., Johnston, P. C., Jones, L. B., & Waggett, R. J. 2013. “University Support of Secondary STEM Teachers through Professional Development.” Education, 133(3), 330-339. Brown, A. L., Campione, J. C., Webber, L. S. & McGilly, K. 1992. Interactive Learning Environments: A New Look at Assessment and Instruction, in B. R. Gifford & M. C. O'Conner (eds.), Changing Assessments: Alternative Views of Aptitude, Achievement, and Instruction (121-211). Boston: Kluwer Academic. Brown, R., Brown, J., Reardon, K., & Merrill, C. 2011. “Understanding STEM: Current Perceptions.” Technology & Engineering Teacher, 70(6), 5-9. Bruce-Davis, M.N., Gubbins, E.J., Gilson, C.M., Villanueva, M., Foreman, J.L., & Rubenstein, L.D. 2014. “STEM High School Administrators’, Teachers’, and Students’ Perceptions of Curricular and Instructional Strategies and Practices.” Journal of Advanced Academics, 25(3), 272–306. Caldeira, A. 2008. “Mathematical Modelling and Environmental Education.” Paper presented at the 11th International Congress on Mathematical Education, Mexico. Retrieved from tsg.icme11.org/document/get/493 Capraro, R. M., & Han, S. 2014. “STEM: The Education Frontier to Meet 21st Century Challenges.” Middle Grades Research Journal, 9(3), xv– xviii. Capraro, R. M., Capraro, M. M., & Morgan, J. R. 2013.STEM ProjectBased Learning: An Integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Approach. Rotterdam, the Netherlands: Sense. Carr, R., Bennett, L., & Strobel, J. 2012. “Engineering in the K-12 STEM Standards of the 50 States: An Analysis of Presence and Extent.” Journal of Engineering Education, 101(3), 539–564. Dimakos, G., Zaranis, N. 2010. “The Influence of the Geometer’s Sketchpad on the Geometry Achievement of Greek School Students.” The Teaching of Mathematics, XIII (2), 113–124. Dugger, Jr., W. E. 1993. “The Relationship Between Technology, Science, Engineering, and Mathematics.” Retrieved from ERIC database. ED 366795.

190

Chapter Six

Duran, M., Ho¨ft, M., Lawson, D. B., Medjahed, B. & Orady, E. A. 2014. “Urban High School Students’ IT/STEM Learning: Findings from a Collaborative Inquiry- and Design-Based Afterschool Program.” The Journal of Science Education and Technology, 23, 116–137. Fan, L., & Zhu, Y. 2008 “Using Performance Assessment in Secondary School Mathematics: An Empirical Study in a Singapore Classroom.” Journal of Mathematics Education, 1(1), 132-152. Fang, N. 2013. “Increasing High School Students’ Interest in STEM Education Through Collaborative Brainstorming with Yo-Yos.” Journal of STEM Education, 14(4), 8-14. Foutz, T., Navarro, M., Hill, R. B., & Thompson, S. A. 2011. “Using the Discipline of Agricultural Engineering to Integrate Math and Science.” Journal of STEM Education, 12(1), 24–32. Ganesh, T. & Fulton, I.A. 2011. “Design-based Research: A Framework for Designing Novel Teaching and Learning Experiences in Middle School Engineering Education.” Paper presented at 41st ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, Rapid City, SD. Gonzalez, H. B., & Kuenzi, J. J. 2012. “Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education: A Primer.” Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42642.pdf Hansen, M. 2013. “Characteristics of Schools Successful in STEM: Evidence from Two States’ Longitudinal Data.” CALDER Working Paper 97. Washington, DC: American Institutes of Research. Retrieved from http://www.caldercenter.org/publications/upload/WP-97_final.pdf Honey, M., Pearson, G., & Schweingruber, H. (Eds) 2014. STEM Integration in K-12 Education: Status, Prospects, and an Agenda for Research. Washington, DC: The National Academic Press. Hoong, Leong Yew & Khoh, Lim-Teo 2003. “Effects of Geometer's Sketchpad on Spatial Ability and Achievement in Transformation Geometry among Secondary Two Students in Singapore.” The Mathematics Educator, 7(1), 32-48. Johari, N.A., Chan, L.O., Ramli, R., & Ahmat, N.A. 2010. “The Effect of GSP on Students’ Understanding in The Graphs of Trigonometric Functions.” Retrieved from http://atcm.mathandtech.org/ep2010/regular/ 3052010_18310.pdf Jolly, A. 2014. “Six Characteristics of a Great STEM Lesson.” Education Week. Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/tm/articles/ 2014/ 06/17/ ctq_jolly_stem.html Kane, m., Khattri, N., Reeve, A., & Adamson, R. 1997.Assessment of Student Performance: Studies of Education Reform, Office of

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

191

Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education. Kimmel, H., Carpinelli, J., Burr-Alexander, & L. Rockland, R. 2006. “Bringing Engineering into K-12 Schools: Problem Looking for Solutions?” Proceedings of the 2006 ASEE Annual Conference, Chicago, IL. Klem, A. M., & Connell, J. P. 2004. “Relationships Matter: Linking Teacher Support to Student Engagement and Achievement.” Journal of School Health, 74(7), 262–273. Kuenzi, J. J. 2008. Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education: Background, Federal Policy, and Legislative Action. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1034 &context=crsdocs Linsenmeier, R.A., Harris, T.R., Olds, S.A. 2002.The VaNTH Bioengineering Curriculum Project. (Vol. 3) Lou, S-J, Shih, R-C, Ray, D-K, & Tseng, K-H. 2011. “The Impact of Problem-Based Learning Strategies on STEM Knowledge Integration and Attitudes: An Exploratory Study Among Female Taiwanese Senior High School Students.” International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 21,195–215. Lydia A. K. 2011.Integrating Environmental Education in Primary School Education in Tanzania: Teachers’ Perceptions and Teaching Practices. Biskopsgatan, Finland: Akademi University Press. Lynch, S. J., Behrend, T., Burton, E. P., & Means, B. 2013. “Inclusive STEM-focused High schools: STEM Education Policy and Opportunity Structures.” Paper presented at the NARST 2013 Annual Conference in Rio Grande, April 6-9, Puerto Rico. Marshall, S.P. 2010. “Re-Imagining Specialized STEM Academies: Igniting and Nurturing Decidedly Different Minds, by Design.” Roeper Review: A Journal on Gifted Education, 32(1), 48-60. McIntosh, D. 2014. “Eight More Schools Come September 2015.” Jamaica Information Service. Retrieved fromhttp://jis.gov.jm/eightstem-schools-come-september-2015/ Merrill, C. 2009. “The Future of TE Masters Degrees: STEM.” Presentation at the 70th Annual International Technology Education Association Conference, Louisville, Kentucky. Meyrick, K. M. 2012. “How STEM Education Improves Student Learning” Meridian, 14(1). Retrieved from

192

Chapter Six

http://www.ced.ncsu.edu/meridian/index.php/meridian/article/viewFile /6/5 Morrison, J., McDuffie, A.R., & French, B. 2015. “Identifying Key Components of Teaching and Learning in a STEM School.” School Science and Mathematics, 115(5), 244-255. Murphy, T. P., & Mancini.-Samuelson, G. J. 2012. “Graduating STEM Competent and Confident Teachers: The Creation of a STEM Certificate for Elementary Education Majors.” Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(2), 18-23. Narode, R. B. 2011. ‘‘‘Math in a Can’: Teaching Mathematics and Engineering Design.” Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research, 1(2), Article 3. National Research Council. 2009. Engineering in K-12 Education: Understanding the Status and Improving the Prospects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. National Science Board. 2010. Science and Engineering Indicators. National Science Foundation. 2015. Investing in Science, Engineering and Education for the Nation’s Future: NSF Strategic Plan for 2014-2018. Retrieved from http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2014/nsf14043/nsf14043.pdf Noraini, I. 2007. “The Effects of Geometer’s Sketchpad on the Performance in Geometry of Malaysian Students’ Achievement and Van Hiele Geometric Thinking.” Malaysian Journal of Mathematics and Science, 1(2): 169-180. Nye, B., Konstantopoulos, S., & Hedges, L. V. 2004. “How Large are Teacher Effects?” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26, 237-257. O’Donnell A. 2011. Using Geometer’s Sketchpad to Improve Student Attitude in the Mathematics Classroom. Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, College of Arts and Science. Minot State University, Minot. Redmond, A., Thomas, J., High, K., Scott, M., Jordan, P., & Dockers, J. 2011. “Enriching Science and Math through Engineering.” School Science and Mathematics, 111(8), 399–408. Reeve, E.M. 2014. “STEM Thinking!” Technology and Engineering Teacher, 74(4), 8-16. Retrieved from http://www.iteea.org/Publications/TTT/decjan15.pdf Rickinson, M. 2002. Environmental Education: Recent Research on Learners and Learning. Retrieved from www.nfer.ac.uk/nfer/PRE_PDF_Files/02_27_10.pdf Robinson, A., Dailey, D., & Hughes, G. 2014. “The Effects of a ScienceFocused STEM Intervention on Gifted Elementary Students’ Science

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools

193

Knowledge and Skills.”Journal of Advanced Academics, 25(3), 189– 213. Rockland, R., Bloom, D.S., Carpinelli, J., Burr-Alexander, L., Hirsch, L.S. & Kimmel, H. 2010. “Advancing the “E” in K-12 STEM Education.” The Journal of Technological Studies, 36(1), 53-64. Schnittka, C. 2012. “Engineering Education in the Science Classroom: A Case Study of one Teacher’s Disparate Approach with Ability-Tracked Classrooms.” Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research, 2 (1), 35–38. Scott, C. 2012. “An Investigation of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Focused High Schools in the U.S.” Journal of STEM Education, 13(5), 30-39. Smith, J., & Karr-Kidwell, P. 2000. The Interdisciplinary Curriculum: A Literary Review and a Manual for Administrators and Teachers. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED443172). Spiropoulou, D., Roussos, G., & Voutirakis, J. 2005. “The Role of Environmental Education in Compulsory Education: The Case of Mathematics textbooks in Greece.” International Education Journal, 6(3), 400-406. Retrieved fromhttp://iej.cjb.net Stohlmann, M., Moore, T. J., McClelland, J., & Roehrig, G. H. 2011. “Impressions of a Middle Grades STEM Integration Program.” Middle School Journal, 43(1), 32-40. Toronto District School Board 2015.“Innovative technology lights up John Polanyi CI” Retrieved from http://www.tdsb.on.ca/News/ArticleDetails/TabId/116/ArtMID/474 /ArticleID/674/Innovative-technology-lights-up-JPCI.aspx. Tseng, K., Chi-Cheng, C., Lou, S., & Chen, W. 2011. “Attitudes towards Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in a Project-Based Learning (PjBL) Environment.” International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 23(1), 87–102. Valtorta, C.G., & Berland, L.K. 2015. “Math, Science, and Engineering Integration in a High School Engineering Course.” A Qualitative Study Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research, 5(1), 15–29. West, P. 2013. “Cultivating a National Agenda in STEM.” Jamaica Gleaner. Retrieved from http://jamaica-gleaner.com/April 7, 2013. White, T., & Martin, L. 2012. “Integrating Digital and STEM Practices.” Leadership, 42(2), 22-23, 25-26. Wiggins, G. P., & McTighe, J. 2003.Understanding by Design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Wiggins, G.P. 1993 .Assessing Student Performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Chapter Six

194

Appendix A – Lesson Plan on Integration of Environmental Education in Mathematics Fig. A-1 Teacher Directed Instruction Planning Format

1. Lesson Plan Information Mathematics Grade Level: Grade 1-9 Topic: Brushing your teeth leaving water on

Name: Joong Date: Time and Length of Period: 60 min

2. Objective(s) The students will: x x x x x x x

Learn the units for measuring volume – gallon and Litres Measure volume of water Convert gallon to litres (L) Find out how much water is wasted by leaving water on while brushing teeth Read statistical data related to water usage Develop student’s awareness and habit of conservation of water at home Develop student’s awareness of gender issues

3. Content (The What)

Teaching/Learning Strategies (The How)

A. Introduction (motivational steps/hook/activation of students’ prior knowledge) x “Who leaves the water on while brushing his teeth? Put up your hand!” x If possible, ask two or three students to go to the washroom and brush their teeth and collect the water using a jug, you may want to do this beforehand. x Use measuring cylinder or water bottles to measure the amount of water used. x On average, one uses 1 Gallon (4 L) of water when leave the water on. (10 minutes)

STEM Strategies in Secondary Schools B. Topic/Content for New Learning

x

x

x x

Volume of water wasted by the class = 4L X 2 X 50 = 400 L per day, assuming each brushes twice and class size is 40. Show statistics of water usage by families in a few countries (see below) In Bangladesh, one person uses 50 L/day, a family of 4 uses 4 x 50L = 200L That means the class wastes as much as a family of four in Bangladesh in two days. In Bangladesh, girls usually have to carry water from the well to the house.

195

B. Teaching/Learning Strategies for New Learning Ask “If one student wasted 4 L of water brushing his teeth leaving the water on, how much does this class waste if we brush twice per day?” x Ask students to do a calculation individually. (15 minutes) x Teacher asks one/two students to put solution on the board and takes it up or student explains his work. (10 min) x Teacher can talk about the water wasted is equal to what a family of four uses in 2 days. x Teacher can also talk about gender issues in SE Asia and West African countries, e.g. some girls do not get to go to school. (10 min)

4. Consolidation/Reinforcement (Check for understanding/scaffolded practice) Teacher can show the graph below and students can calculate water usage by a family of four in some of the countries each day: US = 600 L X 4 = 2400 L Mexico = 370 L X 4 = 1480 L Germany = 200 L X 4 = 800 L UK = 150 X 4= 300 L Haiti = 15 L X 4 = 30 L (10 min) 5. Application (of what was learned) Discussion/Brainstorm on how we can conserve water in the home. Teacher can construct a mind map. 6. Assessment (collection of data) / Evaluation Student calculate water usage by a family of four in five of the following countries each week

196

Chapter Six

http://www.data360.org/dsg.aspx?Data_Set_Group_Id=757

STEM M Strategies in Secondary S Schoools

197

Appendix B: Ard duino, Gam me program mming, Robotics and Sam mple Studen nt Projects atJohn Poolanyi Colleegiate, Toron nto Fig. B-1 Arduuino

Note. Used w with permission. All rights reserved. http://ww ww.newinnovato ors.ca/

CHAPTER SEVEN FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT IN A UNIT OF BIOLOGY: STUDENT AND TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF THE USE OF QUESTIONING AND FEEDBACK KIRSTY N. PHILLIP

From Traditional Testing to Formative Assessment Traditional testing known as summative assessment frequently occurs at the end of a learning episode and is useful in making a diagnosis of how much students know and can do. The current contention in education internationally and to some extent regionally is that traditional testing does not provide meaningful data to help teachers improve their practice if it comes at the end of learning. According to Stiggins (2006) “assessment must go beyond merely scores and corresponding judgments about student learning” (p.3). Thus, summative assessments have been under criticism and scrutiny by education researchers who feel these dominating practices have been insignificant in promoting learning. Mc Millan, (2007) writes “the use of summative assessments tends to emphasize global rather than individualized learning…and the assumption is that higher test scores mean more student learning (which is incorrect)” (p.2). Consequently, with the advent of constructivist views of learning, there has been a paradigm shift from summative to formative assessment also known as assessment for learning. This has led to reforms in many educational institutions around the world to include formative assessment not only in the classroom, but as a key component of the curriculum. Though, for this transformation in assessment to be realized, educators need to adopt new purposes for assessment which cannot be fulfilled by summative assessment alone. Thus, assessments can no longer be isolated

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

199

instances which are “weakly linked to the learning experiences of students” (Black & Wiliam, 1998a, p.1). When assessment is formative, “evidence is actually used to adapt teaching to meet students’ needs” (Black & Wiliam, 1998b, p. 140). In this environment, “learning is driven by what teachers and students do in the classroom” (Black & Wiliam, 1998b, p. 140). Killen (2007) states the teachers’ main role is to facilitate learning rather than to be a source of all knowledge. He further writes “teachers have to deliberately help learners construct their own understanding rather than simply tell them things they are expected to memorize” (p.14) for the purpose of passing a test. However, putting formative assessment into practice is not an easy feat, as Wiliam, Lee, Harrison and Black (2004) contend achieving formative assessment in the classroom is not straightforward and changes are hard to implement even in ideal conditions. These authors suggest there is the difficulty of putting research into practice “because our understanding of the theoretical principles underlying successful classroom action is weak and research can never tell teachers what to do” (p. 51). Additionally, Loughran (as cited in Kuze & Shumba, 2011) states there have been “little classroom-based research to document what teachers do when they undertake formative assessment” (p. 199). Hence, there is a need for a better understanding of the process involved when engaging in this type of assessment; such understanding is needed to provide useful knowledge for educators to be better prepared to effectively infuse assessment for learning. One way in which formative assessment can be undertaken is by using specific teaching strategies. These strategies should incite responses from both students and teachers so that various aspects of learning can be addressed. Questioning is one strategy that is frequently used to achieve this outcome. Teachers can use questions to evaluate what students know, what they do not know or how much they know. Based on how questions are constructed low or high level thinking can be promoted. Clarke (2005) states teachers mainly focus on easier questions that do not challenge children to further and deepen their understanding (p. 53), however this author also suggests that questioning “is an area of formative assessment which can result in relatively rapid, positive change in the classroom” (p. 53). Therefore, to engage in formative assessment effective questions must be devised by teachers which can elicit responses that challenge the learners and stimulate thinking. In addition, Chin (2006) writes questions can be used to “diagnose and extend students’ ideas and to scaffold students’ thinking” (p.1319), but it is dependent on the type of question used.

200

Chapter Seven

When questions are effective quite often a dialogue can evolve between the teacher and his/her students. Ruiz-Primo and Furtak (2006) and Duschl and Gotimer (1997) describe this as an “assessment conversation” between teacher and students, wherein the teacher has the opportunity to act on and draw out students understanding. The intent of the assessment conversation is to have students consider different ideas produced by their peers (and teacher) and use this evidence to consider what fits and does not fit in with the concepts of the lesson (Duschl and Gotimer, 1997). According to Chin (2006) under constructivist-based conditions the nature of questioning involves eliciting what students think, to encourage them to elaborate on their previous answers and ideas and to help students construct conceptual knowledge. However, Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall and Wiliam (2004), state that the dialogue that might help students to learn is not well-planned or conducted by teachers. This often leads to a superficial level of dialogue, usually as a result of close-ended questions mainly based on memorized facts which do not allow teachers’ to address the needs of students. However, if questions are properly constructed then useful feedback can be given to students to adjust their learning; this is a significant part of the dialogue that occurs in the classroom. Feedback is a critical part of the formative assessment process. Clarke (2010) proposes that “feedback becomes formative when students are provided with scaffolded instruction or thoughtful questioning that served as a prompt for further enquiry, which then closes the gap between their current level of understanding and the desired learning goal” (p.344). According to Black and Wiliam (2009) quantitative evidence suggest feedback is more effective if it provides students with helpful information rather than if it is focused on “praise, rewards or punishment” (p.23).

Context of Study As the need to engage in methods of formative assessment continues to gain momentum in education internationally and regionally, traditional testing systems continue to dominate secondary schools in Anglophone Caribbean countries. This tradition involves rigorous preparation for students to write two high stakes examinations produced by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC); these include (a) the Caribbean Secondary Examination (CSEC) and (b) the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE) written at the end of 5th and 6th form respectively. In Trinidad and Tobago summative assessments continue to be the focal point of secondary schools. There is a strong emphasis on completing

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

201

the syllabus to ensure students have the content knowledge to pass exams. The dilemma is that the feedback given at the end of a test has limited use for improving instruction or closing gaps in student learning to promote achievement. At Arbor High School were this study was conducted, summative assessments are the norm and students are continually tested. It is considered to be one of the leading secondary schools for girls and is one of several denominational schools in Trinidad and Tobago. Over 80% of students entering Form 1 have scored more than 90% on the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA) and there is the expectation that students will excel. However, this has not been the reality as only a few students maintain this high standard. A quality review of the school conducted by Daniel, Mason, Brewster and del Pilar Lynch (2009) showed on average less than 50% of the passes are at the grade I level for CSEC examinations. They made the following observations: x There is a strong emphasis on content and understanding, but teachers can do more to promote higher level thinking and independent learning. x Teachers used a variety of methods to assess students however there was insufficient evidence for one to assume that “assessment for learning” is a continuous process. x There were some instances where students were praised but the quality of feedback to students must improve in order to boost students’ overall achievement. Daniel et al (2009) recommended that assessment data be regularly used to determine the extent of learning and should inform instructional and learning strategies. To date, the school has not implemented any strategies that would seek to specifically address these areas for school quality improvement.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to design lessons where questioning and feedback was used as a formative assessment strategy to create a classroom environment where learning is promoted. This involved fostering a thinking environment that precluded students from passively absorbing content to pass an exam. This would contribute to the body of knowledge focused on the implementation of formative assessment in

202

Chapter Seven

classroom practice and additionally show the perceptions of stakeholders who engage in such a process. This study sought to address the following questions: 1. What are students’ perceptions on questioning and feedback during the instruction process? 2. What are my perceptions of the infusion of formative assessment through questioning and feedback as a classroom practice?

Review of the Literature Klassen (2006) writes “since the introduction of testing, examinations or tests have served to check for and enforce public standards in education” (p. 823). Testing has been concerned mainly with ranking students for the purposes of placement, certification and college or university admission or with providing public accountability for student achievement (Klassen, 2006). The most visible types of assessment in education are often those used to measure what students have learnt (CERI, 2008), at the end of an instructional segment (McMillan, 2007). Bell and Cowrie (2001) state “the development of more valid assessment procedures has put the spotlight on formative assessment” (p. 536). Bloom, Madaus and Hastings (1971); Roos and Hamilton, (2005); Tara, (2005); Newton, (2007) and Bennett, (2011) attribute the distinction between formative and summative assessment to Michael Scriven’s (1967) concept of program evaluation. For Scriven formative evaluation was conducted during the development and improvement of a program, often conducted more than once, whereas summative evaluation was conducted after the completion of a program, and for the benefit of some external audience or decision-maker. These ideas were adapted by Bloom et al. (1971) to focus primarily upon the process of student assessment rather than program evaluation. They identified three characteristics which distinguished formative and summative assessments in education as shown in Table 7-1. Black and Wiliam (as cited in Newton, 2007) commenting on the work of Bloom et al (1971), noted the terms formative and summative apply to the functions they serve. Black and William’s (1998) article Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment was the catalyst that propelled educational professionals, and researchers around the world to develop the practice of formative assessment in their classrooms. They raised awareness for formative assessment practices to play an essential role in the classroom to enhance learning. Their evidence

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

203

stemmed from the study of extensive surveys of research literature including 160 journals yielding 580 chapters and used 250 of the sources published in a special issue of the Journal Assessment in Education. Black and Wiliam (2009) described their analysis as “exploratory rather than definitive: with its main value to guide further enquires” (p.6). Table 7-1 Characteristics of formative and summative assessment (Bloom et. al, 1971) Characteristic Purpose Timing

Level of generalization

Assessment Formative Summative Focuses on helping the Focuses on grading or learner learn certification More frequent, smaller Occurs at the end of a units of instruction course occurring during a course Testing for narrow Testing for broad components of proficiency abilities

Theoretical Framework In proposing a theory for formative assessment Black and Wiliam (2009) attempted to locate formative assessment within more comprehensive theories of pedagogy and learning. Three key processes in learning and teaching to provide a better theoretical grounding for formative assessment involves establishing where the learners (a) are in their learning, (b) where they are going and (c) what needs to be done to get them there (Ramaprasad, as cited in Black & Wiliam, 2009). Black and Wiliam (2009) argue traditionally the teacher bore responsibility for each of these three processes, but it is also necessary to take into account the role that the learners and their peers play in them. The teacher, peer and learner can be conceptualized in a formative assessment paradigm consisting of five key strategies as shown in Table 7-2. Wiliam and Leahy (2007) emphasizes within this framework, the action of the teacher, the learners and the context of the classroom are all evaluated with respect to the extent to which they contribute to guiding the learning toward the intended goal. They further posit that it calls for a shift from the teacher as the ‘sage on the stage” to the “guide on the side”, however Wiliam and Leahy (2007) state the teacher is not relieved of the responsibility for ensuring learning, the teacher in this instance of formative assessment must be “regarded as responsible for “engineering” a learning environment, both in its design and its operation.

Chapter Seven

204

Table 7-2 Aspects of formative assessment (Wiliam & Thompson, as cited in Black & Wiliam, 2009)

Teacher

Peer

Learner

Where the learner is going 1 Clarifying learning intentions and criteria for success Understanding and sharing learning intentions and criteria for success Understanding learning intentions and criteria for success

Where the learner is right now 2 Engineering effective classroom discussion and other learning tasks that elicit evidence of student understanding

How to get there 3 Providing feedback that moves learners forward

4 Activating students as instructional resources for one another

5 Activating students as the owners of their own learning

Implementation of formative assessment for classroom instruction Teachers obtain evidence of the progress of student learning when formative assessment involves eliciting evidence in systematic ways (Heritage, 2010). Heritage (2010) describes systematic planning as one in which teachers are clear about what they want students to learn, the task they would do to facilitate learning and how they would gather evidence about progress. This type of formative assessment is planned simultaneously with instruction and ensures that teachers are integrating assessment into instruction and are keeping track of how learning is developing (Heritage, 2010). Shavelson, Young, Ayala, Brandon, Furtak, Ruiz-Primo, Tomita and Yin (2008b) characterize formative assessment during instruction to be on a continuum with three anchor points. This includes informal unplanned (on-the-fly) formative, planned-for-action and formal planned (embedded assessment) (p.299) where the former and latter types comprise the extremes of the continuum.

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

205

These researchers state where a particular formative assessment practice falls on the continuum depends on the amount of planning involved, its formality, the nature and quality of the data sought, and the nature of the feedback given to students by the teacher (p. 300). In this study, on-the-fly and planned-for-interaction formative assessments will be used. Shavelson et al (2008b) describe on-the-fly formative assessment as “teachable moments that arise in the classroom. Shavelson, Yue Yin, Furtak, Araceli, Ruiz-Primo, Ayala (2008a) assert even though “teachable moments” can be interpreted as good teaching instead of assessment, it proves that teaching and assessment should be considered as one in the same (p. 23). In this instance the teacher is involved in listening in on conversations and making suggestions that give students new ideas to think about. The teacher may recognize that students grasp a concept and may challenge these students to visit a new situation and he/she may also call on other students to listen to each other (Shavelson et al, 2008a). However, Shavelson et al (2008a) found difficulties can arise in implemeting this type of formative assessment as initially it requires intution, and then is later based on cumulative wisdom of practice. They write “even though teachers can identify the moment, they may not have the confidence, technique or content knowledge to sufficiently challenge and respond to students” (p. 24). Planned for interaction is a “deliberate” action, for example when the teacher is developing a lesson plan he/she may devise specific “central questions” to find gaps between what students know and what they need to know (Shavelson et al, 2008b, p.300).

Teacher Questioning The science classroom is often dominated by teacher questions (Dillon; West & Pearson, as cited in Yan Yip, 2004) and is an important part of classroom behaviour (Zahorik, 1971). Black and Wiliam (1996) state the evidence of the level of student performance can be elicited as a deliberate act by the teacher through direct questioning. This can provide information about the students’ knowledge or capabilities in a certain area. However, questioning should involve deep thinking in which learning is part of shared discussions between peers and teacher (Black & Wiliam, 1998). In this respect Almeida (2010) is critical of teacher questioning only, as she suggests that learning does not occur until learners can raise their own questions. Hence the concept of dialogue and discussion is an important aspect for the formative assessment process.

206

Chapter Seven

Almeida Albergaria (2010) further states that the functions of questioning such as encouraging students to think, arousing interest and curiosity, developing students’ reflection and stimulating students to ask questions on their own, are not frequently found in classroom questioning” (p.588). Thus, it is important for the teacher to devise effective questions which can create a formative environment. The categories of questioning are sometimes divided into low-level/closed/convergent versus high level/open/divergent questions; the division of question type is dependent on whether the focus is on factual or recall information in the case of the former; or questions requiring analysis, synthesis or evaluation in the former that can “encourage classroom discussion and stimulate critical thinking” (Alemida Albergaria, 2010, p. 598). Chin (2006) suggests students learning science in a classroom setting is situated in teacher talk and teacher-student interactions in the construction of meaning which is mediated through language. Through teacher questioning, information can be elicited from students about their understanding which can promote dialogue which is an important instrument for formative assessment (Chin, 2006, p. 1341).

Feedback The main purpose of formative assessment is to increase student knowledge, skills and understanding of a content area, or general skill by employing multiple types of feedback to achieve this outcome. The term feedback has been extensively researched over the past 50 years, yet there still remains conflicting findings and no consistent pattern of results (Shute, 2008). Shute, defining feedback in the context of the learner, states that “formative feedback represents information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify the learner’s thinking or behaviour for the purpose of improving learning” (p. 154). Chin (2006) suggests that for feedback to be effective, it must result in “productive uptake” which results in “successful repair” (p. 1341), which represents how students respond or react to the teacher’s feedback. According to Clarke (2010) feedback is formative when learners are in the following situations: x Engaged in metacognition that is related to general performance x Supported to think about their own learning x Understanding the relationship between previous and current performance and understanding x Responsible for improving and initiating their own learning

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

207

Hattie and Timperley (2007) conceptualize feedback specifically as “information provided by an agent (e.g. teacher, peer, book, parent, self, experience) regarding aspects of one’s performance or understanding. A teacher can provide corrective information; a peer can provide an alternative strategy and a learner can look up the answer to evaluate the correctness of a response. These researchers propose that effective feedback answers three feedback questions: Where am I going? How am I going and Where to next? Each question works at four levels (Hattie & Temperly, p. 87). These levels include: x Task level – how well tasks are understood and performed x Process level – the main process needed to understand/perform tasks x Self-regulation level – self-monitoring, directing and regulating actions x Self –level – personal evaluations and affect (usually positive) about the learner Black and Wiliam (2009) however, disagree with Hattie and Timperley as they write “the diagnosis by the teacher or peers which must precede the formulation of any feedback cannot be restricted” (p. 23) to any one feedback level. For Black and Wiliam (2009) self-regulation in students is critical in formulating appropriate feedback. They assert that there is connectivity among the different levels, as “feedback on understanding a task may have to be linked with feedback on the learner’s understanding of the criteria used in his/her self-regulation” (p. 24).

Gaps in Research on Formative Assessment There have been many studies conducted in the area of assessment for learning in which practitioners in various content areas have tried to implement. However, Dunn and Mulvenon (2009) concludes although Black and Wiliam’s (1998) research provides some support for the impact of formative assessment on student achievement, it “provides greater support for the need to conduct research in which more efficient methodologies and designs will lead to more conclusive results...” (p. 9). A sound research validated framework for best practices in formative assessment must be established to ensure maximum benefits for all those involved (Dunn & Mulvenon, 2009). Bennett (2011) writes “the term formative assessment does not yet represent a well-defined set of artefacts or practices”. He suggests for

208

Chapter Seven

formative assessment to have a meaningful definition, it would require a “theory of action” and one or more concrete instantiations (Bennett, 2011, p. 8). Bennett (2011) states “the concrete instantiations illustrates what formative assessment built into theory looks like and how it might work in a real setting”. Bennett (as cited in Bennett, 2011) describes the theory of action as one which (a) identifies and creates a rationale for the characteristics and components of the entity we are claiming is formative assessment and (b) postulates how these characteristics and components work together to create some desired set of outcomes. Shavleson (as cited in Bennett, 2011) referring to his experience creating, implementing and studying the effects of formative assessment writes “…after five years of work our euphoria devolved into a reality that formative assessment like so many other education reforms, has a long way to go before it can be wielded masterfully by a majority of teachers to a positive end” p. 294

Bennett (2011) interprets Shavelson’s reflection to be “formative assessment is both conceptually and practically still a work-in-progress; that fact means we need to be more sensible in our claims and expectations for it” (p. 294).

Challenges in Implementing Formative Assessment Black and Wiliam (1998) state “there is no quick fix that can alter existing practice by promising rapid rewards” p. 146; teachers must find their own ways of incorporating the lessons and ideas into their pattern of classroom work and into the cultural norms and expectations of a particular school community. According to Carless (2007), implementing theoretical insights from the literature into the classroom is a particular challenge. Wiliam (as cited in Wiliam and Leahy, 2007) expands on this view and states emerging research shows that the process of knowledge transfer cannot be one of providing instructions to novices in hope that they will get better, because put simply, all research findings are generalizations and as such are either too general to be useful or to universal to be applicable. Carless (2007) considers that within international contexts where direct summative assessments have dominated, the prospects for implementation of formative assessment are even more daunting. The barriers that exist to formative assessment include large class sizes and heavy workloads, which could lead teachers to believe formative assessment whilst having a solid theoretical foundation, risks being somewhat impractical, too time-consuming and thus incompatible with the

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

209

demands of schooling (Carless, 2007). Kaftan, Buck and Haack (2005) also advocating this view, writes that even though researchers such as Bell and Cowrie (2001) gives rich descriptions on the “process” of formative assessment, they do no address the difficulty of its implementation. Popham (2008) also endorses this view, as he writes ..theoretically teachers and students could make an adjustment decision in the wake of every incoming piece of assessment information. But in the real world, this is unrealistic and would be exhausting for both the enervated teachers and decision drained students(p. 11).

Wiliam and Leahy (2007) suggest “what is needed is an acknowlegment that what teachers do in taking on research is not a passive adoption of some good ideas from someone else but an active process of knowledge creation”. Black and Wiliam (1998) point out that what “teachers need is a variety of living examples of implementation, as practiced by teachers with whom they can identify and from whom they can derive the confidence that they can do better” (p 146); they need to see examples of what doing better means in practice, rather than attempt solely to translate ideas presented as general principles from an extensive research base into everyday practice. This literature review provided historical insight into the evolution of assessment practices in education from dominating summative assessments towards assessment practices that enhance rather than summarise learning into a grade. The establishment of formative assessment as a classroom practice is an on-going process in educational reform in many countries that are dissatisfied with current testing methods.

Methodology Research Design This investigation used a case study design, as according to Cohen, Manion and Morrison, (2000) case studies “strive to portray what it is like to be in a particular situation, to catch the close-up reality and thick descriptions of participants lived experiences of thoughts about and feelings for a situation” (p. 182). I chose this design as it afforded me the opportunity to gain an in-depth understanding of the process of implementing assessment for learning in my classroom. It was used with the intention to discover the meanings and value of the intervention not only to my practice, but for the future progress of formative assessment at my school. Hancock and Algozzine (2006) suggest that insights gleaned

210

Chapter Seven

from case studies can directly influence policy, procedures and future research. For this case study I used a narrative structure to capture the reality of the situation which involved critical descriptions of the experience of all individuals, the incorporation of quotes from participants and stating the interpretation of events. This study was bounded within a set time of six weeks and by a single case of twenty (20) students within one secondary school.

Research Procedure This study was conceptualized within an action research framework using the action-reflection cycle methodology. Kurt Lewin (1890-1847) a social psychologist has been credited with inventing the term action research (Dash, 1999; Mills, 2007; Somekh & Zeichner, 2009). Somekh and Zeichner (2009) write “Lewin’s vision of action research was an alternative to the norms of decontextualized research” (p. 7). Thus, for Lewin, (as cited in Somekh & Zeichner, 2009) “the purpose of action research was to involve participants in a cyclical process of fact finding, planning, exploratory action and evaluation to improve social formations” (p.9). In this situation, I was the teacher-researcher participating in the action; it was therefore not an isolated event and allowed for exploration of the pedagogical method and the response of both myself and my students to the intervention. McNiff and Whitehead (2006) consider action research to be a “form of enquiry that enables practitioners to investigate and evaluate their work” (p.7). It involves reflecting on one’s practice and asking the questions “What am I doing? What do I need to improve? How do I improve it?” (McNiff & Whitehead, 2006, p. 7). It is a form of professional learning that can present opportunities to collect data that can be interpreted for reflection. In this case, the use of action research would help me to forecast the ideas that formative assessment has been regulated for education through investigating its practical application in the context of the classroom. This practical action research is defined by Mills (2007) as one which places more emphasis on the “how-to” approach to processes of action research and is built on professional development, school improvement and reflection on practice. Kemmis (2009) describes action research as aiming to change three things: “the practitioners practice, their understandings of their practice and the conditions in which they practice” (p.463). He further states that these practices although bonded are unstable

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

211

and volatile but ultimately lead to change through their association (p. 463).

Action Research Framework In this investigation I used an action reflection cycle proposed by Kemmis & McTaggart, as cited in Hopkins, (2002) to investigate the practical application of formative assessment. The components of the cycle are shown in Table 7-3. Table 7-3 Stages of the Action-reflection cycle (proposed by Kemmis & McTaggart, as cited in Hopkins, 2002) Stages

Description

Plan

Development of lesson plans with questions and activities

Act

Implementing the plan (what the teacher and students do)

Observe

Observations written as field notes, in a journal

Reflect

Deep thinking/metacognition of teacher to create revised plans for successive lessons

These stages are part of a recursive process in the following order: PlanÆActÆObserveÆReflectÆRevised PlanÆActÆObserveÆReflect ÆRevised Plan. This cyclic design facilitated the progressive nature of this study as revisions could be made throughout the process. It allowed me to be reflective in real time on the methods which I engaged in during the action of implementing formative assessment using questioning and oral feedback.

Description of Participants The research participants were all girls between the ages 15-16 in the second term of first year 4th Form Biology. The subject profile for these students showed 50% pursuing one or two additional science subjects including Biology, whereas for others Biology represented their only science subject. At the end of term one, the maximum score attained in Biology was 85% and the minimum 43%. There were 30% of students performing above 70%, 55% between the range of 50-64% and 15% performing below 50%. All 20 students formed the participants in the

212

Chapter Seven

study and were exposed to the same treatments; however, data were only collected and evaluated from a sample of students.

Sample Selection Eight students were selected for the study by utilizing grades obtained over a four month period inclusive of coursework and one end of term examination mark. Average marks for these summative assessments were obtained and converted into a percentage for all students. Based on these percentages, students were ranked into the 25th, 50th and 75th percentile using SPSS statistical software. Students with grades below the 25th percentile were also included. This permitted the sample to have students with a range of scores and remove any bias from the sample selection process. Two students were randomly selected from each percentile.

Data Collection Data were collected using student journal entry forms with seven openended questions and a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire comprising five questions on peer-feedback during instruction. Additional data were gathered from observations of video- and audio-tapes of each classroom lesson.

Description of Unit and Lesson Plans The lessons were based on seven objectives outlined under the unit Nutrition in Man within Section B of the CSEC Biology Syllabus May/June, 2004. A total of 12 lessons were planned and each lesson included pre-planned questions and other embedded assessment techniques which were used to stimulate questions and give feedback. This included the use of formative techniques suggested by Keeley (2008) and Furtak (2009) for example “scientific terminology inventory probes”, “justified true and false statements”, “multiple choice” and predictobserve-explain probes. Each lesson contained a mixture of convergent and divergent questions.

Analysis The data obtained from students’ journals were inductively analyzed using a qualitative coding technique proposed by Strauss and Corbin (1990) for grounded theory research. This was used to explain the

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

213

perceptions of the participants. I used open coding recommended by Gooding (1999) which breaks down data into distinct units by analyzing text line by line to find words or phrases which connect the informants account to the experience under investigation. This process involved reading and re-reading the data during which abbreviated codes of no more than two or three letters were used and a key was created to identify the meaning of each code. Once open codes were created and the data exhausted axial coding was applied to explain the relationships found in the data. This involved creating core categories or themes that emerged from the data within which open codes could be subsumed. For the peerfeedback questionnaire I used pre-assigned codes for each question in as shown in Table 7-4. Table 7-4 Pre-assigned codes for questions 1-6 and their meanings used in the questionnaire

Questionnaire number 1 2 3 4 5 6

Code CU DU CWI ST TDF CF

Meaning Clearer understanding Deeper understanding Correcting wrong ideas Stimulated thinking Think deeper/reflect Confidence in using information

I applied a quantitative approach by delineating a score of 1 to 5 to each option as follows: strongly agree – 1, agree – 2, neither agree nor disagree – 3, disagree – 4 and strongly disagree – 5. I then conducted a collective tally of all the submitted questionnaires and determined the modal value for each question which was displayed as a bar graph.

Limitations x The timeframe limited the scope of this study as it could not address all the different possibilities of formative assessment. x This study may not be generalized to all classrooms as it was a singlecase within a specific cultural context within one school. x The sample for this study was small and may not reflect the views of all student ideas.

214

Chapter Seven

x Student absenteeism and tardiness are issues that were likely to affect the study

Delimitations The study used a small sample that allowed for manageability of the data collected

Ethical Considerations In this study I sought permission from the Principal of Arbor High School who was informed about the nature, intent and purpose of this research. I provided each student in the study with a parental consent form to obtain informed consent which was signed and returned prior to commencing the action research. Throughout the research I maintained confidentiality of all the work and responses used by the participants. I removed the names from all documentation, and replaced it with two letter codes to retain anonymity. All the views of participants in this study was faithfully recorded and documented.

Findings Research question 1: What are student’s perceptions of questioning and feedback during the instruction process? In an interpretive examination of student journals I discovered there were three major themes emerging from students’ perceptions on questioning and feedback based on various lessons taught. This included (a) cognitive engagement, (b) affective outcomes and (c) fostering communication for learning. Each theme was generated based on codes as shown in Figure 7-1.

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology Fig.7-1 Emergent themes of student’s perceptions of questioning and feedback during instruction

215

216

Chapter Seven

Theme 1: Cognitive engagement This theme addressed student’s responses about thinking and learning throughout different lessons. Student’s expressed in different ways how their thinking was stimulated. I observed that students wrote entries reflecting the positive influences of each class on cognition. They believed instruction made them “think about” concepts in the lesson; “enabled them”, “to learn to explain”; or gave them “a better understanding”. The following illustrates this: SA: “It helped me to understand why vitamins is needed in the body in order to help facilitate body functions” (L2) BJ: “It helped stimulate my thinking because I began to wonder about the teeth I use for different foods and why” (L8) RW: “I thought about how the molecules would actually look when in

the process of bonding with each other” (L7)

Theme 2: Affective outcomes All participants wrote statements or words which reflected their attitude during various lessons. Students expressed that these lessons were “exciting”, “fun” and “interesting”. Others made reference to how they felt about my role in the classroom as one student wrote “Today’s class was just amazing as usual because our teacher ensures that we understand everything and makes sure the class is lively” (SG, L1). There were other students whose responses provided deeper insight based on the connections and realizations they were making while learning science through questioning and feedback: CK: “Miss asked us a question today and I think this question taught me that I need to think deeper than the facts that I am presented with. I need to be more curious and think out of the box” (L2). SA: “It was great and I came in feeling confused but afterwards my thinking was somehow transformed and ready to go!”(L12). Students also made personal connections to real life experiences as they were learning, for example one student reflected during a lesson on nutrition and pregnancy: SG: “It explained why my aunt’s teeth [was] in that horrible state after making her baby” (L6).

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

217

RW: “I want to know more about the body in terms of its functions during pregnancy in order to be a good mother in the future” (L6).

Theme 3: Fostering Communication for learning I felt this theme captured the interaction between both the teacher and students and among students. All students in the sample clearly articulated that discourse between each other through classroom discussions and group work in different lessons was a valuable experience. Students perceived that communication with their peers helped them to “pick up on things”, helped clarify”, “compare their thinking with others” which helped them to learn. Analysis of peer feedback questionnaire The quantitative analysis of students’ responses to each of the coded questions are represented in Figure 7-2.

No. of students

Fig.7-2 Frequency of responses for peer feedback questionnaire 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree

CU 0 0

DU 0 0

CWI 0 0

ST 0 0

TDF 0 0

CF 0 0

3.0

0

1.0

4

3.0

3.0

5.0 0

8 0

6 1.0

4 0

5.0 0

5.0 0

218

Chapter Seven

This questionnaire showed all students in the sample agreed that peer feedback provided deeper understanding of what was being taught. 75% of students in the sample agreed that peers helped to correct wrong ideas, there was one student strongly agreeing with this and one student who neither agreed nor disagreed. 62% of students felt their peers facilitated understanding, deeper thinking/reflection and confidence in using information; whilst 38% of students neither agreed nor disagreed. 50% of students agreed that peers stimulated their thinking. Students also described the influence of the teachers’ communication with them during instruction. They felt that the teacher was part of their learning. They perceived my feedback in the classroom as “helping them to understand”, “helping in thinking”, “providing further explanations” and “clearing [up] misconceptions or wrong ideas”. There were students who also felt that questioning helped them to understand. The following examples reflect these ideas: CK: “Miss plays an important role in my learning because she further explains the topic and then [the] questions she asks tests my understanding of the topic” (L2) LC: “It helped me to get a clearer understanding of what was said in class since Miss Phillip explained and connected what was said” (L1)

Research question 2: What are my perceptions of the infusion of formative assessment through questioning and feedback as a classroom practice? I used my reflections from journal entries at the end of each lesson and my videotaped sessions to provide data for this question. I derived five major themes (a) implementation challenges, (b) multidirectional communication, (c) teacher transformation, (d) change in classroom culture and (e) instructional transparency and their associated meanings as illustrated in Figure 7-3.

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology Fig.7-3 Emergent themes of my perceptions of formative assessment using questioning and feedback during instruction

219

220

Chapter Seven

Theme 1: Implementation challenges I believe this theme was significant as it showcased the difficulties I encountered in making questioning and feedback a seamless part of instruction. One challenge I faced during the initial implementation of this formative assessment strategy was my inability to manage class time efficiently. This occurred because the process required time to wait for students to answer a question either posed by myself or by their peers and the time taken to listen and evaluate responses in order to provide the relevant feedback to assist students in learning. Consequently, I would find myself in a position where I was unable to complete my planned lesson in its entirety and engage all students in the process. In these sessions, I would often find myself hastening to complete a lesson by reverting to didactic teaching. The following journal excerpt showing evidence of this initial problem: “I find that in questioning and clarifying it takes time as students would voice their ideas and then I would have to address those, which is what happened today. I find I may neglect students in class; I don’t get to all students to ask them their ideas (J3, 3/03). I don’t think I addressed all students’ ideas fully, as I may have focused on a few students that were more vocal” (J1; 28/02)

In addition to which, what transpired in the classroom when I attempted to respond to multiple ideas was quite a disjoint unstable environment which was unfocused at times, as I wrote “I felt that the lesson was scattered at certain points, because of the varying responses that students gave which pulled me in different directions” (J3, 3/03). Another challenge that I experienced was improving the type of feedback I was providing in the classroom. I had difficulties determining what type of feedback would be most effective to ensure learning was being promoted during classroom dialogue as sometimes I felt I did not effectively address students’ ideas. Thus, I needed to be very conscious and critical of the feedback I was giving to students as I attempted to respond to their questions, correct misconceptions and elaborate on their responses. It was an area of formative assessment that I realized I needed to develop and work hard at. As I charted my transitions in this essential component of instruction, I realized even though my feedback sometimes involved extended explanations, I did not probe students as much I should have to challenge them to think further. I reflected on this in the following entry:

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

221

“I spoke too much in class…..I would often find myself going into very lengthy explanations about a question that a student asked. I need to let students think more” (J2, 1/03.

Another significant challenge in this study was with this new form of instruction students were initially uncomfortable as this was not the teaching method they were accustomed to. I was no longer the “sage on the stage”, my new role was a facilitator, with the focus being primarily on the students. Hence it required students to be more autonomous in the learning experience through active participation in each lesson. As a result students needed time to adjustment to this new form of pedagogy I was using for the first time. Therefore, in the first few lessons I had to explain that this was a non-threatening environment, where everyone should feel comfortable and free to answer questions and make comments. I also needed to encourage students to think, as they were still in the mind-set that I would provide the answers they needed to solve a problem, rather than doing it on their own. This was reflected in my journal entries where I commented: Observing my students today showed that they were a bit uneasy with this new classroom pedagogy, as it is not an environment they are accustomed to in Biology. I had to encourage students to be vocal; I had to give them assurances that this was a learning experience which would be beneficial to them (J1, 28/03). “I think that some students are still not attuned with the feedback process, they simply want answers and they are finding it uncomfortable, challenging or even burdensome to think…” (J3, 3/03).

Theme 2: Multi-directional communication I used this theme because to me it aptly signified the complexity in exchange of information between myself and my students as we engaged in assessment for learning. I felt that during instruction there were conversations that could not be regarded as one-way only. Through questioning and feedback there was discourse generated among all participants that could only be described a multi-directional flow. My questions stimulated students thinking which led to students formulating answers, to which I gave feedback and students giving feedback to their peers. This resulted in multiple conversations between one individual and another or one individual within a group. Hence, communication during instruction was not an isolated event between me and students. The following journal excerpts attest to these instances of communication:

222

Chapter Seven “It sparked a lively discussion between students and between me and students” (J3, 3/03). “I observed feedback between peers, for example as I passed, one student was saying to the other “incisors crush the food” to which the other student responded “I don’t think so, the incisors cut the food”, at this point responded and confirmed” (J8, 28/03). “I felt that today there was a good balance of feedback between T-S and feedback, that really gave more fluidity to the classroom experience” (J9, 29/03).

Theme 3: Teacher transformation The implementation of formative assessment required me make changes and adjustments in my approaches to instruction. The reflection in action and on action that I documented in my journals showed me changes I needed to make in my thinking about what I wanted students to learn as I was conducting and planning for these lessons. I had to revise my questioning techniques and my feedback during instruction whilst understanding my purpose in this new classroom environment. I had to make a conscious effort to transition from lecturer, or as I wrote “role of informant” (J1, 28/02) to guide. I had to give students the opportunity to think, discover things for themselves and in turn share their ideas. Hence, as I developed through the action reflection cycle I realized I had to make a complete adjustment to my usual routine and I could not simply make formative assessment a simple attachment. My transformation can be visualized into two phases: (a) my earlier reflections and (b) the adjustments I made. My earlier reflections are illustrated in the excerpt below: "I felt the need to teach the students, to talk more and I think that this is an idea that I need to work on. I need to gradually remove myself from the role of informant to one where I guide the students into their learning, let them think for themselves" (J1, 28/03) I feel that I am not yet confident in this role as a tour guide, I am accustomed to being the domineering person in the class, and not really taking a significant step back to allow students independence in learning and discussing things" (J2, 1/03) "I think I am still conditioned to look for that correct answer instead of listening closely to what students say and being attentive to how they explain and present their ideas" (J3, 3/03)

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

223

I revisited these prior thoughts to find a better procedure of formulating lessons and finding out the role I needed to take in the classroom. I began to plan my new lessons by restructuring questions, focusing on students’ responses, providing more effective feedback and probing students’ ideas. After I attempted to integrate these changes in various lessons, my journal entries began to take a different tone as shown in the excerpts below: "I asked students to give me feedback on their ideas, and then this was evaluated within the class and further feedback given..." (J8, 28/03). "I felt that teaching was more fluid, and less of a struggle to create an environment of feedback. I think because the ideas were clear in my mind, I was able to articulate and manage the class in a more cohesive way" (J9, 29/03). "I experienced a connection with students and how they were approaching the concepts and problems presented" (J10, 31/03).

Theme 4: Instructional transparency In my journal entries I would frequently mention that I needed to be clear about what I wanted to do and achieve in each lesson. I felt the reality of executing formative assessment through questioning and feedback was a complex process. During teaching as questions moved from planned and unplanned the lesson had the potential to become unfocused, due to ideas which were unrelated to the lesson. For example as I executed my first few lessons, I was pulled in many different directions during the assessment conversation that at times I lost sight of the specific lesson objectives/goals, as I wrote in my second journal entry: “This content was not part of the objectives of the class, or this particular unit, so I think I wasted time in discussing the classification of foods which drew me into other areas, which were not linked to the lesson” (J2, 1/03). “In future lessons I need to ensure that my goals are clear and I do not stray from the objectives to ensure that my feedback is focused” (J2)

Although such divergence would have helped some students to clarify their ideas at times it was discordant with the actual lesson. Thus, I needed to be better attuned at making the necessary on-the-spot adjustments by developing a strategy of how best to execute instruction to ensure lessons

224

Chapter Seven

(a) flowed well, (b) incorporated the assessment conversation and (c) achieved the stated goals. This required me to continually assess the relevancy of the assessment conversation to the task at hand and make appropriate decisions. Another aspect of instructional transparency was the need to ensure that students knew why they were engaged in certain activities. If students were confused by what they were doing it made it difficult to actually have fruitful discussions; students needed to not only be aware of the objectives of the lesson, but to understand how they would be achieving these objectives. I alluded to this in the following journal entry: “For the next lesson I want to make sure that my activity is clear and that I plan it to flow smoothly; I think that sometimes there are students’ who are confused as to what they have to do” (J5).

Hence, through consistent revisions in my action-reflection cycle I gained the clarity I was seeking to adequately manage the complex questioning/feedback environment as I wrote in a later entry: “I think because the ideas of the class was very clear to me and the outcome I wanted was clear in my mind I was able to articulate and manage the lesson in a more cohesive way” (J9).

Theme 5: Change in classroom culture This theme was developed to capture, the transformation that occurred between myself and students and between students. I observed that the interactive nature of the teaching/learning environment stimulated through questioning and feedback provided a platform that encouraged thinking and learning among students. I came to these conclusions as I wrote: "I think this exchange created an atmosphere of autonomous learning since students were responsible for determining the extent of their knowledge...." (L1) "It stimulated thinking among students as I hoped it would..."(L2)

Students gave voice to their thoughts; and I could now understand in what specific way students needed assistance, be it to close gaps, to confirm ideas, or even correct misconceptions as I stated

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

225

"I felt that there was learning going on in the minds of students by this display of processing of information, not simply learning facts, students were able to relate the idea of......" (L6).

During this process I realized I could identify students who were still confused or unsure at the end of a lesson, as shown by the following responses: KS: “…but I would just like if it is a bit more cleared to me if it is that every meal has a certain amount of calories….” (L4) SG: “It was confusing how we had molars and premolars which seemed to do the same thing and also it was difficult to differentiate between them” (L9)

There was a change in the way students were responding in the classroom, as they became more involved in the learning experience, rather than relying on me for all the answers. At the start of the implementation of formative assessment students were cautious and timid about what was happening, however, as the classes progressed and students became more comfortable with the new teaching strategy they became more involved in learning. I believe students were making links to real life and becoming more aware of themselves as learners as I wrote: "I felt that students wanted to learn and wanted to play a major part in bringing forward their ideas" (L9). "I knew that students were also involved in the learning process, they were thinking and making connections like they have never done before." (L10).

This was evident as students began making judgments and thought about what they were learning, and as a result they also began to formulate their own questions, evaluate the answers of their peers and gave their own feedback. A voice was given to their thoughts, through these assessment conversations. There was more engagement of students as they showed a willingness to learn compared to the previous class structure. This is evident in the conversation which occurred in the following lesson: T: Now the substances we are looking at to do this job of digestion would be enzymes. Somebody told me they know what enzymes are? S: Miss I have an idea. It’s something that umm speeds up chemical reactions. T: Very good, so an enzyme is a substance that speeds up chemical reactions.

226

Chapter Seven T: You wanted to add something (said to another student) S: It’s a stimulator. T: Stimulator meaning what? Explain that to me… S: It starts the reaction; it helps the reaction to go along

Discussion The support for formative assessment as a classroom practice is based on the premise that it promotes learning which in turn raises the level of achievement amongst students. However, Dunn and Mulvenon (2009) argue that there is still a need for “sound validated frameworks for best practices in formative assessment” (p.9). Hence, this study was used to fill gaps in research by adding to the ecological validity of formative assessment practices in the context of a real classroom setting. There were several transformations that occurred throughout this study which I represented through various themes. The results showed a series of positive themes emerging from students’ perception of formative assessment. In their journal entries students repeatedly stated their thinking was being stimulated. The cognitive engagement theme therefore evolved from common phrases such as “I realized that…”, “I thought about...”, “I learnt to explain…”, “I began to wonder…” which to me supported the mental processing occurring in students during instruction. I think this was a significant outcome as it showed students’ may have been taking a deep rather than surface approach to learning. According to cognitive theorists better learning of science occurs when people recognize what they know and decide what they need to learn (National Research Council, as cited in Lee & Abell, 2007). I believe though questioning and feedback students were forced to think in order to formulate an answer and was thus engaged in learning. As students became more involved in learning, their behaviour and attitude changed which led to the theme affective outcomes. It was evident from student responses such as I can now be able to…” or “I can help myself…”and indirectly by responses that included “I am confident….”, “I was now able to know ...” and “I am now more accurate in certain areas…..” that students self-efficacy was being developed. Harlen (2006) relates self-efficacy to how capable the learner feels of succeeding in a particular task or type of task, which Anderson and Bourke (as cited in Harlen, 2006) write is characterized by “I can” versus “I can’t” (p. 35). The students’ perceived the classes to be “interesting”, “effective” and “fun” which according to Harlen (2006) express a motivation for learning. This author believes “learners may be motivated to undertake a task because of enjoyment in the process and the satisfaction in the knowledge

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

227

or skills that result” (p. 63). Additionally, Pintrich, Marx and Boyle (as cited in Yue, Richard, Ayala, Carlos, Araceli Ruiz-Primo, Brandon, Furtak and Tomita, 2008, p. 338) state motivational beliefs of students can influence conceptual change. Conceptual change is defined by Yue et al. (2008) as the change in conceptions that influence how students come to understand what they are taught (p. 337). The affective outcomes theme showed students were encouraged to increase their understanding of what they were learning. This seemed to have a positive effect on their selfperception, as some students were more cognizant of themselves as learners having a responsibility to think and process information. I believe the communication fostered during classroom instruction formed the underlying foundation for other emerging themes. Analysis of the data showed students perceived communication between the teacher and the student and between students as important to their learning. Clarke (2010) writes an important feature of the formative assessment process is “effective dialogue among the central participants – the students” (p. 347) which was similar to the finding of this study. I discovered there were converging ideas related to the student’s opinions about the type of support their peers and I provided in the classroom. This included clarifying ideas, correcting wrong ideas, explaining and helping them to understand. Azmita (1988) states “peer interaction” can foster cognitive development by allowing children to acquire new skills and restructure their ideas through discussion” (p. 87). No longer were students passive recipients of knowledge, but were part of a process in which they valued communication from the teacher and their peers as part of their learning. Although Cowrie (2005) reports in a formative assessment study that students had a stronger view that their peers provided more help than the teacher. This was not an outcome of this action research, as students seemed to present an equal amount of onus on me and their peers in supporting their learning. I believe the communication that was ultimately fostered through assessment for learning was a multi-directional process, as it related to the complexity of science conversation that ensued. I created the model in Figure 7-4 to represent my interpretation of this complexity in communication which was occurring during questioning and feedback to facilitate formative assessment.

228

Chapter Seven

Fig.7-4 An illustration of my interpretation of the complexity of communication using questioning and feedback as a formative assessment strategy

It is evident from Figure 7-4 that an “assessment conversation” was occurring wherein information was circulated between the teacher and students and among students. These interactions were essential to close gaps in learning, correct misconceptions and alleviate confusion. I used the term multidirectional to describe the differences in movement of dialogue occurring; although responses where directed to me initially, the feedback I gave then stimulated students to ask their own questions and provide feedback to each other. Therefore, it showed that I was not the only person that students were looking to, to assist in their learning. Though this created a complex web of communication, the outcome was my cognizance of what students knew and understood at the end of the lesson. Due to this type of communication the students were leaving the classroom with new knowledge, but also a deeper understanding and insight into what was learnt. These finding support the views of sociocultural learning purported by (Vygotsky, 1978) and cognition as “mediated actions” posited by Wertsch (as cited in Bell and Cowrie, 2001). Using these ideas, James (2006)

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

229

defines “learning as a social and collaborative activity in which people develop their thinking together” (p. 57). According to Vygotsky “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter psychological) and then inside the child (intra psychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals” (1978, p.57) Questioning and feedback served as catalysts in promoting the communicative atmosphere of the classroom, which led to students’ cognitive engagement. Bell (2000) states formative assessment is a discursive activity in which teachers and students are using language to construct meanings, to give feedback and suggest possible actions to improve learning. A discursive approach to learning enables three aspects of mind: cognition, affect and conation which are a result of social interaction (Bell & Cowrie, 2001). Assessment for learning created a very supportive and interactive classroom culture that helped my students to be more vocal, and encouraged many less involved students to voice their ideas. Therefore, in this study, communication was a “robust phenomena” (Damon, 1984, as cited in Clarke, 2010), it showed there was a dynamic relationship between both students and I that led to learning as students made sense of what was being taught. The science dialogue that was created through questioning and feedback was an essential component as it moved students beyond the passivity of a didactic classroom. This generated the theme change in classroom culture. Sadler (1998) posits “substantial modification to the learning environment through changes to regular classroom practice involves turning the learning culture around” (p. 77). My classroom was different, with formative assessment. It transformed because there was active learning occurring, there was more participation, and my purpose in the classroom changed since I was not disseminating information for students to learn. In this new atmosphere I had a true grasp of understanding of my students and I could now guide them towards better thinking and learning of science. According to Biggs (1996), teaching changes from “learning-as-eating” where students ‘absorb’ information, to teaching which “helps students to construct understandings” (p. 7). Popham (2008) claims when formative assessment is practiced the classroom culture shifts from a traditional to a more modern assessmentinformed climate. The author regards these shifts in three key dimensions: learning expectations, responsibility for learning and role of classroom assessment (p. 99).

230

Chapter Seven

In this type of classroom climate there are learning expectations for all students; students assume responsibility for their own learning and the learning of classmates and assessment generates data for informing adjustments to the teacher instruction and learning tactics (p. 88). I believe these changes were happening in the classroom, as both my students and I got more accustomed to this new type of explicit instruction. However, this change did not occur without challenges. Initially, students were a bit hesitant, but not overtly resistant to this new method of pedagogy. This was consistent with the views of Black and Wiliam (1998b) who state “some pupils will resist attempts to change accustomed routines for any change is uncomfortable, and emphasis on the challenge to think for yourself can be threatening too many” (p. 144). I needed to encourage students to be part of the process, and assure them it would be a beneficial experience, this took some time, but students were able to make the necessary adjustments. I also struggled in the beginning to find my niche in the classroom. Duschl and Gotimer (1997) write “re-conceptualizing the relation between assessment and instruction is a major hurdle” (p. 65). Perrenoud (as cited in Black & Wiliam, 2006) state “every teacher who wants to practice formative assessment must reconstruct the teaching contract so as to counteract the habits acquired by his pupils” (p. 18). I was now involved in a different form of instruction where, I had to learn how to construct better questions, be an avid listener and find meaning, relationships, logic in what students were saying to provide effective feedback. Such difficulties encountered by teachers has also been documented by Black and Wiliam (2006) who state “…teachers who practice formative assessment realized more effort was required for framing questions to evoke and explore students’ understanding, they had to listen carefully to students and formulate meaningful responses, which required radical change in teaching style for many teachers” (p. 14).

I had to find clarity in what I was doing, that clarity stemmed from being able to see beyond just the objectives of the lesson, to a thorough visualization of my role, students’ role and my purpose in different aspects of the lesson. Even with meticulous planning I was not prepared for the kind of interaction which would occur in the classroom, as it was impossible to predict student responses and their alternate conceptions. My first few lessons showed at times my unconscious switch to lecturing students and I had to make a conscious effort to repress didactic teaching. However, as I moved from one lesson to another and I learned new things

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

231

through the action reflection cycle which allowed me to make the necessary adjustments to create a more seamless type of instruction, that transformed my ideas of teaching and learning.

Conclusion I believe this action research was insightful as it provided me with the knowledge of how to make assessment meaningful to both myself and students. It was a promising journey of self-discovery for me as a practitioner of science education. I am even more conscious for meaningful learning to occur, pedagogy must move beyond teaching to the test and students must be challenged to think. In this study it was evident that students took a deep interest in what they were learning, they were more motivated, cognitively stimulated and were engaging in a process for learning, through social interaction. Though formative assessment can result in positive changes in the classroom that will beneficial both teachers and students, it is not a “quick fix” (Black and Wiliam, 1998a) and neither is it a clear-cut or simple process to implement. Black and Wiliam (1998b) propose that teachers should ask the question “Do I really know enough about the understanding of my pupils to be able to help each of them?” (p. 144). Although I did not have the answer to this question upon commencing this study, using the action reflection cycle helped me to gain this understanding, which was critical in driving the formative assessment process. This study provides practical knowledge for the actualization of the process of formative assessment as a classroom practice. It is a process by which teachers can become more competent in creating classroom discourse that leads to learning as it can be instrumental in informing one’s approaches to instruction in the classroom. I believe this style of pedagogy is required if constructivist learning environments are to be achieved and sustained. This action research showed formative assessment as a dynamic process using questioning and feedback which created opportunities for all students to learn though interaction with myself and their peers. However, for this to be accomplished the classroom must be envisaged as a mosaic in its variability and complexity and adopting any form of formative assessment may require critical changes to beliefs about learning. Teachers have to revisit ‘conventional’ approaches to instruction to determine whether assessments facilities used provide rich informative and transformative data for the progress of their students.

232

Chapter Seven

Implications In order create the positive and progressive learning environment through assessments that are formative, there needs to be a change in classroom culture, and also the philosophy of teaching and learning. This study showed there is a lot to be gained if assessment is conducted explicitly; it can be used to change practices that can lead to more advantageous outcomes for both students and teachers. Therefore, x I believe formative assessment should ideally involve collaboration among science teachers given the complexity of the process as every classroom context is different. x There should be continued critical evaluation of the types of questions and feedback currently being used in classroom instruction. This is important in determining if teachers are assessing students for meaningful learning as opposed to traditional rote learning. This will form the basis for implementation as questioning and feedback is an incremental rather than clear-cut process requiring constant evaluation for improvement. x I suggest that this type of formative assessment be practiced with an expert through peer coaching or team teaching to achieve maximum results over time. x Further research is required that address deeper issues of the role of formative assessment in self-regulation and self-assessment in students.

References Almeida Albergaria, P. 2010. Questioning Patterns, questioning profiles and teaching strategies in secondary schools. The International Journal of Learning, 17(1), 587-600. Bell, B. 2000. Formative assessment and science education: a model and theorizing. In R. Millar, J. Leach, & J. Osborne, Improving science education: the contribution of research (pp. 49-59). Philadelphia: Open University Press. Bell, B., & Cowrie, B. 2001. Formative assessment in science education. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Bennett, E. R. 2011. Formative assessment: a critical review. Assessment in education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 18(1), 5-25. Bennett, R. E. 2010. Cognitively based assessment of, for, and as learning: A preliminary theory of action for summative and formative

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

233

assessment. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives, 8(2-3), 70-91. Biggs, J. 1996. Assessing learning quality: reconciling institutional, staff and educational demands. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 21(1), 5-15. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. 1998a. Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education:Principles, Policy and Practice, 5(1), 1-54. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. 2006. Assessment for learning in the classroom. In J. Gardner, Assessment and learning (pp. 9-25). London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. 2009. Developing a theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment Evaluation Accountability, 21, 531. Black, P., & William, D. 1998b. Inside the Black Box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139-148. Bloom, B. S., Madaus, G. F., & Hastings, J. T. 1971. Handbook on formative and summative evaluation of student learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Carless, D. R. 2007. Conceptualizing pre-emptive formative assessment. Assessment in Education, 14(2), 171-184. CERI. 2008. Learning in the 21st century: research, innovation and policy, assessment for learning formative assessment. OECD/CERI International Conference (pp. 1-24). Paris: OECD. Clarke, I. 2010. Formative assessment: "there is nothing practical as a good theory". Australian Journal of Education, 54(3), 341-352. Clarke, S. 2005. Formative assessment in action weaving the elements together. London: Hodder Murray. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. 2000. Research methods in education. London: Routledge Farmer, Taylor & Francis Group. Cowrie, B. 2005. Student views of assessment for learning. New Zealand Science Teacher(110), 15-17. Crooks, T. J. 2001. The validity of formative assessment. Leeds: British Educational Research Association. Daniel, P. M., Brewster, P., & Lynch, M. 2009. Secondary School Quality Review. Dash, D. P. (1999). Current debates in action research. Systematic Practice and Action Research, 12(5), 457-492. Dixon, M. 2009. Formative assessment practice, formative leadership practice, formative teaching practice, assessment of learning, assessment for learning, assessment as learning: what really works in

234

Chapter Seven

closing the achievement gap? New Zealand Principals' Federation, pp. 15-17. Dunn, K. E., & Mulvenon, S. W. 2009. A critical review of research on formative assessment: the limited scientific evidence of the impact of formative assessment in education. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 14(7), 1-11. Duschl, R. A., & Gotimer, D. H. 1997. Strategies and challenges to changing the focus of assessment and instruction in science classrooms. Education Assessment, 4(1), 37-73. Furtak, M. E. 2007. Formative assessment for secondary science teachers. California: Corwin. Gitomer, D. H., & Duschl, R. H. 1995. Learning science in schools: research reforming practice. In S. Glynn, & R. Duit, Moving towards a portfolio culture in science education (pp. 299-325). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Gooding, C. 1999. Grounded theory: some reflections on paradigm, procedures and misconceptions. A working series paper. Shropshire: University of Wolverhampton Business School. Hancock, D., & Algozzine, B. 2006. Doing case study research. A practical guide for beginning researchers. New York: Teachers College Press. Harlen, W. 2006. The role of assessment in developing motivation. In J. Gardner, Assessment and Learning (pp. 61-80). London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. 2007. The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112. Hertiage, M. 2010. Formative assessment: making it happen in the classroom. Califonia: Corwin. Kaftan, J. M., Buck, G. A., & Haack, A. 2006. Using formative assessments to individualize instruction and promote learning. Middle School Journal, 44-49. Keeley, P. 2008. Science Formative Assessment: 75 practical strategies for linking assessment, instruction and learning. California: Corwin Press. Kemmis, S., & Mc Taggart, R. 1988. The action research reader. Victoria: Deakin University Press. Killen, R. 2007. Effective teaching strategies. Victoria, AU: Cengage Learning. Klassen, S. 2006. Contextual assessment in science education: Background, issues, and policy. Science Education, 90(5), 820-851.

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

235

Kuze, M., & Almon, S. 2011. An investigation into formative assessment practices of teachers in selected schools in Fort Beaufort in South Africa. Journal of Social Science, 29(2), 159-170. Leahy, S., Christine, L., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 18-24. Lee, M. H., & Abell, S. K. (2007). Assessing for science learning. Science and Children(7), 66-67. Looney, J., & Poskitt, J. (n.d.). Embedding formative assessment in multiple policy initiatives. Retrieved February 20, 2011, from OECD: http://www.oecd.org/document/25/0,2340,en_2649_35845581_342596 73_1_1_1_1,00.html Mc Manus, S. 2008. Attributes of effective formative assessment. Retrieved 12 30, 2011, from Council of Chief State School Officers (CSSO): http://www.ccsso.org/Resources/Publications/Attributes_of_Effective_ Formative_Assessment.html Mc Millan, J. 2007. Classroom assessment principles and practices for effective standards-based instruction. Virginia: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. 2006. All you need to know about action research. An introduction. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Mills, G. 2007. Action research. A guide for the teacher researcher. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. Newton, P. E. 2007. Clarifying the purposes of educational assessment. Assessment in Education, 14(2), 149-170. Pintrich, P. R., Marz, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. 1993. Beyond conceptual change: the role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors on the process of conceptual change. Review of Educational Research, 63(2), 167-199. Popham, J. W. 2008. Transformative Assessment. Virginia: ASCD. Primo-Ruiz, M. A., & Furtak, E. M. 2006. Informal formative assessment and scientific inquiry. Exploring teachers' practices and student learning. Educational Assessment, 11(3&4), 205-235. Ramaprasad, A. 1983. On the definition of feedback. Behavioral Science, 28, 4-13. Roos, B., & Hamilton, D. 2005. Formative assessment: a cybernetic viewpoint. Assessment in Education, 12(1), 7-20. Sadler, R. D. 1998. Formative assessment: revisiting the territory. Assessment in Education, 5(1), 77-84.

236

Chapter Seven

Scriven, M. 1967. The methodology of evaluation. In R. Tyler, R. Gagne, & M. Scriven, Perspectives of curriculum evaluation (pp. 39-83). Chicago: Rand Mc Nally and Co. Shavelson, R. J. 2008. Guest editor's introduction. Applied Measurement in Education, 21(4), 293-294. Shavelson, R. J., Yin, Y., Furtak, E. M., Ruiz-Primo, M. A., Ayala, C. C., Young, D. B., Tomita, M.K., Brandon, P.R., & Prottenger III, F.M. 2008a. On the role and impact of formative assessment on science inquiry teaching and learning. In J. Coffey, R. Douglas, & C. Sterns, Assessing science learning: perspectives from research and practice (pp. 21-35). Arlington: NSTA Press. Shavelson, R. J., Young, D. B., Ayala, C. C., Brandon, P. R., Furtak, E. M., Ruiz-Primo, M. A. 2008b. On the impact of curriculum-embedded formative assessment on learning: a collaboration between curriculum and assessment developers. Applied Measurement in Education, 21(4), 295-314. Shepard, L. A. 2000. The role of assessment in a learning culture. Educational Researcher, 29(7), 4-14. Shute, V. J. 2008. Focus on Formative Feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153-189. Somekh, B., & Zeichner, K. 2009. Action research for educational reform: remodelling action research theories and practices in local contexts. Educational Action Researcher, 17(1), 5-21. Stiggins, R. J. 2006. Assessment for learning. A key to motivation and achievement. Phi Delta Kappa International, 2(2), 1-19. Strauss, A., & M, C. J. 1990. Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory, procedures and techniques. California: Sage. Taras, M. 2005. Assessment-summative and formative-some theoretical reflections. British Journal of Educational Studies, 53(4), 466-478. Vygotsky, L. 1978. Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wertsch, J. 1991. Voices of Mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wiliam, D., & Leahy, S. 2007. A theoretical foundation for formative assessment. In J. H. McMilian, Formative classroom assessment (2941). New York: Teachers College Columbia University. Wiliam, D., & Thompson, M. 2007. Integrating assessment with instructuon: what will it take to make it work? . In C. A. Dwyer, The future of assessment: shaping teaching and learning (53-82). New Jersery: Erlbaum.

Formative Assessment in a Unit of Biology

237

Wiliam, D., Lee, C., Harrison, C., & Black, P. 2004. Teachers developing assessment for learning: impact on student achievement. Assessement in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 11(1), 49-65. Winne, P. H., & Hadwin, A. F. 1998. Studying as self-regulated learning. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser, Metacognition in educational theory and practice, the educational psychology series (277-304). New Jersery: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates . Yan Yip, D. 2004. Questioning skills for conceptual change in science instruction. Journal of Biological Education, 38(2), 76-82. Yue, Y., Shavelson, R. J., Ayala, C. C., Araceli Ruiz-Primo, M., & Brandon, P. R. 2008. On the impact of formative assessment on student motivation, achievement and conceptual change. Applied measurement in education, 21, 335-359. Zahorik, J. A. 1971. Questioning in the classroom. Education, 91(4), 358363.

CHAPTER EIGHT INNOVATION TRANSFORMATION, COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY AND STUDENTS’ HOLISTIC DEVELOPMENT: STAKEHOLDERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF A 1:1 LAPTOP PROJECT IN TOBAGO DORIAN A. BARROW, BEULAR MITCHELL AND NICHOLE N. KENT

Education jurisdictions the world over are searching for more engaging tools that seek to have a sustained impact on school improvement, such as success in grade achievement, university and career readiness, and most importantly, 21st century skills development and empowerment. One-toOne (1:1) laptop innovations are becoming prevalent as the tool of choice in school improvement efforts across the North-South hemispheric divide in large, medium and small education systems. The term 1:1 refers to the ratio of digital devices per child so that each child is provided with a digital device, most often a laptop, to facilitate learning (Eugenio Severin and Christine Capota 2011). Though currently mostly in secondary school institutions, the 1:1 laptop innovation is increasingly becoming a tool used in primary, and even pre-school, institutions’ educational reform efforts to facilitate the holistic development of students. By students’ holistic or overall development we mean the extent to which the 1:1 laptop innovation was facilitating their personal, social and educational development. By personal development we mean, the extent to which the 1:1 laptop innovation was helping students to enhance such skills as time management, motivation, interest in the academic life of the school and the willingness to make personal sacrifices to achieve whatever goals they were setting for themselves. By social development we mean the extent to which the 1:1 laptop innovation was facilitating the

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of a 1:1 Laptop Project in Tobago

239

development of skills such as inter-personal and intra-personal communication and being able to work effectively as both leaders and members of teams or groups. These skills are important since they are valuable skills that are required in the 21st century workforce of T&T. By educational development we mean the extent to which the 1:1 laptop innovation was helping students to achieve mastery of the academic curriculum of the secondary education system in T&T, including satisfactory performances on the National Tests and on the Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) and Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE) high stakes examinations. Additionally, political directorates in these education jurisdictions, through Ministries, Departments, Divisions or Boards of Education, continuously want more positive indication of the return on their substantial financial investments. Generally, the rationales for implementing 1:1 laptop innovations are frequently clouded by short-term political goals, and, in some cases, by pressures from technology vendors. In this regard, the Inter-American Development Bank’s (IDB) observations are that the salient rationales and desired impact of 1:1 initiatives all fall into three main categories, namely, economic, social and political (IDB 2011 p.3). From an economic perspective the IDB argues that, technology is viewed as playing a salient role in both the production processes and the results that these processes yield. Through the introduction of effective laptop programmes, students can be better prepared to enter a technologysaturated workplace, maintaining a level of economic competitiveness. From a social perspective, laptops in schools are viewed as a way to help bridge social and digital divides. They have the potential to provide computer and Internet access to families and community members who would not otherwise have access. From an educational perspective, it is believed that laptops can facilitate new educational practices that are student-centred. They may also support the development of the new skills and abilities required in the 21st century. This notwithstanding, “research has been inconclusive with regards to the economic, social and educational impacts of 1:1 laptop programmes due to the short time-span, lack of appropriate evaluation methodologies, and lack of commitment to study impact, among other reasons” (IDB 2011 p. 4). According to the IDB, the manner by which 1:1 programmes have been designed, implemented, and evaluated are very diverse, therefore, viable means of evaluating an education innovation’s success, or failure, in transforming an education system is therefore becoming as important as the innovation itself. This is especially so since value for money has become a lynch-pin in the education reform movement.

240

Chapter Eight

Everett Rogers has developed one such evaluation system in which he classifies the process of innovation based on the intensity and involvement of the stakeholder. Using his now famous Innovation Transformation Continuum, Rogers label groups as “innovators, early adopters, early majority and late majority” (Rogers 2003, 37). He argues that when the last two stages are prevalent a society has undergone a transformative culture change. Considering the potential transformative nature of the 1:1 laptops in schools, education innovations and change researchers, including eminent ones such as Everett Rogers, suggest that any such true and lasting change does not occur until at least the early majority perpetuates the movement. Eight years ago, Jing Lei, Paul Conway and Young Zhao believed that in the US, the laptop movement was in the early adopters’ stage. They argued back then that with dropping prices, and better technology, the early majority stage would be quick to follow (Lei, Conway, and Zhao 2007). It didn’t! (Maxwell, Atwell, and Smith 2009). A related question relevant to this study would be: at what stage of the transformation process would the education system of Trinidad and Tobago be since the country joined the 1:1 laptop movement in 2010? Within the context of this study, a comparison was made across three key stakeholder groups of the Tobago Education District, one of the eight education districts of the twin island Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. This was done because of the deep-seated belief the researchers had about there being no silver bullet in education; and that in this sense, technology is no different from other learning interventions. To achieve educational, social and economic progress, factors other than the sole distribution of laptops must be considered. The study, therefore aimed at discovering the stakeholders’ perceptions of the amount of use of the 1:1 laptop within the context of the secondary school’s curriculum. It also aimed at examining the overall impact the 1:1 laptop innovation has had on the culture of secondary schooling in this education district. In this context, education theory and systems theory suggest that education can be defined as comprising of four elements viz. the teacher, the student, the curriculum and the context (Frick 2000). An education system, on the other hand, comprises of the six interactions among the four elements as is illustrated in Figure 8-1. The six interaction systems include: teacher-student, teacher-content, teacher-context, student-content, student-context and content-context relationships. Furthermore, since any education system is embedded in a larger community, there is a seventh interaction system, that is, systemcommunity relationship. This seventh relationship is significant in understanding how any technology can transform an education system.

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of a 1:1 Laptop Project in Tobago

241

Fig.8-1 Frick’s (2000) Systems Theory Model of Education

TEACHER

STUDENT

CONTEXT

CONTENT

In this paper, when we talk about technology transforming an education system, we mean how the technology impacts the relationships that comprise the education system. For example, how has the 1:1 laptop technology changed the way how teachers and students interact, or how teachers deliver the curriculum, or how teachers view schools (context)? Do teachers, for example, spend more time with students via the internet? Do the 1:1 laptop computers provide students with more opportunity to become engaged in self-directed learning? In this study we explored how the 1:1 laptop innovation in the Tobago Education District affected these relationships. This study also aimed to inform further programme planning: the response given by each stakeholder group was mapped to Everett Rogers’ Innovation Transformation Continuum scale, to obtain some insights relative to where are Tobago’s secondary schools in the adoption of the 1:1 laptop innovation as part of the culture of teaching and learning (Rogers 2003). The overarching question guiding the study was: How useful has the 1:1 laptop innovation been to students’ overall educational development, that is, how has the innovation affected the student-teacher, student-content, and student-context relations in the nine secondary schools in the Tobago Education District? In essence, the study investigated the perceptions of high school students, their parents and teachers, concerning the overall success, level of implementation, degree and frequency of use with the distributed 1:1 laptops in the Education District of Tobago. This laptop innovation was launched by the Ministry of Education (T&T) in 2010 and has been running uninterrupted for five years. In this methodological triangulation study (Morse 1991andDenzin 2006) a sample of three key stakeholder groups–Parents, Teachers and Students – from all nine secondary schools in the Tobago Education District were surveyed to get their perceptions of

242

Chapter Eight

where Tobago’s secondary schools were, in the adoption of the 1:1 laptop innovation as part of the culture of teaching and learning in the schools. In methodological triangulation the key issue is whether the theory that drives the research is developed inductively from the research per se or used deductively as in quantitative inquiry (Morse 1991). The survey which was of the latter mode, therefore also sought to determine the stakeholders’ perceptions of the time spent with the use of the laptops in doing school work across all the core curriculum areas of the secondary school. Answers to these questions were critical for evaluating the success, or otherwise, of the innovation. We are always mindful there are a vast number of variables to measure quantitatively, and to analyse qualitatively, when considering whether an education innovation has achieved success, and the 1:1 laptop project in Tobago is no exception. The Ministry of Education of Trinidad and Tobago (MOE), as well as the Tobago House of Assembly (THA), must hear from all its constituencies in order to make informed decisions based on sound data streams. Elsewhere, there have been studies that report laptops could be one variable that increases student achievement and motivation (Gulek and Demirtas 2005), and change in interest in their work and in students working more collaboratively (Russel, Babell, and Higgins 2004). There has also been research carried out on the instructional obstacles that must be overcome for a 1:1 laptop environment to be successful (Greenhow, Robella, and Hughes 2009, and Hew and Brush 2007). The quantitative component of this survey therefore limited the independent variables to the three stakeholders, viz. parent, student, and teacher, and the number of hours of laptop use. However, the dependent variables were: x Student, teacher and parent perceptions of how much time was spent using the laptops in class. x Teacher, student and parent perceptions about how laptops affected the secondary schooling culture in the Tobago Education District including perceptions of the usefulness of the 1:1 laptop innovation to students’ educational development. This study, therefore, also sought to gauge qualitatively the perceptions across key stakeholder groups concerning the value, effectiveness, and use of the 1:1 laptops in a classroom environment. Parents were asked, based on their observations, to state the uses of the laptop in the home, degree and level of use by their children and overall perceptions of the programme as an available resource offered by the MOE. Students were

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of a 1:1 Laptop Project in Tobago

243

asked to what degree the laptop was used in such areas as challenging their creative thinking, their frequency of use and for what purposes, and their level of use for communication and collaboration. Additionally, teachers were asked to assess their instruction as a result of the laptop resource available in the classroom, including their ability to incorporate it to engage higher order thinking. Finally, these stakeholders all came from one of the eight education districts of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the Tobago Education District. This is an education district with many unique features (CraigJames 2008). We must therefore be careful when attempting to generalize to the education system of T&T from the Tobago data alone. Some of the unique features of the Tobago Education District are presented in the next section.

Context and Community Frick’s (2000) systems theory model of education points to the saliency of the relationships between student, teacher, content, context and community in defining an organic, functional education system. According to Frick, students and teachers are embedded in schools (context), and schools and parents in turn are nested in communities. The subjects (students, teachers and parents) of this study are from the Tobago Education District where the 1:1 laptop innovation has been in existence since 2010. Tobago is one of two islands making up the small island state of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. At the last census (Census 2011) the Republic had a population of just over 1.3 million people. The country is described as a plural society in which Its East Indian and African populations compete to control the public institutions - the education, economic, legal and political systems – of the country (Smith 1991).In Trinidad, the larger and wealthier of the two islands, the Indian- and African-Trinidadians each comprise about 40% of the population, whereas in Tobago the East Indian constitute only 3.5% of the Islands’ 65,000 people. The population of Tobago is therefore predominantly (95%) descendants of former African –slaves (Craig-James 2008). Tobago existed as a separate colony with its own institutions, including a rudimentary education system, up until 1898, when because of economic expediency it was made a ward of Trinidad. Tobago, therefore, had been fully administered from Port of Spain, the capital of Trinidad and the metonymy for political power, until 1976, when Tobago was given semiautonomy under a Tobago House of Assembly with a Secretary of Education (Luke2007). The Tobago Education District comprises of nine

244

Chapter Eight

secondary schools that are distributed all over the island’s 350 square miles of land space. Three of the schools are in the East of the Island, one in the West, four in the island’s capital, Scarborough and one in the more rural central region. When students are assigned to secondary schools, the criteria are based on students’ first choice school, their Secondary Education Assessment (SEA) test score, and their resident location. So sampling parents through schools provides a modest representational sample of the adult population of the island. Of the eight education districts comprising the education system of the Republic, the Tobago Education District is ranked 7th in Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC), Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE) and the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA) tests scores (Ministry of Education Annual Report 2013). The education district is considered to be lagging behind the Trinidad schools in the secondary schools’ modernization reform efforts (personal conversations with Dr. V. Bob-Lewis, Division of Education, Tobago). The 1:1 laptop innovation was launched in all eight education districts in September of 2010. Every student, on entering the secondary education system, was given a laptop over the past five years. By September 2014, all students currently enrolled in the secondary schools of Trinidad and Tobago had received a laptop under this project, and it is estimated that almost 100,000 laptops were handed out to students and teachers during this period. During the early stages of the project, the MOE had established a project management unit with terms of reference that included wide powers to communicate on, monitor and assess this innovation on a continuous basis. This was in recognition of the fact that 1:1 computing innovation raised questions for those incorporating the innovation into school-based approaches to new millennium learning (Muir, Owen, Christensen, Knezek, Gibson, Albion, Soloway and Norris 2006). According to Muir et al. (2006), early laptop programmes entail significant technological challenges and sometimes seem to be more about than about education. Although the suitability of laptops for classroom applications has improved, the researchers realised that the real issue continues to be not one of providing specific technologies but one of ensuring that learners and teachers can access and transform information as required, as suggested by Muir et al.

Some Theoretical Considerations To fully articulate the theoretical, philosophical and practical context in which 1:1 computing evolved would be beyond the scope of this paper. Therefore, in this section we will only sketch briefly how the 1:1 laptop

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of a 1:1 Laptop Project in Tobago

245

innovation coincided with the landscape of 21st century skills development, how schools began considering laptops for every student, and some of the philosophical basis for integrating technology into teaching practice over time. We will also make reference to a few landmark literature reviews that have synthesized the finds of several studies that highlight the results of 1:1 laptop projects within multiple contexts. This section concludes with reference to the breakthrough studies by Murphy, King and Brown, and Constantin which multiple stakeholder perspectives on the use of 1:1 laptops on the culture of teaching and learning were examined (Murphy, King, and Brown 2007, and Constant 2011). It is important for us to understand that 1:1 laptop innovation in schools did not evolve in a vacuum void of context. Pressures external to schools as well as those internal to them, guided the evolution of this instructional tool in schools. Two such forces were 21st century skills development and the standards movement. The latter, according to Catherine Gewertz, came first, sometime in the early 1980s with the Report on A Nationat Risk. With the standards movement came the increasing commitment to high stakes testing as a mode of accountability. As a result, these new teaching and learning standards forced teachers to find new and innovative ways of teaching, including using more technology infusion in the classroom (Gewertz2008). The integration of technology into instruction was predicated on the belief that the movement can positively impact the culture of classroom teaching and learning. It was believed that technology integration can propel change in almost every aspect of classroom teaching and promote greater orchestration of the elements that work together in the classroom space (Salomon 1990). In addition, there can be an improvement in students’ higher order thinking skills (Hopson, Simms, and Knezek2001; Muir 1994) and greater curriculum integration across subject areas (Ragsdale 1989) Pressure for schools to begin to produce students endowed with 21st century skills began to take effect around 1995, according to Elena Silva. Twenty-first century skills development takes on a multiplicity of interpretations, with the two most widely cited being, developing more independent thinkers and problem solvers, and/or producing more analytical and critical thinkers. According to Silva it has become accepted that these skills are enhanced by technology or ‘tech-na-cy’ which involves information science skills, digital media fluency and a deep technological system knowledge (Silva 2009). Futurists tie the application of 21st century skills to the well-being of the economy (Murnane, and Levy 2004), as well as the well-being of teaching and learning (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking 2000).

246

Chapter Eight

Schools began to respond seriously to these calls beginning around the last decade of the 20th century with the adoption of such programmes as Ubiquitous Computing (Weiser1991), the Apple Classroom of Tomorrow, and Texas Instruments Hand-held Graphing by which students across the world began applying mathematics and scientific principles on large scale graph displays (Keefe, and Zucker 2003). The 1990s also saw large inflow of financial resources into schools by way of computer labs. It was over this period that people to computer ratio dropped to 1:4 in the US (Lei, Conway, and Zhao 2007). Since 2004, the number and availability of laptops have exploded and so have the 1:1 laptop in schools projects (Livingston 2006). Mark Weston and Alan Bain synthesized innovation research as it relates to 1:1 computing devices and highlighted key researchers around this theme. A key issue coming out of this review was how to assess the success or failure of these 1:1 laptop innovations (Weston, and Bain 2009). In 2003, Everett Rogers published his Innovation Transformation Continuum, a scale that has become widely used to assess the success and/or failure of innovations. John Bransford, Ann Brown and Rodney Cooking and later David Jonassen suggested an addition to Rogers’ theory. They argued that if the end game is to maximize the innovation’s effectiveness, laptops had to become authentic learning tools used for rich and engaging assignments. For that to happen they insisted that cognitive tools had to be introduced and monitored. Further, they maintain, it was only when technology enables, empowers, and accelerates the core culture that true innovation can occur (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking 2000, and Jonassen2008). Matthew Constant also contends that these cognitive tools are essential in building and monitoring change (Constant 2011). According to Barnsford, Brown, and Cocking 2000, and Jonassen 2008, there seem to be broad consensus that the following seven elements are at least necessary for successful implementation: x That teachers, parents and students have an explicit set of simple rules that defines what the community believes about teaching and learning x The school community deliberately embeds the big ideas and aspirations into the day-to-day actions and processes of the school. x All stakeholders are involved in creating, adapting and sustaining the embedded school design. x Feedback is generated from the embedded design and occurs in real time

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of a 1:1 Laptop Project in Tobago

247

x A shared conceptual framework for practice is developed as a result of the above criteria. x All stakeholders demand systemic use of the technology rather than the sporadic and occasional surface use This study is therefore significant for several obvious reasons. Firstly, while research have been conducted on many factors related to 1:1 laptop innovations, not many have sought to find out how core content courses and the amount of time may have impacted on students’ overall academic achievement or overall development. In addition, little has been said about the overall impact that the 1:1 laptop innovation has had on the culture of teaching and learning in schools. Thirdly, studies completed have focused on barriers to technology integration (Hew, and Brush 2007, and Karagiorgi 2005, and Fabry, and Higgs1997) and teacher effectiveness and training (Donovan, Hartley, and Strudler2007, and Waschauer 2007). However, few have explicitly asked how much time the laptop was being used within core content classes, and if this laptop availability was contributing significantly to students’ overall development. Furthermore, few studies have simultaneously asked similar questions to the three most impacted stakeholders, viz. parents, teachers and students. Diane Murphy and her team of researchers did ask the three stakeholder groups similar questions about laptop innovations as did Matthew Constant when he was working on his dissertation. However, in the case of Murphy and her colleagues, their study focused more on perceived components of a successful implementation, whereas Matthew only did two schools in an entire education district (Murphy, King, and Brown 2007, and Constant 2011). This study drew its sample (195 respondents) from all nine secondary schools in the Tobago Education District.

Conceptual Framework Teachers, students and parents were asked parallel questions about the 1:1 laptop innovation to determine where the reform innovation fell on Rogers’ Innovation Transformation Continuum scale. Everett Rogers classifies the process of innovation diffusion based on the intensity and involvement of the stakeholder. Using a transformative continuum, Rogers labels groups as innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards, as measured levels of intensity and involvement of stakeholders. Innovators are the least/most intense and the least/most involved stakeholders in the innovation. They are the stakeholders who readily embrace the innovation and are willing to take risks to ensure the

248

Chapter Eight

success of the innovation. Early adopters are those stakeholders who, constrained by their role in their social system, adopt the innovation at an early stage as a means of leading others to do the same. The stakeholders who take the time to carefully consider the value of the innovation before adoption are viewed as the early majority whereas the late majority are those stakeholders who adopt the innovation after the majority of stakeholders have done so. The laggards are those who want to ensure that the innovation can work before they decide to adopt the innovation. Since stakeholders’ perceptions of the use of an object can be measured by their view of students’ involvement with the object, for example the perceived level of students’ use of the laptop in doing school assignments, that level of perception can be mapped on to Rogers’ Innovation Transformation Continuum, illustrating the hypothesized link between the two sets of variables. When the last two stages of the Innovation Transformation Continuum model, namely Early Majority and Late Majority, are prevalent, the school system has undergone a transformative culture change (Rogers 2003). An alternative visual of such a mapping is presented in Figure 8-2 as conceptualised and developed by two of the authors of this chapter, Barrow and Kent (Barrow, Mitchell and Kent, 2015). This diagram is a creative attempt at interpreting what are essentially Rogers’ intentions in his Innovation Transformation Continuum model represented in Figure 8-3. Figure 8-2 assumes that initially with any innovation, the level of diffusion is low. This represents those members in the population under consideration that Rogers refers to as Innovators. This initially peaks when 2.5% or so of the population has adopted the innovation and is using it as intended. With time, and with the nature of the innovation, that is, its relative advantage, comparability, complexity, ‘trialability’, and ‘observability’, the number of users who adopt the innovation may increase, if the diffusion of the innovation is going to be successful. So when about 16% of the population has embraced the innovation in the way intended, the diffusion of the innovation on the Innovation Transformation Continuum is said to be at the Early Adopters level. When more than 50% of the population has embraced the innovation in the way intended, the innovation’s diffusion level on the Innovation Transformation Continuum is said to be at the Late Majority level of the innovation diffusion process. It is at this point that Rogers would contend that an innovation, such as the 1:1 laptop, has been embraced by the culture of the schools.

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of a 1:1 Laptop Project in Tobago

249

Fig. 8-2 A Visual Mapping Levels of Laptop Use on to Rogers’ Innovation Transformation Continuum

250

Chapter Eight

Thus our creative mapping in Figure 8-2 (the Barrow, Kent and Mitchell’s model) aims to depict the classical normal frequency distributions as initially proposed by Rogers (1969) which are divided into five categories: Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority and Laggards. The Innovators, Early Adopters and Early Majority Adopters are located to the left of the mean. The Innovators make up the first 2.5 % of a group to adopt a new idea. The next 13.5 % to adopt an innovation are called the Early Adopters. The next 34% of the adopters are called the Early Majority. The 34% of the group to the right of the mean are the late majority, and the last 16% are considered Laggards (Rogers 1969).

Methodology and Methods Design The mixed method design utilized in carrying out this study was a methodological triangulation design (Denzin2006, Morse 1991, Cohen, and Manion 2000, O’ Donohue, and Punch 2003, Altrichter, et al.2008, and Audrey 2013). According to Denzin, methodological triangulation involves using more than one method to gather data such as interviews, observations, questionnaires, surveys, and documents. Cohen and Manion define it as an attempt to map out or explain more carefully, the richness and complexity of human behaviour by studying it from more than one standpoint. While Altrichter, et al. contend that methodological triangulation gives a more detailed and balanced picture of the phenomenon. In this study, surveys were used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data from three levels of stakeholders viz. parents, students and teachers. The surveys sought their perceptions of time of laptop use in doing school work, and on the impact of the 1:1 laptop innovation on the culture of teaching and learning in the secondary school system of the Tobago Education District. Specifically, the survey included questions concerning the amount of time spent with laptops in the classroom and at home, on content area assignments, as well as what effect the 1:1 laptop innovation was having on transforming the school culture in Tobago, including the effect it was having on students’ overall development.

Sample To sample the stakeholders, thirty surveys (10 each of the parent, student, and teacher surveys) were sent to each of the nine secondary

Stakeholders’ Perceptions of a 1:1 Laptop Project in Tobago

251

schools where they were randomly distributed to teachers and students in each of the respective schools. Each student sampled was asked to take home a parent survey to be completed by a parent and returned to the teacher in the school administering the surveys. 195 of the 270 (72%) surveys that were returned from the schools in the education district were distributed by stakeholder category as follows (Table 8-1). In order to reject any null hypothesis, the researchers must be assured of strong results that clearly and consistently show marked differences in perception among and within the three groups (Tabachnick, and Fidell 2001). It was with this desire that a power analysis was completed. At an alpha level of p