Toward a Tenderer Humanity and a Nobler Womanhood: African American Women's Clubs in Turn-Of-The-Century Chicago 9780814763599

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TOWARD A TENDERER HUMANIT Y AND A NOBLER WOMANHOO D

TOWARD A TENDERER HUMANIT Y AND A NOBLER WOMANHOO D

African American Women's Clubs in Turn-qf-the-Century Chicago

ANNE MEI S KNUPFE R

NEW YOR K U N I V E R S I T NEW YOR K A N D L O N D O

Y PRES N

S

NEW YOR K UNIVERSITY PRESS New Yor k and Londo n © 199 6 b y New Yor k University All right s reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Dat a Knupfer,,Anne Meis, 1 9 5 1 Toward a tenderer humanit y and a noble r womanhood : African American women's clubs in turn-of-the-century Chicago / Ann e Meis Knupfer. p. cm . Includes bibliographical reference s (p. ) and index . ISBN 0-8147-4671-3 (cloth ) : alk. paper)—ISB N 0-8147-4691- 8 (pbk. : alk. paper ) 1. Afro-America n women—Illinois—Chicago—Societies an d clubs. 2. Chicag o (III.)—Socia l conditions. 3 . Chicag o (III.)—Socia l life and customs. 1 . Title . F548.9.N4K58 199 6 977.3' 1 100496073—dc2 0 96-2525 9 CIP New Yor k University Pres s books are printed on acid-free paper , and their bindin g material s are chosen for strength and durability. Manufactured i n the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

1

To my grandparents, Alfonsus and Marcelinda Meis, who taught me their language and culture,

and to my son, Franz Paul Knupfer

CONTENTS

All illustrations appear as a group after p. 84. Acknowledgments ix

INTRODUCTION

ONE

AFRICAN AMERICAN CLUB WOMEN'S

11

IDEOLOGIES AND DISCOURSE S

TWO

THREE

FOUR

AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITIE S I N CHICAGO

30

THE WOMEN'S CLUB S AND POLITICA L REFOR M

46

HOMES FO R DEPENDENT CHILDREN,

65

YOUNG WORKING GIRLS , AND THE ELDERLY

FIVE

AFRICAN AMERICAN SETTLEMENT S

90

viii

S1N31NOD

SIX LITERARY CLUBS

SEVEN

APPENDIX

10£

SOCIAL CLUBS

123

CONCLUSION

135

AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN'S CLUBS ,

139

1 CHICAGO , 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 2 0

APPENDIX

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S OF PROMINEN T

2 AFRICA N AMERICAN CLUB WOMEN, CHICAGO, 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 2 0

Notes 159 Bibliography 187 Index 205

144

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I HI S BOO K WOUL D NO T HAV E BEE N COMPLETE D WITH -

out th e assistanc e an d friendshi p o f many. I woul d lik e t o thank th e Spence r Foundatio n i n Chicag o for it s financia l support an d th e Universit y o f Memphi s fo r a Facult y Research Gran t an d a one-yea r leav e o f absence . Th e grants provide d m e wit h th e graduat e assistanc e o f Dian e Taylo r an d Wei Ping , t o who m I als o wis h t o expres s m y gratitude . I n addition , I would lik e t o than k th e Educationa l Studie s Departmen t o f Purdu e University, wit h whic h I hav e bee n affiliate d thi s pas t year , fo r thei r support. The librarians and archivists at the University o f Chicago, the Chicag o Historical Society , th e Harol d Washingto n Library , Nationa l Loui s Uni versity, th e Evansto n Historica l Society , th e Newberr y Library , an d th e University o f Illinoi s a t Chicag o wer e tremendousl y helpfu l i n locatin g primary material s fo r th e book . I woul d especiall y lik e t o than k Mar y Ann Bamberge r o f th e Universit y o f Illinoi s a t Chicag o an d Michae l

A C K N O WL E D G M E N T S

X

Flug o f th e Carte r Woodso n Regiona l Librar y Branc h o f th e Harol d Washington Library . I als o wis h t o than k th e staf f o f th e Microfich e Collection a t Northwester n Universit y fo r respondin g t o m y numerou s requests for microfilm s an d copies . The Inter-Librar y Loa n Departmen t of the Universit y o f Memphis wa s helpful i n providing secondar y mate rials. On anothe r professiona l level , I wis h t o than k colleague s wh o hav e mentored an d encourage d me , no t onl y wit h thi s boo k bu t wit h othe r academic endeavors . T o David Bill s o f the Universit y o f Iowa I ow e m y introduction t o an d stud y o f Max Weber , a s well a s a further groundin g in sociologica l theory . T o Rober t Kleinsasser , a forme r colleagu e no w at th e Universit y o f Queensland , wh o ha s continue d ou r academi c conversations throug h E-mail , thank s fo r you r intellectua l question s an d musings. Ho w I valu e you r friendshi p an d wis h yo u wer e no t s o man y thousands o f mile s away ! T o forme r colleagu e Ann e Hassenflaug , you r camaraderie an d humor wa s much appreciated , especiall y when I was so far awa y from hom e an d famil y An d t o Willia m Ashe r o f Purdue, wh o constantly encourage d m e durin g th e las t leg o f the boo k editing , you r positive word s wer e muc h appreciated . Working wit h th e Ne w Yor k Universit y Press editor s ha s bee n a pleasure. I woul d lik e t o especiall y than k Jennife r Hammer , Associat e Editor; Despin a Papazoglo u Gimbel , Managin g Editor ; an d th e cop y editors fo r thei r proficiency , cooperation , an d professionalism . Personally, I woul d lik e t o than k severa l friends , includin g Rebecc a Wasson an d Sherma n Perkins , fo r steadfastl y engagin g m e wit h thei r community an d intellectua l perspectives . I am , however , mos t gratefu l to thes e famil y members : Si s Knupfer , thank s fo r keepin g you r doo r open. Bu t eve n more , thank s fo r you r humanity , you r humor , an d your sens e o f wonde r abou t thi s world . An d t o m y son , Franz , wh o accompanied m e o n man y Chicag o sojourns , bles s you a s you continu e to challeng e th e boundarie s tha t transgres s your an d ou r humanity .

TOWARDA TENDERER HUMANIT Y AND A NOBLER WOMANHOO D

INTRODUCTION

a GINALL

Y I W A S G O I N G T O WRIT E A B O O K A B O U T

mothers' club s i n Chicago , comparin g thos e o f Africa n American, native-bor n white , Jewish, an d Italia n women . Although I was able t o locate man y historica l material s o n native-born whit e mothers ' clubs , ther e wer e fe w source s on Africa n America n mothers ' club s o r th e kindergarten s wit h whic h most club s wer e affiliated . However , whe n I turne d t o tw o Chicag o African America n newspaper s publishe d durin g th e Progressiv e Era , th e Chicago Defender an d th e Broad Ax, I foun d material s no t onl y o n kindergartens an d mothers' clubs , but als o about a multitude o f women's clubs—more tha n 150 . Thes e club s wer e involve d no t onl y i n kinder garten an d mothering , bu t als o i n suffrage , antilynchin g laws , literar y contests, politica l debates , embroidery , sewing , municipa l reform , phi losophy, yout h activities , chil d welfare , car e fo r th e elderly , dram a study , safe lodgin g fo r workin g women , healt h care , orphanages , hom e life , and rotatin g economi c credit .

INTRODUCTION

2

In th e traditio n o f Dewe y an d othe r Progressiv e educators , I hav e always hel d t o a broa d definitio n o f education , lookin g t o nonforma l community institution s a s learnin g site s tha t hol d particula r promis e and valu e fo r study . Thi s i s especiall y tru e fo r th e Africa n America n communities i n Chicag o fro m 189 0 t o 1920 . Clu b wome n mad e tre mendous contribution s t o thei r communities , contribution s tha t hav e yet t o b e full y documented , chronicled , an d analyzed . Suc h contribu tions include d th e foundin g an d sustenanc e o f nonforma l communit y facilities, suc h a s kindergartens , da y nurseries , readin g rooms , employ ment agencies , home s fo r th e elderl y an d infirm , home s fo r workin g girls, yout h clubs , settlements , an d summe r outing s an d camp s fo r children. Workin g i n conjunctio n wit h loca l churches , businesses , an d urban chapter s o f nationa l organizations , Africa n America n wome n participated i n numerou s educationa l an d socia l uplift activities . Presen tations throug h forums , debates , discussions , oratories , addresses , an d lyceums no t onl y gav e voic e t o th e clu b women' s perspective s o n community concerns , bu t als o socialize d youn g girl s int o a political an d social consciousness . Throug h fund-raisin g activitie s a s variou s a s ba zaars, raffles , picnics , dances , theate r productions , an d musica l concerts , club wome n financiall y supporte d th e institution s the y create d an d provided in-kin d gift s an d money s t o poore r Africa n American s i n Chicago. Furthermore , suc h occasion s provide d ric h context s fo r cele brating African America n tradition s an d culture . This i s no t t o sugges t tha t ther e wa s onl y on e Africa n America n community i n Chicago . Ther e wer e many o f them , i n th e neighbor hoods o f Woodlawn, Englewood , Hyd e Park , Evanston , Morga n Park , and th e Blac k Belt . Thes e communitie s wer e stratifie d accordin g t o social class, educational attainment , an d typ e o f employment. Lik e man y other cities , Chicag o ha d it s ow n Africa n America n "Elit e 400, " wh o attended exclusiv e socia l clubs , charit y balls , dances , an d promenades . Although thi s sid e o f history i s not alway s included i n th e clu b scholar ship, i t i s critica l t o full y understandin g th e live s an d deed s o f th e clu b women. Fo r thi s reason , a social clas s stratification model , whic h exam ines notion s o f class , status , an d prestige , i s used . Suc h a mode l relie s heavily o n Weber' s concept s o f class , party , an d status , a s well a s o n hi s concern wit h multidimensionality . However, socia l stratificatio n i s only on e par t o f the history . A multi layered analysi s i s necessar y t o portra y th e complexit y an d richnes s o f

In addition t o social stratification an d an examination o f a communit y ethos, th e analysi s relie s upo n feminis t scholarship , particularl y fro m a n African America n femal e perspective . I n particular , I a m partia l t o historical an d sociologica l scholarshi p tha t insist s o n th e interlockin g o f race, class , an d gender . Th e historica l wor k o f clu b scholar s Darlen e Clark Hine , Debora h Gra y White , Doroth y Salem , an d man y other s come readil y t o mind . I n term s o f sociological studies , thos e b y Bonni e Thornton Dill , Patrici a Hil l Collins , an d Chery l Townsen d Gilke s hav e continually reminde d m e o f ho w critica l i t i s t o groun d scholarl y interpretations i n th e dail y experience s o f people's lives. I di d no t limi t m y stud y t o th e contemporar y voice s o f feminis t scholarship. Perhap s mos t importantly , I hav e draw n fro m th e Africa n American clu b wome n themselves . Indeed , man y clu b wome n wrot e their view s o n femal e suffrage , th e importanc e o f hom e life , mother hood, communit y uplift , an d rac e progres s i n Africa n America n maga zines, journals, an d newspapers . Man y delivere d addresse s an d speeches , wrote editorial s an d letters, an d kep t clu b records . Suc h documentatio n has provide d anothe r laye r o f historica l sources , wit h th e momentou s challenge o f teasin g ou t th e rhetori c an d ideolog y fro m th e actua l practices and activities of the clu b women. (Thi s was especially problem atic give n th e lac k o f archiva l material s o n Africa n America n clu b women i n Chicago. ) Eac h issu e reveale d it s ow n complexity , whethe r i t was deliberatin g o n a n alderma n candidate , discussin g th e merit s o f industrial education, o r inspecting the vice areas in Chicago's Black Belt. Often ther e wa s n o singl e view; whe n ther e wa s agreement , th e reason s might b e various . I discus s mor e full y belo w th e thre e interlockin g

3 INTRODUCTION

the Africa n America n women' s clubs . Therefore , I dra w als o fro m sociological, historical , an d anthropologica l framework s tha t examin e the cultura l expression s an d practice s o f the women' s clubs , particularl y as they wer e grounde d i n communit y way s o f knowing an d doing . Th e central question s wer e these : What wa s culturall y uniqu e abou t Africa n American women' s clubs ? Ho w wer e the y differen t fro m othe r ethni c women's clubs ? Th e answer s t o thes e question s entaile d a thoroug h examination o f th e economic , social , political , an d cultura l aspect s o f the man y Africa n America n communitie s an d thei r socia l institutions i n Chicago. Wha t I foun d wa s a web o f various issues , agendas , practices , and ideologie s no t onl y withi n th e communities , bu t withi n th e wom en's club s a s well.

frameworks o f social clas s stratification , communit y emics , an d feminis t scholarship.

INTRODUCTION

4

A Weberia n stratificatio n mode l move s beyon d tha t o f Marx , i n tha t social clas s an d positio n ar e no t simpl y relate d t o a n economi c frame work. Rather , i t fleshe s ou t socia l clas s positionin g t o includ e th e concepts o f privilege, status , an d prestige, particularl y i n term s o f grou p legitimacy. Webe r foun d status group s particularl y worth y o f study , because the y reflecte d practices , expressions , an d lifestyle s o f particula r social classes. His concept o f parties or power groups is particularly usefu l for understandin g th e pattern s o f leadershi p i n th e Africa n America n communities, especiall y as they were expresse d in the various institution s of church , clubs , an d politica l organizations . Thes e thre e interrelate d concepts o f class , status , an d partie s provid e u s wit h a n analysi s tha t i s multidimensional an d attempt s t o arriv e a t a n understandin g o f th e subjective meaning s o f individuals involved. 1 A Weberian framework i s critical for examinin g the African America n women's clubs . A s wil l becom e eviden t throughou t th e book , ther e were man y type s o f Africa n America n women' s club s i n Chicago . Although socia l uplif t activitie s wer e expecte d an d embedde d i n man y of th e clubs ' functions , mos t Africa n America n clu b wome n wer e o f middle- o r upper-clas s status . Statu s wa s measure d i n variou s ways . Fo r example, certai n club s reserve d membershi p fo r thos e fro m th e first African America n familie s i n Chicago . Som e club s proudl y describe d themselves a s "elite " an d "exclusive. " Matrimon y club s selecte d mem bers fro m prominen t families , thu s ensurin g tha t one' s socia l clas s posi tion woul d no t b e compromise d i n th e future . However, thi s framework , i f use d alone , woul d grossl y distor t th e history o f Africa n America n communities . Despit e socia l clas s differ ences, African American s i n Chicag o wer e unite d throug h th e historica l and persisten t practice s o f racism . Ther e wer e als o cultura l expression s that crosse d ove r socia l clas s lines, unitin g Africa n America n communi ties throughou t Chicago . Suc h unit y wa s critica l i n politica l campaigns , in advocatin g fo r antidiscriminator y legislation , i n creatin g communit y facilities, an d i n fund-raisin g efforts . A mode l i s needed , then , tha t also examine s cultura l an d communit y practices , t o provid e a n emi c

In thes e multipl e source s I found man y cultura l practice s an d expres sions tha t wer e uniqu e t o th e Africa n America n communitie s i n Chi cago. Fo r example , lyceum s fo r th e youth s continue d th e literat e an d oral tradition s o f oratory , elocution , an d dramati c rendition s tha t date d back t o th e all-da y churc h meeting s durin g slavery . Africa n America n jubilee quartets , choirs , an d orchestra s performe d a t charit y ball s an d other fund-raisin g events . Paul Laurence Dunbar' s poetr y an d Frederic k Douglass's addresse s wer e frequentl y rea d an d recite d a t th e clu b meet ings. Certai n annua l celebrations , suc h a s Emancipatio n Da y o n th e first o f January, Mothers ' Day , an d Frederic k Douglass' s an d Abraha m Lincoln's birthdays , hel d particula r cultura l significanc e fo r Africa n Americans. I n th e traditio n o f "othe r mothering, " clu b wome n se t u p kindergartens, nurseries , an d homes for th e aged . At their clu b meeting s they gav e testimonials an d recitation s an d enjoye d spiritual s an d popula r African America n song s on th e victrola. Even fund-raising effort s b y th e club wome n relie d o n th e traditiona l handiwor k o f quilting , knitting , and embroidery . Suc h richnes s wa s documente d an d examine d withi n these multipl e conceptua l frameworks . Even economi c matter s becam e subjec t t o multipl e interpretations . For example , a Marxis t analysi s woul d interpre t th e elaborat e evenin g gowns o f clu b wome n o r thei r expensiv e prize s i n whis t contest s a s examples o f cultural capital . However , ther e ar e othe r interpretation s t o consider. First , supporting local dressmakers and hairdressers kept mone y circulating i n th e Africa n America n communities , a n issu e tha t receive d as muc h attentio n the n a s i t doe s today . On e coul d argu e tha t a clu b woman wa s no t simpl y buying a dress. Rather, sh e wa s helpin g t o kee p

5 INTROpUCTION

perspective. T o arriv e a t suc h a n understanding , I referre d t o Africa n American newspapers , journals , magazines , addresses , an d speeche s a s primary sources . I n particular , th e women's , church , an d societ y col umns o f th e Chicag o newspaper s containe d contextuall y ric h informa tion o n th e women's clubs . Editorials an d letters written fo r th e newspa pers reflecte d divers e perspective s o n political , social , economic , an d even moral issues. These voices represented various organization s withi n the Chicag o communities : churches , settlements , women' s an d men' s clubs, an d loca l chapter s o f national organizations , suc h a s the Nationa l Association fo r th e Advancemen t o f Colore d Peopl e (NAACP ) o r th e National Urba n League .

ililiPJJiciio N

6

food o n th e table , t o pa y the rent , an d t o kee p a dressmaker i n business . Embedded i n suc h busines s transactions , then , wer e socia l an d commu nity transactions . Second , thes e smal l businesses allowe d women a livelihood, in addition to giving them an opportunity t o work in their homes, where the y coul d car e for thei r children . Employmen t opportunitie s fo r African America n wome n wer e severel y restricted , mos t o f them work ing a s domesti c servants , laundr y workers , an d cooks . Third , th e aes thetic an d technica l skill s o f dressmakers , hairdressers , milliners , an d beauty culturist s deserv e acknowledgment . Man y o f th e clu b women' s dresses wer e intricatel y designe d an d embellishe d wit h importe d Iris h lace an d crochete d collars . Severa l Africa n America n milline r shops , located o n Stat e Street—th e fashio n hu b o f Chicago—wer e s o re nowned tha t a number o f wealthy whit e wome n patronize d them . The thir d an d las t framework , tha t o f feminis t scholarship , attempt s to portra y th e perspectiv e o f the clu b wome n an d o f African America n female scholars . A s mentioned , I hav e relie d mostl y upo n scholarshi p that is grounded i n the daily experiences o f community members, as well as tha t whic h acknowledge s ho w race , class , an d gende r ar e intricatel y connected. However , I would ad d a fourth dimension , tha t o f regional ism, whic h wa s particularl y significan t becaus e o f th e migratio n o f Southern Africa n American s t o Chicago . Th e clu b women' s view s ranged fro m traditional , eve n conservativ e a t times , t o wha t w e migh t consider progressiv e an d visionary . Fo r example , som e wome n wer e disinterested i n th e vote ; som e though t tha t wome n shouldn' t meddl e in wha t wa s a man' s affair . Other s proteste d an d marche d fo r it . Thes e multiple view s ar e presente d i n th e book , a s the y portra y th e comple x and ric h texture s o f club lif e an d communit y uplift .

In chapte r 1 th e discourses , ideologies , motifs , an d image s o f th e clu b women ar e examined . I argu e tha t th e clu b wome n conjoine d th e dominant ideologie s o f tru e womanhood , progressiv e maternalism , th e Republican motherhood , an d municipa l housekeepin g t o thei r ow n culturally veritabl e beliefs . Althoug h motherhoo d an d hom e lif e wer e twin concern s o f th e women' s clu b movemen t i n general , th e roles , practices, an d image s o f African America n wome n wer e quintessentiall y singular. Historically denie d th e opportunit y o f expressing their mother -

Chapter 2 trace s th e historie s o f th e variou s Africa n America n com munities i n Chicago , i n particula r examinin g clas s stratificatio n throug h shifting residentia l patterns , churc h an d clu b life , an d th e formatio n o f Chicago's Blac k Belt . A s Chicago' s Africa n America n populatio n in creased durin g th e 1890s , tension s betwee n th e Africa n America n elit e and th e middl e clas s emerged , althoug h a s members o f the "Elit e 400, " they mutuall y participate d i n charit y events . Proceeding s fro m thei r charity balls , dances , whis t tournaments , an d theate r production s wer e collected fo r th e newl y create d settlements , missions , kindergartens, da y nurseries, an d othe r facilities . Locate d primaril y i n th e Black Belt, thes e institutions provide d lodging , employmen t referrals , da y care , manua l and industria l training , an d healt h service s t o th e increasin g numbe r of Souther n migrants . Again , socia l distinction s an d concern s wer e intertwined, a s the clu b wome n sustaine d thes e communit y institution s through exclusiv e philanthropi c events . The politica l activitie s o f th e clu b wome n ar e detaile d i n chapte r 3 . Because suffrag e wa s on e o f the primar y concerns , muc h o f the discus sion i s devoted t o th e clu b women' s involvemen t i n politica l campaigns , voter registration , an d suffrag e debate s an d parades . Th e clu b wome n played a decidedly ke y rol e in th e electio n o f the first Africa n America n alderman in Chicago , Oscar de Priest. Nonetheless, I conclude that thei r potential fo r politica l leadershi p wa s limited , becaus e i t wa s primaril y circumscribed aroun d thei r traditiona l femal e role s a s guardians o f chil dren an d th e family . Thi s i s not t o sugges t tha t th e clu b wome n di d no t protest discriminatio n i n employmen t o r wor k towar d antilynchin g legislation an d lega l redress . Ther e ar e numerou s example s o f letter -

7 INTRODUCTION

hood i n culturall y specifi c ways , th e clu b wome n articulate d thei r ow n vision—rooted i n th e communit y more s o f "other mothering, " a deepseated Christianity , an d a n admixtur e o f Du Boisia n an d Washingtonia n tenets. Respectability , tucke d withi n th e prevailin g concern s o f rac e advancement an d progress , assume d gendere d an d classe d form s a s clu b women constructe d various layers of sisterhood and allegiances to poore r women whil e als o maintainin g clas s distinctions . Suc h position s wer e not contradictory . Rather , the y pointe d t o a resilienc e i n th e clu b women's rhetoric, demonstrate d by adapting their language to the multi ple audiences o f African America n men , whit e clu b women, an d poore r African America n women .

INTRODUCTION

8

writing campaigns , editorials , forums , an d discussion s o n thes e matters . However, th e clu b women' s influenc e i n thes e arena s was tenuous ; the y wielded littl e power i n th e large r business an d politica l world . Four socia l welfar e institution s o r "othe r homes " create d an d sus tained b y th e Africa n America n women' s club s ar e examine d i n chapte r 4: th e Louis e Juvenil e Hom e an d schoo l fo r dependen t boys ; th e Amanda Smit h Hom e an d schoo l fo r dependen t girls ; th e Phylli s Wheatley Hom e fo r youn g workin g girls ; an d th e Hom e fo r th e Age d and Infir m Colore d People . Th e financia l an d administrativ e autonom y of th e firs t tw o homes , an d late r schools , wa s complicate d b y thei r affiliation wit h th e Coo k Count y Juvenile Court . Facilitie s fo r Africa n American dependen t an d delinquen t childre n wer e limited , s o th e de mands place d upo n thes e tw o home s ofte n exceede d thei r capacities . But th e founders , Elizabet h McDonal d an d Amand a Smith , informe d by thei r respectiv e rescu e an d missio n work , turne d n o childre n away . Although th e clu b women assiste d through fund-raising , donatin g cloth ing an d Christma s gifts , an d visitin g th e children , thei r effort s wer e more directe d towar d th e Phylli s Wheatle y Hom e an d th e Ol d Folks ' Home (a n alternativ e nam e fo r th e Hom e fo r th e Age d an d Infir m Colored People) . Th e clubs ' networkin g an d collaborativ e fund-raisin g activities ensure d th e latte r tw o homes ' financia l security . Th e homes ' annual report s indicate d th e dee p involvemen t o f many o f the women' s clubs, throug h in-kin d gift s o f foo d an d clothing , contribution s t o th e coal fund , monetar y donations , an d providing "goo d cheer " o r counse l to th e elderl y an d t o th e youn g workin g girls . Truly , th e clu b wome n considered thes e communit y institutions , wherea s th e home s for depen dent children , becaus e o f their cour t entanglements , wer e les s so. Five Africa n America n settlement s an d thei r program s fo r youn g children, youths , an d workin g wome n ar e discusse d i n chapte r 5 . Th e chapter begin s wit h a n examinatio n o f the mainstrea m socia l settlemen t workers' ideologie s a s compare d t o Africa n Americans ' belief s an d practices. Althoug h ther e wer e point s o f convergence , ther e wer e thre e essential differences . First , whit e settlemen t worker s focuse d mor e o n racialized difference s betwee n immigrant s an d Africa n Americans , whereas Africa n America n reformer s cite d clas s and regiona l disparities , especially among African Americans . Second , whit e worker s formulate d African Americans ' "maladjustment " t o urba n lif e a s a n inabilit y t o "assimilate"; conversely , Africa n American s frame d th e issue s a s ones o f

Chapter 6 begin s wit h a discussio n o f th e historica l antecedent s o f the Africa n America n literar y clubs : th e literar y societies , th e lyceums , and th e chautauqu a movement . A s picture d i n th e novel s o f France s Ellen Watkins Harper an d Pauline Elizabeth Hopkins , African America n women forme d literar y societie s an d circle s i n whic h the y spok e o n political an d socia l issue s whil e developin g thei r elocutio n an d literar y skills. Th e "literature " o f th e forme r societies , an d o f th e Chicag o literary clubs , embrace d man y topic s an d genres , a s th e writte n wor d was merged wit h th e spoken , an d socia l an d politica l uplif t wit h literar y discussion. Th e Africa n America n femal e literar y club s i n Chicag o ar e examined alongsid e thos e o f white women , reflectin g how , onc e again , African America n wome n persiste d i n the dua l purpose o f self-improve ment an d communit y uplift . T o illustrate , th e clu b wome n sponsore d

9 INTRODUCTION

segregation, discrimination , an d difficult urba n conditions . Third, unlik e white reformer s wh o viewe d Africa n American s a s uproote d an d dis connected fro m thei r tradition s an d customs , Africa n America n socia l workers an d reformers spok e o f the loss of dignity an d family lif e durin g slavery. Furthermore, man y o f th e Africa n America n settlemen t worker s discussed ho w thei r practice s wer e informe d b y a deep-seated Christia n faith. Thei r religiou s expression s wer e reflecte d i n th e rang e o f socia l service institution s create d withi n th e Africa n America n communities : church missions , socia l centers , an d settlements , whic h wer e ofte n les s secular tha n nondenominational . Th e settlemen t founder s an d worker s especially nurture d thes e churc h affiliations , althoug h no t specifi c de nominations, thereb y creatin g collaborativ e web s o f community institu tions an d support . The clu b women' s involvemen t wa s critica l i n th e sustenanc e o f th e settlements. The y supervise d kindergarten s an d da y nurseries ; the y taught domesti c classe s in sewing , crocheting , an d embroidery ; an d the y chaperoned danc e club s fo r youths . Th e variou s settlemen t activitie s were not merely social or educative but als o had economi c value . Sewin g classes, accordin g t o Clote e Scott , provide d anothe r employmen t alter native t o women , beside s domesti c an d laundr y work . Da y nurserie s and kindergarten s provide d chil d car e fo r wome n wh o previousl y ma y have ha d t o leav e th e younge r childre n i n th e car e o f a n olde r sibling . Employment referra l agencie s were organize d to assist women i n procur ing respectabl e employment .

INTRODUCTION

io

dramatic productions , musicals , an d literar y contests , whic h provide d educative experience s an d raise d much-neede d money s fo r th e poor . These twi n role s wer e enacte d throug h th e churc h lyceum s a s well . Women no t onl y spok e befor e th e audience s o n th e "female " issue s o f children's welfare , probatio n work , an d hom e life , bu t als o forme d lyceums fo r youths . Throug h participatio n i n essa y contests , debates , and oratory , th e young were socialized into communit y form s o f knowledge an d activis m an d provide d wit h "wholesome " form s o f entertain ment. Whist clubs , dancing clubs, and matrimony clubs—whic h wer e ofte n considered frivolou s an d self-indulgent—ar e explore d i n chapte r 7 . O n the surfac e the y seeme d t o b e superficia l becaus e suc h club s wer e primarily engage d i n whist , progressiv e whist , an d law n tennis ; six course luncheons ; masquerades ; an d dancin g parties . Ye t suc h activitie s were no t alway s self-serving . Ove r tea s an d extravaganzas , charit y case s were discusse d an d resolved ; mone y fo r th e poo r wa s ofte n collecte d during whis t tournaments . Furthermore , ther e wer e multipl e economi c tiers embedde d i n thes e socia l extravaganzas . Suc h philanthropi c event s benefited bot h th e poo r an d th e man y wome n engage d i n th e servic e businesses o f dressmaking , milliner y work , beaut y culture , an d chirop ody who relie d upo n th e clu b women' s patronage . As th e followin g chapter s document , th e clu b wome n wer e instru mental i n foundin g an d sustainin g a multitude o f social welfar e institu tions. Thei r voluntee r effort s i n th e Secon d Ward' s politica l campaign s were crucia l i n term s o f vote r registration , coalitio n building , an d th e election o f th e firs t Africa n America n alderman . Throug h thei r club s they not onl y engage d i n literary, musical, an d educationa l activities , bu t also sponsore d variou s fund-raiser s t o suppor t th e communit y institu tions the y created . A s Fanni e Barrie r William s testified , th e Africa n American wome n o f Chicag o displaye d a "passion " fo r club s tha t pro moted refinemen t a s wel l a s socia l uplift. 2 Tru e t o th e mott o o f th e National Associatio n o f Colore d Wome n (NACW) , th e Chicag o clu b women "lifted " other s whil e they , indeed , "climbed. "

ONE AFRICAN AMERICA N CLUB WOMEN'S IDEOLOGIE S AND DISCOURSE S

• H E AFRICA N AMERICA N CLU B W O M E N ' S MOVEMEN T

evoked multipl e ideologies , discourses , motifs , an d image s of womanhood, motherhood , an d hom e life . Clu b mem bers conjoine d th e dominan t ideologie s o f the cul t o f tru e womanhood, progressiv e maternalism , th e Republica n motherhood, an d municipa l housekeepin g wit h culturall y specifi c ones: Africa n America n Christianity , Booke r T . Washington's industria l education, an d W. E. B. Du Bois' s model o f "talented tenth " leadership. 1 For example , th e clu b women' s allegiance s t o Booke r T . Washingto n and W. E. B . Du Boi s were no t neatl y cleaved , a s they wedde d self-hel p strategies t o politica l protest. 2 Likewise , i n promotin g femal e suffrage , the Africa n America n clu b wome n no t onl y espouse d th e tenet s o f the Republica n motherhood , progressiv e maternalism , an d municipa l housekeeping bu t als o emphasize d thei r traditiona l communit y role s a s "other mothers " an d caretakers. 3 Suc h admixture s pointe d t o th e com plex way s i n whic h Africa n America n clu b wome n mediate d variou s

IDEOLOGIES AN D D I S C O U R S E S

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ideologies and discourses to address the specific need s of their communi ties. During th e lat e nineteent h an d earl y twentiet h centuries , Africa n American me n an d wome n wer e concerne d wit h documentin g rac e progress, i n par t throug h th e exemplar y live s o f thei r leaders . Muc h o f their literatur e refute d th e retrogressionis t portrayal s o f Africa n Ameri cans a s savage, childlike , an d immoral. 4 Drawin g upo n th e discourse s o f Christianity an d th e cul t o f tru e womanhood , Africa n America n mal e writers particularl y extolle d th e nobl e an d virtuou s qualitie s o f Africa n American women , thereb y vindicatin g thei r mora l integrity . Thei r im ages o f motherhoo d an d womanhoo d ofte n resemble d idealized , static , and eve n poetic version s o f the dominan t society. 5 Club women , too , wer e concerne d wit h aspersion s cas t upo n thei r character. I n respons e t o a letter insultin g thei r womanhood , a group o f African America n wome n convene d i n Bosto n i n 189 5 t o for m thei r own nationa l organization , th e Nationa l Association o f Colored Wome n (NACW). 6 However , unlik e th e Africa n America n men , wh o persiste d in image s o f tru e womanhood , th e clu b wome n wer e mor e concerne d with respectability , tha t is , a standard o f behavior expecte d o f all Africa n Americans, especiall y o f the women. Becaus e thes e standards were base d on "proper " hom e lif e an d chil d care , th e tremendou s responsibilit y o f race uplif t wa s delegate d t o women . Clu b wome n conceive d o f thei r roles a s not onl y teachin g but als o modeling respectabl e hom e life , chil d care, an d socia l code s o f deportmen t fo r poore r Africa n America n women. A s Gidding s noted , "the y [clu b members ] sa w themselve s no t just as messengers but a s living examples." 7 The clu b women's exemplar y conduct wa s reflected i n thei r subscriptio n t o D u Boi s s "talented tenth " model o f leadership, inscribe d in th e N A C W s two-tiered mott o "liftin g as we climb." 8 In their discourse on raising the standards of home, famil y life, an d motherhood , th e N A C W reinstate d th e sentiment s o f th e Republican motherhood , insistin g tha t th e futur e o f th e rac e wa s moored t o Africa n America n mothers ' mora l guardianship . This i s no t t o sugges t tha t Africa n America n clu b wome n merel y transplanted th e template s o f tru e womanhoo d o r Republica n mother hood ont o thei r clu b activities . Rather , a s man y feminis t clu b scholar s have elaborated , th e clu b wome n reshape d thei r language , rituals , an d practices to correspond t o historically and culturally veritable expression s of motherhood an d womanhood. 9 A s Yee has explicated, Africa n Amer ican women envisione d tru e womanhoo d no t i n terms o f submissiveness

and passivity , condition s the y associate d wit h slavery . Th e image s o f domesticity carrie d differen t meaning s fo r the m tha n fo r plantatio n mistresses, a s enslaved women ha d no t bee n "confined " t o th e domesti c sphere. 10 Africa n America n wome n consequentl y relishe d thei r own versions o f domesticity , a s they reinscribe d th e primac y o f motherhoo d and hom e life . Mar y Churc h Terrel l affirme d thi s historica l continuit y in he r declaration , "Nothin g lie s neare r th e hear t o f colore d wome n than th e children." 11

Despite thei r collectiv e visio n o f rac e elevation , clu b wome n distin guished themselve s fro m th e recipient s o f thei r uplif t activitie s throug h club an d churc h memberships , a s wel l a s throug h th e uplif t activitie s themselves, whic h reflecte d selectivity , privilege , an d cultura l capital . This socia l clas s demarcation wa s not contradictor y bu t rathe r illustrate d the richnes s an d complexit y o f the clu b movement . A s I argue through out, dua l economic, social, and educative spheres were embedde d withi n many uplif t activities : on e fo r th e clu b women , an d anothe r fo r thei r beneficiaries, usuall y poorer women , th e elderly , an d children . Thus fa r I hav e referre d t o th e Africa n America n clu b women' s ideologies an d discourse s withi n a communit y an d ethni c context . However, th e rhetori c an d activitie s o f thes e clu b wome n wer e no t isolated bu t locate d withi n th e mainstrea m women' s clu b movement , a s well a s within large r sociopolitica l structures . Althoug h Africa n Ameri can wome n wer e initiall y exclude d fro m th e whit e women' s clubs , increasingly interracia l club s an d coalition s wit h whit e clu b wome n

I DEO LOG I E S A N D D I S C O U R S E S

The discourse s o f Africa n America n motherhoo d tha t relate d th e home t o th e large r communit y evoke d anothe r historica l continuity . Since slavery , Africa n America n wome n ha d care d fo r an d reare d no t only thei r ow n childre n bu t othe r slav e childre n also . Th e clu b wome n rekindled thi s tradition o f "other mothering" in their founding o f "othe r homes" fo r childre n an d youth , includin g kindergartens , da y nurseries , settlements, orphanages , an d home s fo r youn g workin g girls . I n th e spirit o f "organize d motherhood, " th e NACW' s city , state , an d regiona l affiliates establishe d mothers ' club s t o teac h lesson s i n hygiene , healt h care, an d househol d matters . A s communit y activist s an d mora l guard ians, clu b wome n sponsore d youth clubs , organize d summe r outing s fo r children, an d forme d committee s t o canvas s neighborhood s repute d fo r their saloon s an d danc e halls . Th e twi n image s o f motherhoo d an d home, then , spok e o f a community etho s nurture d throug h th e individ ual an d collaborativ e uplif t activitie s o f club women .

13

I D E O L O G I E S AN D D I S C O U R S E S

14

were formed , especiall y i n Chicago . Femal e suffrag e wa s on e specifi c issue aroun d whic h man y clu b wome n united . A s mor e full y describe d in chapte r 3 , Africa n America n clu b women , lik e whit e clu b women , predicated thei r argument s fo r femal e suffrag e upo n th e ideologie s of Republica n motherhood , municipa l housekeeping , an d progressiv e maternalism. Nonetheless , becaus e th e socia l an d economi c condition s in th e Africa n America n communities , especiall y i n Chicago' s Blac k Belt, wer e markedl y differen t fro m thos e in white middle-clas s commu nities, the African America n clu b women's political platforms an d strategies diverged. As detailed later, give n the predominantly African Ameri can populatio n i n Chicago' s Secon d Ward , th e clu b women' s rol e i n educating an d registerin g Africa n America n voter s wa s critical . Thei r efforts wer e rewarde d whe n the y were largely credite d wit h th e electio n of th e first Africa n America n alderma n i n th e Secon d Ward , Osca r d e Priest. The clu b wome n wer e les s successful , however , wit h thei r involve ment i n th e Chicag o juvenile courts . As more full y describe d i n chapte r 4, th e cour t syste m wa s initiall y sustaine d throug h th e volunteeris m o f club women , mos t o f who m wer e white . However , beginnin g wit h Elizabeth McDonal d i n 1901 , African America n wome n serve d a s probation officer s and , later , a s truant officer s an d socia l workers. What ha s yet t o b e full y explore d i s th e degre e o f influenc e Africa n America n women wielde d withi n th e juvenile cour t syste m throug h thei r investi gation o f "neglectful " hom e condition s o f dependen t an d delinquen t African America n children , thei r inspection o f tenements an d neighbor hoods, thei r supervisio n o f th e live s o f childre n an d youths , an d thei r intercession i n cour t dispositions . Deliberately , th e Africa n America n women's tenet s o f respectabilit y underwen t furthe r transformation , a s club wome n spok e ou t o n th e dilapidate d an d unsanitar y livin g condi tions wrough t throug h segregatio n an d racism , condition s tha t prohib ited respectabl e living . Africa n America n clu b wome n wer e acutel y aware o f th e contradictor y position s the y hel d a s employee s o f a cour t system tha t segregate d an d underfunde d facilitie s fo r Africa n America n children. Thei r resolv e was evident in multiple-pronged strategies : political protest o f segregated facilities , editorial s decryin g the lack o f wholesome entertainmen t fo r youths , fund-raisin g activitie s fo r orphanage s and homes , an d clu b talk s and reports o n juvenile problems . Despite th e club women' s multipl e role s a s probatio n officers , founder s o f home s and orphanages , fund-raisers , teachers , an d supervisor s in Chicago , thei r

GOOD HOMES : "THE V E ^

The Africa n America n clu b women' s ideologie s o f motherhood, home , and family issue d from th e historica l denia l o f their womanhoo d durin g slavery. Josephine Silon e Yates had pointed t o how slavery had "blunted " African America n women' s "fine r instincts " and "sensibilities." 12 Fanni e Barrier William s ha d ironicall y remarked , o n th e topi c o f sexua l vio lence, ho w slaver y ha d ensure d tha t th e Africa n America n woma n wa s "the onl y woma n i n Americ a fo r who m virtu e wa s no t a n ornamen t and a necessity." 13 Wherea s native-bor n whit e wome n bor e th e singl e historical burden o f sexism, African America n women wrestle d with th e double on e o f sexis m an d racism . A s Ann a Juli a Coope r succinctl y stated: "Sh e [th e Africa n America n woman ] i s confronte d b y bot h a woman questio n an d a race problem." 14 As Africa n America n me n an d wome n bega n th e arduou s tas k o f reconstructing thei r live s afte r slavery , thei r image s o f womanhoo d diverged alon g gende r lines . Befor e an d durin g th e earl y twentiet h

15 I D E O L O G I E S AN D D I S C O U R S E S

social uplif t an d traditiona l role s i n chil d welfar e becam e increasingl y compromised throug h stat e regulations , lega l entanglements , an d un derfunded, segregate d facilities . This chapter , then , examine s th e clu b women's ideologie s a s reshaped from withi n th e clu b movement , a s wel l a s b y large r sociopolitica l structures. I begin wit h th e rac e literature o f the late nineteenth century , arguing tha t Africa n America n wome n an d me n employe d th e rhetori c of tru e womanhoo d bot h t o documen t an d t o advanc e thei r progress . Such documentatio n provide d a foundatio n fo r th e NACW , a s clu b women associate d thei r exemplar y live s wit h notion s o f respectabilit y for Africa n America n wome n and , ultimately , th e race . Clu b wome n thereby create d intricat e layer s o f socia l uplif t an d socia l status ; the y emphasized no t onl y thei r ow n bu t al l women' s responsibilit y i n rac e elevation. Buildin g upo n th e growt h an d succes s o f th e NACW , th e club wome n furthere d thei r politica l an d socia l advancemen t b y fusin g the ideologie s o f municipal housekeeping , progressiv e maternalism , an d a D u Boisia n mode l o f "talente d tenth " leadership . Despit e enormou s political an d socia l gains , Africa n America n wome n nonetheles s re mained subordinate d t o an d les s visibl e tha n thei r me n i n th e politica l arena. Moreover , Africa n America n wome n los t groun d a s thei r chil d welfare tradition s an d socia l welfare practice s were increasingly compro mised throug h th e juvenile cour t system .

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century, Africa n America n me n mor e ofte n emphasize d th e mora l an d domestic aspect s o f true womanhood , particularl y th e qualitie s o f virtue, piety, an d purity . Thi s wa s particularl y tru e o f ministers , wh o fuse d Christian imagery with that of true womanhood. I n William Alexander' s estimation, th e rol e o f minister s wa s especiall y critica l i n inspirin g women t o b e "angel s o f our household." 15 Althoug h thi s image di d no t reflect th e hars h realit y o f many African America n wome n wh o worke d as domestic workers an d laundry women, suc h language exemplifie d th e dignity Africa n America n me n accorde d t o Africa n America n women . Long denie d th e opportunit y o f publicly praisin g thei r women , Africa n American me n embellishe d thei r language . Suc h images , a s interprete d by scholars, may have been als o an alternative strateg y to protect Africa n American wome n fro m th e sexua l violenc e o f whit e Souther n men. 16 As a matte r o f course , Fanni e Barrie r William s encourage d Africa n American me n t o displa y thei r "chivalr y an d protection " a s demonstra tions o f respect . Sh e furthe r argue d tha t me n wer e grante d a "hig h privilege" i n helpin g t o lif t Africa n America n wome n fro m obscurity. 17 Such idealized images not onl y positioned wome n a s moral guardians , but ofte n als o restricte d thei r role s t o th e domesti c sphere . Man y mal e leaders argue d tha t famil y lif e an d motherhoo d wer e paramount . The y contended that , i n orde r fo r wome n t o fulfil l thei r responsibilities , female educatio n mus t b e o f a Christia n an d mora l nature . Thoma s Baker, writin g fo r th e Alexanders Magazine i n 1906 , argue d tha t "sh e [the Africa n America n woman ] mus t no t b e educate d awa y fro m bein g a mother; slaver y day s degrade d motherhoo d an d mad e merchandis e o f it." 18 H e accordingl y promote d a n educatio n buil t upo n Christia n principles. Jac k Thorne , too , advocate d mora l educatio n fo r Africa n American women. 19 Eve n highe r educatio n fo r wome n wa s t o includ e "moral guides." 20 Such mora l an d domesti c dict a dovetaile d no t onl y wit h Christia n beliefs bu t als o wit h Washington' s industria l educatio n model . Th e Christian ideals of piety, purity, an d virtue were, indeed, feminize d ones , as women wer e considere d th e spiritua l font s o f thei r race . I n tandem , Washington's philosophy, in promoting the practical aspects of domesticity a s wel l a s rac e progress , stresse d th e importanc e o f hom e car e an d domestic work . Towar d thi s en d th e teachin g o f sewing , washing , broom making , cooking , gardening , an d othe r househol d skill s prepared women t o b e housewives , mothers , and , paradoxically , domesti c work -

While our men seem thoroughly abreast of the times on almost every other subject, when they strike the woman question they drop back into sixteenth century logic. They actually do not seem sometimes to have outgrown that old contemporary of chivalry—the idea that women may stand on pedestals or live in doll houses. 26

Descriptions o f suc h "chivalrous " attitude s proliferate d wel l int o th e early twentiet h century . Benjami n Brawley , professo r o f literatur e a t Morehouse Colleg e an d Howar d University , heralde d "th e mothe r wh o chiefly bear s th e burden " an d declare d tha t "th e stor y o f lov e an d patience an d sacrific e i s unending." 27 Henr y Kletzin g an d Willia m

17 IDEOLOGIES AN D D I S C O U R S E S

ers. 21 Washington's industria l mode l gaine d additiona l momentu m fro m the home economic s movement, whos e principles o f scientific efficiency provided furthe r justificatio n fo r women' s relegatio n t o th e domesti c sphere. 22 No t onl y wa s housekeepin g elevate d t o a vocation ; i t wa s purported t o buil d character , edif y mora l integrity , an d improv e wom an's health . Eunic e Freeman , i n The Colored American Magazine, argue d that housewor k b e though t o f no t a s "drudgery " bu t a s a busines s i n which on e wa s "trained. " Sh e furthe r recommende d housewor k fo r improving women' s postur e an d carriage : "Th e hom e i s a gymnasium ; the broom , bedsteads , duster , dishes , etc. , th e apparatu s b y mean s o f which th e woma n ca n make hersel f strong, erect , activ e an d graceful." 23 In simila r spirit , th e stooples s dustpa n wa s celebrate d i n on e Africa n American newspape r colum n fo r it s healthfu l effects , a s wel l a s it s influence i n "cultivating ] th e spiri t o f contentment." 24 Tucke d beneat h these toute d advancement s wer e prescription s fo r restrictiv e femal e be havior an d status . The discours e o f many Africa n America n mal e leaders reflecte d thes e prescriptions no t onl y throug h thei r emphasi s o n mora l educatio n bu t also throug h thei r idealize d imagery , whic h embellishe d th e emotiona l and mora l superiorit y o f women . Consisten t wit h tru e womanhood , female dutie s wer e extolled : "Ti s he r dut y t o uplift , purif y an d adorn. " Occasionally, thei r language waxed poetic: "Sh e [woman ] i s to mankin d what th e su n i s t o th e universe." 25 Suc h attitude s n o doub t prompte d Anna Julia Cooper , i n A Voice from the South, t o conclude :

I D E O L O G I E S AN_D_pj^_0_U^SJ S

18

Crogman detaile d th e characteristic s o f "good " mother s a s "capabl e o f being characte r builders , patient , loving , strong , an d true , whos e home s will be a n upliftin g powe r i n th e race. " They als o urge d tha t wome n b e enlightened s o that "the y ma y be abl e to bles s their home s b y the purit y of thei r lives , th e tendernes s o f thei r hearts , an d th e strengt h o f thei r intellects." 28 In History of the Colored Race in America, William Alexande r praised wome n wh o devote d thei r live s t o others : "Ther e i s somethin g more tha n intellect , an d tha t i s purit y an d virtue." 29 Dr . Kingsley , referencing hi s ideas to thos e o f Dr. Edward Clark's , contraste d woman' s intrinsic natur e t o tha t o f man's : "Surel y thi s i s woman' s calling—t o teach ma n . . . t o tempe r hi s fiercer , coarser , mor e self-assertiv e nature , by th e contac t o f he r gentleness , purity , self-sacrifice." 30 A frequen t speaker t o th e Chicag o Africa n America n women' s clubs , Dr. Jefferson , concurred: " A virtuou s woma n i s a crown t o he r husband . He r pric e i s above rubies." 31 Even thoug h Africa n America n me n elevate d women , thereb y cir cumscribing thei r roles , Africa n America n wome n wer e wel l awar e o f the egalitaria n statu s the y hel d wit h thei r men . Wome n eve n spok e o f their superiorit y t o men , subvertin g men' s chivalrou s portrait s o f them . For example, in her advocacy of female suffrage , Fanni e Barrier William s argued tha t Africa n America n wome n wer e bette r educate d an d pre pared t o vot e tha n whe n thei r me n ha d bee n grante d th e right. 32 lon e Gibbs insiste d tha t Africa n America n women , wh o ha d bee n equa l t o men sinc e slavery , no w surpasse d them. 33 Wome n ofte n chos e t o pro mote thei r egalitaria n statu s instead , arguin g tha t th e responsibilit y o f upstanding mora l behavio r reste d wit h bot h me n an d women . I n he r essay, "Enlightene d Motherhood, " presente d t o th e Brookly n Literar y Society, France s Harpe r advise d mother s no t t o encourag e doubl e stan dards fo r son s bu t t o hol d the m t o th e sam e Christia n standard s a s thei r daughters. 34 Fanni e Barrie r William s chide d Africa n America n me n fo r not protectin g Africa n America n women' s honor , a s well a s fo r failin g to distinguis h thei r physica l beaut y fro m character . Sh e argue d tha t i f men treate d thei r wome n respectfully , "i t woul d hel p i n thei r [Africa n American women's ] overal l world-wid e respect." 35 Suc h statement s pointed t o Africa n America n women' s concer n wit h respectability , no t elevated stature . Nonetheless , a s bel l hook s noted , Africa n Amer ican me n an d wome n ofte n hel d "contradictin g positions " o n thei r roles.36

In the home circle, and around the fireside, her teaching begins with the first dawn of intelligence. . . . She it is who teaches those qualities that are so essential to any race or tribe of beings—morality. . . . Christianity . . . economy.^1

19 I D E O L O G I E S AN D D I S C O U R S E S

Unlike Africa n America n me n wh o deeme d wome n mora l guardian s because o f thei r superio r virtue , Africa n America n wome n considere d themselves s o because o f their responsibilitie s a s mothers an d caregivers . Although th e primac y o f motherhoo d wa s a n overarchin g them e o f both Africa n America n an d whit e women' s clubs , Africa n America n women's articulatio n o f motherhoo d differe d immensely . Unlik e th e dyadic mother-child relationshi p i n dominan t society , African America n expressions o f motherhood extende d t o th e car e o f others' children , th e elderly, and those less fortunate. A s Deborah Gra y White articulated , th e multiple role s o f teachers , wives , an d charit y worker s wer e expression s of mothering , no t unlik e Patrici a Hil l Collin s s elaboratio n o f "othe r mothers." 37 As mentioned previously , th e N A C W reflecte d thi s constel lation o f caregivin g i n thei r establishmen t o f mothers ' clubs , uplif t activities, an d "othe r homes. " In essence , Africa n America n clu b wome n wov e thes e thread s o f motherhood int o th e ver y fabri c o f th e race' s destiny . Th e buildin g u p of hom e lif e wa s quintessentia l becaus e al l rac e refor m an d progres s originated there . A s Mar y Churc h Terrel l alliterativel y stated : "Homes , more homes, better homes, purer homes is the text upon whic h sermon s have bee n an d wil l b e preached." 38 Th e tria d o f mother , home , an d child fittingl y constitute d on e o f th e N A C W s majo r departments . I n their articulatio n o f motherhood , th e clu b wome n rekindle d th e spiri t of th e Republica n motherhood . Fo r example , i n th e spiri t o f wha t Josephine Silon e Yate s calle d a "ne w era, " clu b wome n proclaime d tha t the futur e leadershi p o f thei r rac e spran g fro m a firm foundatio n o f home life. 39 Becaus e mother s wer e thei r children' s first teachers , Mar y Church Terrel l referre d t o hom e lif e a s th e "firs t ste p i n natio n build ing." 40 Mar y Ric e Phelp s elaborated :

IDEOLOGIES AN D D I S C O U R S E S

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Reverting t o the origina l Republican motherhood' s preoccupatio n wit h male leadership , som e wome n particularl y encourage d th e educatio n o f their sons . Mrs . Pettey , wif e o f Bisho p Pettey , contended , "Whe n ou r homes become intelligent , w e shal l have intelligent statesmen , ministers , and doctors ; in fact , th e whol e regim e tha t lead s will be intelligent." 42 In promotin g hom e life , th e clu b wome n re-echoe d no t onl y th e Republican motherhoo d bu t als o Booke r T . Washington' s maxim s o f thrift, industriousness , an d self-reliance . Thi s wa s particularl y tru e fo r poorer Africa n America n women . Th e clu b wome n directe d specia l efforts a t wome n i n th e South , wher e th e socia l an d economi c condi tions ha d improve d littl e sinc e emancipation . Again , rac e uplif t an d respectability wer e imperativ e a s clu b wome n employe d thei r teachin g and organizationa l skill s t o bette r th e live s o f poore r wome n an d chil dren. A s Josephine St . Pierr e Ruffm , nationa l an d stat e clu b organize r for th e NACW , advanced , th e live s o f "fin e culture d women " wer e inseparable fro m thos e les s fortunate : Now for the sake of the thousand of self-sacrificing young women teaching and preaching in the lonely southern backwoods for the noble army of mothers who have given birth to these girls, mothers whose intelligence is limited only by their opportunity to get at books, for the sake of the fine cultured women who have carried off the honors in school here and often abroad, for the sake of our own dignity, the dignity of our race, and the future good name of our children.^3

Although sh e an d Fanni e Barrie r William s encourage d Norther n clubs t o reac h dow n an d assis t thei r Souther n sisters , wit h increase d migration t o th e Norther n citie s th e clu b women refocuse d thei r effort s to assis t African American s ne w t o th e North . Again , industria l educa tion, aki n t o Washington' s model , wa s mos t ofte n advocate d fo r th e poor. Sewing , cooking , an d sundr y domesti c skill s were taugh t no t onl y to provid e poore r wome n wit h improve d homemakin g skills ; the y also dovetaile d wit h th e "professionalization " o f domesti c service. 44 A s described i n chapte r 5 , th e Africa n America n settlement s i n Chicag o offered suc h classes , a s wel l a s employmen t referra l services , s o tha t poorer African America n wome n coul d procure domesti c work. Despit e the denigratio n ofte n associate d wit h domesti c service , Africa n Ameri can clu b wome n accorde d dignit y t o suc h wor k b y acknowledgin g th e

efforts an d sacrifices workin g women mad e t o provide fo r thei r families . The clu b women, too , were acutely aware of the discriminatory practice s that poore r Africa n America n women , a s well a s they themselves , face d in gainfu l employmen t opportunities . SOCIAL CONCERNS AN D SOCIA L DISTINCTION S

Accordingly, th e clu b wome n spli t thei r D u Boisian-Washingtonia n allegiances an d ideologie s alon g socia l clas s lines . Mor e specifically , they mos t ofte n prescribe d Washingtonia n remedie s fo r poore r an d les s

21 I D E O L O G I E S AN D D I S C O U R S E S

As noted, respectabilit y wa s a n overridin g concer n i n man y o f the clu b activities. Beginning wit h th e organizatio n o f the NACW , clu b wome n demonstrated throug h thei r discourse s an d activitie s tha t thei r woman hood wa s beyond reproach . Respectability , however , wa s perceive d an d expressed a s a collectiv e strategy . I t extende d beyon d th e club s becaus e the African America n clu b women's reputation , a s well as the race's , was intricately connecte d t o al l Africa n America n women . A dialecti c wa s formed, then , a s club wome n conjoine d rhetoricall y al l African Ameri can women , ye t i n thei r socia l lives carefull y chos e thei r associations . Although clu b wome n promote d a prescribe d se t o f standard s fo r home lif e an d socia l life, whic h serve d a s "badges o f race respectability, " they hel d themselve s t o highe r ideals. 45 The y followe d D u Bois' s pre scription tha t "socia l distinction s b e observed." 46 Becaus e clu b wome n perceived themselve s a s "ambassadors " o f the race , the y too k grea t car e to ensur e that thei r deportmen t wa s beyond reproach . I n many case s this necessitated disassociatin g themselve s fro m th e behavio r o f poorer Afri can Americans. Suc h stratificatio n wa s eviden t i n Mar y Churc h Terrell' s statement, "Eve n thoug h w e wis h t o shu n the m [les s fortunate Africa n American women] , an d hol d ourselve s entirel y aloo f fro m them , w e cannot escap e th e consequence s o f thei r acts." 47 A s Harle y observed , African America n clu b wome n occasionall y expresse d disma y whe n white person s faile d t o perceiv e clas s difference s an d judged al l Africa n American wome n collectively 48 Tha t suc h clas s difference s wer e dem onstrated an d judge d wa s eviden t i n D u Bois' s appraisa l o f Africa n American clu b women' s deportmen t a t on e women' s convention : "Un doubtedly th e wome n assemble d a t Chicag o wer e rathe r abov e th e average of their race and represented th e aristocracy among the Negroes . Consequently thei r eviden t intelligenc e an d ai r o f good breedin g serve d also t o impres s th e onlookers." 49

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educated women , whil e adherin g t o a Du Boisia n mode l i n thei r ow n lives. T o illustrate , th e clu b wome n ofte n engage d i n educativ e prac tices—literary talks , politica l addresses , theate r productions , victrol a recitals, an d lyceums—which marked , a s well as preserved, thei r leader ship roles . However, a s the African America n middl e clas s mushroome d in th e lat e nineteent h centur y i n Chicago , clu b wome n furthe r distin guished themselve s from poore r women no t onl y throug h thei r selectiv e club membership s bu t als o throug h exclusiv e socia l affair s an d display s of cultura l capital . Suc h ritual s wer e no t considere d frivolou s no r self serving, a s socia l uplif t wa s usuall y embedde d i n suc h socia l occasions . For example , fee s collecte d fro m a whis t tournamen t wer e earmarke d for a charity ; concurrently , th e circui t o f cultura l capital—whis t prize s of Japanese vases , crysta l dishes , an d cu t glassware—circulate d withi n the clu b circles . I n Chicag o charit y ball s organize d b y th e clu b wome n yielded thousand s o f dollar s t o suppor t th e Ol d Folks ' Home , a s clu b women begowne d i n lavis h dresse s o f sil k an d importe d lac e prome naded i n th e ball' s "Gran d March. " Clearly , som e clu b women' s live s moved beyon d th e exemplar y o r respectabl e i n thei r conspicuou s con sumption. I n th e meldin g o f thei r discourse s an d ideologies , a s well a s in thei r ritual s an d practices , Africa n America n clu b wome n mediate d but di d no t alway s resolv e th e tension s o f socia l class , regionalism , an d gender. Despite th e visibilit y o f socia l clas s distinctions , clu b wome n forme d various layer s o f sisterhood an d allegiance s t o poore r rac e women. Clu b women, a s mentione d above , suffere d discriminatio n i n th e Nort h a s well a s i n th e South . Althoug h th e clu b women' s languag e wa s replet e with socia l clas s markers , i t als o reflecte d thei r acut e awarenes s o f th e dilapidated tenements , inferio r healt h facilities , an d deart h o f employ ment an d educationa l opportunitie s tha t man y poore r Africa n Ameri cans faced. Rathe r tha n placin g blame upo n th e victims o f such circum stances, African America n clu b women, especiall y in Chicago , proteste d the root s o f these conditions : persistent discriminatio n an d racism . Clu b women kne w ho w tenuou s rac e progress an d respectability wer e i n ligh t of the continue d resurgenc e o f Jim Cro w practices . African America n clu b wome n no t onl y mediate d socia l clas s an d gender tension s withi n thei r ow n communitie s bu t als o deal t wit h tensions betwee n whit e clu b wome n an d themselves . Th e languag e African America n clu b wome n use d whe n speakin g o f motherhood ,

Indeed, th e Africa n America n clu b women' s "bicultura l voice, " t o use Evelyn Higginbotham's phrase, acted as a bridge in educating "publi c opinion," o r more specifically , i n changin g white clu b women's negativ e attitudes towar d Africa n America n women. 51 Th e Africa n America n club wome n i n Chicag o wer e no t immun e fro m exclusion , eviden t i n their denie d participatio n i n th e Chicag o World' s Fai r o f 189 3 an d i n Fannie Barrie r Williams' s rejecte d applicatio n fo r membershi p i n th e Chicago Woman's Club , a prominent native-bor n white women's club. 52 Williams noted tha t when Africa n America n clu b women founde d thei r own nationa l organization , whit e clu b wome n showe d the m greate r respect.53 Josephine St . Pierr e Ruffin , too , observe d tha t th e NACW' s success pu t Africa n America n wome n o n a n equa l footin g wit h whit e women: "I t show s tha t w e ar e trul y America n women , wit h al l th e adaptability, readines s t o seiz e an d posses s ou r opportunities , willingnes s to d o ou r par t fo r goo d a s other America n women. " 54 Although Africa n America n clu b wome n spok e o f th e similaritie s between thei r club s an d whit e women' s an d use d a commo n rhetoric , they als o emphasize d thei r differences . Fanni e Barrie r William s note d how initiall y Africa n America n wome n ha d followed , no t imitated , th e example o f whit e women' s clubs . I n th e sam e breat h sh e gav e homag e to th e antecedent s o f th e Africa n America n clu b movement—th e churches an d th e secre t societies—wherei n Africa n America n wome n not onl y ha d engage d i n socia l refor m bu t als o ha d becom e furthe r informed o n rac e issues. 55 As discusse d mor e full y i n chapte r 6 , Africa n

23 IDEOLOGIES AN D D I S C O U R S E S

womanhood, an d hom e lif e wa s remarkabl y comple x an d resilient ; i t served no t onl y multipl e purpose s bu t multipl e audiences , includin g white clu b women , Africa n America n clu b members , poore r Africa n American women , an d Africa n America n men . Buildin g upo n Hine' s "culture o f dissemblance, " I argu e tha t th e clu b women' s discours e created a "psychi c space, " throug h whic h the y adapte d thei r languag e and ideologie s t o multipl e audiences , thereb y maintainin g thei r ow n autonomy an d identity. 50 Fo r example , th e rhetori c o f motherhood , home life, and children's welfare wa s common t o both African America n and whit e women' s clubs . So , too , wer e th e image s o f th e cul t o f true womanhoo d an d o f Christianity , despit e thei r culturall y specifi c expressions, sociall y appropriat e i n th e lat e nineteent h an d earl y twenti eth centur y fo r clu b women . Ye t th e subtex t o f th e practices , rituals , and activitie s remaine d distinctl y thei r own .

I DEO LOGIE S A N D D I S C O U R SE S

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American wome n historicall y ha d participate d i n antislaver y societies , lyceums, literary societies, and chautauquas , testimony t o thei r influenc e in these endurin g African America n literar y traditions . Indeed , sinc e th e early 1800s , communit y uplif t an d self-uplif t ha d bee n intertwined , a s those mor e fortunat e assiste d thos e i n need . Thi s communit y etho s wa s restated b y th e clu b wome n wh o i n studyin g th e "sub-conditions " o f the rac e propose d suc h resolution s a s "bette r schools , homes , jobs. " Fannie Barrier Williams observed that, unlike the white clu b movement , which uplifte d th e "alread y uplifted, " th e Africa n America n clu b move ment consiste d o f "th e fe w competen t one s o n behal f o f th e man y incompetent." 56 In distinguishin g th e tw o clu b movements , Africa n America n mem bers especiall y solidifie d thei r sisterhoo d an d network s wit h othe r Afri can America n clu b women . I n he r comparison s o f Africa n America n and whit e clu b women' s lives , Linda Gordo n carefull y note d th e simila r backgrounds o f Africa n America n clu b women. 57 Mos t wer e colleg e educated, o f middle-clas s standing , an d marrie d t o professiona l men . Likewise, man y clu b member s considere d themselve s member s o f th e "talented tenth " an d fel t a combine d sens e o f socia l commitmen t an d superiority. Suc h portrait s hav e bee n corroborate d b y Emm a Thornbrough an d Sharo n Harley , wh o pointe d ou t th e prevalenc e o f professionals, suc h a s schoo l teachers , i n th e women' s club s o f Indian a and Washington , D.C. , respectively. 58 I n he r enumeratio n o f clu b women a s teachers , authors , artists , musicians , an d linguists , Fanni e Barrier William s praise d th e professionalis m o f clu b women : "Th e woman thu s portrayed i s the rea l new woma n i n America n life. " 59 The background s o f man y o f th e Africa n America n clu b wome n i n Chicago wer e similar to thos e o f Gordon's study . Through thei r multipl e club memberships , th e clu b wome n no t onl y forme d dee p friendship s and camaraderi e bu t als o create d web s o f collaborativ e fund-raisin g an d uplift activities . M y analysi s o f clu b membership s i n Chicag o ha s re vealed that clu b women selectivel y joined club s according to socia l class, neighborhoods, churc h affiliation , politica l persuasion , an d commo n interests. Fo r example , Fanni e Barrie r William s an d Ev a Jenifer wer e members o f th e Frederic k Douglas s Center , a s wel l a s o f th e Africa n American YWCA . Thes e clu b women , a s well a s thes e tw o organiza tions, nurture d thei r affiliation s wit h th e leadin g whit e women' s club s and organizations . Clu b wome n Iren e Goins , Joanna Snowden-Porter ,

Sophia Boaz, an d Dr. Mar y Waring , al l quite activ e in club s noteworth y for chil d welfare, later worked closel y with th e juvenile courts . Member s of th e whis t clubs , whic h proliferated , mos t curiously , durin g th e wa r years, di d no t join man y o f th e club s involve d i n socia l uplift , an d th e club wome n mos t involve d i n socia l welfar e di d no t usuall y join whis t clubs. Generally , Africa n America n women' s club s i n Chicag o devote d a larg e par t o f thei r tim e an d effor t t o supportin g thre e "homes" : th e Phyllis Wheatle y Home , fo r youn g workin g girls ; th e Amand a Smit h Home, late r th e Amand a Smit h Industria l School , fo r dependen t an d orphaned girls ; an d th e Ol d Folks ' Home . I n focusin g thei r effort s o n these institutions , th e clu b wome n ensure d th e homes ' sustenanc e an d at the same time created multiple social occasions in which the y mutuall y participated, thu s deepenin g thei r friendship s an d socia l ties . I n essence , then, socia l status an d uplif t wer e enmeshed . Despite thes e Africa n America n clu b women' s relatively privileged lives, t o us e Gordon' s phrase , they , lik e thei r poore r sisters , were subjec t to discriminator y practices. 60 Th e clu b wome n dre w upo n an d syner gized thi s collectiv e identity , especiall y i n th e politica l arena . I n th e cas e of female suffrage , clu b wome n inverte d th e argumen t o f respectability , providing irrefutabl e evidenc e tha t Ji m Cro w law s an d practice s pre vented rac e women an d men fro m improvin g th e standard s o f their live s and thei r livelihood . Th e vote , the y argued , woul d b e on e viabl e instrument fo r communit y representatio n an d woul d improv e th e socia l and economi c live s of African America n citizens . I n spit e o f their initia l success wit h suffrage , th e clu b wome n remaine d o n th e margin s o f th e political arena . Althoug h the y worke d alongsid e thei r men , wome n more ofte n assume d subordinat e an d less visible political positions. The y usually worke d a s volunteers, fo r example , i n registerin g an d educatin g voters on political platforms an d issues. 61 Although mos t African Ameri can mal e leader s expecte d wome n t o b e involve d i n communit y uplift , they though t primaril y i n term s o f th e traditiona l femal e role s an d concerns, especiall y socia l uplif t an d chil d welfare . Ironically , Africa n American clu b women , i n promotin g thei r communit y role s a s caretak ers an d "othe r mothers, " ha d tacitl y circumscribe d thei r potentia l fo r political leadership (althoug h Id a B. Wells was certainl y on e exception) . This i s no t t o sugges t tha t clu b wome n di d no t engag e i n politica l activity, whic h i s full y detaile d i n chapte r 3 . Rather , a s Beverl y Jone s appraised th e NACW' s focu s a s largel y "domestic, " I woul d note , too ,

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AFRICAN AMERICAN SETTLMENTS

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were aime d a t Africa n America n men . Althoug h ther e i s n o direc t evidence, i t i s likel y tha t sinc e muc h o f th e settlements ' fundin g wa s received from whit e philanthropists an d businessmen, man y o f these jobs were a s strikebreakers . I hav e no t bee n abl e t o documen t thi s connec tion, a s Crocker ha s with th e Stewar t Hous e i n Gary , Indiana , bu t ther e is direc t evidenc e tha t man y Africa n America n me n fro m th e Sout h were hire d a s "scabs" durin g th e strikes. 56 Although th e Emanuel Settlemen t an d the Frederic k Douglas s Cente r organized employmen t bureaus , I wa s unabl e t o locat e an y record s pertaining t o these services . In the cas e of the Negr o Fellowshi p League , employment referral s wer e no t enumerated . Rather , service s wer e grouped collectively , a s in th e 191 5 report , whic h state d tha t mor e tha n "10,000 men , wome n an d childre n receive d som e typ e o f benefit, b e i t a job , lodging , o r charity." 57 Occasionally , anecdota l report s o f th e league's interventio n wer e noted , a s described i n chapte r 3 . The domesti c classe s provide d furthe r trainin g towar d domesti c ser vice fo r poore r Africa n America n women . Yet , ther e i s evidenc e tha t a number o f middle-class women owne d thei r own millinery, hairdressing , and dressmakin g shop s o r worke d fro m thei r homes . Thus , i t wa s possible tha t ther e wa s th e perception tha t sewin g classe s migh t provid e upward mobilit y economically . Indeed , th e Clote e Scot t Settlemen t encouraged suc h thoughts : "Th e youn g Negr o gir l wil l no t alway s b e compelled t o hun t fo r wor k a s laundres s i f sh e wil l onl y gras p th e opportunity t o mak e a n hones t livin g b y becomin g a competen t dress maker." 58 Althoug h th e settlement s di d no t organiz e domesti c schools , the handin g ou t o f certificate s an d diploma s pointe d t o a credentialin g process tha t wa s reflecte d i n othe r women' s work , suc h a s chiropody , manicuring, an d th e "menta l sciences. " I t i s quit e likel y tha t thes e diplomas wer e give n t o young girl s who di d no t complet e hig h school .

By 191 9 al l o f th e settlements , wit h th e exceptio n o f th e Wendel l Phillips Settlement , ha d closed . Th e Chicag o branc h o f th e Urba n League, a s a n umbrell a organization , subsume d man y o f th e settlemen t and clu b activities . I n fact , i n 191 8 th e Frederic k Douglas s Cente r became th e league' s headquarters. 59 Man y o f th e whit e settlemen t re formers, suc h a s Sophonisb a Breckinridg e an d Jan e Addams , turne d their allegianc e t o th e league , a s did som e o f the Africa n America n clu b

1 07 AFRICAN AMERICA N SETTLEMENT S

women. Othe r clu b women , however , especiall y Id a B . Wells , wer e suspicious o f th e Urba n League' s supplantin g th e smalle r communit y institutions. 60 Wells' s suspicion s wer e wel l founded , becaus e 9 0 percen t of th e league' s budge t wa s derive d fro m whit e philanthrop y (wit h R o senwald providing approximatel y 3 3 percent o f the budget). 61 Decision making power wa s removed fro m th e community , a s Weiss has corrobo rated, i n tha t th e leagu e wa s consume d wit h immediat e problem s o f housing an d employment , rathe r tha n politica l an d lega l representa tion. 62 The leagu e sponsore d boys ' an d girls ' clubs , summe r camps , kinder gartens, nurseries , an d lodgin g an d employmen t referra l services , a s th e settlements ha d done . Nonetheless, i t is questionable whethe r th e leagu e functioned i n th e sam e way s a s the neighborhoo d settlements . Fo r on e thing, th e leagu e wa s locate d adjacen t t o th e Blac k Belt , rathe r tha n within it . Furthermore , th e leagu e worke d i n conjunctio n wit h a num ber o f institutions, includin g th e juvenile courts , churches , socia l agen cies, an d civi c organizations . A s such, i t los t th e interdependenc y o f th e mutual ai d societie s an d th e collaborativ e network s o f th e women' s clubs, a s it functione d wit h increasingl y comple x bureaucracie s suc h a s the juvenile court .

SIX LITERARY CLUB S

L I T E R A R Y EVENTS , LIK E MAN Y OTHE R AFRICA N AMERI -

can clu b activities , wer e no t subjec t t o narro w purpose s or expressions . Whethe r i n th e for m o f lyceums, debates , or essa y contests , literar y stud y wa s ofte n wedde d t o th e oral tradition s o f oratory , elocution , recitation , testimony , and sermons. 1 Likewise , th e stud y o f "literature " embrace d man y topics, rangin g fro m politic s an d philosoph y t o art , religion , travel , an d sociology. Th e literar y artifact s examine d i n thi s chapte r includ e essays , editorials, newspape r columns , addresses , an d publishe d speeches , al l o f which illustrat e clu b women' s versatility . Th e scop e o f literary activitie s points t o th e way s in whic h th e clu b wome n relate d th e politica l t o th e literary, th e secula r to th e religious , an d th e written t o th e spoke n word . The Africa n America n literar y club s i n Chicag o owe d thei r breadt h to a confluence o f literary traditions : th e Africa n America n literar y an d church societies , th e lyceums, an d th e Chautauqu a movement . Doroth y Porter's classi c stud y o f earl y Africa n America n literar y societie s ha s documented th e variou s genres , topics , an d setting s i n whic h literar y

Moral fortitud e wa s imperativ e i n tha t th e literar y societie s wer e no t simply founde d fo r self-improvemen t bu t als o fo r futur e generations . The Africa n Femal e Benevolen t Societ y o f Newport , Rhod e Island , raised mone y fo r a children' s school. 5 Th e Femal e Anti-Slaver y Societ y in Salem , Massachusetts , wa s devote d t o self-improvemen t a s wel l a s freedom fo r al l Africa n Americans. 6 Consequently , th e societie s estab lished readin g room s an d librarie s t o provid e educationa l resource s i n their communities. 7 Th e twi n effort s o f individual an d rac e uplift woul d be late r demonstrate d i n th e women' s literar y club s in Chicago . African America n wome n wer e also active in the abolitionis t societies . Maria W . Stewar t an d Sara h M . Douglass , amon g others , delivere d antislavery lecture s durin g th e 1830s , when publi c speakin g was consid ered a male activity . France s Ellen Watkin s Harpe r no t onl y lecture d o n behalf o f abolitio n bu t als o wrot e antislaver y poetry . Man y wome n contributed letters , articles , slav e narratives , an d editorials , albei t ofte n anonymously, t o th e antislaver y newspapers. 8 Th e lyceums , too , pro vided opportunit y fo r orator y performanc e an d literar y study . I n con junction wit h th e Secon d Grea t Awakening , th e lyceums ' purpos e wa s the "mutua l improvement " o f bot h "intellectua l an d mora l faculties." 9 Like the earl y literary societies , th e lyceums bridge d fro m mora l charac ter t o th e intellectua l activitie s o f lectures , dramati c performances , an d debates. Although th e earl y lyceums were certainl y not limited t o youn g women, th e mora l "improvements " proffere d b y th e lyceum s wer e compatible wit h thos e o f tru e womanhood : t o "refin e thei r [youths' ] feelings, enlighten , elevat e and dignify thei r minds, and soften an d purif y their hearts." 10 Nonetheless, th e publi c natur e o f lyceum s prepare d women , a t leas t native-born whit e women , t o giv e addresse s o n politica l issues . Ann a Dickinson, th e "Quee n o f the Platform, " spok e o n women' s right s an d

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study occurred. 2 Th e socia l an d politica l concern s o f abolition, temper ance, benevolence , an d later , suffrag e an d politica l representatio n wer e articulated throug h elocution , addresses , an d essays . Eve n then , suc h issues were expresse d i n distinctl y gendere d ways . Yee has noted tha t th e African America n mal e abolitionis t societie s emphasize d debate , rheto ric, an d oratory , wherea s women' s societie s encourage d thei r members ' mental improvemen t "i n orde r t o fulfil l thei r femal e responsibilities." 3 Such "femal e responsibilities " wer e ofte n predicate d upo n "goo d mora l character," on e o f the requirement s fo r membershi p i n societie s suc h a s the Afric-America n Femal e Intelligenc e Societ y o f Boston. 4

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African America n suffrag e durin g th e 1860s . Elizabet h Cad y Stanton , Susan B . Anthony , an d Luc y Ston e wer e likewis e arden t i n thei r ad dresses o n temperance , abolition , an d women's suffrage. 11 Som e Africa n American males , mos t notabl y Frederic k Douglass , travele d th e lyceu m circuit an d wer e popula r speakers . Douglas s frequentl y entertaine d hi s Northern audience s wit h parodi c performance s o f slaveholdin g clerics ' sermons. A s " a masterfu l Signifier, " Douglas s caricature d no t onl y th e plantation maste r bu t als o th e subservien t slave. 12 I n a mor e seriou s tenor, Douglas s lecture d o n abolitio n an d suffrag e fo r Africa n America n men an d women . A t on e lyceu m meetin g i n Cincinnat i i n 1868 , Douglass's deliver y was praised a s "purer Englis h . . . not a word sugges tive o f Souther n pronunciation , emphasi s o r manner." 13 S o powerfu l were hi s word s tha t hi s speeche s an d addresse s wer e ofte n recite d b y others. Unlike th e nationa l lyceu m circuit , th e first Chicag o lyceum s wer e a distinctly mal e domain . Th e Chicag o Lyceum , th e Chicag o Mechanic s Institute, th e Youn g Men' s Lyceum , an d th e Youn g Men' s Associatio n restricted thei r membershi p t o men . Wome n mos t likel y attende d th e lectures o f prominen t orator s suc h a s Emerson , however. 14 Instea d o f intellectual study , mos t Chicag o femal e societie s durin g th e 1830 s an d 1840s performe d charit y an d benevolen t work , especiall y fo r orphan s and th e poor . Eve n whe n th e first whit e femal e club , th e Chicag o Woman's Club , wa s organized , i t stil l continue d t o engag e i n "practica l work." 15 Th e Chicag o kindergarte n an d mothers ' clubs , whic h con nected literar y an d artisti c stud y t o chil d development , continue d th e two effort s o f self-cultivation an d maternalisti c responsibilities . Coinciding wit h th e emergenc e o f a growin g Africa n America n middle class , th e first Africa n America n lyceum s i n Chicag o wer e organized i n th e 1890s . Mos t o f th e lyceums , establishe d throug h th e Presbyterian an d th e America n Methodis t Episcopa l denominations , were locate d i n Englewood , Morga n Park , an d Hyd e Park . Althoug h the lyceum s wer e originall y fo r adults , yout h lyceum s soo n followe d t o promote th e intellectua l an d politica l developmen t o f futur e leaders . The lyceum s provide d a foru m fo r member s t o debat e an d discus s community issues—on e tha t Carte r G . Woodso n though t particularl y appealing fo r younge r persons. 16 Althoug h membershi p i n th e lyceum s was usuall y restricte d t o churc h members , th e lyceum s als o sponsore d Sunday forums, whic h wer e attende d by many African Americans . Suc h

Reminiscent o f all-da y Sunda y meeting s durin g slavery , meetings , social gatherings , an d fund-raisin g event s occurre d i n Chicag o Africa n American churche s throughou t th e da y o n Sunday . Th e lyceums , too , embraced thi s traditio n throug h thei r forum s o n Sunda y afternoons . Themes from th e morning sermon o r the political address of the evenin g before migh t b e furthe r deliberated , a s fo r th e lyceu m a t St . Mark s Church Literar y an d Historica l Societ y i n Boston, wher e extemporane ous talkin g an d livel y debat e fro m th e floo r wer e bot h frequen t an d expected. 19 I n Chicago th e programs often followe d a prescribed format , with th e keynot e speake r precede d an d followe d b y voca l an d instru mental performance s an d poetr y recitations . Ofte n th e lyceu m con cluded wit h a choir o r musi c quartet . The Africa n America n wome n wer e particularl y activ e a s speaker s and organizer s i n thes e lyceums . I n th e cas e o f the Englewoo d Lyceum , the women' s program s wer e ofte n considere d mor e "original " an d successful tha n those organized with th e men. African America n wome n were likely to experienc e gende r tensions like those noted by Higginbo tham, an d i n respons e the y mediate d thei r multipl e membership s i n their churches , clubs , an d politica l organizations. 20 I n som e case s thes e tensions wer e minimize d b y organizin g forum s an d occasions , suc h a s a "gala day, " when wome n wer e th e designate d speaker s an d performers . More ofte n tha n not , though , participatio n i n th e lyceum s wa s mor e egalitarian. Fo r example , mos t o f th e debat e team s too k grea t car e i n

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gatherings serve d t o infor m th e Africa n America n communit y a t larg e of key political an d socia l issues. Fittingly, speaker s were chose n fo r thei r national prominenc e an d thei r orator y skills . The churc h lyceum s wer e roote d i n Africa n America n churc h tradi tions. Not onl y did ministers frequently us e the pulpit t o deliver political and socia l commentary ; leadin g communit y leader s als o ofte n stoo d before th e congregatio n t o delive r addresse s no t unlik e th e ministers' . Booker T . Washington , fo r one , spok e th e firs t Sunda y o f eac h mont h before hi s congregatio n i n Tuskegee , admonishin g member s t o practic e the virtues o f thrift, industry , an d punctuality. 17 Just a s political message s were interwoven wit h religiou s images, so too were th e religious theme s of exodu s an d homelan d politicall y charged . Som e scholar s hav e sug gested tha t th e distinc t genre s o f dramati c history , poetry , oratory , an d philosophical essay s developed from thes e biblical readings and commen tary.18

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selecting a n equa l numbe r o f mal e an d femal e participants . Similarly , prizes wer e awarde d t o bot h th e bes t femal e an d th e bes t mal e writer s in essa y contests . Like th e lyceums , Chautauqua s reflecte d a confluence o f mainstrea m and African America n traditions . There i s evidence tha t African Ameri cans participate d t o a limited exten t i n th e nationa l Chautauqu a move ment, althoug h mos t were musicians who san g jubilee song s and spiritu als. Occasiona l speaker s wer e selecte d fro m th e Booke r T . Washingto n camp, fo r example , Rober t B . Moton , principa l o f th e Tuskege e Insti tute, whos e speec h "Th e Blac k Ma n an d th e War " echoe d th e accom modationist approach . Suc h speeche s wer e chose n t o pleas e a largel y white audience. 21 Th e Chautauqu a movemen t especiall y hel d grea t interest fo r wome n wh o wishe d t o expan d thei r education , albei t infor mally. Chautauqu a organizers , i n fact , seize d upo n thi s opportunity ; a n analysis o f Chautauqu a lecture s reveale d tha t ove r hal f o f th e speeche s focused o n motherhoo d an d th e home. 22 Whit e wome n especiall y expanded thi s domesti c agend a t o includ e femal e suffrage , temperance , settlement work , an d chil d labor laws. 23 Although n o record s o f Africa n American femal e speaker s wer e found , Africa n America n wome n di d participate, t o som e extent , i n Chautauqu a stud y courses . I n Atlanta' s Chautauqua Circle , on e o f th e oldes t Africa n America n women' s club s in th e city , th e wome n move d t o th e topi c o f rac e improvemen t afte r studying th e Chautauqu a courses. 24 In Chicag o th e Chautauqu a movemen t wa s especiall y popular amon g mothers an d kindergarte n educators . Th e Chautauqu a Kindergarte n Department i n Ne w York , affiliate d wit h th e Chicag o Kindergarte n Institute, offere d course s i n Froebelia n pedagog y an d philosoph y through th e mothers ' club s an d kindergarte n college . I n fact , man y nationally renowne d Chautauqu a speaker s haile d fro m th e Universit y o f Chicago. 25 In th e Africa n America n communitie s o f Chicago , however , Chau tauquas hel d les s appeal : th e onl y recorde d Chautauqu a even t occurre d in 190 6 i n th e communit y o f Englewood . Unde r th e auspice s o f St . John's A.M.E . Church , a n outsid e tabernacl e wa s erecte d t o accommo date up t o three thousan d people. The mai n attraction s were evangelisti c sermons, althoug h musical , dramati c an d literar y work s wer e als o per formed. Durin g th e evening s churc h choir s entertaine d th e crowds . Th e Chautauqua events , lik e som e o f th e lyceums , wer e charge d wit h a decidedly femal e influence . O f th e te n days , on e wa s designate d a s

CHICAGO FEMAL E LITERAR Y CLUBS

The women' s literar y club s offere d a n intimat e an d privat e audienc e before whic h wome n migh t offe r thei r ow n interpretatio n o f works , read thei r ow n writings , an d translat e idea s int o uplif t practices . Al though male writers occasionally read their works before African Ameri can women's clubs , I found n o account s o f women readin g their writing s at a men' s meeting . Wome n did , o f course , spea k publicl y o n social , political, an d educationa l issues , an d suc h addresse s an d speeche s wer e original. However , mor e likel y tha n not , femal e club s offere d a distinc t space wher e member s sharin g thei r interpretations , recitations , an d original writing s receive d mutua l suppor t an d encouragement . Not onl y di d th e literar y club s offe r mor e intimat e occasion s fo r sharing perspectives ; becaus e o f th e ver y natur e o f thei r activities , th e literary club s were selectiv e in membership. I t was not sufficien t fo r clu b members t o b e literate ; the y mus t b e o r a t leas t aspir e t o b e literary .

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"mothers day, " o n whic h deaconnesses , nurses , an d missionar y wome n throughout th e cit y me t t o discus s issue s o f "vita l importanc e t o child hood an d womanhood. " O n th e followin g da y representative s fro m nineteen women' s club s sponsore d a n "elaborat e program " a s par t o f Women's Clu b Day 2 6 Suc h program s wer e reminiscen t o f th e A.M.E . mission meetings , organize d b y Rev . Mar y E . Lar k Hill , a t whic h evangelists an d clu b wome n too k turn s speakin g o n th e platform. 27 Although clu b wome n di d no t usuall y joi n th e storefron t churches , such a s th e Quee n Esthe r Mission , the y di d becom e involve d i n th e proselytizing effort s o f their denominations . Several reason s migh t explai n th e lo w popularit y o f the Chautauqua s in th e Africa n America n communitie s o f Chicago. First , a s described i n chapter 2 , ther e wer e demonstrabl e clas s distinction s withi n th e Africa n American churches ; th e Presbyteria n an d Episcopa l churches , ofte n described a s mor e "sedate, " ma y hav e frowne d upo n th e evangelisti c activities an d th e popula r appea l o f the Chautauquas . Second , th e intel lectual an d aestheti c need s o f man y middle-clas s Africa n American s were mor e likel y me t throug h thei r lyceum s an d clubs . Third , th e Chautauqua, a t least i n th e Africa n America n communitie s o f Chicago , seemed t o concentrat e mostl y upo n religiou s conversion , parallelin g th e growing numbe r o f storefron t churche s an d gospe l tent s frequente d b y Southern Africa n America n migrant s wh o settle d i n th e city' s Blac k Belt.

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Such selectivit y was eviden t i n the mor e literary topic s a t club meetings , in contras t t o th e practica l topic s delivere d befor e th e genera l audience s at th e Sunda y forums . Fo r example , a discussio n o f Shakespear e o r Emerson woul d no t hav e bee n hel d a t a forum , no t onl y becaus e i t would b e considere d inappropriat e fo r th e occasion , bu t als o because i t would hav e deflate d th e ver y selectivit y o f suc h stud y Th e stud y o f classical an d moder n literatur e served , then , t o join clu b wome n o f like aspiration an d socia l class. Although man y Africa n America n women' s club s studie d literature , few di d s o exclusively Mos t o f the federate d club s included th e stud y o f philanthropy, home , education , art , an d music . Thes e variou s strand s o f study wer e no t treate d separatel y bu t wer e interrelated , a s clu b woma n Josephine Washingto n noted : "Her e th e member s stud y standar d au thors, rea d the latest books, discus s current event s and compar e opinion s on question s o f interest."28 A s a matter o f course, many o f the members ' original writing s focuse d no t o n gran d literar y theme s bu t o n th e humbler topic s o f home, domesti c art , an d chil d care. 29 Not onl y wer e th e literar y clubs ' topic s diverse , bu t s o als o wa s th e literature studied . Man y o f th e Africa n America n women' s club s rea d both European an d African America n literature. Although clu b meeting s might b e devote d t o Pau l Laurenc e Dunbar' s poetr y o r a nove l b y D u Bois, i t wa s not unusua l fo r meeting s t o includ e a paper o n classica l art , followed b y jubilee singin g an d a Beethoven pian o sonata. 30 Althoug h this assortmen t o f presentation s ma y see m paradoxical , fo r th e clu b women al l o f th e activitie s wer e upliftin g an d educational . T o som e extent thei r readin g repertoire—includin g work s b y Ruskin , Emerson , Ibsen, Shakespeare , Tennyson , an d Eliot—wa s no t unlik e tha t studie d by whit e clu b wome n an d socia l an d settlemen t workers. 31 Ruski n an d Emerson wer e especiall y popular ; the y wer e rea d b y th e Frederic k Douglass Center' s sociolog y class , the Neighborhoo d an d Literar y Soci ety an d th e Universit y Societ y Club. 32 Th e Africa n America n clu b women's cultivatio n o f suc h literar y materials , indeed , reflecte d thei r "double consciousness. " The preponderanc e o f European literature , however , di d no t impl y a dearth o f African America n writing. Prominent mal e and female Africa n American writer s wer e publishe d i n nationa l African America n journals and newspapers . Chicag o clu b wome n Id a B . Wells , Fanni e Barrie r Williams, Bettiol a Forston , an d Iren e McCoy-Gaine s wer e onl y a fe w of th e Africa n America n literat i o f th e city . Chicag o was , i n fact ,

Despite thei r separat e path s o f study , Africa n America n an d whit e club wome n di d creat e opportunitie s fo r joint literar y discussion . Reci procity day s wer e organize d fo r clu b wome n t o mee t an d shar e thei r ideas. Th e Idea l Woman' s Clu b sponsore d suc h a n event , a t whic h members fro m twent y Africa n America n an d whit e women' s club s convened t o discus s Harrie t Beeche r Stowe . Mrs . T . H . Smith , whos e mother ha d been th e mode l for th e characte r "Emily " rea d a letter fro m the autho r t o he r mother . (Emil y wa s th e mulatt o characte r o n th e Shelby Plantatio n i n Kentucky. ) He r presentatio n wa s followed b y vari ous talk s o n th e author' s life , work , an d characters , a s wel l a s o n th e abolitionist movement , b y Mar y McDowel l o f Chicag o University , Mary Diet z o f th e Hul l Hous e Woman' s Club , an d Elizabet h Lindsa y Davis o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club . Afte r th e meeting , a motio n wa s passed t o hono r th e birthda y o f Harrie t Beeche r Stow e i n th e Chicag o communities. 38

Although man y Africa n America n wome n engage d i n som e typ e o f literary study , severa l club s wer e considere d t o b e illustrious . On e suc h club, comprise d o f bot h me n an d women , wa s th e Universit y Society .

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the publishin g sit e fo r man y Africa n America n journals , includin g th e Champion, th e Half-Century Magazine, th e Pullman Porter, th e Fraternal Advocate, and th e Stroller. 33 Editorials, essays , and poetr y wer e als o ofte n featured i n th e Chicago Defender and th e Broad Ax. Unlike th e African America n wome n wh o studie d European writers , most whit e clu b wome n i n Chicag o di d no t rea d Africa n America n literature—or tha t o f immigrants , fo r tha t matter . The y limite d thei r study t o Englis h an d Frenc h art , history , an d literature. 34 Th e whit e women's literar y stud y wa s considere d mor e forma l an d systematic , especially throug h cours e instructio n an d lectures . Fo r example , th e Chicago Woman' s Club' s stud y o f literatur e an d ar t wa s simila r t o university extensio n courses. 35 Occasionally , Universit y o f Chicago pro fessors wer e invite d t o giv e lectures . Eve n whe n professor s wer e no t available, th e club s insiste d o n "rigor " an d "thoroughness. " Th e Wes t End Woman' s Club' s literar y sectio n stipulate d tha t it s study b e "carrie d out" throug h th e essa y an d tha t th e topi c b e "usuall y represente d b y four papers." 36 Th e Woman' s Clu b o f Irving Park , i n it s presentation o f literary papers , attende d t o style , pronunciation , an d substantiatio n o f detail, assigning "one o f the best informed members " the role o f critic. 37

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Members include d recen t colleg e graduate s John Felton , a budding loca l journalist; Bettiol a Forston , a young poet ; Sophi a Boaz , a social worke r at th e Wendel l Phillip s Settlement ; an d Lenor a Curtis , whos e essay s were occasionall y publishe d i n th e newspapers . Iren e McCo y (late r McCoy-Gaines), a fictio n writer , an d Harri s Gaines , a lawye r know n for his dramatic abilities , also joined.39 Th e societ y was originally forme d in hono r o f it s members ' "memor y o f ol d colleg e days. " Althoug h nostalgia wa s eviden t i n th e societ y decoration s o f alma mater pennants , the society' s primar y focu s wa s artisti c an d intellectua l development . One o f thei r first program s showcase d th e members ' musica l talent s with thei r sol o performances . A serie s o f lecture s o n "Comparativ e Religion," include d th e topic s o f reincarnation , th e Baha i faith , an d mental sciences . Althoug h theosoph y wa s o f specia l interest , th e mem bers discusse d th e divers e subject s o f self-culture , prejudice , universa l languages, an d slang. 40 The Frederic k Douglas s Center' s literar y event s wer e als o designe d for educated , middle-clas s members . Th e cente r organize d Sunda y fo rums a s th e prestigiou s Africa n America n churche s did . Unlik e th e church lyceums , however , th e center' s forum s presente d literar y an d philosophical works . Bu t becaus e th e cente r wa s no t locate d i n th e Black Bel t an d wa s largel y frequente d b y middle-clas s clientele , th e forums probabl y di d no t appea l t o poore r Africa n Americans . Celi a Parker Woolley , cofounde r o f th e center , ofte n introduced , read , an d critiqued Europea n an d American writer s whos e work s carrie d deliber ate politica l an d socia l themes , suc h a s Henri k Ibsen , Jan e Addams , H. G . Wells , an d Pau l Kester . Woolley , hersel f a n author , occasionall y read fro m he r ow n novels. 41 O n severa l occasion s a n admissio n fe e wa s charged fo r he r lecture s an d reading s an d donate d t o th e center' s sewin g classes.42 As a Unitarian minister , Woolle y was greatly interested i n philosophi cal an d religiou s themes . Sh e presente d severa l program s o n Emerson , as well a s programs o n Nietzsche' s philosoph y an d Tennyson' s transcen dental poetr y an d a character stud y o f Shakespeare' s Shylock. 43 Becaus e the center' s ai m wa s t o promot e bette r rac e relations , Woolle y invite d eminent Africa n America n intellectual s t o spea k a t th e Sunda y forums . The historia n Carte r G . Woodso n outline d hi s argument s se t fort h i n The Negro Prior to 1861, an d Majo r Lync h discusse d hi s mos t recen t publication, Reminiscences of Reconstruction Days. Rober t Ezr a Park , a

Like th e center' s Woman' s Club , th e Phylli s Wheatle y Clu b empha sized literar y stud y an d production . A s earl y a s 189 9 clu b activitie s included recitation s an d addresses , on e b y a Mr. Moore , wh o provide d an overvie w o f th e teaching s o f Zeno , Socrates , Aurelius , Seneca , an d other "profound " thinker s an d writers . Mr . Moor e stresse d tha t suc h historical stud y wa s crucia l fo r an y rac e t o "reac h th e highes t goal. " I n elaborating o n thi s theme , h e argue d tha t thos e wit h "brains " rule d th e "brainless." Thus , mother s shoul d kee p "good " book s i n th e hom e fo r the children . However , h e continued , book s alon e wer e no t sufficient ; children neede d worth y rol e models . H e instructe d th e wome n t o "cease fro m 'apeing ' wome n whos e highes t ambitio n wa s wearin g fine clothes bu t whos e mind s wer e aimless." 49 Unfortunately , n o record s were kep t o f the discussio n tha t followed . Mr . Moor e wa s no t th e onl y male speake r t o lectur e th e clu b wome n o n thei r behavior . A t anothe r meeting i n 189 9 Dr . Jeffrey , afte r speakin g o n th e "formatio n o f th e

11 7 LITERARY CLUB S

white sociologis t a t the Universit y o f Chicago, spok e abou t hi s book o n Booker T. Washington.44 Th e oration s o f Wendell Phillips and Frederic k Douglass, a s well a s the poetr y o f Paul Laurenc e Dunbar , wer e regularl y read an d performed an d occasionall y se t to music . The center' s Woman's Club , compose d o f prominent Africa n Ameri can an d native-bor n whit e women , wa s committe d t o th e stud y o f literature, philosophy , an d sociology . Onc e again , bot h Africa n Ameri can an d European literatur e wer e studied . Mrs . Georg e Hal l presented a character stud y o f Eliot's Ada m Bede . Severa l meetings wer e devote d t o the stud y o f D u Bois' s The Quest of the Silver Fleece.45 I n 191 5 Fanni e Barrier William s organize d a Frederick Douglas s program , a t which sh e shared he r persona l memorie s o f Douglass , concludin g wit h a readin g of Dunbar's poe m fo r Douglass. 46 Although classe s were offere d fo r self improvement, the y als o wer e concerne d wit h socia l an d politica l uplift . The Englis h class , taugh t b y Id a B . Wells , include d th e "function s o f grammar, th e stud y o f th e elemen t o f goo d expression , an d a furthe r study o f th e histor y o f Englis h literature." 47 Althoug h dictio n an d fluency wer e socia l clas s markers, thei r developmen t wa s als o importan t for publi c speaking . Th e sociolog y classe s include d on-sit e studies , exposing th e clu b wome n t o variou s model s o f schools an d settlements . For example , th e wome n visite d severa l Chicag o socia l settlement s an d read abou t th e Firesid e Schools , with lesson s o n th e merit s o f thrift an d tidiness.48

kLIPAAlX^CJLUBS^^

11 8

brain" an d philanthropy, advise d the women t o behave according to suc h love an d t o "ceas e from bein g puffed u p an d self-conceite d creatures." 50 Overall, however , th e clu b wome n themselve s directe d thei r cours e of study an d discussion . Elizabet h Lindsa y Davi s presente d a synopsis o f "The Blac k Fairy, " a story written b y the young Chicag o autho r Fento n Johnson. I n 191 3 th e clu b organize d a program devote d exclusivel y t o African America n writers an d composers , featuring Pau l Laurence Dun bar, Fento n Johnson , France s Harper , Samue l Coleridge-Taylor , an d Alfred Anderson . A visitin g clu b woma n presente d he r origina l pape r on "Th e Wome n Writer s o f th e Colore d Race, " considere d "ver y interesting fro m star t t o finish. " Th e poetr y o f clu b women—Mrs . Birdie Whit e Cook , Mrs . E . Wright , an d Mrs . Moore , considere d a poetess o f "n o littl e ability"—wer e read , althoug h no t availabl e i n publication. 51 Suc h example s supporte d th e clu b s dictum tha t th e "in tellectual sid e [was ] no t neglected. " 52 Literary stud y wa s performe d a s wel l a s bein g discussed . Theate r productions wer e most ofte n popula r comedie s an d drama s and religiou s dramas, such as those by George Middleton. 53 Th e women als o designe d the stag e setting s an d costumes , ofte n quit e intricate . I n on e o f th e Chicago Unio n Charit y Club' s plays, "The Bulgaria n Princess, " the lea d character, "attire d i n a Bulgaria n rob e o f orienta l pattern, " bega n th e production wit h a gran d marc h o f character s whil e th e audienc e sun g "Onward Christia n Soldiers. " Thi s performanc e collecte d nearl y twenty-three dollar s for th e Phylli s Wheatley Home. 5 4 Although ther e wer e ampl e record s o f literar y stud y an d events , th e content an d contex t o f th e meeting s wer e unfortunatel y no t docu mented. Wha t di d Africa n America n clu b wome n thin k o f Ibsen' s portrayal o f women? Ho w wa s Emerson's transcendenta l though t inter preted i n th e contex t o f the African America n experience ? Wha t femal e African America n author s di d th e clu b wome n rea d an d discuss ? Th e lack o f public record s o n th e stud y o f women writer s wa s not uniqu e t o African America n femal e clubs ; native-bor n whit e women' s clubs , too , failed t o lis t femal e author s fo r study , wit h th e exception s o f Georg e Eliot an d Jane Addams . Eve n thoug h Victori a Earl e Matthew s insiste d that women' s rol e i n rac e literatur e wa s "th e mos t importan t par t an d has bee n s o i n al l ages, " clu b record s see m t o indicat e differently. 55 Clearly, the persona o f a "black Shakespeare o r Dante" was not perceive d as a female. 56

CHURCH LYCEUM S AND LITERAR Y SOCIETIE S

Even thoug h th e Englewood Lyceu m an d othe r churc h lyceum s wer e composed o f young men an d women, th e female influence wa s pervasive and eve n expected . A s noted , Sunda y lyceum s i n Englewoo d wer e occasionally reserve d a s "Ladies ' Day " o r "gal a day, " occasion s whe n women's issue s wer e addresse d b y femal e speakers . A t on e suc h lyceu m program i n 1913 , Mrs . Jeffries provide d th e welcom e address , followe d by talk s o n "M y Idea l Woman " an d "Tw o Pionee r Women, " tribute s to Harrie t Tubma n an d Sojourne r Truth . Notwithstandin g th e well informed natur e o f the women' s speeches , th e Africa n America n news papers depicte d no t thei r conten t bu t thei r delivery . On e presente r wa s extolled fo r he r "queenl y manne r . . . s o natura l t o he r sex" ; th e othe r female presenter s wer e "arraye d i n al l thei r glory . Th e questio n o f woman's right s wa s not discusse d becaus e ther e wa s no nee d o f it." 59 Despite suc h coverage , women continue d t o present issues of concer n at th e lyceums . Befor e th e St . Mark' s Lyceum , Fanni e Barrie r William s spoke o n "woman' s work, " presentin g tw o alternative s fo r mos t youn g women: "domesti c servic e an d idleness." 60 Th e St . Mark' s Literar y Society feature d paper s o n priso n reform , th e experience s o f probatio n officers, an d th e mora l developmen t o f children . Eve n thoug h wome n were activ e i n th e lyceums , ther e wer e time s whe n thei r view s wer e noticeably missing . At on e debate , deliberate d b y the St . Mark's Literar y Society, onl y mal e participant s discusse d th e subject , "Resolved , Tha t Women Shoul d B e A s Highly Educate d A s Men." 6 1 Women speakers , however , frequente d th e podiu m o f th e Bethe l A.M.E. Literary Club , founded i n 1909 . At the club' s first meetin g mor e

11 9 LITERARY CLUB S

As noted , th e Chicag o communitie s o f Englewood, Morga n Park , an d Hyde Par k wer e repute d fo r thei r churc h lyceum s an d literar y societies . The membershi p pattern—mostl y youn g adult s an d youths—wa s th e same a s that o f the lyceum s i n th e earl y 1800s . As in th e earlie r lyceums, intellectual developmen t wa s linke d t o deportment , althoug h th e late r emphasis wa s social , no t moral . Th e Englewoo d Lyceum' s purpos e wa s not onl y t o "rais[e ] th e standar d o f it s literar y work , makin g i t mor e attractive, mor e beautifu l an d mor e artistic " but als o t o buil d th e youn g women's confidenc e befor e a n audience. 57 Grea t progres s wa s evidentl y achieved becaus e th e coverag e o f a 191 3 program note d th e self-assure d stage presence o f young ladies who onl y several months before ha d bee n "too bashfu l an d unaccustome d t o th e stage." 58

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than thre e hundre d person s convene d t o hea r Id a B . Wells' s repor t o f her investigation s o f th e recen t lynching s i n Cairo , Illinois. 62 Th e clu b was know n bot h fo r it s politica l speaker s an d fo r it s socia l protests . I n 1912 th e clu b gathere d t o protes t th e Hyd e Par k Protectiv e League s support o f segregate d schools. 63 A t anothe r meetin g Mis s Smith , Dea n of Girl s a t Wendel l Phillip s Hig h School , wa s invite d t o spea k o n he r decision t o segregat e th e socia l evenings o f African America n an d whit e students. 64 The clu b wome n establishe d yout h lyceum s no t onl y a s "a n outle t for thei r artisti c propensities " bu t als o t o socializ e adolescent s int o community form s o f knowledg e an d activism. 65 Th e mos t prominen t youth lyceu m wa s that o f the Grac e Presbyteria n Church , establishe d b y club woma n Mrs . Care y Lewis . Thi s lyceu m rapidl y becam e s o popula r that th e "socia l sid e wa s eliminate d becaus e o f increased attendance. " 66 The lyceu m sponsore d a series o f speakers, many o f whom wer e know n nationally, includin g Emmet t Scott ; Dr . Tobias , th e internationa l secre tary o f the YMCA; an d Booker T Washington . Speeches ofte n focuse d o n discriminatio n an d segregation ; on e wa s the tal k b y Dr . Carey , title d "Hav e W e Followe d th e Flag? " Dr . Carey , minister o f th e Institutiona l Churc h i n Chicag o an d a "natura l orator, " contended tha t Africa n America n serviceme n ha d fough t fo r a countr y that stil l denied the m thei r rights . The audience' s respons e was favorabl e to hi s comments : "Dr . Care y brough t dow n th e hous e whe n h e asked for protectio n fro m th e fla g tha t Blac k me n ha d supported , bu t attacke d the ide a tha t ther e shoul d b e a 'Jim Crow ' sectio n for trainin g me n wh o are t o shoulde r guns." 67 Charle s Satche l Morris , know n a s th e "bo y orator," als o addresse d thi s issue , arguin g tha t Africa n America n me n must ente r businesse s afte r th e war . Bu t t o d o so , h e continued , the y need t o first b e give n thei r ful l right s an d t o hav e th e "souther n racis t laws wipe d out." 68 A s eviden t i n hi s example , youth s wer e no t onl y keenly awar e o f political issue s but als o were skille d orators . Other churches , too , organize d yout h lyceum s an d club s for intellec tual development an d social entertainment. Th e Young People's Lyceu m offered wholesom e recreatio n fo r teenager s o n Frida y evenings . There , high schooler s wrot e an d presented thei r plays and othe r writings . Mos t impressively, it s founder, Berth a Moseley , organize d a two-day Douglas s anniversary wit h addresses , songs , an d recitations , culminatin g i n a n address b y Id a B . Wells. 69 Th e Bethe l Sunda y School , too , forme d a

Although D u Bois ha d expressed concer n tha t th e African America n churches di d not challeng e th e "intellectua l needs " o f their youths , thi s was certainl y no t tru e i n Chicago. 74 Throug h th e churc h lyceums , youths listene d t o prominen t nationa l an d communit y leader s spea k about politica l issues ; the y debate d an d wrot e o n thes e issue s a s well . The lyceum s not only intellectually engage d th e youth but also appeale d to thei r "socia l inclinations." 75

African America n literar y club s in Chicago persiste d in the dual purpos e of self-improvemen t an d communit y uplift . Lik e th e member s o f the early literar y societies , th e Chicag o clu b wome n wer e educate d an d privileged. Ye t the y di d no t conside r thei r literar y stud y idl e o r self serving; rather , the y sough t t o broade n thei r knowledg e o f literature ,

12 1 LITERARY CLUB S

Young Women's Patrioti c Club , which participate d i n essay contests and musicales. Quin n Chape l an d th e Berea n Baptis t Churc h als o create d youth club s "t o better th e church an d self." 70 The youths ' political consciousnes s was frequently conjoine d t o com munity activism . Fo r example, th e Grac e Presbyteria n Churc h Lyceu m often too k up collections for the Provident Hospital , the African Ameri can hospital . A t on e meetin g mor e tha n thirt y dollar s wa s raised . O n another occasion , th e lyceu m delivere d a to n o f coa l t o th e Amand a Smith Home. Mrs. Adah Waters, organizer o f the Girls ' Patriotic Servic e League, spok e befor e th e lyceum , encouragin g th e girl s "t o rende r greater service. " Th e girl s responde d b y sewin g an d knittin g clothin g for th e Africa n America n serviceme n o f th e 365t h Infantr y a t Cam p Grant. 71 One o f th e mos t notabl e annua l literar y event s fo r youth s wa s a n essay competitio n organize d b y Iren e McCoy-Gaines . Th e contes t was established no t onl y t o "inspir e th e yout h o f Chicag o t o a highe r an d better life " bu t als o t o "caus e a widespread [sic] o f reading an d literar y research." 72 Th e 191 3 topic, "Wha t Ha s the Negro Contribute d t o the World fo r the Advancement o f Civilization?" dre w muc h excitemen t as representatives fro m eigh t club s presente d thei r writings . Th e Chicago Defender printed th e winnin g essay , b y Lenor a Curtis , whos e researc h had range d fro m ancien t Africa n civilization s t o th e contemporar y accomplishments o f African America n inventors , scientists , literar y fig ures, an d musicians. 73

LITERARY CLUB S

I2 2

philosophy, an d politics i n orde r t o ac t sociall y an d politically. A s noted , the dramati c production s organize d b y th e club s wer e instrumenta l i n raising fund s fo r communit y institutions . Th e lyceums , too , ha d tw o functions. Althoug h th e member s wer e middle-clas s an d educated , th e audiences o f th e Sunda y forum s dre w fro m th e communit y a t large . Members develope d an d showcase d thei r talent s i n music , oration , an d recitation, bu t the y also , i n "talente d tenth " fashion , provide d learnin g opportunities fo r th e community . For th e wome n th e literar y club s seeme d t o provid e a distinctl y feminized sphere , i n whic h the y encourage d on e anothe r t o articulat e new ideas , suppor t thei r interpretations , writ e thei r ow n words , an d critique on e another . Ver y littl e elaboratio n wa s give n o n thei r "livel y discussions." No r ar e w e abl e t o rea d th e work s o f th e poetes s o f "n o little ability." It is as if the intimacy an d privacy of such occasions allowe d access onl y fo r thos e wh o wer e present . Wha t i s revealing , however , i s that wome n di d no t publicl y rea d thei r poetr y an d tha t the y designate d distinct day s o n whic h onl y thei r addresse s woul d b e heard . Suc h activities indicat e tha t wome n consciousl y create d an d define d a literary space for themselves .

SEVEN SOCIAL CLUBS

ALTHOUGH M O S T CLUB S E N G A G E D I N S O M E FOR M O F

social uplift , ther e wer e othe r club s whos e primar y pur pose wa s social . Thi s wa s especiall y tru e o f dancing clubs , whist clubs , and matrimony clubs , which wer e ofte n criti cized fo r thei r superficialit y an d lac k o f communit y com mitment. Nanni e Burrough s expresse d disma y a t wha t sh e calle d th e "mania fo r clu b life " amon g Africa n America n women ; sh e though t whist club s wer e especiall y nonsensical. 1 Katherin e Tillman , too , criti cized Africa n America n wome n wh o aspire d t o b e o r wer e "societ y women," characterizin g the m a s "fashionabl e Afro-Americans , lik e he r Caucasian sister s [who ] spend s [sic] her tim e i n nove l reading , car d playing an d i n whirlin g throug h th e intricat e maze s o f th e dance." 2 Other clu b leaders , suc h a s Addi e Hunton , dismisse d th e frivolity , pointing ou t tha t mos t Africa n America n femal e club s di d no t indulg e in suc h activities : "Suc h ma y b e th e club s o f th e idl e rich , o f th e self indulgent votarie s o f fashion ; an d doubtles s ther e are , i n som e o f th e

OCIAL CLUB S

large cities , Afro-American wome n wh o ap e th e follie s o f this class , bu t the averag e clu b woman , certainl y th e clu b woma n o f thi s sectio n [th e NACW], i s a creature o f another type." 3 Despite Hunton' s observations , man y suc h club s di d exist , no t onl y in Chicag o bu t i n othe r America n cities . Th e exclusivity , a s well a s th e social cast , o f thes e club s wa s demonstrate d b y thei r nomenclature s o f "Elite," "Elete, " "Unique, " o r "Uneek. " A s Gatewoo d ha s astutel y 124 commented , suc h name s brough t int o questio n th e clubs ' ver y selectiv ity, fo r i f the y wer e trul y elite , wh y di d the y ostentatiousl y nam e themselves so? 4 I n Chicag o th e whis t club s tha t proliferate d befor e an d during th e wa r year s reflecte d a n exclusivit y reminiscen t o f th e elit e clubs durin g th e 1880 s an d earl y 1890s . However , th e wome n wh o joined th e whis t club s wer e no t fro m Chicago' s first familie s bu t wer e middle-class wome n wh o reside d withi n a two-mile radiu s o f the Blac k Belt. Member s o f thes e whis t club s di d no t belon g t o federate d club s that engage d i n politica l refor m an d socia l uplift . Conversely , member s of th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club , th e Alph a Suffrag e Club , th e Cornel l Charity Club , an d othe r "wid e awake " club s di d no t joi n th e whis t clubs. Although th e whist club s constituted a separate and distinc t group , given thei r prevalenc e i n Chicago , a n analysi s o f Africa n America n women's club s would no t b e complet e withou t thei r inclusion . In examinin g club s tha t engage d primaril y i n socia l pastimes , th e economic an d socia l relation s tha t undergirde d th e cultura l capita l o f their events—th e charit y balls , th e bo x parties , th e weddings , th e whist contests , an d th e dancin g parties—must als o be considered . Mor e specifically, thes e socia l events supported th e predominantly femal e busi nesses o f dressmakers, milliners , chiropodists , hairdressers , an d manicur ists. Suc h businesse s provide d alternativ e form s o f employmen t t o Afri can America n wome n wh o face d discriminatio n i n th e workforce . There were , then , variou s economi c sphere s embedde d i n th e clubs ' social pastimes : th e "Elit e 400, " wh o sponsore d charit y balls ; th e poo r who benefite d fro m th e proceeds; an d businesswomen whos e livelihoo d relied i n par t upo n suc h socia l occasions . "GENTEEL PERFORMANCE'' : CHARIT Y BALLS , DANCES, A

As discusse d i n chapte r 2 , althoug h clas s distinction s remaine d draw n between th e elit e an d middl e clas s in th e 1890s , all were selecte d t o join Chicago's "Elit e 400. " Invitatio n an d gues t list s definitivel y cas t one' s

Newspapers publishe d th e attendanc e lis t o f charit y ball s an d als o reported in great detail the guests' attire. At the 190 5 Frederick Douglas s Center even t mentione d above , Mrs . Emanue l Williams' s dres s wa s described a s adorned wit h "costl y Bettenber g lac e [and ] lavende r trim ming" an d purporte d t o hav e cos t a t leas t five hundre d dollars . Mrs . Moseley's dres s was trimmed wit h a "lavender mul l velvet," while Hatti e Claybrook's gow n wa s of a "pale blue sil k and lace." 7 Th e guests ' statel y deportment an d bearin g wer e depicte d a s follows: "I t ca n b e truthfull y said, tha t eac h lad y an d gentleme n wer e gowne d s o faultlessl y tha t without th e slightes t embarrassment , the y coul d hav e been ushere d int o the presenc e o f the Presiden t o f the Unite d State s o r participate d i n th e most exclusiv e reception s an d function s tha t coul d b e gotte n u p a s fa r as dres s an d deportmen t ar e concerned." 8 Suc h reportag e wa s no t uncharacteristic o f portrayal s o f rac e progress . Nonetheless , despit e th e attention give n t o dres s and deportment , invitee s wer e certainl y selecte d for thei r financia l contributions . I n th e cas e o f th e 190 5 charit y ball , enough mone y wa s secure d t o purchas e a new residenc e fo r th e Freder ick Douglas s Cente r o n 303 2 Wabas h Avenue. 9 During th e sam e yea r th e Frederic k Douglas s Cente r sponsore d an other gran d bal l a t th e ne w Peki n Theatre . Recentl y opene d b y Mr .

12 5 SOCIAL CLUB S

social fate, a s noted a t one 190 5 charit y ball, sponsored b y the Frederic k Douglass Center : "Al l societ y i s waitin g t o se e wh o i s who , an d wh o will b e debarre d o n accoun t o f thei r socia l standin g o r lac k o f socia l standing." 5 Tha t invitation s mattere d wa s eviden t i n a 190 8 controvers y in whic h a Mrs . Manning s invitatio n t o th e Gran d Fre e Bal l wa s questioned. Apparently , som e o f th e wive s o f th e Fellowshi p Clu b members (wh o wer e sponsorin g th e ball ) di d no t wan t he r present . Regardless, sh e wa s offere d a verba l invitatio n an d eve n wen t t o grea t lengths t o sig n a n affidavi t tha t declare d tha t sh e ha d bee n invited , although no t formally . Whe n Mr . an d Mrs . Mannin g promenade d int o the hall , the women threatene d t o leave if she di d not admi t t o concoct ing a bogus invitation . Th e even t culminate d no t onl y in th e Mannings ' departure, bu t als o i n th e arriva l o f a policeman , wh o warne d "th e highly culture d ladie s an d gentleme n tha t the y mus t behav e themselve s and tha t h e wa s goo d an d read y t o tak e car e o f all those wh o wante d t o do an y fighting." 6 Althoug h mos t ball s di d no t en d i n suc h disagree ments, thi s incident demonstrate s th e exclusivit y an d selectivit y o f many such events .

S.OCJ_^CJA)NB^

126 1

Mott, th e Pekin Theatr e claime d t o be the onl y theate r owned , oper ated, an d managed b y an African American . Mor e tha n on e hundre d patrons wer e invited . Jane Addams , who assumed th e cost o f the dram a troupe, wa s joined i n he r box seat b y African America n clu b wome n Ida B . Wells, Mrs . Moseley, Mrs . George Hall , an d Fanni e Emanuel . Despite th e financial succes s o f the production , th e event too k a decidedly polemica l tur n when , afte r th e performance , Id a B . Well s wa s escorted t o th e fron t stage . Sh e thanked th e patron s fo r thei r suppor t and then proceeded to lambast several of the African America n minister s who ha d criticized th e event "upo n purel y selfis h o r personal grounds. " Many i n the audience no t onl y nodde d bu t eve n cheered. 10 Althoug h the ministers ' objection s wer e no t stated , man y ha d openl y oppose d theaters, alongsid e danc e hall s an d saloons , arguin g tha t suc h amuse ments le d to vice. Unvoiced wa s their concer n tha t thei r congregation' s loyalty, an d thus thei r financia l commitmen t t o th e church , woul d b e diminished. The ministers , however , wer e no t alon e i n receivin g indictments . Following th e 1905 charity benefits , th e Broad Ax publishe d a series of scathing article s agains t th e Frederic k Douglas s Center , particularl y targeting Celi a Parke r Woolle y an d her "sil k stockin g followers. " Th e editor, Julius Taylor , criticize d th e center no t only fo r its lack o f assistance t o th e poo r i n th e Blac k Bel t bu t als o fo r it s largel y whit e administration. Thi s accusatio n wa s true, becaus e Woolle y ha d desig nated hersel f a s president, eve n thoug h th e Broad Ax ha d submitted Ida B. Wells's name for the office.11 Africa n America n representatio n woul d become a contentious issu e at a later date , one that woul d promp t Well s to leav e the center. Although th e Frederic k Douglas s Center' s ball s receive d negativ e publicity, othe r charit y ball s were praised , especiall y thos e tha t contrib uted t o th e African America n community . I n 190 8 a "grand " charit y ball wa s organized fo r the only Africa n America n hospita l i n Chicago , Provident Hospital . Again , th e headlines spok e i n gran d language ; th e event wa s described a s "the most brillian t affair s ever y [sic] hel d b y the Afro-American rac e i n Chicago. " Unlik e th e center's event , invitation s were grante d t o "th e great mas s o f our citizenship," includin g person s from neighborin g states. 12 Because the need for health car e was particu larly urgen t an d the hospita l ha d expanded it s services t o includ e fre e surgical treatmen t fo r the poor, th e invitation lis t was less selective. 13 In

Charity ball s an d dance s wer e no t th e onl y exclusiv e event s t o whic h the elit e an d th e middl e clas s were invited . Weddings , anniversaries , an d birthday partie s wer e als o extravagan t i n thei r decor , apparel , an d gifts . One o f the most publicized weddings was that o f Jesse Binga an d Eudor a Johnson. Becaus e o f Binga' s prominenc e a s a banker , hi s weddin g wa s considered on e o f th e "mos t elaborat e an d th e mos t fashionabl e i n th e history o f th e Afro-America n rac e i n th e Middl e West. " Th e brida l gown create d fro m "Modiste' s art, " th e classica l music o f Ferullo's Ban d and Tomaso' s Orchestra , an d th e deco r o f "evergreen , palms , an d pin k carnations" trailin g fro m th e billiar d parlo r t o th e balcon y wer e de scribed i n flourishing detail , a s were th e "rar e an d expensive " weddin g presents. I n th e newspape r coverag e o f a weddin g anniversary , th e gif t list occupie d nearl y tw o full-lengt h column s o f the fron t page. 18 As noted , variou s economi c sphere s wer e embedde d i n thes e socia l events. In the case of charity balls, the philanthropic result s were obvious : the cultura l capita l o f th e middl e clas s an d th e elit e becam e th e socia l machinery throug h whic h money s wer e raise d fo r thos e les s fortunate . Furthermore, a s mentioned, th e economi c benefit s wer e no t onl y ear marked for charit y but als o dispersed to entrepreneurs i n the community , most notably dressmakers, milliners, manicurists, and hairdressers. Young women wer e encourage d t o tak e u p dressmakin g an d hairdressin g a s profitable form s o f employment , particularl y becaus e Africa n America n

II 2 7 SOCIAL CLUB S

order t o continu e thes e services , then , th e organizer s beckone d t o th e civic an d charitabl e spiri t o f the large r African America n community . In additio n t o th e grand-scal e balls , ther e wer e smalle r dance s spon sored b y th e women' s clubs . Again , muc h attentio n wa s give n t o attir e and deportment . Th e wome n attendin g th e Jolly Twent y Club' s annua l dancing part y i n 191 3 wer e portraye d a s "superbl y gowned " an d thei r escorts "gallant." 14 Member s a t a Wes t Sid e Woman' s Clu b meetin g were "gowne d beautifully." 15 Th e Voluntee r Workers' Clu b sponsore d a social affair i n 1910 , replete with a n "elaborat e spread. " Most interesting , though, wa s th e descriptio n accorde d th e hostess : "th e charmingl y dressed hostes s wa s a s the evenin g glory , fo r whe n sh e greete d you , yo u felt lifte d u p wit h tha t rea l bal m o f lif e tha t onl y sh e has." 16 Althoug h such description s wer e overwrought , th e clu b women' s behavio r wa s not a matte r o f externa l trapping s only . Rather , thi s "gentee l perfor mance" was developed throug h a conscious cultivatio n o f aesthetics, fine manners, an d character. 17

SOCIAL CLUB S

12 8

women preferre d t o patroniz e othe r Africa n Americans , especiall y i f their wor k wa s considere d "firs t class." 19 "First class " wor k entaile d bot h creativit y an d technica l knowledge . A goo d milliner , accordin g t o Tillman , studie d th e facia l feature s an d complexion o f her customers , i n additio n t o matchin g th e hat' s styl e t o the gown . Hairdresser s no t onl y considere d th e clients ' feature s an d attire bu t als o wer e verse d i n a knowledg e o f herba l an d chemica l treatments fo r th e scal p an d hair. 20 A beaut y culturist' s skil l an d experi ence were measured by the result s obtained through facials, toile t waters, beauty creams , mol e banishers , an d th e ubiquitou s facia l bleaches . A chiropodist's reputatio n wa s buil t fro m hi s o r he r origina l creation s o f balms, powders, an d soakin g solutions . Katherin e Dunham' s accoun t o f her uncle' s admixtures , derive d fro m Africa n America n an d Chocta w herbal remedies , pointe d t o th e skil l an d ar t o f chiropody, a s well a s th e high deman d fo r suc h service s by leading societ y women. 21 Many o f th e Chicag o women , eve n som e o f th e clu b women , wer e successfully employe d i n chiropody , hairdressing , an d manicurin g busi nesses. The Burnha m Beaut y Colleg e graduate d it s first African Ameri can student , Grac e Garnett-Abney , i n 1896 . Althoug h mos t know n fo r her "hai r tongs, " which stimulate d th e hai r growt h o f African America n women, Garnett-Abne y als o opene d tw o beaut y shop s fo r whit e women. 22 Carrie r Warner , a vic e presiden t o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club, learne d manicurin g an d facia l treatment s throug h th e Mole r College o f Chicago . Sh e opene d he r ow n chiropodis t an d manicur e parlors, which wer e acclaime d a s frequented b y "th e bes t an d wealthies t white ladie s o f thi s city." 23 Other s wer e repute d fo r thei r specia l treat ments an d cures , suc h a s Minnie Sinclair , wh o treate d facia l blemishes , or Alice Bemby, whos e tonsoria l parlor, th e Palac e o f Art, specialize d i n manicures. 24 Women , though , wer e no t th e onl y client s o f beaut y services. Iren e Goins' s husband , know n a s th e "Fathe r o f Manicurists " on Chicago' s Sout h Side , owne d man y shop s wher e me n coul d ge t haircuts, singes , shampoos , shaves , massages , witc h haze l steams , an d manicures. Femal e manicurist s wer e employe d i n hi s shops , i n par t t o curb th e mal e clienteles ' "profan e language , lou d talking , loungin g an d sleeping." 25 African America n wome n wer e als o successfu l a s milliners . Hatti e Arrant, formerl y a teacher i n Kansas City , took u p milliner y wor k whe n she moved t o Chicag o i n 1901 . By 191 0 she had become s o well know n

In catering to the clubs ' social events, the businesswomen wer e doubl y advantaged. No t onl y wer e th e clu b wome n regula r customers , bu t th e events also served as venues for advertisin g the businesswomen's services . Each individua l seamstress' s gown s n o doub t wer e marke d by her partic ular design s an d skills , especiall y becaus e a grea t dea l o f handwor k was involve d i n lac e trimming , embroidery , an d crochete d collars. 34 Undoubtedly, wome n exchange d informatio n abou t th e service s o f various beaut y culturists , manicurists , an d chiropodists . Fo r th e clu b women wh o wer e als o dressmakers , manicurists , an d chiropodists , thei r club membership s carrie d bot h socia l an d economi c advantages .

1 29 SOCIAL CLUB S

that sh e create d hat s fo r th e leadin g wome n "o f bot h races." 26 Maud e Seay, anothe r milline r i n demand , wa s know n fo r he r French-styl e hats , which man y wome n wor e t o th e charit y an d Ne w Yea r balls. 27 He r protegee, Mayme Clinkscale , opene d her own sho p of "imported Frenc h patterns" o n fashionabl e Stat e Street. 28 Most o f thes e entrepreneur s wer e educate d a t proprietar y college s and institute s tha t croppe d u p i n Chicag o a t th e tur n o f th e century . Some institute s wedde d technica l skill s t o traditiona l femal e trait s an d roles. Por o College , fo r example , include d th e stud y o f chemistr y bu t also emphasize d th e femal e attribute s o f "dignity , grace , an d beauty." 29 The Cli o Schoo l fo r Menta l Scienc e an d Characte r Analysi s taugh t not onl y characte r analysi s an d vocationa l guidanc e bu t als o "poise , individuality, an d wide-awakeness." 30 Othe r institute s stresse d the scien tific basi s o f thei r studies . Estell e Kenton , principa l o f th e Enterpris e Institute's Beaut y Cultur e Department , insiste d tha t beaut y cultur e wa s not mer e "vanity " bu t promote d "healt h an d comfort. " Accordingly , the institut e offere d course s i n chiropody , electrolysis , facia l massage , and scal p treatment s a s wel l a s i n hairdressin g an d manicuring. 31 Th e Provident Schoo l of Beauty Cultur e als o emphasized th e healthful effect s of its treatments, whic h wer e prepare d i n it s ow n laboratory . Unde r th e directorship o f Mme . E . M . Scott , a certifie d chiropodist , th e school' s courses wer e purporte d t o b e "a s thorough an d complet e a s the school s of th e opposit e race." 32 Th e recruitmen t strategie s o f th e Universa l College o f Beauty Cultur e wer e mor e pecuniary . Student s who enrolle d in thei r hom e stud y course s o f "hai r culture , scal p treatment , facia l massage, an d maniculture " wer e supplie d wit h th e college' s products: " 1 hair straightenin g comb , 6 boxes Universa l Hai r Grower , 1 Manicurin g Set an d a Diploma." 33

W H I S T CLUB S

OCIAL CLUB S

1 30

Whist club s wer e extremel y popula r i n Chicag o fro m 191 4 throug h 1918. Durin g thi s perio d a t leas t eightee n ne w club s wer e formed , a s indicated b y thei r names . Ther e wer e man y othe r socia l club s tha t als o frequently playe d whist , progressiv e whist , an d bridge . Th e Necessit y Club, th e Oriol e Whis t Club , th e Eas t En d Whis t Club , th e Frida y Afternoon Whis t Club , th e Superio r Whis t Club , th e Pique t Whis t Club, th e Rainbo w Whis t Club , an d th e Wednesda y Afternoo n Whis t Club wer e onl y a fe w o f th e whis t clubs . Eve n th e Clote e Scot t Settlement organize d it s own whis t club , the Gle e Club . Most curiously , these club s proliferated durin g th e wa r years, suggesting that preoccupa tion wit h socia l engagement s ma y hav e been on e wa y t o alla y war-tim e tensions an d anxieties . An analysi s o f whist club s reveal s tha t mos t member s di d no t partici pate i n socia l uplif t activitie s o r war-tim e efforts , suc h a s knitting Sam mies fo r th e soldiers . O n th e othe r hand , th e mos t prominen t clu b women—such a s Id a B . Wells , Iren e Goins , Iren e McCoy-Gaines , Elizabeth Lindsa y Davis , Fanni e Emanuel , Mar y Waring , an d Fanni e Barrier Williams—di d no t belon g t o whis t clubs , althoug h the y wer e occasionally invite d a s guests . Th e whis t club s seeme d t o functio n a s neighborhood club s did : mos t wome n joine d severa l whis t clubs , an d they generall y reside d withi n severa l miles o f the Blac k Belt. 35 These clubs ' whis t tournament s wer e marke d especiall y b y expensiv e prizes. For example , th e prizes offere d b y the Saturda y Afternoon Whis t Club include d " a cu t glas s compote , a cu t glas s vinega r bottle , a hand painted te a strainer , a cut-glas s sherbe t glasses , a cut-glas s vase , an d tw o steins." 36 A 191 4 Billike n Hoo p an d Needl e Club' s whis t part y liste d the prizes o f "a glas s olive dish, tw o sterlin g silver hat pins, and gol d cuf f buttons." 37 Th e Fortnightl y Whist an d Literary Clu b awarde d th e prize s of a cut-glas s sala d bowl , a cut-glas s compot e dish , an d a hand-painte d bonbon dis h t o it s winners. 38 Mos t likel y thes e prize s wer e purchase d from th e clu b dues ; in essence , then, th e money simpl y circulated withi n the club . The menu s o f six-cours e luncheons , partner s t o th e whis t contests , were ofte n highlighte d i n th e newspaper . On e Voluntee r Workers ' Club's menu , considere d "pa r excellence, " include d chicke n croquettes , French peas , creame d potatoes , biscuits , pineappl e sherbet , an d carame l cake.39 Th e Socia l Eigh t Whis t Clu b offere d a banque t wher e guest s

were welcome d wit h " a bowe r o f roses," the n ha d a dinner o f cream o f tomatoes, broile d whitefish , sherr y wine , fille t o f beef an d mushrooms , champagne, salads , ic e cream , an d cakes. 40 Th e Progressiv e Whis t Clu b served a "bountiful repas t in moder n style, " after whic h th e lates t dance s were introduced. 41 A five-course luncheo n wa s serve d an d valentin e favors give n a t on e Socia l Eigh t Whis t Clu b meeting . Th e valentin e scheme wa s repeate d a t a S . Q . J . Whis t Clu b luncheon , describe d a s "charmingly pretty " an d hel d a t a "palatial residence." 42

Men als o participate d i n whis t clubs , althoug h thei r tournament s were les s lavish . Th e Englewoo d Countr y Club , designate d fo r me n only, sponsore d shirtwais t dance s an d minstre l show s an d hel d boxing , checkers, an d whis t matche s regularly. 46 Th e Nonparei l Club , a men' s club tha t opene d it s membership t o women, als o engage d i n luncheons , card games , whist , an d "joyfu l singing." 47 Suc h comembership s un doubtedly provide d th e opportunit y fo r eligibl e me n an d wome n t o meet. Whe n th e Orchi d Whis t Clu b organize d a pre-Lente n danc e a t the Kenwoo d parlors , i t wa s intimated tha t som e o f the "leadin g youn g men" woul d b e present. 48 Suc h event s wer e simila r t o thos e organize d by th e matrimon y clubs , whic h ensure d tha t me n an d wome n o f lik e social standing would socializ e together . Despite th e preponderanc e o f cultura l capital , no t al l whis t club s dedicated thei r energie s solely to entertainment . A s in many othe r clubs , charitable deed s wer e embedde d withi n th e clu b activities . Althoug h the juxtaposition o f cultural capital and charity might seem incongruous , the numerous example s in the newspapers indicated its social acceptance. For instance , coverag e o f th e Clove r Lea f Socia l Clu b note d tha t Mar y

13 1 SOCIAL CLUB S

The clu b women went to great efforts t o achieve the desired ambienc e through lavis h decor . Th e Universit y Societ y Clu b ofte n hel d it s meet ings in beautifull y decorate d room s o f pink an d green , wher e lunc h wa s served, followe d b y game s o f amusement, includin g progressiv e whist. 43 At the Twiligh t Socia l Club events , the tables were decorate d with gree n and pink , again , th e clu b colors . On e o f th e club s socia l occasion s wa s held a t a hous e decorate d wit h "palms , ferns , an d wate r lilie s wit h pictures of noted men an d statues of noted women." 4 4 Mos t extravagant , though, wa s a whist law n party , wher e th e hostes s "opene d th e gate s o f their beautifu l lawn , bedecke d wit h ove r 30 0 yard s o f pink ribbon s an d about 1,00 0 yard s o f peach blossoms . Fift y pin k Japanese lantern s cano pied th e beautifu l gras s covered bac k yard. " 45

SOCIAL CLUB S

13 2

Johnson wa s vote d th e "mos t charmin g hostess, " the n mentione d th e club's discussio n o n ho w t o hel p th e poor. 49 Th e Thursda y Evenin g Whist Club' s decisio n t o limi t it s membershi p s o tha t mor e coul d b e spent o n thei r gown s an d th e "sumptuou s dinner " wa s tempere d b y regular purchases o f groceries for th e Ol d Folks ' Home. 5 0 I n on e breath , the Voluntee r Workers ' Clu b mad e arrangement s fo r a futur e whis t party an d gav e "immediat e attention " t o fou r charit y cases . Receipt s from 191 4 indicated tha t whist partie s were on e sourc e o f funds tha t th e Volunteer Workers ' Clu b use d fo r charitabl e purposes . Tha t yea r th e club ha d raise d forty-six dollar s throug h it s whist contests. 51 MATRIMONY CLU B

Another popula r typ e o f socia l clu b wa s th e matrimon y club , expressl y formed t o find suitabl e an d lik e marriag e partner s fo r youn g Africa n American me n an d women . Curiously , mos t wer e starte d b y men . Fo r example, th e ai m o f th e Matrimonia l Club , founde d b y Dr . Harr y Garner, wa s t o hel p find me n wh o wer e "prosperou s enoug h t o marr y a desirabl e youn g woman , provid e fo r he r an d mak e he r hom e a littl e haven." 52 Mos t member s o f thi s clu b wer e prominen t youn g me n i n Chicago, includin g Booke r T . Washington , Jr. , wh o the n attende d Northwestern University . Perhap s becaus e o f the men' s procrastination , new rule s were establishe d b y th e Matrimonia l Clu b i n 191 5 tha t i f any member becam e engaged , h e mus t marry. 53 Wit h muc h tongue-in cheek humor , th e clu b provide d new s o n datin g partner s an d whic h bachelors woul d b e "gettin g off. " Th e club' s decide d goa l i n 191 6 wa s to "ge t Walte r Anderson off. " I n 191 7 Mr. Milton , a post offic e worker , was "unanimousl y voted " a s the nex t perso n t o be married . Dr . Corne lius Low e wa s nex t o n th e list . Eve n th e clu b president , Dr . Garner , reported tha t h e woul d "ge t off " i n th e sprin g an d hinte d tha t sh e would b e a "dashin g widow. " Walte r Anderso n ha d apparentl y no t fulfilled th e club' s 191 6 goal , a s a 191 7 clu b vot e dictate d tha t h e mus t "make it " thi s season . Towar d thi s en d Mr . Anderso n spok e t o a grou p of eligible youn g women , askin g for thei r assistanc e i n "ridding " them selves o f "several worthy candidate s fo r matrimony." 54 The Youn g Men' s Matrimon y Clu b als o passe d a resolutio n tha t " a drive" b e launche d t o marr y of f som e o f th e "olde r girls." 55 Fo r thi s purpose Benjami n Marti n wa s voted eligibl e an d read y t o "ste p off " b y Christmas. T o encourag e suc h partnerships , clu b member s attende d

This chapte r ha s examine d club s tha t wer e primaril y engage d i n th e social pastimes o f card playing, dancing , an d luncheons . Althoug h othe r clubs occasionall y chastise d thes e club s fo r thei r frivolit y an d self-indul gence, the y di d ofte n dispens e charit y an d donat e fee s t o communit y facilities. Fo r th e mos t part , however , thes e club s constitute d a distinc t membership an d socia l intent . Such clubs ' popularit y di d no t diminish . Drak e an d Cayton , i n thei r later sociologica l stud y o f Bronzeville , documente d ho w fashionabl e

13 3 SOCIAL CLUB S

recitals a t Lincol n Cente r an d participate d i n debate s wit h th e youn g women's clubs . Th e Pre-Nuptia l Club , a youn g women' s club , chal lenged th e Matrimon y Clu b i n 191 7 t o a debate o n th e subjec t "Shoul d the Woma n Predominat e i n Househol d Affairs? " Tw o o f the "smartest " girls wer e selected . Unfortunately , th e argument s an d th e result s o f th e debate wer e no t published. 56 Like th e men' s matrimon y clubs , th e women' s Pre-Nuptia l Clu b was organize d wit h th e specifi c goa l o f "matronizin g youn g women. " However, th e languag e wa s decidedl y gendered , a s betrothe d youn g women wer e hande d a "certificat e o f honor" a s they wer e "passe d on. " Although occasiona l reference s wer e mad e t o girl s "gettin g off " o r t o the "ne w stunts " conjure d b y th e youn g women , mor e ofte n th e language wa s mor e serious , referring , fo r example , t o Mis s Id a Taylor' s "marching t o th e altar. " 57 Even in the nonmatrimony clubs , persons were occasionally describe d as potential marriag e partners. Fo r example , th e Clove r Leaf Social Clu b was entertaine d b y a Mr . Arthu r Norse , heralde d a s a "cornin g youn g man." I n reciproca l manner , th e youn g ladie s o f th e clu b wer e referre d to a s "societ y bud s o f Lak e Fores t wearin g unusua l smile s fo r th e handsome Norse. " No t onl y wer e thei r smile s charming , bu t als o thei r "costumes wer e exquisit e creation s beyon d description . On e coul d shu t his eye s an d pic k blindly , awakenin g t o find h e ha d a veritable fair y b y his side." 58 A simila r descriptio n wa s give n fo r a "littl e dancin g party " sponsored b y th e Entr e Nou s Club : "Th e affai r wa s gloriou s i n ever y respect, informal , an d th e ladie s present s o bewitchingly attire d i n a rio t of beautifully colore d gown s tha t the y migh t hav e been take n fo r fable d goddesses wh o ha d condescende d t o descen d fro m thei r loft y height s t o mingle thei r destinie s wit h thos e o f men." 5 9

OCJAL JCLU BS_

i 3 4 i bu

card-playing an d dancin g club s ha d become . Th e name s o f some o f th e 1930s socia l clubs—Amicabl e Twelve , Pepp y Ten , Thirtee n Congenia l Girls, Merr y Ten , Smar t Debs , an d Personalit y Eight , t o nam e onl y a few—attested t o thei r frivolit y an d socia l emphasis. 60 Reminiscen t o f the whis t club s i n th e first decad e o f th e century , thes e club s wer e limited t o member s o f exclusiv e socia l networks . Th e middle-clas s norms o f respectabilit y an d contro l o f behavio r wer e no t onl y stresse d t also , i n som e cases , eve n writte n int o th e clubs ' constitution s an d bylaws.61 Similar t o thos e o f 1910 , th e dancin g event s o f th e 1930 s club s prescribed forma l behavio r an d protocol . Invitation s wer e exclusive , with th e exceptio n o f larg e publi c dance s tha t wer e organize d t o rais e funds. Unlik e th e earlie r charit y ball s an d dances , however , th e dancin g parties organize d i n th e 1930 s dispense d littl e o f their mone y t o charity . More ofte n tha n not , th e money s were invested i n clubhouse s o r saving s clubs.62 Thus , th e club s functione d les s t o assis t thos e i n nee d tha n t o reaffirm th e middle-clas s status o f their members .

CONCLUSION

I H E O N C E MIDDLE-CLAS S A F R I C A N A M E R I C A N C O M -

munities o f Woodlawn, Englewood , an d Morga n Par k i n Chicago ar e no w know n mor e fo r thei r riva l gang s an d their segregate d island s o f poverty. I n 199 2 th e distric t o f Wentworth, i n the heart o f what was once calle d the Blac k Belt, ha d th e highes t violen t crim e rat e i n Chicago ; Englewoo d rate d fourth. 1 Althoug h th e Chicago Tribune recently reporte d tha t Africa n Americans live d i n nearl y ever y neighborhoo d i n Chicago , percentage s overwhelmingly demonstrat e tha t mos t Africa n America n communitie s are stil l highl y segregated . Th e Nea r Sout h Side' s an d th e Fa r Sout h Side's African America n population s ar e respectivel y 9 8 percen t an d 9 1 percent. 2 Althoug h th e African America n populatio n i n the Hyd e Park Kenwood are a i s onl y 5 3 percent , on e ha s onl y t o wal k o r driv e through Hyd e Par k to notice th e "dividin g lines" between th e illustriou s University o f Chicago , wit h it s turn-of-the-century refurbishe d homes , and th e adjoinin g poore r Africa n America n neighborhoods , wit h thei r

coj^o^ujsihoj^

13 6

abandoned store s an d vacan t lots . Onc e th e hom e o f philanthropis t Julius Rosenwald , Kenwood , too , i s distinguishe d b y it s contrastin g restored mansion s an d it s poverty line . Much ha s changed i n th e seventy-fiv e year s sinc e th e Africa n Ameri can clu b wome n wer e first grante d th e righ t t o vot e i n th e nationa l elections o f 1920 . Wave s o f Souther n migratio n surge d t o 179,00 0 African American s durin g the 1940 s and to 157,00 0 in the 1950s. 3 Onc e again, man y newcomer s joined relatives , friends o r forme r neighbor s i n the southsid e neighborhoods . Other s applie d fo r residenc e i n th e newl y developed publi c housin g high-rises , th e first o f which , ironically , wa s named afte r Id a B. Wells. So segregated and isolated were some individu als' live s tha t eve n thoug h the y ha d bee n bor n i n Chicago , the y ha d never bee n a s far nort h a s downtown . Yet, despit e th e profoun d changes , muc h ha s not changed . I n spit e o f the amoun t o f attentio n devote d t o th e underclass , gan g violence , an d cases o f chil d abuse , ther e i s stil l a tremendou s amoun t o f socia l uplif t and communit y activis m i n th e Africa n America n southsid e neighbor hoods. I n a n effor t t o "tak e bac k thei r streets " fro m gan g member s an d drug dealers , citizen s from Roger s Par k t o Humbold t Par k hel d twenty four-hour vigils , a t whic h the y san g gospe l songs , prayed , an d encour aged on e another . Man y o f th e churche s continu e i n th e traditio n o f former mission s an d settlement s i n thei r outreac h program s o f da y care , children's basebal l teams , an d scoutin g units . I n th e Washingto n Par k neighborhood, St . Edmund' s Episcopa l Churc h no t onl y offer s jo b training, affordabl e housing , suppor t bloc k clubs , and communit y polic ing bu t ha s als o opene d it s ow n academ y I n Woodlawn , renovatio n projects sponsore d b y the churche s an d local businesses provide jobs an d are helping to revitalize the community. 4 As in the earl y 1900s , Washington Par k i s stil l a communit y sit e fo r summe r outings , basebal l games , picnics, an d communit y festival s an d gatherings . Clearly, ther e ar e othe r communit y project s to o numerou s t o detail . What suc h project s illustrat e ar e no t onl y th e troublin g condition s o f violence an d crim e bu t als o a community responsivenes s an d leadershi p not unlik e thos e o f the earl y twentieth century . I t would b e to o simplis tic, however , t o equat e contemporar y form s o f uplift wit h thos e engen dered b y middle-clas s leader s "upon " th e poo r an d th e underclass . A s Mitchell Duneie r ha s observe d i n hi s stud y o f working-clas s Africa n American me n i n Hyd e Park , contemporar y ethnographie s an d studie s

Duneier s criticis m o f th e underrepresente d workin g clas s migh t b e extended t o poore r Africa n Americans . Eve n i n Chicago' s publi c hous ing units , know n fo r thei r povert y an d violence , ther e i s a strong, albei t invisible, leadership . Tha t leadershi p i s female. A s presidents o f the loca l advisory councils in their housing units, many o f the females wiel d mor e influence i n thei r neighborhood s tha n loca l alderperson s do . Lik e th e club women , wome n suc h a s Cabrini-Green's Hatti e Calvi n an d Wash ington Park' s Artensa Randolph ar e not pai d employee s bu t volunteers. 8 In a spirit simila r t o tha t o f the clu b women , bot h wome n spea k an d ac t on behal f o f th e children' s an d mothers ' welfare . Unlik e th e clu b women, however , the y live in th e ver y projects an d neighborhood s the y represent. In pointing t o contemporar y examples , I do no t inten d t o undermin e the remarkabl e activis m o f Fanni e Barrie r Williams , Iren e McCoy Gaines, Joann a Snowden-Porter , Id a B . Wells , an d th e othe r clu b women o f the earl y twentieth century . No r d o I mean t o impl y tha t th e legacy o f th e clu b wome n i s bein g "carrie d on. " Certainl y th e social , political, an d economi c condition s an d constraint s o f toda y diffe r fro m those o f th e Progressiv e Era . So , too , d o th e role s o f women, inscribe d within thes e contexts , vary . Thi s point s t o othe r untol d historie s o f African America n women' s uplif t activitie s i n Chicago . Beginnin g i n the 1920s , anothe r intricat e laye r o f activis m o n Chicago' s Sout h Sid e emerged throug h th e interstitia l an d short-live d site s o f storefron t churches, missions , an d evangelisti c homes . Thes e site s were als o "femi nized," a s man y femal e preacher s an d evangelists , perhap s returnin g t o the earlie r rescu e activitie s o f Elizabeth McDonald , sough t t o uplif t th e lives o f poore r migrants . Hence , Africa n America n wome n no t onl y worked withi n thei r ow n establishe d club s an d communit y institutions ,

1 37 CONCLUSION

of Africa n America n communitie s hav e polarize d Africa n America n communities int o th e middl e clas s and th e poo r an d hav e neglecte d th e influence o f their "respectable " working-clas s citizens. 5 I n creatin g suc h divisions, h e argues , ther e ha s bee n th e implici t assumptio n tha t th e poor, wh o hav e n o values , nee d middle-clas s rol e models . Englewood , most publicize d fo r it s homicid e rat e an d it s gang-bangers , surel y ha s a strong working-class presence . No t onl y d o three-fourth s o f its resident s have jobs, but one-thir d als o own thei r ow n homes. 6 As one communit y member phrase d it , "Yo u ca n liv e in th e ghett o bu t yo u don' t hav e t o be o f the ghetto." 7

LON_£L.y.sL9...ll_

13 8

through th e incipien t bureaucracie s o f the juvenile cour t an d th e Urba n League, bu t als o throug h thes e nonforma l site s o f agency . Althoug h n o study has examined thes e multiple layers where socia l uplift wa s enacted , negotiated, an d n o doub t compromised , contemporar y version s o f women's communit y role s migh t b e roote d i n thes e variou s conteste d sites. The earl y Africa n America n women' s club s o f Chicago , b y desig n and perhaps by necessity, were marked by distinctions in social class. The Du Boisia n prescription s o f leadershi p had , i n fact , calle d fo r suc h separation. Bu t th e intrinsi c an d extrinsi c reward s o f class—status , prestige, cultura l capital , camaraderie , an d respectability—carrie d wit h them th e responsibilitie s o f socia l obligation , rac e progress , an d respon sive leadership . Althoug h socia l uplif t wa s carrie d ou t withi n thi s con text, i t als o occurre d agains t th e backdro p o f increased racism , discrimi nation, an d segregation in Chicago . For African America n females, then , the distinc t qualitie s no t onl y o f clas s an d gende r bu t als o o f th e persistence o f discriminatio n determine d thei r gendere d communit y practices. As moral guardian s an d caretaker s o f children, youths , an d th e elderly, the y reenacte d role s tha t wer e sociall y appropriat e fo r wome n during th e Progressiv e Era . Th e specifi c contexts , rituals , an d practice s of suc h role s wer e nurture d bot h b y historica l an d cultura l continuitie s and b y classe d positions , whic h were , i n part , shape d b y th e women' s club movemen t a t large . I n essence , wha t emerge d wa s a serie s o f dialectics—manifested i n the gendere d tension s between African Amer ican me n an d women ; i n th e clas s distinction s betwee n th e Africa n American elite , middl e clas s and poor ; an d i n th e ideological , organiza tional, an d cultura l difference s betwee n Africa n America n an d whit e club women . I n navigatin g thes e immens e an d ofte n turbulen t waters , the Africa n America n clu b wome n create d thei r ow n privilege d spac e and identitie s an d a t th e sam e tim e linke d variou s constituencie s an d audiences.

APPENDIX '

AFRICAN AMERICA N WOMEN'S CLUBS, CHICAGO, 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 2 0

Clubs ar e code d accordin g t o type s o f activitie s publishe d i n th e Chicago Defender and th e Broad Ax. Thi s doe s no t necessaril y mea n tha t th e club s di d not participat e i n othe r pursuit s tha n th e one s liste d below ; the y ma y hav e publicized particula r activitie s an d event s in othe r ways . In case s where n o cod e is given , n o specifi c activitie s wer e mentione d i n th e newspape r o r othe r accounts. Abbreviated code s ar e a s follows : A = Ar t (classical) ; C H = Charit y (fo r individual familie s o r children) ; D = Dancin g (social) ; D A = Domesti c Art s (embroidery, sewing , knitting , an d crocheting) ; E = Economic ; L = Literary ; M = Musical ; P = Political ; S = Suffrage ; S O = Social ; S U = Socia l Uplif t (contributing mainl y t o communit y institutions) ; W — Whist; Y = Youth . A

Acme Clu b (D , L, W ) Adelphic Clu b Afro-American Mothers ' Counci l (P, SU ) Alba Ros e Socia l Clu b (CH , L , S) Alloha Suffragis t Clu b (S ) Alpha Suffrag e Clu b (S , P, SU)

American Beaut y Cultur e Clu b (SO ) American Rosebu d Clu b American Ros e Fin e Ar t Clu b (CH, DA , L , S) Arbor Vita e Clu b (SO ) Arts an d Letter s Clu b (A , L) Astra Clu b (SO ) Autumn Lea f Social Clu b (W )

B

A F R I C A N A M E R I C A N W O ME N' S C L U B S

14 0

Bedfordine Hai r Cultur e Clu b (SO ) Belgian Whis t Clu b (W ) Beryle Pleasur e Clu b Bethel Literar y Clu b Biligan Whis t Clu b (W ) Billiken Hoo p an d Needl e Clu b (DA, S) Billiken Whis t Clu b (W ) Blue Bir d Art Clu b Book Lovers ' Clu b (L , M ) Boulevard Whis t Clu b (W ) Brown's Progressiv e Croche t Clu b (DA, W ) Busy Bee Clu b (SO , SU ) C

Calendar Clu b Carnation Ar t Clu b (D ) Carnation Whis t Clu b Carpathia Literar y Clu b (L ) Carter Charit y an d Benevolen t Association (CH ) Carter Hai r Culturalis t Clu b (CH ) Chevalier Clu b (L , W, SO ) Chicago Armstron g Leagu e Chicago Hampto n Clu b Chicago Tuskege e Clu b (L , SO ) Chicago Unio n Charit y Clu b (CH, L SU ) Chicago Wes t Law n Clu b (Y ) Chicago Women' s Christia n Association Children's Ai d Auxiliar y (Re d Cross ) (SU) Choral Stud y Grou p (M ) Chrysanthemum Whis t Clu b (W ) Clara Jessamine Clu b (SU ) Clover Lea f Social Clu b (CH , SO ) Coleridge-Taylor Chora l Societ y (M ) Colored Women' s Busines s Clu b (E ) Cornation Whis t Clu b (W ) Cornell Charit y Clu b (CH , L , SU )

Coterie Clu b (L ) Criterion Clu b (late r calle d L e Volvaire) (M , SO , SU , W ) Culture Assembl y Clu b D

Daughters o f American Fla g Elizabeth Lindsa y Davi s Clu b (CH, SU ) Dearborn Whis t Clu b (W ) Des Jeunes Aspiran t Clu b (L , SO ) Diana Charit y Clu b (SU ) Dressmaker an d Milliners ' Clu b (E ) Drexel Whis t Clu b (W ) Dunbar Clu b E

East End Charit y Clu b (CH ) East End Whis t Clu b (W ) Easter Lil y Clu b (E ) East Sid e Woman's Clu b Edgewater Embroider y Clu b (DA ) Elite Socia l Charit y Clu b (CH, DA , L , SU ) Emergency Charit y Clu b (CH , W ) Englewood Cultur e Clu b Entre Nou s Clu b (SO ) Equal Right s Leagu e Etavirp Clu b (CH ) Etude Clu b (M ) Eureka Fin e Ar t Clu b (L ) Euterpean Clu b (SO ) Eutopa Whis t Clu b Excelsior Whis t an d Industria l Clu b Exquisite Clu b (SO ) F

Fisk Clu b Five Hundre d Clu b Fleur d e Li s Art Clu b (DA , SU ) Fortnightly Whis t an d Literar y Clu b (DA, L , W ) Frederick Douglas s Chil d Cultur e Club (L , SU, CH )

Frederick Douglas s Woman' s Clu b (CH, DA , L , P , S, SO ) Friday Afternoon Embroider y Clu b (DA) Friday Afternoon Whis t Clu b (W ) G

H

Half-Century Clu b (SO ) Harmony Clu b No . 1 (CH ) Harmony Whis t Clu b (W ) Hazel Hurs t Clu b Heart an d Han d Clu b Heliotrope Clu b Henrietta P . Lee Comfor t Clu b Hesperian Whis t Clu b (W ) Home Economi c Clu b Hoop Clu b Household o f Rut h Hyacinth Charit y an d Ar t Clu b Hyde Par k Literar y Clu b (L ) Hyde Par k Woman' s Clu b (Nos . 1 and 2 ) I

LB.C.T. Clu b Ida B. Wells Clu b (CH , M , L , P ) Ideal Embroidery Clu b (DA ) Ideal Woman's Clu b (CH , L , S , SU ) Idle Hou r Ar t Clu b (SO , W ) Imperial Ar t Clu b (L ) Independent Ar t Clu b (A ) Ingram's (Mrs . Grace ) Knittin g Clu b (DA) Inter-Racial Circl e (SU )

J

Jewell Clu b (fo r girls ) Joan o f Arc Clu b Jolly Eight Whis t Clu b (W ) Jolly Twelv e Whist Clu b (W ) Jolly Twent y Clu b (SO ) Julia Gasto n Clu b (L ) K

Kings Daughters ' Counci l Knit an d Comfor t Clu b (DA ) L

Labor o f Love Clu b Ladies' Ar t an d Cultur e Clu b Ladies' Auxiliary o f the Eight h Regiment Illinoi s Nationa l Guar d (SU) Ladies Hom e Clu b Ladies o f Love Clu b Les Fillia s Gai s Clu b Lincoln Saving s League (E ) Lona Cam p Fir e Girl s (SU , Y ) Lyric Literatur e Clu b (L ) M

Madame C . J. Walke r Clu b Malay Socia l an d Charit y Clu b Mary Walke r Thompso n Clu b (CH ) Mayflower Clu b (E ) Mental Pear l Charit y Clu b Modern Priscill a Clu b (DA ) Mothers' Ai d Clu b (DA ) Mothers' Counci l (CH ) Motley (Pear l T. ) Socia l Uplif t Clu b Mozart Clu b (M ) Mystic Socia l Clu b (L , M, SO ) N

Necessity Clu b (CH , M , W ) Negro Women' s Civi c Leagu e

14 1 AFRICAN AMERICA N WOMEN' S CLUB S

Gaudeamus Clu b (CH , L , S , SU, W ) Giles Charit y Clu b (CH ) Girls' Cleanu p Clu b (SU , Y ) Girls' Lyri c Literar y Clu b (L , Y) Girls' Patrioti c Servic e Leagu e (SU, Y ) Golden Lin k Clu b (CH , W )

Intra-Mural Ar t Clu b (A ) Iroquois Communit y Leagu e (SU )

None Suc h Clu b Nonpareil Clu b (SO , W ) North Sid e Woman's Clu b (SO ) O

AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMWN'S CLUBS

OE.S. Clu b Orchid Whis t Clu b (W ) Oriole Whis t Clu b (W ) 14 2 j

P

Pandora Clu b (CH , SU ) Patria Clu b No . 1 Peerless Clu b (L , SO , W ) Philomathian Dramati c Clu b (L , Y) Phyllis Wheatley Clu b (CH, L , M, P , S, SU ) Phyllis Wheatley Juniors (S , Y) Pink Ros e Clu b Pioneer Girl s (Y ) Pioneer Lodg e (of the Theosophica l Society ) Piquet Whis t Clu b (W ) Poinsettia Embroider y an d Art Clu b (DA) Poro Clu b Pre-Nuptial Clu b (SO ) Priscilla Ar t an d Socia l Clu b (DA ) Progressive Ar t Clu b Progressive Charit y an d Art Clu b Progressive Embroider y Clu b (DA ) Progressive Literar y Clu b (L ) Progressive Whis t Clu b (W ) R

Rainbow Whis t Clu b (W ) Raymond Dancin g Clu b (D ) Red Cros s Auxiliary No . 41 1 (SU ) Rosary Socia l Clu b Royal Ar t an d Socia l Clu b (DA ) S

Samaritan Clu b (A , DA) Saturday Afternoo n Whis t Clu b (W ) Sawolka Clu b Semper Fideli s Clu b

Sigma Bet a Clu b Silver Leaf Charity Clu b (CH ) Silver Spra y Clu b Sionilli Girls ' Socia l Clu b (DA, SO , Y) Smart Se t Whist Clu b (W ) Snow Clu b Social Eight Whis t Clu b (W ) South En d Children' s Ai d Societ y (CH) S.Q.J. Whist Clu b (W ) S. S. and E . Clu b Sunday Afternoon Clu b Superior Socia l Clu b Superior Whis t Clu b (W ) Swastika Whist Clu b (W ) T

Thallis Girls ' Clu b (Y ) Theosophical Societ y (L ) Three Art s Clu b Thursday Evenin g Whis t Clu b (W ) K. D . Tillman Clu b (L , SU ) Toussaint Literar y Clu b (L ) Town o f Lake Charit y an d Art Clu b Town o f Lake Woman's Clu b (S ) Turquoise Cluste r Clu b Twelve Matrons' Clu b Twentieth Centur y Ar t Clu b (DA , A) Twentieth Centur y Penn y Clu b (E ) Twilight Socia l Clu b (SO ) Tyree Circl e U

Umbria Gle e Clu b (Y ) Uneek Clu b (Evanston ) University Societ y Clu b (L , SO ) Utopia Clu b (SO , W )

y

Verdi Art Clu b (L , M ) Violet Whis t Clu b Volunteer Workers ' Clu b (CH, DA , L , SO , SU )

w

Wednesday Afternoo n Whis t Clu b (W) West Sid e Woman's Clu b (CH, P , S, SU ) White Ros e Clu b Wide Awak e Clu b Widows' Clu b Wild Ros e Whis t Clu b (W )

Y

YMLI Charit y Clu b (CH , DA , SU ) Young Girls ' Literar y Clu b (L , Y) Young Matrons ' Cultur e Clu b Young Peoples' Improvemen t Clu b

00

Young Women's Christia n Associa tion (YWCA ) (D , SO, SU , Y ) Young Women's Patrioti c Clu b (Y ) AFRICAN AMERICAN SETTLEMENTS AND MISSIONS (WITH WHICH CLUB WOMEN WERE

Butler Missio n Clotee Scot t Settlemen t (formerl y Hyde Par k Settlement ) Emanuel Neighborhoo d Settlemen t

AFRICAN AMERICA N HOME S

Amanda Smit h Hom e fo r Colore d and Dependen t Childre n (late r Amanda Smit h Industria l Schoo l for Girls ) Hannah Griffi n Hom e Home fo r th e Age d an d Infir m Colored Peopl e (Ol d Folks ' Home) Louise Juvenile Hom e (late r Louis e Juvenile Industria l Schoo l fo r Boys) Phyllis Wheatley Hom e West Sid e Hom e (late r merged wit h Amanda Smit h Industria l Schoo l for Girls ) AFRICAN AMERICA N CHURC H LYCEUMS AND CLUB S

Bethel A.M.E . Literar y Clu b Englewood Lyceu m Grace Presbyteria n Churc h Lyceu m Silver Spra y Clu b (St . Mark's ) St. Mark's Lyceu m (Literar y Society ) Young Peoples ' Improvemen t Clu b (Quinn Chapel ) Young Peoples ' Lyceu m

143

1 43 A F R I C A N A M E R I C A N WOMEN' S C L U B S

Fannie E . Wilso n Matron' s Improvement Clu b Woman's Ai d Clu b Woman's Util e D u k e Clu b (DA ) Women's Civi c Leagu e (SU ) Women's Servic e Leagu e Women's Stud y Clu b (L , M ) Women's Universit y War d Clu b

Frederick Douglas s Cente r Lexington Socia l Cente r Negro Fellowshi p Leagu e Trinity A.M.E . Missio n Turner Missio n Wendell Phillip s Settlemen t West Sid e Settlemen t

> 2

> z> m

n > z :> o z co

O C

co

APPENDIX 2

BIOGRAPHKALSKflCHfS. OF PROMINENT AFRICA N AMERICAN CLUB WOMEN, CHICAGO, 1890-192 0

Note: Informatio n i s derive d fro m newspape r clu b record s an d annua l report s and fro m primar y materia l o n th e club s an d thei r members , includin g Lifting As They Climb, by Elizabeth Lindsa y Davis ; Intercollegiate Wonder Book, volume s 1 an d 2 ; an d The Story of Seventy-Five Years of the Chicago and Northern District of Club Women, Inc., 1906-1981, b y th e Chicag o Norther n Distric t Association . Club membershi p an d officia l role s ar e noted , a s wel l a s significan t clu b an d community service . N o date s ar e give n fo r membershi p o r office s hel d i n th e clubs, nor doe s the list purport t o be complete . Th e multipl e clu b membership s of women poin t t o ho w collaborativ e activitie s an d clu b network s expanded . Adams, Sadie . Born i n Staunton , Virginia . Presiden t o f the Chicag o Federatio n of Colored Women's Clubs ; president, recordin g secretary , an d charte r mem ber o f th e Gaudeamu s Club ; charte r membe r o f th e Clar a Jesamine Club ; member o f St. Thoma s Church ; membe r o f the Inter-Racia l Circl e (forme d to assis t the Amand a Smit h Home) ; associat e member o f the Africa n Ameri can YWC A an d th e Chicag o Urba n League ; treasure r o f th e buildin g fun d for th e Amanda Smit h Home ; membe r o f the Illinoi s Home an d Aid Societ y Board; delegat e fo r th e Alph a Suffrag e Clu b fo r th e suffrag e marc h i n Washington, D C , an d on e o f the club' s presidents an d correspondin g secre taries; vice presiden t an d secretar y o f the Easte r Lil y Club .

Anderson, Mrs . J. C . Presiden t o f the Women' s Civi c League . Anderson, Marth a B . Secretar y o f th e Illinoi s Federatio n o f Colore d Women' s Clubs; note d vocalis t wh o performe d fo r man y o f th e clubs ' charitabl e events. Anderson, Violet . Bor n i n London . Forme r cour t stenographe r an d business woman; firs t Africa n America n lawye r i n Illinoi s t o b e appointe d assistan t city prosecutor; secretar y o f the Alba Rose Club ; president o f the Elite Socia l Charity Club .

August, Mrs . E . I . Presiden t o f the Gaudeamu s Club . Avendorph, Mrs . Julius . Membe r o f th e Africa n America n "Elit e 400 " an d prominent i n organizin g man y o f th e charit y balls . Durin g th e wa r years , wrote a newspaper column , "Fanc y Work, " whic h provide d instruction s fo r knitting clothin g fo r th e soldiers . Beasley, Laura . Treasure r o f th e Alph a Suffrag e Club ; teache r o f domesti c science a t th e Frederic k Douglas s Center . Bell, Amanda. Presiden t o f the Hyd e Par k Woman' s Club . Berry, Ella . Bor n i n Stanford , Kentucky , an d educate d i n Lexington . Presiden t of th e Cornel l Charit y Club ; investigato r fo r th e Chicag o Commissio n o n Race Relations . Blackburn, Mrs . M. Presiden t o f the Clove r Lea f Social Club . Boaz, Sophia . Graduat e o f the Schoo l o f Civics an d Philanthropy, Universit y o f Chicago, throug h a scholarshi p fro m th e Rosenwal d Fund . Socia l worke r with the Wendell Phillips Settlement; member o f and critic for the Universit y Society Club ; juvenile officer , 191 3 t o 1925 . Boody, Mrs . Organize r an d chaperon e fo r th e Philomathia n Dramati c clu b (fo r youth). Brown, Adelaide . Treasure r an d charte r membe r o f th e Gaudeamu s Club ; secretary o f the Alph a Suffrag e Club . Buckner, Mrs . John. Organize r o f the Kni t an d Comfor t Club , which provide d knit good s fo r th e soldier s o f th e Eight h Regimen t (a n Africa n America n

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

Arnold, Mrs . M . Presiden t o f the Mar y Walke r Thompso n Club .

14 5

unit) durin g th e war . Marrie d t o Maj . Joh n C . Buckne r o f th e Eight h Regiment, membe r o f the Illinoi s legislature .

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES

Caldwell, Alice. President an d chai r o f the Charit y Committe e o f the Voluntee r Workers' Club ; chai r o f th e Charit y Sectio n o f th e Chicag o Federatio n o f Colored Women's Clubs ; member o f the board o f directors fo r th e Children' s Aid Societ y (affiliate d wit h th e Illinoi s Children' s Ai d an d Hom e Findin g Society); secretar y an d journalist o f the Phylli s Wheatley Club . 1 46

Caldwell, Emma . Matro n o f the Fideli a Industria l Orphans ' Home . Calloway, Fannie . Charte r membe r an d president o f the Gaudeamu s Club . Carter, Ezella . Founde r o f th e Carte r Charit y an d Benevolen t Associatio n i n 1917 (a n organizatio n o f hairdressers) ; presiden t o f th e Gile s Charit y Club ; member o f the Chicag o Urba n League ; probatio n officer . Chandler, Emma . Presiden t o f the Volunteer Workers' Clu b an d o f the Chicag o Union Charit y Club . Chapman, Lillian . Membe r o f th e boar d o f director s o f th e Children' s Ai d Society (affiliate d wit h th e Illinoi s Children' s Hom e an d Aid Society); sewin g teacher fo r th e Clote e Scot t Settlement , th e Emanue l Settlement , an d th e Frederick Douglas s Center . Claybrook, Hattie . Presiden t o f th e Hyd e Par k Literar y Club ; membe r o f th e Frederick Douglas s Woman' s Club . Coleman, Genevieve . President o f the Samarita n Clu b an d the Cornel l Charit y Club; membe r o f the Clove r Lea f Social Club . Collins, Minnie. Chai r o f the board o f managers o f the Phyllis Wheatley Home ; chair o f th e executiv e boar d o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Home ; on e o f th e founders o f th e Clar a Jessamine Clu b (forme d t o ai d th e Phylli s Wheatle y Home). Cone, Antoinett e C . Teache r o f musi c classe s a t th e Clote e Scot t Settlemen t and th e Frederic k Douglas s Center ; membe r o f the Phylli s Wheatley Club . Cooper, Dr . Ann a B . Cam e t o Chicag o i n 189 8 afte r course s a t Wilberforc e University an d th e Universit y o f Medicine an d Surger y i n Cleveland . Presi dent o f th e boar d o f th e Pau l Dunba r Tuberculosi s Sanitariu m i n Chicago ; member o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club ; regula r speake r t o women' s club s o n medical an d socia l reform issues .

Covington, Laura . Presiden t o f the Alph a Suffrag e Club . Crawley, Elizabeth . Bor n i n Kentucky . Presiden t o f th e Eas t Sid e Woman' s Club; vic e presiden t o f the Chicag o Federatio n o f Colore d Women' s Clubs ; president o f th e Idea l Woman' s Club ; membe r o f th e boar d o f director s o f the Phylli s Wheatley Home . Curtis, Lenora. Correspondin g secretar y o f the University Societ y Club; know n essayist an d writer .

Davis, Fidelia . Organize r an d founde r o f the Fideli a Industria l Orphans ' Hom e at her residence , 315 2 Dearbor n Street . Dempsey Id a Mcintosh . Presiden t o f th e Ol d Settlers ' Clu b (unti l he r death) ; secretary o f th e Republica n Suffragis t Convention ; boar d membe r an d cor responding secretar y o f the Frederic k Douglas s Center . Dunmore, Mrs . Hea d o f th e Industria l Sectio n an d charte r membe r o f th e Phyllis Wheatley Club . Emanuel, Fannie . Bor n i n Cincinnati , cam e t o Chicag o i n 1881 ; educate d a t the Jenner Medica l Colleg e an d th e Chicag o Hospita l o f Medicine , wher e she receive d he r M.D . i n 1912 . Conducte d a charit y hom e fo r youn g children o n Armou r Avenu e (Emanue l Settlemen t Home) , fro m 190 9 t o 1910. Organize d neighborhoo d settlemen t communit y club s fro m 190 8 t o 1912; founde r o f th e Emanue l Neighborhoo d Settlement ; presiden t o f th e Alpha Suffrag e Club ; organize r o f two Ne w Yea r charit y ball s for th e benefi t of Providen t Hospital , th e Ol d Folks ' Home , an d th e Emanue l Settlement ; charter member , president , an d secretar y o f th e Africa n America n YWCA ; president o f th e Educatio n Sectio n o f th e Frederic k Douglas s Cente r an d president o f the Frederic k Douglas s Woman' s Club . A membe r o f the "Elit e 400," sh e was described a s the "ne w quee n o f four hundre d amon g th e Afro Americans i n Chicago. " He r husband , Professo r Willia m Emanuel , starte d his business o f chiropody an d manicurin g parlor s i n Chicag o i n 1887 .

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

Davis, Elizabet h Lindsay . Presiden t o f the Illinoi s Federatio n o f Colored Wom en's Club s o f Illinois ; president o f the Phylli s Wheatle y Clu b an d founde r o f the Phylli s Wheatle y Home ; membe r o f the Chicag o Woman' s Club ; mem ber an d secretar y o f th e Id a B . Well s Club ; presiden t o f th e Daughter s o f American Flag , Compan y B/Eight h Illinoi s Regiment ; membe r o f th e Western Advisor y Boar d o f th e Chicag o Schoo l o f Mental Sciences ; office r with th e Children' s Ai d Societ y (affiliate d wit h th e Illinoi s Children' s Ai d and Hom e Findin g Society) ; membe r o f th e Hyd e Par k Woman' s Club ; member o f th e Voluntee r Workers ' Club ; reporte r fo r th e Swastik a Whis t Club; autho r o f several books o n th e Africa n America n clu b movement .

1 47

Everage, Mrs . B . President o f the Idea l Woman's Club . Farmer, Lula . Spearheade d th e ide a o f the Phylli s Wheatley Home . Fischer, Mary . On e o f the president s o f the Phylli s Wheatley Club . Fisher, Mrs . J. E . Presiden t o f the Lincol n Saving s League .

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

1 48

Fitts, Anni e B . Presiden t o f th e Progressiv e Circl e o f th e King' s Daughter s Council. Worke d a t th e Hom e Visitin g Departmen t o f th e Illinoi s Publi c Welfare Service . He r husband , Bernar d Fitts , wa s owne r an d printe r o f The Searchlight, a weekly newspaper . Forston, Bettiola . Bor n i n Kentuck y i n 1890 ; a t th e ag e o f twelv e cam e t o Chicago t o liv e wit h he r aunt , Toread a Mallory , a well-know n sopran o i n Illinois. Attended Keit h Schoo l an d was appointe d poe t laureat e o f her class ; in 191 0 learne d th e "feathe r trade " an d opene d a millinery business . Wrot e more tha n on e hundre d origina l poems; calle d "th e ne w poetes s o f the Afro American rac e in the middl e west." President an d journalist o f the Universit y Society Club ; secon d vic e presiden t o f th e Alph a Suffrag e Club ; cit y orga nizer o f the Chicag o Federatio n o f Colore d Women' s Clubs . Garnett, Isabella . Educate d a t Providen t Hospital' s Nursin g School ; a schoo l nurse i n Evanston . Receive d he r M.D . fro m th e Physician s an d Surgeon' s College an d th e Universit y o f Illinoi s Colleg e o f Medicine . Marrie d Dr . Arthur Butler , wit h who m sh e founded th e Evansto n Sanitarium . Garnett-Abney, Grace . Siste r o f Dr . Butle r o f Evanston ; th e firs t Africa n American graduat e o f th e Burnha m Beaut y College ; i n 189 6 opene d a beauty parlo r fo r bot h Africa n America n an d whit e women . Claime d t o have introduce d th e two-roo m kitchenett e apartmen t i n Chicago . Goins, Irene . Born i n Quincy , Illinois . Owne d a millinery busines s in Chicago . Board membe r o f the Illinoi s League o f Women chapter ; presiden t an d chai r of Civics o f the Chicag o Federatio n o f Colored Women' s Clubs ; chai r o f th e Suffrage Committe e o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club ; superviso r fo r th e Lon a Camp Fir e Girls ; president o f th e Chicag o an d Norther n District ; presiden t of Illinois Stat e Federatio n o f Colore d Women' s Clubs ; membe r o f women' s trades unio n an d o f the Urba n League ; starte d a child cultur e clu b an d girls ' club a t th e Frederic k Douglas s Center . He r husban d owne d a numbe r o f manicuring parlor s throughou t th e cit y Golden, Carrie . Medica l doctor ; membe r o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Clu b wh o oversaw th e committe e tha t inspecte d Africa n America n tenements .

Gordon, Mrs . On e o f the president s o f the Id a B. Wells Club . Green, Mrs . Philip . Attended Mole r Colleg e t o stud y chiropod y an d manicur ing; owne d a beauty an d manicurin g parlo r i n downtow n Chicago .

Hampton, Alice . Sewin g teache r a t th e Frederic k Douglas s Center . Harris, Eliza . Vic e presiden t o f the Afro-America n Mothers ' Council . Hawkins, Cora . Founde r o f the Voluntee r Workers ' Club ; membe r o f the Alb a Rose Socia l Club . Hawkins, Louise . Secretar y o f the Easte r Lil y Club . Haynes, Birdye. Graduat e o f the Schoo l o f Civics an d Philanthropy , Universit y of Chicago , throug h a scholarship fro m th e Rosenwal d Fund . Superviso r a t the Wendell Phillip s Settlement . Hensley B . L . Presiden t o f th e Elit e Socia l Charit y Clu b (fo r th e Phylli s Wheatley Home) ; secretar y an d membe r o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club ; theater directo r for benefit production s fo r th e Phyllis Wheatley Home ; chai r of th e boar d o f director s fo r th e Phylli s Wheatle y Home ; presiden t o f th e Gaudeamus Club . Hill, Rev . Mar y E . Lark . A n evangelis t an d compose r o f cam p meetin g songs ; founder o f th e Quee n Esthe r Missio n (504 0 Stat e Street ) i n 1905 ; owne r o f a cafe . Hill, Viola. Secon d vic e president o f the Alph a Suffrag e Club . Holloway, Mary . Instructo r fo r sewin g classe s for th e Phylli s Wheatley Home . Holt, Nora . Write r fo r th e Chicago Defender, especiall y o n lyceu m an d musica l activities. Hooper, Eva . Presiden t o f th e Carte r Hai r Culturalis t Club ; executiv e boar d member an d head o f the Committe e fo r Churches , Chicag o Uurba n League .

1 49 B I O G R A P H I C A L SKETCHE.S .

Hall, Mrs. Georg e Cleveland . Considere d on e o f the "queens " o f the Chicago' s "Elite 400" ; describe d a s "represent[ing ] th e highes t typ e o f Afro-America n womanhood"; organize r an d patrones s o f charit y ball s fo r th e Frederic k Douglass Center ; presiden t o f th e Africa n America n YWCA ; membe r o f the Chicag o Women' s Amateu r Minstre l Club . Note d elocutionis t wh o performed fo r man y charit y events . He r husband , Georg e Clevelan d Hall , was a physician.

Hudlin, Ann a Elizabeth . Membe r o f the Ol d Settlers ' Club , a club fo r th e firs t African America n resident s o f Chicago; organize d th e Ben a Morriso n Club , which assiste d th e elderl y i n th e Hom e fo r th e Age d an d Infirm . Marrie d t o Joseph Hudlin , anothe r membe r o f the Ol d Settlers ' Club . Hunter, Anna . Firs t matro n o f the Phylli s Wheatley Home .

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

1 50

Jackson, Charlotte . Hea d o f th e Cour t Record s Departmen t o f th e juvenil e court. Jackson, Fannie . Note d elocutionist . Jackson, Mary . Firs t vic e presiden t o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club ; membe r o f the West Sid e Woman's Club ; president o f the Illinoi s Federatio n o f Colore d Women's Clubs . Jackson, Mrs . M . B . Treasurer o f the Afro-America n Mothers ' Council . Jemison, Hattie . Teache r o f dressmaking classes , Frederic k Douglas s Center . Jenifer, Eva . Bor n i n Kaskaskia , Illinois . Presiden t o f th e Frederic k Douglas s Woman's Club ; founde r an d presiden t o f th e Africa n America n YWCA , Chicago; chai r o f the truste e boar d fo r th e Phylli s Wheatley Home ; membe r of the Phyllis Wheatley Club , until members aske d her to resign over Y W C A controversy. Johnson, Clara . Born i n Columbia , Missouri . Presiden t o f the Chicag o Federa tion o f Colore d Women' s Club s an d th e Phylli s Wheatle y Home ; charte r member an d presiden t o f the Voluntee r Workers ' Club ; charte r membe r an d editor o f the Gaudeamu s Club . Johnson, Eliza . On e o f the president s o f the Phylli s Wheatley Home . Johnson, Florenc e E . On e o f th e superintendent s o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Home. Johnson, Jessie. On e o f th e founder s o f th e Clar a Jessamine Club ; presiden t o f the Chicag o Federatio n o f Colore d Women' s Clubs ; hea d o f th e Hom e Service Branch o f the R e d Cros s durin g th e war ; firs t secretar y o f the Phylli s Wheatley Woman' s League ; secretar y o f the Phylli s Wheatley Club . Jones, Anna . Membe r o f the Urba n League . Jones, Id a Taylor. One o f the first African America n femal e hig h school teacher s in th e Chicag o publi c schools ; taugh t a t Wendell Phillip s Hig h School . Vic e

president o f the Phyllis Wheatley Club ; als o taught dressmakin g a t the Clote e Scott Settlement . Jones, Jessie. Teache r o f stenography a t th e Frederic k Douglas s Center . Jones, Nettie . Presiden t o f the Cornel l Charit y Club .

Kennedy, Emma . Presiden t o f the Cornel l Charit y Club . Kinney, Ellen . Presiden t o f the America n Ros e Fin e Ar t Club . Lawson, Lulu . Bor n i n Nort h Carolina ; a graduat e o f Howar d University . Worked wit h th e Rosenwal d Fun d a s a social worker ; chai r o f th e YWCA , 1921—23; field worke r fo r th e Chicag o Re d Cros s durin g th e war ; membe r of the Chicag o Women' s Amateu r Minstre l Club . Lewis, Carey . Membe r o f th e executiv e boar d o f th e Urba n League ; membe r of th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club ; founde r o f th e Grac e Presbyteria n Church' s youth lyceum . Lewis, Id a D . Bor n i n Crawfordsville , Indiana . Founde r o f th e Wes t Sid e Woman's Club , whic h founde d th e Wes t Sid e Hom e (fo r youn g workin g girls, late r merge d wit h th e Amand a Smit h Industria l Schoo l fo r Girls) ; president o f the Illinoi s Federatio n o f Colored Women' s Clubs . Lewis, Irene . Writer o f social column s fo r th e Africa n America n newspapers . Liggins, Emma . Presiden t o f the Gaudeamu s Club . Livingston, Lucy . President o f the Chicag o Unio n Charit y Club . Loomis, Eva . Recordin g secretar y o f the Phylli s Wheatley Hom e Association . Lyles, Alice. Member o f the Idea l Woman's Club . Macon, Theresa . Bor n i n Louisville , Kentuck y Presiden t o f the Stat e an d Cit y Federation o f Colore d Women' s Clubs ; charte r membe r o f th e Id a B . Well s Club an d o f th e Cornel l Charit y Club ; recordin g secretar y o f th e NACW ;

15 1 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

Joyner, Marjori e Stewart . Bor n i n Monterey , Virginia ; on e o f th e firs t Africa n American graduate s o f Mole r Beaut y School . Opene d a beaut y sho p i n 1916; i n 191 9 becam e th e vic e presiden t an d nationa l superviso r fo r Mada m Walker's chai n o f beauty schools , whic h recruite d "Walke r agents. " I n 192 8 received a patent fo r a permanent hai r wav e machine .

member o f the boar d o f directors o f the Phylli s Wheatley Hom e Association ; vice presiden t o f the Amand a Smit h Home ; membe r o f the executiv e boar d of the Chicag o Urba n League . Marshall, Mrs . Joh n R . Wif e o f th e commande r o f th e Eight h Regimen t Illinois Nationa l Guard .

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETC H E S

15 2

McCoy-Gaines, Irene . Bor n i n Ocala , Florida ; educate d a t Fis k Universit y an d at th e Schoo l o f Civic s an d Philanthropy , Universit y o f Chicago ; presiden t of Colore d Women' s Republica n Club s o f Illinois; industria l secretar y o f th e YWCA; secretar y o f th e juvenil e court ; presiden t o f th e Theosophica l Society; reporte r fo r th e Universit y Societ y Club ; chai r o f the committe e fo r the Bethe l Literar y Essa y Contests . Sh e hersel f wo n severa l literar y prizes . Married t o attorne y Harri s Gaines . McCracken, Ethel . Presiden t o f th e Illinoi s Federatio n o f Colore d Women' s Clubs; treasure r o f the Phylli s Wheatley Club . McDonald, Elizabeth . Bor n i n Kentucky . I n 190 1 becam e a volunteer proba tion office r fo r th e juvenil e court ; know n rescu e worke r an d missionary ; founder o f the Louis e Juvenile Hom e (an d late r Industria l Schoo l fo r Boys) ; member o f th e Voluntee r Workers ' Club ; presiden t o f philanthrop y fo r th e Frederick Douglas s Woman' s Club . McKinley, Ada . Boar d membe r o f th e Illinoi s Leagu e o f Wome n chapter ; president o f the Citizen s Communit y Center . Mcpherson, Mrs . J. H . Quarantin e office r i n th e Chicag o Healt h Departmen t in 1918 ; first woma n t o hav e suc h a position i n Chicago . Merriweather, Mrs . Albert. Presiden t o f the Twentiet h Centur y Ar t Club . Minott, Adena . Graduat e o f th e America n Institutio n o f Phrenolog y an d Psychology i n Washington , D C , an d o f th e Fowle r an d Well s America n Institute o f Anthropology i n Ne w Yor k City ; menta l scientist , phrenologist , and chil d cultur e specialist ; founde r o f th e Cli o Schoo l o f Menta l Science s and Characte r Analysi s i n Chicago . Moore, Gertrude . On e o f the president s o f the Phylli s Wheatley Home . Moore-Smith, Alberta . Presiden t o f th e Colore d Women' s Busines s Club , Chicago; county probation office r i n 1912 ; member o f the African America n YWCA; presiden t o f the Sout h En d Children' s Ai d Society .

Moseley, Berth a Lewis . Daughte r o f B . F . Moseley , Chicag o attorne y an d colonel; graduate d wit h honor s fro m Englewoo d Hig h Schoo l i n 1910 ; graduated fro m Chicag o Universit y wit h a master' s degre e a t ag e twenty two, havin g receive d fou r diploma s i n seve n years ; presiden t o f th e Grac e Presbyterian Churc h Lyceu m an d founde r o f the Young Peopl e s Lyceum; i n charge o f th e Farre n Communit y Center , Recreatio n Division ; teache r a t Whitney School . Overton, Eva . Secretar y o f Upsilon Kapp a Sigma .

Pemberton, Mrs . Presiden t o f the Idea l Embroidery Club . Perry, Helen . On e o f the firs t Africa n America n femal e hig h schoo l teacher s i n the Chicag o publi c schools ; taugh t a t Wendell Phillip s Hig h School . Perry, Len a LeGran d Belle . A truan t officer , appointe d i n 1918 . Secretar y o f the Necessit y Club , whic h sponsore d a day nursery . Ralston, Fanny . Presiden t o f the Penn y Club . Richards, Fannie . President o f the Phylli s Wheatley Hom e Association . Ridley, Rebecca . Matro n o f th e Hom e fo r th e Age d an d Infir m Colore d People. Rouse, Eva . Presiden t o f the Iroquoi s Communit y Leagu e i n Evanston . Sampson, Edith . Lawyer ; i n 192 4 appointe d probatio n officer . Sayre, Helen . Bor n i n Canada . Presiden t o f Wendel l Phillip s Hig h Schoo l Parent-Teacher Association ; socia l worker . Schultz-Knighten, Ann a B . A docto r "wel l know n fo r he r charity , an d [who ] is no w educatin g a n orpha n girl , wh o promise s t o b e a s capabl e a s th e doctor"; late r studie d law . Marrie d t o D . J . Knighten , th e onl y Africa n American livestoc k broke r i n Chicago . Scott, Clotee . Founde r o f the Clote e Scot t Settlemen t i n Hyd e Park ; probatio n officer i n 1926 ; founder o f the Harmoni a Ethica l Clu b (fo r children) . Scott, Mada m E . M . Hel d a n Illinoi s stat e certificat e fo r teachin g chiropody ; founder an d manage r o f th e Providen t Schoo l o f Beaut y Cultur e i n 1910 ,

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

Patterson, Mrs . Minnie . Sewin g teache r fo r th e Idl e Hou r Ar t Clu b an d th e American Ros e Fin e Ar t Club .

15 3

the onl y schoo l i n th e Unite d State s operate d b y a n Africa n America n woman "wher e th e cours e o f stud y i s thorough an d complete. " (Th e schoo l taught chiropody , manicuring , marce l waving , hai r dressin g an d pressing , shampooing, hai r dyein g an d bleaching , ho t oi l treatment , singein g an d clipping, facia l massaging , mu d an d Frenc h pack , an d hig h frequenc y an d body massaging. ) Scott, Luci a H . Superintenden t o f the Boys ' Clea n Lif e Club .

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

1 54

Scott, Luna . Pian o teache r a t th e Clote e Scot t Settlement ; Milwauke e corre spondent fo r th e Chicago Defender. Seay Mada m Maude . A milliner, owne r o f a millinery shop . "Som e o f the mos t elaborately plume d hat s worn a t th e Thanksgivin g K . P . Ball were fashione d by her. " Specialize d i n French-styl e hats . Simpson, Dorothy . Presiden t o f the Phylli s Wheatley Juniors. Sinclair, Minnie . Owne r o f popular beaut y shop . Smith, Amanda . Bor n i n Lon g Green , Maryland ; a n evangelist , missionary , temperance activist , an d founde r o f th e Amand a Smit h Hom e (an d late r Industrial Schoo l fo r Girls ) i n Harvey , Illinois . Smith, Emma. Presiden t an d founder o f the Easter Lily Club an d the Mayflowe r Club, tw o saving s club s fo r women . Smith, Gabriella . On e o f th e founder s o f th e Hom e fo r th e Age d an d Infir m Colored People ; matro n o f the home . Smith, Geneva . Leade r i n th e communit y o f th e Tow n o f Lake ; activ e worke r with th e Berea n Baptis t Church . Smith, Gertrude . Probatio n office r wit h th e juvenile cour t fro m 191 2 t o 1914 . Smith, Maude . Presiden t o f th e Illinoi s Stat e Federatio n o f Colore d Women' s Clubs. Snowden-Porter, Joanna. Bor n i n Chicago . Juvenile probatio n officer ; membe r of th e boar d o f director s an d on e o f th e founder s o f th e Ol d Folks ' Home ; officer o f the Juvenile Protectiv e Association ; treasure r an d membe r o f board of director s fo r th e Phylli s Wheatle y Home ; presiden t o f th e Northwester n Federation o f Colored Women's Clubs ; bookkeeper fo r th e Chicag o Record er's Office , Chicago .

Stewart, Mrs . H . E . Presiden t o f the Nort h Sid e Woman's Club . Stewart, Mrs . J. C . Presiden t o f th e Tow n o f Lak e Woman' s Club ; missionar y worker wit h th e Olive t Baptis t Church . Taylor, Mrs . Julius. Presiden t o f the Afro-America n Mothers ' Council ; charte r member o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club ; wif e o f th e edito r o f th e Broad Ax, Julius Taylor . Taylor, Mollie . On e o f the president s o f the Id a B. Wells Club .

Thomas, Jessie. A probation office r fo r th e juvenile court , beginnin g i n 1910 . Thomas, Lillian . A sewin g teache r a t th e Clote e Scot t Settlement . Thornton, Bisho p Mattie . Founde r o f the Hol y Nazaren e Tabernacl e Apostoli c Church i n 1913 ; sh e conducte d cam p meeting s a t Morga n Park , Evanston , and Milwauke e i n 1912 ; on e o f the founder s o f the Hom e fo r th e Age d an d Infirm Colore d People . Tivis, Nina . Directo r o f severa l youn g girls ' literar y clubs ; activ e membe r o f the Frederic k Douglas s Center . Turner, Fannie . Charte r membe r an d president o f the Idea l Woman's Club ; vic e president o f the Chicag o Federatio n o f Colored Women' s Clubs ; president o f the K . D . Tillman Club ; treasure r o f the boar d fo r th e Pau l Laurence Dunba r Sanitarium. Vance, Alice. Presiden t o f the Lincol n Saving s League . Walton, Martha . Chai r o f th e Mortgag e Fun d fo r th e Phylli s Wheatle y Clu b and Home ; secretar y an d presiden t o f the Voluntee r Workers ' Club . Waring, Mar y Fitzbutler . Graduat e o f Louisville Nationa l Medica l Colleg e an d Chicago Medica l School . Teacher a t Wendell Phillips High School . I n charg e of th e Dunba r Sanitarium ; captai n o f cantee n o f uniforme d worker s (wh o met train s o f soldiers ) wit h th e R e d Cros s Auxiliary ; nationa l organize r o f war cam p commmunit y work ; secretary , statistician , an d chai r o f educatio n and o f healt h fo r th e Illinoi s Stat e Federatio n o f Colore d Women' s Clubs ; president o f th e Necessit y Club ; directo r o f th e Children' s Ai d Auxiliary ; head o f th e Woman' s Secon d War d Suffrag e League ; office r o f Children' s Aid Societ y (affiliate d wit h th e Illinoi s Children' s Ai d an d Hom e Findin g

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

Teney, Mrs . A. Presiden t o f the Swastik a Whis t Club .

15 5

Society); chai r o f healt h an d hygiene , NACW . Marrie d t o Fran k Waring , LL.B. Warner, Mrs . Carrie . Vic e presiden t o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club . A graduat e of Moler College , sh e owne d chiropod y an d manicur e parlor s i n downtow n Chicago. On e newspape r highlighte d he r work : "[Her ] parlor s ar e fre quented b y hundred s o f th e bes t an d th e wealthies t whit e ladie s o f thi s cit y which i s sufficient t o prove that Mrs. Warner i s a successful busines s woman. "

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

15 6

Waters, Adah . Studie d a t Fis k University , wher e sh e taugh t printing , an d a t Northwestern University ; edito r o f the Woman' s Department , Afro-American Budget, Evanston ; edito r o f th e A.M.E . Sunda y Schoo l Union s children' s periodical; organize r o f th e Girls ' Patrioti c Servic e League s i n Chicag o during th e wa r years ; superviso r o f th e Amand a Smit h Hom e (an d late r Industrial School ) i n Harvey , Illinois ; superintenden t o f th e Friendshi p House, Chicago . Watkins, Mrs . S . A . T . Hea d o f prominen t whis t clubs ; prominen t membe r o f St. Thoma s Church . He r husban d wa s a lawyer. Watson, Cora . On e o f th e founder s o f th e Iroquoi s Communit y Leagu e i n Evanston (whic h establishe d a home fo r workin g girl s in Evansto n i n 1917) . Webb, Rhoygnette . Graduat e o f Provident s Nursing Schoo l an d o f the Purdu e University Schoo l o f Pharmacy ; Hea d nurs e a t Dr . Butle r an d Dr . Garner' s Sanitarium i n Evanston . Webster, Lucy . Chai r o f the Charit y Committee , Voluntee r Workers ' Club . Webster, Mary . Chai r o f th e Pres s Committe e an d sewin g teache r fo r th e Volunteer Workers ' Club . Wells, Id a B . Bor n i n Holl y Springs , Mississippi . Founde r o f th e Negr o Fellowship League ; cofounde r o f th e Frederic k Douglas s Center ; founde r and presiden t o f th e Id a B . Well s Club , th e Idea l Woman' s Club , an d th e Alpha Suffrag e Club . Speake r fo r th e Anti-Lynchin g Burea u o f the Nationa l African America n Council ; vic e presiden t o f th e Frederic k Douglas s Wom an's Club; first African America n woma n appointe d a s an officer i n the Adul t Probation Department . He r husband , Ferdinan d Barnett , wa s a lawye r an d an assistan t stat e attorney . Wells, Ophie . Superviso r o f the sewin g activitie s o f the Phylli s Wheatley Club ; known musicia n wh o performe d a t man y o f th e churc h lyceum s an d clubs ; taught musi c classe s at the Frederic k Douglas s Center .

West, Cordelia . Chai r o f th e Hous e Committee , Africa n America n YWCA ; president o f the Volunteer Workers' Club ; president o f the Norther n Distric t of Colored Women' s Clubs . Williams, Bertha . Firs t African America n woma n t o graduat e a s a stenographe r before th e twentiet h century ; th e onl y Africa n America n femal e notar y public a s of 1896 . Williams, Mrs . Daniel . Charte r membe r o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Club . He r husband was th e founde r o f and a doctor a t Provident Hospital .

Williams, M . C . Presiden t o f the Clove r Lea f Club . Wilson, Mrs . C . L . Sewin g teache r a t th e Clote e Scot t Settlement . Wilson, Grace . Attende d th e Schoo l o f Civic s an d Philanthropy , Universit y o f Chicago. Membe r o f th e Chicag o Unio n Charit y Club ; worke d fo r th e investigation departmen t o f th e Negr o Fellowshi p League ; "mother " a t a home fo r incorrigibl e girl s i n Glencoe , Illinoi s (1918) ; matro n fo r Stat e Training fo r Girl s a t Genev a (th e firs t Africa n America n woma n t o hol d a civil position i n suc h a n institution); th e firs t Africa n America n femal e polic e officer. Wright, Mrs . E . H . Membe r o f th e Phylli s Wheatle y Clu b an d th e Urba n League; chai r o f th e Hom e Sectio n o f th e Frederic k Douglas s Woman' s Club. Also considere d a fine poetess , he r work s wer e rea d a t several women' s clubs. He r husban d wa s a judge. Young, Lo u Ella . Presiden t an d recordin g secretar y o f th e Eurek a Fin e Ar t Club; office r o f the True Reformers ; chai r of the Urba n League' s Committe e for Fraterna l Organizations ; correspondin g secretar y o f the Chicag o Federa tion o f Colored Women' s Clubs .

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHE S

Williams, Fanni e Barrier . Bor n i n Ne w York ; attende d Ne w Englan d Conser vatory o f Boston an d th e Schoo l o f Fin e Art s i n Washington , D C . Forme r teacher i n Washington , D C , an d painter . Charte r membe r o f the - Phyllis Wheatley Clu b an d o f th e Prudenc e Crandal l Stud y Club ; on e o f th e founders o f Providen t Hospital ; membe r o f th e Chicag o Librar y Boar d an d of the Chicag o Woman' s Club . Prominen t speake r i n th e femal e clu b move ment an d membe r o f Chicago' s "Elit e 400. " Write r o f numerou s essays , articles, an d speeche s o n th e African America n women' s clu b movement an d on th e rol e o f women i n uplif t work . He r husband , S . Laing Williams, wa s a judge.

15 7

NOTES

NOTES TO INTRODUCTIO N

1. Weber , Sociological Writings; Gerth an d Mills, From Max Weber; R. Collins , Three Sociological Traditions. Se e als o W . J. Wilson , The Declining Significance of Race, for th e prominenc e o f social clas s in sociologica l analyses . 2. Broad Ax, Octobe r 10 , 1914 . NOTES TO C ^

1. Th e ter m progressive matemalism is taken fro m Ladd-Taylo r s Mother- Work, wherein sh e distinguishes between feminist s an d progressive maternalist s durin g the Progressiv e Era . Perhap s th e mos t cite d work s o n th e cul t o f tru e woman hood ideolog y ar e b y Welter . Se e Dimity Convictions; "Th e Cul t o f Tru e Womanhood," 151—174 . Fo r othe r work s o n th e cul t o f domesticit y an d o n the nurturanc e o f the domesti c sphere , se e Rosenberg , "Th e Femal e Worl d o f Love an d Ritual, " 1-29 ; Cott , Bonds of Womanhood; Ryan , Womanhood in America. The resurgenc e o f the Republica n motherhoo d i n th e Chicag o wom en's movemen t wa s particularl y pronounce d i n th e kindergarte n movement ; see, fo r example , E . Harrison , A Study of Child-Nature. Semina l scholarshi p o n the earlie r version s o f Republica n motherhoo d include s Kerber , Women of the Republic; S. M. Evans , Born for Liberty. 2. Th e mergin g o f Washingtonia n an d D u Boisia n ideologie s i s als o note d

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160

by Higginbotham , Righteous Discontent, and Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color. My analysis indicate s a split i n th e clu b women' s ideolog y alon g clas s lines. That is , Washington's industria l educatio n mode l wa s mos t ofte n recommende d fo r poorer Africa n Americans , whil e D u Boi s s model o f leadership an d aristocrac y was practice d b y th e clu b women . Se e Gaines , Uplifting the Race, fo r furthe r discussion o f th e uplif t ideologie s an d mal e an d femal e model s o f leadership ; and Smith , "Th e Blac k Women's Clu b Movement. " 3. Fo r thi s ter m I dra w fro m P . H. Collins , Black Feminist Thought. I exten d her concep t o f "othe r mothers " t o "othe r homes, " mos t prominentl y i n th e club women' s establishin g o f day car e facilities, suc h a s nurseries an d kindergar tens fo r younge r childre n an d home s fo r youn g workin g girls , th e elderly , an d orphaned an d dependen t children . Tha t th e clu b wome n perceive d thes e facilities a s "othe r homes " i s eviden t i n th e nomenclature , tha t is , th e Phylli s Wheatley Home , th e Amand a Smit h Home , th e Ol d Folks ' Home , a s well a s in goal s se t fort h unde r th e N A C W categor y "Child" : t o creat e home-findin g organizations an d t o assis t dependen t an d delinquen t children . E . L . Davis , Lifting As They Climb, 101. 4. Ther e ar e man y fin e piece s o n th e histor y o f idea s concernin g th e concepts o f rac e an d it s attendan t racis t practices . Amon g these , se e Jordan , White over Black; Newby , Jim Crow's Defense; Meier an d Rudwick , From Plantation to Ghetto. 5. Fo r example s o f literatur e documentin g rac e progres s an d exemplar y leaders, se e Alexander , History of the Colored Race in America; Brawley , Negro Builders and Heroes; Brawley, Women of Achievement; H. Q . Brown , Homespun Heroines; Culp , Twentieth Century Negro Literature; Daniel , Women Builders; Hopkins, "Famou s Wome n o f the Negr o Race, " 273—277 ; Kletzing an d Crog man, Progress of a Race; Mossell, The Work of the Afro-American Woman; Richings, Evidence of Progress among Colored People. Most work s feature d th e live s an d accomplishments o f men; a s a case in point, thos e works featuring wome n wer e mostly written b y female writers . Scholars, too, have documente d th e Victoria n ideals t o whic h man y Africa n America n clu b wome n subscribed . Se e Carlson , "Black Ideal s o f Womanhood i n th e Lat e Victoria n Era, " 61—73 ; J. M . Wilson , "Domestic Feminism , Conservatism , Se x Roles , an d Blac k Women' s Clubs, " 166—177; Dickson, "Towar d a Broader Angl e o f Vision," 114—115 . 6. Ther e ar e numerou s scholarl y reference s t o thi s incident . Th e mos t complete documentatio n o f th e NACW' s histor y i s Wesley , History of the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs. Se e als o Kendrick , "The y Als o Serve," 817-825; B. W Jones , "Mar y Churc h Terrel l and th e Nationa l Associa tion o f Colore d Women , 20-33. " Fo r primar y documentatio n o f th e NACW , nationally an d regionally , se e Chicag o Norther n Distric t Association , The Story of Seventy-Five Years; E . L . Davis , Lifting As They Climb; Yates , "Th e Nationa l Association o f Colored Women, " 283-287 . 7. Giddings , Where and When I Enter, 99.

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8. Higginbotham , too , i n Righteous Discontent, 207, ha s note d th e tw o tier s within th e NACW' s motto . 9. Fo r scholar s wh o argu e tha t Africa n America n gendere d role s were mor e egalitarian an d culturall y informed , se e Yee, Black Women Abolitionists; Perkins, "The Impac t o f th e 'Cul t o f Tru e Womanhood, ' " 17-28 ; White , A'm't I a Woman; White, "Th e Cos t o f Clu b Work, " 247-269 . Hewitt , i n "Beyon d th e Search fo r Sisterhood, " 299-321 , argue s tha t despit e a similarity i n th e rhetori c of the cul t o f true womanhoo d amon g ethni c women , th e materia l condition s of women' s live s differe d greatly ; thus , thei r expression s o f tru e womanhoo d were no t monolithic . Fo r a Marxist analysis , especiall y th e patriarcha l position s of men, se e hooks, Black Looks; A. Y . Davis, Women, Race, and Class. 10. Yee , Black Women Abolitionists, 40 . Harle y ha s argue d tha t historicall y African America n women' s spher e wa s separate, confirme d b y White's elabora tion o f intergenerational femal e tras h gang s durin g slavery . Harle y aptl y distin guishes betwee n thi s separat e spher e an d tha t o f domesticity . Se e Harley , "Fo r the Goo d o f Family an d Race, " 159-172 . 11. Cite d i n B. W Jones , Quest for Equality, 24. 12. Yate s cite d i n Culp , Twentieth Century Negro Literature, 21—28 . 13. F . B. Williams, "Th e Accusation s Ar e False, " 165 . 14. Cooper , "Th e Colore d Woma n Shoul d No t B e Ignored, " 573 . 15. Alexander , History of the Colored Race in America, 592 . Guy-Sheftal l ha s noted ho w minister s employe d th e cul t o f true womanhoo d ideolog y t o protec t their ow n positions . Se e Daughters of Sorrow, 72 . 16. Higginbotha m ha s astutely argued tha t African America n me n reinstate d their manhoo d an d thei r ow n dignit y throug h promotin g a femal e domesti c sphere; "Beyon d th e Soun d o f Silence," 58. See also Friedman, i n White Savage, Racial Fantasies. 17. F . B . Williams , "Th e Woman' s Par t i n a Man' s Business, " 544-545 . Williams was no t alon e i n beseechin g me n fo r thei r protection . Se e als o Cooper, A Voice from the South, 18 , 25 . Se e th e July 190 4 issu e o f th e Voice of the Negro, whic h i s devote d t o Africa n America n women' s perspective s o n womanhood, character , an d status . 18. Bake r cite d i n Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 97 . 19. J . Thorne , " A Ple a for Socia l Justice," 2-6 . 20. Alexander , History of the Colored Race in America, 592 . 21. Se e Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South; Thrasher , Tuskegee. 22. Th e hom e economic s movemen t permeate d vocational , a s wel l a s higher, educatio n fo r women . Se e Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women; Powers, The ( Girl Question' in Education. See also Fuell, "Th e Valu e of Domestic Science," 429-430 . 23. Freeman , "Th e Home-Makin g Arts, " 427-428 . On e o f the mor e fasci nating, an d leas t examined , aspect s o f th e domesti c art s wer e thei r effect s o n standards o f character an d beauty. According t o Kenton , principa l o f the Beaut y

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Culture Departmen t o f the Enterprise Institut e i n Chicago , "beauty , healt h an d comfort" mad e u p a "magi c trio, " cultivate d alongsid e th e domesti c arts ; Dr . Jefferson argue d tha t housekeepin g was no t onl y a n artisti c endeavo r bu t als o resulted i n "beaut y an d neatness , harmon y an d sweetness. " Alongsid e report s of th e lates t housekeepin g technologie s i n th e women' s column s wer e beaut y and healt h "hints. " Som e advertisement s eve n state d tha t wif e abandonmen t resulted fro m imperfec t housekeeping . Broad Ax (hereafte r referre d t o a s BA), May 14 , 1911 , June 14 , 1913 , July 2 , 1910 . No t al l African America n wome n subscribed t o thes e notions. Mossell, for one , chide d thos e offerin g suc h advice , pointing ou t tha t a clea n hous e woul d no t "kee p a man home" ; furthermore , she argued , character , no t cheerfulness , wa s mos t important . Se e Mossell , The Work of the Afro-American Woman, 115—125 . 24. Chicago Defender (hereafter referre d t o a s CD) , July 2 , 1910 . 25. Nichol s an d Crogman , Progress of a Race, 199-200 . 26. Cite d i n Sterling , We Are Your Sisters, 435 . 27. Brawley , Negro Builders and Heroes, 260 . Terborg-Penn discusse s Brawley s traditional views o f womanhood i n "Th e Historica l Treatmen t o f Afro-Ameri cans in th e Woman' s Movement, " 245-259 . 28. Kletzin g an d Crogman , Progress of a Race, 222. 29. Alexander , History of the Colored Race in America, 599 . 30. Ibid . 31. CD, June 14 , 1913 . 32. BA, Novembe r 10 , 1904 . 33. Gibbs , "Woman' s Par t i n th e Uplif t o f the Negr o Race, " 264-265 . 34. Kletzin g an d Crogman , Progress of a Race, 216. 35. E B. Williams, "Th e Colore d Girl, " 400 . 36. hooks , Black Looks, 94. 37. White , Ar'n't I a Woman? 56. 38. Terrel l cite d i n E . L . Davis , Lifting As They Climb, 86 . Th e N A C W divided th e categor y o f "Mother " int o thre e areas : parent education , "whole some attitude, " an d health . I n a questionnair e designe d t o elici t genera l infor mation, mother s were aske d questions abou t thei r parenting practices, question s that evoke d response s abou t middle-clas s practices , fo r example , Ar e yo u you r child's "companion" ? D o yo u conduc t a stor y hou r wit h you r children ? D o you visi t thei r schools ? D o yo u subscrib e t o an y parents ' magazines ? Se e E . L . Davis, Lifting As They Climb, 98—101. 39. Yates , "Kindergarten s an d Mothers ' Clubs, " 306-307 . Se e als o Graves , "Motherhood." A s Ladd-Taylor ha s noted, th e Republican motherhood , whic h echoed th e cul t o f domesticity, wa s reinstated b y man y clu b wome n durin g th e early twentieth century ; Mother-Work, 4-6 . 40. Nichol s an d Crogman , Progress of a Race, 226. 41. Kletzin g an d Crogman , Progress of a Race, 197—198. 42. Culp , Twentieth Century Negro Literature, 184 .

1 63 NOTES T O CHAPTE R 1

43. E . L . Davis , Lifting As They Climb, 18 . Se e als o Crummell , "Th e Blac k Woman o f the South. " 44. Scholar s hav e elaborate d o n th e professionalizatio n o f domestic work , a s well a s o n Nanni e Burroug h s leadin g rol e i n th e educatio n o f domesti c workers. Se e particularl y Barnett , "Nanni e Burrough s an d th e Educatio n o f Black Women, " 97-108 . Higginbotham s suggestio n tha t Africa n America n domestic worker s wer e respecte d becaus e o f thei r church-goin g practice s an d hard wor k i s eviden t i n quote s suc h a s th e followin g b y Katherin e Davi s Tillman: "Le t n o on e scor n th e vas t arm y o f domestic s wh o dwel l i n th e land , for i n God' s sigh t ther e i s a s muc h hono r i n doin g one' s bes t i n tha t spher e as i n an y other. " Tillman , "Afro-America n Wome n an d Thei r Work, " 89 ; Higginbotham, "Beyon d th e Soun d o f Silence, " 58 . Fo r a comprehensiv e history o f Africa n America n femal e employment , includin g domesti c service , see J. Jones, Labor of Love. 45. F . B. Williams, "Th e Ne w Blac k Woman, " 575 . 46. D u Bois , The Black North in 1901. Socia l distinction s assume d variou s prescriptions an d requirements , includin g suc h nuance s a s the "prope r selectio n of dinne r guests, " th e "ar t o f te a making, " an d "ho w t o ea t roastin g ear s [o f corn]." BA, Decembe r 2 , 1905 , September 9 , 1911 . 47. B . W Jones , Quest for Equality, 22, 26 . 48. Harle y "Beyon d th e Classroom, " 480 . M y analysi s o f respectabilit y i s built no t onl y from th e clu b women's perspectiv e bu t als o from Higginbotham s Righteous Discontent and fro m Scott' s Natural Allies. Scot t ha s noted tha t Africa n American clu b women' s motivation s wer e one s o f respectability an d rac e uplift . I particularly stres s the dialectica l relationshi p betwee n th e two . 49. Cite d i n Wesley , History of the National Association of Colored Women's Clubs, 48. Suc h description s wer e corroborate d b y whit e clu b women , suc h a s Blauvelt's observation s o f th e Michiga n Stat e Federatio n o f Colore d Women' s Clubs: "Thes e wer e ladie s i n ever y sens e o f th e word . The y ha d th e face s o f ladies—strong, sweet , thoroughl y refine d faces " (662) . Blauvelt , "Th e Rac e Problem A s Discussed b y Negr o Women, " 662—672 . 50. Hine , "Rap e an d th e Inne r Lives, " 912-920 . 51. Higginbotham , "Beyon d th e Soun d o f Silence, " 56 . Higginbotham s "bicultural voice " i s not unlik e D u Bois' s "doubl e consciousness" ; se e Du Bois , Souls of Black Folk. 52. T o protes t Africa n Americans ' exclusio n fro m th e Chicag o World' s Fai r in 1893 , Id a B . Well s wrot e an d distribute d a pamphlet , The Reason Why the Colored American Is Not in the Columbian Exposition. Se e Massa , "Blac k Wome n in th e 'Whit e City, " 319—337 . I n 189 4 Fanni e Barrie r William s wa s recom mended fo r membershi p i n th e Chicag o Woman' s Club . Celi a Parke r Woolle y had presented a resolution tha t year that clu b membership b e based o n "charac ter an d intelligence , no t colo r o r race. " I n 189 5 a resolution wa s passed tha t n o one be denied membership becaus e o f race or color, an d Williams was admitted ;

1 64 L alldVH D O l S310 N

Chicago Woman' s Clu b Records , 1895-96 . However , ther e wer e n o Africa n Americans represente d i n th e Cit y Clu b o r th e Woman' s Cit y Club . Whe n questioned wh y thes e club s did no t addres s the "Negr o question, " th e presiden t of on e o f the branche s o f the Illinoi s Federatio n o f Women's Club s responded : "Most o f th e president s expresse d themselve s a s agains t th e discussio n o f th e Negro questio n becaus e a s women's name s com e ou t a s being agains t negroe s these wome n an d other s o f th e clu b woul d hav e t o liv e i n fea r o f th e negr o men. A woman mus t b e carefu l no t t o pu t hersel f in a position o f causing the m to regre t t o hav e a grudge agains t her , a s you kno w a white woma n ha s t o fea r a colored man. " Chicag o Commissio n o n Rac e Relation s (referre d t o hereafte r as Chicag o Commission) , The Negro in Chicago, 440. Se e als o Terborg-Penn , "Discrimination agains t Afro-America n Wome n i n th e Woman' s Movement. " 53. F . B. Williams, The Colored Woman and Her Part in Race Regeneration, 426 . 54. Ruff m cite d i n E. L . Davis, Lifting As They Climb, 17 . The clu b women , in a vei n simila r t o tha t o f th e literatur e tha t documente d rac e progress , confirmed thei r rol e i n advancin g th e race . See , fo r example , A . H . Jones, " A Century's Progress, " 631-633 ; A. H . Jones, "Th e America n Colore d Woman, " 692-694; Terrell , "Th e Progres s o f Colored Women, " 291-294 ; F . B. Williams, "An Extensio n o f Conference Spirit, " 300-303 ; "Th e Clu b Movemen t amon g the Colore d Women, " 99-102 ; "Th e Ne w Blac k Woman, " 575-576 . 55. F . B. Williams, The Colored Woman and Her Part in Race Regeneration, 384 . For excellen t historie s o f Africa n America n femal e organizations , see , amon g others, Lerner' s Black Women in White America, which I hav e cite d extensively ; Lowenberg an d Bogin , Black Women in the Nineteenth Century American Life; Noble, Beautiful, Also, Are the Souls of My Black Sisters; Porter , "Th e Organize d Educational Activitie s o f Negr o Literar y Societies, " 555-576 ; Sterling , We Are Your Sisters; and th e multipl e volume s i n Black Women in United States History, edited b y Hin e e t al . 56. F . B . Williams , The Colored Woman and Her Part in Race Regeneration, 382-383. 57. Gordon , "Blac k an d White Vision s o f Welfare," 559-590 . 58. Thornbrough , "Th e Histor y o f Black Wome n i n Indiana, " 650 ; Harley , "Beyond th e Classroom, " 254-265 . 59. F . B. WilHams, The Colored Woman and Her Part in Race Regeneration, 424 . 60. Gordon , "Blac k an d Whit e Vision s o f Welfare," 578 . 61. On e o f th e mor e notabl e example s was Kathry n Johnson , wh o volun teered endlessl y fo r th e NAACP , ye t sh e wa s no t rewarde d wit h a forma l leadership position . Salem , To Better Our World, 159-161. 62. B . W Jones , Quest for Equality, 21. 63. Th e name s o f th e probatio n officer s an d th e polic e office r ar e liste d i n appendix 2 . Argument s fo r Africa n America n femal e polic e officer s wer e predicated no t onl y o n equa l representatio n i n th e workforc e bu t als o upo n municipal housekeepin g an d moral guardianship , especiall y for young girls . Th e

16 5 NOTES T O C H A P T E R 1

subtitle o f one newspape r articl e noted, "Wome n Ar e in the Lead in Everythin g of Uplift—The y Bea r Ou r Children , The n Protec t The m fro m th e Lync h Hounds, Som e Even Fin d th e Boar d an d Bed fo r th e Family—No w The y Ar e the Firs t t o Lea d i n Defens e o f Ou r Girl s i n th e 'Red-Ligh t Flate ' [sic] Where Many Ar e Turne d Ou t a s Damage d Goods. " CD, Januar y 15 , 1916 . I woul d add tha t polic e position s wer e salarie d positions , unlik e probatio n work , whic h either was funde d throug h privat e charitie s o r was considere d voluntee r work . Although thre e Africa n America n wome n passe d th e polic e examination , onl y one, Grac e Wilson , wa s give n a position . Fo r furthe r article s o n Africa n American wome n i n th e Chicag o polic e force , se e CD, Marc h 13 , Decembe r 11, 1915 , April 1 , 1916 , Marc h 31 , 1917 . Se e Dulaney , Black Police in America, and Shaw , What a Woman Ought to Be and to Do, fo r furthe r examinatio n o f issues of employment . 64. "Carri e Pear l Plead s Caus e o f Neglecte d Workin g Girls, " BA, Apri l 4 , 1914; "Pla y Ground s i n Grea t Demand, " CD, Februar y 12 , 1916 ; Iren e McCoy-Gaines, " A Ple a fo r Ou r Girls, " CD, Februar y 28 , 1920 . 65. Th e settlemen t workers ' an d socia l workers' ideologie s ar e treate d mor e extensively i n chapte r 5 . M y argumen t i s simila r t o Ralp h Luker's , tha t man y of th e Africa n America n settlement s wer e modele d fro m mission s an d func tioned i n a simila r way . Luker , "Missions , Institutiona l Churches , an d Settle ment Houses, " 101-113 . 66. Chicag o Commission , "Th e Migratio n o f Negroe s fro m th e South , 1916-1918," 44-45 . 67. CD, Octobe r 20 , 1917 . Suc h advic e o n publi c behavior , especiall y speech, dress , an d form s o f amusement , wa s no t new . Se e Kletzin g an d Crog man, Progress of a Race, 208-209 . Th e NACW , too , was concerne d wit h th e influence o f unwholesom e amusemen t o n youn g people . Tha t concer n was expressed i n it s effort s t o "eliminat e form s o f entertainmen t tha t diminis h . . . the vitalit y o f th e mora l lif e o f ou r youn g people. " Aptheker , "Th e Nationa l Association o f Colored Women , 1904, " 890 . 68. CD, Jul y 22 , 1911 . Se e als o th e article s "Youn g Peopl e Hav e Ba d Deportment," CD, Jun e 2 , 1917 ; "Childre n o f th e Street, " CD, Jun e 8 , 1918 ; Mrs. B. S. Gaten, "Standard s o f Looseness in Publi c Places, " CD, July 13 , 1918. 69. See , in particular , Grossman , Land of Hope. 70. See , among man y scholarl y works, E. B . Brown, "Womanis t Conscious ness," 208-223 ; P . H. Collins , Black Feminist Thought; Dill, "Th e Dialectic s o f Black Womanhood, " 543—555 ; Gilkes , "Holdin g Bac k th e Ocea n wit h a Broom," 217-231 ; Gordon , "Blac k an d Whit e Vision s o f Welfare, " 559-590 ; Knupfer, "'Towar d a Tenderer Humanit y an d a Nobler Womanhood, ' " 58—76; Perkins, "Th e Impac t o f th e 'Cul t o f Tru e Womanhood, ' " 17—28 ; White , Ar'n't I a Woman; White , "Th e Cos t o f Clu b Work, " 247-269 ; Yee , Black Women Abolitionists.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

NOTES T O C H A P T E R 2

1 66

1. Spear , Black Chicago, 11; Chicago Commission , "Th e Migratio n o f N e groes fro m th e South , 1916-1918, " 44 . Perhap s th e mos t complet e sourc e o n the Grea t Migratio n i s Grossman , Land of Hope. Clas s differentiatio n amon g African American s increase d i n most Norther n citie s during the late nineteent h century. Se e Kronus , The Black Middle Class; Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape; Lammermeier, "Cincinnati' s Blac k Community, " 24-28 ; Osofsky , Harlem; Scheiner, Negro Mecca. 2. Spear , Black Chicago, 8 . 3. Drake , Churches and Voluntary Associations, 33 , 37, 46 , 59 . 4. Masse y an d Denton , American Apartheid, 10 . 5. Drake , Churches and Voluntary Associations, 70-75 . 6. Ibid. , 104-110 . Se e als o Fisher , "Negr o Churc h i n Illinois, " 552-569 . For furthe r informatio n o n churches , se e th e 192 7 Intercollegiate Wonder Book, 1:171, 191 . Spea r ha s argue d tha t th e secula r program s o f thes e churche s resembled thos e o f middle-clas s whit e urba n churches . However , i t shoul d b e noted tha t literar y societies , forums , recitations , an d addresse s wer e long standing tradition s i n th e Africa n America n churches . 7. Drake , Churches and Voluntary Associations, 86 . 8. Branham , "Blac k Chicago, " 215 . 9. Dempsey , An Autobiography of Black Chicago, 1 . 10. Spear , Black Chicago, 15 . 11. A valu e o f les s tha n 5 0 percen t signifie d tha t Africa n American s wer e more likel y t o hav e White s a s neighbor s tha n Africa n Americans . Se e Masse y and Denton , American Apartheid, 24—27 , wher e the y cit e Lieberson' s isolatio n indices. Branham , too , ha s argue d tha t b y 190 0 Africa n America n "enclaves " had bee n established , i n tha t sixtee n Chicag o ward s wer e 99. 5 percen t t o 10 0 percent whit e an d mor e tha n 5 0 percen t o f th e Africa n American s live d i n three adjacen t southsid e wards . Hi s analysis , however , doe s no t differentiat e between native-bor n an d foreign-bor n whit e populations . Se e Branham , "Black Chicago, " 212-262 . 12. Spear , Black Chicago, 4 . 13. Zorbaugh , The Gold Coast and the Slum, 11 , 38, 45 . Recen t studie s b y Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto, and Masse y an d Denton , American Apartheid, have reconfirme d Zorbaugh' s study . 14. Zorbaugh , The Gold Coast and the Slum, 148 . 15. Masse y an d Denton , American Apartheid, 24-27 . 16. Drake , Churches and Voluntary Associations, 11; Diner , "Chicag o Socia l Workers an d Blacks i n th e Progressiv e Era, " 393 . 17. Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 194-195; Dempsey , An Autobiography of Black Chicago, 16. Fo r informatio n o n Englewoo d an d Morga n Park , se e th e 1927 Intercollegiate Wonder Book, 1:229 ; o n Evanston , se e Leonard, "Paternalis m and th e Ris e o f a Black Community. " Chicag o wa s no t th e onl y cit y wit h a n African America n "Elit e 400. " Se e als o Cromwell , The Other Brahmins.

16 7 NOTES T O C H A P T E R 2

18. Frazier , "Chicag o Blac k Belt, " 74 . 19. BA, Augus t 28 , 1909 . In th e subur b o f Wilmette, wher e Africa n Ameri cans did no t liv e but worked , a n Anti-Negro Committe e wa s organized, whic h advised tha t al l Africa n America n gardener s an d domesti c worker s b e fire d because thei r presenc e woul d lowe r lan d values . Se e Bowen , Colored People of Chicago, n.p . 20. Drak e an d Cayton , Black Metropolis, 62—64, 178-179 ; Spear , Black Chicago, 177—178 ; Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto, chap. 6; Bowen, Colored People of Chicago, n.p. Se e als o Tuttle , Jr. , "Conteste d Neighborhood s an d Racia l Violence," 266-288 ; Tuttle , Race Riot. Fo r newspape r coverag e o n th e residen tial tension s i n Hyd e Par k an d Woodlawn , se e BA, Augus t 18 , Septembe r 18 , 1909. 21. Drak e an d Cayton , Black Metropolis, 74 . 22. F . B. Williams, "Socia l Bonds i n th e 'Blac k Belt ' o f Chicago, " 40 . 23. Cite d i n Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 121 . 24. Ibid . 25. William s cite d i n Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 232 . 26. Avendorph , "Chicago' s Socia l Conditio n Toda y an d Twent y Years Ago," CD, Octobe r 6 , 1917 . Se e als o b y Avendorph , "Shoul d Sho w Prope r Interes t in Dres s a t Forma l Affairs, " CD, Decembe r 2 , 1916 . 27. Spear , Black Chicago, 72 . 28. "Mos t Magnificen t Functio n Eve r Hel d amon g Afro-Americans i n Chi cago. Dr . D . H . William s an d Mrs . Andre w L . Smit h Le d th e Gran d Marc h Who Wer e Followe d b y th e Crea m o f th e Fou r Hundred, " BA, Januar y 25 , 1908. Se e als o Phelps, "Negr o Lif e i n Chicago, " 12-14 . 29. Marks , "Th e Socia l an d Economi c Lif e o f Southern Blacks, " 47—48. 30. Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 221 , 228. 31. Thi s was tru e i n othe r citie s a s well. Se e Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 211-212. 32. BA, Novembe r 4 , 1899 . 33. Drake , Churches and Voluntary Associations, 141—142 . 34. Branham , "Blac k Chicago, " 229 . Fo r a fuller examinatio n o f Providen t Hospital and the creatio n o f other health-related facilitie s fo r African American s nationwide, se e Smith , "Sic k an d Tire d o f Being Sic k an d Tired. " 35. Duster , Crusade for fustice, 249 . 36. BA, Ma y 3 , 1919 . 37. Se e th e sectio n i n chapte r 4 o n th e Ol d Folks ' Home . 38. Se e Phylli s Wheatley Associatio n Papers . 39. Drake , Churches and Voluntary Associations, 102 , 146 ; CD, Marc h 4 , 1916 ; Chicago Commission , The Negro in Chicago, 149—150 ; Drake an d Cayton , Black Metropolis, 55 . 40. Fento n Johnson , a popula r journalis t an d poet , occasionall y wrot e a "who's w h o " colum n fo r Bento n Harbor , discussin g wh o was vacationin g there, a s well a s the friend s an d relative s accompanyin g Chicagoans . Se e "Th e

NOTES T O C H A P T E R 2

1 68

West Michiga n Resort, " CD, Jul y 22 , 1911 . Se e als o Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 201-202 . 41. F . B. Williams, "Socia l Bonds i n th e 'Blac k Belt ' o f Chicago," 40 . 42. L . W . Washington , The Chicago Negro Business Men and Women. Fo r further biographica l informatio n o n prominen t Africa n American s i n Chicago , see "Som e Chicagoan s o f Note," 234-242 . 43. Se e Frazier , "Chicag o Blac k Belt, " 70—80 ; Spear , Black Chicago; Drake and Cayton , Black Metropolis; Landry , The New Black Middle Class; Spear, "Th e Rise o f the Chicag o Blac k Belt, " 57-69 . 44. Frazier , "Chicag o Blac k Belt," 76 . 45. Spear , Black Chicago, 174—179 . Thi s was no t peculia r t o Chicag o alone . See Landry' s accoun t o f Detroi t churches , wher e the y rente d pew s t o kee p poorer Africa n American s ou t o f thei r mor e "sedate " churches . Landry , The New Black Middle Class, 34 . Se e als o Philpott , The Slum and the Ghetto, 165-167. 46. Hine , Hine Sight, 98 . 47. Gatewood , Aristocrats of Co lor. 48. Ibid. , 303-304 ; CD, Novembe r 22 , 1913 . 49. Spear , Black Chicago, 68 . 50. Drake , Churches and Voluntary Associations, 125 . 51. Se e Drak e an d Cayton , Black Metropolis; Spear, Black Chicago; Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto. 52. Drak e an d Cayton , Black Metropolis, 47 . 53. Ibid. , 48 . 54. Branham , "Blac k Chicago, " 216 . 55. Chicag o Commission , The Negro in Chicago. O n housin g condition s i n Chicago, se e Abbot t an d Breckinridge , The Tenements of Chicago; Comstock, "Chicago Housin g Conditions , 6, " 241-257 ; Breckinridge , "Th e Colo r Lin e in th e Housin g Problem, " 575-576 ; Duke , The Housing Situation; Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto, 159—160. 56. Abbot t an d Breckinridge, The Tenements of Chicago, 123 . 57. Chicag o Commission , "Th e Migratio n o f Negroe s fro m th e South , 1916-1918," 44-45 ; Marks , "Th e Socia l an d Economi c Lif e o f Souther n Blacks," 46 . 58. Zorbaugh , The Gold Coast and the Slum, 148 . 59. Ibid . 60. Chicag o Commission , "Th e Migratio n o f Negroe s fro m th e South , 1916-1918," 54 . 61. Zorbaugh , The Gold Coast and the Slum, 147 . 62. Stehno , "Publi c Responsibilit y fo r Dependen t Blac k Children, " 488 . 63. E B. Williams, "Socia l Bonds i n th e 'Blac k Belt ' o f Chicago," 40 . 64. Chicago Tribune, Augus t 11 , 1889, 12 . 65. Bowen , Colored People of Chicago, n.p . 66. Meyerowitz , Women Adrift, 24—25 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 3

1. E . B . Brown, "Womanis t Consciousness, " 218 . 2. I n usin g th e ter m voluntary space I refer t o question s raise d by S . M. Evan s in he r essay , "Women' s Histor y an d Politica l Theory, " 119-140 . 3. Chestnutt , "Women' s Rights, " 182-183 . 4. D u Bois , "Vote s fo r Women, " 234 . 5. Clifford , "Vote s fo r Children, " 185 . 6. A . H . Jones, "Woma n Suffrag e an d Socia l Reform, " 190 . 7. Logan , "Colore d Wome n a s Voters," 242 . 8. Grimke , "Th e Logi c o f Woma n Suffrage, " 178 . hook s ha s argue d tha t

1 69 NOTES T O C H A P T E R 3

67. Bowen , Colored People of Chicago, n.p . 68. Ibid . 69. Spear , Black Chicago, 29; Jackson , "Blac k Charit y i n Progressiv e Er a Chicago," 402 ; W. L . Evans, "Th e Negr o i n Chicag o Industries, " 15—16 . 70. Hall , "Th e Healt h o r the Sanitar y Condition s o f the Negr o i n Chicago, " BA, Decembe r 31 , 1904 . 71. Tuttle , "Conteste d Neighborhood s an d Racia l Violence, " 271. 72. Hall , "Soun d Hint s t o th e Afro-American s o f Hyde Park, " BA, Jul y 28 , 1906. 73. CD , July 1 , 1911. 74. CD, Octobe r 20 , 1917 . 75. Drake , Churches and Voluntary Associations, 33 . 76. Chicag o Commission , The Negro in Chicago, 149 . 77. Se e Vandewalker, The Kindergarten in American Education, 73-7 r 4. 78. Dempsey , An Autobiography of Black Chicago, 2 ; Spear , Black Chicago, 9 5 96, 106 ; Bowen , Colored People of Chicago, n.p.; Chicag o Commission , The Negro in Chicago, 147; E B . Williams , "Socia l Bond s i n th e 'Blac k Belt ' o f Chicago"; Luker , "Missions , Institutiona l Churches , an d Settlemen t Houses, " 101-113; Kletzin g an d Crogman , Progress of a Race, 144. 79. Spear , Black Chicago, 105 . For information o n th e Hyd e Par k Neighbor hood Settlement , se e CD, Septembe r 27 , 1913 ; BA, Augus t 16 , 1913 ; for th e Clotee Scot t Settlement , se e CD, Marc h 27 , 1915 ; for th e Emanuel Settlement , see CD, June 25 , 1910 ; BA, Septembe r 7 , 1910 . 80. Fo r informatio n o n th e type s o f activitie s carrie d ou t b y th e Negr o Fellowship League , se e th e 191 5 annua l repor t publishe d i n CD, Januar y 15 , 1916. Th e Frederic k Douglas s Center' s activitie s wer e numerou s an d publishe d weekly, beginnin g wit h th e BA, Januar y 6 , 1906 . Th e politica l activitie s o f these settlements ar e featured i n chapte r 3 ; the literary activitie s of the Frederic k Douglass Cente r ar e examine d i n chapte r 7 . 81. Spear , Black Chicago, 327 . 82. F . B. Williams, "Socia l Bond s i n th e 'Blac k Belt ' o f Chicago," 41. 83. Strickland , History of the Chicago Urban League, 45. 84. Duster , Crusade for Justice, 372-373.

NOTES T O C H A P T E R 3

17 0

many Africa n America n me n di d no t believ e i n equa l rights, especiall y suffrage , for Africa n America n women . Se e Black Looks; Ain't I a Woman. 9. Withers , "Ji m Crowis m vs . Woman Suffrage ; Slaver y befor e an d afte r th e War," BA, Marc h 24 , 1914 . 10. Waring , "Trainin g an d th e Ballot, " 185-186 . 11. Logan , "Woma n Suffrage, " 488 . 12. Bruce , "Colore d Women' s Clubs, " 190 . 13. Burroughs , "Blac k Wome n an d Reform, " 187 . 14. BA, Apri l 4 , 1900 . 15. BA, Novembe r 26 , 1910 . Suc h traditionalis m wa s reflecte d i n storie s published i n Africa n America n women' s magazines . Fo r example , i n "Th e Suffragette" b y Betti e Mason , a youn g lad y challenge d he r boyfrien d t o a debate abou t femal e suffrage . Wherea s h e waxe d eloquen t o n th e subject , sh e was characterize d b y he r beaut y an d dress , no t he r convincin g arguments . A t the story' s end , th e boyfrien d admitte d tha t hi s girlfrien d "ha s enoug h sens e t o vote" bu t tol d her , "You'r e s o pretty you don' t hav e to us e it." Sh e coyl y hinte d that i f she ha d a home wher e sh e coul d exercis e he r cares , sh e might lear n ho w to us e that "goo d sense. " The stor y conclude d wit h th e youn g lady's statement : "Careers ma y b e fo r som e women , Bob , but thi s [ a home] i s my prope r place. " See Mason, "Th e Suffragette, " 6 . 16. BA, Jun e 6 , 1903 . 17. BA, Octobe r 15 , 1904 . 18. Ibid . 19. BA, Februar y 24 , 1906 . 20. BA, Novembe r 7 , 1914 . 21. BA, Octobe r 10 , 1914 . 22. CD, Marc h 7 , 1906 . 23. BA, Marc h 24 , May 5 , 1906 . 24. BA,]u\y 16 , 1912 . 25. BA, Marc h 14 , June 27 , April 4 , 1914 . 26. BA, Jun e 27 , 1914 . Th e Africa n America n an d whit e women' s suffrag e movements wer e largel y segregated , a s wer e thei r clu b movement s becaus e o f discrimination b y whit e women , predominantl y thos e fro m th e South . Fo r further insight s int o th e tension s an d conflict s betwee n whit e an d Africa n American suffragist s se e Flexnor , Century of Struggle; Kraditor , The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement. Othe r notabl e work s o n whit e women' s attitude s toward Africa n America n wome n includ e Guy-Sheftall , Daughters of Sorrow; Terborg-Penn, "Discriminatio n agains t Afro-American Wome n i n the Woman' s Movement," 301—316 ; Terborg-Penn , "Th e Historica l Treatmen t o f Afro Americans, 245-259. " Gidding s ha s astutel y note d ho w whit e women , i n fact , undermined thei r ow n agend a becaus e o f thei r racism ; se e Where and When I Enter, 6 . Fo r informatio n o n conflict s withi n th e Illinoi s suffrag e movement , see Wheeler , "Conflic t i n th e Illinoi s Woma n Suffrag e Movemen t o f 1913, " 95-114.

17 1 NOTES T O C H A P T E R 3

27. BA, Apri l 9 , 1912 . 28. CD, Februar y 11 , 1911. 29. CD, Decembe r 2 , 1911 . 30. K . E . Williams , "Alph a Suffrag e Club, " 12 . 31. CD, Marc h 27 , 1915 . 32. CD, Marc h 8 , 1913 ; BA, Marc h 18 , 1913 ; CD, Marc h 29 , 1913 . Se e Ida B. Wells Papers, Alpha Suffrag e Record , bo x 5 , folder 1 . 33. BA, Novembe r 15 , 1913. 34. CD, Augus t 23 , 1913 ; K. E . Williams , "Alph a Suffrag e Club. " 35. BA, Apri l 11 , 1914. See also de Priest, "Chicag o an d Woman's Suffrage, " 179; Hendricks , "Vot e fo r th e Advantag e o f Ourselve s an d Ou r Race, " 171— 184; Hendricks , "Th e Politic s o f Race. " 36. BA, Octobe r 13 , 17, 10 , June 27 , July 25 , 1914 ; BA, Februar y 12 , 1915 . 37. BA, Februar y 12 , 1915 . 38. CD, Marc h 23 , 1918 . 39. CD, Ma y 16 , 1916 ; BA, Novembe r 22 , 1913 ; CD, Augus t 1 , 1914 . Th e suffrage movemen t i n Chicag o was largel y successfu l becaus e o f th e formatio n of coalitions betwee n Africa n America n an d white reformer s an d clu b women , evident i n th e numbe r o f whit e wome n wh o wer e invite d t o spea k a t th e African America n women' s clu b meetings . Becaus e I hav e no t examine d th e white women' s clu b records , i t i s no t clea r whethe r reciproca l invitation s wer e extended t o Africa n America n wome n t o spea k a t whit e women' s clu b meet ings. Fo r a n examinatio n o f the histor y an d th e large r statewid e structur e o f th e suffrage movement , se e Buechler , The Transformation of the Woman Suffrage Movement. 40. CD, Octobe r 11 , 1913. 41. BA, Octobe r 13 , 1913 , January 10 , October 4 , Februar y 14 , Octobe r 7 , 1914; CD, Ma y 29 , June 26 , July 13 , 1915 . 42. BA, Marc h 7 , 1914 . 43. Stovall , "Th e Chicago Defender in th e Progressiv e Era, " 159—172 . 44. BA, Marc h 13 , 1915 ; CD, June 3 , 1916 . 45. CD, Ma y 20 , 1916 . 46. CD, Septembe r 2 , 1916 . 47. Salem , To Better Our World, 39 . 48. BA, Decembe r 31 , 1910 . 49. Ibid . 50. CD, Jun e 6 , 1918 . Primar y source s o n th e antilynchin g campaign s include Wells-Bar nett, On Lynchings, Southern Horrors; Duster, Crusade for Justice. For a fine collectio n o f Ida B. Wells's writings , a s well a s an analysi s o f her life , see Thompson , Ida B. Wells-Barnett; Townes, "Th e Socia l an d Mora l Perspec tive o f Ida B. Wells-Barnett." Fo r a critical wor k o n Wells' s speakin g career , se e Campbell, Women Public Speakers in the United States, 1800-1925, 462-475 . Other historica l essay s on Wells' s antilynchin g campaig n includ e Tucker , "Mis s Ida B . Well s an d Memphi s Lynching, " 112—122 ; B. Aptheker , Woman's Legacy,

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 3

17 2

chap. 3 ; Bederman, "'Civilization, ' th e Declin e o f Middle-Class Manliness, " 5 — 30; Terborg-Penn , "Africa n America n Women' s Network s i n th e Anti Lynching Crusade, " 148—161 . Se e Stephens , "Anti-Lynchin g Play s b y Africa n American Women, " 329—339 , for a discussion o f antilynchin g play s written b y African America n women . 51. CD, Augus t 14 , June 26 , 1915 , May 20 , 1916 , Marc h 16 , Ma y 4 , Apri l 27, June 8 , Ma y 25 , 1918 . Ferdinan d Barnett , Id a B . Wells's husband , wa s on e of Joseph Campbell' s lawyers ; se e CD, June 10 , 1916 . 52. CD, Ma y 18 , February 17 , February 21 , 1918. 53. CD, Februar y 20 , January 16 , 1915 . 54. BA, Novembe r 15 , 1916 ; CD, Augus t 14 , 1915 . 55. Ibid . 56. Moore-Smit h cite d i n Wesley , History of the National Association of Women's Clubs, 58; Benson, Counter Cultures, 206-209. 57. CD, July 15 , 1916 . 58. CD, June 17 , 1917 . 59. CD, Jun e 22 , 1918 ; BA, Novembe r 7 , 1917 . Marshal l Fiel d an d Com pany an d Libb y Compan y wer e no t alon e i n discriminatio n agains t Africa n American women . Se e "Rac e Wome n Refus e Automati c Telephon e Becaus e Company Woul d No t Emplo y Colore d Agent s no r Advertis e i n Thei r Rac e Newspapers," BA, Jul y 22 , 1911 ; "Chicag o Tribun e Call s Colleg e Graduat e Negress an d Blac k Mammy, " CD, Octobe r 28 , 1911 . So, to o di d clu b wome n protest whe n the y wer e no t waite d o n i n departmen t stores ; se e BA, Jun e 11 , 1916. I n on e cas e youn g wome n walke d ou t o f thei r jobs whe n th e Chicag o Mercantile Compan y refuse d t o hir e othe r Africa n Americans ; se e "Girl s Qui t Downtown Fir m Whe n Colo r Lin e I s Drawn," CD, July 13 , 1918 . 60. CD, June 25 , 1910 . 61. Ibid . 62. CD, Januar y 23 , 16 , 1915 , Octobe r 5 , Augus t 24 , 1918 . Othe r article s on Wendel l Phillip s School' s racia l tension s include d " N o Mor e 'Ji m Crow ' Social Affair s a t Wendel l Phillips, " CD, Apri l 17 , 1915 ; "Colo r Lin e Agai n a t Wendell Phillips," CD, Octobe r 6 , 1917 ; "Colo r Lin e Bobs Up i n Hig h Schoo l Again," Wendel l Phillips , CD, Marc h 17 , 1917 . 63. CD, Augus t 24 , 1918 . 64. CD, Septembe r 23 , 1911. 65. CD, Augus t 9 , 1913 . See als o "Amand a Smit h Schoo l fo r Girl s Forme d in Cour t Room, " CD, Augus t 16 , 1913 . 66. BA, Augus t 19 , November 4 , 1911 , May 25 , 22, 1915 . Se e als o Cripps , "The Reactio n o f th e Negr o t o th e Motio n Pictur e Birth of a Nation" 344-362. 67. CD, June 12 , 1915 . 68. CD, Ma y 20 , 1911 . 69. Ibid . 70. CD, Februar y 12 , 1916 . I n 189 2 Well s ha d argue d befor e a grou p o f Memphis Africa n American s tha t the y shoul d sav e thei r nickel s s o tha t the y

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

1. Ther e wer e n o comprehensiv e list s o f Africa n America n probatio n offi cers. Thi s lis t i s derive d fro m clu b record s an d newspape r articles ; a s such, i t i s most likel y incomplete . Jeter mention s fiv e Africa n America n officers , fou r o f whom worke d onl y wit h Africa n America n families . Se e Jeter , The Chicago Juvenile Court, 32 . M y tall y o f name s include s Elizabet h McDonald , Id a B . Wells, Joanna Snowden-Porter , Clote e Scott , Albert a Moor e Smith , Gertrud e Smith, an d Jessie Thoma s a s probation officers ; Len a Perr y an d Sophi a Boa z a s truant officers ; Iren e McCoy-Gaines , a stenographer wit h th e cour t wh o late r became a probation officer ; an d Grac e Wilson , wh o move d fro m th e positio n of matro n a t th e Hom e fo r Incorrigibl e Girl s i n Glenco e t o polic e work . Se e CD, Apri l 6 , 1918 . Polic e wor k fo r Africa n America n wome n was especiall y promoted afte r immigran t wome n wer e hired . Mos t argument s wer e predicate d upon municipa l housekeepin g an d mora l guardianship . Se e CD, Marc h 13 , 1915; BA, Ma y 9 , 1914 ; an d CD, Decembe r 11 , 1915 . Femal e polic e officer s were though t t o be particularly effectiv e wit h delinquen t girls . See Lou, Juvenile Courts in the United States, 79. 2. See , fo r example , Schlossman , Love and the American Delinquent; Piatt , The Child Savers; Youcha, Minding the Children; Ladd-Taylor , Mother-Work; Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women; Skocpol , Protecting Soldiers and Mothers; Boris, "Reconstructin g th e 'Family, ' " 73—86. 3. Bowen , "Th e Earl y Day s o f the Juvenile Court, " 299 . 4. Boris , "Reconstructin g th e 'Family, ' " 73—75 . See als o Gordon , Pitied but Not Entitled, 55-56 .

1 73 NOTES T O CHAPTE R 4

would becom e financiall y independen t o f Whites . Sh e woul d continu e th e theme o f economi c self-determinatio n i n Chicago , urgin g Africa n American s to suppor t communit y businesse s an d institutions . Se e Wells-Barnett , "Le t th e Afro-American Depen d bu t o n Himself, " 539-540 . 71. E . B . Brown, "Womanis t Consciousness. " 72. BA, Decembe r 31 , 1904 . 73. BA, Decembe r 31 , 1904 . 74. Ibid . 75. Ibid . 76. CD, Jul y 10 , 1920 . Fo r a complet e lis t o f member s i n th e Easte r Lil y Club, se e BA, Decembe r 21 , 1918. 77. CD, July 20 , 1918 . 78. BA, Novembe r 1 , 1916 . 79. CD, July 10 , 1920 . 80. BA, Novembe r 1 , 1916 ; CD, BA, Jul y 15 , 1916 ; CD, Jul y 20 , 1918 , July 10 , 1920 . 81. BA, Novembe r 19 , 1916 . 82. CD, Augus t 18 , 1917 . 83. CD, Augus t 18 , 1917 . 84. Ibid ; CD, Septembe r 28 , 1918 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 4

I7 4

5. Se e Proceedings of the Conference on the Care of Dependent Children. 6. Se e Abbott an d Breckinridge, The Administration of the Aid-to-Mothers Law in Illinois; Bogue , "Mothers ' Allowance s i n Coo k County , 111., " 67—90; Good win, "A n Experimen t i n Pai d Motherhood, " 323-343 ; Leff , "Consensu s fo r Reform," 397-417 ; Gordon , Pitied but Not Entitled, 45-46 . 7. Crawley , "Dependen t Negr o Childre n i n Chicag o i n 1926, " 58 . Thi s small numbe r o f mothers ' pension s was no t uniqu e t o 1920 . A n examinatio n of Coo k Count y Juvenile Cour t 191 8 an d 191 9 Annua l Report s reveale d onl y nineteen pension s give n t o Africa n America n families ; Coo k Count y Juvenil e Court wil l hereafte r b e referre d t o a s CCJC . 8. Wald , "Chicag o Hous e Conditions, " 458 . 9. Ther e is little information o n the instruction o f probation officers , perhap s because i t was sporadic . Probatio n office r meeting s wer e hel d monthl y t o "unify" th e work . I n cooperatio n wit h th e Chicag o Institut e o f Social Science , the chie f probatio n office r se t u p lecture s o n th e historical , legal , an d practica l aspects o f probation work . Se e 190 6 CCJ C Annua l Report , 4-7 . 10. Th e multipl e role s o f probatio n officer s hav e bee n variousl y describe d by socia l an d chil d welfar e reformers , a s wel l a s historians . See , fo r one , Schlossman, Love and the American Delinquent, 61-62 . Probation officer s worke d with parents , children , teachers , employees , ministers , settlements , an d clu b organizers. Se e Abbot t an d Breckinridge , Truancy and Non-Attendance in the Chicago Schools. Perhap s the most stringen t articulatio n o f the probation officers ' qualities was expresse d b y Louis e d e Kove n Bowen : "The y mus t b e me n an d women o f many sides , endowed wit h th e strengt h o f a Samson an d th e delicac y of a n Ariel . The y mus t b e tactful , skillful , fir m an d patient . The y mus t kno w how t o procee d wit h wisdo m an d intelligenc e an d mus t b e endowe d wit h tha t rare quality—common-sense. " Se e Bowen , "Th e Earl y Day s o f th e Juvenil e Court," 300 . 11. Zaretsky , "Th e Plac e o f th e Famil y i n th e Origin s o f th e Welfar e State," 218. 12. Lo u recommende d tha t probatio n officer s b e paire d wit h childre n ac cording t o language , "racia l psychology, " an d religion ; se e Lou , Juvenile Courts in the United States, 89. 13. Se e Crawley , "Dependen t Negr o Childre n i n Chicag o i n 1926, " 86 . There wer e various statistic s and figures regardin g dependenc y an d delinquenc y of African America n childre n i n Chicag o durin g thi s period. Breckinridg e an d Abbott cite d th e percentage s o f African America n dependent s an d delinquent s collectively a s 3.8 percen t boy s an d 6. 2 percen t girls , althoug h th e designatio n "Negro" als o include d othe r groups , suc h a s Chinese . Crawle y note d tha t 6. 7 percent o f dependen t childre n wer e Africa n American ; b y 192 0 ther e were , however, mor e delinquen t tha n dependen t Africa n America n children . Ac cording t o Gittens , one-thir d o f the girl s an d wome n i n th e Coo k Count y jai l were Africa n American . M y examinatio n o f CCJC Annua l Report s fro m 191 7 to 191 9 indicate d tha t o f thirty-on e ethni c classification s fo r delinquency ,

1 75 NOTES T O C H A P T E R 4

African American s ranke d secon d i n 1917 ; i n 1918 , o f thirty-nin e groups , African American s ranke d sixth ; an d i n 191 9 Africa n American s ranke d eight h out o f thirty-fou r ethni c groups . Se e Breckinridg e an d Abbott , The Delinquent Child and the Home, 62 ; Crawley , "Dependen t Negr o Childre n i n Chicag o i n 1926," 53 ; Gittens , Poor Relations, 43; CCJ C Annua l Reports , 1917-19 . Wha t has no t bee n adequatel y addresse d i n th e literatur e i s th e treatmen t o f th e youths b y police officer s o r juvenile cour t officials . Se e CD, June 22 , 1918 , f o one exampl e o f the Chicag o Urba n League' s advocac y o f an Africa n America n youth beate n b y police officers . 14. Jackson , "Blac k Charit y i n Progressive Era Chicago, " 405; CD, Februar y 12, 1916 . Example s o f women' s club s devote d specificall y t o chil d welfar e included th e Children' s Ai d Society , th e Sout h En d Children' s Ai d Society , an d the Gile s Charit y Club . However , mos t federate d club s include d children' s welfare wor k unde r th e philanthrop y o r hom e department . 15. BA, Februar y 3 , 1900 . 16. Hine , "Rap e an d th e Inne r Lives, " 914 . 17. Grossman , Land of Hope, 134—135 . 18. Quot e b y Elizabet h Lindsa y Davi s cite d i n Meyerowitz , Women Adrift, 54 . 19. BA, Septembe r 18 , 1909 . 20. Gaten , "Standard s o f Looseness i n Publi c Places, " CD, July 13 , 1918 . 21. Meyerowitz , Women Adrift, 68 . Louis e d e Kove n Bowen , unde r th e auspices o f the Juvenile Protectiv e Association , publishe d tw o monograph s tha t documented th e unwholesom e an d dangerou s influence s o f danc e hall s upo n youths. Se e Our Most Popular Recreation Controlled by the Liquor Interests; an d The Public Dance Halls of Chicago. 22. BA, Novembe r 14 , 1903 . 23. Hurle y cite d i n Lubove , The Professional Altruist, 140 . 24. 190 6 CCJ C Annua l Report , 4 . 25. Ibid . 26. BA, Novembe r 14 , 1903 . 27. Ibid . 28. Cite d fro m "A n ac t t o regulat e th e treatmen t an d contro l o f dependent , neglected an d delinquen t children, " Revised Statutes of the State of Illinois, chap. 23, cite d i n Bremner , Children and Youth in America, 506—511 . 29. Ibid. ; BA, Novembe r 14 , 1903 . 30. BA, Novembe r 14 , 1903 . I n th e 190 5 examination , twenty-thre e offi cers were certifie d a s probation officers . CCJ C Annua l Report , 1913 , 9 . 31. D u Bois , Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans; Jackson , "Black Charit y i n Progressiv e Era Chicago, " 408 ; 80-81 ; Crawley , "Dependen t Negro Childre n in Chicag o i n 1926, " 83—84. The numbe r o f children attendin g the schoo l tha t yea r wa s recorde d elsewher e a s twenty-three . Se e "Louis e Juvenile Hom e Opening, " 339 . 32. BA, Octobe r 5 , 1907 .

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33. D u Bois , Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans, 81 . 34. Ibid. , 61 . 35. BA, Decembe r 25 , 1909 . 36. Ibid . 37. CD, January 7 , 1911 ; BA, Decembe r 30 , 1911 , December 16 , 1913 . 38. BA, Decembe r 30 , 1911 , January 4 , 1913 . 39. BA, Jul y 26 , 1913 . 40. BA, Octobe r 4 , 1914 . 41. CD , Septembe r 20 , 1913 ; BA, Octobe r 4 , 1914 . 42. CCJ C Annua l Report , 1919 , 130-132 ; CCJ C Annua l Report , 1912 , 90-91. 43. Bowen , Safeguards for City Youth at Work and at Play, 174-176. 44. Se e CCJ C Annua l Reports , 1918 , 37 ; 1919 , 35 ; 1917 , 22 . 45. Se e CCJ C Annua l Reports , 1918 , 39 ; 1919 , 43. 46. BA, Decembe r 16 , 1913 ; CD, Septembe r 20 , 1913 ; BA, Jun e 6 , 1914 . 47. Crawley , "Dependen t Negr o Childre n i n Chicag o i n 1926, " 85. 48. O'Donnell , "Th e Car e o f Dependen t Africa n America n Childre n i n Chicago," 763-776 . 49. Cite d i n a tribut e t o Smit h i n CD, Marc h 6 , 1915 . Fo r biographica l information an d tribute s t o Amand a Berr y Smith , se e H. Q . Brown , Homespun Heroines, 128-132; Majors , Noted Negro Women, 278-282 . Se e als o Smith , An Autobiography. 50. H . Q . Brown , Homespun Heroines, 130. 51. Ibid . 52. McClella n an d Bartlett , The Final Ministry of Amanda Berry Smith. 53. Spear , Black Chicago, 102—103 . 54. BA, Jun e 20 , 1914 . 55. BA, Septembe r 30 , 1905 . 56. CD, January 28 , 1911. 57. CD, Octobe r 8 , 1910 , Ma y 25 , 1912 ; BA, Augus t 17 , 1913 . 58. BA, Augus t 17 , 1913 . 59. Se e CCJ C Annua l Reports , 1906 , 27 ; 1912 , 18 , 52-53 , 55 ; 1915 , 34 ; 1917, 25 , 48. 60. Se e Bowen, Colored People of Chicago, n.p . 61. BA, Augus t 17 , 1913 . 62. Se e als o CD, Augus t 9 , 17 , 191 3 for informatio n o n th e cour t proceed ings o f th e Amand a Smit h Home . Se e CCJ C Annua l Reports , 1918 , 39 ; 1919, 43 . 63. CD, Decembe r 20 , 1913 , April 22 , Novembe r 18 , 1916 ; BA, Februar y 15, 1913 , January 26 , 1917 . 64. Breckinridge , cite d i n Gittens , Poor Relations, 44 . Se e th e "Repor t o n Amanda Smit h Industria l Schoo l fo r Girls, " b y Charle s Virden , Stat e Agent , June 18 , 1915 , cop y i n Rosenwal d Papers . Cite d i n Spear , Black Chicago, 102 ;

17 7 NOTES T O C H A P T E R 4

McClellan an d Bartlett , The Final Ministry of Amanda Berry Smith, 12 . Se e CD, November 30 , 1918 , for coverag e o f the home' s fire . 65. BA, Marc h 27 , 1909 . Se e th e pamphlet , "Th e Phylli s Wheatle y Hom e for Girls, " i n th e Phylli s Wheatle y Associatio n Papers . Se e als o Lerner , "Earl y Community Wor k o f Black Clu b Women, " 158—167 ; F. B. Williams, "Colore d Women o f Chicago," 564-566 . 66. BA, Apri l 14 , 1914 . 67. BA , July 28 , 1906 . 68. BA, Jul y 28 , 1906 , Marc h 23 , 1912 ; CD, Decembe r 30 , 1913 ; BA, March 14 , 1914 . Se e Knupfer , "I f You Can' t Push , Pull. " 69. CD, Octobe r 11 , 1911 ; BA, Novembe r 15 , 1913 ; CD, Jun e 28 , 1913 ; BA, June 5 , 1916 . 70. BA , July 13 , 1912 . 71. BA, Octobe r 29 , 1916 , Octobe r 21 , 1911 , November 26 , 1910 . 72. BA, Februar y 11 , 1917. 73. CD, Februar y 7 , 1920 . 74. Her e I refe r particularl y t o Kunzel , Fallen Women, Problem Girls. Al though he r wor k focuse s o n "problem s girls, " sh e detail s th e variou s form s o f social contro l use d t o refor m th e youn g women . 75. BA, Ma y 2 , 1914 ; CD, Februar y 17 , April 6 , Ma y 4 , 1912 ; BA, Marc h 17, 1914 . 76. BA, Decembe r 27 , 1902 ; Lewis , "Th e Ol d Folks ' Hom e o f Chicago, " 329-335; D u Bois , Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans, 75. 77. "Hom e fo r Age d Colore d People, " 5 . 78. BA, Decembe r 27 , 1902 . 79. BA, November , 18 , 1905 ; Lewis , "Th e Ol d Folks ' Hom e o f Chicago," 330 . 80. Lewis , "Th e Ol d Folks ' Hom e o f Chicago," 331 ; BA, Apri l 25 , 1914 . 81. BA, Decembe r 27 , 1902 ; Lewis , "Th e Ol d Folks ' Hom e o f Chicago, " 333-334. 82. See , fo r example , D u Bois , Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans, 61 ; BA, Augus t 8 , 1900 , Augus t 12 , 1913 . Th e tw o newspaper s advertised man y suc h events , including the Ol d Folk s Home Da y Basket Picnic , the home' s Annua l Bazaar , an d th e Harves t Hom e Day . 83. BA, Augus t 8 , 1900 . 84. CD, Februar y 12 , 1910 . 85. BA, Novembe r 25 , 1905 . Snowden' s argument s wer e use d t o furthe r encourage attendanc e a t a charit y bal l sponsore d b y th e Triangl e an d Inne r Circle Clubs . 86. BA , Apri l 22 , 1911 . 87. A t th e bazaar s th e home' s inmates , a s wel l a s th e clu b women , sol d handmade articles , suc h a s hand-painte d china , embroidery , an d artwork . Fo r an exampl e o f in-kin d foo d donations , se e BA, Marc h 21 , 1903 . I n autum n

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1 78

two day s wer e se t aside : on e fo r raisin g money s fo r th e coa l fun d an d on e a s "canning day. " Se e D u Bois , Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans, 61; CD, Jun e 18 , 1918 . Th e women' s clu b weekl y record s i n th e newspaper s were replet e wit h activitie s directe d towar d th e Ol d Folks ' Home , includin g visits, entertainment , preparin g dinners , an d othe r form s o f "goo d cheer. " 88. BA, Januar y 11 , 1916 ; CD, Novembe r 26 , 1910 ; BA, Februar y 14 , 1914, January 1 , 1913 . 89. BA, Februar y 24 , 1900 , Novembe r 18 , 25 , 1905 ; Lewis , "Th e Ol d Folks' Hom e o f Chicago, " 334-335 . 90. CD, September , 24 , 1910 , June 3 , 1916 . 91. O'Donnell , "Th e Car e o f Dependen t Africa n America n Childre n i n Chicago," 763-776 . 92. Chicag o Commission , "Th e Migratio n o f Negroe s fro m th e South , 1916-1918," 44-45 . NPTfS T O CHAPTER 5

1. Philpott , The Slum and the Ghetto, 79, 81 ; Woods an d Kennedy , Handbook of Settlements. Se e als o Head , Chicago Social Settlements. Onl y recentl y hav e scholars focuse d o n Africa n America n settlements . Se e Lasch-Quinn , Black Neighbors; Luker, "Missions , Institutiona l Churches , an d Settlemen t Houses, " 101-113; Crocker , Social Work and Social Order. Althoug h no t include d i n thi s chapter, th e YMCAs ' an d YWCAs ' program s an d service s closel y resemble d those offere d a t th e Africa n America n settlements . Se e Mjagkij , Light in the Darkness. 2. Cite d i n Carson , Settlement Folk, 58 . 3. Cite d i n Weiss , The National Urban League, 1910-1940, 55 . Se e als o Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House. 4. Carson , Settlement Folk, 15 . Davis an d Trolande r portra y th e prototypica l settlement worker s a s middle-class , college-graduat e females , wh o ofte n re mained unmarried , ye t looked upo n th e settlemen t a s a form o f family life . Se e A. H . Davis , Spearheads for Reform, 87 ; Trolander , Professionalism and Social Change, 12-13 . 5. Carson , Settlement Folk, 66-67 . 6. A . H . Davis , Spearheads for Reform, 20 . 7. Diner , "Chicag o Socia l Workers an d Blacks i n th e Progressiv e Era, " 393— 410; Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto; Lissak, Pluralism and Progressives. Se e als o Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets; A. H . Davi s and McCree, Eighty Years at Hull House; Sklar, "Hul l Hous e i n th e 1890s, " 658-677 . 8. Grossman , Land of Hope, 170—174 ; Philpott , The Slum and the Ghetto, chap. 13 . 9. Philpott , The Slum and the Ghetto, 316, 334 . 10. Ibid. , 322 . 11. Ibid. , 317 . 12. Ibid. , 304 .

1 79 NOTES T O C H A P T E R 5

13. Ibid. , 317 . 14. Lasch-Quinn , Black Neighbors, 118 . 15. CD, Marc h 27 , 1915 . 16. &4 , Marc h 27 , 1909 . 17. C A Novembe r 1 , 1913 . 18. Wright , "Socia l Work o f the Negr o Church, " 81-93 . 19. Spear , Black Chicago, 92 , 95-96 ; Lasch-Quinn , Black Neighbors, 68 . 20. Spear , Black Chicago, 96 . 21. C A Januar y 1 , 1910 . 22. Upo n Mrs . Lawson's death , Id a B. Wells applied to th e Rosenwald Fund . However, a racis t jok e fro m on e o f Rosenwald' s employee s prompte d he r t o rebuke hi s distastefu l humor . Needles s t o say , sh e di d no t receiv e Rosenwald' s endorsement. Se e Jackson, "Blac k Charit y i n Progressiv e Er a Chicago, " 400 — 417; Spear , Black Chicago, 106 ; Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto, 322. 23. Man y o f th e Africa n America n settlement s wer e short-live d largel y because o f lack o f funding. Mos t depende d upo n whit e philanthropy , especiall y the Julius Rosenwal d Fund . Rosenwal d provide d 2 5 percen t o f the revenu e fo r the Frederic k Douglas s Cente r an d th e Wendel l Phillip s Settlement . Se e Julius Rosenwald Papers , bo x 14 , fil e 3 ; Fitzpatrick , Endless Crusade, 182. Interracia l boards allowe d fo r furthe r contro l b y white philanthropists . 24. Carlton-LaNey , "Th e Caree r o f Birdye Henriett a Haynes, " 259-263 . 25. C A Octobe r 18 , 1913 . See als o Hunton , "Women' s Clubs, " 78-79 . 26. Bowen , Colored People of Chicago, n.p. ; Spear , Black Chicago, 29 ; Jackson, "Black Charit y i n Progressiv e Er a Chicago, " 402 . 27. Ther e i s littl e informatio n o n th e Emanue l Settlemen t o r o n Fanni e Emanuel, it s founder . Dr . Emanue l wa s a presiden t o f th e Frederic k Douglas s Center prio r t o he r foundin g th e settlement , whic h was , i n actuality , a larg e house o n Armou r Avenu e i n th e Blac k Belt . Se e BA, Januar y 10 , 1910 ; CD, May 29 , 1915 ; Philpott , The Slum and the Ghetto, 321 . William s wa s no t alone i n he r endorsemen t o f kindergartens . However , ther e wa s littl e writte n information o n th e activitie s o f Africa n America n kindergartens . Althoug h Yates spok e highl y o f Froebelia n pedagogy , th e mainsta y activitie s i n Africa n American settlement s wer e manua l training , domesti c training , physica l exer cise, an d clu b work . Dunba r note d tha t mother s wer e ofte n suspiciou s o f kindergarten teachers . Se e Yates , "Kindergarten s an d Mothers ' Clubs, " 3 0 4 311; Emerson , "Childre n o f th e Circle, " 81-83 ; Dunbar , " A Kindergarte n Club," 386-390 ; Rouse , "Atlanta' s Africa n America n Women' s Attac k o n Segregation," 511-518 ; Barrett , "Socia l Settlemen t fo r Colore d People, " 511-518. 28. C A Apri l 24 , 1918 , April 19 , 1919 . Fo r a contrast , se e Neil , Our Little Men and Women. A s fathe r o f th e mothers ' pensio n system , Nei l stresse d no t only physical activit y fo r girl s but als o instruction i n domesti c art s an d hygiene . 29. CD, Marc h 20 , Februar y 20 , 1915 . Physical cultur e was mor e prevalen t in th e mainstrea m settlements , althoug h th e Africa n America n newspaper s di d

NOTES T O C H A P T E R 5

18 0

advise mother s t o engag e thei r childre n i n suc h exercises . Se e BA, Januar y 21 , 1905, Septembe r 8 , 1910 . 30. CD, Octobe r 18 , November 1 , December 22 , 1913 . 31. CD , Augus t 9 , 1913 . 32. Ibid . 33. Baker , Following the Color Line, 138 . 34. Philpott , The Slum and the Ghetto, 281. 35. Fro m brochure s cataloge d unde r Th e Phylli s Wheatle y Associatio n R e cords. 36. BA, Februar y 3 , 1900 . 37. BA, Marc h 5 , 1910 . 38. Philpott , The Slum and the Ghetto, 281-282. Se e also Dubin, "Th e Mora l Continuum o f Deviancy Research, " 75—94 . 39. CD, Ma y 15 , 1913. 40. Ibid . Folde d int o th e settlements ' concer n wit h adolescenc e wa s th e teaching o f "socia l hygiene, " a combinatio n o f mora l talks , physica l hygiene , and se x education . Man y o f th e ethni c settlement s i n Chicag o dispense d suc h information throug h physicians , visitin g nurses , settlemen t workers , an d clu b women. Ofte n suc h lessons were taugh t i n domesti c classe s and the youth clubs . See Clarke , "Socia l Hygien e i n Settlemen t Work, " 383-434 . Althoug h I foun d no suc h activitie s i n Chicago , th e Tuskege e Women' s Clu b di d establis h "socia l purity clubs " fo r youn g girls , a s di d som e o f th e Africa n America n YWCAs . See Richings, Evidence of Progress among Colored People, 198 ; Batterham, "Negr o Girls an d th e Y.M.C.A., " 439 . Mothers' lecture s were als o give n o n "socia l an d sex hygiene " a t th e Mar y Walto n Fre e Kindergarte n fo r Colore d Childre n (formerly th e Fre e Kindergarte n Associatio n fo r Colore d Children ) i n Ne w York. Se e Scheiner , Negro Mecca, 147-148. 41. B ^ , Apri l 11 , 1914. 42. BA, Februar y 14 , Februar y 28 , 1914 . 43. CD, Marc h 27 , January 23 , 1915 . Although Hin e ha s astutel y suggeste d that boys ' club s wer e forme d t o protec t youn g girls , ther e i s greate r evidenc e that th e boys ' club s wer e forme d t o offse t th e growin g numbe r o f delinquen t boys brough t befor e th e juvenil e court . M y preliminar y researc h int o th e juvenile court' s deliberation s o n Africa n America n boy s an d girl s indicate s tha t many dependen t childre n wer e classifie d a s delinquent i n par t becaus e facilitie s were unavailabl e t o the m unles s the y wer e classifie d a s such. Additionally , ther e were mor e settlemen t club s an d classe s for girl s than fo r boy s in Chicago . Fro m an earl y ag e girl s were socialize d int o futur e role s a s mothers an d keeper s o f th e home. Hin e cite d i n Gordon , "Blac k an d White Vision s o f Welfare," 579 . 44. BA, Jul y 20 , 1913 . Wells , i n he r earlie r day s a t Memphis , ha d als o established a club fo r youn g me n there . Se e Decosta-Willis, The Memphis Diary of Ida B. Wells. 45. CD, January 13 , 1916 . 46. CD, Augus t 14 , 1915 , Februar y 19 , 1916 . 47. CD, Septembe r 6 , 1913 .

NC>TIES TO CHAPTER 6

1. Her e I refe r t o Gates' s notio n o f "speakerl y text, " wherei n writte n text s are relate d t o ora l discours e throug h th e metaphori c an d rhetorica l us e o f signifying. Se e Gates , The Signifying Monkey 2. Porter , "Th e Organize d Educationa l Activitie s o f Negr o Literar y Socie ties, 1828-1846, " 555-576 . 3. Yee , Black Women Abolitionists, 62. Suc h moralit y dovetaile d wit h th e clu b women's vision s o f mothe r an d hom e life . A s th e characte r Iol a Lero y i n Harper's boo k exclaime d religiousl y i n on e o f he r paper s delivere d befor e a parlor group , "Prison s woul d no t b e a s full i f there wer e mora l homes. " Se e Iola

\8 1 NOTES T O C H A P T E R 6

48. CD, Februar y 28 , 1920 . 49. F . B. Williams, "Industria l Education, " 492 . 50. Burroughs , Ten Reasons Why We Should Have a Trade School; Burroughs, "Industrial Education, " 188—190 ; Haynes , "Negroe s i n Domesti c Service, " 384-442. Fo r furthe r informatio n o n Burroughs , se e Higginbotham , Righteous Discontent, 211-221; Barnett , "Nanni e Burrough s an d th e Educatio n o f Blac k Women," 97—108 . Fo r recen t scholarshi p o n th e increase d professionalizatio n of domesti c work , se e Neverdon-Morton , Afro-American Women of the South; Powers, The 'Girl Question' in Education. Fo r excellen t historie s o f Africa n American women' s employmen t a s domestic workers , se e Burgess an d Horton , "African America n Wome n an d Work, " 53-63 ; Harley , "Whe n You r Wor k I s Not W h o Yo u Are, " 42-55 . 51. CD, Octobe r 18 , 1913 . 52. CD, Ma y 31 , August 9 , Novembe r 1 , 1913 . 53. CD, Ma y 31 , December 22 , 1913 . 54. O n classe s an d program s a t th e Wendel l Phillip s Settlement , se e Gross man, Land of Hope, 140 , 143 ; Spear , Black Chicago, 105, 171 , 174 ; CD, May , 20, 1911 ; BA, Septembe r 29 , 1916 . Informatio n o n th e Frederic k Douglas s Center's classe s was publishe d i n th e weekl y column s o f th e CD an d th e BA. Further informatio n o n th e cente r i s availabl e i n Bowen , Colored People of Chicago; F. B . Williams , "Th e Frederic k Douglas s Centre, " 602-603 ; F . B . Williams, "Socia l Bonds i n th e 'Blac k Belt ' o f Chicago, " 40-44 . 55. Crocker , Social Work and Social Order, 88—93 . 56. Ibid. , 186—197 . Fo r th e situatio n i n Chicago , se e Wright , Jr. , "Th e Negro i n Time s o f Industrial Unrest, " 69-73 ; Grossman , Land of Hope, chap . 7 . 57. CD, January 13 , 1916 . 58. CD, Septembe r 20 , 1913 . 59. Spear , Black Chicago, 170 . 60. Duster , Crusade for fustice, 372 . 61. Strickland , History of the Chicago Urban League, 34. Se e als o BA, Decem ber 22 , 1917 ; Urba n Leagu e Annua l Reports , bo x 1 , folder s 1-3 , 67 . Chicag o Commission, "Th e Migratio n o f Negroe s fro m th e South , 1916—1918, " 44-45. 62. Weiss , The National Urban League, 1910-1940, 88-89 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 6

18 2

Leroy. Harpers novel s wer e no t th e onl y one s t o emphasiz e youn g women' s moral characte r an d respectabilit y Se e Johnson, The Hazeley Family; and Johnson, Clarence and Corinne. 4. Cite d i n Lerner , Black Women in White America, 438-439 . 5. Sterling , We Are Your Sisters, 107-108. 6. Ibid. , 110-111 . 7. Se e Ripley e t al., Witness for Freedom, whic h document s African America n abolitionism an d th e antislaver y movement . 8. Riple y e t al. , Witness for Freedom. Se e McDowell' s astut e essa y o n th e novel Iola Leroy, i n whic h sh e note d tha t publi c speakin g i s represented b y me n and tha t Iola' s tal k i s shape d a s "carefull y reasone d oration " (97) . McDowell , "'The Changin g Same, ' " 91-115 . 9. Bode , The American Lyceum, 19 . 10. Ibid. , 22 . 11. Richmond , Chautauqua, 26, 29. Katherine Tillma n noted how elocutio n was one aren a in which Africa n America n wome n excelled , citin g the example s of Halli e Q . Brown , Henriett a Vinto n Davis , an d Ednora h Nahar . Sh e als o provided example s o f notabl e Africa n America n femal e speakers , includin g Fannie Jackson Coppin , Id a B. Wells, Mrs. Rodgers Webb , an d Frances Harper . See Tillman , "Afro-America n Wome n an d Thei r Work, " 84-85 . 12. Gates , The Signifying Monkey, 66 . Huggin s note d th e diversit y o f Doug lass's topics o n th e lectur e circuit , whic h include d "Hittites , Galileo , Scandina vian history , an d saga s from Iceland. " Se e Huggins , Slave and Citizen, 128 . 13. Mead , Yankee Eloquence in the Middle West, 227'. 14. Bode , The American Lyceum, 96-97 . 15. Scott , Natural Allies, 118-120 . Fo r furthe r histor y o n th e Chicag o Woman's Club , se e Hard , The Women of Tomorrow, chap . 5 ; Croly , The History of the Woman's Club Movement. 16. Woodson , The History of the Negro Church, 247. 17. Montgomery , Under Their Own Vine and Fig Tree, 300-303 . 18. Woodson , The History of the Negro Church, 245-246 . Loggins , i n hi s book, feature d writer s o f oratory , histories , an d sociologica l treatises , man y o f whom wer e ministers . Se e The Negro Author. A s i n earlie r anthologies , mostl y male writer s wer e featured . 19. Daniels , In Freedom's Birthplace, 203-204 . 20. Higginbotham , Righteous Discontent. 21. Morrison , Chautauqua, 96 . 22. Cas e an d Case , We Called It Culture, 74. 23. Morrison , Chautauqua, 94 ; Richmond, Chautauqua, 26 , 29 , 65 , 112 . 24. Morrison , Chautauqua, 166 . 25. Se e Pratt , "Chautauqu a Summe r Kindergarten, " 72-77 ; "Th e Firs t Summer Schoo l fo r Parent s Hel d i n Chautauqua , N.Y., " 1—8 . Man y o f th e Chicago kindergartners , suc h a s Mary Louis e Butler , als o taugh t i n th e kinder garten departmen t a t Chautauqua , Ne w York , durin g th e summer . Richmond , Chautauqua, 114—116 .

18 3 NOTES T O CHAPTE R 6

26. BA,]une9, 17 , 1906 . 27. Rev . Mary Lar k Hill was known i n Chicag o a s an evangelist , a compose r of cam p meetin g songs , an d a successfu l caf e owner . I n 190 5 sh e founde d th e Queen Esthe r Missio n a t 504 0 Stat e Street . Th e mission s Sunda y service s o f preaching, platfor m meetings , an d children' s preachin g wer e conducte d b y females only . I n 190 6 sh e became pasto r o f the Quee n Esthe r Church , th e firs t church o f th e Women' s Evangelisti c Unio n o f America. Se e BA, Octobe r 31 , 1903, June 17 , 1905 , Decembe r 1 , 1906 . Fo r furthe r informatio n o n wome n preachers, se e Dodson , "Nineteenth-Centur y A.M.E . Preachin g Women, " 276—289; Lincol n an d Mamiya , The Black Church, chap . 10 ; Krueger , The Reader's Repentance. 28. J . Washington , "Wha t th e Clu b Doe s fo r th e Club-Woman, " 222 . 29. Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 241 . 30. Th e sam e held true for churc h lyceums, where classica l works o f Mozart, Beethoven, o r Mendelssoh n wer e usuall y performe d b y soloists , wherea s choruses, choirs , an d quartet s san g the mor e popula r Africa n America n pieces , including hymns , spirituals , jubilee songs , an d plantatio n melodies . 31. Se e Carson , Settlement Folk, particularl y fo r th e influenc e o f Ruskin . 32. BA, Novembe r 11 , 1905, March 10 , 1906 , January 10 , 1914 ; CD, Apri l 26, 1919 . 33. Wood , The Negro in Chicago, 16 . 34. Fo r example s o f literar y stud y o f Illinoi s clubs , includin g thos e i n Chicago, see those listed under Illinoi s in Croly , The History of the Woman's Club Movement, 381-430 . Th e Hul l Hous e Woman' s Clu b occasionall y discusse d ethnic literatur e an d issues . A t on e meetin g Id a B . Well s spok e o n "Socia l Prejudice"; a t another meeting , unde r th e them e o f "Livin g Grea t Americans, " Booker T Washington' s accomplishment s wer e discusse d alongsid e thos e o f Theodore Roosevelt , Thoma s Edison, an d Jacob Riis . See Hull Hous e Associa tion Records , Hull-Hous e Bulletin s 3:5 , 7:9—11 . 35. Martin , The Sound of Our Own Voices, 108 . 36. Croly , The History of the Woman's Club Movement, 410-413 . 37. Ibid. , 383-386 , 415-416 . 38. B ^ Marc h 25 , 1911. 39. BA, Januar y 10 , 1914 . Fo r example s o f Forston's poetry, se e BA, Augus t 1, 1914 . 40. CD, Ma y 20 , 1911 ; BA, Marc h 7 , 1914 ; CD, Novembe r 18 , 1916 , January 27 , 1917 . 41. CD, Novembe r 18 , 1916 , Septembe r 1 , 22, 1917 , July 22 , 1916 . 42. BA, Novembe r 25 , 1905 . 43. BA, Marc h 24 , 10 , Februar y 3 , 1906 . 44. CD, Apri l 28 , 1917 ; BA, Apri l 25 , 1914 ; CD, Ma y 31 , 1913 ; BA, December 2 , 1913 ; CD, Novembe r 29 , 1913 . 45. BA, Novembe r 11 , 1905, January 20 , 1906 . 46. CD, Novembe r 29 , 1913 . 47. BA, Januar y 20 , 1906 .

NOTES T O CHAPTE R 6

18 4

48. BA, Ma y 5 , 1906 ; CD, Novembe r 12 , 1910 , Apri l 29 , 1916 ; F . B . Williams, The Colored Woman and Her Part in Race Regeneration, 417' . 49. BA, Novembe r 4 , 1899 . 50. B A Novembe r 11 , 1899. 51. CD, Octobe r 11 , Novembe r 15 , 1913 ; BA, Decembe r 1 , 1900 ; CD, February 2 , 1918 . Tw o o f Mrs . E . W Wright' s novel s hav e recentl y bee n discovered and published. Se e Wright, Black and White Tangled Threads; Kenneth. 52. B A Januar y 8 , 1916 . 53. CD, January 27 , 1917 . 54. CD, June 28 , 1913 . 55. Matthew s cite d i n Johnson, Clarence and Corinne, xvi. 56. Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 175—177 . 57. CD, Augus t 2 , 1913 . 58. BA, July 9, 1913 . 59. CD, Ma y 31 , 1913. 60. CD, Septembe r 14 , 1918 . 61. B A Apri l 15 , 1905 . 62. CD, January 1 , 1910 . 63. CD, Augus t 31 , September 7 , Februar y 23 , 1912 ; B A Apri l 26 , 1913 . 64. CD, January 23 , 1915 . 65. Holt , "Influenc e o f Lyceums, " CD, Octobe r 26 , 1918 . Nor a D . Hol t was a composer an d musi c criti c wh o wrot e fo r th e Chicago Defender. 66. CD, Octobe r 9 , 1920 . I wa s unabl e t o locat e an y studie s o n yout h lyceums o r othe r churc h club s fo r yout h durin g thi s tim e period . May s an d Nicholson, i n The Negro's Church, do giv e som e attentio n t o yout h club s i n th e 1930s, especiall y recreationa l clubs , i n chapte r 9 . Also , Drak e an d Cayto n examine churc h lif e i n th e Africa n America n communitie s o f Chicag o durin g the 1930s . Se e chapter s 8 an d 9 , Black Metropolis, wherein grea t concer n i s expressed ove r th e wanin g interes t o f youth i n th e church . 67. CD , June 2 , 1917 . 68. CD, Novembe r 9 , 1918 . 69. B A Februar y 17 , 1905 . 70. CD, Marc h 9 , 1918 . Th e essa y contest s wer e no t unlik e thos e tha t Brady documente d i n Kansa s durin g th e 1920s . Se e Brady , "Organizin g Afro American Girls ' Club s i n Kansas, " 69-73 . Se e als o CD, Marc h 18 , 1905 ; BA, May 25 , 1912 . 71. CD, Novembe r 3 , 1917 , May 24 , 1919 . 72. CD, Decembe r 22 , 1913 . Th e essa y contest s wer e elaborat e affair s and include d th e participatio n o f mor e tha n fort y wome n i n committee s o n advertisements, decorations , music, an d ushering. Se e BA Decembe r 15 , 1917 . 73. B A Januar y 10 , 1914 . 74. D u Bois , The Negro Church, 85. 75. Woodson , The History of the Negro Church, 250.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 7

185 NOTES T O CHAPTE R 7

1. Burrough s cite d i n Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 245 . 2. Tillman , "Afro-America n Wome n an d Thei r Work, " 90 . 3. Hunton , "Th e Nationa l Associatio n o f Colored Women, " 418 . 4. Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, 211—212 . 5. BA, Apri l 29 , 1905 . 6. BA, Februar y 29 , 1908 . 7. BA, Apri l 29 , 1905 . 8. BA, Ma y 13 , 1905 . Fo r biographica l informatio n o n Mrs . Georg e Hall , see BA, Ma y 20 , 1905 . 9. BA, Ma y 13 , 1905 . 10. BA, Ma y 5 , 1905 . 11. BA, Jun e 23 , 30, July 7 , 21 , 1905. 12. BA, Januar y 8 , 1909 . 13. BA, ]une 13 , 1907 . 14. CD, Novembe r 1 , 1913 . 15. CD, Octobe r 8 , 1910 . 16. CD, Marc h 4 , 1910 . 17. Se e Gatewood , Aristocrats of Color, chap . 7 . 18. CD, Februar y 2 3 1912 ; BA, Jun e 6 , 1908 . 19. Tillman , "Afro-America n Wome n an d Thei r Work, " 81-82 ; Tillman , "Paying Profession s fo r Colore d Girls, " 118—119 . 20. "Tillman , "Payin g Profession s fo r Colore d Girls, " 118—119 . 21. Dunham , A Touch of Innocence, 129—132 . 22. Vivia n Hars h Collection , Illinoi s Writer s Project , "Th e Negr o i n Illi nois," box 25 , folder 4 ; CD, Ma y 4 , 1918 . 23. BA, Decembe r 27 , 1902 , December 30 , 1905 . 24. CD, Marc h 3 , 1917 . 25. CD, Marc h 3 , 10 , 1917 . 26. CD, Marc h 19 , 1910 . 27. BA, Decembe r 25 , 1905 . 28. BA, Marc h 21 , 1914 . Banne r estimate d tha t b y 190 9 ther e wer e a number o f manicurin g parlor s an d wel l ove r sixt y beaut y shop s alon g down town Stat e Street . B y 189 0 ther e wer e 9,00 0 femal e hairdresser s nationally ; b y 1907 th e numbe r ha d leap t t o mor e tha n 36,000 . Banner , American Beauty, 215-216. 29. Vivia n Hars h Collection , Illinoi s Writer s Project , "Th e Negr o i n Illi nois," box 25 , folders 5 , 6 . 30. CD, Octobe r 14 , 1919 . 31. B A Ma y 14 , 1911. 32. BA, Ma y 4 , 1918 . 33. CD, Octobe r 26 , 1918 . 34. Fo r furthe r informatio n o n hom e dressmaking , se e Fernandez, "Innova tions fo r Hom e Dressmaking, " 23-34 .

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35. Mos t o f th e member s o f th e whis t club s reside d i n neighborhood s between 310 0 an d 380 0 Streets , an d betwee n 430 0 an d 530 0 Wabash . Ther e were severa l yout h whis t clubs , includin g th e Junio r Leagu e Socia l Club , th e Junior Half-Centur y Clubs , an d th e Junior Swastik a Girls ' Clubs . 36. BA, Marc h 14 , 1914 . 37. B A Apri l 11 , 1914. 38. BA, Apri l 25 , 1914 . 39. BA, Novembe r 27 , 1914 . 40. BA, Ma y 9 , 1903 . 41. BA, Februar y 21 , 1914 . 42. B A Augus t 31 , 1913. 43. CD, Ma y 20 , 1916 . 44. B A Augus t 11 , 1906. 45. CD, Augus t 12 , 1916 . 46. CD, Apri l 24 , 1915 . 47. CD, Augus t 7 , 1915 . 48. BA, Februar y 23 , 1912 . 49. CD, Marc h 20 , 1915 . 50. CD, Octobe r 11 , 1913. 51. B A Februar y 28 , 1914 . 52. B A Marc h 14 , 1914 . 53. CD, January 2 , 1915 . 54. CD, January 8 , 1916 , August 11 , February 17 , November 3 , 24, 1917 . 55. CD , June 8 , 1918 . 56. CD, January 27 , 1917 . 57. CD, Februar y 2 , 9 , 1918 . 58. CD, Novembe r 29 , August 30 , 1913 . 59. B A Ma y 9 , 1914 . 60. Drak e an d Cayton , Black Metropolis, 688 . 61. Ibid. , 689-690 . 62. Ibid. , 693 . NOTES TO CONCLUSIO N

1. Chicago Tribune, Marc h 3 , 1994 , sec . 1 , p. 20. 2. Ibid . 3. Ibid. , Februar y 12 , 1995 , sec. 2, p. 4. 4. Ibid. , Ma y 7 , 1995 , sec. 2, p. 3; CD, Novembe r 8 , 1993 , p. 5 . 5. Duneier , Slirn's Table. 6. Chicago Tribune, Augus t 13 , 1995 , sec. 2, pp. 1—3 . 7. Ibid . 8. Ibid. , Decembe r 19 , 1994 , sec . 1 , p. 8 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MANUSCRIPT COLLECTION S

Chicago Historica l Society , Chicag o Chicago Woman's Club Records, 1894-1900 Harris Gaines Collection Irene McCoy Gaines Collection Evanston Historica l Society , Evanston , Illinoi s Evanston Community Hospital File Iroquois League File Harold Washingto n Library , Chicag o Carter Woodson Regional Library, Vivian Harsh Collection. Illinois Writers Project, (< The Negro in Illinois" Cook Count y Juvenile Cour t Annua l Reports , 1901—192 0 Municipal Reference Collection Joseph Regenstei n Library , Universit y o f Chicag o Julius Rosenwald Papers Ida B. Wells Papers National Loui s University , Evansto n Elizabeth Harrison Papers University o f Illinois a t Chicag o Mary Bartelme Papers

Hull House Association Records Illinois Children's Home and Aid Society Records Jane Dent Home for Aged Colored People Papers Juvenile Protective Association Papers Phyllis Wheatley Association Papers Urban League Annual Reports, 1917-1920 NEWSPAPERS AN D JOURNAL S

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INDEX

Abbott, Robert , 27 , 55 Abolitionist societies , 10 9 Addams, Jane, 26, 46, 54, 92, 106 , 116 , 118, 12 6 Alpha Suffrage Club , 52-54, 93 , 124 Amanda Smit h Home, 25 , 26, 65, 70, 76-81, 88 , 89, 121 . See also Smith, Amanda A. M. E . Institutiona l Church , 9 6 Antilynching protests, 56—57 , 120, 171-72 n . 5 0 Avendorph, Julius, 34-3 5 Barnett, Ferdinand , 3 3 Beauty culture , 128 , 161-6 2 n. 23, 185 n. 2 8 Benton Harbor , 167-6 8 n . 4 0 Berean Baptist Church , 12 1 Bethel Baptist Church , 31 , 119, 14 3

Bethesda Baptist Church , 3 1 Binga, Jesse, 33, 37, 12 7 Birth of a Nation, The, 60-61 Black Belt, the : businesses in, 30, 38, 53; living conditions in, 39-42, 66 67, 70, 71, 81, 88, 100, 102 ; segregation in , 30 , 32, 38; social institution s in, 7 , 26, 37, 43-44, 45 , 94, 96, 99, 104, 10 7 Boaz, Sophia , 25 , 43, 44, 95, 116 , 14 5 Bombings: o f African America n homes, 3 3 Bowen, Louis e d e Koven, 26 , 41, 42, 46, 17 4 n. 1 0 Boys' clubs . See Youth club s Breckinridge, Sophonisba , 26 , 41, 81 , 99, 10 6 Broad Ax, 36 , 102 , 115 , 126 Brown, Halli e Q. , 7 8 Burning Bush Mission, 43 , 14 3

Burroughs, Nannie , 49 , 104 , 123, 163 n. 4 4

INDEX

206

Charity balls, 22, 35, 82, 86, 87, 124 26, 126-27 , 13 4 Charity workers, 92-9 3 Chautauqua, 9 , 108 , 112-1 3 Chicago, African America n population , 27, 30 , 32, 40, 88, 13 5 Chicago Afro-American Mothers ' Council, 6 9 Chicago Commissio n o n Race Rela tions, 40 Chicago Defender, 27 , 39, 40, 43, 55, 56-57,78, 11 5 Chicago Federatio n o f Colored Wom en's Clubs, 36, 43 Chicago NAACP , 37, 46, 56, 88, 95 Chicago Schoo l o f Civics and Philan thropy, 44, 98, 99 Chicago University Settlement , 7 4 Chicago Urban League , 37, 44-45, 46, 56, 88 , 95, 106- 7 Chicago Woman's Club , 23, 66, 71, 72, 84, 110 , 115 , 163-6 4 n . 5 2 Chicago Worlds Fai r of 1893 , 2 3 Christianity, an d societies, 108 ; and women's ideology, 16 , 23, 26, 27, 83, 95-98 , 10 4 Clotee Scot t Settlement, 26 , 44, 55, 91, 95, 98 , 101 ; children's classe s at, 100-101; domesti c classe s at, 95, 104-5, 106 ; youth club s at, 102- 3 Cook Count y Juvenile Court : an d fe male influence, 14 , 60, 66, 68, 71, 72-73, 74 , 75, 76, 77, 83, 107; and African America n children , 60 , 68, 72-73, 74 , 77, 84. See also Dependent an d delinquent children , Afri can American Cooper, Ann a B., 78, 14 6 Cooper, Ann a Julia, 15 , 17 Cult o f true womanhood, 13 , 16, 17, 23, 55 , 67-68, 104 , 16 1 n. 9 Dance halls , 70, 81, 96, 98, 101 , 102 Dancing clubs, 10 , 12 7

Davis, Elizabeth Lindsay , 51 , 70, 78, 96, 102, 115 , 117, 118 , 130 , 14 7 de Koven Bowen, Louise . See Bowen, Louise de Koven Dependent an d delinquent children , Af rican American, 41 , 83, 180 n. 43; classification of , 75 , 79; segregation of, 14 , 79; percentages of , 174-7 5 n . 13 De Priest , Oscar , electio n of , 7 , 14 , 47, 53, 54 , 55 Discrimination, agains t African Ameri cans, 22, 25, 34; general employ ment, 58-59 , 61 , 104, 17 2 n. 59; facilities, 59 , 60-61, 79-80 , 93-94 , 103-4; female employment , 58-59 , 61, 104 , 17 2 n. 59 ; housing, 33 , 40. See also Black Belt, the ; White wom en's clubs Domestic service : education for , 20 , 81, 91-95 , 100 , 104-5 , 107 , 119, 163 n. 44 ; employment referra l ser vices and, 58 , 81, 83, 104, 105- 6 Du Bois , W E . B., 47, 73, 121; social class distinctions and , 21 , 39; "talented tenth " ideology and clu b women, 7 , 11 , 12,21,45, 138 , 160 n. 2 Easter Lily Club, 6 3 Economic clubs , 61-6 4 "Elite 400," 34-35, 37, 124-25 , 12 7 Emanuel, Fannie , 84 , 97, 125 , 126, 130, 147 , 17 9 n. 2 7 Emanuel Settlement , 91 , 97, 98, 100, 105, 106 , 17 9 n. 2 7 Employment, female , 10 , 100 , 127-28 , 129; beauty shops, 53, 127-28, 129 , 185 n. 28; domestic workers, 42, 100, 124 ; dressmaking, 5-6 , 53 , 95, 105, 106 , 124 , 127-28 ; industria l jobs, 42 ; manicuring parlors, 53, 124, 127-28 , 18 5 n. 28 ; milliners, 53, 106 , 124 , 127-28 , 128-29 ; professionals, 37—38 . See also Domestic service Englewood, 110,112,119,135,137,14 3 Evanston, 6 0

Forston, Bettiola, 54 , 114 , 116 , 14 8 Frederick Douglas s Center , 64 , 74, 91, 143, 17 9 n. 23 ; and its clubs, 44, 51, 95, 97 , 100 , 114 , 116-17 ; and social class, 24, 44, 97, 100 ; and employ ment services , 105—6 Frederick Douglas s Woman's Club , 44, 51,97, 11 7

Hall, Georg e Cleveland , 35 , 39, 42-43 , 85 Hall, Mrs. Georg e Cleveland , 35 , 36, 51,55,87, 117 , 126 , 14 9 Harper, France s Ellen Watkins, 9 , 109 , 181-82 n. 3 Haynes, Birdye, 43-44, 99 , 14 9 Home fo r th e Aged and Infirm Col ored People, 65, 70, 84-88, 143 ; and club involvement, 22 , 25, 37, 44, 85-87, 177-7 8 n . 8 7 Home life , 15 , 95, 99-100, 11 4 Hopkins, Pauline Elizabeth, 9 Hull House, 91,94 , 11 5 Hyde Park , 32-33 , 102 , 103 , 110, 119, 135 Hyde Park Improvement Protectiv e Club, 3 3 Ida B. Wells Club, 36 Ideal Woman's Club , 52 , 54, 77-78, 87, 115 Illinois Technical School for Colore d Girls, 60, 79 Institutional Churc h an d Social Settlement, 4 3

Jenifer, Eva , 24, 78, 84, 15 0 Juvenile court . See Cook Count y Juvenile Cour t Juvenile Detention Home , 7 5 Juvenile Protective Association, 42 , 10 1 207

Kindergartens, 36 , 43, 91, 99, 100 , 107, 110 , 112 , 17 9 n. 2 7 Lawson, Mrs. Victor, 9 7 Lewis, Ida, 7 8 Literary clubs , 9; African America n fe male, 9-10, 108 , 113-14 , 121-22 ; white female , 113 , 115 Literary journals, African American , 114-15 Literary societies, history of , 108- 9 Lodgers, 27-28, 40, 42-43, 70 , 81, 107 Louise Juvenile Home , 8 , 65 , 66, 70, 71-76, 88 , 89. See also McDonald, Elizabeth Lyceums: African American , 4 , 97, 108, 110-11 , 112 , 119 , 143 ; African American female , 10 , 111-12 , 119 20; African America n youth, 10 , 110, 119-20 ; Chicago , 109 , 115; white female involvement , 109—1 0 Matrimony clubs , 10 , 39, 132-3 3 Mayflower Club , 63-6 4 McCoy-Gaines, Irene , 60—61 , 103, 114, 116 , 121 , 130, 137 , 15 2 McDonald, Elizabeth , 8 , 26, 76, 78, 96, 99 , 137 ; and the Louise Juvenile Home, 71-76 ; and probation work , 14, 66; and rescue work, 71—72 , 73 McDowell, Mary , 46 , 11 5 Migration, southern , 33-34 , 38 , 40-41 , 97, 13 6 Ministers, African American , 98 , 126, 183 n. 2 7 Missions, 92, 96, 14 3

INDEX

Gaines, Harris, 11 6 Gaines, Irene. See McCoy-Gaines, Irene Gaudeamus Club , 84, 87 General Federatio n o f Women's Clubs . See White women' s club s Girls' clubs . See Youth club s Goins, Irene, 100 , 128 , 130 , 14 8 Grace Presbyterian Church , 85-86 , 120-21, 14 3

Inter-racial cooperation . See White women's club s

Moore-Smith, Alberta , 58 , 62 , 69 , 15 2 Morgan Park , 110 , 119 , 13 5 Motherhood, 13 , 15 , 19 , 25 , 9 1 , 100 , 104, 117 , 16 0 n . 3 , 16 2 n . 38 . See also National Associatio n o f Colore d Women. Mothers' pensions , 6 7 Municipal housekeeping , 48 , 6 8

9, 10 ; African America n female , 26 , 6 7 - 6 8 , 7 1 , 164-6 5 n . 63 , 17 3 n . 1 Progressive maternalism, 66,68,159 n . 1 Progressive Negr o League , 50 , 58 , 59— 60 Proprietary colleges , 12 9 Provident Hospital , 36 , 37 , 121 , 12 6 Public housing , 13 7

National Associatio n o f Colore d W o m e n ( N A C W ) , 12 , 56 , 16 2 n . 38 ; motherhood, 19 , 25 , 16 2 n . 38 ; "or ganized motherhood, " 13 , 65 ; re spectability, 15 , 2 1 ; suffrage, 48 , 49 ; and whit e femal e clubs , 2 3 Negro Fellowshi p League , 9 1 , 97—98, 143; an d socia l services , 44 , 103 , 104, 105 , 106 ; an d politics , 55 , 5 6 59, 6 0 - 6 1 , 62 , 64 . See also Wells, Id a B. Nurseries, 8 1 , 99, 10 7

Q u i n n Chapel , 3 1 , 121 , 14 3

INDEX

20 8

Old Folks ' H o m e . See H o m e fo r th e Aged an d Infir m Colore d Peopl e Olivet Baptis t Church , 3 1 , 63, 9 6 - 9 7 Overton, Anthony , 38 , 6 2

Pekin Theater , 87 , 125-2 6 People's Movement . See Politic s Phyllis Wheatle y Club , 36 , 37 , 95 , 102 , 115, 124 ; an d literar y study , 117-18 ; and socia l uplift , 49 , 8 1 - 8 2 ; an d suf frage, 54 , 55 . See also Phyllis Wheatley H o m e PhyUis Wheatle y H o m e , 8 , 25 , 37 , 44 , 65; an d services , 70 , 81-84 , 8 8 - 8 9 ; and clu b involvement , 8 1 , 84, 88 , 8 9 Police officers , female , 164—6 5 n . 63 , 173 n . 1 Politics: an d affiliations , 2 1 , 39, 49 , 50 ; and th e People' s Movement , 54 ; i n the Secon d Ward , 10 , 14 , 47 , 5 1 , 52 , 53-54, 5 5 Probation officers : female , 7 1 , 17 4 nn .

R a c e progress , 12 , 138 , 16 0 n . 5 R a c e riots , 57—5 8 Ralston, Fannie , 62—6 3 Recreational activities , fo r children , 9 1 , 98, 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 , 103- 4 Republican motherhood , 12 , 14 , 2 0 Respectability, 7 , 14 , 15 , 2 1 , 27, 104 , 134. See also National Associatio n o f Colored W o m e n Rosenwald Fund , Julius, 99 , 107 , 179 n . 2 3 Ruffm, Josephin e St . Pierre , 2 3

Scott, Clotee , 26 , 9 5 - 9 6 , 99-100 , 15 3 Second Ward . See Politic s Segregation. See Socia l class ; Discrimi nation, agains t Africa n American s Settlements: Africa n American , 8—9 , 94, 143 ; and Africa n America n churches, 96—97 ; in Chicago , 9 1 , 117; definitio n of , 92 ; exclusio n o f African American s i n mainstream , 26, 90 , 9 3 - 9 4 ; an d fundin g for , 9 9 Settlement workers : Africa n American , 8-9, 9 1 , 9 5 - 9 8, 101 ; vs. charit y workers, 9 2 - 9 3 ; white , 8-9 , 9 1 , 93, 178 n . 4 Smith, Amanda , 8 , 26 , 74 , 7 6 - 7 8 , 80 , 96, 99 , 154 . See also Amanda Smit h Home Smith, Emma , 6 3 - 6 4 Snowden-Porter, Joanna , 24 , 62 , 69 , 78, 84 , 86 , 137 , 15 4

Taylor, Julius, 36, 50, 81, 86, 102 , 12 6 Taylor, Mrs. Julius, 36, 15 5 Tenements, condition s of , 27 , 40, 49 Terrell, Mary Church , 13 , 19, 21 Theater productions, 55 , 82, 87, 102, 103, 11 8 Tillman, Katherin e Davis , 123 , 16 3 n. 44, 18 2 n. 1 1 Trinity Mission, 43 , 81, 96, 14 3 Twentieth Centur y Penn y Club , 62-6 3

University o f Chicago Settlement , 9 4 University Society , 95 , 115—16 , 131

Vice areas, 32, 41-42, 70 , 71, 98, 164 65 n. 6 3 Volunteer Workers' Club , 69 , 73-74, 75, 86 , 127 , 130 , 13 2

Waring, Mary, 25 , 49, 130 , 15 5 Washington, Booke r T , 11 , 39, 62; and his industrial educatio n model , 16— 17,20, 111 , 112 Weber, Max , 4 Wells, IdaB., 33, 36, 120 , 136 , 137 ,

156; and clu b involvement, 59—60, 62, 77-78 , 114 , 117 , 126 , 130 ; and the Negr o Fellowshi p League , 44, 45, 57-58 , 97-98, 107 ; and the suffrage clubs , 52—54 Wells-Barnett, Id a B. See Wells, Ida B. Wendell PhiUips High School , 59-60 , 120 Wendell Phillips Settlement , 43-44 , 91, 95, 98 , 99, 105 , 143 , 179 n. 2 3 West Sid e Woman's Club , 55 , 78-79, 80, 95 , 127 Whist clubs , 10 , 124 , 130-32 , 18 6 n. 35 White women' s clubs , 13 ; cooperation with African America n clubs , 13 , 51, 54, 55 , 64, 99, 101 , 115, 17 1 n. 39; discrimination agains t African Amer ican women, 13 , 23, 51, 80, 163 64 n. 52 ; differences betwee n Africa n American and , 23-24 , 138 , 17 0 n. 26; Genera l Federatio n o f Women's Clubs, 5 1 Williams, Fanni e Barrier, 114 , 137 , 156; o n African America n woman hood, 15 , 16, 18 , 100, 119 ; and clu b activities, 24 , 36, 51, 117, 130 ; o n club life, 10 , 23, 24, 44; on th e poor , 34, 41 ; and social class, 33, 35, 37, 39 Williams, Laing, 33, 34, 39, 50 Wilmette, 16 7 n. 1 9 Women's clubs , African American : list ing of, 139-4 3 Woodlawn, 33 , 135 Woolley, Celi a Parker, 44 , 51, 60, 74, 116, 126 . See also Frederick Douglas s Center Yates, Josephine Silone , 15 , 179 YMCA, Africa n American , 36 , 43, 74, 100 Youth clubs , 91, 98, 101-4 , 107 , 18 0 n. 43 YWCA, Africa n American , 24 , 37, 43, 48, 69 , 70, 78, 81

2 09 INDEX

Social class, 4, 38, 45; and church mem bership, 31, 33, 95-96, 97 ; and clu b membership, 21-22 , 24 , 34-36, 9 8 99, 100 , 105 , 116 , 123-28 , 130-32 , 132-33, 138 ; and residential segrega tion, 2, 3, 30-31, 3 2 - 33, 39-41 , 135, 16 6 n. 1 1 Social hygiene, 18 0 n. 4 0 St. Thomas Episcopal Church , 31 , 33 Suffrage clubs , 51—56 Suffrage, female , 7 , 25, 45, 46-56, 109 10, 112 , 17 0 n. 15 ; Second Ward , 14; African America n an d whit e clubs, 46-47, 17 0 n. 26 , 17 1 n. 39. See also National Association o f Col ored Wome n