Visions of Womanhood in Contemporary African Literature 1793644381, 9781793644381

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Visions of Womanhood in Contemporary African Literature

Visions of Womanhood in Contemporary African Literature Blessing Diala-Ogamba

LEXINGTON BOOKS

Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

Published by Lexington Books An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com 86-90 Paul Street, London EC2A 4NE Copyright © 2021 by The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Diala-Ogamba, Blessing, author. Title: Visions of womanhood in contemporary African literature / Blessing Diala-Ogamba. Description: Lanham : Lexington Books, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021035914 (print) | LCCN 2021035915 (ebook) | ISBN 9781793644381 (cloth) | ISBN 9781793644398 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: African fiction (English)—20th century—History and criticism. | African fiction (English)—21st century—History and criticism. | Motion pictures—Africa—History and criticism. | Women in motion pictures. | Women in literature. | Women—Africa—Social conditions. Classification: LCC PR9344 .D53 2021 (print) | LCC PR9344 (ebook) | DDC 823/.914093522096—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035914 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035915 ISBN 9781793644404 (paperback)  The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

To my dad, Eugene Dike Diala, And My brother Clinton Diala—(The Best), Who did not live to see this finished project

Contents

Foreword ix Acknowledgments xiii Introduction xv SECTION 1: WOMEN’S IDENTITY AND SELF-AWARENESS Chapter 1: Oral Tradition in African Novels: An Analysis of Ezeigbo’s The Last of the Strong Ones and Udoh’s Martial Bliss Chapter 2: Technique and Form in Lilian Masitera’s The Trail

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Chapter 3: Social Change and Women’s Struggle in Zukiswa Wanner’s The Madams 27 SECTION 2: PATRIARCHAL ABUSE AND LIBERATION Chapter 4: Hypocrisy and Patriarchal Abuse of Power in El Saadawi’s God Dies by the Nile and The Fall of the Imam

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Chapter 5: From Oppression to Liberation: Women in Tayeb Salih’s Season of Migration to the North and Buchi Emecheta’s Kehinde

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SECTION 3: EXPLOITATION, WOMEN’S STRUGGLE, AND RESISTANCE Chapter 6: Race, Colonialism, and Resistance: The Women Left Behind in Lauretta Ncgobo’s And They Didn’t Die 69 vii

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Contents

Chapter 7: The Formidable Emancipator in Meja Mwangi’s Crossroads: The Last Plague 83 Chapter 8: Behind the Veil: The Unyielding Protagonist in Nuruddin Farah’s Knots

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SECTION 4: GENDER AND LIBERATION IN PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY Chapter 9: Perception of Womanhood in Flora Nwapa’s Novels



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Chapter 10: Resistance and Activism in Sembene Ousmane’s God’s Bits of Wood 125 Chapter 11: Gender, Ethnicity, and Sexuality in Nigerian Movies

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Conclusion

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References

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Index

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About the Author



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Foreword

The African feminist critic, politically and adroitly, grapples with the onerous task of gouging out myriads of inequities encrusted in a patriarchal space underset with hidebound cultural and social clogs that have over the years, inexorably, subjugated womankind. Variants of African feminisms, in the main, constitute the seedbed of exegesis. In baring the stark reality misrepresented, owing to the colored perspectives of bigoted writers and critics, the feminist critic, visionary in every outlook, not only revises many a sexist and stereotypical portraiture but also excels in foregrounding the truth which resides in the valiance and assertiveness of the primed African woman, relentlessly striving to attain self-autonomy. In consonance with this overriding ideology, Blessing Diala-Ogamba’s volume, Visions of Womanhood in Contemporary African Literature, which is structured into four sections and eleven chapters, traverses some works by African male and female writers as well as film producers. Ten chapters are devoted to the analyses of literary texts while the eleventh chapter dwells on the review of some Nollywood (Nigerian) movies. Essentially, both literary texts and movies focus on the positivism of the female figure contending with overarching patriarchal structures. These are palpable in manifold oppression, violence, and repression which visibly overwhelm the women who, on their own part, ultimately attain wholesome succor by means of consciousnessraising, education, socialization, and sheer diligence. The themes of patriarchal abuse, exploitation, female identity, prise de conscience, esprit de corps, women struggle, resistance, and emancipation are lucidly and refreshingly explored in the fiction of both men and women African writers. The five male authors—Ethiopian Nuruddin Farah, Sudanese Tayeb Salih, Nigerian Sunny Udoh, Kenyan Meja Mwangi and Senegalese Sembene Ousmane have displayed unequivocal empathy towards the female ix

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cause and shored up the recognition and emancipation of the African woman. Small wonder then, that they have, without stint, flayed patriarchal incongruities in one part and identified with the female struggle in another. Such empathetic African male writers have been dubbed gynandrists by Chioma Opara (Beyond the Marginal Land 2). Gynandrism is in stark contrast with misogyny. In their capacity as gynandrists, the selected male writers have joined forces with their female colleagues—the seven women writers in the study—Nigerian Flora Nwapa, Egyptian Nawal El Saadawi, Zambian Lilian Masitera, South African Zukiswa Wanner, Nigerian Akachi Adimora Ezeigbo, South African Lauretta Ncgobo and Nigerian Buchi Emecheta, in ferreting out and baring reprehensible cultural practices as well as gender asymmetry in society. The “lenses of gender”—firmly rooted in patriarchy— are inevitably peered through, thoroughly examined and deconstructed. In her incisive interpretation of texts that document woman’s dogged quest for identity in North, South, East, West and Southern Africa, Diala-Ogamba deftly employs two theoretical strains of African feminisms viz: Obioma Nnaemeka’s negofeminism and Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi’s African Womanism. This apparently stems from the fact that Ogunyemi’s four Cs— Collaboration, Conciliation, Consensus and Complementarity clearly resonate with Nnaemeka’s tenets which consist chiefly in negotiation, balance, compromise, and complementarity. Nnaemeka has distinctly averred that “Power-sharing, complementarity, accommodation, compromise, negotiation and inclusiveness form the foundation of African feminisms and mark their difference from aspects of Western feminisms” (Ofo 6). While most African feminist theorists would seem to concur with Nnaemeka, Molara Ogundipe, a shade radical in her Stiwanism approach, posits in her preface to Chinyelu Ojukwu’s Critical Issues in African Literature: Nigerian and African women in general, scholars, feminists, womanists, motherists, femalists, snailists and other theorists, in my view, need to confront their own contradictory loyalties to patriarchy and patriarchal modes of existence and traditions, especially when beneficial to them, and clarify their positions on these issues. We need to resolve rationally, theoretically and practically how one “accommodates” social negativity for women, and the deprivation of basic human rights that are intrinsic to patriarchy. (xv)

Ogundipe’s skepticism notwithstanding, negotiation and complementarity, among other viable strategies, have, in effect, been proven in Diala-Ogamba’s research to mitigate conflict and restore psychological and social wholeness. It is heartening that blatant “social negativities” are dexterously navigated through, resulting in conflict resolution, growth, and self-fulfillment.

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Expansive, integrative, innovative, cohesive, and compelling, Visions of Womanhood in Contemporary African Literature, opens with oral literature in pre-literate society and closes with film production in contemporary society. Gender politics is graphically etched and dramatized in both literary texts and movies—the page and the screen. Inferences could be drawn that the latter could have been influenced by the former, since the progression from patriarchal victimhood to female individuality in both genres is quite similar. The note of optimism in much of the work stems from the therapeutic, palliative, and nurturing roles of the strong female figures poised to heal an atrophied African continent beset with the debilitating plague. Apprised of the didactic, entertaining, and transformative roles of African creative arts, the forward-looking critic, Diala-Ogamba, envisions a synthesis of varieties and divergences as she superbly dwells on a mélange of genres— film, bildungsroman, orature, historical novel, epic and satire. The cohesion therein effected and achieved, symbolizes viable integration as well as the potential for an enduring reconciliation of differences. Seamlessly melded in both form and matter, this well-researched book, unarguably, proffers a very robust, tangible, and invaluable contribution to scholarship, particularly in the domain of literary and gender studies. Accordingly, it should be a source of inspiration to researchers, teachers, students, and activists. In addition, it would, decidedly, open-up further debates on African feminisms, hermeneutics and global discourse on decolonization, “Othering,” power-sharing, diversity, inclusiveness, and identity crises. Chioma Carol Opara, PhD Professor of English and Comparative Literature Rivers State University Port Harcourt, Nigeria January 2021

Acknowledgments

This book project has taken a long time in coming to fruition due to a very busy work schedule and some procrastination on my part. I am indebted to my husband Timothy Chinedu Uzo Ogamba for his love, inspiration, and support. To my mother for her love, kindness, and encouragement in making sure that this project is completed, I say thank you. To my siblings, thank you for being there for me all the time. Ure and Chamberlain, I am working hard to operate on the same level as both of you. Thanks for pushing me to do my best. I acknowledge with gratitude, Professors Ernest Emenyonu, Charles Nnolim and Helen Chukwuma for teaching, encouraging, and molding me into the woman I have become today. I cannot thank you enough. Auntie Pat, you know you cannot be left out, thank you for your humility, kindness and for being there for all of us. Prof. Anthonia Kalu, thank you for giving a listening ear to this project and for all the suggestions you gave to make sure that this book is finished. Professor Chioma Opara, I cannot thank you enough for your suggestions and for agreeing to write the preface even when you have a lot of work to do. Prof. Gloria Chuku, thank you for your immeasurable contributions and encouragement. Our evening chats, reports and deadlines made this fruitful. To my colleagues and all my friends, thanks for your support and well wishes. I am indebted to all of you. A special thanks to Carol Rose for editing and saving my original manuscript. The result of that act is this book. Carol, I cannot thank you enough. Most importantly, I am grateful to God for allowing me to see the completion of this book project.

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Introduction

Visions of Womanhood in Contemporary African Literature is another contribution to the world of literary criticism that examines the growing representation of women as portrayed in African literature. It is important to note that women in Africa had been effectual members of the society during the pre-colonial period. Unlike their male counterparts, women’s achievements were not recorded during that period. However, through oral histories and autobiographical and biographical stories, the stories of these women of influence emerge. Some of these women are Inkpi of Igala, Moremi of Ife, Olufunmilayo Ransome Kuti of Abeokuta, Magajiya (Queen) of Daura (Mezu 164), Annie Jiagge of Ghana, Nawal el Sadaawi of Egypt, Wangari Maathai of Kenya, Shamima Shaikh of South Africa to mention a few. With the publications of fictional works such as Nwapa’s Efuru and Idu, Ama Ata Idoo’s Anowa, Grace Ogot’s The Promised Land, Bessie Head’s A Question of Power, African writers have been presenting different views of women, by lifting them from the state of dependency and weakness as portrayed by some male writers, to strong, vibrant, and effectual members of the society. These different views seem to go back and forth in a cyclical manner; however, new ideas and portraitures have evolved in the representation of women in African novels, giving rise to the title of this book, Visions of Womanhood in Contemporary African Literature. This book therefore fills the gap of spatial representation of the continental diversity while contributing effectively to growing trends in women’s studies. By the end of the colonial period, some male African writers such as Chinua Achebe in Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God and Elechi Amadi in The Concubine presented women as weak, docile, dependent, and subservient beings, and relegated them to the background. The presentation of women in these post-colonial texts reflects the patriarchal view of women in some xv

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Introduction

African societies. These portrayals of women in a negative light exemplifies the attitude of the colonial masters during the colonial period where the men are given more opportunities at life and in control of the homestead while women are made to be dependent as they take care of the chores in the home. However, in some African societies, women are portrayed as strong and vibrant, politically aware, and made economically independent in post-colonial novels such as Ezeigbo’s The Last of the Strong Ones and Farah’s From A Crooked Rib. Even though the experience in Kenya is different due to the Mau Mau war, women are shown to participate actively in the affairs of their society as portrayed by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O in his works Weep Not Child and A Grain of Wheat. South African experience is also different because of Apartheid regime; thus, women have always played active roles in their society as seen in Lauretta Ncgobo’s And They Didn’t Die. Some critics have emphasized the awareness and independence of women as exemplified by Mary Modupe Kolawole who acknowledges some of these strong and vibrant women in her work Colonialism and African Consciousness (1997). Oriaku Nwosu in her book The African Woman: Nigerian Perspective (1993), ties the marginalization of women to European colonization of African countries which developed policies that encouraged the men to be responsible for their households and make women dependent just like the European women during the colonial period. Rose Mezu highlights the activities of strong African women who were leaders and Queens in her edited work, A History of Africana Women’s Literature (2004), and Anthonia Kalu in Women, Literature and Development in Africa (2019) looks at the development of women’s narratives from pre-colonial to the present. These critics prove that African women have not always been marginalized in their societies but have always been strong advocates of their people and activists who help in nation building. This project is not a comparative study of the representation of women between male and female authors in any shape, style, or form. Rather the writer focuses on the content by exploring the progress of female characters in the African novel authored by both males and females. It does not negate the fact that there are critical works that have reviewed women’s issues in different forms such as Achebe’s Women: Imagism and Power edited by Helen Chukwuma (2012), Gender, Sexuality, and Mothering in Africa edited by Falola and House-Soremekun (2011), and Women and the Nigeria-Biafra War edited by Chuku and Okoro (2020). Similar representations of women in both novels and films can also be seen in Gender and Sexuality in African Literature and Film edited by Ada Azodo and Maureen Eke (2007) and in African Film and Literature: Adapting Violence to the Screen by Lindiwe Dovey (2009). These texts prove that critics have been exploring different

Introduction

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aspects of women issues, but we are yet to see where it is taking us and what next can be done to improve the lot of women. While major books focus on representation of women in African novels or in African films, Visions of Womanhood looks at the representation of women in both African novels and films which helps to broaden the discourse to both fiction and audiovisual genres. It also explores the differences in the manner of women’s representation in selected African novels and movies, to see the improvement and the possibilities of prospects for women. Based on the analysis, the writer posits that women have always been forces to reckon with in terms of their contributions in the society. The writer also asserts that women make these contributions both as individuals and as a unified force, thus making them important and effectual beings in African society. This book also explores the progress of female characters in the African novel as they lift themselves from the state of oppression and that of the “other” as enunciated by Simone De Beauvior (1974), to working on the same level as their male counterparts. Even though Helen Chukwuma in her Feminism in African Literature (1994) sees men as vital part of women’s lives, this project relies on the theoretical framework of Feminism as proffered by the following critics whose works align with each other: Chikwenye Ogunyemi’s Africa Wo/ Man Palava: The Nigerian Novel by Women (1996), where she emphasized the Four Cs (Complementarity, Collaboration, Consensus, and Conciliation) and believes that men and women should work together to achieve a common goal, and Obioma Nnaemeka’s “Nego-Feminism” (2004), where she opines that women should negotiate with men despite the circumstances, to improve their societies and achieve balance. The above critics are unanimous in their views about complementarity, compromise, consensus, conciliation, and negotiation as a positive way forward for the enhancement and opportunities for women. This book benefits from the works of these critics. It however expands the discourse on women’s representation by examining the changing trends from oppression and dependency to emancipation and awareness in the depiction of womanhood and woman-being in contemporary African fiction to show that women have come a long way in their search for independence and recognition. The works selected are arranged in four sections: Section 1, “Women’s Identity and Self-Awareness,” deals with the portrayal of women in the traditional African society and their eventual awareness in selected African novels. Chapter 1 explores the concerns of women from the traditional point of view to the contemporary Africa, using some oral traditional elements to present heroines who are both seen and heard in their societies, thus changing the negative ways women are viewed in some male-dominated societies. In this chapter, Ezeigbo’s The Last of the Strong Ones and Udoh’s Martial Bliss,

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are used to demonstrate the fact that women have always known their places in the pre-colonial and patriarchal society and cannot be looked down upon or abused by patriarchy. Oriaku Nwosu (1993) notes that, to abuse an African woman meant abusing every element that gave life because all life-giving and life-sustaining elements in nature such as mother-earth, water and other elements were symbolic of African Womanhood and constantly linked with her. Thus, endowed with these cosmic and supernatural powers, a woman was never subjected to a sane community’s abuse because to do so meant to provoke the wrath of the supernatural and the result could lead to untold hardships including deaths in the community, poor harvest and unpleasant weather conditions and famine. (13)

This explains why Okonkwo in Things Fall Apart is made to sacrifice to the earth goddess for beating his wife during the week of peace. Ezeigbo and Udoh emphasize in their works that women are not docile and weak, rather, they are activists in their own rights. Chapter 2 examines “Technique and Form in Lilian Masitera’s The Trail.” With the development of schools in African societies, literacy has become very important because it is the key to progress and awareness of individuals and the society at large. It is therefore important for people to be given the same opportunities to achieve success and improve their lives. This chapter therefore explores the Bildungsroman novel of Masitera where she presents the life and growth of her protagonist Lindiwe and her friends in high school. In this novel, the importance of education is emphasized as the young girls go through the experiences of living together in a boarding house, and being able to advocate for what they believe in. Chapter 3 deals with “Social Change and Women’s Struggle in Zukiswa Wanner’s The Madam.” This chapter examines the themes of family, betrayal and other social issues confronting the women within Wanner’s society. The novel moves away from the regular themes of socio-economic and political strangulations in South Africa to social change in behavior and how women struggle to deal with these changes in South Africa. The issues facing the middle class such as adultery and physical abuse are examined using feminist theories. Patriarchal abuse has been an ongoing issue discussed in African literature, as women have been abused and oppressed in a variety of ways. Sometimes women are not given the opportunity to improve themselves or even be part of the development of the society because of rigid patriarchal and traditional laws in some parts of Africa. Section 2, “Patriarchal Abuse and Liberation,” explores some of the abuse, exploitation and oppression endured by women and how they have been fighting back to liberate themselves on their own terms. Chapter 4 examines “Hypocrisy and Patriarchal Abuse of Power in El

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Saadawi’s God Dies by the Nile and The Fall of the Imam.” Here, El Saadawi focuses on the patriarchal oppression meted on women in her Egyptian society. In her works, she reveals that women have no voice to redeem themselves as religion is also used to oppress them. Because of the difficulty in gaining freedom over the male-oriented customs and traditions, the protagonists resort to killing the oppressors to set themselves free. Chapter 5 also examines the oppression, violence, and betrayal of women and how they liberate themselves in Tayeb Salih’s Season of Migration to the North and Buchi Emecheta’s Kehinde. The women in these novels liberate themselves through awareness, socialization, and education as they understand the patriarchal and societal oppression which inhibits women’s progress and relegates them to the background. Hosna Bint in Season of Migration to the North liberates herself through her death by committing suicide to avoid patriarchal oppression while Kehinde liberates herself through education. Section 3, “Exploitation, Women’s Struggle, and Resistance,” discusses the different ways women are exploited, oppressed, and relegated to the background and the resistance put up by these women while showing enormous amount of courage and astuteness. Chapter 6 focuses on the struggle and exploitation of women in apartheid South Africa in Ncgobo’s And they Didn’t Die. The women in this novel work hard to feed their families and keep them safe while their husbands are in the city working to make ends meet. The white oppressors eventually understand that the women are a force to be reckoned with, in the absence of the men. In chapter 7, Meja Mwangi’s novel Crossroads: The Last Plague presents the story of Janet, his protagonist, whose primary aim is to save her people from dying of AIDS which they call “the plague.” By saving her people, she saves her society from extinction. Through her resilience, persistency, and collaboration, Janet negotiates with the men before they start using condoms. This is emblematic of the hope Mwangi envisages for his society. Chapter 8 explores how Nuruddin Farah’s main character in Knots uses her unyielding and assertive characteristics to achieve success in her war-torn city of Mogadishu. Cambara, an independent young woman goes to seek healing after the death of her only son and to regain herself from her estranged husband. With the help of the Women’s Group and the positive male characters working with her, Cambara regains all that she lost as she sheds her veil of conformity. Despite the sufferings and imposition of patriarchal agenda through their rigid traditional and religious laws that stifle the progress of women in most African societies, women continue to make reasonable strides to improve their lot. The improvement is seen in section 4, “Gender and Liberation in Patriarchal Society.” Chapter 9, “Perception of Womanhood in Flora Nwapa’s Novels,” focuses on Nwapa’s portrayal of positive female characters as

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human beings who set their minds on success through hard work to achieve economic and social independence. The liberation of women continues in chapter 10 with “Resistance and Activism in Sembene Ousmane’s God’s Bits of Wood” which explores the political exploitation of the people by the French colonialists. Ousmane aligning with some male feminists who are sometimes called gynandrists, portrays the successful strike action led by Penda, a young woman. The men originally do not involve the women in this strike, but the women take over the strike by marching to the capital successfully. The effectiveness of the women activists led to the successful resolution of the conflict. Chapter 11 explores how the gender stereotype has changed in the Nigerian Movies by examining the following movies: August Meeting, Guys on the Line, Living in Bondage, and The Missing Mask. The female characters in the movies are compared to the novels to see if the movie producers are also portraying women in a positive light. The movies change the roles, portraying women as politically aware, women with economic and social power, assertive, and contributing members of the society, thus bringing all the chapters together. The works studied in this book show a consistent progression of positive advancement in the portrayal of women in African literature. The novels portray women as hardworking wives, nurturers, independent and educated individuals capable of taking care of themselves and their families and negotiating with men to forge a better society. Based on the works studied in this book, one can authoritatively declare that women have really made progress in reclaiming their status as human beings, and presenting themselves as hardworking, educated, and selfless individuals who have achieved success in different walks of life and have helped to mold their societies in diverse ways. The reactions of women against oppression are reflected in the characters portrayed in this book. The progress made by the characters is emblematic of the achievements of African women in our societies. Women have continued to make changes in their status and visibility as demonstrated in Visions of Womanhood in the Contemporary African Literature. Women have continued to strive to stamp out various forms of discrimination, subjugation, marginalization, and oppression. Both the educated and the illiterate rural women who are farmers and traders have through their awareness and persistence acquired high socio-political and economic independence and work hard in various areas along-side the men. The women sit and deliberate with men as seen in Akachi Adimora Ezeigbo’s The Last of the Strong Ones while some work in offices with men as seen in Buchi Emecheta’s Kehinde. It is important to note that in African feminism, the theoretical framework of this book, working together with men does not always amount to competition, rather it hinges on the principle of complementarity, where men and women perform roles and learn from one another for societal advancement and for posterity.

SECTION 1

Women’s Identity and Self-Awareness

Chapter 1

Oral Tradition in African Novels An Analysis of Ezeigbo’s The Last of the Strong Ones and Udoh’s Martial Bliss

African writers have continued to refer to their past in their writings in a variety of ways to articulate and express African beliefs and values. In referring to their past, the African writers dig into different aspects of oral traditions on which their written form is based which makes African literature distinct from Western literature. In this way, the African literature deviates from Western standards in performance, language, and analysis. Oral tradition is defined as an integral part of the people’s culture, values, and norms. African cultural values, and norms, are usually expressed in a variety of ways due to diverse settings in different African countries. These cultures, values and norms include but are not limited to traditional beliefs, folktales, myths, legends, proverbs and songs, which are transmitted orally and passed down from generation to generation. Passing down oral tradition from one generation to another is orality which according to Obiechina (1975), “Implies a situation in which cultural transmission is carried on by word of mouth through direct contact between individuals depending largely on memory and habit of thought, action and speech for cultural continuity” (32). With the invention of printing technology, these cultural practices are mostly in print form for easy access, education, and entertainment of the people and for African writers who incorporate the oral traditional elements in their literary works for posterity. Susan Ardnt (1998) observes that the use of orality in African literature is a move forward towards recapturing and reclaiming African heritage. Some African writers such as Chinua Achebe in Things Fall Apart (1958) and Arrow of God (1974), Wole Soyinka in The Interpreters (1970), Elechi Amadi in his novels, The Slave (1977) and The Concubine (1966) and Ayi 3

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Chapter 1

Kwei Armah in Two Thousand Seasons (1973) have incorporated oral traditions in their literary works in one form or another. Akachi Ezeigbo in The Last of the Strong Ones (1996) and Sunny Udoh in Martial Bliss (1996) have also joined in the league of writers making use of oral traditions in their literary works. Achebe in Morning Yet on Creation Day (1975) stresses the importance of reflecting on the past to focus on the present when he asserts that, the past needs to be recreated not only for the enlightenment of our detractors but even more for our own education. Because . . . the past with all its imperfections, never lacked dignity. . . . This is where the writer’s integrity comes in. . . . But it is not only his personal integrity as an artist which is involved. The credibility of the world he is attempting to recreate will be called to question and he will defeat his own purpose if he is suspected of glossing over inconvenient facts. (158)

In view of Achebe’s statement above, using oral traditions help writers to reflect on their past and bring positive experiences to the present time, for preservation and the enlightenment of readers, as seen in Ezeigbo and Udoh’s works. This chapter therefore explores the activism and leadership roles of the women in oral African traditions as exemplified by Ezeigbo and Udoh in their novels. Ezeigbo’s The Last of the Strong Ones and Udoh’s Martial Bliss, are novels which delve into the culture, traditional values, and norms of the African society. The authors have tried to recreate the African past by infusing the oral African tradition in their works for posterity. Chinua Achebe asserts in an interview in African Writers Talking that “The worst thing that can happen to any people is the loss of their dignity and self respect. The writer’s duty is to help them regain it by showing them in human terms what happened to them, what they lost” (Killam 1973, 8). Achebe makes this assertion because of the faith he has in oral African tradition and in its ability to enrich modern literature. Oladele Taiwo (1976) observes that African novelists constantly make use of oral tradition in their writing; they skillfully exhibit the art of conversation using proverbs, riddles, myths, and folklore to infuse some Africanness in their works (32). Furthermore, Helen Chukwuma (1994) believes that writers, in using oral tradition in their works, help reappraise their culture and affirm themselves to the world. Following the views of the critics above, it is obvious that it is important for African writers to continue to explore oral traditions in their literary works to keep the African cultural traditions, values, and norms alive for the education, entertainment, and awareness of their readers.

Oral Tradition in African Novels

5

ORAL TRADITIONS IN EZEIGBO’S THE LAST OF THE STRONG ONES In The Last of the Strong Ones, Akachi Ezeigbo presents us with Umuga community, a peaceful village that has rich cultural heritage. We see the village as it is threatened by change in the governmental structure. The people of Umuga have their own traditional system, rules and norms guiding them. As a result, they are not willing to accept the imposition of a warrant chief. They decide to fight back since they prefer to be left alone with their own system of government. It is not that the people are opposed to change; rather, what they are opposed to is a disruptive change. We can see the use of authorial intrusion regarding the type of change the Umuga people envisage: Change by itself is not a threat. But what lay heavy on our souls was the nature of the change sweeping through the land, like rain-bearing winds. Positive change is creative and constructive; it is not seen as disruptive. But the manner of change in Umuga was not positive. For many moons, I meditated on the nature of change in the lives of our people. My soul cried out against the violation our tradition has suffered and would suffer for a long time to come if nothing was done to counter the headlong rush to destruction. (Ezeigbo 1996, 1)

In Umuga community, the Obuofo is the highest ruling body, and this body also has a women’s wing called the Oluada. The two groups make decisions on what happens in the community. At one of their meetings, the Oluada agreed to participate more intensely and vigorously in Obuofo and to continue to represent the women actively in the political body. Oluada resolved to support the removal of Okwara as warrant chief if he continued to obey Kosiri and disregard Obuofo and its reform to improve Umuga as a whole. Oluada refused to cooperate with any power or anyone that planned to undermine the culture, the traditional judicial system, and the economic well-being of Umuga. (9)

Here, the women leaders make a unanimous decision in support of their tradition. They refuse to allow the interference of colonial authority in their traditional political structure which excludes the active participation of women. This action indicates that the women are strong component of the society and their decisions are highly valued in this culture. Moreover, Umuga people have rules and regulations that govern them based on their culture, values and norms. They want to maintain their system of government without disruption from external influence. This shows that there is a complementarity in the relationship between the men and women as they work together in reaching a consensus before making vital decisions. This is in line with the views of Filomena Steady (1987) where she embraces the humanistic idea in African

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feminism as it is founded upon the principles of traditional African values that view gender roles as complementary and autonomously linked in the continuity of human life. In The Last of the Strong Ones, the strong belief in gods and ancestral spirits is an important part of African tradition. The Umuga people believe strongly in the protection of the gods in whatever they do, and they depend on the gods to solve their problems, no matter how difficult, or provide answers to their requests. For example, when Chieme goes to consult Idemmiri, she prays: “Idemmiri, great mother, I have come to you for a solution. Why am I not like other women? Answer me, great goddess; wife of Nkwo, who defers to you in all things” (80). Chieme gets a reply through Onwukwe, the priest of Idemmiri: “Daughter, Idemmiri said you should be yourself and live your life fully. That is her message to you” (80–81). This reply is emblematic of the kind of relationship that exists and the interaction that goes on between the deities and the people who worship them as seen in some epics such as The Epic of Gilgamesh when the goddess of creation answers the people’s prayers by creating Enkidu, and also in The Odyssey when Athena comes to help Odysseus. In The Last of the Strong Ones, Chieme states that when she has to perform as a chanter at a funeral on behalf of her mentor, she asks for the help of the god Idemmiri: “I called on Idemmiri, Idigwu and all our goddesses to help me. My performance was a huge success” (82). Chieme like the rest of the people in Umuga, strongly believes in the efficacy of the gods and asks for their help when necessary. Africans believe that it is an atrocity for one to commit suicide, because punishment is left for the gods. In The Last of the Strong Ones, Abazu shoots Onyekozuru and runs away to commit suicide. Although he is found days later, the community is baffled that, “Abazu has committed a worse abomination by taking his own life” (128). In Things Fall Apart, Okonkwo is not buried by his people but by outsiders, because his suicide is regarded as an abomination against the Earth Goddess. “It is against our custom. . . . It is an abomination for a man to take his own life. It is an offence against the Earth, and a man who commits it will not be buried by his clansmen. His body is evil, and only strangers may touch it” (Achebe 1994, 207). Ultimately, Abazu, like Okonkwo, earns himself a dishonorable burial because of his overzealousness. Literature is also rife with evidence of cultural acceptance of arranged marriages. In African tradition, arranged marriages are common in some families. In such cases, husbands are chosen for daughters by their parents without the consent of the girls concerned, and polygamy is also acceptable in African marriages as evident in The Last of the Strong Ones. For example, Onyekozuru is made to marry Umeozu who has a wife with grown up children. She tries to find out from her mother the reason for her family to

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insist that she marries the old man. Onyekozuru deduces from her mother’s reply that: Umeozu had given my father a large piece of farmland, and he had cultivated it for years. Though we had enough food at home, my father was not well-to-do. He had no real property, especially land and livestock. So, being an in-law of a man like Umeozu was very important. Indeed, he gave away that piece of land to my father after our marriage. (Ezeigbo 1986, 39)

Even though arranged marriages are part of African cultural tradition, it is also seen in literary texts from other parts of the world such as Zora Neale Hurston’s (1990) Their Eyes Were Watching God, when Janie’s grandmother arranges for Janie to marry old Logan Killics. She tells Janie: “’Tain’t Logan Killics Ah wants you to have, baby, it’s protection” (14). We can deduce that parents are looking out for their children’s welfare. However, these parents hope that the material possessions of the men in these arranged marriages will make their daughters comfortable in their future homes and lift them from poverty. This therefore shows that similar relationships exist in other cultures in one form or the other. Another insight of the African traditional value is the degree of stability and assurance accorded the women in terms of the gender of their children. In some African societies just like in Umuga, the male children are regarded as a form of insurance for the wife as she is entitled to the family property only if she has male children. Onyekozuru’s children are given plots of land by their father “even while they were still little” (Ezeigbo 1996, 40), but it is different in Ejimnaka’s case. According to Ejimnaka: Obiatu’s people were unhappy that we had no male children, so they wanted him to marry another wife. Obiatu refused. . . . I was a mere spectator during that family tussle. It was not my place to refuse to have a co-wife. My mother-in-law . . . held me responsible for her son’s decision. . . . She called me an overly wicked and possessive woman. She began to act as if in mourning. Mourning the absence of a male child in the family. It was Aziagba who solved the problem. . . . She was willing to remain at home with us to produce male children for her father. After we had performed the Nluikwa ceremony, she chose Okoroji as a mate. (Ezeigbo 1996, 33)

In a family where there are only female children, one of the girls is made to stay back in her father’s house and choose a male friend to help produce male children for the family. This is what Obiatu’s daughter, Aziagba, does to maintain the family name and lineage, since her brother refuses to take a second wife. Songs are significant forms of cultural expression, and are used for different purposes such as marriages, funerals, wars, festivals. Ezeigbo shows

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Chieme the village chanter as she chants at a funeral praising the dead and his children who organized the funeral. In oral African tradition, proverbs are used for different purposes depending on the occasion. According to Mbiti (1977) “Proverbs are a major source of African wisdom and a valuable part of African heritage” (8). Proverbs help to give a tone of final authority on any issue raised by the people. Ezeigbo makes use of proverbs here to drive the points raised in the people’s conversations home. For example, when Umuga people are looking for a solution to the problem caused by the White colonialists, the following proverb is used: “Our people say that it is the traveler who must make the return journey and not the owner of the land” (6). This proverb indicates that the owners of the land have the final say in matters that concern them. As Umuga people prepare for war, they find out that they have traitors among them and assert: “It is the rat in the house that told the bush rat that there is fish in the house” (6). This proverb indicates that the traitor must be someone from their community; thus, this understanding helps to narrow the search for the culprit. As part of the form and technique in this novel, Ezeigbo makes use of transliteration in bringing out exactly what the speaker has in mind. For example, “It is time we go to the head of our talk” (6), “Dawn has arrived, and day will not wait for anyone” (6). Here, Ezeigbo tries to portray the feelings of the people towards the incursion of the Whites (Kosiri). Ezeigbo in The Last of the Strong Ones tries to show that women are regarded highly in some African cultures using Umuga as a microcosm. She advances women’s advocacy in her creative works by showing their leadership roles and activism. Her African cultural background puts her in a good position to present the issues of women in traditional African environments in pre- and postcolonial eras. This position also enables her to portray the norms and culture of the people by explaining the circumstances surrounding their beliefs and actions for posterity and for the wider public to understand and appreciate. ORAL TRADITION IN UDOH’S MARTIAL BLISS Sunny Udoh in Martial Bliss exposes the inconvenience suffered by some married couples in the hands of the extended family, especially parents, when the couples have no children to show for their marriages. Nkponam and his wife, Mbuka, suffer in the hands of Mkponam’s parents, especially from Eka, his mother. Eka is anxious to have a grandchild by her son, but unfortunately her son and his wife Mbuka are childless. In traditional African society, marriage is regarded as a family affair, therefore a mother-in-law and relations of the couple have the right to intrude in the affairs of the couple, especially when there is a problem of childlessness.

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For example, Eka harasses Mbuka and threatens to replace her with Nsini who is betrothed to Nkponam at a young age. She also insists that Nsini will give birth to grandchildren for her. Eka tells Mbuka, “What you probably did not know is that I am here to help you pack out of this house. My son will no longer marry a barren witch, did you hear that? Never. Go back to where you came from so that a fruitful woman can take your place. . . . Celebrate your final moments for the real owner of the house is here (MB 82). This is emblematic of the harassment given to Olanna by Odenigbo’s mother in Adichie’s (2006) Half of a Yellow Sun. Betrothal is a type of arranged marriage, and also one of the traditional ways of getting a wife which involves a lot of ceremonies among the parents of the groom and bride. Nkponam’s parents betrothed Nsini as a little girl to him without his consent. He grows up and without his parents’ consent, marries his school mate at the university, thus compounding his problems. The steps taken to get Nkponam a wife are part of African culture. It is important to note that culture is “the totality of the way of life evolved by a people in their attempts to meet the challenge of living in their environment, which gives order and meaning to their social, political, economic, aesthetic and religious norms thus distinguishing a people from their neighbors” (Bello 1991, 189). The items for this ceremony are peculiar to Nkponam’s culture and parents get together to plan the betrothal without consent from the people concerned. Nkponam’s parents take items such as “a bottle of wine and tie ‘Eyei’—a palm leaf indicating that someone has asked the girl’s hand in marriage” (MB 82). His parents are disappointed that Nkponam is married to someone other than Nsini who is betrothed to him; therefore, they develop a hatred for Mbuka, Nkponam’s wife. The hatred destabilizes the marriage especially when there is no child involved. The meeting of the elders in Nkponam’s house is an African tradition which indicates that a child belongs not only to his biological parents but also to the extended family. The coming together of the extended family to discuss and find ways of solving the problem is part of family values and respect for the family structure. These values are “the basis of a people’s identity, their sense of particularity as members of human race” (Wa Thiong’O 2005, 15). Another African belief in Udoh’s novel is that if a younger person bangs on the table while talking to an elder, the person has given the elder a knock on the head, and it is an abomination which must be atoned. An example is seen when Nkponam bangs on the table while arguing with his father. According to the tradition, Nkponam could not pretend, not to know. In the village it was a crime to bang on the table while talking to an elder. It was interpreted as knocking the elder on the head. As a child, Nkponam witnessed a case when this crime was punished.

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He should have restrained himself. But from all indications, anger had taken the better of him. Now that he has committed the crime, he had to make up for it. (Udoh 1996, 67)

By banging on the table Nkponam disrespects his parents and all the elders who gather to help him solve the problem of abandoning the girl betrothed to him. Iniunam, Nkponam’s father, walks out on the family members before his son could apologize. This display by Iniunam also amounts to insult and disrespect to the extended family. Consequently, he is made to placate the extended family with a “he-goat, kola nuts, alligator pepper, three bottles of akai-kai, and numerous kegs of palm wine” (69), before he is accepted back into their fold. This gesture proves to Iniunam that no man is an Island in the community, and that the traditional values of the people must be adhered to. These rules are made to keep the excesses of the people in check so the community can protect their traditional norms and values. In oral African tradition, the people must abide by the rules and norms of the society; otherwise, they are excommunicated from the community. Africans believe in the sanctity of life; hence, it is an abomination for one to attempt suicide like Mbuka, or to successfully commit suicide like Abazu in The Last of the Strong Ones. Suicide is an abominable act, which must be atoned; otherwise, disaster in the form of death can set in. Nkponam denies his wife’s attempted suicide (MB 98) to avoid the embarrassment and shame of performing the ritual of atonement. This denial consequently leads to his death. Another oral African tradition is the belief in incantations as solutions to the problems of the people. Those who consult the gods through priests and priestesses, and those who consult traditional medicine men get their messages through incantations. An example is seen when Mbuka invites a traditional doctor to her home, who uses incantations as a solution to her infertility. Ifut, Nkponam’s younger brother, watches her from the balcony, but does not know what to make of it. Ifut observes that, Mbuka, his brother’s wife, was in the middle of incantations in the sitting room. She was scantily clad in shreds of white wrapper with raffia trappings around her waist. Tattooed all over her body was a mixture of white clay and cam wood. . . . As she repeated the hardly audible words of the ritual, her eyes sparkled under the dim lighting of the room. She looked possessed, lost in rapture, pleading a cause. (12)

When Mkponam becomes ill shortly after Ifut’s observation of the incantation, he regrets not telling his brother about it. Ifut now thinks that Mbuka is using the incantation as a means of poisoning her husband, and if the news gets to the community, it will spell disaster to Mkponam’s marriage.

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In oral African tradition, there are utterances that are out of bounds when people have altercations with each other. An example is shown when Mbuka is guilty of referring to another woman, Nsini, as dirty. This abuse infuriates the women in the community when they get the information. In this culture, it is also a taboo for a woman to say that a fellow woman is dirty, and there are consequences that follow as a result of this verbal abuse. Where this verbal abuse occurs in this culture, a women’s group called Iban Isong sings derogatory songs using the culprit’s name to make a caricature of the person so much so that the offender may end up leaving her home in shame. The action of Iban Isong is seen when they sing satirical songs revealing Nkponam’s relationship with Nsini. The action results in Mbuka’s attempted suicide. The Iban Isong reveals in their song that: “Nkponam and Nsini have ever since, remained like the kernel and its chaff. So dear town dweller, Nsini’s thing may be ‘dirty,’ but your husband has been there, the refrain then dared Nkponam to deny the story” (91). As Mbuka listens to this song, she feels betrayed, and eventually attempts to kill herself without first finding out the truth from her husband. The satirical song is made to get back at Mbuka, and the women succeed because Mbuka eventually refuses to come back to her home after she is discharged from the hospital. Udoh also makes effective use of proverbs in this novel. As the family members are waiting for Iniunam, they thought he would soon come out to “massage their aching waistline with fresh palm oil” (67). The family members are expecting Iniunam to give them food or something to drink for inviting them. Sam, Nkponam’s house boy uses pidgin English which indicates that he has little or no education. Sam reports to Mbuka about Eka: “The woman come begin dey chase everybody commot for house. E talk say make we carry our witch go” (115). Another example is when Sam reports that Eka creates problems whenever she visits the house. He says: “Palaver . . . anytime wey Oga im mama come here na palaver” (85). The Last of the Strong Ones and Martial Bliss project Igbo and Ibibio backgrounds, which showcase some aspects of oral African tradition. Both novels draw from the residue of rich cultural heritages which include norms and values of the people. They effectively employ the oral tradition as a vehicle for conveying meanings, educating their readers, and elucidating the themes in their novels. During ritual ceremonies and festivals in both novels, each community is brought together, and people relate to one another in common belief, actions and concepts as the performances go on. Traditional African songs are used for different purposes, but listeners have to pay attention to the words rendered to know the intention of those rendering the songs. Awoonor believes that “among most African peoples, the importance of song lies in its verbal scope” (65). The verbal scope explains the meaning and the importance of the songs rendered. There are praise songs, dirges, birth, marriage,

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and satirical songs which keep the society in check. These songs are rendered according to what is being celebrated. In the case of Mbuka, the women use satirical song to accuse her husband of infidelity on purpose, to make her angry enough to leave her marital home, and they succeed. The use of African names in both novels reaffirms the relevance of oral African tradition. For example, African names such as Onyekozuru, Obiatu, Iniunam and Eka are used in the novels. The family meetings in both novels show that Africans have their own system of government which everybody in the community must strictly adhere to, and respect. Anyone who goes against the traditional rules and norms and refuses to atone for any misdeeds is ostracized by the community. CONCLUSION We have been able to show African originality and its self-sufficient oral traditions in terms of cultures, norms, and values, using Ezeigbo’s The Last of the Strong Ones and Udoh’s Martial Bliss in this analysis, while other writers who portray oral traditions in their works are used as support. Infusing oral African traditions in African literary works makes African literature more relevant to African audiences, while it becomes a source of education to non-Africans. Moreover, blending oral African tradition with Western literary tradition helps readers who are interested in diversity to understand and appreciate African literary pieces more, for the images, proverbs, idioms, and songs employed in African novels are drawn from a familiar environment. Readers would understand that the culture of a people distinguishes the people from other human societies and be prepared to learn new things about the culture they are reading. Ezeigbo and Udoh have been able to show that the wisdom of their people is couched in their use of language such as proverbs, idioms and transliteration, and the general attitude of the people towards their traditional beliefs. They have also embellished their narratives with oral narrative elements to create genuine Africa style in terms of structure, as they showcase the power, leadership, and activism of the rural women.

Chapter 2

Technique and Form in Lilian Masitera’s The Trail

Lilian Masitera is a lecturer of mathematics at Belvedere Technical Teacher’s College, Harare, Zimbabwe. She has written three books, Militant Shadow (1996), Now I Can Play (1999) and The Trail (2000). Being a mathematics teacher has not debarred her from finding time to write. It is important to note that she does not dwell on the Zimbabwean civil war and the atrocities committed by soldiers during the war as seen in Yvonne Vera’s Without a Name (2000). In Masitera’s The Trail, we follow her process of growth through her protagonist Lindiwe. In doing this, we can decipher what informed her decision making and independence early in life. This is done by focusing on the writer’s narrative technique and form used in the novel which enables us to fully appreciate the writer’s treatment of the growth, activism, and self-identity of the protagonist and her friends. A writer’s world is always conditioned by the social reality that nurtures his or her artistic impulse. Georg Lukacs (1971) is of the view that a writer should not only reflect his society dynamically in its complexity but should also reflect it for the improvement, survival and growth of that society (44). Lukacs further describes the novel as “the epic of the world in which the immanence of meaning in life has become a problem, yet which still thinks in terms of totality” (1971, 56). The close affinity between a writer’s work and his or her artistic method is seen in the narrative technique used in the writer’s works. According to Emmanuel Ngara (1982), “we consider the writer’s competence in using the chosen language, his own personal interest, his experiences and national inclination as well as his views and turn of mind. These things have some influences on the attitude and tone of voice he is going to adopt, and ultimately on the linguistic content of his artistic creation” (8). Wellek and Warren (1973) are of the view that the structure of a novel is synonymous with pattern or organism. They believe that the “world of a novelist . . . this pattern or structure or organism which includes plot, setting, world 13

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view, tone . . . is what we must scrutinize when we attempt to compare a novel with life” (216). Maduka (1978) believes that: “a writer chooses his material and the manner of shaping them into an artistic object to the effect he wants to produce in his reader” (24). To help evaluate and appreciate Masitera’s work more effectively, it is important to explore some literary devices such as, narrative technique, plot structure, symbolism, character types, imagery, evocation of atmosphere, point of view, use of language, flashback, and poetic devices to see how they reinforce the author’s ideological vision in her work. Furthermore, the paper explores the protagonist’s self-awareness and identity in her process of growth. IDENTITY AND SELF-AWARENESS Masitera’s narrative style is determined by her factual examination of her childhood and her process of maturity into adulthood. This factual stance is relived through her protagonist Lindiwe in her coming of age. The plot structure exposes the background information about the protagonist and her introduction to the new school, Saint Charity’s school. Lindiwe is an orphan whose parents died when she was young and was raised by her sister and brother-in-law. While in high school at a local school, her brother Mukoma Nyasha who leaves school to join the army returns home briefly. He goes to meet Lindi at school, and she shows him the burial site of their mother. While on vacation from his job, Nyasha stops drinking and smoking to save enough money to put up a tombstone for his mother. It however becomes a surprise to Lindi when she sees the tombstone. This setting indicates that Lindi is raised in a local environment where there is not much opportunity to enhance herself. Mukoma Nyasha surprises Lindi again by sending her to Saint Charity High School run by the Catholic nuns where she can have a better future. There, she lives in the dormitory with other young students. Lindi is excited at first because she is leaving the local school to a better school where, according to her brother, “greatness is thrust upon her” (Masitera 8). She hopes to get a better education here than from her former school. She also expects more opportunities to open for her since she is meeting new people and lives in the dormitory. Later, she feels uncomfortable while on the bus because she does not have friends among the students traveling with her. On getting to school, she is directed to her new dormitory by a Reverend Sister. Even though Lindi is in form two, she quickly makes friends with her neighbor Lucy, who is in form one. This shows that she is vibrant and free spirited. It also shows her eagerness to socialize and learn from others. The two prefects in her dormitory Bibi and Ruby are also in form two, and they later become Lindi’s



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friends. As a new student, Lindi is on probation; however, she is able to prove her worth academically and later becomes a house prefect. Her leadership acumen is exhibited when she becomes a choir conductor among her peers as her group wins the singing competition organized by the school. An atmosphere of fear, frustration, and despair is evoked in this novel. The school is run on a culture of fear which has incapacitated the students to the extent that they cannot complain. This situation is not what Lindi and some of the students expect to see in this type of modern school. They are not allowed to complain about anything because it is regarded as a sin to complain or say anything negative about the school culture. The nuns are dictators and very rigid, thus they run the school with high handedness by using religion as a disguise which confuses the students more. The way the nuns run the school is an indication of the extension of colonial rule since the nuns are part and parcel of the colonial system. For example, the nuns read the students’ letters before deciding whether to give the letters to the students. Students are in turn queried endlessly about the content of their letters and one wonders what these questions have to do with religion. The students know that reading their letters is an invasion of privacy; however, they keep their thoughts to themselves. During visiting days, the nuns hover around listening in on conversations between the students and their visitors. One wonders if eavesdropping is part of the school curriculum, but this is all part of instilling the culture of fear in the students so the nuns can control and manipulate the thoughts of the students as well. In keeping with the forced culture of silence, which is oppressive, the students are not allowed to speak Shona, which is their primary language; if they do, they are punished. The nuns are forcing the students to lose their identity and culture by banning them from speaking their language. Language according to Ngugi Wa Thiong’O is “both a means of communication and a career of culture” (2005, 13). If students lose their language, they lose their identity and culture while in their own country. They also cannot fully express themselves the way they would like since they do not speak Shona in school. Limiting their use of language therefore would stop them from having an all-round education since they are only allowed to study their textbooks and pass exams. Their bedtime is also regulated which means that students do not have the pleasure of sleeping when they choose to, or even studying late at night. The place is run like a reformatory as the nuns determine the behavior of the students by not only controlling what they read, but also requiring them to be modest, obedient, and quiet. All these culminate to the students’ objection, frustration, and agitation. The problem however becomes how to discuss these issues with the nuns and the consequences that will follow for ever voicing their dislike. Just as in patriarchal society, the students are not allowed to voice their dislike or frustration about the school rules, so that

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the school authority can look good in the outside world. The girls reason that these rules show lack of trust and render them incapable of thinking for themselves. Understanding that these rigid rules will not help them in life, Lindi and her friends therefore decide to do something about it. Ogunyemi (1996) opines: The double vision of woman as loving mother and hateful wife is a contradiction that women must sort out in the palaver. She must move from the background or the outhouse, where traditional architecture confines her, to the front, in an effort to be herself in her right; the easiest route forward appears to be education, as educated women are among the most recognized in the country. (19)

The students—knowing that education is their gateway to success, self-actualization, and liberation from being ordered about—decide to consult with the school caretaker. Chukwuma (1989) is of the view that feminism means “a rejection of inferiority and a string for recognition. It seeks to give the woman a sense of self as a worthy, effectual, and contributing human being. Feminism is a rejection to such stereotypes of women which deny them a positive identity” (ix). The girls are determined to shake off their fears and hopelessness as they continue with their plans to make necessary changes to the situation in which they find themselves. On visiting Mama Munyana the school caretaker, the students get the hint that they need to unite with all the girls for their revolution to be successful. Mama Munyana on her part initially believes that “there is only one way to go. . . . Where God leads you, and that is, into safety with your husband and children” (Masitera 2000, 48). One can quickly see Mama Munyana’s position in her speech. She believes that a woman’s place should be in her home taking care of her husband and children. This is how she is indoctrinated by the patriarchy and does not see any future beyond staying under her husband. Patriarchy is defined as “the power of the fathers; a familial, social, ideological, and political system in which, by direct pressure-or through tradition, law, and language, customs, etiquette, education, and division of labour-men determine what parts women shall or shall not play, the female is everywhere subsumed by male” (Rich 1977, 57–58). Because of fear and intimidation from her upbringing, Mama Munyana is indirectly discouraging the students from challenging authoritative rules of the school. Mama Munyana has the same reasoning with Lindi’s sister who tells Lindi “And don’t let Nyasha’s nonsensical ideas hatch into your head. You will become what God put you on this earth to become; not what another human being thinks he can make of you. . . . As for you little woman, leave the gods to mould you. Your place in life is not yours to determine” (9). Lindi’s sister does not appreciate the support that Lindi gets from her elder brother Nyasha because he is open minded,



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and he believes that Lindi should get a good education and be empowered to make her own decisions in life. Mama Munyana and Lindi’s sister have exposed their helplessness and fear for authority because they passed through strict patriarchal rules and regulations when they were growing up and do not have the will power to think for themselves just like Lindi and her friends. They also do not have the capability to question authority and so they swallow all they are told as the right way to live. Their thinking is indicative of the way the patriarchal society “intrudes oppressively into every sphere of existence. It is an androcentric world where the man is everything and the woman nothing” (Mezu 2006, 212). Nevertheless, the world is not static, and neither is culture, so Lindi and Ruby are able to convince Mama Munyana who says: Ruby and Lindiwe, if you girls mean to do what you say, then unite, all of you, young women. Even then, I don’t think you will get that far. God has designed women to be under their men. That explains why we, women, have endured being tossed around for ages. Some of us have been kicked even by the unborn baby. . . . Do what you want to do, UNITED with the girls under you. This pot of mine cannot stand on one of the three stones of this stove. I am sure you know what that means. (Masitera 2000, 48)

Mama Munyana here asserts her independence and opinion as she advises the girls with hope that they can work together. She now progresses to the category of women “who expose and oppose prejudice and narrowness and have a desire for a truly general conception of humanity” (Weber 2001, 6). She is no longer what Chukwuma (1989) refers to as “the rural back-house, timid and subservient” (2). She understands that the intimidation and rigid rules limit the growth and education of the girls but cannot do much as a school caretaker. With the discussion about being united in mind, Lindi thinks of how to convince her friend Lucy, who is very obedient and conservative. Lucy does not like the school rules, but she sees them as laws that must be obeyed. She is highly religious and believes that she cannot challenge the authority in any way. Lucy has been indoctrinated through the teachings of the nuns to believe that disobedience to authority is disobedience to God. She does not realize that religion is used by the nuns to perpetuate the culture of fear and oppression so that they can continue to control the minds of the students and keep them in check. She therefore tries to pray and talk Lindi out of her revolutionary ideas; ironically, when the revolution starts, gentle Lucy is at the center of it all. While having dinner with the other girls, Lucy goes through her ritual of separating the meat from the leafy relish, and finds an obstacle, which

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resembles a head on her food. It turns out to be the head of a dead kitten. Lucy passes out and is rushed to the medical center. The students go on rampage while struggling to see the head of the kitten. The cooks on the other hand, immediately rush to the dining to clear the plates. Consequently, the matron, Sister Ludmilla is seen shuffling off to the safety of the convent as Lucy is being transported away. The students leave the dining chanting a slogan, “we want supper, we want supper” (Masitera 2000, 62). The nuns come to disperse them without first finding out the cause of the rampage. Lindi, bottled up with anger raises another chant: “We . . . Are . . . Starving, We . . . are . . . in prison” (64). The rest of the students join in the chant as they move towards the convent. Sister Superior reminds them of the up-coming visiting day and orders them to go back to their dormitories in her usual way. This confirms that the nuns do not care about the psychological and mental health of the students they are teaching. From the discussion that continued in the dormitory, Lindi finds out that the girls do not also like the school rules but are not aware of what to do about it. This awareness makes it easy for the students to encourage one another and form a united force so they can make the changes they envisage. According to Moremi Charles (1984), “consciousness-raising groups offer opportunities for women to compare notes and celebrating the contained insistence that their rights must and ultimately will be respected not at the expense of the freedom of others but as a part of liberation” (263). As part of the solidarity they need to uphold, they decide not to give each other up during the impending interrogation. Lindi admits the part she plays during the interrogation as she avows, “I was very hurt about Lucy’s misfortune Sister Steinich. Everybody in this school knows that Lucy is very gentle. On her behalf and for my part, I voiced bottled-up anger by chanting slogans. It was a way to release some of the hurt, I guess. I did not mean for the girls to get excited” (72). Lindi asserts herself in her answer to Sister Steinich as she states she has bottled up anger. She comes to a point of realization just as Tambu does in Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Nervous Condition (1988). She uses this interrogation as an opportunity to reveal how she feels about what is going on in the school that she does not like. Her feelings are emblematic of the feelings of the rest of the students who are not in a position to voice their disgust and frustration. Fortunately for Lindi, this assertion exposes her feminist stance, empowers her, and further indicates that she does not want to be a docile young woman like her mother. She must show evidence of being better than her mother as she searches for her identity in the process of her growth. According to Taylor (1986), “identity represents an evolving articulation of personal capacities, value identification and . . . plans, ideals, expectations and opportunities” (202). The nuns therefore accuse her of “infecting the junior students with



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her imaginary grievances” (Masitera 2000, 72). The statement from the nuns reveals that she is in trouble, thus Lindi suggests frantically that Sister Steinich should allow the students to speak up about the rigid school rules. On the visiting day, some parents rebuke the students for disobeying the laws while some are against the rigid laws. The cause of the rampage turns out not to be the major issue discussed, but the rampage itself, which shows that the school is trying to cover up their bad policies. However, the students use the opportunity of the parents’ visit to voice their opinions about the cause of the rampage and ask for changes in some of the school rules. As the parents are leaving that same day, Lindi, Ruby, Bibi, Matilda, and Lucy are suspended as a way to stop the students from embarking on another protest. It is important to note that some parents do not take the bad policies lightly, therefore a lot of positive changes are made before the suspended students come back to school. Some of the changes include employing regular staff who are not nuns to balance the trainings the girls receive in their education as they search for their identity and self-awareness. The girls are happy and can study in a comfortable environment without tension, knowing that the protest and their ability to speak out lead to a positive end. The students have indeed fought to win their rights. Making these changes also boost their self-esteem and propel them to be leaders in what they do, instead of docile followers. The rampage and suspension bring in positive results as it helps the Parent-Teacher Association come up with meaningful changes to benefit the students and the school. Consequently, the nuns become more tolerant, accommodating, and willing to make positive changes in order to keep the students. They realize that the world is not static, and people cannot remain in the dark for so long. Thus, following Lindi’s trail through the changes in the school rules, which the students are now enjoying, the theme of selfawareness and identity is exposed. Nutsukpo (2007) observes that “for the African woman, self-awareness is the key to the objective viewing of her choices, which inevitably leads to her physical, social and emotional development and her subsequent emancipation from inequality and male domination” (168). Without the self-awareness acquired by the students, they would have graduated from school feeling inferior and intimidated by anybody because of the fear ingrained in them by school authority. Surprisingly Lindi is not aware that her brother Nyasha supports her being able to speak out and encourages her to rekindle the spirit of her late aunt Mbuya Mukende, who is known to be outspoken and courageous as well as a good entertainer. Nyasha tells her: “Good, Good, Good. You are becoming aware of your rights, Lindi; about the protest match, don’t worry, sometimes we have to fight to win what is ours” (Masitera 2000, 79). Mathilda’s elder sister gives the girls hope when she says, “Do not weep, young ones. Your protest march was worthwhile. When it comes to principle, there is no room

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for compromise, even from the oldest friend. If your school supports progress, all three of you shall be re-united. . . . Laws are for men and those in positions of power to make” (87). Mathilda, like all positive females believes that everyone should have a voice to make positive changes in the society, and therefore does not blame the girls for asserting their positions without fear. The students make a break-through after articulating the injustice in the rules that govern the school which they see as oppression. The changes made are to the benefit of the students, as this will help them learn to make their own choices and decisions wherever they find themselves in future. It is ironic that Bibi’s mother, an ex-student of Saint Charity’s High School had Bibi at home without being married, yet the nuns claim to mould the girls into respectable young women who would be married to respectable young men. The type of education the students are receiving is one-sided. Academically, they are doing very well, but outside academics, they are not learning anything, because extra-curricular activities, sports, debate and real life discussions are not allowed in the school. The novels the students read are censored as some books are regarded as satanic, merely by looking at the picture on the cover and not the content. Lindi is punished for reading a book with a jacket that is regarded as unholy. In her words, Sister Ludmilla came to bid us good night. She found me lying on my bed, reading a storybook whose cover attracted her attention (a woman leaning at a dangerously small angle to the man, upon whose arm she reclined). That was enough reason for her to confiscate my thriller. I thought I would be told what, in the book, was regarded as sinful reading, but either Sister Ludmilla was a slow reader, or the nuns were still passing the text amongst themselves. The reaction I got was that the book’s jacket was unholy. So, I had to go on punishment for failing to discipline my eyes. I should never have looked twice at such a cover; let alone read the book. (Masitera 2000, 28)

The decision taken by the nuns about the book exposes their ignorance. Smart students who question why things happen the way they do would not take that as good-enough reason. If information is hidden from teenagers, they become more curious to ask questions so they can learn from the answers given. If they are not allowed to ask questions, they carry out their own investigations irrespective of the consequences. Richard Shaull (1972) opines that education enables women to “look at the social situation in which they find themselves (and) . . . take the initiative in acting to transform the society that has denied them various opportunities of participation” (9). Things are done in very secretive manner probably because the Sisters think



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they are protecting the students, but this kind of protection does not enhance education, it stalls the students’ learning process. TECHNIQUE AND FORM The technique and form used in this novel are analyzed for the reader to derive more meaning from the story. The technique and form match the content of the story because the story is not written in lineal form; rather, the writer uses her own style to reach her readers. According to Wayne Booth (1961), “The house of fiction has not one window but . . . five million ways to tell a story each of them justified if it provides a center for the work” (24). There are several things to point out in the narrative style Masitera uses in her work when we focus on technique and form. It is important to note that narrative refers to “prodigious variety of genres. . . . able to be carried by articulated language, spoken or written, fixed or moving images . . . narrative is international, transhistorical, transcultural” (Barthes 1991, 596–97). The Trail is a bildungsroman novel less than one hundred pages and the language is neither complex nor complicating, but rich in content. The book discusses varieties of things relating to Lindiwe’s life from her local school to her new school. Lindi is the protagonist in this novel, and we follow her as she searches for her identity and awareness in her process of growth. The story is narrated from Lindi’s point of view, and we see her as a restless, out-going individual who wants to learn while she has the opportunity, and that is why she questions authority. She realizes that school rules are rigid and would inhibit her progress to become empowered in her process of growth. Her uneducated aunt, Mukende is outgoing, outspoken and works hard to take care of her family. Lindi therefore rebels against the one-sided education she is receiving and not being allowed to express herself. The other girls like her are Bibi, Rubi and Mathilda. Lucy does not like the school rules; however, she has no choice but to stay. Lucy represents the rest of the students who are buying into this culture of fear, because they do not want to get into trouble. The real problem with these categories of people is lack of awareness. The nuns who make the rules also lack awareness and are stereotypical in their thinking. They do not want to lose control thus they are afraid of any kind of change, be it positive or negative. The narrative technique used here helps to expose the thinking of the authoritative Reverend Sisters, their fears of losing control and systematically using religion to perpetuate colonial oppression. On the other hand, it exposes the thinking of the students, their fears and eventual success of using the Sisters to expose the societal norm. We see the use of Shona, which is the native Language of the people, in this book; for example, “Mukwasha” (brother-in-law) (Masitera 2000, 2),

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“Kende. Kende, Kende . . . Handikendegi” (40). Here, the students are imitating a song by Lindi’s aunt, which Lindi taught Lucy. There is language interference when the German nuns speak or address students. The use of native language and language interference here makes the story exciting and brings out the humor in the writer. For example, during Lindi’s interrogation, Sister Ludmilla asks “Lindiwe, is why you are ze one has been taking Luzy to ze graveyard. You azzed me vor ze meaning ov ze vords on one ov ze graves. Vy you like ze zemetry so much?” (72). When Lindi is made a dormitory prefect, the girls are allowed to jubilate with her before going to bed. Sister Ludmilla says: “You may delight viz Lindive, but you go to bed straight. Gute nacht” (39). Poetic devices are used in this novel to show how Masitera juxtaposes the conventional form of narration with poetic elements to create a vivid impression on the readers. An example is seen when Lucy says the following prayers at the grotto: “We fly to your patronage / Mother of Perpetual Help / Take pity on us, miserable sinners / Seek forgiveness on our behalf / Through your son Jesus” (30). Lindi is surprised to hear Lucy chanting this prayer and forgives her for having read the “unholy book” that put her into trouble. We also see another poetic device in the song that made Lindi popular at school where she played the role of a choirmaster: Merrily, merrily, greet the morn Cheerily, cheerily, sound the horn Hark to the echo, hear him play Over hill and dale and far away. (20)

At the end of this competition, Lindi enrolls in the choir. This fast-paced novel has some humor in it. The story of Mbuya Mukende and her husband is very humorous especially when Mukende props her to the tree telling him to make children (32). Another example is when Nyasha and Lindi confront the grave robbers who are stealing fresh flowers and verses at their mother’s grave. Nyasha demands the flowers but one of them pretended to have received the Holy Spirit by muttering: “Rrrrrrr . . . Jehova, almighty, hear this. Rrrrrrrr, Brother Daniel, smite disbeliever. Rrrrrrrr” (5). The man faints when Nyasha kicks him, but he recovers when Nyasha pours water on him. The story is told in the first person’s narrative where dialogue and internal monologue are used to reveal hidden facts and other vital pieces of information. In the following example, the author maintains an artistic distance from his subject matter. My dreams ran riot too. In them I was elevated to head girl of my new school within the first fortnight of term. Because I was impatient to get to my new



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school, I found Christmas most boring; just so much bony meat donated to my brother-in-law by his boss. My sister, an accomplished seamstress, made me a dress which was a size too big; said it would fit me perfectly within a year. (8)

The novel has main plot and sub-plots, which reveal more complex structures involving several characters and incidents. The novel centers on Lindiwe’s search for identity and awareness and how to be assertive while in a school run on a culture of fear. The sub-plots revolve around other characters such as Lucy, Bibi, Ruby and Mathilda. In one of the episodes, Lindi makes her spirit of revolt evident as she tells Lucy: “I want to try out things which grown-ups may or may not have done or known during their teenage years; like Mukoma Nyasha, the first Matema to join the army. Growing a strength of spirit through experiment, that was honorable” (26). On another occasion, she expresses nostalgia on the treatment of girls by nature: “Life seemed so unfair to girls and even more so to Catholic girls for it divided them into clean and unclean” (24). The use of flashback is seen when Lindi reflects on what happens at home on Sundays. Back home, this kind of prayer session, known as Holy Mass, happened only on Sundays and festive days recognized by the Roman Catholic Church. My sister would spend hours on Saturdays, pressing her out-fits: the uniform worn by members of Saint Anne’s congregation. Then she would inspect my white dress and blue sash. Girls my age and younger wore this to identify themselves as the children of the blessed Virgin Mary. (15)

Lindi also reflects on how young girls prepare songs and did sketches of Jesus during Easter (15). At the same time, we see the use of contrast here between church service at school and church service at her home. “At home, the church service lasts for a long time because every parishioner wanted to take part in the proceedings” (15), at school the service lasts for twenty minutes. In another flashback, she expresses her concern over the school rules when she comments, “I did not like this line of thinking. There were many successful pupils from government-owned schools. I envied their independence and ability to choose what was best for themselves. Above all, if the nuns shield us from the by-ways throughout our teenage, who would make choices for us later in life?” (25). We find out that the cause of Lindi’s revolt and restlessness is due to the treatment her father meted out to the household while she was growing up. The flashback continues when Lindi further explains: When I was a little girl, my father acted headmaster at school and at home; always the decision-maker. For that reason, I feared him and all makers of laws. Lucy reminded me of my mother who did only those things my father allowed.

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So when my father passed away, my mother did not know how to go on by herself. My brother-in-law felt sorry for us. That is how my late mother and I had moved in with my sister and her husband. No, I wanted to break free; to think for myself. (25)

These reminiscences used here as parts of the techniques give us an insight into the cause of Lindi’s rebelliousness at school. She and the other girls need to be heard and be able to make their own decisions so they would not end up being dependent on others. This also explains why she loves her aunt Mukende who is a free thinker and very independent. Udenta (1993) opines that, “The nature of reality in a novel, to a great extent, is determined by the nature of the characters. Developing or dynamic characters necessarily will act on their given environment to produce change. Their environment in turn acts on them to produce changed beings. The relationship is dialectical and the influence mutual” (69–70). The portrayal of the characters in this novel is realistic and the environment truly affects the characters thereby contributing to students’ process of growth. CONCLUSION Lilian Masitera has been able to make her readers follow the actions in this novel by tracing the activities of the protagonist and other characters in the book. We are able to read the inner minds of the characters through her use of powerful images, language and humor. She does not go straight to condemn the treatment of women in Saint Charity High School; she therefore uses Lindi, Ruby and Bibi to show that the school needs some changes that would benefit both the students and the society at large. If the school rules are not changed, their products would be half-baked individuals who would run into problems once they are exposed to the outside world. Most of them would turn out like Bibi’s mother who suffers as a single mother raising Bibi. It is ironic that Lucy, the model of a good girl, is also suspended according to the standard of the nuns, when she is the one who should be exonerated. One would begin to question the authority of the nuns and their judgment based on this incident. The dead kitten found in Lucy’s food becomes a metaphor for a good omen as it helps the students pour out their bottled-up anger, thus leading to the rampage at the embarrassment of the nuns. Many of the students find out that they have the same feelings towards the nuns and their obnoxious rules, thus making the riot successful. The severed head of the kitten symbolizes the needed changes from the autocratic rule of the Sisters to a more liberal rule and changes made to benefit the school and the society. Apart from the triumph of Lindi and the students over obstacles at



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school and achieving success, one can envisage that this opportunity to speak out and the awareness they gain will result in future political awareness and empowerment. Masitera is persistent in her writing and knows what she wants to achieve. She has used her style to reveal her personality and general habits of a society in which she lives and creates her work. Her tone is subtle and humorous. During the riot, she does not use violent tone to explain the goings on at the school. Through Lindi, we understand the type of person the writer is, and can characterize the novel as a bildungsroman as it explores the growth and maturation of Lindi. Slowly but surely, Lindi continues her struggle and achieves success at the end, for herself and for the rest of humanity, just as seen in Elizabeth Nunez’ s (1998) Sara. The girls while seeking self-actualization and an all-round education, learn to say “No” and object to fear and intimidation by maintaining their stand, rejecting the rigid school rules that inhibit their progress. In this way they replicate their roles as major players and partners in the struggle for patriarchal and colonial liberation. Their speaking out and rebelling against the unjust school rules help them to devalue oppression and the culture of silence thereby enabling them to speak truth to power.

Chapter 3

Social Change and Women’s Struggle in Zukiswa Wanner’s The Madams

Most South African writers before the end of apartheid have always focused on themes of violence, race, apartheid, and other problems they encountered during the apartheid regime. Some of their writings after the apartheid regime still focus on violence, however, many writers are now thinking “outside the box” to include other themes to keep pace with what is happening around the world. One of these writers looking at South African literature from a different perspective is Zukiswa Wanner, who studied journalism at Hawaii Pacific University in Hawaii, and presently lives and works in Johannesburg. The Madams (2006), Wanner’s first novel, takes the reader completely away from the usual South African themes of protest, socio-political and economic strangulations of apartheid, and racism, to themes such as feminism, family, and other social issues encountered within her society. Wanner presents Thandi, the protagonist in this novel, who with her friends helps to expose to the readers the social change in behavior and how women struggle to deal with the changes in today’s South Africa. Through Thandi, Wanner goes further to highlight other issues facing the middle class in her society, such as adultery, physical abuse, awareness through feminist consciousness, and the vulnerability of man which leads us to believe that life is not static. Literature promotes social change by addressing social issues confronting the society and providing solutions. Social change therefore is a change in the social order within a society which includes changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviors, or relations. It may be a change in the socio-economic structure for example from rigid patriarchal laws to freedom or from exerting traditional and religious domination to socio-economic and political progress within a society. According to Gumucio-Dagron and Tufte (2006), Social change is defined as a “long term, complex, contradictory, 27

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and collective-rather than individually focused-process through which the people define who they are, what they want and need, and how they will work together to get what need to improve their lives” (283). For the purposes of this chapter, social change has to do with change in behavior and socioeconomic and cultural issues as applied to individual characters in this novel, and the friends as a group. In the novel The Madams, the story revolves around Thandi, the protagonist, her close friends Nosizwe also called (Siz), Lauren, and their families who are middle class. Thandi and her friends have good careers, maintain families and are economically independent, which lead them to see themselves as feminists in a patriarchal society. According to bell hooks (1984), Feminism is not simply a struggle to end male chauvinism or a movement to ensure that women . . . have equal rights; it is a commitment to eradicating the ideology of domination that permeates (most cultures) on various levels—sex, race . . . class (and religion) to name a few-and a commitment to recognize . . . society (to ensure) . . . the self-development of people. (qtd in Collin 38)

This definition ties into the social change in behavior found in Zukiswa’s The Madam. As the events unfold, the women realize their vulnerability, and the fact that they are not radical feminists is exposed from the different things they experience in their process of growth and maturity as married women. Radical feminists believe in the eradication of male domination over females through a revolution that would lead to the transformation of the society. “Radical feminists ague that individual women’s experiences of injustice and the miseries that women think of as personal problems are actually political issues, grounded in power imbalances. . . . The pervasiveness of sexism necessitates fundamental social change” (Saulinier 2008, 349). On the other hand, Nutsukpo (2007) believes that “Feminism opens up awareness through which women’s lives and experiences can be explained and understood” (165). Thandi and her friends see themselves as feminists because of their education, exposure, careers, and economic independence, but they also believe in family and marriage. Their belief ties with Acholonu’s (1995) view of African feminism which she sees as “positive and dynamic in its recognition of the symbolic relationship between the genres as well as the appreciation of the women’s potential for growth and development which has to be harnessed and fostered for the well-being of the family and the society at large” (9). All these characteristics align with the education and career of Thandi and her friends and give them confidence and stability in life; however, they soon find out that the change they envisage is not easy to come by as they encounter different kinds of struggles along the way.



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Thandi is an emancipated middle-class young woman who does not feel comfortable hiring a maid to help with her house chores, because she sees it as enslavement. Her friends, Siz and Lauren, have house helps and they encourage her to hire someone to help with her chores. Being a working mother and a wife, she has a hectic schedule to deal with. After a hectic day at work, she comes back to do the house chores—cooking and taking care of her family. Her busy schedule starts telling on her and in order to keep her sanity, she realizes that she actually needs a maid and decides to hire a white female ex-convict who lives in a halfway house. She plans to surprise her white friend Lauren and find out her reaction to a black woman having a white maid. She therefore does not let Lauren in on this plan. Thandi claims: I am tired of having to be a Superslave at the office, a Supermom to my son and a Superslut to my man. I am tired of the fact that if I so much as indicate that I need ‘Me’ time, I have somehow fallen short of the high standards set for me as a modern woman. I am admitting defeat to my schedule. I am giving in to something I thought I would never do. I’m going to hire a maid. (Wanner 2006, xi)

We see a change in behavior in the above quote. Hiring a maid is a change in behavior and something she does not approve of but needs. She is therefore miserable at taking this decision because she believes that a woman should be able to take care of her family and everything she has to do without a house help. She changes behavior by hiring a maid because she is not able to cope with the house chores. Thandi however continues to look for ways to justify her hiring Marita and concludes: “I’ll be getting the help I need while ensuring that an employably challenged individual has an income, and my conscience will not be overburdened by bourgeois guilt” (xii–xiii). The surprise that Thandi envisages at the arrival of the Marita, the white maid, leads to a fight between Lauren and Siz as the former has no inclination about the hiring of the maid. Thandi sends them away from her house and they stop speaking to her. With little persuasion from her father who is very close to her, Thandi writes a letter to her friends and they unite and bond as friends again. The change in behavior continues as Thandi and her friends display a high sense of feminist consciousness because of their education, good careers, and independence. The three of them go out on their own, have brunch together sometimes and “pretend it was a woman’s world and men just live in it” (54). This pretense tells us that they know their places in the patriarchal society, and they do not need to lord it over the men—their husbands. Thandi reminisces over what her grandmother tells her when she says: “Makhulu keeps telling me how happy we sistahs should be that we are living in the age of liberated woman where we can do what we want. But are we really liberated?” (x). In her grandmother’s days, women do not have choices. They go

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by the rule laid down for them, but the society has changed because they have choices. “Women’s productive and reproductive capacity made them a social and political reproduction of the household; the bearing and caring for children; the production, storage and preparation of food. As well, women had exchange-value within the context of marriage, forming alliances between households, clans, and nations” (Courville 1993, 33). Thandi realizes that it is different in her grandmother’s days and explains that: At least in her day the gender roles were clearly defined. Man went to work and brought back money for rent, fees and clothing and woman tended houses and her thirty-metre square vegetable patch. Sure, unlike me, that woman did not have a choice about whether to be a professional woman or a housewife, but that choice enslaves my generation because we are still expected to play the traditional roles to perfection. (Warner 2006, x)

Her “womanity” is still defined by how well she can cook and clean despite her feeling of independence and social change in behavior. This is an added responsibility for her and her friends. It is also funny that Thandi and her husband Mandla pretend to play the traditional role when visitors come to their house. Ordinarily, Mandla helps in the house by caring for their son, Hintsa and shares in the housework and takes out the trash, except when they have visitors in the house. Thandi reflects: Unfortunately, this is only true when none of his relatives or his macho, mooching friends from ekasi was visiting. When they are around, I have to play my “womanly role” of cooking, cleaning and going to buy beer for “the boyz.” I have to clean up any beer they’ve spilt and disappear to read Hintsa a bedtime story. I hate that Mandla and I have to do this role playing for an audience we do not even like, but as he says, “You don’t want them to say you gave me Korobela do you?” (x–xi)

Pretending to play the traditional role in the presence of visitors indicates that the society is a patriarchal one, and they are not used to seeing the men do chores which women are expected to do. This change is a struggle for the women as they are not consistent with portraying the change, their new lifestyle in front of their friends. Thandi and her husband realize that in patriarchal societies, the people uphold the importance of marriage and family; therefore, men are always in a position of power and are also heads of households. Moreover, Mandla is a cardiologist and has his own private practice with two of his friends Chukwu Anyaokwu, and a pharmacist, Kamau Kariithi. According to Chukwuma (1989), “Patriarchy has established male dominance not only in the home especially in terms of inheritance, but in all facets of human existence. Social



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order of itself dictates and enacts genderisation of work: some kinds of work are allotted to women as cooking, washing, clearing, and housewifery in general and light farming” (136). Because of this genderisation of work, Thandi sometimes feels guilty to see Mandla do the cooking and explains: “I know Mandla enjoys cooking, but I still feel guilty for not performing my ‘womanly role.’ It must be inborn or drummed into me by society that I am supposed to do the cooking and cleaning, in spite of claiming to be a feminist” (Warner 2006, 47). Thinking highly about family and chores indicates that Wanner believes in what Enns and Sinacore call Cultural Feminism. “Cultural Feminists have envisioned social transformation that calls for the infusion of feminine or maternal values into society; and an appreciation of altruistic, cooperative, nonviolent values that support harmony and peace” (Enns & Sinacore 2005, 29). The ladies are happy that they have opportunities to make choices unlike their grandmothers. They also can advance in education and improve their socio-economic status, thus the writer promotes positive growth and development of women and men to create a balance in the family and society at large. Their marriages are not replete with docility and voicelessness, but there are embarrassing situations which they also struggle with such as adultery, physical abuse and humiliation caused them by their husbands. Because of their feminist consciousness, they can resolve these dilemmas differently. “Feminist consciousness embodies self-awareness (recognition of one’s self and potentials) and leads to a better understanding of self and the issues that affects one’s life physically and psychologically. This opens a way for the development of an inner strength that enables the woman to assert and define herself in relation to the patriarchal system” (Nutsukpo 2007, 168). The education Thandi and her friends have acquired helps them to expand on their opportunities and help them attain self-awareness and think through situations before making decisions. Even when a rash decision is made, they can rethink and change their minds to make things better. The three friends are on cloud nine with the progress they have made so far until the news if Vuyo’s adultery opens up. They are disappointed to learn that Vuyo is cheating on his wife Siz, with his maid Pertunia “while his wife worked her perfectly toned butt off to keep a roof over his useless head. Talk about biting the hand that feeds you!” (Warner 2006, 67). Thandi sees Vuyo as an ingrate and wonders why he betrays his wife. Thandi worries about how to break the news to Siz in order not to hurt their relationship. She is disappointed to learn that her husband, Mike and her father also know about the affair. She therefore deduces that it is male conspiracy and regrets the times she breaks “a woman’s confidence and told a man something. So, this brotherhood thing was deep, even for men who had only become friends by virtue of their daughters and wives. BASTARDS!” (68). The brotherhood of

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the men destroys Thandi’s confidence in them, however, this infidelity infuriates her the more. She therefore devices a way to make Siz aware of what her husband is doing. Thandi convinces Siz to go home for lunch to surprise her husband who recently forms a habit of going home for lunch. Siz goes to shop for some sexy lingerie as part of the surprise. Thandi is being so careful because she knows that, When Siz loves, she is always in denial of her partner’s faults. If I had told her of my suspicions, Siz, as is typical of most women in denial, would get jumpy and immediately call her husband who would of course deny it and pull the “your friend wants me and is jealous of what we have, I’ve seen the way she looks at me” number. (96)

She realizes that telling her will bring tension between them and incur hatred from Vuyo who would know that Thandi is aware of his secret. Siz walks into the bedroom and finds her husband and Pertunia naked and in a compromising position. Siz reacts by shooting Vuyo on the thigh and sends Pertunia packing. She changes the locks in the house. Vuyo runs to his car stack naked and drives away to the hospital, and from there to his mother’s house. The next day Siz goes to work as she does not want the adulterous two to wreck her career. She packs Vuyo’s things to his mother’s house and burns her beddings. Vuyo later confesses to Mandla, “Man I fucked up. . . . I miss her intellect, her sense of humor. I miss the way she knows what she wants from life, and the way she loves so unconditionally” (115–16). Vuyo absolutely regrets his adulterous behavior. Vuyo’s regret is a sign of a better future together with Siz. This is a good social behavioral change on the part of Vuyo who really wants a reconciliation. On hearing about the death of Siz’s father, Vuyo camps out in front of Siz’s office waiting for her to come out. They hug each other and come together after “much negotiation and many visits to the lawyers for Siz to draw up a post-marital agreement, which Vuyo dutifully signed” (117). Lauren asks him if he has checked for HIV, but he says “I was reckless. I am sorry. But when I got tested it was negative and Siz and I have agreed to use protection until after the window period, when I can get tested again” (118). He apologizes to Lauren and Thandi for his infidelity and for hurting Siz, indicating that he has really turned a better person. A radical feminist will never go back to an adulterous husband, especially at the time when the dreaded disease HIV is rampant. Siz takes Vuyo back but makes him sign pre-marital agreement so she does not lose everything she has, if this happens again, indicating that she is using her brain. According to their culture, Vuyo would have to take everything she owns if there is a



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divorce, thus the pre-nuptial agreement. She makes a smart change to protect herself and her property, which portrays her self-consciousness and her ability to make her own decisions as she thinks ahead. It is very disappointing to learn about the physical abuse Mike renders on his wife Lauren. Lauren’s thirteen-year-old son rushes to ask Thandi for help before Mike kills his mum. She gets there and finds Mike beating Lauren who starts bleeding from the cut on her eye, and one of her front teeth is dislodged from her mouth. She also has bruises on her arms and legs (Wanner 2006, 120). Lauren confesses that Mike has been beating her since their relationship started during their days at the University. Lauren is clearly an abused woman, but her friends do not know. Thandi takes her to the hospital while Lauren gets a restraining order on Mike. Mike slashes Siz’s four car tires and breaks Thandi’s house windows as retaliation since his evil side has been exposed. Lauren divorces Mike and gains back her dignity and self-respect. She succeeds with this divorce because of her feminist consciousness, and with the help of her friends. They take care of her and her children until she recovers. The divorce is a big change for Lauren as she has been violated by her husband for a long time, but she has been ashamed to let anyone know. The divorce is a change in behavior, now that she will adjust to living independent of Mike for the first time. Vuyo and Mandla are also helpful which indicates that they do not support Mike’s violent and physical abuse on his wife. The friends now realize why Lauren always asks for Mike’s permission before she even goes to hang out with them. With the divorce, Lauren is now happy and able to assert herself and make her own decisions. Her self-awareness is the key to making objective choices. Even though Mike has changed, Lauren has tested freedom and does not want to be caged in again, especially now that Mike has converted to Islam. She prefers a relationship with someone like Zunaid, her new friend, who respects her space and respects her as a human being. Siz’s mother is an independent, intelligent self-actualized woman who owns a business. She inherits some wealth from her first husband when he died and marries another rich man highly placed in the society. Siz does not call her mother except when she has a message to relay to her, because her mother tells her that she married the wrong man (52). Siz has a lot of anger in her for her mother. She feels her mother dotes on her sister Lizwe and spent more money on her when they were both in school. She therefore does not get along with her mother. Because of the friends’ feminist consciousness through their education, they take care and accept Ma with her HIV. Since Siz does not get along with her mother, she does not want to hear that her mother is inquiring to know how she is doing after her quarrel with Vuyo. Lizwe at the same time is trying to break the news about their parents’ HIV status to her and reveals that her parents are dying (111). She explains that her father

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will be moving to the hospice and her mum has been taking anti-retrovirals, but she plans to come to Johannesburg to see Dr. Chukwu. She also plans to stay with Mandla and Thandi, so Mandla can take her to hospital on his way to work since he works with Dr. Chukwu. On Ma’s arrival, she reveals that Pertunia is pregnant and tells Vuyo to go and take care of his responsibilities. Ma congratulates Siz for shooting Vuyo but warns Vuyo not to hurt her daughter again. They are all happy that Ma is in high spirits despite her HIV. Another case of infidelity is revealed when Mandla starts spending more time outside than he does with his wife, Thandi. Thandi retaliates by spending more time in the office since her husband no longer comes back until very late at night. Most of the time, he comes home drunk. After keeping Thandi waiting on her birthday, he calls her to get a ride home from her personal assistant because he is taking her mom shopping. He does not come back until the next day. Hintsa their son reveals without thinking: “We had a good time, but daddy wasn’t there most of the time. He was at Auntie Norma’s house down the street. . . . Sorry mommy. That was a secret. Daddy said I shouldn’t tell you” (177). Thandi goes to another friend of hers to spend the night and finds out from her friend Njeri’s husband that Mandla has been unfaithful. Thandi takes a trip to Victoria Falls and meets and spends the night with Martin Lee Robert the Fourth, an African-American, who is there for a seminar. This revenge does not satisfy her, she therefore tells Mandla that one of them has to leave the house because she needs time to think, so he chooses to leave. She reflects after a while: “I love my life. I love my six-year-old Hintsa. I cannot do without my dependable, solid white maid Marita. I need my crazy friends Siz and Lauren to keep me grounded. And I miss the love of my life and the man I am separated from, Mandla” (207). Mandla apologizes after recognizing that she is a good woman. She hopes that they will reconcile since they now have a conversation, and both realize they need each other. The ladies see themselves as feminists, but they are liberal feminists since they believe in raising a family. Feminism according to Toril Moi (1986) is a “struggle against all forms of patriarchal and sexist oppression” (368). If the three friends are radical feminists, none of them will go back to her husband. Lauren’s case is different because she does not have to live with a man who abuses her physically and emotionally. Even in the traditional setting, her family will beat up the man and take their daughter away as seen in Mgbafor’s case in Achebe’s (1958) Things Fall Apart. African feminism advocates for positive and progressive traditional values as well as commitment and understanding between the sexes. The issues presented in The Madams through the three friends and their families are consistent with African feminism. African feminism is also referred to as womanism by some critics. Hudson-Weems observed that the characteristics that make up Africana Womanism are “self-namer, self-definer, family-centered,



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in concert with male in struggle, genuine in sisterhood, strong, whole, authentic, flexible role player, male compatible, respected, recognized, adaptable, respectful of elders, spiritual, ambitious, mothering and nurturing” (2004, xix–xx). These characteristics are seen in Thandi and her friends as they pilot the affairs in their respective families while bonding as friends. Thandi and her friends are resilient and resourceful. They are assertive, individualistic and present a more balanced picture of today’s African woman. To this kind of balance, Chukwuma (2004) declares that “the rural, back-house, timid, subservient, lack-luster woman has been replaced by her modern counterpart, a full-rounded human being, rational, for claiming and keeping her own” (x). Wanner in this novel has balanced the male and female characteristic and it reflects the ingenuity and resolve of African women who endure countless restriction and limitations. There exists a great difference between Thandi and her friends and Thandi’s Makhulu. This difference shows a great improvement to the portrayal of African women in the African novel. Wanner gives the women the opportunity to prove and identify themselves without restrictions that Thandi’s Makhulu has. Enns and Sinacore (2005) observe that “feminist educators who are influenced by cultural feminism are likely to highlight the value of communal learning that helps women clarify how they experience personal and intellectual growth in the context of relationships. The goal of cultural feminist teaching is to empower women to understand themselves as knowers and creators, not just as receivers of information” (29). This portrayal proves that “Education is a vehicle for change rather than an independent force and the direction which the vehicle takes depends very strongly on who is driving and where the driver wants to go (Bray et al 1986, 7). It is important to point out a few techniques used in this novel. There is the use of slang in the following examples: “I called Mandla to check in. Whatcha doing” (Wanner 2006, 30). “Let them eff off” (32). “Wearing my little black dress that showed my assets to best advantage, with my smart-looking babydaddy and my son in his BabyGap jeans and sweatshirt” (36). “Hey, why don’t we all go out tonight. Eff the men, eff the kids. Just us. Girls. Bonding” (83). Hintsa is dropped at the Vuyo’s for a sleepover. These slangs show that Wanner must have lived in the United States where these same slangs are used. There is also the use of native language in the text for example, when Pertunia, Siz’s housemaid, grumbles about not being appreciated for all the work she does in the house. Thandi tells her “Hawu, Sis Pertunia. Uyazi Kuthi uSiz uyadlala name. This house looks very clean for a place with two children. Eish, my house doesn’t even look this neat and I have only one child so not to worry, ibabalasi kuphela. But now for my hangover cure s’thando sami, since you are the woman of this house, I know where the bar is but

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where is the tomato juice?” (38–40). This is code-switching to show that the women are versed in their native language as well as English. Wanner presents a realistic picture of the characters who act true to life. She brings out the weaknesses of both men and women and how they handle their differences in a mature way. The men are not violent except in the case of Mike, but he regrets his actions after the divorce and truly wants to make up with his wife. No one would blame Lauren for not going back to him, because he may be worse after his conversion to Islam as Lauren has to abide by the rigid religious laws. The hope in this novel is seen in the changes the men make to their lives and the regrets they have after betraying their wives. People in real life can learn from these mistakes and adjust their behavior where necessary. Because of their feminist consciousness, the women in this text develop an inner strength to deal with their marital problems, take positive decisions and assert themselves in their households and in the society. The female bonding seen in this text is also sisterhood which is seen in the relationship among female characters in this text. Thandi and her friends bond like sisters and unite to fight a common cause. According to Hudson-Weems (2004), sisterhood is defined as a reciprocal (bond) where a “community of women, all reach out in support of each other demonstrating a tremendous sense of responsibility for each other by looking out for one another. They are joined emotionally, as they embody emphatic understanding of each other’s shared experiences” (65–66). Thandi and her friends share their hopes with one another, their fears, and dreams, and confide in one another. This example is also seen in Ba’s (1980) So Long a Letter as Ramatoulaye bonds and confides in Aishatou. Following the words of Richard Shaull (1972) in the foreword in Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed, education enables Thandi and her friends to “look critically at the social situation in which they find themselves . . . and take the initiative in acting to transform the society that has denied them various opportunities of participation” (9). Thandi and her friends bond as sisters and recognize the problems of one another, offer positive advice and help and give positive encouragement when necessary, while making sure that their rights are respected as human beings. They recognize their problems as they struggle to embrace the socio-cultural and behavioral changes in their lives.

SECTION 2

Patriarchal Abuse and Liberation

Chapter 4

Hypocrisy and Patriarchal Abuse of Power in El Saadawi’s God Dies by the Nile and The Fall of the Imam

Nawal El Saadawi is one of the most prolific writers in Egypt. She is a psychiatrist and a feminist whose writings revolve around feminist issues, patriarchal oppression, and dehumanization. She has practiced medicine in Egyptian cities and in the countryside. She has also been in and out of prison because her writings are regarded as inflammatory and blasphemous as she focuses on defending women’s rights. She died in March 2021. Nawal is bold enough to tread on the path dreaded by most writers in a patriarchal world. In her works, God Dies by the Nile (2002) and The Fall of the Imam (2001), she exposes the hypocrisy and patriarchal abuse as grounded in her Mahgreb society. In God Dies by the Nile, Zakeya the protagonist takes an unexpected revenge when she is pushed to the wall by the brutal activities of the local mayor and his cohorts. Her young nieces fall into the hands of the deception and lust of the local mayor, and she is not able to do anything to save them. She is a poor peasant and does not have the power to argue or protest against the mayor’s heinous activities, thus the revenge. According to Freire (1972), Violence is initiated by those who oppress, who exploit, who fail to recognize others as people not by those who are oppressed, exploited, and unrecognized. It is not the unloved who cause disaffection but those who cannot love because they love only themselves. It is not the helpless, subject to terror, who with their power create the concrete situation which begets the rejects of life. (32)

The mayor is attracted to Nefissa, so his friends Shiekh Zahran, the Chief of Village Guard, and the village barber, Sheikh Ismail, plot to force Nefissa to 39

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go to the mayor. She becomes pregnant and has a baby boy. Nefissa abandons the baby in front of Sheikh Hamzawi’s house. Sheikh Hamzawi, the local Imam in the village, has no child of his own. His wife, Fatheya, is excited, so she insists on adopting the baby. The Sheikh, knowing that the mayor is a tyrant, is afraid that the mayor may stop communicating with him; he is also afraid of other consequences that may arise from this adoption, but his wife insists on keeping the baby. The mayor is not happy that Sheikh Hamzawi adopts the baby; however, he warns the Sheikh to send the baby away to an orphanage, but Hamzawi’s wife objects to this. Fatheya reminds her husband of his duties as an Imam to make him keep the innocent baby. This adoption makes the mayor uncomfortable as he does not want to be identified as the father. The mayor, therefore, plans to replace Hamzawi as the local Imam. This plan is carried out when the Sheikh is beaten up by some hoodlums who warn him never to set foot at the local mosque anymore. Bystanders watch this beating in amazement without going to Hamzawi’s rescue because they see him as one of the mayor’s cohorts. Eventually, Fatheya is killed with the baby boy when she attempts to escape. The illiterate mayor intimidates his citizens and makes them live in perpetual fear. He is always insecure especially when the newspaper carries news about his educated brother who holds a prominent position in government. He goes about feeling the pulse of the people as regards his own popularity. The citizens are anxious to please him out of fear. Once he steps into the barber’s shop, he confiscates the people’s property or farmlands if they ignore him, and they cannot do anything about it, not even to complain. It is on one of his regular visits to the barber’s shop that the mayor sights Zeinab who is Nefissa’s younger sister and insists on having her brought to him. His friends set out with their usual plots to win the girl over without success. Being afraid of the mayor, they decide to use more intricate ways to ensure success. It is hypocritical that a mayor who should be a role model connives with his friends to take women by force. He uses his power in a negative way, turning it into abuse because most of the people who are poor peasants cannot stop him or curb his insatiable lust. His cohorts, Sheikh Zahran, the Chief of Village Guard, and Haj Ismail set out to arrange how to convince Kafrawi to force his daughter to work for the mayor, without considering that they have taken Nefissa, his first daughter from him. They reflect on how the mayor notices Nefissa walking by while he is in the barber’s shop: “Her tall figure swayed from side to side, and her large black eyes were raised and carried that impression of pride he had seen so often in the women of Kafrawi’s household” (GDBTN 14). When Sheikh Zahran goes to meet Kafrawi on behalf of the mayor, Nefissa hides on top of the stove and refuses to come out. Zahran tells Kafrawi: “There are hundreds of girls who would jump at a chance to work in the mayor’s house. But he chose your daughter, Kafrawi,



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because he believes you are a good, honest man worthy of his confidence. What will he say now when he hears you refuse his offer?” (GDBN 21). He encourages Kafrawi to beat his daughter to force her to go to the mayor’s house. He tells Kafrawi: “Beat her. Don’t you know that girls and women never do what they’re told unless you beat them?” (21). Sheikh Zahran brainwashes Kafrawi to convince him to release his daughter to him and he succeeds. The writer shows how women are treated as mules as Kafrawi strikes his daughter at Zahran’s request because his state of abject poverty does not give him room to think for himself. Kafrawi at the same time is afraid of the Chief of Village Guard, for he has a reputation of killing innocent people without valid excuse; moreover, he is the mayor’s right-hand man who encourages abuse of women. Another incident of physical abuse is exposed when Fatheya refuses to marry Shiekh Hamzawi, the village Imam. She hides on top of the stove, but Haj Ismail tells her father: “Beat her, my brother, beat her once and twice and thrice. Do you not know that girls and women are only convinced if they received a good hiding?” (31). When Fatheya does not answer to her father’s calls, “he climbed up on to the top of the oven, pulled her out by her hair, and beat her several times until she came down. Then he handed her over to Haj Ismail and the same day she married the pious old Sheikh” (31). This same physical abuse of women is seen in Salih’s (1969) Season of Migration to the North where Hosna Bint is physically assaulted by her father and brothers forcing her to marry the old Wad Rayyes. It is also abuse of power when the rich intimidate the poor to do their biddings just as the mayor is doing. The humiliation women suffer is hypocritical and a form of abuse. For example, this culture requires that women must be virgins before they get married, but the mayor and his cohorts force the young girls into marriage and sometimes rape them before they get married as in the case of Zeinab and Nefissa. After Fatheya’s marriage to the Imam, an old woman comes to feel her thighs looking for blood stain to make sure she is a virgin. The people who are waiting outside hear “the shrieks of joy and the high-pitched trilling of the women” (El Saadawi 2002, 32) as they celebrate the occasion. Later in the story, it is revealed that Shiekh Hamzawi is impotent, and the reader wonders what the women are celebrating. The celebration in this case exposes the fact that the old woman has been cowed to submit that Hamzawi is able to consummate the marriage to hide his impotence from the public. It is also embarrassing and humiliating that whenever Fatheya menstruates, she is not allowed to touch the Koran or listen to its recitation. If her husband touches her by mistake, he washes his hands five times probably as a sign of cleansing. All these expose the humiliating treatment of women and how the men relegate them to the background to maintain control, especially when there is no one to speak on their behalf.

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It is intriguing to see how the people in power humiliate the lower class in the society, including their less privileged friends. Sheikh Hamzawi is impotent and relies on the potions that Haj Ismail supplies him instead of going to the hospital. He realizes that the potions are ineffective in restoring his virility; ironically, he wants to have a son before he dies. He does not take the potions as prescribed, and as a Sheikh, he believes that Allah will cure him. He says: “Allah can infuse life into dead bones, Haj Ismail. Besides you yourself told me that I can be cured” (29). This statement exposes his dual loyalty to Allah and his belief in the potion. The instruction on how he can take the potion makes the reader understand that the medication is not valid. Ismail gives the following humorous instructions to Hamzawi: Make constant use of warm water, and salt, and lemon. Burn your incense every night leaving none of it to the following morning, then take the rosary between your fingers and recite a thanksgiving to Allah ninety-nine times. After that, curse your first wife thirty-three times, for were you not fully potent when you married her, Sheikh Hamzawi. (El Saadawi 2002, 29)

Here, Sheikh Ismail is insinuating that Hamzawi’s impotence is caused by his first wife. Hamzawi expresses concern for the way Fatheya disrespects him in comparison to his other wives. At the same time, he is happy that she tolerates him even with his impotence; however, his impotence is a mockery of his insatiable greed for women. This pattern of greed for women is also exposed in Ousmane’s (1976) Xala when El Hadji marries N’Gone in order not to be thought weak, but he is put to shame when he cannot consummate the marriage. Fatheya, like Yay Bineta, El Hadji’s first wife, is aware of her husband’s impotence, but has no right to commit adultery. According to Judith Steihn (1976), “In Islamic law . . . male honor is closely linked to the female purity: this requires virginity for the unmarried, fidelity for the married, and continence for the divorced or widowed” (229). No one has the right to bother with numerous women the men acquire in addition to marrying new virgins. The men have constantly used religion to subjugate women in this society as the men hide under religion, interpreting it to their benefit to justify the debasement of women. In Farah’s (1981) Sardines, the debasement of women is exposed in the religious law that states, The Islamic concept of Cawra informs the cannon laws which decree that to nobody other than her own husband . . . should a woman expose any part of her body save her feet, face and hands. . . . A man isn’t burdened with the weight of his body, every cell in a man is not an instigator of sin in another being. A woman’s body is tempting sin and san dwells in it. . . . A woman’s body estranges man from his creator. (30)



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Dehumanization, patriarchy, and religious laws lead to debasement of humanity and the enslavement of the mind. For example, Zakeya, in her process of mental breakdown, thinks of losing her brother, her son, and her niece, without any glimpse of hope. Haj Ismail convinces Zeinab that: “Zakeya is possessed by a devil . . . and it will not leave her unless she listens to my advice and does what I tell her to do” (El Saadawi 2002, 78). As soon as he is sure that Zeinab is willing to do anything to help her aunt’s recovery, he convinces them to take a trip to the mosque in the city where Zakeya can be cured and warns them to follow the instructions given by the Imam. In addition, she is to pay ten piastre silver coin to the Imam. Neighbors gather to contribute towards this trip because Zakeya does not have money. She reflects: “Even God wants us to pay Him something. Yet He knows we own nothing, my child” (80). They make the trip and are surprised to see that things are completely different in the city. They see huge buildings, streets, cars, and “the people, too, were different. The women walked along on high heels, and their thighs and breasts were partly exposed by the tight-fitting clothes they wore. Gentlemen crowded through the streets in such great numbers that it was difficult to tell how many of them there were” (85). Going to the city exposes the fact that people live a completely different lifestyle compared to what they are accustomed to in the countryside. On getting to the mosque, the Sheikh recognizes Zeinab and her aunt, calling them by their names. He tells Zeinab that Zakeya is sick because she encourages Zeinab to disobey Allah’s words, but Allah is merciful and will forgive them if they obey Him. He goes further to give them instructions on what to do: You are to spend the night in the bosom of El Sayeda. . . . Then tomorrow before dawn, you are to start out for Kafr El Teen. There bathe yourselves with clean water from the Nile, and while you wash continue to recite the testimony. Once dressed you should do your prayers. . . . Zeinab is to take another bath with clean water from the Nile. . . . In front of her she will see a big iron gate. She is to walk towards it, open it and walk in. She must never walk out of it again until the owner of the house orders her to do so. (El Saadawi 2002, 90)

The man asks for his money, and Zeinab gives it to him. After receiving the money, he disappears into the crowd while Zakeya and Zeinab go back to their village. The instruction the Sheikh gives Zeinab and her aunt is enough to make them realize that the man is a fraud, and that he is manipulating them to the benefit of the mayor. Because Zeinab and her aunt are so frustrated, they find it difficult to mentally process what is happening to them. The house with the iron-gate belongs to the mayor. Zeinab meets the mayor when she walks up to

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the house, and he immediately realizes that his friend’s plot has worked and exclaims, “Devil, son of a devil. What a cunning rogue you are Haj Ismail” (95). The mayor also reflects on the simple mindedness of the peasants when he says, “How exciting these simple girls are, and how pleasant it is to take their virgin bodies into one’s arms, like plucking a newly opened rose flower. How I hate the false sophistication of Cairo women, like my wife with her brazen eyes. Nothing any longer intimidates or thrills her” (96). The mayor knows that he can no longer deceive his wife who lives in the city, but he stays in the suburb to intimidate and abuse young local girls who are too scared to challenge him. The simple minded Zeinab is amazed at the kinds of things in the mayor’s house such as the wash basins, metal taps, the colored walls and stove. When a teacup she is washing slips through her finger and shatters to pieces; the mayor calms her down by saying in a low voice: “Do not be afraid, Zeinab. . . . The cup, and the owner of the cup, are all yours” (96). The mayor encourages Zeinab to take a shower. He gives her a bath and “dried her in a soft towel smelling of jasmine, the way a mother would dry her child. She let him carry her to bed, still and silent. Then he took her in his arms” (100). With Zeinab’s absence, Zakeya is alone in the house. However, Galal, Zakeya’s son, comes back from the war and gets an update about the treatment received by his family members. He does not bear any grudge but feels happy that Zeinab is still waiting for him and they quickly marry. After being married to Galal, Zeinab refuses to go back to work for the mayor, and this worries Sheikh Zahran. In order to make her go back to the mayor’s house, Sheikh Zahran accuses Galal of stealing money from the mayor’s house and sends him to prison. Zeinab goes to see Galal in prison without success because she does not have a written permission. She meets a man who readily agrees to help her. “He was one of those men who helped women in need to spend the night in the mosque of Al Sayeda. But instead of taking her to the mosque, he took her to spend the night with him in his room. After that no one in Kafr El Teen heard anything more about Zeinab” (133). One can deduce that this man works for the mayor and must have abducted her. Zakeya in her quiet moment tries very hard to recollect what is happening to her household and suddenly comes to a point of awareness and whispers: “I was blind, but now my eyes have opened. . . . I know who it is. . . . It’s Allah, Zeinab, it’s Allah” (136). The mayor arrogates authority to himself as Allah. Zakeya, therefore, realizes that the mayor is behind all her sufferings. She walks up to his house, and hits him on the head with her hoe, killing him. Her traumatized state of mind inevitably leads her to kill the mayor. Her awareness of the evil deeds leads her to her personal sanctity and spiritual cleansing. Zakeya becomes whole and sane again. She is quickly sentenced to prison where she mutters, sounding more convincing; “I know who it is.



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Now I know him. . . . I know it’s Allah” (138). One of the female prisoners asks where Allah is so she can ask him to have mercy on women like her, but Zakeya replies: “He’s over there, my child. I buried him there on the bank of the Nile” (138). The awareness of Zakeya’s sufferings leads her to kill the mayor who uses religion as a guise claiming to be Allah, his political position, and wealth, to manipulate and abuse the peasants in the society. In such cases, Frantz Fanon (1972) opines: “At the level of the individual, violence is a cleansing force. It frees the native from his inferiority complex and from his despair and inaction; it makes him fearless and restores his self-respect” (94). Zakeya therefore gains her sanity and restores her self-respect after killing the mayor. In The Fall of the Imam (TFOTI), El Saadawi continues with the theme of hypocrisy, oppression, dehumanization, and abuse of power. The protagonist is Bint Allah, whose name means “the daughter of God,” thus leading her to think that Allah is her real father. She tells the people who are ready to stone her to death “My father is the Imam. They screamed: Not another word. May your tongue be cut off your head” (El Saadawi 2001, 14). They see her statement as blasphemy. As a young girl, Bint Allah finds herself with other children in an orphanage called “the house of sin.” These children are the offspring of unwed mothers whose fathers do not want to be identified. The children stay with an old woman who takes care of them. She is surprised that criminals are released from prison on the day of the Big Feast, but she is left to be stoned to death. She quickly escapes, but unfortunately the Imam’s spies spot her and eventually kill her. The Imam is trying to cover any traces that will expose him as Bint Allah’s father. The Imam who fathers Bint Allah ironically rules according to sharia law. He commands the people to “stone adulterous women to death. Cut off the hands of those who commit a theft. Slash off the tongues of those who spread rumours about irradiated milk. Pour all bottles, all casks, all barrels of alcoholic drink, into the waters of the river” (14). It is hypocritical that the Imam commands his people to stone only adulterous women without any mention of the male accomplices including himself. El Saadawi also exposes the oppression and dehumanization of women in this society. A woman turns the waterwheel to get water while the buffalo rests, which indicates that the buffalo is more valued than the woman. An example of this maltreatment is shown as a woman works: A man walks behind her switching his stick over her buttocks every time she halts to take her breath. A grasp of surprise escapes my lips. A woman turning a waterwheel while the buffalo rest! They said: Here we follow the laws of offer and demand. A buffalo costs more on the market than a woman, so a man has four wives, but he can only afford one buffalo. (El Saadawi 2001, 17–18)

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The patriarchy does not have any regard for women; thus, the women are used as beasts of burden to do chores and farm work. Nemat Allah, which means “Blessing or gift of God” (29), who is one of the girls in the orphanage, tells Bint Allah: God visited her mother in a dream and how after that she became pregnant with child like the Virgin Mary. When her belly grew big, she put on a wide flowing robe in order to hide what had happened. One night when everyone was fast asleep, she gave birth to her child, but the eyes of the Imam, always wide awake, saw everything. They took her away, tied her with a rope of hemp, put her in an open space and started to stone her to death, one stone after the other, without haste, until she died. (28–29)

Nobody asks questions about these atrocities being committed. The people claim “We have sworn eternal loyalty to him. He is our master, the Imam. God has visited him many a time and so he knows His word better than anyone else” (19). The Imam has indoctrinated the people into believing in him as God’s direct messenger, thus making them incapable of questioning him. Another instance of physical abuse and wife battery is the guard beating his wife for allowing Bint Allah to sleep on their bed at night. The guard wakes up and screams: “This is not my child. Whose child is she? . . . He lifts his hand high up in the air and brings it down on her face with all his might. You adulterous whore. You daughter of an adulterous bitch, he screams” (28). The wife does not react in anyway but tolerates the abuse because of lack of awareness. The children in the orphanage are given religious lessons by an old man they call Baba. The man threatens them and hits them with a stick if they fall asleep. At the end of his teachings, he asks the children “What is the punishment for theft? And the children answer in one breath: Cutting off the hand. What is the punishment for adultery? They shout back in chorus: Stoning until death. Then everything is silent” (33). The children do not know what adultery means and are afraid to ask him. At night, Baba takes the girls one after the other to a small cell where he rapes them and makes the rest feel that he severely punishes anybody who goes against his rules. When it is Bint Allah’s turn to be punished; she finds herself on the bed in the morning, with her robe and legs wet and sticky (35). Baba takes the girls at night, and they think he is God; they therefore abandon themselves to him. The people as well as the Imam are illiterate; however, they believe in whatever the Imam tells them as the voice of God on earth. The Imam’s pictures hang “in every place, in the streets, on the walls, in shops, on all the arches, and columns and monuments commemorating victory” (19). His picture hangs everywhere making people live in perpetual fear of him. The



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people confess: “We have sworn eternal loyalty to him. He is our master, the Imam. God has visited him many a time and so he knows His word better than anyone else” (19). The Imam has indoctrinated the members of his community to believe that God visits him often; therefore, the illiterate people have no choice other than to believe what he tells them. The Imam has legal wives and several concubines whom he uses to scheme his way through political positions. His cohorts also have several wives but are also shown to be unhappy and insatiable. The Imam is afraid of some of his friends and cohorts and acts in such a manner to please everybody, including his enemies. However, the leader of the opposition party, Hizb al-Shaitan, is interested in becoming the Imam. The Imam’s chief of security is a member of Hizb Allah. The Imam is a member of both parties and does not prefer one to the other for security purposes. The Imam’s Great Writer is also his classmate in school who helps to write for the Imam while in school, but he is not happy that his academic inferior is the Imam. The Chief of Security marries the daughter of a State Minister and becomes a member of the Hizb Allah. He pays a big dowry and has a big wedding which the Imam also attends. On the wedding night, he finds out that the girl is not a virgin. He says: Somebody must have taken her before I did but God will compensate me for my loss. The honor of the Minister is more important than my honor and should be given precedence. Besides, God is all merciful and forgiving and I cannot pretend to place myself above Him. I beat her until she confessed, then I forgave her just as God does with his creatures when sin. I became her God. (41)

The men lust after one another’s wives and acquire more women for political reasons. The Imam’s legal wife shows excitement about her position as the legal wife when she announces: “My name was now etched into the marble stones of history, was flashed on to a million screens, broadcast on the waves of sound. I was the wife of the Imam, no one was my equal, no one could occupy my place. No woman had my beauty, or my brains, or my fame” (43). She sounds confident, but she is not. She always worries about the Imam’s illegitimate daughter who plans to take a revenge on the Imam. Also, she worries about the other women and men who envy the Imam; therefore, she prays for God’s protection of the Imam: Protect him from the envy of men and women, from those that blow on the embers of Ocult Magic. First amongst them is his first wife who is hiding in the crowd right at the back. Around her neck is a folded amulet hanging from a leather thong and her lips pray to God that he be transformed into a monkey and dragged around on a chain. Protect him O God from the scheming of women, for their capacity to do evil is without limit. Then O God do not forget that

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illegitimate daughter of his. Ever since she was born, she has thought of nothing else except how to revenge herself on him. (44)

The Imam’s legal wife’s prayers confirm that she is not as confident as she sounds. She realizes that the Imam can quickly divorce her whenever he gets tired of her or marry a new wife and relegate her to the background. There is betrayal and power play among the people at the helm of affairs. The Imam professes love to his wife, and the next morning, he marries the daughter of the Chief of Security. His wife confronts him, and he explains: “I am not one man. I am two men in one. The man who was with you yesterday is not the man I really am. He was the other man. I am the man who loves you dearly. Love and marriage are two different things and should not be seen as one” (100). The Imam further tells her that he marries the daughter of the Chief of Security to force him to do his wishes. The following night, the Imam is shocked to see his wife in the arms of the Chief of Security and gets the same answer from her when he accuses her of betrayal. This is revenge, intrigue, power tussle, and politics of betrayal. The Imam is afraid for his life and always walks about in disguise as the Chief of Security, while the Chief of Security disguises as the Imam. However, the Imam’s disguise does not prevent him from being killed. The Great Writer reflects on how the Imam dies: When I stood beside him in the first row with lights projected on him from all sides, and arches celebrating victory raised on all streets . . . I never realized that he could fall down from on high or die as other men do. I still had a brain in my head, but it seemed to have stopped working. . . . As I stood close behind him I heard the sound of bullets being fired, saw him drop down by my side and saw myself drop down by his side, and yet despite all that my mind remained unable to grasp what was happening. . . . No matter how much I tried to change my mind all my effort were in vain, and even if at certain fleeting moments I managed to realize that my own life would come to an end, when it came to him I really could not see him dying. (TFOTI 103)

The Chief of Security is so shocked to see the Imam die. He reflects on how he is decorated with the Medal of Art and Literature by the Imam. After that, the Imam made him swear to be forever loyal to him by saying: I am the Imam, and no one shall share power with me, and you will be my Great Writer. You shall have a whole page to yourself in the daily newspaper with your picture placed in a frame at the top. Your seat will be separated from mine by one seat only, that of the Chief of Security. But at night nothing at all will come between us as we drink toast after toast in honor of a friendship which has lasted since the days of our childhood. (TFOTI 103)



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This reflection of a man who wields power, who sees himself as second to God, subdues the Chief of Security by making him aware that he is human like the poor people they oppress. He realizes that the disguise is no use and that there is a limit to human endurance. It is also very confusing to the Chief because he is not sure who the enemy is, thus making him afraid for his own life as well. The fact that the Imam is eventually killed debunks his invincibility and becomes an eye opener to the Chief of Security. It is also ironic that he suddenly becomes afraid, especially when he has no clue where the shot came from. He realizes now that he has as many enemies as the Imam because both rule and terrorize the citizens. It is ironic also that the Imam and his friends go to meet other women in the “House of Joy” (TFOTM 88) to satisfy their sexual habits but stone the women to death when they become pregnant and are accused of adultery. The Imam is looked upon as a role model, and the people believe in him, but he betrays them by sleeping with their wives and children. The man who guards the orphanage also sleeps with the children he is supposed to protect. He talks harshly to them and beats them up. He teaches the children on an empty stomach and expects them to listen and understand his teachings. It is also an irony that the Imam expects to go to heaven after committing these atrocities, but he is disappointed when he learns that he has no place in heaven. Bint Allah and the other “children of God” suffer a lot of nightmares because of the humiliation and oppression they endure. She dreams of meeting one of the children who, she assumed was dead, and wants to know his mother, and says: “My mother lives close to the orphanage in the ‘House of Joy’” (88). She immediately realizes that she is talking to Fadl Allah, one of the children at the orphanage. It is interesting that El Saadawi allows the characters in The Fall of the Imam to tell their own stories to make it more realistic, thereby confirming Wayne Booth’s (1961) opinion that the house of fiction does not have one window but “five million ways to tell a story each of them justified if it provides a center for the work” (24). Telling the story gives the characters a sense of healing and comfort that someone wants to hear their side of the story. Speaking about these terrible events is difficult because the mind tries to suppress memories that persist, intrude unpredictably, and alter the victim’s experiences of daily life, producing a lack of credibility. Survivors tend to tell their stories in a highly emotional, contradictory, and fragmented manner which . . . serves the twin imperatives of truth-telling and secrecy. (Detora 25)

We can see that the narrators are struggling with finding their voices to reveal this open secret of sexual abuse. The sexually abused victims at the orphanage are labeled as trouble-makers as a guise for the old Sheikh to continue

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raping them. El Saadawi is geared towards infusing the literary cannon not only with the oppressed women but also with women who try to change the society in a subtle way. Even though Charles Nnolim (1987) asserts that debasement of women in literature is not new (52), El Saadawi continues to write to expose and eventually put a stop to the oppression and humiliation of women and the downtrodden. According to Chukwuma (1984), feminism is “a rejection of inferiority and a striving for recognition. It seeks to give the woman a sense of self as a worthy, effectual, and contributing human being. Feminism is a reaction to such stereotypes of women which deny them a positive identity” (ix). El Saadawi’s novels show that she rejects the inferiority and submissive status placed on women; therefore, she claims justice through her protagonists and creates a human face for the woman and the poor who are “the wretched of the earth.” One may say that El Saadawi overreacts by killing the tyrants in her works, but when an oppressed or a person stricken with abject poverty is pushed to the wall, he or she attacks without giving a second thought to the problem. This is exactly what happens to the victims in both texts.

Chapter 5

From Oppression to Liberation Women in Tayeb Salih’s Season of Migration to the North and Buchi Emecheta’s Kehinde

In most patriarchal societies, women have always been relegated to the background to enable the men advance their strong hold on the women. However, in some African societies, women have been known to be strong, assertive, and independent. They work, socialize, and discuss with men on the same level as seen in some African texts such as Ezeigbo’s (1996) The Last of the Strong Ones and Achebe (1987) in Anthills of the Savannah. Some critics have also identified women activists as seen in the Aba Women’s Riots where women displayed their activism to get the government to stop taxing their farm produce. Kolawole in her critical work Womanism and African Consciousness (1997) and Mezu in her work A History of Africana Women’s Literature (2004) observe that women have not always been marginalized and they identified strong women activists who challenged authority to achieve success for women. It is this assertiveness and activism that Salih (1969) and Emecheta (1994) portray in their novels, Season of Migration to the North and Kehinde. This chapter therefore explores how women in these novels resist patriarchal oppression, intimidation, and violence to liberate themselves through awareness and education. Tayeb Salih, author of Season of Migration to the North, was born in Northern Sudan and educated at the University of Khartoum. After teaching for a while, he moved to London, where he worked with the BBC Arabic Service. He has worked in Qatar, Paris, and Arab Gulf States. Season of Migration to the North is one of his books which was originally published in Arabic in 1967 and later translated into English in 1969. The novel explores violence, oppression, and betrayal of women Sa’eed is involved with. Buchi 51

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Emecheta on the other hand was born in Nigeria but lives in London. Her novel Kehinde published in 1994 is set in London and Nigeria, and chronicles the marriage lives of Kehinde the protagonist and her husband Albert, the oppression, betrayal, and eventual liberation of Kehinde who is named after the novel. In Season of Migration to the North, we are faced with an unnamed narrator who returns to his village in Sudan after studying in Europe for seven years. Eager to make meaningful contributions to the new political life in his country, he takes a job with the government as a civil servant. While in his village, he discovers a stranger among his people named Mustafa Sa’eed. After much inquiry about this stranger, Sa’eed confides in the narrator revealing the story of his life while in London, his escapades with women, his career, his eventual return to Khartoum his hometown, and how he ends up in Wad Hamid, the narrator’s village. Sa’eed gets married and has two sons. He establishes in this village where he buys land, builds a house, and works on his farm all the time. He also attends and participates at different functions in the village, yet the villagers do not know much about him; however, they accept him without asking a lot of questions. It is important to note that while in London, Sa’eed has several relationships with women which end in the women committing suicide. He uses women as prey and does not take them seriously. He disappoints the women after promising to marry them. His manipulation, betrayal and deceit cause them emotional trauma resulting in their taking their lives. Unlike the other women, Jean Morris, another lady he is involved with, does not give Sa’eed the opportunity to control her. Jean flirts with other men just as Sa’eed does, and this causes conflict resulting in physical violence. Sa’eed murders her with a knife while making love to her. Sa’eed does not have any remorse about the women who commit suicide because of him. He enjoys the oppression and deceit but cannot tolerate that Jean, a woman, can do the same thing he does, to him. After serving time in prison for Jean’s murder, he comes back to live a quiet life in Wad Hamid, a village where nobody knows anything about him. After getting to know the unnamed narrator more, Sa’eed makes him the custodian of his household. Sa’eed disappears without explanation during a storm, leaving a note for the narrator to take care of his family—his wife and two sons. Because Sa’eed has become friends with the narrator, he believes that the narrator will live up to the responsibility of taking care of and protecting his wife and children, thus his decision. The villagers assume that Sa’eed is carried away by flood with some other people while working on the farm. Since the narrator works with the government, his childhood friend Mahjoub expects him to help establish more schools and hospitals and to provide other necessary amenities for his people so they can stop their

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long-distance commute to other cities to get these essential amenities. The narrator is not able to provide anything because he claims that he is not a policy maker. According to the narrator, “If our masters say I do so-and-so; we do it. You’re the head of the National Democratic Socialist Party here. It’s the party in power, so why not pour out your anger on them?” (Salih 1969, 100). Turning the discussion around to fault Mahjoub, exposes the narrator’s frustration and his unwillingness to act. It is true that Mahjoub has done well for himself by becoming a local leader as he starts working immediately after his primary school education; however, he expects his friend the narrator to do something for the village, especially since he acquires a university education and works with the government. The villagers also expect him to contribute to the development of their village in one form or another, yet he is unwilling to do anything for them. This is the evasive attitude the unnamed narrator has. Three years after Sa’eed’s death, suitors ask to marry his wife Hosna Bint Mahmoud, but she refuses because she does not want anything to do with them. The villagers do not understand why she wants to stay without a husband, especially when the culture does not have room for women to voice their opinions or give women opportunity to make their own choices. Wad Rayyes, a seventy-year-old man in the village who has other wives, insists on marrying Bint and needs the narrator to convince her since he takes care of her. The narrator is upset, but he tries to persuade Wad Rayyes to leave Bint alone. Rayyes becomes furious and says, Ask yourself why Mahmoud’s daughter refused marriage. You’re the reason— there’s certainly something between you and her. Why do you interfere? You’re not her father or her brother or the person responsible for her. She’ll marry me whatever you or she says or does. Her father agreed and so have her brothers. This nonsense you learn at school won’t wash with us here. In this village the men are guardians of the women. (81–82, my emphasis)

This is ironic and contradictory because being a guardian of women does not mean forcing them into unwanted marriages. His statement also reveals the treatment of women by patriarchy while confirming that in their culture, whatever the men say must be adhered to. The men in this culture believe that women “are supposed to be nurturant, passive, weak and non-competitive” (Phoenix 1986, 126). One also wonders why the narrator does not step in here to stop Wad Rayyes, use this opportunity to educate his people, and change some of their traditional ways of thinking that relegate women to the background. Since he cannot contribute to the development of his village, one wonders if he can protect Hosna Bint from this forced marriage. According to El Sadaawi (2007a) in her memoir, The Hidden Face of Eve,

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Patriarchal societies are with deep seated contradictions and a double morality which runs through every aspect of life. However, it is always those who are ruled over by others rather than those who rule, women rather than men . . . who are made to suffer the consequences and pay the price for these contradictions. (86)

In this novel, Bint is paying the price of this contradiction where the patriarchy pretends to protect women when they are really subjugating them. The narrator persuades his friend Mahjoub to stop Wad Rayyes from marrying Bint, but Mahjoub opines that, “if the woman’s father and brothers are agreeable no one can do anything about it” (Salih 1969, 83). This is probably the norm in this traditional society, thus revealing further that women have no place in this society, not even the bride’s mother. Women here are relegated to the background and treated as objects to be exploited sexually and emotionally, and to have physical abuse rendered on them at any time without provocation. Having studied abroad, the narrator is in a better position to educate his people about modern ways and how to treat women better, encourage and empower them, but he chooses to be an observer, thus his frustration and that of the people who look up to him. This type of forced marriage is seen in Farah’s (1970) From a Crooked Rib, but Ebla the protagonist runs away, and the marriage does not take place. Wad Rayyes is a rich man even though he is old. He is also known to be charismatic and brags about his prowess with women. Wad Rayyes goes to talk to Bint’s father who supports the marriage because of the money he will get from Rayyes. He does not bother to find out his daughter’s feelings towards this marriage or even consult her. Anyway, like all patriarchs, Hosna Bint’s father does not understand why his daughter refuses to remarry after losing her first husband. The people do not also understand that Hosna Bint can live an independent life while taking care of her two children. She has tried to reject the standards set for her by the men but has no support. According to Anderson and Zinser, (1990) feminism is: rejecting much, from basic cultural tenets to casual everyday behavior. Given ancient traditions which insists that women defer and subordinate themselves to men, given traditions which define women only by their relationships with men, given traditions which under-value women and take men as the standard, the only way for women to claim full humanity has been to reject those standards. (334)

Because of her feminist stance, Bint has tried to reject those traditional standards that diminish women by rejecting all the suitors until she suffers physical abuse from those who should protect her. Feminism “advocates for positive and progressive traditional values as well as commitment and

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understanding between the sexes” (Nutsukpo 2007, 166). Feminism is rejecting all forms of patriarchal domination and abuse, thus leading to a successful and independent life. Bint has tried to reject this patriarchal abuse and domination without success and help from her family or the narrator; therefore, living an independent life is farfetched for her. Binta suffers physical abuse from her father and brothers, because they beat her up forcing her to marry Rayyes while the narrator does nothing when he hears about it. We see this kind of physical abuse in El Saadawi’s (2002) God Dies by the Nile when the Chief of the Village Guard encourages Kafrawi to beat his daughter, forcing her to go to the mayor. The Guard tells Kafrawi: “beat her. Don’t you know that girls and women never do what they’re told unless you beat them?” (21). Bint eventually marries Wad Rayyes, but she refuses to consummate the marriage with him. Rayyes goes on rampage complaining to people asking, “how could there be in his house a woman he’d married according to the laws of God and His Prophet and how could there not be between them the normal relationship of man and wife?” (Salih 1969, 101). Even when Rayyes is encouraged to be cautious with her, he becomes mad, thus exhibiting his patriarchal tendency of using force to achieve what he wants which leads to his death. Because of the pressure coming from Rayyes, Bint confides in the narrator by letting him know that she will kill herself and Wad Rayyes if her father insists on her marrying Rayyes. Here, Bint asserts herself and is courageous enough to tell the narrator what she wants. This thinking, though radical, is her only way out if the narrator does not help to stop the marriage. The thought of killing herself is in line with radical feminists’ views such as Nawal El Saadawi (2007) who asserts that, real feminism means being revolutionary. To be revolutionary means that one examines the problem of women from all aspects: historically, sociologically, economically, and psychologically. . . . And as a radical feminist, I think one should oppose imperialism, Zionism, feudalism, and inequality between nations, sexes, and classes. (qtd in Udumukwu 166)

Bint is conscious of who she is and what she wants out of life after being married to an educated man who treats her with decency. She realizes that the villagers do not deserve her and makes up her mind not to have anything to do with them. It is now up to the narrator to help her, but he is not able to do that before going back to the city where he works. He does not know how to handle the issue, and the traditional ways of life of the people, thus disappointing Bint. Bint intensifies her assertiveness by going to the narrator’s father to say, “Tell him to marry me” (Salih 1969,101). The move to propose to the narrator

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through his father shows how serious Bint is about rejecting Wad Rayyes. She expects the narrator to protect her from the patriarchal abuse in any way he can since her husband is dead. She devices a plan to help the narrator make up his mind by asking him to officially marry her so that other men will not come to bother her. However, her intention is to stay by herself and take care of her children. Bint continues to persevere by seeking help from Mahjoub, the community leader. Again, he does not help her. After her death, Mahjoub reflects on her discussion with Bint and tells the narrator that, When her father went and swore at her, she came to my house at sunrise. She said she wanted you to save her from Wad Rayyes and the attention of suitors. All she wanted was to become formally married to you, nothing more. She said, “He will leave me with my children, and I want nothing what-so-ever from him.” I told her we shouldn’t involve you in the matter, and I advise her to accept the situation. (Salih 1969, 109)

Mahjoub’s answer does not indicate that he wants to help. He is a patriarch and does not believe that Bint can live her life as a single woman, which will lead to a change in their traditional way of life, and consequently amount to loss of control by the patriarchy. Mahjoub therefore thinks that Bint is insane for asking to be left alone, thus exposing his lack of awareness and education. However, the narrator emphasizes that Bint is not insane but knowledgeable as she asserts her right to make choices for herself. Amidst laughter Mahjoub exclaims, Take a pull at yourself man! Wake up! Fancy you falling in love at your age! You’ve become as mad as Wad Rayyes. Schooling and education have made you soft. You’re crying like a woman. Good God, wonders never cease—love, illness and tears, and she wasn’t worth a milie and if it wasn’t for the sake of decency she wouldn’t have been worth burning—we’d have thrown her in the river or left her body out for the hawks. (Salih 1969, 109–10, my emphasis)

His laughter at serious issue concerning a woman’s life indicates that this traditional society does not care about the welfare of women. It also shows that women are likened to articles of trade and must do what they are told by the men in the society. Even with the superior education acquired by the narrator, he does not take charge of a family that is handed over to him to protect. He is thoroughly conflicted about what to do. Mahjoub points out that education has made the narrator soft, but the real fact is that his lack of assertiveness makes him weak. He does not know how to impose modern concepts on the traditional culture of his people even after realizing that he is in love with Bint.

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Going through Sa’eed’s books, the narrator regrets not marrying Bint and says, “I feel bitterness and hatred, for after all those victims he crowned his life with yet another one, Hosna Bint Mahmoud, the only woman I have ever loved. She killed poor Wad Rayyes and killed herself because of Mustafa Sa’eed” (117). This regret is too late. He is the person that the people look up to; however, he is so engrossed in thinking too much about the implications of marrying Hosna Bint or stopping the suitors that he becomes conflicted with his decision just like Samba Diallo in Kane’s (1962) Ambiguous Adventure or Egbo in Soyinka’s (1970) The Interpreters. One wonders why he is now professing his love to a dead person instead of acting when he has the opportunity. This late regret brings out his weaknesses more and portrays Hosna Bint as a strong feminist character for speaking out and aggressively making efforts to be released from patriarchal bondage. Hosna Bint liberates herself in death and has gone where no man can reach her again, thus slighting the patriarchy and their unfair laws. Another strong female character in this novel is Mabrouka, the eldest wife of Wad Rayyes. She is sleeping comfortably amidst all the screaming and commotion in her house. Someone wakes her up to tell her about the murders but Mabrouka simply says “Good Riddance” (Sahli 1969, 106), and quickly goes back to sleep. Her action is an indication that she has had enough and does not care what happens to Rayyes anymore. After the funeral of Hosna Bint Mahmoud, the sympathizers come back to see Mabrouka relaxing and drinking her morning coffee. They attempt to commiserate with her, but she yells at them saying, “women, let everyone of you go about her business. Wad Rayyes dug his grave with his own hands, and Bint Mahmoud, God’s blessings be upon her, paid him out in full” (106). Mabrouka is not hurt, but she shows the people that she does not have any atom of pity for her husband Wad Rayyes. Her utterances project her feminist stance of courage, assertiveness, and independence; therefore, she lets the women know that she cannot mourn someone who decides to waste his life on frivolous things. Her feminist stance indicates that women have always been strong in some African societies, thus Florence Stratton (1994) reminds us that, “Pre-colonial women had more freedom than their colonized descendants . . . under colonialism, African women were subject to inter-locking forms of oppression, to the racism of colonialism and to the indigenous and foreign structures of male domination” (7). Mabrouka exercises her freedom by making sure that nobody bothers her with information about how Wad Rayyes dies. She is also tired of the mundane traditions and the authoritative nature of the men that she decides to assert herself, and to do only what she chooses, thus exhibiting how liberated she is. The issue of women being complementary partners to men is very important as women need to be heard and seen. Bint’s father must have realized this

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at the death of his daughter as he cries for his loss. We are told that when his daughter dies, “Mahmoud, almost killed himself with weeping that night— he was bellowing like an ox” (Sahli 1969, 106). This is a man who beats and swears at his daughter insisting that, “She’d marry him [Wad Rayyes] whether she liked it or not” (101). Now, he regrets his actions, but it is too late. He exhibits his patriarchal influence by forcing and beating his daughter into marrying Rayyes against her wishes without considering her feelings and giving her the opportunity to choose what she wants to do with her life. Why is he crying now? Has he learned anything? We may never know. He probably has realized that women need to be listened to as human beings and partners in decision making. Bint cries out for help without success. The men do not protect her; even the narrator with his education cannot protect her because of the village culture he does not try to change. She therefore makes a conscious decision to kill Wad Rayyes and kill herself if she is forced to marry him. She knows that the narrator will take care of her sons just as her husband wishes. Why does the narrator not take immediate action to help Bint? Why does he not send her away to Khartoum where she can live by herself? Why does he not marry her and leave her to stay by herself so other men will see her as a “married woman?” Is it compulsory that all women must be married in that society? The answers to these questions simply confirm that the narrator’s education has not changed his patriarchal thinking and way of life. Because of the narrator’s lack of action in protecting Bint, he must be regarded as being in conformity with patriarchy. He allows himself to be influenced by the natives who are uneducated. In this vein, Bint Mahmoud is smarter than the narrator with his education because she knows what she wants and fights to liberate herself by dying just like the protagonist in El Saadawi’s (2007b) Woman at Point Zero and Vera’s (1998) Butterfly Burning. The narrator in Salih’s Season of Migration to the North is uncomfortable by Bint’s marriage request. He is torn between following his traditional way of life of marrying more than one wife and following the modern way of monogamy. This indecisiveness makes him a weak character even though educated. Mustafa Sa’eed has made things simple for him by making him the custodian of his family and his property, yet he is incapable of following through with the assignment given to him. He does not burn Sa’eed’s private room or do anything to it; however, he is full of regrets. Bint is a strong character who knows what she wants. She is determined not to marry anyone, but the narrator does not take her seriously when she says she will kill herself instead of marrying the old man. She kills herself to humiliate the patriarchy and the cultural norms that will not allow the woman to live her life the way she deems fit. In doing this, she falls into the same category with El Saadawi’s (2007) Firdaus who chooses to die to humiliate the

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patriarchy. Hosna Bint’s killing of herself is the writer’s way of objecting to the oppression of women. The narrator can be regarded as weak, when it comes to advocating for women, because he cannot make a quick decision to save Hosna Bint from being married to Rayyes or even speak out against female circumcision. It is interesting to note that the women Mustafa meets in London are also oppressed because they are not able to get jobs even with their education. They are also socially alienated because of their relationship with Mustafa; thus, they commit suicide when he leaves them. Salih exposes this oppression of women in both Sudan and London to show that oppression of women is not limited to the continent of Africa, but a world-wide issue. The narrator even with his progressive political views about being acquainted with other cultures does not intervene when he sees corruption. At his job, he claims to do what he is told because he is not in charge. People are looking to learn from him, but he is a disappointment just as he is a disappointment to Bint. Mahjoub, his friend, is involved in village politics despite his lack of education. As a mayor of Wad Hamid, he is popular and capable of saving Bint but chooses not to because he believes that the tradition leaves decision making to the men only. This is ignorance on his part, but what about the narrator who is expected to know better? In Kehinde, written by Buchi Emecheta (1994), we see another protagonist who is oppressed, betrayed, and eventually liberates herself through education and awareness. Kehinde the protagonist is a twin, but her twin sister dies at birth. She marries Albert in Lagos and they move to London where they live with their two children, Joshua and Bimpe. Kehinde works in the bank while Albert works as a storekeeper in a company. Albert receives a letter from his sisters asking him to come back to Nigeria to take a chieftaincy title and get a well-paying job because of the oil boom. Kehinde is not happy that Albert’s sisters are interfering in their marriage by asking her husband to return to Nigeria. She believes that there is no need to return to Nigeria since they are happy in London. She claims that her husband’s sisters “just want a chance to nose into the way we live” (Emecheta 1994, 3). She also wonders about Albert’s sudden interest in traditional Chieftaincy title which he disapproves. Albert on the other hand is interested in going back to Nigeria because he feels less respected in London. He believes in the patriarchal system of his father’s days where men give the orders and women obey without asking questions. He reflects that, “In Nigeria, the home belonged to the man, even if the woman spent her entire life keeping it in order. She could never ask her husband to leave the house, as was done here. But Albert did not want trouble, so for the sake of peace he said, ‘Our house’” (4). This shows that Albert with his education is still inclined to going back to the tradition of his fathers which is fast fading instead of embracing the good relationship he has with his wife.

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Kehinde becomes pregnant, but Albert worries that the pregnancy will foil his wife’s promotion in the bank and insists that she aborts the pregnancy. She worries about Albert’s suggestion; therefore, she discusses with her friend Moriammo who does not trust that Albert will not get married once he gets to Nigeria, but Kehinde in her naivety reassures her when she says, “My Alby no be like that. Him different. I fit swear with my life for him. . . . Albert has never given her cause to worry about unfaithfulness” (10). Kehinde does not realize that while in London, Albert cannot reveal that he has other plans until he gets to Nigeria. While at the clinic, she reflects on the death of her twin sister at birth, the death of her mother while giving birth to her, and how she was raised by her aunt Nnebuogo who lives in Lagos. This reflection adds to her misery. On their way home, Kehinde tells Albert that the baby is her father being reincarnated, but he does want to hear of it; thus, he raises the volume of the music in his car (33), thereby exposing Albert’s uncaring attitude and selfishness. His action is enough to expose his plans to Kehinde, but she remains conflicted by his attitude and not able to stand her ground to reject the abortion. She suffers silently as she does not know what else to do. Unlike Kehinde, Leah, the lady she meets at the clinic who also comes to abort her baby, has good reasons. She explains to Kehinde, “I want my baby badly, but I can’t afford to keep it. I have no home. I have no job, I’ve dropped out of university, and I’m not even sure I love David. I don’t want to trap him. That would be unfair” (27). Leah is pragmatic, strong, and aware of what she wants to do, which indicates that she has good plans for her future. Albert feels shy discussing his plans with his friend, Prahbu at his place of work, because “while the other could talk about their dreams; Albert felt shy. He was afraid that Prahbu would ask, ‘Are you sure you’re doing the right thing going to Africa?’” (16). Albert eventually reveals to Prahbu about his plans to go back to Nigeria, Prahbu tells him to think pragmatically. However, Albert responds, “our cultures in Nigeria put a lot of emphasis on home. The Yorubas say ‘Ori oye ki sun ta’-the heir’s head does not sleep outside, meaning the heir must always be buried in his father’s compound” (34). Prahbu reminds him that such things no longer hold true. His real reason is what he reveals to Prahbu next. But I want to go back to the way of life my father had, a life of comparative ease for men, where men were men, and women were women, and one was respected as somebody. Here, I am nobody, just a storekeeper. I’m fed up with just listening to my wife and indulging her. The only alternative is to go to the pub but going to stand among all those drunken whites is no solution. No, to be at home is better. There I can have my drink on the verandah, and people will pay attention to me, including my wife. (Emecheta 1994, 35)

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Albert is not comfortable with being restricted as a traditional Igbo man living in London. His reason exposes him as lazy, selfish, and controlling. His education has not changed him which indicates his endemic patriarchal upbringing. The writer notes that, Kehinde did not understand but his sisters did. Kehinde would learn when they got home how she was supposed to behave. Here, she was full of herself, playing the role of a white, middle-class woman, forgetting she was not only black, but an Igbo woman, just because she worked in a bank and earned more than he did. Many women worked in banks at home but did not allow it to go to their heads. (Emecheta 1994, 35)

Here, we see an authorial intrusion in the above statement which reveals that Albert is not in favor of any complementary relationship between men and women. It also exposes Albert as being jealous of his wife’s progress. Prahbu, knowingly, is skeptical about the relevance of traditional roles to men like him and Albert; however, Kehinde is aware that “behind the veneer of westernization, the traditional Igbo man was alive and strong, awaiting an opportunity to reclaim his birthright” (35). This awareness fails to warn and prepare her for the emotional trauma waiting for her when she gets to Nigeria to meet her husband. After a lavish send-off party, Albert goes to Nigeria alone to secure a home and get a job before his family comes back. Six months later, Albert sends tickets for his children to attend boarding schools in Nigeria. Kehinde informs him that the roof of the London house is leaking, but he declines to send her money since she works in the bank and earns a lot of money. Here, an undertone of jealousy is exposed in Albert’s refusal to send money to fix the roof of their house in London; thus, Moriammo, Kehinde’s friend, encourages her to go home. Kehinde gets the shock of her life on arriving home in Nigeria to find out that her husband has betrayed her. He has married another wife and has a child already without the knowledge of Kehinde. There is also another child on the way. She becomes unhappy and dumbfounded at this betrayal since this is not what she expects. Kehinde is perplexed at seeing “A very beautiful, sophisticated, young, pregnant woman, wearing the same white lace material as Albert. Her hair drawn back and plaited in the latest upside-down-basket style, made her face look narrower, so that her swollen belly was like a badge of womanhood in contrast to her leanness” (68). In this state of surprise and confusion, she does not quickly read meaning into her observations until her sister Ifeyinwa rushes in shortly after, shouting for joy. Ifeyinwa takes Kehinde to a room which is not the master bedroom and tells her about her husband’s wife Rike. She also tells her, “Stop calling him ‘my’ husband. You

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must learn to say ‘our.’ He is Rike’s husband too, you know. You saw her, that shameless one with a pregnancy in her belly and a baby on her hips. Honestly, these acadas just jump on any been-to man, so that they can claim their husband studied overseas” (71). Being in shock, Kehinde does not utter a word. While trying to persuade Kehinde to accept the situation, Ifeyinwa tells her that, “It happens all the time. My husband has two other wives and we all live in two rooms. At least here, you have a whole house, and Albert is in a good job. That one is a big teacher in a University” (71). Ifeyinwa also reveals that there is a third wife waiting to come in. This revelation by Ifeyinwa is an authorial intrusion exposing what men do even when they do not have enough money to take care of more than one wife. Ifeyinwa has aligned herself to the patriarchal tradition because she has no choice and tries to cushion the effect of this betrayal to help her sister stabilize emotionally. Kehinde feels betrayed at what her husband has done and finds out that his sisters are in support of his marrying many wives. Albert’s sisters are jealous and cannot bond with Kehinde, therefore, they decide to subdue and bring her to their traditional level by insisting that Albert marries more wives without telling her. Kehinde reflects on her relationship with Albert at the beginning and how he abhors polygamy because of his father’s two wives. She also remembers Moriammo’s warning, “Nigeria na man’s country. Dem get plenty, plenty, women wey dey chase after dem, sha” (80). However, Kehinde does not take this warning to heart at the right time, because in her naivety, she thinks that her husband is different. Albert exhibits his patriarchal tendency by not even apologizing and tells Kehinde that she has to get a job because “every educated woman works here. . . . I know you’re angry. But look back, Kehinde. My father had two wives, yours had three, so what sin did I commit that is so abominable?” (86). Even at this time, Albert does not see anything wrong with what he has done because this is the kind of life he chooses to live. He forgets that men who marry more than one wife in traditional African societies must have money to take care of the wives and children. Achebe (1958) explains this well in Things Fall Apart when Okonkwo takes more wives and another traditional title. Here, the wives really do not have to work rather the husband has the responsibility of taking care of as many wives as he wants to marry. Albert is supposed to know better because he has always objected to his father’s habit of marrying many wives. Instead of being apologetic, Albert tells Kehinde, “You don’t understand. That child Ogochukwu was born under a lucky star. A woli told me about him before he was born. As soon as I accepted his mother and allowed her to become my wife, I got this well-paying job. That woli told me that child will bring so much luck to all of us that we won’t know what came over us” (Emecheta 1994, 86). One wonders why after his travel abroad and acquiring

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education, Albert is easily lured by the fortune teller who convinces him to marry Rike. This portrays him as someone who is not changed by the education he acquires. His mind is still in the patriarchal society where his wife and people around him will always obey his orders without questioning him. If the woli’s vision is true, why does he insist on Kehinde getting a job? Kehinde goes through another psychological trauma and oppression when the family decides to visit the children, Joshua and Bimpe, at their school. Albert’s sister Mama Kaduna who is visiting, orders Kehinde to go to the back seat while she sits in front. This is insulting, and embarrassing for Kehinde, yet she joins them because she wants to see her children. Mama Kaduna, the matriarch of the family asserts herself even in her brother’s house while Kehinde says nothing because she is emotionally traumatized, and her husband does not come to her rescue. After the school visit, Kehinde writes to her friend Moriamma about her experiences since coming back to Nigeria and not getting a job as a secretary because she does not have a certificate. She now realizes that education is very important and desperately wants to reach Mary Elikwu whom she has slighted during Albert’s send-off party for leaving her husband to acquire a university education. This awareness strengthens her resolve to change her life. She misses London because she is not regarded as a worthy human being in her husband’s house. Because of the good relationship Kehinde has with her friend Moriamma in London, they understand one another. Hudson-Weems (2004) observes that, “it is always advantageous to have someone to talk to. Someone who is concerned about your needs, someone to give and receive positive feedback and action, both on a personal and a professional basis” (66). Without asking Kehinde, Moriamma, quickly understands that Kehinde needs to come back to London, so she sends her money for the ticket. She visits her children at school to let them know that she is going back to London. Meanwhile, Albert has gone to the North for his job, and Kehinde’s sister Ifeyinwa reluctantly sees her off to the airport, because she will miss her. To get back at Rike, Ifeyinwa reveals that Kehinde has gone back to London because of Albert’s Fulani wife. This is to make her uncomfortable, miserable, and make her aware that another wife will be moving in soon. Kehinde is relieved on getting to London to find out that her key to the house still fits and is welcomed home by Taiwo, one of the tenants she allowed to stay in the house. She removes the For Sale sign on her front lawn, thus asserting her claim to the house. Kehinde goes back to University to get a degree in Sociology, because she now understands the power of education. At this time, Albert has lost his job in Nigeria, but she is not bothered when her daughter Bimpe writes to inform her. Joshua, her son comes back to London hoping to claim the house as his father instructs him. He tells his mother, “But Ma, they said I should take the house and look after you. All

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mothers want their children to look after them” (Emecheta 1994, 139). His father hopes he will rent some rooms in the house and send him money every month. However, his mother puts him straight by asserting herself when she says, “But I don’t need looking after right now. I need you very much as a friend, just as I need your father, Mr. Gibson, Bimpe, and many others. I have a degree, and a job at the Department of Social Services. I’m enjoying meeting people and leading my own life” (139). Joshua tries again to fight for the house, but he is told by the court to leave his mother’s house and take care of himself. Kehinde observes, “Claiming my right does not make me less of a mother, not less of a woman. If anything, it makes me more human” (141). Kehinde proves that she is strong and capable of making her own decisions thus she asserts herself to let her son know that she can no longer be taking for a ride. Berklay (1993) observes that “the efforts of the oppressed towards individuality are a step along the road to liberation” (117). Kehinde asserts her feminist stance to show her awareness and self-consciousness. She is no longer upset but does not want anybody to twist her around anymore, including her son. Kehinde is lucky to have a good friend like Mariommo; otherwise, she may have suffered more and become a laughingstock especially with Albert’s sisters around. She has proved that education is important and a key to leading a successful life. She has also realized that “In order to change her position to a more significant order, the woman must exhibit her inner strength and capabilities and assert her womanhood” (Diala-Ogamba and Sykes 2015, 3). This she does in her dealings with her son. Her frustration and desperation lead her to write the letter to Moriammo at the crucial time, thus she gets the help she needs to liberate herself from oppression. Salih (1969) in Season of Migration to the North, presents a realistic picture of what happens in his society and how women are treated. Even though Hosna Bint speaks out, she is only one person and cannot do much to help herself. She needs to align with someone like Mabrouka or Bint Majzoub to form a strong bonding to be able to fight back. The narrator has no name, thus showing that he is a symbol of anyone who does not impact his society in any way, shape, or form. In Emecheta’s (1994) Kehinde, even though Kehinde is not willing to go back to Nigeria, her home country, she goes back hoping to meet the husband she knows and loves, only to be disappointed and betrayed at his wild ways. She is so traumatized by her husband’s behavior, leading to her inability to confront him on his polygamous way of life, neither is she able to advise her sister Ifeyinwa in her own predicament. Luckily, she recovers quickly by going back with the ticket her friend sends her and promises to send her sister a ticket to come to London, thus giving her sister the hope of being liberated someday. Kehinde’s awareness and education liberate her and make her comfortable to speak out and stand by her actions. As for Bint,

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she liberates herself in death because no man will harass her again. Through her death, she teaches men to always seek the opinion of the women they are dealing with instead of treating them as non-sequential beings.

SECTION 3

Exploitation, Women’s Struggle, and Resistance

Chapter 6

Race, Colonialism, and Resistance The Women Left Behind in Lauretta Ncgobo’s And They Didn’t Die

Writers and critics have been exploring the issues of race, colonialism, and resistance for a long time. South African literature is not different. Most of their literary works during and after apartheid focus on race, colonialism, oppression, and resistance. They used the apartheid legislation to oppress and dehumanize the non-whites in South Africa after colonizing them. With the arrival of Van Riebeeck on April 7, 1652, the whites who are better equipped militarily, conquered the original inhabitants of South Africa, and took over their land. To maintain superiority over the non-whites, several apartheid legislations were created at their expense. Through this legislation, the nonwhites are oppressed, dehumanized and segregated to keep them inferior. Therefore, the political and economic power rests with the minority whites while the non-whites have limited resources and do not have any representations in government. The non-whites are subdued economically, socially, and politically. Their history is also suppressed to make them lose their identity completely. This apartheid legislation which became prominent since 2010 resulted in a series of short stories and novels by both whites and non-whites who do not reflect each other positively in their writings. The whites portray the non-whites as inhuman and mysterious while the non-whites expose the oppression and inhuman treatment of the whites against them. The non-whites in their writings tend to be militant in tone as they had become aware that they too are human. They therefore act out their feelings through the characters in their works. The apartheid system in South Africa affected the men as well as the women who were left behind in the rural areas to take care of the children, the home, the cattle, and the land, while their husbands worked in the urban areas making little stipend to sustain their families. It is these inhuman treatments 69

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meted on the non-whites that Lauretta Ngcobo chronicles in her novel, And They Didn’t Die. Through her protagonist, Jezile, Ngcobo exposes the terrible oppression imposed on the women by both the apartheid regime which was created because of race and colonialization, and the traditional law in the 1950s and 60s. Jezile, a woman with remarkable strength, has to contend with the racial oppression in her society, as well as the enforced apartheid separation from her husband, Siyalo who works in the urban city of Durban. Jezile and the women of Sabelweni valley defy the apartheid laws by protesting, resisting, and burning the passes given to them by the government, thus leading to their imprisonment. This chapter therefore explores the racial conflict and oppression of women in Sabelweni valley, which is used as a microcosm of the rural areas in South Africa where women suffer the same fate. The chapter also argues that the awareness and resistance exhibited by Jezile and the women save their families from extinction. After the colonization of the blacks in South Africa, the whites use their authority to oppress the women left behind by their husbands by systematically, taking over their land, and cattle, leaving nothing for them to take care of their families. Enns and Sinacore (2005) view oppression as “the consequences of rigid gender role conditioning as well as irrational beliefs that women are less capable than men” (27). The apartheid government believes that the Sabelweni women are not capable of challenging them or their decisions; therefore, they ignore the women’s complaints. The women, in spite of threats, decide to take laws into their hands by emptying the dipping tank before the arrival of Mr. Pienaar, the white officer whose duty brings him regularly to the black reserve of Sigageni. This action creates racial tension between the women and Mr. Pienaar, the dipping officer. Mr. Pienaar shows his resentment and frustration as he proclaims that “The government is doing everything for them, and they deliberately wreck it—they accept nothing that is done for their own good, no appreciation, no understanding at all—how can anyone teach them to think!” (Ngcobo 1999, 1). Mr. Pienaar sees the women with their hoes slung on their shoulders, but he does not look at them, as he continues to curse. These women, this strange breed of womanhood, thin and ragged and not like women at all—they think they rule the world, they spill men’s beers, they herd cattle, they plough fields, they run this community. That’s what it is; that’s why this defiance—they’ve lost respect for manhood, for all authority, but they haven’t got the sense to do it properly. In the absence of their husbands they’ve lost the need for men, if nobody stops them, they’re going to ruin this country. In spite of what others think, it is these women we have got to deal with, not those far away men in the cities. (Ncgobo 1999, 2)

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Because of this racial tension, the white officer is determined to check the excesses of the women as he realizes that they are a force to reckon with and drives away in anger. However, the women are ready to fight all sorts of oppression from the government so they can survive. Achufusi (1984) asserts that “when a woman is resourceful and self-reliant, independent of the man financially, she can boldly exercise the right to choose between alternatives” (160). The women’s right to choose what they want and how to live their lives is exactly what the oppressor does not want. Since Jezile’s husband has mostly not been around, she has developed the independence of mind to make valid decisions and choices to take care of her children. The women of Sabelweni are all fighting and struggling because the land and cattle they depend on are gradually taken away from them. They are therefore determined to fight this domination to save themselves and their children. Jezile continues to exhibit her awareness and feminist consciousness by making decisions to benefit the women of Sabelweni. Siyalo, Jezile’s husband goes back to Durban to work soon after their wedding without Jezile getting pregnant. Jezile takes matters into her hand by securing a pass from the government to visit her husband in Durban, after the women burn their passes. She becomes pregnant; knowing that she is fulfilling her role to be a mother makes her happy but does not stop her activism. Jezile’s visit to her husband in Durban exposes her to the segregation of the blacks which gives rise to frustration and leads to their drowning their sorrows in beer. This same scenario is seen in Alex La Guma’s (1989) A Walk in the Night, where the characters walk the night drowning themselves in alcohol out of frustration and hopelessness. It is also replicated in Yvonne Vera’s (1998) Butterfly Burning, where men drown their sorrow in beer after work. While in Durban, Jezile reads a newspaper article about women driving their husband’s away from beer halls. “They had carried big sticks, and knob-kerries to frighten the men away. Jezile laughed to herself, at once feeling a bond with these city women—how similar their situations were” (Ncgobo 1999, 30). She realizes that the city women are as lonely as the rural women whose husbands abandon them while working in the city. Some men like Mthebe living in the city tend to be carried away by city life and women, making them to forget their families in the rural areas. The men sometimes abandon their families, to marry city women just like Nomawa and Gaba’s husbands. Their wives do not have any choice but work hard to feed their children. Rose Mezu (1994) observes that, because the African woman is operating from a milieu deeply steeped in sexist norms and mores and contending with a plethora of problems which complicate her life and endanger her chances of a felicitous conjugal living . . . she suffers

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abandonment, she is aware of it and her lament is no less heartfelt and traumatic than that of her Western counterpart. (16)

This abandonment caused by movement to the city to look for greener pastures is systematic oppression created by the authority to keep the men and their families perpetually dependent on the government. The authority also colonizes the minds of the black men by encouraging them to drink themselves to stupor with the little stipend they receive. Siyalo agrees with the actions of the women driving their men away from the beer halls when he says, “These women are right, and our women in the country are right to fight back. Something has to be done to stop the crippling of our lives. They build us beer halls, not clinics; they build us churches, not houses to live in. People are drinking themselves to death; children are sharing the same concoctions as their parents, for lack of milk and they are dying like flies” (Ncgobo 1999, 32). Siyalo as a feminist supports and encourages Jezile to fight on and reveals that “A group of us knew about the plot to fight the police back at Cato Manor” (83). This is also an authorial intrusion that reveals the vision of the author for the women in her society. The living conditions of the non-whites who work in Durban are unhealthy and horrible, as they are made to live in a secluded, poverty-stricken environments. The men are recruited from the rural areas to work for the whites in their factories. The workers know that they are in Durban for purely economic reasons, so they live in crammed houses just to save money to feed their families. Ncgobo (1999) observes that, “To increase the family income, many have had to sublet to other stranded families. The one-roomed houses, which were once built for young childless couples in the old days, are now full of children and grandchildren. Fifteen people stay in one room! The mind boggles at how anyone could have conceived of those one-roomed structures” (31). This is segregation and the men do not have any choice but to live in such an environment to save money to take care of their families. While still in Durban, Jezile and Fikazile, who are sharing the same hostel, join the city women in rampage to fight for better living conditions. The women decide that, they would continue to beat the men out of those beer halls. Making people drink was an act of aggression; paying people little money for food was an act of aggression against the community of black people; women and children were the community, and therefore they had a right to defend themselves aggressively. The women heckled and silenced any doubts on the trains and on the buses. They commanded a following without stopping to enlist anyone. (Ncgobo 1999, 33)

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Jezile and Fakazile’s participation with the other women shows the awareness of the problem of dependency that the government is encouraging, making the blacks to remain perpetually in poverty. Anderson and Zinsser (1990) opine that feminism is, rejecting much, from basic cultural tenets to casual everyday behavior. Given ancient traditions which insists that women defer and subordinate themselves to men, given traditions which define women only by their relationship with men, given traditions which undervalue women and take men as the standard, the only way for women to full humanity has been to reject those standards. (334)

This awareness causes the women to revolt by driving their husbands away from beer halls, so the men can change and be responsible for their families. The support and encouragement from a trusted woman leader like Dr. Nosizwe helps to raise the consciousness of the women. Dr. Nosizwe acts as the women’s guide in the whole district of Ixopo, not just at Sigageni, and the women respect her. She visits various women’s groups weekly. “She understood not only the harsh extremes of their lives, but also their merciless system of white oppression that left them cruelly exploited and defenseless” (Ncgobo 1999, 40). In her speech, Nosizwe tells the women the major problems that they all are encountering. She observes that, “The truth is, there are too many people on too little land. But the government chooses not to see it that way—they say we have too many cattle. But most of our families have no more than six animals, just enough to plough the land, and that is too much they say. Many of us harvest each year less than the seed we planted” (43). This is an authorial intrusion explaining what the problem is, why the people in local areas/reserve are very poor and why the women should not tolerate the oppression but speak out and fight for survival in any way they can. Moremi (1983) opines that “consciousness-raising groups offer opportunities for women to compare notes and celebrate the contained insistence that their rights must and ultimately will be respected not at the expense of the freedom of others but both as a part of liberation” (263). Explaining the problems in the simplest terms is both instructive and insightful. The same issue of land appropriation is seen in Alex La Guma’s (1979) In the Fog of the Season’s End and (1976) Time of the Butcherbird where the people’s lands are confiscated, and the people are moved to arid regions to start life afresh. Women are also put to work without compensation; however, Nosizwe encourages the women to unite and fight so they can win in their struggle. She goes further to give them examples of “the Mau Mau of Kenya where people are united in their fight for their language and their freedom from Britain rule” (Ncgobo 1999, 47), and other places where the people pull together to fight oppression successfully. Towards the end of her speech, she gives them hope

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for the future when she reiterates, “but I tell you, a new leadership will arise and take us to freedom. We and our children will fight on and on; if it takes a thousand years, we will win in the end” (48), and win, they did! After the meeting, they pray and sing together as a ploy, so the police have no reason to arrest them. This hope for freedom is really the author’s vision for her society, which eventually works. Nutsukpo Fafa (2007) opines that “For the African woman, self-awareness is the key to the objective viewing of her choices, which inevitably leads to her physical, social and emotional development and her subsequent emancipation from inequality and male domination” (168). The women, therefore, get a warning that, “The war against Apartheid has started and people are fighting back heroically. . . . You may be assaulted, you may end up in prison, you may lose what little land you have and be dispersed” (Ncgobo 1999, 46). Here, Noswize explains the consequences of fighting against apartheid, so that the women know what they are getting into and be prepared. The government continues its racial oppression by imposing their own supporters as chiefs to enforce the racial separation policy. Even though the people believe that “A King is only a King if the people make him King” (50), the government still imposes kings on them and gives the chiefs undue power to persuade the people to accept apartheid schemes. The Chiefs have power to try large number of cases-and where there are fines, the complainant shares the fine with the chief. . . . They tax us, the poorest of the poor, so they can have benefit from the government-they want to benefit from our extreme poverty! For all those reasons, we do not want Bantu authorities Tribunals, we do not want all the schemes for the rehabilitation and reallocation of land, we do not want to carry passes. (Ncgobo 1999, 46)

The women are unified as they refuse to take the passes brought by the government. They are now encouraged to list their problems and launch a formal complaint to Bantu Administration Department. Juliette Mitchell (1974) is of the view that “women have to organize themselves as a group to effect change in the basic ideology of human society . . . a cultural revolution . . . [that] needs theory and political practice” (414). The women realize that they do not have to wait for their husbands to make decisions for them. This sense of awareness makes them take control of their fate. Young mothers are strong, but they are permanently in a state of dependency and estrangement. The young mother in Sabelweni is lonely and isolated. She loses her identity and is known by her husband’s name or her child’s name. For example, “Nwoye’s mother” as seen in Achebe’s (1958) Things Fall Apart. However, the reader notes that for the young mother,

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From the day she arrived at her husband’s home, no one called her by her name. She would be called MaMapanga, MaMajola, MaDuma or MaSibiya-her father’s name. Losing her name isolated a young married woman emotionally, further confirming her alienation. Her position would only change when she has her first child; she would then be known by her child’s name-NaKaJezile (Mother of Jezile), NakaDumazile, NakaZenzile-thus living her life the identity of her father or her child. (Ncgobo 1999, 56)

Loss of identity therefore creates loneliness, confusion and strips the woman of her dignity. Richard Taylor (1986) is of the view that “identity represents an evolving articulation of personal capacities, value identification and . . . plans, ideals, expectations, and opportunities” (202). To reinforce her isolation, there is a string of taboos that a young mother observes, “She has to cover her hair in front of her senior in-laws, she cannot call them by their names except the younger ones, not call her husband by his first name but brother of his brother or sister until she bears the first child; she could designate him the title. There were foods she could not eat because she was not a full member of the family” (Ncgobo 1999, 56). However, in her parents’ house, she is free to do whatever she likes. This isolation emanates from rigid traditional laws which gives rise to oppression. Depriving women of certain rights that the men engage with is reprehensible and creates segregation within the family. Another aspect of traditional oppression comes from the mothers-in-law, the matriarchs who focus on monitoring the young wives and do not give them the freedom to explore new ways of life or empower themselves. These older women perpetuate the rigid traditional laws to suppress the young mothers and stifle them. Someone like Zenzile could not go to the hospital to deliver her baby because her mother-in-law thinks it is not necessary. After twenty-four hours child labor, she has a still-birth and dies. This is lack of awareness and education on the part of her mother-in-law. Another matriarch, MaBiyela, Jezile’s mother-in-law, is also hard on Jezile and does not want her to express her opinion during the Thursday meetings she attends. She is not happy that Jezile gives birth in the hospital without seeking her help and for not bringing back the baby’s cord. Jezile is free spirited, but highly sensitive in the manner she handles her affairs with her mother-in-law, in order not to go against the tradition. The women continue with activism and resistance by destroying and burning Chief Siyapi and Duma’s house and killing them. According to Paula Freire (1972), Violence is initiated by those who oppress, who exploit, who fail to recognize others as people not by those who are oppressed, exploited, and unrecognized.

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It is not the unloved who cause disaffection but those who cannot love because they love only themselves. It is not the helpless, subject to terror, who with their power create the concrete situation which begets the rejects of life. (32)

After the police buried Siyapi, Duma, and their families, they start to commit atrocities by attacking people wherever they see them. The men retreat to Ntongas Mountain where the women found a way of taking food to them. Here, the women continue taking control of their destiny just as seen in Ousmane Sembene’s (1995) God’s Bits of Wood. Some infiltrators report to the government who eventually kill eleven people by shooting them from behind. The women set the timber yard ablaze after burying the men killed. A casual observer may think that women of Sabelweni are at home taking care of their children and their life stock, But beneath the surface . . . they formed a network of messengers relaying messages from one group to another. And whenever the police or soldiers came around, the women gave warning cries as signals to others in hiding. Throughout this time, they dressed entirely in black to show that their area was in mourning-even those who normally wore their traditional red blankets. Day by day their food supplies diminished but they remained undeterred and defiant. (180)

The hope for a better future which they envisage gives them courage to continue fighting the oppression. The repressive economic situation in Sabelweni forces the women to march to Bantu Affairs Department to complain about the oppression and their living conditions just like the women in Ousmane’s (1995) Gods Bits of Wood. The author uses Jezile, Dr. Nosizwe and the other women to protest the economic strangulation imposed on them. The women are expected to be docile and restricted to their farms and church meetings since their husbands are away, but the government is shocked that they are speaking out, protesting, and resisting the racial oppression. Dr. Nosizwe and the women are arrested and imprisoned for six months for speaking out and daring the police. When the Sabelweni women are taken to court, there is no relationship between their demands and what the court accuses them of, therefore, they are devastated both mentally and spiritually. The women are released unannounced and given bus tickets to go back home. This imprisonment is another way of intimidating the women and curbing their activism and protest. The oppression continues as Siyalo no longer has a job because of his political activism, however, he is jailed for stealing cow milk to feed his dying daughter. His mother blames Jezile for her son’s imprisonment, making Jezile angry. The anger and frustration lead to the bonding Jezile shares with Gaba and Nomawa who come to support her and the baby because they believe

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that “When a mother-in-law blames you for any catastrophe, then you’re in trouble” (Ncgobo 1999, 147). The women stay with Jezile for several hours, washing her baby and getting warm water ready for Jezile’s bath, and feeding her. Both ladies unofficially adopt Jezile into their league of lonely women. “Whenever they ran short of supplies, they appealed to each other for help; when one was in difficulty, they rallied in her support. They made friends and tended to go out together even on public occasions” (148). The women encourage her to baptize her daughter and go back to Thursday (political) meetings. They convince her to join them to work for MaNgid, Duma’s wife who pays her workers. Jezile also bonds with Nosizwe who reassures her to always bring her children to the hospital whenever they are sick. MaBiyela, realizing that Jezile’s children can starve to death, encourages Jezile to find a way to survive since she has small children to feed. This is an improvement on MaBiyela’s thinking and awareness as she gives Jezile the opportunity to do what she can to take care of her children. The women continue to struggle and work for economic sustenance. With the encouragement of Nomawa, Jezile joins her to work for the white men who are doing the road construction. Mr. Potgieter, the man in charge of the construction invites Jezile to work for his family after the road construction ends. Jezile is introduced to Mrs. Potgieter as the new maid, and she is paid twenty pounds a month at the insistence of Mr. Potgieter. She makes enough money to send to MaBiyela who is taking care of the children. Mrs. Potgieter perpetuates racism in her house by calling Jezile, “Annie,” which is a generic name that Afrikaaner women employers give their black maids. After a fight between Mr. Potgieter and his wife one evening, Mrs. Potgieter is unable to hide her unhappiness as Jezile helps to clean the blood on her face. Jezile is raped by Mr. Potgieter who professes his love to her. While trying to console Jezile, Mr. Potgieter says, “If it wasn’t for the law, I would love you openly: I would even marry you. I loved you when you were with your people at Umzimkulu. I brought you here because I love you; I could not bear, not to see you ever again” (205). Jezile reflects that “Rape is a burden to its own victim. It was as though she had wished it on herself. She could predict all the lurid gossip. They would even suggest that she had followed him to Bloemfontein because she had had an affair with him. And what would Siyalo think when he came back and heard these stories?” (206). Jezile is highly upset because she understands the consequences of rape. Patricia Hill Collins (1991) observes that in the case of raped victims, “such women are twice victimized, first by the actual rape. . . . But they are victimized again by family members, community, residents and social institutions such as criminal justice systems which somehow believe that victims are responsible for their victimization” (147). Jezile is miserable as she thinks about this implication. On the other hand, Mrs. Potgieter is still

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in bed with a swollen face. The author reflects that Jezile and Mrs. Potgieter “were two women trapped under one roof, unable to escape and allied against their will. When she saw Jezile in tears she thought Jezile was crying because she was sorry for her. This heartened her a great deal, and a bond of understanding grew between the two women. Jezile did not dare tell Mrs. Potgieter what had happened and why she was crying” (Ncgobo 1999, 206), because she is afraid of the consequences. Later, Mrs. Potgieter is mollified to see Jezile pregnant and starts to improve Jezile’s ration by including fruits and vegetables in her diet. She gives her some of her children’s clothes and some of her old clothes. Jezile delivers a baby boy but refuses to reveal the father of the baby to the hospital nurses and the police because it is a criminal offence for a black woman to have a white child. Mr. Potgieter sends Jezile home with a lot of money for her upkeep and that of the baby, warning her not to reveal the father of the baby. On coming home, Jezile continues to face racism and the rigid traditional laws of her people for bringing back a white child. MaBiyela takes one look at the baby, “she gave one deep groan. After some moments she asked a question of Jezile, a question directed more at destiny than her. Why didn’t you just leave this child with the white man? The child does not belong here; it does not belong anywhere. This child will bring the white law on us. Who will face them when they come? This is not a Majola nor is it a Mapanga” (Ngcobo 214). This means that the child has no identity. To make matters worse, Jezile is ostracized from the community. Ironically, the church that is supposed to protect the people excommunicates MaBiyela for accepting Jezile in her home. This is disappointing as the church is usually the lifeline of the people in hard times. “Other aspects of life in the community were channeled through the church. That was why this judgement was like a death sentence” (216). The church refuses to protect the people when they need its support most, that is why the treatment is harsh, thus isolation continues for Jezile and her mother-in-law. MaBiyela is afraid of the apartheid law while Jezile dreads the punishment from the tradition. Both her clan and the government decree Lungu, her son, (which means white), anathema/abomination. They cannot fathom a white African living with them. Lungu learns as he grows up that “by virtue of his birth he had been disinherited from all sources of power—the white world and his place in the African male structure” (Ngcobo 1999, 228). A case like this is seen in Yaa Gyasi’s (2016) Homegoing when Quey is playing with his friend who becomes uncomfortable and confused because he is told that he is white. “Quey had wanted to cry but that desire embarrassed him. He knew that he was one of the half-caste children of the Castle, and like the other half-caste children, he could not fully claim either half of himself, neither his father’s whiteness nor his mother’s blackness. Neither England nor the Gold

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Coast” (Gyasi 2016, 56). One can observe that the rejection of the villagers matches that of the white government in terms of the birth of a white child, Lungu. In response to this birth, Gagiano (2011) contends that, In Ngcobo’s And they didn’t Die, cultural oppression occurs alongside apartheid political oppression while also binding the oppressed together in protective solidarity. The author suggests that, given the fact of apartheid’s intervention, the tight customary familial rules and roles of the tribe should have offered some leeway and been compassionately relaxed: the novel depicts the family-sharing results of the terrible co-incidence of Afrikaaner dominated apartheid and customary laws for women like the protagonist at this time: an accidental, destructive “conspiracy” of oppressive forces. (53–54)

Lungu grows up to attend a school for colored children, becoming a medical doctor and a successful city man even after he is paralyzed from the wound he receives during a raid by the soldiers. Because of the rejection from her husband’s people and the church, Jezile moves back to her home with her children with the permission of MaBiyela and the Majola people. She continues to work hard on her sewing and knitting to become economically independent and to feed her children. In her hometown of Mapanga “the older women treated Jezile with such tenderness as though she had only been raped the day before” (Ncgobo 1999, 214). Here, the women treat her well because they understand her problems and struggle and it is another way of bonding and encouraging her to know that she can live for her children. “Life was a shared experience, and those who did not share, become isolated” (222). Jezile through the bonding learns how to relate to others with open mind to avoid the loneliness, and to refocus her mind positively. After a while, her husband’s people come to take the children when Siyalo comes back from prison. She surmises that her people and her husband’s people have “judged her and condemned her and disowned her” (226) in her absence. Tradition is now against her, and she is unable to claim her children; however, her people continue to stand by her. They seemed always to be there in times of crisis. They appear from everywhere as though they have sniffed news in the air. They murmured, they caressed, they force-fed, insisting that life must go on, no matter what. They would not let anyone succumb for they each depended on the other. They kept vigil night and day, taking turns to give comfort to Jezile. They were always there. They accept the harsh execution of custom without question. They were there to see her through. (Ncgobo 1999, 227)

This experience becomes very traumatic to her and she passes out. According to Hudson-Weems (2004), “It is always advantageous to have someone to

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talk to . . . someone who is concerned about your needs, someone to give and receive positive feedback and action, both on a personal and a professional basis” (66). Jezile is lucky to have a huge support from her people. MaBiyela writes her to reassure her that her daughters are doing well. This is emblematic of growth on the part of MaBiyela. She does well to reach out to Jezile and support her at her time of need. Jezile recovers and continues to work to send her children to boarding schools so they do not work for the “Potgieters” of this world. Her son, Lungu attends the colored school where Siyalo works. Siyalo accepts “that the child joins the school because despite everything Lungu was his child—according to custom any child she bore while still married to him was his child. As he had never divorced her, she was still his wife, and the child was his. It surprised Jezile that custom could be on her side as well. What surprised her more was to see what a creature of custom Siyalo was” (Ncgobo 1999, 233). The tradition has a way of keeping hold on her even when she is rejected by being sent back to her home. The awareness and confidence raised by the women trickle down to the children who start an uprising in their school against the Bantu Education Administration to protest the type of education they receive. Ndondo, Jezile’s daughter, is identified as the ringleader. She eventually escapes from South Africa into exile. Many students are shot and wounded including Lungu who is eventually paralyzed from the waist down as a result. He wins a scholarship to study medicine in a university. Ndondo disguises herself as a doctor to visit her sister S’naye who works as a nurse in a hospital. She also visits her mother to let her know that she has joined the army to help liberate South Africa. She joins without even discussing with her family, showing her independence of mind. She assures her mother that they will soon be free, and things will be back to normal. This is also an authorial intrusion showing her vision for South Africa. After seeing Ndondo off through a safe route, Jezile comes back to find a soldier trying to rape her daughter S’naye and stabs him to death with a knife. She says to S’naye, “Look he’s dead. It was bound to happen at some time or other; we have to fight back. I couldn’t let him do it to you. . . . There was something, so calm about her as she walked over and sat down on her old chair. Something akin to peace settled on her face. She sat dry-eyed, an air of achievement about her” (242). Jezile makes up her mind to see Siyalo before she is picked up by the soldiers, but she tells S’naye, “This is no time to cry, S’naye. You have a lot of crying to do, but this is not the time. Crying does not change a thing. God knows I’ve cried—all my life” (242). Jezile’s reaction is in line with El Saadawi’s thinking about how feminists should react. It is also in line with the reaction of El Saadawi’s (2007b) main character, Firdaus who kills her pimp in Woman at Point Zero. Jezile kills the soldier to

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save her daughter from being raped just like she was, therefore, she has no remorse. She decides to tell Siyalo about it so he can hear directly from her. She tells Siyalo that, “It’s happened again. Only, this time. He wanted to rape S’naye” (Ncgobo 1999, 242). She tells him about her rape by Mr. Potgieter which resulted in Lungu’s birth, and finally says, “I had to tell him. They’ve destroyed us, Siyalo. They broke our marriage, they broke our life here at Sabelweni, and they’ve broken all our children’s lives and killed many. He was raping our daughter. I had to defend her. We have to defend ourselves” (245). He holds her, murmuring, “Jezile, life of my life” (245), showing that he still loves her. Jezile, fighting back and killing the soldier without remorse indicates that she has had enough. There is a limit to what humans can endure; therefore, she determines to fight back before she is taken away by the authority. The strong women of Sabelweni do not mind being in prison, so long as they defend and protect their children. Farred (1993) acknowledges the burden of prejudice on the black South African characters in And They Didn’t Die. He sees Ngcobo’s work as ground-breaking in the history of black South African writing when he observes that, Black South African literature since the 1940s is marked by three distinguish features: a commitment to the struggle of proletariat against the forces of apartheid, a predominantly urban setting, and a majority of male writers. Lauretta Ngcobo’s And They Didn’t Die breaks with this tradition. . . . Focusing on the political and economic struggle of rural women in Natal at the end of the 1950s. The importance of Ngcobo’s narrative within black South African writing is that it explores the connections between black women’s sexual and political experiences. (94)

George Lukas opines that a novelist should not only reflect his society dynamically in its complexity, but should also reflect it for the improvement, survival, and growth of that society (Eagleton 2008, 44). The South African woman has not been inactive or silent, she is rather very relevant to her society even when the men are not there. Just like in Ousmane’s (1995) God’s Bits of Wood, the women in this novel play positive roles to take care of their families without fear. They have a methodology to their actions and resistance which works well for them and helps them to get things done without giving out their secrets. The women are confident that they can handle difficult situations and are proud of their success so far as they continue to work together. Achebe (1975) in an essay, “The Role of the Writer in a New Nation,” says that, “The worst thing that can happen to any people is the loss of their dignity and self-respect. The writer’s duty is to help them regain it by showing them in human terms what happened to them, what they lost. There is a saying in

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Ibo [sic] that a man who can’t tell where the rain began to beat him cannot know where he dried his body. The writer can tell the people where the rain began to beat them” (160), and that is what Lauretta Ngcobo has done in her novel by reflecting on the activism of the women left behind.

Chapter 7

The Formidable Emancipator in Meja Mwangi’s Crossroads: The Last Plague

Most of the time people relate an emancipator to a strong man of valor who can save others from dangerous situations. Women are never in the picture because they are not viewed as people who can achieve anything meaningful to improve the culture of the society and the needs of the people, especially in dire situations. It is the same thinking when it comes to patriarchal settings and in early African writings such as Elechi Amadi’s (1966) The Concubine and Chinua Achebe’s (1958) Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God (1964) to mention but a few. In patriarchal settings, men are the authority figures and women are not given any recognition because they are considered ineffectual in the society. Because of this oppression and lack of recognition, women strive to deconstruct cultural, religious, and patriarchal domination through emancipation, awareness, empowerment, and education. In lieu of this, Helen Chukwuma (1994) opines that Feminism is “a rejection of inferiority and a striving for recognition. It seeks to give the woman a sense of self as a worthy, effectual, and contributing human being. Feminism is a reaction to such stereotypes of women which deny them a positive identity” (ix). Furthermore, Baruch and Serrano (1988) postulate that, Feminism has come to the realization that the oppression of women does not lie solely in the institutions of the society, the social and economic structure. It now recognizes that something hidden fuels this structure, the unseen and often unspoken but powerful feelings of the unconscious, the entire apparatus of what is called the symbolic order, that is, the language, values, myths, images, and stereotypes that influence and are influenced by our psychological life. (11)

Meja Mwangi, a renowned Kenyan writer exposes us to a single-minded female character who dedicates herself, life, and work to the survival of her 83

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decaying community. For the purposes of the activities of the protagonist Janet, being an emancipator is simply defined as being a liberator. An emancipator saves people from bondage and oppression and brings a sense of awareness to the people. This chapter therefore explores how, in this novel, Meja Mwangi uses Janet, the protagonist, as the emancipator who frees the Crossroads community by exposing the barbaric traditional norms and customs that have eaten deep into the fibers of the society and does her best to stop them through persistent negotiations and activism. The chapter further argues that Janet’s assertiveness, resistance, and self-reliance help to liberate her community by bringing a sense of awareness to the people of Crossroads, thus bringing back joy and a sense of community to the people. The novel opens with Mzee Musa lamenting the death of his community, Crossroads, and its crumbling buildings. Musa, the owner of the only functioning teahouse in Crossroads watches with Uncle Mark, a retiree who stays at the teahouse, as people bring home their dead relatives daily to bury. Crossroads becomes only a burial place with scanty people living there. Most citizens of Crossroads have left the city in search of better living conditions. Uncle Mark initially remarks about the crumbling city and its imminent end; “He has seen it first in a vision, seen it before it hit them, and warned everyone about it, but no one who heard had understood. AIDS had not reared its head in Crossroads yet and not enough residents had been to places he had been or witnessed the things he had seen” (Mwangi 2020, 5). He has traveled far and wide, but the old people call him Kibogoya, “the wise fool,” because they do not understand him. People admire him and call him different names, but he is not happy that his town is dying. The beggar in the city has taken over the only telephone booth in Crossroads since no one uses it. The place momentarily looks sad, miserable, and uninhabitable. Janet, the protagonist, comes down from the bus carrying her boxes of condoms which she keeps at Musa’s place. She comes back with her men’s bicycle to carry all of them without asking for help. When Janet arrives, Musa, “knew at once it was her from the way she arrived, in full force like an army of amazons, the way the earth shook under her footsteps and the way her aura preceded her by a moment before she stamped into the place” (29). This description portrays Janet as an independent, focused woman who is aware of her position as the emancipator of Crossroads. Her determined steps indicate that she does not take NO, for an answer from anybody. Musa, a naïve and religious man marvels at Janet’s work, wondering why men should use the condoms. Later in the day, the bus driver brings old newspapers for Uncle Mark and drops off Frank Fundi who is supposed to have been studying in the United States. His return becomes a surprise which prompts the people to request the refund of the money they donated to him. Without explaining his journey, he promises to pay them as soon as he gets the money



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but walks home with Janet. On getting to his family house, he notices several orphaned children sleeping on every space available; however, he leaves the next morning to rent a room at Musa’s Teahouse. Janet projects her sense of awareness when she explains to her sister Julia the effects of AIDS, which they refer to as the plague, and pleads with her to stop her husband Kata from marrying his late brother’s wife. Julia is unhappy that Janet wants her to leave Kata, so he does not infect her with AIDS. In retaliation, Julia makes a comment about not wanting to be a prostitute. Based on the statement, Julia implies that Janet is a prostitute because she refuses to remarry after her husband abandoned her. She tells Janet, “I’m a married woman. . . . I’m not like some people who have no one to tell them what to do” (51). Julia sticks by her husband without realizing that she is in bondage since she is used to being ordered about by him. The real fact is that Julia is imprisoned by patriarchal ideology. She is afraid of confronting her husband and not used to challenging him. She has no sense of awareness and does not know her rights within her marriage. Julia still lives in the past and condones levirate marriage instead of condemning such sexist cultural practices at this time of the plague. Julia’s inability to stop Kata from the levirate marriage captures Amina Mama’s (2002) argument that “The confinement of women to the economically dependent role of housewife is a condition that has made it difficult for many women to leave otherwise unbearably violent situations. In other words, the domestication of women is a precondition for the crime we describe as domestic violence” (53). Julia’s comment hurts Janet, but it does not stop her from explaining to Julia her rights and obligations within her marriage. Julia further responds, “I can’t stop Kata doing anything. . . . You know he is a traditional man” (Mwangi 2020, 52). She knows that Kata sticks to tradition since it benefits him in a variety of ways. She is also afraid of Kata’s domineering attitude and cannot stand up to him. Kata’s dominance is an indication that patriarchy rules the community of Crossroads and no one can challenge the patriarchal authority. Julia’s reaction exposes her fear and lack of awareness. Ogundipe-Leslie (1994), in discussing the sixth mountain on a woman’s back, explains that “Women are shackled by their own negative self-image, by centuries of the interiorization of the ideologies of patriarchy and gender hierarchy. Their own reactions to objective problems are often self-defeating and self-crippling. Woman reacts with fear, dependency, complexes . . . where more self-assertive actions are needed” (36). Janet’s grandmother confirms this when she reiterates, “You can’t change our tradition” (Mwangi 2020, 52). To this, Janet responds, “I don’t want to change your customs. . . . The plague will do that for you. The plague will change more than tradition unless it was stopped” (52). Julia is portrayed as weak and dependent on her husband for everything. Kata insists that men should conserve cultural norms, and women

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like Julia and Hanna are used to support this cultural bigotry indicating that changing the people of Crossroads will be a huge task for Janet. Janet exhibits her resilience by going with Frank to stop Kata from continuing with the levirate marriage, but Kata insists on his right according to tradition to take over his brother, Solomon’s wife. He reminds Frank that Janet is a woman, “Daktari. We are men. I’m not afraid of anything” (69). This implies that Kata does not understand the impact of the plague and how deadly it is. It is also an indication of how patriarchy relegates women to the background and silences them, however, Janet is not someone to be silenced because she is bent on accomplishing her mission. Janet takes Kata to court to face the council of elders, but Chief Chupa tells them to settle the matter at home since they are family. In support of Janet, Uncle Mark insists that “The woman is right. . . . To inherit the wife of a man who dies from the plague is not just foolish-it is the height of madness” (76). This statement causes chaos and people disperse without resolving the issue. The news from Crossroads blames Janet for causing the chaos and the story becomes part of Crossroads legend. Janet continues to persevere as she goes with Frank to speak with Pastor Batoromeo about stopping Kata from marrying his brother’s wife but the pastor declines because he sees Kata as evil, which reveals his fear of Kata. Because of Janet’s awareness, persistence, and fearlessness in educating the people of Crossroads about AIDS which they call the plague, men like Musa and Chief Chupa believe that Janet needs to remarry, so she can be fulfilled in life. The men do not reference the fact that Janet is working hard to raise her three children. This is patriarchal thinking and Julia acquiesces to this patriarchal ideology and culture when she supports Kata’s levirate marriage without regard to her own health. The patriarchy does not have a high expectation of a woman order than to be a wife and bear children. This aspiration keeps the woman in bondage and puts her in a state of dependency. Therefore, women like Julia and Hanna do not have the effrontery to explain the benefits of using the condoms to their husbands. They are not used to having meaningful discussions with their husbands and do not want to destabilize the cultural norms. Even Janet’s grandmother wants her to get married since her husband has disappeared, but Janet does not want to remarry. Even though she wants Janet to marry “A real man. . . . Someone who can take care of you and your children. A real man” (41), but Janet reminds her grandmother of her advice that, “manhood doesn’t make man. You told me that yourself when I wanted to leave Broker. Then he left me” (54). This statement however portrays her grandmother as an independent and assertive woman who wants the best for her granddaughter. Janet’s early marriage to Broker who is not a Muslim causes her parents to leave the city out of shame and to avoid the stigma of their daughter marrying



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a non-believer. Her father is the only Muslim cleric in Crossroads and wants to protect his family name. This marriage breaks their heart because Janet does not lack anything and has no reason to marry someone who they think would amount to nothing. At the initial stage of their marriage, Janet plays by the patriarchal rules by being agreeable, and polite. However, she has always been an assertive person because of the way she disobeys her cleric Muslim father and marries Broker. Broker works at Janet’s father’s gas station at the time, but eventually takes his money and leaves town with a prostitute. To impress her father, Janet devotes her time working at the gas station, cleaning, and pumping gas without making any impact on her father. However, her determination impresses and inspires people around who call her “Mama Chuma, the woman of steel” (Mwangi 63). She decides to work hard to raise her children and forget about men. Like Amaka in Nwapa’s (1981) One Is Enough, Janet has no need for another husband since she has her children to take care of. Her self-actualization as a single woman is a function of nonconformism. She gets a government job, giving out condoms to men to keep them safe from AIDS, but faces different kinds of resistance as they do not believe in AIDS. The men see her as someone who is infringing on their cultural and patriarchal rights. With assertiveness and persistency, Janet continues to teach and convince the men and women of Crossroads to use condoms to no avail. She teaches the women about birth control without success because they are afraid of their husbands. Men are unhappy and claim that Janet is teaching their wives not to have children and teaching the young boys to start having sex at a young age. This is their understanding of condoms because they lack awareness and proper education. Even Kata as a traditionalist, believes that his brother Solomon who is a pastor dies of witchcraft instead of AIDS. After so much pressure, Janet convinces her friend Hanna to use birth control since the men keep making babies without the consent of their wives. Her view is that women should have children because they want to, and not because they are pressured by men. Hanna comes back to request for more pills as seen in her statement, “Give me more, I don’t want to be like Naaman’s wife. Do you know she is expecting again? Her last is still crawling, her husband has gone off to find a job and she is alone with the children in her big house. . . . I don’t know what God had had in mind when he made men” (37–38). Hanna has realized that giving birth without the woman’s consent is a form of patriarchal control and a way of keeping the woman down, and enslaving her, because she will not have the time for any other thing except to mind the children. With this realization and awareness from Hanna, Janet is happy that her persistency is paying off and will lead to success in her mission of emancipating and educating the people.

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Mwangi in this text also explores the negative impact of traditional circumcision on the society. Currently, that the plague is killing so many people in Crossroads, Kata is still at his game of circumcision because he makes money from it. This is an unhealthy practice because he uses the same knife to cut all the boys without sterilizing his equipment. His action shows his lack of understanding and education. Because of the negative consequences, Janet goes with Frank to stop Kata from circumcising the boys. Frank warns, “You cannot win against tradition. These things are not new at all. They were here before we were born, and they will be here long after we are dead. Why must you stir up everyone and turn everything upside down” (93). This statement from Frank indicates that even with his education, he does not relate the circumcision to any health issues, but only thinks in terms of saving the tradition, thus supporting the rigid patriarchal law which needs to be abolished. The formidable Janet gets to Kata at the pick of circumcision and orders him to stop the primitive activity. Kata is horrified to see her there because it is a taboo for women to witness the circumcision. Kata says he is “making men out of the boys” (95), which forces Janet to tell the boys the hard truth that, “if one of you has the plague. . . . You will all get it and die” (95). Janet’s presence at the circumcision ceremony debunks the cultural myth of women not being allowed in certain traditional ceremonies. Because of Frank’s support of Janet, the people pursue him to get him circumcised. He runs into the bush and is saved by Big Youth who also is part of those to be circumcised by Kata. Uncle Mark comes to rescue Janet from the chaotic situation, while Kata laments about losing six months livelihood for his growing family. Uncle Mark comments that Janet “would never find peace until all injustices were wiped out from Crossroads. There was more to the woman than he cared to find out, he thought to himself. At that moment, he felt for her exactly as he would have felt towards the daughter he never had” (99). The author through Janet deconstructs patriarchal beliefs, values and norms which diminish the intellectual and psychological growth of the woman. The reader later learns that Big Youth gets his circumcision done at the hospital. At least the hospital maintains good hygiene and will use clean surgical equipment to perform the circumcision. Janet is resolute in her fight for social justice to the extent that everyone has something to say about her. She tolerates the negative things they say without allowing it to derail her focus on the bigger picture of bringing awareness to her people. Her grandmother even tells her that, “only a shameless woman would take such a job: telling people not to have babies” (55), as she persuades her to marry Chief Chupa. Uncle Mark warns Frank ahead of time that Janet will get him into trouble. He explains to Frank that, “Men walk in the bush to avoid Janet. She does not approve of men beating their wives. To her, men are all just a stampede of war dogs with no idea how to



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please a woman. She said that. And according to her, amorous aardvarks and drunken donkeys are more competent than Crossroads’ men. She said that too, our Janet did” (Mwangi 2020, 61). Just as the women’s group in Farah’s (2006) Knots is against wife battering, Janet is against wife battering and the men do not appreciate her telling them to stop beating their wives. She tries to stamp out all that is bad in her society and makes them understand the need to change. This push to change Crossroads continues making the men uncomfortable. “Some said she was a creature from mad women’s hell, as angry spirit sent back to torment Crossroads’ men, . . . that Janet was not a woman but a eunuch from Pwani masquerading as a woman. That was why her husband ran off with another woman. . . . What she needed now was, . . . an ox trainer, someone to whip her back to womanhood” (Mwangi 2020, 61). Even Musa honestly thinks that Janet needs a man to put her in her place. In the minds of the patriarchy, they see wife battering as subjugation of women without knowing that the physical abuse gives women power and determination to extricate themselves from such abuse. All these thoughts from men show that the women of Crossroads are treated as “other” who are not capable of speaking out but do the biddings of their husbands while ignoring how this suppression and humiliation affect their lives. Unfortunately for the men, Janet is not a person to be pushed around. She is unyielding, but respectful in her persuasion to enlighten her people. Thus, her presence makes the men uncomfortable. In lieu of this, Uncle Mark explains to Frank that Janet “has made it her calling to haunt our collective conscience forever. . . . We don’t like that. . . . Everyone likes Janet. It may appear to you as though we make her life miserable, but only Janet makes Janet’s life difficult. You see, she refuses to accept that we cannot change. That we are set in our old ways and we do not want to change them” (104). This explains why Janet finds it difficult to penetrate the psyche of Crossroads men. She continues pushing for change knowing that culture is not static. The intimation that the people do not want to change is an authorial intrusion exposing their mindset which is influenced by patriarchal culture. Uncle Mark is worried about the extinction of an entire people, he therefore explains further to Frank that, “We have chosen death over change. . . . And that is something she will not accept. . . . Though she tried, it seemed that Janet and her condoms were doomed to failure. New devices, and more dynamic strategies, would have to be found to deal with the problem” (106). Making this suggestion is indicative of Uncle Mark’s worry about the death of the people. Even though he does not have the solution needed, he is optimistic that a new strategy is appropriate and will be found. With rejection from all corners, Janet continues to exhibit her selflessness and resilience as the emancipator of Crossroads by going with Frank to speak with Pastor Bat and his congregation about their plans of keeping Crossroads

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alive and soliciting their support without success. Even the headmaster of the local school also rejects her proposal. With persistence however, they convince some young boys from the Polytechnic to help put up some posters they create with the help of Big Youth. Frank is falsely accused of putting up the posters and is detained by the police, courtesy of Chief Chupa. Janet arranges to release Frank, but the inspector, realizing that Frank is a veterinary doctor, engages him to treat his animals. In addition, he allows them to continue with their teaching, but to tone the campaign down. This recognition gives them hope that things will eventually turn around in the future. The policeman reflects that Janet is the first woman to speak to him about human rights. This information from the policeman indicates that he too appreciates Janet’s work, but does not want to praise her openly in order not to get into trouble with the law or with Chief Chupa who represents the patriarchy. Being afraid of Chief Chupa is the same as being afraid of tackling the cultural and patriarchal laws that inhibit the progress of the people of Crossroads. Fear also promotes the culture of silence which perpetuates patriarchal authority and domination. The Headmaster of the polytechnic, Paulo, also reveals the view of the board that, “sex education is not education at all. They cannot allow you to teach it in my school” (Mwangi 2020, 259). He appreciates Janet’s work, but cannot voice his opinion publicly because of repercussions from the board. This revelation from the board exemplifies the limited education and lack of awareness of the patriarchy. However, the headmaster allows her to discretely teach his students because he understands the benefits. Chief Chupa continues with patriarchal intimidation and his reign of terror by taking Janet to the local court to explain why she is teaching children about condoms. Janet uses this opportunity to teach the crowd about reproduction. The teaching becomes an embarrassment to Chief Chupa who quietly takes his exit with Pastor Bat. Chief Chupa’s plans of humiliating Janet backfires, giving her a platform for her first public lecture. “The rest of them sat it out, too embarrassed to stay but too cowardly to leave and had their first ever public lecture on human reproduction” (345). At the end of the lecture, Headmaster Bakora invites Janet to teach his students about the use of condoms. She discusses her vision for Crossroads with Headmaster Bakora as she says, “Crossroads is shameful. Crossroads’ greatest shame was to let embarrassment stand in the way of truth and reality; to allow so many of its people die so needlessly. That was the worst shame of all. And it was that shame that had decided Janet to set her own shame aside, and to utter the unutterable and to mention the unmentionable and to teach the un-teachable” (350). When Headmaster Bakora refers to life in the past, Janet suggests that, Taboos had to be eliminated to make way for meaningful progress. Old beliefs and assumptions were the biggest handicaps in the battle against AIDS, because



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they had many wives and so-called safe partners, and did not manga-manga, or consort with prostitutes. But their safe partners too had their own safe partners, who also has safe partners; in an endlessly long chain of safe partners that was a recipe for terrible catastrophe. (Mwangi 2020, 351)

On another occasion, Chief Chupa takes Janet to court again with the reason that her campaign corrupts youths, and it is immoral. As a compromise, instead of Janet, Frank volunteers to teach the youth how to use condoms. In line with Chikwenye Ogunyemi’s (1996) womanism, Janet reaches an agreement with Chief Chupa who represents the government, the health officer, and the others at the gathering. She consents to take the blame when things go wrong while the Chief and the others take credit when things go well. Reaching this agreement is also in line with Obioma Nnaemeka’s (2004) Nego-feminism where she suggests that women should be able to negotiate with men in the face of difficult circumstances so they can achieve their aims. For Janet to succeed in her role as the emancipator of Crossroads and make the necessary changes needed by the community, she negotiates with Pastor Bat. This negotiation will help her continue to forge ahead with her plans. Janet’s primary interest is to be allowed to educate the people of Crossroads about the use of condoms and birth control. For her, this concession is huge success in her condom campaign. The story of Janet’s betrayal by Broker her husband is not new in Crossroads; however, she does not allow this betrayal to mare her optimism of bringing awareness and education to her people. The reader observes that, Everyone in Crossroads knew Janet’s life story and her numerous confrontations with the authorities. She was a mother at sixteen and a deserted wife at nineteen. She was pushing pills and condoms to the scandalized Crossroads community before she was twenty-two years old. Everyone also knew that she had three children, all of Broker’s, and that since Broker’s departure she had had numerous decent, and indecent proposals from all manner of men in Crossroads. . . . And, as a long-time confidant of women and girls in Crossroads, she had enough reasons to despise every man and boy in Crossroads. (Mwangi 2020, 118–119)

It is important to note that a lot of women in Crossroads admire and confide in Janet. Some of the people in crossroads “saw their mothers in her, others saw their daughters; some saw their wives, while others saw their lovers in her. The accumulators and the disintegrators of their lives, all rolled in one. But no matter which woman they saw in Janet, they could not be dispassionate about Janet” (153). This is a description of a confident woman who is sure of herself and her purpose in life, thus her devotion to her work. Janet’s will-power is tested by the sudden arrival of Broker to Crossroads, but her survival strategy kicks in, motivating her to overcome this trying

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period. After ten years of abandoning Janet and her children, Broker comes back contracting AIDS, and pleads with Janet to take him back. She reminds Broker that he is no longer her husband by making him aware that, “everyone knows my husband died ten years ago” (177). Janet’s grandmother is the only one happy, and pleads with Janet to take Broker back, but she declines. His children do not even know him and are not excited that he is back. Janet’s grandmother advises that she should never try to humiliate a man. It makes them stubborn as bull and as hard as rocks and impossible to reason with. That is how many women end up all alone, without a man. If it is revenge that you want, smile. . . . He will go mad, but not in a bad way. He will go mad with guilt and shame. He will be mad from thinking why you are not angry at him. The madness will eat at his heart like an army of jiggars. And he will love you like he never loved anything in his life. (184)

Janet is not combative, but at this time grandma opts for dialogism, however; Janet is not prepared to discuss with Broker, or even accept him after recovering from her abandonment. Most importantly, she reflects on her grandmother’s teaching which is that “Manhood doesn’t make a man. . . . You taught me never to depend on a man again. You taught me very well” (352). Janet follows this advice and successfully becomes economically independent, educated and greatly socially and politically aware. She has grown into a strong and selfless woman. The headmaster of the local school, Headmaster Bat, even warns her to stay away from Broker reminding her of her betrayal. Before he leaves, Janet gives Broker a box of condoms, so he does not spread any disease to the people of Crossroads. Broker, disappointed at Janet says, “When my name was Broker, . . . you would not have dared treat me this way” (193), waving his cane in her face as he speaks. Broker has a sense of entitlement. He still thinks he has the right to abandon his wife, come back with AIDS and expect to be accepted in his house as if nothing happened. However, he is no longer positioned to oppress or dominate Janet anymore. Disappointed, he goes to Musa’s Teahouse to rent a room. Broker joins Janet’s condom army and buys a book about AIDS for Janet on coming back from a business trip. Janet gives it out to women to see the pictures and read about AIDS. After reading the book, Hanna comes to collect condoms for her husband who does not want anybody to know that he is using it. Julia her sister also comes to collect condoms for Kata and asks Janet not to tell anyone about her husband using condoms. This is a continuation of lack of awareness and education, and the promotion of the culture of silence that needs to be eradicated. The people need to spread the news and encourage others to use condoms and live a better life instead hiding the truth. Janet



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does not need to make long speeches to convince the people anymore since the book speaks for her. The recognition of foreign health workers from the Ministry of Health helps to improve the image of Crossroads community and validate Janet’s work in the community. On arrival, the health workers are taken to the church premises where the orphanage construction is going on. They also see many of the children who have lost their parents to AIDS and the Condom Clinic managed by Broker. After the visit, Broker informs them that Janet needs a Japanese car to carry the boxes of condoms since her house is very far from the clinic and the bus stop, but Chief Chupa being a man of great influence, does not appreciate the idea of a woman driving a car, as he does not want competition. Chief Chupa is an embodiment of patriarchy and does not delay in exhibiting his patriarchal authority whenever possible. Ogundipe Leslie (1994) opines that man is “steeped in his centuries-old attitudes of patriarchy which he does not wish to abandon because male domination is advantageous to him” (36), as seen in the character of Chief Chupa and his cohorts. Don Donovan who leads the team from the Ministry is pleased with Janet’s work and her success despite being faced with some socio-cultural inhibitions. “For Janet, a woman in a land of men who prided themselves on being the most virile and the most total men in the world to stand up to them and tell them they were wrong took a lot more than dedication to duty” (Mwangi 2020, 391). In her uncharacteristic way, Janet prefers that the health workers come back to test everyone in Crossroads to be sure of those who are infected with the plague and how to help them. She says, “what I would really like. . . . More than a car, more than a big house, more than TV and water tanks and money, is to know how many people in Crossroads are free from aids” (327), thus exhibiting her selflessness and humane characteristics. She is focused on the welfare of the people in her community and does not want them to die of the plague. The health workers give the people a free test and come back with the results which show that some people test positive while others test negative. Frank to his surprise tests negative. He tells the health workers that there must be a mistake, but they insist that their tests are all correct and explain that “the earlier reagents, that’s the chemicals used to perform the tests, were not as efficient as the ones we have used here. With this new test, the margin for error is so small it’s negligible. But we can repeat the test for you if you wish” (437). Janet is very happy that most of the youth test negative including Big Youth. One may wonder why Janet visits Broker when he is sick and helps him with his laundry and even invites him to stay in her house. Janet probably extends this kindness so her children can have a relationship with him. However, Broker declines because he does not want anyone to have pity on him. He tries to tell Janet about his will, his bank accounts, and properties,

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without success because Janet no longer believes anything he says. Realizing this, Broker informs Frank, “I will leave the documents with you. . . . You must give them to her, make her believe and take an interest in these things. She must accept them, for her own sake, for my children’s sake” (426). To turn his life around, Broker tries to do some good things in Crossroads. He sets up the condom shop so he can always speak with Janet and reach his children. He buys Janet’s father’s abandoned gas station from her and rebuilds it. He builds an orphanage within the church premises, and in exchange for the space, he rebuilds the pastor’s old house. Broker also makes changes to Musa’s recipe at the Teahouse so he can attract more customers. Broker becomes sick and refuses to go the hospital, but requests that Big Youth takes care of his children like his brothers. He asks to take the children to the mountain where he used to go with Janet when they lived together as a way his children can always remember him. While there, Janet reflects that if Broker had been with her in Crossroads, she may have contracted the plague and may have died. Broker passes shortly after the gas station is rebuilt leaving Janet in control of the other projects. There is complementarity between some of the men and Janet. These men try to support Janet at different stages in her struggle to educate and make the people aware of their rights within their society and families. This shows that they are aware of what Janet is trying to do for the people of Crossroad and will stop at nothing to help her succeed. Frank knows that Janet is putting him in danger by asking him to help stop Kata, but he defies all odds to continue working with and supporting Janet in her work. Ama Atta Aidoo (1998) in support of the relationship between men and women proposes that “every woman and every man should be a feminist . . . especially if they believe that Africans should take charge of African lives, and the burden of African development” (47). Uncle Mark is cast as a forthright man in quest for truth and justice as he always comes in defense of Janet when no one expects him to be there. He knows that Janet is doing the right things, but it will be difficult for her to penetrate the patriarchal society of Crossroads. Big Youth helps Janet with the distribution and packaging the condoms. He creates flyers and risks his life posting the flyers at different locations before people get up in the morning. Because he is young, no one ever accuses him and his friends of posting the flyers. Broker is also in full support of Janet when he comes back to understand what she is doing. He is so proud of her even though she refuses to accept him back after he disappeared from her life for ten years. These men understand that unwholesome traditional practices should be discarded to set the stage for a better and progressive society. They join Janet in her quest for fairness as well as gender equity which is in consonance with Opara’s (2004) Femalism philosophy that includes men and women’s struggle for liberation of all. Their working together also reflects Alice Walker’s (1983) observation



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that, “A womanist loves struggle and is committed to the survival of both men and women” (xi), which is also what Meja Mwangi envisions for his society. Inviting Big Youth, a young boy whose real name is Jacob to help with packaging the condoms reflects Janet’s aspiration of capturing the youth at a young age. She envisions that Big Youth will influence his classmates to use condoms so they can be safe. Big Youth updates Janet about people who died of AIDS, including helping to create posters and distributes them with his friends at night without anybody seeing them. Mwangi uses Janet to educate the young people who represent the future of Crossroads. These young people will determine what happens in future in their community, thereby laying a good and strong foundation for the future of their society. Big Youth’s consistency in working with Janet and supporting her is emblematic of the progress she is making by ensuring that justice is done, and unnecessary patriarchal laws are abolished. Frank suffers a great deal because of Janet. He is beaten and jailed by the police. His animal clinic is vandalized after meddling with Kata’s circumcision ceremony. Uncle Mark and Musa see Janet as a stumbling block towards Frank’s progress and want him to stop following Janet. However, Big Youth does not want Frank to leave Crossroads because Janet loves him, but Frank does not believe him. The complementarity and collaboration between Frank and Janet tie into Ogunyemi’s (1996) Four Cs—Conciliation, Collaboration, Consensus and Complementarity—to support African communalism and make way for better relationships between the men and women in the society. Instead of leaving Crossroads as he originally planned, Frank follows Janet to the market and watches her speak about birth control to women and comes back to Crossroads to support her condom work. Janet is calm but pushes her case without really fighting as a revolutionary and she is not interested in the politics of the society, but their health, progress, and welfare, thus she shows determination to succeed. Just as Grace Ogot’s (1990) heroine in The Promised Land and Wa Thiong’O’s (2017) Warringar in Devil on the Cross do not adopt revolutionary standpoints, Mwangi’s protagonist, Janet does the same. Janet consistently works on reconstructing her society to help bring it back to what it used to be or at least make it livable again and attract people to come back to the city. Mwangi’s characters portray the limitations in their society showing that change is elusive therefore, compromise becomes the best solution to achieve any kind of success. Through Janet, Meja Mwangi destroys all forms of female objectification in Crossroads. Mwangi explores different issues confronting women in his society such as exploitation, marriage and patriarchal domination. Through persistency, negotiation, complementarity and collaboration, Janet becomes the formidable emancipator that the men and women of Crossroads need. Janet succeeds in

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changing the behavior of the men and women in Crossroads amid patriarchal and societal forces restricting them. She challenges the patriarchy through negotiation and compromise. Janet goes through marriage, betrayal and abandonment but does not allow her stressful life to crush her will to continue with her work of educating and bringing awareness to both men and women of Crossroads to keep the community alive. Through Big Youth, Frank, Pastor Bat, Uncle Mark, and the turnaround of Broker as a changed person, Mwangi envisions the hope that women’s opinion will be accepted in Crossroads as things return to normal. This change in behavior occurs because of Janet’s consistency, activism, and advocacy in her work. Janet encourages women to free themselves from the bondage of constant childbearing when they are not ready and be able to relate as equal companions with their husbands. Ada Azodo (2015) in her “Di-Feminism” asserts that “granting equal opportunities to the women-folk can help them to become not only more fulfilled as human beings, but also assure the formation of future generations of properly adjusted children comfortable in their skins as males or females” (vii). On the other hand, Obioma Nnaemeka (2015) in an article states that “As scholars, we must recognize that the importance of our teaching and research lies not only in what we teach and research but also in how we teach and conduct our research. Our work assumes great significance when it arcs towards social justice and societal transformation” (11). It is this societal transformation that Meja Mwangi has chosen to project in his vision for his people in this novel through Janet by educating and making the people of Crossroads aware of the challenges that lie ahead. Mwangi’s Crossroads therefore is an authentic representation of the role of women, as Janet’s portraiture is in consonance with his vision for women in his society. Through Janet, Mwangi asserts that women can be key players in government and in nation building.

Chapter 8

Behind the Veil The Unyielding Protagonist in Nuruddin Farah’s Knots

Nuruddin Farah’s novel Knots opens with the arrival of Cambara, the protagonist, from Canada with a mission: to grieve the death of her son and the loss of her estranged husband, Wardi. On arrival, she doubts if she will recognize anywhere in the war-ravaged city of Mogadishu as her cousin Zaak picks her up from the airport. “She looks in consternation from the dilapidated tarmac road to Zaak, as she releases her stiff grip around the handle of the knife” (2), which she is carrying for safety purposes. Cambara as a way of mourning her son’s death and the loss of her marriage hides behind her veil to loosen the knots which her ravaged country, Mogadishu, is tied in. This chapter argues that Cambara achieves success through her consistent, assertive, and unyielding attitude, knowing that she is in an environment where the opinion and decisions of women do not count due to the cultural, religious, and patriarchal norms operational in the city of Mogadishu. Nuruddin Farah has published about nine novels which have been translated into seventeen languages and have won numerous awards. He was named the 1998 Laureate of Neustadt International Prize for Literature. Born in Baidoa, Somalia and presently on exile in Cape Town, South Africa, Farah has consistently written in support of women, elevating them to the heights not seen in some early African works such as Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958) and Elechi Amadi’s (1966) The Concubine to mention a few. Farah’s female characters are mostly educated, smart, and always hardworking, and some of them are good businesswomen like Damac in Farah’s (1998) Secrets. He does not relegate his female characters to the background, rather he creates assertive and strong female characters who think for themselves and create their own paths in life even when they are not educated. One such example is found in Farah’s (1970) earlier novel From a Crooked Rib, 97

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where the main character Ebla defies her father’s plans for her and marries a man of her choice. Farah’s vision is for his society to be a place that functions well with both men and women working together for the good of all. Consequently, he uses the female characters in this novel to broker peace that brings hope to his war-torn city of Mogadishu. To carry out Farah’s vision, Cambara the protagonist returns to a fragmented Mogadishu from Canada to heal herself and her community as she reclaims her family property which has been acquired by a minor warlord. Her mother Arda, who does not want her to take such a risk traveling to Mogadishu, has advised that she trusts her cousin Zaak, because he has firsthand knowledge about the present situation in Mogadishu. Arda therefore works “clandestinely on setting up a safety net as protective of her daughter as it was capable of keeping her abreast of every one of the girl’s madcap schemes” (Farah 2008, 10). Her mother gives her blessings, but Cambara is not happy staying with Zaak for protection, while acting as his wife. She therefore decides to keep the reason for her visit to herself so Zaak does not question her motives of leaving her peaceful life, job, and husband in Toronto where she has lived for more than three-quarters of her life. She also plans to meet with Kiin, the manager of Hotel Maanta who according to her friend Raxma, is well connected, with building local contacts including Women’s Network, which may help her navigate the area and achieve her goals. Without revealing her plans, Cambara tries to find out from Zaak about the filming industry and what happens in the theater since the war has ended. With this question, she gives the impression that her visit is about theater which is her profession. Zaak reminds her how she treated him in Canada and warns that she cannot have upper hand while here in Mogadishu. This is an indication that the patriarchy rules and Cambara must respect his decisions. Zaak used to live in Canada but comes back to work with an NGO as a local representative after he is released from jail for beating his wife, Xadiitha. He comes back to be free to do as he likes in a place where women’s opinion is always stifled. Cambara tries to find out how the warlord occupying her family property can be evicted but Zaak explains that “the ringleader of a ruthless clan-based militia raised from the ranks of the Mogadishio’s brutal warlords” (Farah 2008, 8) is occupying her family property. He goes further to tell her how the warlords operate, including his job. I am in the business of conflict resolution, and I spend a lot of my time mediating between warring groups. Easily hurt, people here carry with them egos more grandiose than any you’ve encountered anywhere else. The result is that everyone reacts in a self-centered way to every situation. That’s what I’m talking about when I say they are sensitive. . . . They pit the guns to your heads

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whenever they want to blackmail you into granting them more concessions than you are prepared to grant them. (Farah 2008, 85)

The post war period is always pervaded by crimes and violence as reported by Ekwensi (1976) when he observes that, “There are people in army uniform parading the highways and byways as genuine officers. They set up checkpoints. They impound cars and kill if resisted” (98). It is ironic that Zaak resolves other people’s conflict but could not live peacefully with his family in Canada. Cambara observes that the young boys carrying guns are paid to protect their leaders or warlords. Among the group of boys staying with Zaak, she identifies a young boy named SilkHair and concludes that she will put him through school to stop him from following the gun totting boys. He gives him her late son’s clothes to wear. Cambara instructs the boys to clean the car that is inadvertently messed up by SilkHair. However, another boy named LongEars interjects by exposing his patriarchal upbringing that cleaning is a woman’s job. He says, “We are a security. . . . We don’t carry settee, we don’t mop floors, we are segurity. Not only that, we are men, and cleaning is a woman’s job, and we won’t do it” (Farah 2008, 98). This statement from LongEars is emblematic of what the young men learn as children. They are taught from their childhood that women are nobody and should be the only people doing house chores and other menial jobs while the men sit around to give orders. Adrienne Rich (1979) opines that “Patriarchy is the power of the fathers: a familial-social, dialogical, political system in which men by force, direct pressure, or through ritual, tradition, law, and language, customs, etiquette, education, and the division of labor, determine what part women shall or shall not play, and in which the female is everywhere subsumed under the male” (57). Mogadishu at this time is still a traditional society where women are oppressed and relegated to the background under the guise of culture and religion. Cambara realizes that even in the face of an oppressive system of deep-rooted norms and practices that foster female subordination, the woman must strive to be herself. LongEars relegates Cambara as “Other,” someone beneath him as a man even though she is economically independent. Beauvoir’s theory of “otherness” is a theory of objectification of women in a world where men constitute the center, and the standard and women are denied the opportunity that would make them equal to men. This is a justification for Simone De Beauvoir’s (1974) assertion that “Humanity is male, and man defines the woman not in herself, but as relative to him. . . . She is the incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. He is the subject, he is the Absolute, she is Other” (16). Beauvoir’s theory of otherness helps to clarify Farah’s struggle to destroy the relegated space of women in the traditional society and place her at the center, giving her control of her life

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and her affairs. Farah does not support a society where women are relegated to the background. He therefore educates the boys through Zaak’s driver who shows his disappointment at LongEars, but quickly comes to Cambara’s rescue when he tells the other young men in the group, if you think of it the way I do, this lady is godsend. . . . She has been with us for a couple of hours and look at what she has achieved. In less than a day. Look at Agoon (SilkHair). If she can bring about such positive change in the short time, she has had with us, imagine what it will be like when she has been with us for much longer. My brothers let’s all resume working, for there is time yet for us to save ourselves. There is hope yet for us to regain peace. (Farah 2008, 100)

This is an authorial intrusion through the driver to show that men should also appreciate the works and opinions of women. The driver recognizes that the young boys who represent the future of the men in Mogadishu have a long way to go as this is a learning process for them. Being relegated to the status of “Other” reminds Cambara of her experience in Saudi Arabia, “There, to enter the house, you use one of two entrances: a small, almost secret side door for the women and a bigger more prominent one for the men” (Farah 2008, 108). The patriarchy separates even their entrance doors from that of the women. This description is sad and shows how the women are relegated to the background and treated as second-class citizens in the name of culture. According to David Mikailu (2013), “Patriarchy is the social system where men are the primary authority figure, and their decisions are central to social organization. In this system, women are not accorded much recognition, they are seen as suzerain to be owned, either by a father, an uncle or a husband” (281). Nawal El Saadawi (2015) confirms this when she asserts that, To put the chains on the mind is more effective and less expensive for oppressive regimes. We live in a . . . capitalist patriarchal religious world, dominated by power and not justice. Children are educated to obey and submit to the absolute authority of Father, the God, the Teacher, the Boss, the President, and other. The father in the family represents God in heaven, and the president or the king on earth represents the God in the sky. This is the patriarchal hierarchy in most capitalist countries. (xi)

This lack of recognition perpetuates women’s inferiority and causes oppression and suppression of the women. It is these oppressive and patriarchal cultural laws that feminists are resisting in African societies. Helen Chukwuma (1994) is of the view that feminism is “a rejection of inferiority and a striving for recognition. It seeks to give the woman a sense of self as worthy, effectual, and contributing human being. Feminism is a reaction to

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such stereotypes of women which deny them a positive identity” (ix). On the other hand, Filomina Steady (1987) observes that African feminism is the “ideology which encompasses freedom from oppression based on the political, economic, social and cultural manifestations of racial, cultural, sexual and class biases” (4). Women therefore try to resist different forms of subjugation and oppression through activism, awareness and education, as they improve their lot in the society. Because of patriarchal assumptions, women are conditioned to believe that their essence in life is to get married and bear children. With this assumption in mind, Cambara’s relatives and friends often point out that Cambara is getting on in years and is not married; however, Arda protects Cambara by putting her profession first. In reference to this, Chukwuma (1994) opines that, “A woman’s greatest aspiration is finding a mate and thereafter bearing children. Every other thing is secondary: education, a career, material wealth, social acclaim. All these are subsumed to marriage and motherhood” (x). In Cambara’s case, she is educated, but people expect her to get married and have children instead of pursuing a career, but her mother always comes to her defense. Arda is economically independent and an assertive woman, who also wants the same for her daughter. Nuruddin Farah exposes the betrayal of Raxma, Cambara’s friend by husband who abandons her and her twin boys to marry one of his mistresses. Raxma puts her twin boys in a boarding school, brings her mother and younger half-sister to Canada to take care of her sons whenever she travels. She engages the services of Maimouna, “a die-hard feminist who has experience as a litigator for the cause of women in the Canadian courts” (Farah 2008, 53). Once she engages a lawyer, her husband agrees to a one-time alimony payment, and she also takes possession of their five-bedroom house. With a guaranteed loan from the bank, she starts her import-export business with an office she runs from her home. If Raxma was not a strong, educated, assertive woman with a sense of awareness, she may not have been able to pull off her court case with the backing of her support group—her mum, stepsister, and Maimouna. Cambara’s husband Wardi also betrays her just like Raxma’s. From the onset, Arda does not like him because she sees Wardi as a loser and a con man. Cambara blames her husband for the drowning of their son at the pool while swimming. Instead of watching the boy, Wardi stays in another part of the house with Susannah his mistress. As if the loss is not enough, Wardi plans to sell Cambara’s house so he can take his share of the money since they both live there. He warns Cambara that he does not want to see her in the house. In anger, Cambara knocks her husband out with her karate punches. Cambara is a single-minded, strong woman. Earlier in the novel, we are told that, Cambara “cuts the figure of an impulsive woman, difficult to please,

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harder still to pin down and known lately to be off her rocker, understandably so, because of her son’s death” (4). Cambara’s description gives the reader the impression that she is confident, focused, and has a sense of awareness. Oppression of women is revealed in this text to expose the activities of the patriarchy in Mogadishu. Zaak goes to jail in Canada because of wife battering. He returns to Mogadishu where physical abuse of women is justified by patriarchal laws. In Mogadishu, the woman has no one to help or rescue her from being battered. The oppression continues when Gudcur, the minor warlord beats his wife Jiijo, even while she is pregnant. Gudcur has no respect for his pregnant wife and treats her like a slave. Battering of women gives the patriarchy undue advantage over women, and also gives them the authority to continue with their oppression and subjugation since no one comes to the rescue of the women. Cambara is an independent woman used to going out by herself without interference. While still at Zaak’s house, she goes to her family property, pretending that she misses the way to the mall. She meets and becomes acquainted with Jiijo who is pregnant. She scouts the place without revealing herself and helps Jiijo with her laundry before leaving. She finds out more about Gudcur the minor warlord and Jiijo’s husband who occupies the property. On her way home, Cambara sees evidence of devastation wherever she turns; “buildings leaning in complete disorder, a great many of them boasting no roof, others boarded up, looking vandalized, abandoned. The road-once tarred and good enough for motor vehicles-is in total disrepair, the walls of the house fronting the street are pocked with bullets, as if a terrible sharpshooter with assault rifles has used them for his target practice” (Farah 2008, 5). The ruins portrayed here are sobering and demoralizing as they depict the ravaged city of Mogadishu. This is evidence of a war-ravaged city. There are still skirmishes of fighting in different locations in the city, by warlords fighting to protect their territories, which results in the destruction of buildings. Cambara “finds it curious that the money changers, the armed youths, the woman running the vegetable stalls, and those selling bundles of qaat all mix freely, as if amicably. One may be lulled into believing that everything is normal” (123). She also observes that “there are fewer well-meaning women here. Maybe because everybody knows everyone, women feel safe among their own men folks” (123). Cambara decides to wear a less heavy-duty veil of Yemen origin, the fabric cotton, to let her skin breath normally after seeing a woman “wearing the veil for the sake of form and feels at ease in who she is” (125). One can see that she is rebelling against wearing veil in the hot weather which religion and culture impose on her. Cambara goes to the store to purchase some items and pays the storekeeper with fifty dollars. The storekeeper recognizing that she is new in town exclaims, “Our hearts sweeten when we see the likes of you visiting our city

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again. . . . This is proof, if anyone wants one, that our city is no longer as dangerous as before” (126). While there, a woman comes out to separate two boys fighting. Odeywaa, the storekeeper, tells Cambara that this is another proof that things are better because in the earlier days, the boys would have shot each other and will never allow a woman to separate their fight. The boys leave in silence because of the humiliation of being separated by a woman. This attitude confirms that the young boys imbibe patriarchal attitude from a young age. Cambara finds out that the woman is the storekeeper’s wife and a member of the Women for Peace Network. She learns that “in several of the city’s districts, women have been organized against gun violence. Gun violence has led to a high incidence of rape and the deaths of many. The failure of the country’s political class to end the civil war has prompted the women to set up an NGO—Women for Peace—funded by the EU” (128). The storekeeper reveals that his wife is on the steering committee. The effects of war continue to be exposed as the driver taking Cambara to Hotel Maanta is stopped by two young boys requesting money. The driver gives them money and continues his journey. On getting to the hotel, the security guard stops them and insists that the passenger comes down, otherwise they shoot her. Cambara comes down and walks to the receptionist who recognizes her because of Kiin’s description. She is eager to meet Kiin and “prays that she and Kiin will share the sort of friendship only women are capable of forging. The Lord knows how badly a woman needs the friendship of other women in a civil war city repugnant with the trigger-happy degeneracy of its militiamen” (144). Kiin is happy to meet Cambara and offers her a place to stay at the hotel for as long as she pleases. Cambara does not lose focus on her mission of recovering her family property. She takes some boxes of sweets, a few bars of chocolate, body cream, rice, and other items to Jiijo and her children, as a token of peace. On her way, she is confronted by four boys. One is armed with a gun and the other has a club. She keeps her knife ready in her left hand, “hidden from view by a shopping bag, she moves away from them with slowness of a huntress in a territory familiar to her, convincing herself that she is the one in pursuit of them, not they her” (163). Without warning, she kicks Redeye in the crotch and Armed Companion loses his gun to her. Another boy she names Mereboy, tells her that she has made her point and does not have to behave that way as he realizes that “Under her veil, is no ordinary veil, because it unzips on the sides, allowing her kicking legs freedom of movement” (167). Two men Bile and Daajal stop to help and give Cambara a ride which she reluctantly agrees. The men tie the boys up and give her a ride to where she is going. Cambara proves that she can hold her own when it comes to anybody challenging her including the hood looms. She makes Bile and Daajal drop her close to Jiijo’s house, so they do not find out exactly where she is going. On getting there,

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she finds out that Jiijo is a battered wife. Jiijo says, “He beat me last night” (175). Cambara reflects on how she suffers in Wardi’s hands and “sees in this context that as women, they share the communality of male violence, both suffered in their different ways at the hands of their partners” (175). Because the men at Jiijo’s house have gone to fight at the border, Cambara is encouraged to make food for her to eat without fear. While preparing the food, Cambara studies the layout of the place and the condition of the property. “Overall, the house is in terrible despair, its shabbiness the consequences not only of the coarse indifference of its occupants, who before moving into it may never have set foot in a house similar to it, but also having been vandalized, some of the rooms severely so” (176). Cambara is happy that the hall used for reception is still in good shape. While at Jiijo’s place, Cambara gets to know more about Jiijo’s family background and her father’s business. Just before her high school final exam, Jiijo becomes pregnant out of wedlock. She is quickly married off to an extended cousin who is not aware that she is pregnant. Jiijo aborts the baby so she does not deceive her husband. Later, the war breaks out. She laments, “I have known gang rape as much as you can get to know someone on a first name basis. . . . I have been a kept woman, living in a small room in a big house for much of the past ten years, a small room with the lights off, which made me as frightened as a blind kitten. I suffered the daily humiliation of not knowing which of the many youths would come to the room and take me” (178). Gang rape is a form of aggression, violence and humiliation used by the group to show authority and boost their ego. Jiijo suffers humiliation until Gudcur, the minor warlord occupying Cambara’s family property takes her for himself. Therefore, she sees him as his protector. Jiijo is made to teach Gudcur’s children until school resumes. She reveals to Cambara that the militiamen under Gudcur mistreat their victim “by beating, raping, looting and plundering” (181). The rape, looting and violence are all effects of war; however, war is not an excuse to delve into the wrong things such as rape and extortions. The war has ended, therefore people can work together to bring lasting peace. Instead, the patriarchy prefers to loot and create divisions as a way of making money. In different locations, “The armed militiamen mount checkpoints in a matter of seconds, and they stop pedestrians and vehicles passing through, to harass, to impose a levy, to rob” (160–161). This situation is seen in areas where wars are fought. In Ekwensi’s (1976) Survive the Peace, Pa Ukoha worries about the effects of war and comments, “I am worried about the future of our lives . . . war has changed everything! The young men want to become rich before morning without working. There are still many guns, hidden away . . . many are in evil hands. . . . Our lives are worth nothing!” (173). The chaotic situation continues to escalate thus the women form a formidable group with the support of the European Union (EU) to

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take control of their country. Kiin explains more about the women’s group and their activities and invites Cambara to the women’s party which she is hosting. “We have our all-women half-yearly party tomorrow evening, and I am hosting it here. I am very, very happy that you can join us. You’ll enjoy yourself: an all-women party, good food, excellent music, lots and lots of dancing” (Farah 2008, 195). This indicates that women are moving forward as they envisage that the city will progress in the right direction. At the party, the women, well dressed, remove their veils as they come in. They eat and dance to the music feeling very free. One of them is standing in a pair of bloomers with nothing covering her upper torso, not even a brassiere, her breast firm and her body equally so. She is belly dancing and doing it well, almost like a professional. The other is in a very tight dress, her long, jet-black hair down, her frontal and posterior bulges prominently distended. . . . Every woman is doing her own thing. (Farah 2008, 280)

This is a feeling of freedom, confidence, and hope of a non-violent society which the author envisages. In trying to make Cambara comfortable in her new environment, Kiin intimates, “we are happy here, never mind how others might describe us: as murderers of the clan families fleeing the city, as occupiers of their properties, as robbers, looters, plungers of the city’s wealth” (193). Kiin and the other people living in the city go about their normal business indicating that the war has ended and there is no need for violence to continue. The community children are home schooled including Kiin’s children which indicates progress towards peace in the society. Kiin explains her relationship with her estranged husband to Cambara, “We love each other, my husband and I, but we cannot see our way out of the positions we take. I am a woman and am for peace at all costs; my husband is not for peace at all costs. Living under such a stressful situation day in and day out for years has taken a toll on the way we relate” (194). Kiin reiterates the treatment of patriarchy on women while reflecting on the fact that her husband does not believe in peace. Because patriarchy is the social system where men see themselves as the authority figure making decisions in the society, they do not see women as relevant except as wives and mothers. Kiin decides to separate from her husband instead of suffocating in this violent environment. She understands and relates to the sufferings of women like Cambara when she says, “It is times like these and stories like yours and the many tragedies of other women that are disheartening to listen to, the terrible things man have always done to women and gotten away with. It saddened me when I first learned of your tragic loss, and it breaks my heart now to remember how Wardi neglected your son” (194). Reflecting on Raxma’s description of Cambara “as a celebrated actor; as a woman whom a

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man betrayed; a mother grieving over the loss of her only son. A woman of good breeding” (193). Kiin therefore reiterates that “Men are a dead loss to us, and they father wars, our miseries” (194). Cambara continues to assert her independence by moving the rest of her suitcases from Zaak’s house to the hotel. On their way to Cambara’s family house they heard on the news that Gudcur and his men are in trouble where they are fighting “a street-by-street turf war . . . for control of a checkpoint close to the main intersection to a bridge, which is seen as a lucrative means of exacting charges on the road users” (203).This news encourages Cambara to take the plumber to the family property to fix the place by convincing Jiijo that she wants to fix the plumbing problems in the house so she can have her baby in a house with clean water and healthy surroundings (205). By going to see Jiijo, without Gudcur’s permission, Cambara is putting herself and the guards in trouble. On finding out about the visit, Kiin expresses her disappointment but Cambara tells her about Jiijo who is staying alone in the house because, “the children have been sent away for their safety and that she, Jiijo, is alone in the house, as we speak, because Gudcur is engaged in the street-by-street battle to recover the territory he has lost” (212). Kiin arranges for a doctor friend of hers, Farxia and an ambulance to take Jiijo to the hospital where she gives birth to a baby boy which symbolizes hope and a better future for Mogadishu society. Cambara goes to lunch at Kiin’s house and is surprised to see Kiin wearing layers of clothing, including an abaya. Kiin explains that she puts on the khimar and a shukka “to appease a posse of men in saintly robes: my fatherin-law and his cronies, who deigned to command me to present myself before them” (244). They want to see if she is fit to raise her two daughters. If they think that she is not, they will award the custody of the children to her sisterin-law who has no child. She therefore dresses in an abaya to appease them. Wearing the abaya that she does not ordinarily wear is a way of negotiating and compromising with patriarchy, to keep her children. This kind of negotiation is in line with the thinking of Obioma Nnaemeka in her feminist theory, Nego-Feminism. According Nnaemeka (2004), Nego-feminism is the feminism of negotiation; second, nego-feminism stands for ‘no ego’ Feminism. In the foundation of shared values in many African cultures are the principles of negotiation, give and take, compromise, and balance. . . . African feminism . . . challenges through negotiations and compromise. It knows when, where, and how to denotate patriarchal land mines. In other words, it knows when, where, and how to negotiate with or negotiate around patriarchy in different contexts. (377–378)

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Her negotiating with her father-in-law is also in line with Ogunyemi’s (1996) African feminism which centers on Conciliation, Collaboration, Consensus, Complementarity. In reaching a compromise, Kiin is protecting her two daughters from patriarchal abuse and oppression, thus she decides to be proactive by raising them alone. Obioma Nnaemeka (1998) asserts: “African feminism is not retroactive. It is pro-active. It has a life of its own that is rooted in the African environment. Its uniqueness emanates from the cultural and philosophical specificity of its provenance” (9). Because Kiin is aware that the patriarchy can take her children away from her, she makes sure to keep them safe and watch them. She is not able to participate in the play as she proffers, “I am a single mother having to fight my in-laws daily for the custody of my two daughters, a manager of a hotel, and an active member of the network. When will I have the time for such a luxury—to learn the lines of a character in a play, rehearse repeatedly with you until I get them right?” (Farah 2008, 390). Kiin is focused on the well-being of her children. She is economically independent and does not want to be subdued by patriarchy. Even though she has the women’s network behind her, she shows complementarity and consensus when she goes to see her father in-law by wearing her traditional garb as a sign of respect, and to prove that she can take care of her daughters. She works well with the positive men who are working for a peaceful Mogadishu such as Bile, Seamus and Dajaal. The young men SilkHair, Gacal, and Qasiri represent the future of Mogadishu and they will continue to propagate peace in their society. The women in this novel bond and work together towards helping one another, especially the marginalized like Jiijo. Juliette Mitchell (1974) opines that, “Women have to organize themselves as a group to effect change in the basic ideology of human society . . . a cultural revolution . . . [that] needs theory and political practice” (414). In addition, Ogunyemi (1996) believes that, “The need for women to support other women in the national journey towards healing is crucial” (126). One example is seen in the way that Farxa arranges for an ambulance to take Jiijo to her clinic where she delivers her baby boy. She “removes her [Jiijo] from the property without a paper trail” (Farah 2008, 248), for her safety. Cambara plans to send her to Nairobi so Gudcur cannot find her if he is still alive, meanwhile, the women’s group takes care of keeping Jiijo safe without revealing where she is. Kiin explains to Cambara: “We are discussing plans that rely wholly on the members of the network for success. . . . No one else will get to know or hear about the plans until it gets executed. We’ve done similar jobs before for women in trouble. We’ve perfected our methods. . . . On one occasion, we have had to poison his food—end of the nuisance” (250). This is an indication that the women have their own way of stopping patriarchal intimidation and oppression while seeking freedom and self-reliance.

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The reader discovers the humanity in the ruins of war-torn Somalia through the services of the women’s group, Kiin, Bile, Seamus and others who are desperately working with Cambara to heal their country. Kiin arranges with the women’s group to recover Cambara’s family house, clean it and change the locks before telling Cambara, who is dumbfounded at everything that Kiin has done for her in so short a time. Cambara realizes that she cannot achieve much without the group’s help, thus changing her original belief that “the key to success in her endeavors lies in acting alone” (183). It is now evident that two are better than one. Raxma reveals that Kiin and the women’s group are paying for Cambara’s stay at the hotel, the play production, apart from helping to reclaim her family property. Kiin, Bile, Seamus and Gacal are all helping with the play production. Cambara realizes that, “her coming here and hitting it off with Kiin has been replete with turning points, each one of them as important as the milestone that has preceded it, and as significant in her doings as the benchmark that came after it. Now she is in a catching-up mood, ringing Raxma and retrieving the remainder of her stuff” (263). The humanity in Cambara continues when she sees Gacal, a young boy dressed in rags, staying with the guards at the hotel. She becomes interested in him and finds out that militia men killed his father when both are visiting Mogadishu. With the help of Raxma and the Red Cross, Gacal’s mother Qaali, who lives in the United States is located. Both meet each other and after some exchange of pleasantries Cambara says, “I am neither angel nor a devil. I am a mother, mourning. Like you. That’s why I’ve felt for you from the instant I saw Gacal, why I’ve made it my business to pursue the course I have” (395). Reuniting Qaali with her son Gacal, gives Cambara relief and hope of a better Mogadishu, while helping in her healing process. The influence of religious laws is seen to affect what goes on in the country. Here, the religious patriarchs dictate what obtains in the theater and other places of entertainment. Seamus who carves some objects for the play explains to Cambara that carving of objects is against the Muslim religion. “What is not allowed is to create a likeness which has no previous existence; a likeness that might be construed as competing with Allah’s creation. Statues, sculptors—these are forbidden. Unless they are meant to serve as toys” (305). Dajaal observes that the carving of eagles and chickens by Seamus is against the teaching of the Muslims because “Islamic courts folks, might object to the use of carved images in theater and that if that were to happen, we would run into trouble. Insurmountable trouble . . . the Islamists have terrific clout and an armed militia, and cinema owners and Television producers do their bidding when they forbid the showing of a program or the airing of a broadcast” (310). The patriarchy uses its power and religion to dominate both men and women in the society. There is an indication of lawlessness here since there is no single person seen as the leader to take control of the situation.

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Cambara exhibits confidence and kindness by visiting Bile who is sick without a chaperone. Farxa intimates that Bile “has been heavy of heart, ever since Raasta [his niece] departed. . . . Lonely in his melancholy, he falls deeper and frequently into a sense of depression, refusing to come to terms with how things are” (283). At Bile’s house, Cambara notices that his place is stinking, and Bile is weak because he cannot help himself. Cambara “minds neither awfulness of the stench nor the fact that his vomit-and waste-stained cheek and his smudged trousers are rubbing against her body. After she has let him catch his constrained breath, she makes him lie on the couch on his back” (312). She cleans Bile up, makes him shower, and gives him tea with honey. Even though Bile is a medical doctor and a military man, he is not capable of healing himself. In the process of helping Bile, Cambara realizes that she is in love with him. Her taking care of Bile reflects African sensibility of complementarity, showing her humaneness despite her status. Seamus tells Cambara that he has known Bile since their early twenties “he was a live wire, bright, fun to be with” (320). The departure of his niece Raasta makes him sad, thus he feels lonely and no longer practices medicine. Dajaal finds out that Bile is in love with Cambara and becomes worried that she will take Bile, his friend, to Canada. Dajaal is pleased that Cambara cleans Bile up and decides to provide security for her play. Speaking on behalf of Bile, Dajaal tells Cambara, “You go anywhere, you won’t find another man like Bile: generous, trustworthy, amenable to other people’s ideas and ready to make them his own for the good of everyone else. The poor man hasn’t received back as much kindness as he has given. Alas, there is more sweetness to life than Bile has known” (330). This statement is in keeping with Somali tradition of someone speaking on behalf of the intending wife/husband. At the property, there is a beehive of activities going on. SilkHair is cooking to feed everybody. Gacal is practicing his lines for the play and Qasiri, Dajaal’s cousin who is also helping with security, is playing around. Cambara dreams of sharing grapes with Bile, which is a symbol of love, and an indication of a progressive Mogadishu which is what Nuruddin Farah envisions, where men and women would peacefully work together for the common good of the society. Cambara is surprised to see Raxma, Arda, and Zaak arrive to watch the play. Maimouna, Raxma’s lawyer friend is also there to support Cambara and to represent Qaali and Gacal who has lost his travel documents. Arda does not interfere in the relationship between Cambara and Bile as she knows that her daughter is healing. The play is successful, and people enjoy themselves. Arda holds a private party for all those who help to make the play a success by helping Cambara. The excitement and happy ending of the play without interference from warlords and patriarchy indicate the peaceful transition that Nuruddin Farah envisions for his society Mogadishu. The positive male

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characters are also supportive of the women as seen in the support Kiin gets from Dajaal, Bile and Seamus. The storekeeper is also supportive of his wife and has a good relationship with her to the extent that he allows her the freedom to be herself, and travel alone for a conference on behalf of the women’s group. This independence and the birth of Jiijo’s baby represent the hope envisaged in this novel and in Mogadishu by extension. The protagonist, Cambara hides under her veil to slowly retrieve her family property as she mourns the death of her son and the loss of her estranged husband. A lot of African writers explore themes of male dominance and female subjugation, but Farah creates his protagonist Cambara with a destiny of her own to achieve success at the end. Farah makes sure that in the face of an oppressive system of deep-rooted norms and traditional practices that foster female subordination, the woman must strive to assert herself. This is seen in the way Cambara consistently ignores Zaak’s tantrums, creates her own path and works consistently with Kiin and the women’s group for her plans to materialize. Cambara is aware that patriarchal laws and culture subject women to exploitation and oppression and is prepared to face the patriarchy head-on without their knowing her agenda. She goes about with her sharp knife in preparation for any eventualities. She trains herself in karate and has used it several times and even on Wardi, her estranged husband. She uses karate on the young boys that try to block her way insinuating that she needs men while referring to her as a prostitute from a foreign country. She wears her veil hiding her knife in her pants pocket, but her beautiful stiletto shoes give her away as someone rich, and new in the city. The author reveals the ways women encourage one another and advocate resistance for what they do not like, self-assertion, and collective activism to dismantle exploitative cultural practices and oppression. The author encourages women bonding and that’s why the women’s group is very successful. The women are aware of oppression and suppression of the patriarchal and religious laws and are prepared to dismantle rigid cultural practices such as circumcision, wife battering and other forms of exploitation. Their working together empowers them and proves that they have unity of purpose. The women work together to change the society and their traditional way of thinking, such as how Redeye demeans Cambara by telling her that women are supposed to do house chores. Bressler (1994) observes that “Feminism’s goal is to change this degrading view of women so that all women will realize that they are not a “non-significant other,” but that instead each woman is a valuable person possessing the same privileges and rights as every man” (103). That one of the women travels outside Mogadishu to represent the others at a conference demonstrates the increasing departure of African writers from private domestic concerns to public and national arenas of social interaction. Through the activities of the women’s group, Farah sets the stage for a

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better Mogadishu society. The women understand that they belong together as oppressed and exploited wives through this oppression, while the men are also classified as a group who use their patriarchal authority to dominate. The protagonist returns to a fragmented Mogadishu from Canada to heal herself and her community as she reclaims her family property. One can deduce that she adopts SilkHair since she plans to send him to school and marries Bile as they are both in love with each other. In this way, she heals herself and her society. Her shedding her veil of conformity shows Somalia/Mogadishu emerging from her despair to a peaceful city and country. Just like Ayi Kwei Armah (1973), Farah does not see the progress of women as a threat rather he sees them as human beings, thus his exploration of humanity and vitality of the African woman is without prejudice and rancor.

SECTION 4

Gender and Liberation in Patriarchal Society

Chapter 9

Perception of Womanhood in Flora Nwapa’s Novels

By the middle of the nineteenth century, before the writings of African female novelists such as Flora Nwapa, Ama Ata Aidoo, Buchi Emecheta, and Ifeoma Okoye, women in African literature had been portrayed as docile, passive, helpless people or at best, prostitutes and exploiters. Male writers then, in their works, always relegated women to the background. Their negative portrayal stemmed from various African cultures and traditional customs where presumably women’s roles were perceived only as mothers and wives. Earlier writers such as Chinua Achebe (2000) in his Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God (1964), Elechi Amadi (1966) in his The Concubine, and Cyprian Ekwensi (1987) in his novel Jagua Nana presented their female characters as docile, helpless individuals or as concubines and prostitutes. With the writings of female novelists such as Flora Nwapa (1996), Buchi Emecheta (1974) and Ama Ata Aidoo (1970) who project female characters as human beings who have opinions of their own, some male writers are expanding the roles of female characters, not limiting, or buttonholing them. For example, Chinua Achebe (1987) in his Anthills of the Savannah portrays the female protagonist, Beatrice, as a sensitive leader of an informal group of patriots in her oppressed nation. Elechi Amadi (1986) in his Estrangement, tries to redefine the role of women from the inactive and subdued ways they were portrayed, to a more realistic manner, using his protagonist. Because of the negative way women are projected in real life and in literature, this chapter explores how Flora Nwapa in her novels tries to present a positive image of women by portraying them as human beings capable of making their own decisions. The chapter further examines Nwapa’s presentation of her female characters as sensitive and hardworking individuals who can be economically independent if they choose. Flora Nwapa is the first Nigerian female writer to be published. She has written several novels, plays and children’s books. She also has collections of 115

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short stories and poems. Nwapa’s fictional world, as noted by critics such as Nnolim (1994) and Chukwuma (1994) is that of women. In all her works, she has tried to project women positively in a world dominated by men. Nwapa’s women are portrayed as strong and capable of achieving. On the other hand, her male characters are portrayed as ordinary lovers or husbands, who are usually weak and most of the time dependent on their wives. These dependent and weak men are explored in Nwapa’s novels Efuru (1996), Idu (1970), One Is Enough (1981), and Women Are Different (1986). The protagonists in these novels are achievers while their husbands in most cases are irresponsible and exploiters who exist in the shadow of their wives. In her novels, Nwapa tries to justify the fact that marriage is not just for procreation alone but also for economic sustenance for a couple to be at peace with each other. Efuru, the protagonist in Efuru, is presented as a traditional illiterate woman who has a mind of her own. Adizua, her husband, does not have money to pay for her dowry. With his connivance, she moves in to live with him, thus going against the tradition of her people. Efuru’s setting aside the payment of her dowry brings shame to her father and the extended family. She does this because she does not want the tradition to come between her and her love for Adizua, thus showing her independence. As Adizua’s wife, she becomes a professional trader and refuses to become a farmer like other women. She tells Adizua: “I am not cut out for farm work” (Efuru 5). She therefore asserts herself quite early in life showing her feminist stance. After several years of living together, Efuru eventually bears a daughter, Ogonim. Adizua later deserts Efuru and goes to live with another woman. When his daughter dies, he is not there to console his wife, Efuru. Looking at her mother-in-law whose son also deserts her, Efuru says, “perhaps self-imposed suffering appeals to her. It does not appeal to me. I know I am capable of suffering for greater things. But to suffer for a truant husband, an irresponsible husband like Adizua is to debase suffering” (Efuru 73). After waiting for Adizua for one year without his return, she moves back to her father’s house, thus showing her courage and self-determination. Efuru does not have another child after the death of Ogonim, even in her second marriage. After four years of marrying Gilbert, she urges him to marry a second wife Nkonye. Gilbert also becomes a truant. When Efuru’s father dies, Gilbert was nowhere to be found. She takes care of the funeral obsequies alone. Gilbert accuses her of adultery when she becomes sick. Efuru can no longer tolerate the insult; therefore, she moves out of his house. With these incidents, Nwapa portrays Efuru as one who is not afraid to make a fresh start and one who cannot be subdued by patriarchal norms. Efuru is a responsible woman who attains economic independence early in life. She gets married according to traditional norms and has been a good wife to each of her husbands, but in each marriage, she suffers humiliation and abandonment.

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Efuru’s kindness and benevolence do not save her marriage. She, therefore, determines to serve Uhamiri, the goddess of the lake whose votary she is. In One Is Enough, Nwapa (1981) presents to us another self-possessed woman, Amaka, a qualified teacher, as she marries Obiora. She leaves the teaching profession and becomes a successful businesswoman. She, like Efuru, is economically independent. She has infertility problems just like Efuru; consequently, she is reduced to the position of an underdog within her marriage. Obiora, Amaka’s husband, has twin sons outside his marriage without the knowledge of his wife. His mother persuades him to bring in the other woman with her twin sons and give Amaka the option of staying as the first wife. Amaka, feeling betrayed by her husband, leaves him to start a new life in Lagos. While in Lagos, she joins the Cash Madam’s club. With the help of Alhaji and Reverend Father Izu Mclaid, she gets contracts, builds a house, and buys a car. Amaka becomes very wealthy and comfortable. She eventually bears twin sons by Reverend Father Mclaid who resigns his priesthood to take up the responsibility for Amaka and the twin babies. Unfortunately, Amaka refuses to marry him saying that “one is enough.” She does not want to go through the rigors of marriage again. Confiding in her sister, Amaka explains: What really bothers me is that he wants me and the twins. I don’t want him. I don’t want to be his wife. . . . I don’t want to be wife anymore. . . . As a wife, I am never free. I am a shadow of myself. As a wife, I am almost impotent. I am in prison, unable to advance in body and soul. (Nwapa 1981, 132)

Amaka, like Efuru, breaks the tradition in search of identity and self-realization. One may say she has the courage to do this because she is not a village rustic. As a successful trader, she buys a car for her husband Obiora. This marriage is blissful until Obiora’s mother comes with the idea of bringing in the other woman with her twin babies. The awareness of the secret gives rise to the friction between Obiora and Amaka before Amaka moves away. Amaka’s mother emphasizes childbirth instead of marriage. She says to Amaka: “Marriage or no marriage have children. Your children will take care of you in old age. You will be very lonely if you do not have children. As a mother, you are fulfilled” (11). Here, Amaka’s mother emphasizes self-determination and motherhood. “Her advice portrays the woman as an individual, one who is financially independent and who bears children for joy and companionship and biological fulfillment” (Chukwuma 1991, 59). Amaka realizes that she has been once hurt and does not want to be hurt again. She is grateful to Father Mclaid for making her a mother of twins; however, she does not want to marry him. Obiora now hearing of Amaka’s success and her twin boys, wants her back, but she sees this request as a big joke. In lieu of

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this, Opara (2004) opines that, “Amaka is perhaps Nwapa’s most empowered woman being. Not only does she achieve financial independence, she attains the peak of African motherhood—the mother of twin boys” (37). Nwapa uses her protagonists Efuru and Amaka to show that women have options open to them instead of allowing themselves to be humiliated and maltreated in the name of marriage. Another interesting character is Amaka’s niece, Ayo who constitutes herself into a successful feminine parasite. She lives her life around a government official with whom she has four children. Ayo has been married once but opts for this kind of life as a form of revolt. Nwapa portrays Ayo as a parasite since she depends on men without making efforts to enhance herself economically. Ayo’s choice of independence is quite different from Amaka’s own and should not be encouraged. Amaka has the strength and the moral courage to assert herself as an individual just like Efuru. Nwapa, in her portrayal of her characters, sees women as beautiful, desirable, and industrious. Helen Chukwuma (1994) observes that: “Flora Nwapa is different” because “she is committed to womanhood. She identifies with her gender, probes into their life conditions, their problems in a male-dominated system of being, and introduces to us, full-rounded female characters” (116). The traditional society in her novels recognizes women’s roles as only those of wives and mothers and that a girl is fulfilled only when she marries and has children. These social dictates for women bring immense suffering to the women. Thus, Nwapa’s themes revolve around marriage, choosing a partner, and motherhood, and with these themes, she exposes the conflict in the characters in her novels. The reaction of Nwapa’s protagonists to the repression in their culture shows the marked development of Nwapa in portraying female assertion and empowerment. The protagonists are redefining the traditional roles on their own terms and with their attitudes. Efuru asserts herself quite early in the novel, so it is not a surprise that she does not sit back to lament and wait for Adizua’s return when he deserts her. Knowing that Adizua’s waywardness is part of his life, there is little point in waiting for him. Efuru is self-willed and her mother-in-law knows this. Efuru tells her father who wants to know what she will do after her husband abandons her, “I have not made up my mind. Once it is made up, there is no coming back” (Efuru 95). There is a contrast between Efuru and her mother-in-law in their reactions to Gilbert’s desertion. Her mother-in-law sits to lament her son’s disappearance while Efuru decides to forget him and start afresh. There is also a contrast between Efuru and Nkonye. Nkonye stays to wait for Gilbert without knowing why he is sent to jail and does not make any move to go in search of him. Gilbert later marries another wife while Nkonye lives in his disfavor. Efuru cannot stay in the same house to be ignored by someone she calls her husband. Efuru follows the social norms and has, in each marriage, been a good wife and companion to her two husbands. She

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consciously makes a clean break each time she finds out that they are undeserving of her. She finds her true self after reacting against the traditional norms that would have enveloped her. Looking at other ways women are portrayed in African society, Nwapa presents to us Idu, the main character in the novel which has its title as Idu. Idu has the same strong individualism as Efuru. Idu has problems with conceiving initially; therefore, Adiewere, her husband, reluctantly marries a second wife. Idu eventually gives birth to a son. By the time she gives birth to her second child, her husband dies, so Idu sets aside the levirate, the cultural provision of wife inheritance by the brother of the deceased. This practice is to safeguard the family to continue to provide a home and upkeep for the widow and stop her from causing a disruption of the family by remarrying. Through wife inheritance, the wishes of the individual are subsumed in family continuity and security. Idu rejects this arrangement and maintains the bond of true love between her and her late husband. In her grief, she dies rejecting any form of existence than the one she chooses with her husband. The villagers thought that the birth of her son Ijeoma and the baby she is expecting are valid reasons for her to stay alive. Idu’s death shows in gruesome terms the primacy of the individual over the society, the supremacy of love and companionship over having children and over social beliefs. Her death authenticates her wish fulfillment. Idu’s act is the vehemence of an individual over a system that is unnecessarily rigid. Adiewere is not a polygamist at heart; however, he is forced into polygamy by societal dictates. Like Gilbert in Efuru polygamy proves a destabilizing force for Adiewere; instead of making him more homely, it drives him away to his death. In Women Are Different, Nwapa explores other problems faced by women; she searches for alternative roles other than being a wife or a mother. She chooses three characters that are schoolmates, Dora, Agnes, and Rose, and traces their development to adulthood in the mixed environment of their rural village and the city of Lagos. Nwapa shows in these characters, the strife for individualism within the various professions and more importantly in marriage. She exposes various marital problems in their complexity, which is not easily resolved. Dora’s problem is how to remain married to Chris who shows all sorts of marital irresponsibility. Chris accepts bribes in his place of work and goes abroad to study to avoid the pressure from work. This results in his termination from work. Unable to pass his bar examination, he moves to Hamburg only to be turned back. Dora accepts him back, but after thinking of Chris’ actions (deserting his wife and children), she decides to divorce him. Dora reminisces: At first, she had locked herself up and felt sorry for herself. Now she felt sorry for Chris. He should not have gone to England in the first place. She told him,

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but he did not listen to her. And the German Lady? Was she? Chris’ wife or concubine or what? Was she keeping Chris? When did Chris go to Hamburg? Why Hamburg? No, she must stop all these questions, which had no answers. She must do something. But what? What was she going to do? (Women Are Different 78)

Dora divorces her husband after reflecting on how he abandons her and her children, and within a few days, Tunde comes into her life. Agnes has an unsuccessful marriage because she is a victim of an arranged marriage. For Nwapa, marriage is not the only way, but it is the most desirable in her novels. Rose, the only one among the three friends who is not married, asserts: “Though I am not married, I have always believed that it is better to marry and be divorced, than not to marry at all; it is better to have a bad husband than none at all” (Women Are Different 99). Rose is a businesswoman and an achiever in her own right. She has several times been betrayed and jilted due to her trusting nature and naivety. At the end, Rose is unfulfilled in her love life but highly successful in her business. Nwapa rejects the Nigerian attitude towards single women, whether divorced or unmarried thus she asks: Was a woman nothing because she was unmarried or barren? Was there no other fulfillment for her? Could she not be happy in the real sense of the word, just by having men friends who were not husbands? There did seem to be some magic about the word husband. Her people had drummed it into their ears as children growing up that a girl had just one ambition, to be married. So all energy was geared towards finding her a good husband. (One Is Enough 22)

In Nwapa’s worldview, the ideal womanhood is the preservation of family. She uses pioneer positive thinkers like Amaka’s mother and aunt, and Efuru’s mother-in-law as models to young women though they are “illiterate womanists who have asserted themselves well in their society” (Njoku 1997, 81). In the case of Chinwe, Amaka’s sister, she leaves her husband after he brings in another young girl as wife. Chinwe reacts by going to live with a married man from whom she inherited a lot of money, a house, and a car. Nwapa rationalizes Chinwe’s action in Comfort’s statement: Chinwe has learned a lot from her mother’s problems. What she is doing is reacting to them. Her mother was so good to her husband but see how shabbily her mother was treated. What Chinwe is trying to say is this: “Mother I cannot take what you have taken from father. I am going to have my own back. No man is going to hold me to ransom.” (Women Are Different 117)

Chinwe represents the defiant young generation who would not want to suffer male tyranny but must fight back. The author makes the female characters

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succeed in their defiance thereby proving them right. Chinwe refuses child support from her husband to show that she does not want any relationship with him anymore. This leads Nwapa to surmise that, Chinwe had done the right thing. Her generation was doing better than her mother’s own. Her generation was telling the men, that there are different ways of living one’s life fully and fruitfully. They are saying that women have options. Their lives cannot be ruined because of a bad marriage. They have a choice, a choice to set up a business of their own, a choice to marry and have children, a choice to marry, or divorce their husband. Marriage is not the only way. (Women Are Different 119)

The educated women in Women Are Different are less self-reliant, but they are more confident and assertive in their youths than their mothers. Since men’s domination over women occurs mostly when women are financially dependent on their husbands, Amaka’s mother and aunt encourage her to be financially independent of her husband by working hard in her business. Stefanie Lemke (2003) observes that “Women have the capacity to . . . have social resources that often enable them to survive, whether in material terms or in terms of psychological support” (65). The new generation of women portrayed by the children of Agnes and Dora act in defiance to the type of marital relationship that exists in their society; they opt for their personal total freedom from control. This is a sign that values have changed, and the new generation of women determine these values themselves to have a choice. The risks and dangers these women are exposed to during the Nigerian civil war hardened their spirits and made them self-centered. At the end of the civil war, they migrate with the men to urban centers in search of different kinds of jobs including contract jobs, thus, “the restraints of kinship and village gave way to the ideology of the individual” (Weitz 1950, 123). Nwapa therefore projects the ideology of the individual into her emancipated characters. We then see Adaobi who does not belong to the “Cash Madam Club” using their ideas to build a house for her family and thus cushions her family from homelessness when her husband is dismissed from his job. Adaobi and Amaka gain from a relationship that enables each of them to grow in self-knowledge and resourcefulness. In their different ways, they engage in a struggle to determine their identity. In Women Are Different, Dora copes with her responsibilities when her husband Chris travels abroad to study because of her economic stability. The characters in Women Are Different achieve self-fulfillment through their careers. Seeing Rose’s love life as a failure, Nwapa evokes the frustrations, tensions, solitude, and difficulties that are often the rewards for women’s emancipation and independence. The women in One Is Enough and Women

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Are Different are determined to survive; consequently, they exploit all the situations in their own interest and amass wealth which offers them positions of strength. Chukwuma (1994) observes that, “the female character in African fiction hitherto is a facile lack-luster human being, the quiet member of a household, content only to bear children, unfulfilled if she does not, and handicapped if she bears only daughters” (215). The discrimination is such that in the home, the female is not part of the decision making, even when the decisions affect her directly. Docility and complete submission of will are demanded of and exacted for her. This image of women as indeterminate human beings, dependent, gullible, and voiceless is a societal norm that is perpetuated in literature. The image has stuck in the African societies, especially in the background of a maledominated environment, which marked most traditional African societies. In Nuruddin Farah’s (1970) From a Crooked Rib for example, the protagonist Ebla, reiterates the discrimination society perpetuates between the sexes. This discrimination always places women in a disadvantaged position, leading women in this novel to be depicted as articles for sale. In Emecheta’s (1974) Second Class Citizen, she notes: “The fact that she was still laying the golden eggs stopped Francis from walking out on her. As before, her pay bound him to her, but the difference is that she now knew it” (46). Therefore, Akachi Ezeigbo (1996) proffers that Nwapa deconstructs motherhood by giving it a secondary position, implying that the most important thing for a woman is to be independent and economically empowered (68). Economic power, therefore, has become a source of female assertion which breaks loose the shackles of subjugation and establishes choice as the basis of interaction. It is Amaka’s independence that guides her choice of single parenthood, and it is the same for Ada’s separation from Francis. We notice that while a spinster, Amaka is encouraged by her mother to amass wealth because according to her, “the richer you are, the better your husband will be, and he will really appreciate you more” (Nwapa 1981, 16–17). This shows that the traditional society sometimes encourages the resourcefulness and industry of women since they help to work on the farms and provide food for the household. It is only when the men assert their masculinity that they reject the industry of their wives. Marriage for the African woman is not just a union between a husband and the wife; it extends to other members of the family where mothers-in-law play significant roles. The interference of the mother-in-law in the case of Amaka is also seen in Ba’s (1980) So Long a Letter, where Aissatou’s motherin-law precipitated the case of a second wife for her son. At the end of these

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novels, one could see that the conception of female characters changes for good. The woman becomes more aware after taking the bull by the horn. CONCLUSION Nwapa, in her novels presents a different image of women from the debased and subservient position; she depicts them as independent and economically viable beings. At the same time, she wants her women to marry and have children; thus, she says in One Is Enough: “A woman’s ambition was marriage, a home that she could call her own, a man she could love and cherish and children to crown the marriage” (142). Charles Nnolim (1994) sees Nwapa’s characters as accommodationists; retrospectively, in an interview with Akachi Ezeigbo, Nwapa says she does not believe that she is a feminist (89). Nwapa consistently shows in her novels the centrality of marriage and motherhood in a woman’s life. On the other hand, she has shown in her characters that a woman can survive alone if she is economically independent and that a woman needs a man either as a husband or a lover, to be emotionally stable. It is by bringing the institution of marriage into focus that Nwapa portrays vividly the impact of childlessness on the African woman, and the emotional and economic independence of women generally. Nwapa sums up her view in One Is Enough in her dedication as she writes: “For Ine, my husband’s mother who believes that all women married, or single must be economically independent” (dedication page). Nwapa, in her writings, varies her style to suit the nature of her work. In Efuru and Idu, she uses proverbs, imagery, and Igbo sentence structures to season her conversations and descriptions of events and scenes, though their effects cannot be properly communicated by equivalents in English language. She uses these techniques to differentiate her modern works from her earlier works where her protagonists exhibit traditional ways of life and culture. These stylistic aspects are rare in One Is Enough and Women Are Different where her characters portray their self-esteem. She has established herself as a novelist and a short story writer of note. Nwapa’s works reveal her commitment to the cause of women and her concern for their freedom from all traditional practices and beliefs, which impede their material and spiritual progress. Her concern for the improvement of Nigerian society is obvious in her criticisms of societal ills. Her works constitute a testimony of indispensability of women in the social and economic life of Nigeria. They also demonstrate the confidence the author has in the ability of women to lead a life of fulfillment within and outside marriage unfettered by men, provided they are economically independent. Nwapa portrays women like Ayo and members

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of Cash Madam’s Club as morally deprived because they depend on men for financial gratification without making efforts to help themselves. These are the women portrayed as selfish, wayward, and corrupt. Nwapa is, therefore, speaking for women generally and raising their morale to continue to have aspiration for greater heights. At the same time, she is calling for a change of attitude towards women, marriage, and motherhood.

Chapter 10

Resistance and Activism in Sembene Ousmane’s God’s Bits of Wood

Sembene Ousmane is one of Africa’s most prolific writers. He like the other male writers used in this work, is a feminist whose works focus on the empowerment and uplifting of women. He was born in 1923 in Zinquichor, Southern Senegal, to a fisherman father who relocated from Dakar. Because of his insubordination to school authority, he left school without completing his primary education and moved to Dakar. There, he did various manual jobs such as working as an apprentice mechanic, a plumber, and a bricklayer. He enlisted in the French Army during the Second World War where he became a sharpshooter. While in the army, he served in Italy and Germany before returning to his native Casamance in 1943. Between 1943 and 1948 he traveled to different parts of West Africa acquiring experiences that would help him later in his career as a writer because he was self-taught. He went back to France to join the trade union movement and became an active dock-workers leader. Ousmane’s participation in the workers’ demonstrations and protest marches which were frequent in France in the 1940s deepened his socialist orientation and influenced his novel God’s Bits of Wood. Ousmane wrote other works some of which are, Le Docker Noir (1956), Ô Pays, Mon Beau Peuple (1957), Voltaigue (1962, a collection of short stories), I Harmattan (1964), Le Mandat (1965, translated as Money Order), Xala (1973), The Last of the Empire (1974). God’s Bits of Wood was originally written in French as Les Bouts de Bois de Dieu (1960) and was translated into English in 1970. Ousmane’s God’s Bits of Wood explores the colonial capitalist, socio-economic and political exploitation in Senegal. Exploitation is used in his work as a microcosm of all kinds of capitalist exploitation all over the world. The repressive economic situation in Senegal forced railway workers to embark on a strike action between 1947 and 1948. The strike which 125

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heavily involved men, women, and youths, was positive and revolutionary despite colonial intimidation, brutality, imprisonment, death and all forms of deprivation, water and food supplies included. The author therefore uses his protagonist Bakayoko to achieve his socialist vision of setting Senegal free from oppression, degradation, and economic strangulation, imposed on the railway workers by the forces of colonialism. This chapter explores the resistance, activism, and assertiveness displayed by the people, especially women, to achieve socio-political and economic change through the leadership of Bakayoko who with the railway workers undertake a confrontational approach against the colonial system. Additionally, the chapter argues that the effectiveness, assertiveness, and continued violent revolution of the women activists help towards the resolution of the conflict. Ousmane presents the French colonialists as capitalists who derive their income by being in control and owning the means of production because of their bourgeois class. The workers who are deemed the lower class toil and labor for low wages without any benefits. This results in the rich getting richer and the poor, poorer, thereby accentuating the class struggle. Chidi Amuta (1986) observes that “society manifests itself in terms of definite classes, groups and formations in the process of the production and reproduction of the means and ends for their sustenance. Therefore, literary values are not very literary but derive from the class configuration of social totality” (39). It is this situation which creates the economic and socio-political imbalances in the society. It is also this exploitative social system that Marxist scholars explore in their criticisms. Kofi Agyekum (2007) opines that, Marxist critics examine literature from the point of view of the dominant elites and the rich. They consider how the dominant elites exploit subordinate groups and the bourgeois suppress the working class. The Marxist critics see how literature can be used to promote social and economic revolution, consciousness and awareness and a radical transformation of the society to bring social equilibrium and bridge the gaps in social class systems. (129)

Bakare being a socialist realizes that violent revolution is needed to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor. The reader gets more insight to this as Bakare explains to Sounkare the purpose of the strike: I thought they were talking just about salaries, but I went to their meetings, and I found that they were talking about pension, too—a pension that would affect us and not just young ones. Look around you. . . . There are not very many of us any more . . . they had no pension and now they are dead . . . and what are we to live on? And the fathers of the white men, the ones who taught us our trade . . . are living at home again, and they have their pensions. Why should we not have this pension, too, that is what the young ones are asking. (Ousmane 1995, 18)



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Sounkare is uncomfortable with the strike because he does not believe the authority would yield to the workers’ demands; thus, he tells Bakare, “God in His wisdom may help you, Bakare, but the toubabs may refuse. From here to Koulikoro, everything that moves belongs to them. Even our lives belong to them” (18). Wa Thiong’O (1981) in his work Writers in Politics also believes that the minority who reap where they never planted, who also pocket the wealth produced by the working-laboring majority, rob with impunity because they have come to control the state with violent power, thereby suppressing the masses who are the majority. However, it is important to note that Sigelmann and Simpson (1977) view political violence as a function of the manner, in which economic wealth and its concomitant social status and political powers are distributed (45). The strike aims at extolling the dignity of labor. The strikers are poor but with the spirit of collective will and determination, they are able to reach their goals. This is deduced from one of the strikers when he acknowledges the fact that, “We have to hang on. We have to know what we want, and we have to stand together . . . it isn’t those who are taken by force are the real slaves: it is those who will accept it, morally and physically” (Ousmane 1995, 20). This shows that some of the strikers are politically aware of how they are treated; therefore, the strikers are determined to succeed in their struggle, and there, lies the unity and willingness not to surrender to the forces of oppression. The railway serves as the link between the towns inhabited by people and the novel is structured to revolve around the towns of Bamako, Thies, and Dakar. Symbolically, the railway is used as a link between the people’s past and the future. The Africans have come to rely solely on the railway which shows the intrusion of the Europeans and the subsequent imposition of foreign values on their unique social lives, thus breeding exploitation and insecure working conditions. Relying on the railway puts the Africans in a perpetual state of dependency as their lives revolve around this mechanism. It becomes disheartening because the workers cannot complain as they are afraid of being laid off, or even being imprisoned. This kind of situation undermines the dignity of labor and human worth both morally and physically. As soon as the workers come to a point of realization, they lose confidence on the toubabs (the whites), consequently bringing about the mass uprising to restore and address the wholesome economic imbalance created by capitalism. The strength of the workers lies in their point of realization, when they discover through Ramatoulaye that “real misfortune is not just a matter of being hungry and thirsty-and that is the way it is with us” (53). The people have realized that the goods produced are for profit, not just for consumption. They are now aware that poverty and deprivation are created by the authority to suppress them and widen the gap between the rich and the workers who are the poor. When the masses decide to resist this oppression, the authority

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invites the police to arrest the strikers instead of negotiating with them. During one of the encounters, one of the women says, “No one in this house is going to the police station. . . . I don’t know how to read myself, but I am sure it is not written in the mother of all books of law, that honest people should be deprived and killed” (122). This assertiveness makes them to reflect on how they are oppressed and help them think and plan their next line of action so they can live a decent life. The people are deprived of the necessities of life—food and water—thereby making life unbearable, as peace and stability become elusive in a society dominated by a few rich people. To make valuable and sustainable changes, the workers need a total overhaul so they can create a society with a new and equal opportunity. The success of this strike shows that the people are unwilling to accept their unsatisfactory working conditions and through their collective will, they can overcome their enemy and poverty. THE MAKEUP OF STRIKING WORKERS Despite their disagreement, Ousmane’s characters are effective and unique in the progression of this novel. There are traitors whose activities are a betrayal to the cause of the workers on strike, and there are activists whose involvement in the strike help in the exploration of Ousmane’s socialist vision. At the beginning, the story revolves around Bakayoko, the protagonist who comes from Bambara, one of the towns in Senegal. Later, it shifts to women who work hard under dangerous circumstances to resolve the conflict. Bakayoko is well read, and understands that his people are being used, deprived, and oppressed. In fulfillment of the author’s socialist vision, Bakayoko undertakes a confrontational approach against the colonial system so he can free his people from mental oppression and socio-political and economic bondage. Like Oumar Faye in Ousmane’s Ô Pays, Mon Beau Peuple (1957), who leads his people in their struggle to freedom, Bakayoko becomes an embodiment of the new Africa. He is the link between the three towns where the strike takes place. Bakayoko fearlessly lays down the conditions for his people’s return to work even at the risk of his life. He loses his mother in the strike, his father is imprisoned, and his daughter wounded, yet he refuses to betray his people, showing his uprightness and determination to succeed. The women refer to him as “the morning light.” This is confirmed in the lyrical chant composed by two women leaders Penda and Dieyanaba. The morning light is in the east; / It is daybreak of a day of history. / From Koulikoro to Dakar. The smoke of the savanna dies / On the 10th of October, fateful day / We swore before the world / to support you to the end / You have



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lit the touch of hope. And the victory is near, / The morning light is in the east; It is daybreak of a day of history. (Ousmane 1995, 174–175)

There are other positive characters like Doudou, Lehbid, Alioume, Konate, Seye, and the secretary general who devote their time and risk their lives to make sure the workers succeed in the strike. Berklay (1993) observes that “the efforts of the oppressed towards individuality are a step along the road to liberation” (117). There are oppositions to the strike which are expressed through characters such as the retired watchman who accosts Tiemoko at the train station when he says: Well, then, tell us what this strike is all about. Don’t you ever think about people like us, who have to wait a week or more for a train. . . . Do you think the trains belong to you? They don’t—no more than they did to your fathers—but you decide to stop working, just like that without thinking about other people. And yet you workmen of all people, should be satisfied with what you have. . . . Why should you prevent these farmers from going where they want to go? (Ousmane 1995, 83)

The retired workman exhibits his lack of awareness of the oppression meted to his people and does not realize that he can help to make things better by supporting the strike. There are other strikebreakers like Diara, Bachirou, Leblanc, Victor, Hadrame and El Hadji Mabigue. Some of these men like Bachirou and Diara return secretly to work while others give out vital information about the strikers and their leaders to Dejean, the white director. Hadrame refuses to give credit facilities to women whose husbands are on strike, while Leblanc supplies information to the company director. El Hadji Mabique is a mercenary against the strike. For his activities, he gets food and other benefits in return from the authority. Dejean the director meets secretly with the strikebreakers from time to time to discuss their next strategy on how to stop the strike without meeting the workers’ demands. At one of the meetings he says, “Sit down gentlemen and tell me the news” (30). Victor explains: “We are sure now that Doudou is the one behind it. They have installed their headquarters in inspection office. There is a second ringleader—the most important perhaps—Bakayoko. He is their orator. He travels up and down the line making speeches to the men. Right now he is at Kayes” (30). These people giving out vital information against the strike are saboteurs in war parlance. They lack awareness because they prefer to be dependent on the authority, without knowing that the strikers are working to improve their living condition. The union leaders with the help of Tiemoko recruit commandos to confront the soldiers and policemen, thus giving them the opportunity to use punitive

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measures against the strikebreakers and traitors like Diara, who is openly tried in the union hall. This kind of punishment serves as a measure to guard against defectors and validates that their decision is not made by one person; it is democratic. The strikers are fighting for a positive cause; and therefore, would not be enticed by Mr. Dejean to go back to work without their demands being met. At the meeting to coax the strikers to end the strike, not even the Imam is able to convince them with his numerous quotes from the Koran to go back to work. He is seen by the union leaders as a stooge, almost on the same level with the politicians like El Hadji Monique who is also a profiteer. The union leaders therefore make it clear that they are not ready to compromise any part of their demands to go back to work. WOMEN’S ACTIVISM AND ASSERTIVENESS In the traditional setting, women support their husbands by staying in the house to take care of the children, buying and selling in the markets, and preparing food at home, while the men do the hard work outside the home, and provide most of the money. In this setting, men mostly work in the train. The strike causes the changing roles of women from housewives to breadwinners and overseeing the household. The women are assertive in their fight and struggle for better living conditions for their households. As part of the struggle, they engage the oppressors who exploit them directly without relenting. This challenge changes the women’s perception of themselves as they eventually march to Dakar for direct confrontation with the authority. Bammer (1982) observes that Marxist feminists have since reconsidered their position and have argued that “A narrowly economic model of revolution based on the concepts of class and production that ignore the significantly different conditions of men and women in society is both insufficient and imprecise” (150). Before the march, we see Ramatoulaye as she immediately becomes the head of a household of twenty. She does not show any sign of weakness even when confronted with danger. She kills Vendredi, her brother’s bull because Vendredi eats what is left for the children. She is not sorry because El Hadji Mabuigue, her brother, betrays the cause of the strike. She refuses to apologize to the police chief and walks out on him after slapping N’Deye Touti and avows: “I would rather lose my eyes and be buried alive over a slow fire than ever speak a word again to that man. If I had to do what I did to Vendredi again, I would do it gladly. People like those two are neither relatives nor friends. They would kiss the behind of the toubabs for a string of medals and everyone knows it” (Ousmane 1995, 126). Ramatoulaye exhibits her feminist consciousness and stands her ground as she challenges the men working against the strike. Hartsock (1998) is of the view that, “The



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standpoint of the proletariat as elaborated by Marx provides a model for the construction of a distinctively feminist standpoint, that is, a way of getting “beneath” capitalistic and patriarchal ideology so as to expose the fact that patriarchal institutions and ideologies are perverse inversions of more human social relations” (115–44). Ramatoulaye’s objection of not speaking to the men betraying the cause shows her feminist stand which encourages and empowers the women to take the same positive stand in favor of the strike. Another character who is effective in this strike is Penda. She is a young woman seen as a prostitute because she breaks the custom by periodically escaping with men, thereby making her people angry with her. The strike transforms her completely to a dedicated and selfless individual. She is picked by the union to oversee the distribution of food to striking families. Penda effectively mobilizes women to get involved in the march. Even though there are consequences for counting human beings, Penda violates tradition again by counting women directly to prevent some of them from quitting. Penda is killed in the fourth clash between the women and the French armed forces, but the resolve she exhibits encourages the women to complete their march to Dakar. The women are emboldened to continue the march because they are now aware and conscious of what is at stake. “Feminist consciousness embodies self-awareness . . . and leads to a better understanding of self and the issues that affect one’s life physically and psychologically. This opens the way for the development of an inner strength that enables the woman to assert and define herself in relation to the patriarchal system” (Nutsukpo 2007, 168). It is Penda’s devotion to the success of the strike that makes Bakayoko say: “She was a real friend, and she lost her life because of it” (Ousmane 1995, 221). There are other women who also work towards the success of this strike by giving different kinds of support to their families—Dieynaba, Mariame Sonko, Houdia M’Baye and others. The men now rely on the women to feed them and their children, thus reversing the traditional role. This reliance on the women emboldens them, and they begin to see themselves as active strikers on the same level with their husbands. The men who consider defecting are forced into resoluteness by their wives. It is also interesting to note that no female character betrays the strikers, thereby showing the unity and strength of the women. The women leader once asked: “What is happening men? The strike isn’t over? If you still need us . . .” (245), proving that the women are not ready to back down until they achieve success. THE AWARENESS AND ACTIVISM OF THE YOUTH It is very important to carry the youth along in societal affairs since they are the future of the society. In God’s Bits of Wood, we notice that Ousmane does

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not lose sight of the younger generations because he sees them as the future hope of Africa. The youths represented by future apprentices contribute in no small measure to the activities of the adults towards economic and social emancipation. On the surface, one may think that their role is not relevant, but because they are robbing the Europeans who have been robbing and exploiting them by tricks of labor, one can deduce that they are doing this out of anger conditioned by deprivation. Moreover, they do not have anything to eat at home while the Europeans have more than enough and do not want to share. The young people therefore device their own means of getting the food to feed their families without getting into trouble. They also make sure that they do not disrupt the strike because they have also come to realize and appreciate why their parents are involved in the strike. The youth participation is emblematic of the participation of the youth in Farah’s (2006) Knots where some young boys work together with women for the progress of the society. It is important to note that anywhere the youth participate actively in societal affairs, that society will always have bright future as the youth will continue to educate the citizens because of their awareness of the sociopolitical and economic issues. TECHNIQUE The title of the novel God’s Bits of Wood is used figuratively to refer to human beings who are God’s children. In the African setting where the novel takes place, counting of humans is regarded as a taboo, that is why Ramatoulaye is always referring to the women and children she is taking care of as “God’s Bits of Wood.” Penda also goes against tradition to do real counting of the women while they are marching just to discourage them from going back. Generally, this title connotes huge number of people who are affected by the oppression and exploitation of the French colonizers. Since nothing happened to people being counted, Penda has debunked the myth of counting people instituted by patriarchy in her society. This novel was originally published in French as Senegal is a francophone country, and that is the language in which Ousmane could reach a wider audience at the time. Also, writing in his primary language, Ouolof, would restrict readership of this novel. The reader notices that only a few of the strikers can communicate in French and among the women, only N’Deye Touti can, therefore she serves as their translator when there is the need. The French police chief probably does not expect them to understand French; therefore, he is embarrassed when N’Deye Touti tells the women how he ridicules her: “Ha, A little while ago that one said that I was a real little filly-just the way he liked them—and you told him he could sleep with me for a handful of



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rice. What about your women? They’ll sleep with the zouaves for nothing (Ousmane 1995, 119). Beaugosse, one of the union members who is against the women’s march speaks in French to persuade Bakayoko to stop the plan but Bakayoko replies: “You can keep your French for yourself; The men will understand you better if you speak their language. . . . If all the workers thought like you, we might as well say good-bye to the strike and to all the months of sacrifice” (188). N’Deye Touti surprises the French colonialist by speaking French which confirms Richard Shaull’s (1972) opinion that education enables women to “look critically at the social situation in which they find themselves . . . take the initiative in acting to transform the society that has denied them various opportunities of participation” (9). One could see here that French is used as a language of exclusion since many people do not understand or speak the language. Bakayoko even points out during negotiation between the workers and the French authority: “since your ignorance of any of our language is a handicap for you, we will use French as a matter of courtesy. But it is courtesy that will not last forever” (Ousmane 1995, 181–182). One can deduce from this that the French think that their language is superior to Ouolof or any other tribal language and since they are the colonizers; they insist on using their language instead of learning to speak Ouolof. This is ignorance on their part, because Bakayoko has truly warned that the courtesy will not last forever. Making the French come to this point of awareness would be a big change in the socio-political system, because it would be a way of establishing the equality between the African languages and French language, and between the Africans and the French, as human beings. Ousmane also portrays the cultural life of the Africans in his text showing their daily lifestyle. The women are portrayed as mainly housewives and caregivers and people who never seem to complain. There are negative aspects to polygamy in the sense that it creates rivalries, jealousies and leads to fights between the women concerned, but Ousmane tries in this novel to show its positive side. Bakayoko does not like polygamy but he keeps to tradition by marrying Assitan, his late brother’s wife, and providing for her and her daughter, Ad’jibid’ji. By showing the positive side of polygamy, Ousmane defies Dejean’s chauvinistic attitude of dismissing polygamy as “the customs of inferior beings.” During the negotiation, Dejean does not want to consider the workers’ “family allowances.” He believes that “To give in on the question of family allowances was much more than agreeing to a compromise with striking workers; it would amount to a recognition of a racial aberrance, a ratification of the customs of inferior beings. It would be giving in, not to workers but to Negroes and Dejean could not do it” (184). There are disagreements based on this which also reinforces the women’s decision to embark on the march to Dakar. The colonialists are even more disappointed when Bakayoko refuses the use of their politicians as

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intermediaries because they have become very corrupt and do not consider the interest of their people first. He says: Our deputies. . . . To us, their mandate is simply a license to profiteer. We know that, and that is what we think of them. There are some of them who, before their election, did not even own a second pair of pants. Now they have apartments, villas, automobiles, bank accounts, and they own stock in companies like this one. . . . They have become your allies, and you expect us to let them be the judges of our differences? Oh no, a thousand times, no. (184)

Ousmane also makes use of traditional African elements such as drumming, dancing, and songs. These act as frameworks that help in the development of the novel. The reader visualizes the point of view of the writer, thus making the story interesting and understandable. Gikandi (1987) observes that “Ousmane’s real skill as an artist is evident in the way he comments on the scenery through the subtle positioning of visual details in the documentary tradition” (115). Gikandi makes this reference in relation to Ousmane’s sensitivity towards his vivid description of the landscape in the opening paragraph of the text: The last rays of the sun filtered through a shredded lacework of clouds. To the west, waves of mist spun slowly away, and at the very center of the vast mauve and indigo arch of the sky the great crimson orb grew steadily larger. The roof, the thorny minarets of the mosques, the trees—silk—cotton, flame, and mahogany . . . poised like a sugar castle on the heights that bore its name. (Ousmane 1995, 1)

CONCLUSION Ousmane’s God’s Bits of Wood exposes the highhandedness meted on the proletariat by the bourgeois class. The events in the novel show that peace and stability remain elusive in a society dominated by a few rich people, who have appropriated wealth and positions to their selfish advantage. This oppression created starvation, joblessness, and insecurity for the masses, thus the need for a total change. Dejean’s intention is to make money out of the labor of the poor masses. It is revealed that “Dejean had been an ambitious clerk, who arrived in the colony with the intention of making his fortune in the shortest possible time. He had climbed the rungs of the ladder very quickly, and there had even been a time when he dreamed of founding his own company” (GBW 29). He has crushed the workers’ first attempt at a strike and gains promotion to the position of chief clerk as a reward. He however believes that he



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can perform the same fit this time around. To stop the strike, he uses every weapon within his arsenal such as the police, the soldiers and depriving the people of food and water. Unfortunately for him, through the relentlessness of the men, women and youths, the strike becomes a huge success, resulting in the release of those put in prison at the time of the strike. Ousmane preoccupies himself with the portrayal of the inhumanity suffered by his people at the hands of French capitalists in Senegal. The conflict here is socio-economic and political rather than racial. The capitalists use political weapons to suppress the socio-economic progress of the workers. Ousmane therefore uses his protagonist Bakayoko and women leaders such Ramatoulaye and Penda to deliver his people from socio-economic deprivation and poverty to economic liberation and restoration of human dignity. In the process of this liberation, both the strikers and their wives make tremendous changes in their lives and in their outlook on life in general. The strike raises their awareness and self-esteem, and the women realize that they can speak for themselves whenever necessary. The women also learn that with unity and strength, they can achieve whatever they set their minds on, thus seeing themselves as essential beings in the society. The resistance and activism of the women help to move the strike in a positive direction leading to a successful resolution. This implies that Ousmane’s projected socialist vision is a success.

Chapter 11

Gender, Ethnicity, and Sexuality in Nigerian Movies

Africa is generally a patriarchal society, but it is notable that several years ago in most parts of Africa, women were highly respected especially in matrilineal societies. They took traditional titles just like the men. Some of these women were activists and are portrayed as such in literature and recently, in films. Kolawole (1997) in her book, Colonialism and African Consciousness also traces the history and exploits of these strong women to show that they have not always been dehumanized and relegated to the background. Granted that in chauvinistic societies, men would always find a means of clamping down on women, so they can have the upper hand and control of the women; recent literature and films have portrayed modern women from all walks of life in their constant struggle towards emancipation. The women have ignored such negative devices as myths, traditions, and religions used to brainwash them and have shown that in their own endeavors, they can be equally as successful as the men. Using Nigeria as a microcosm, modern literature and film brings to light the recent perception of women in African societies. The high quality of the films produced in Nigeria and the positive and in-depth portrayal of gender and socio-economic and political issues where women play active parts, are some of the reasons why this study is worthy of pursuit. With the support of some literary texts, this chapter focuses on the exploits and struggles of these women as portrayed in recent Nigerian movies and how their men complement their roles in the society as suggested by Ogunyemi (1996) and Nnaemeka (2004) in their feminism theories. There has been an ongoing debate about literature and film as a genre in the sense that critics and philosophers have been trying to argue whether film should be classified as art. Their argument is that if film is art, would it be analyzed in the same way as literature? In their book, Philosophy of Film and Motion Pictures, Carroll and Choi (2006) define film as simply “moving photography” (7). They argue that “since photography cannot be art, neither 137

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can films be” (7). The question of whether film can be classified as art came up at the time the film medium was in the process of acquiring greater visibility and influence in society . . . its practitioners and proponents had higher ambitions for it. They aspired for recognition; they clamored for intimacy. They no longer wished to be regarded as the poor stepsister of theatre. They wanted film to be acknowledged as art form in its own right. (Carroll and Choi 2006, 7)

The philosophers view photography as “an automatic mechanical process” (7) that is not “creative,” expressive and/or interpretative like art. For them, a CD is a reproduction of an artwork, not an artwork in itself. The CD is therefore grouped in the same category as photography. On the other hand, the philosophers who debate the ontology of film came up with the idea that film is something that conveys thoughts and feelings (Carroll and Choi 2006, 291). This definition dismisses the notion that film is a mere mechanical thing or object. According to Linda Constanzo Cahir (2006), Literature generally still occupies a more privileged position in the cultural hierarchy than movies do; and readers often have a proprietary attitude toward the book, an attitude that influences their reception of a film based upon it. . . . Readers translate words into images and form strong, private, often vivid impressions of what the book’s fictional world become like and what it all means; words become translated into emotional experiences. (13)

Viewers expect to see exactly what they have read about, in a movie. If certain parts are missing, the movie is generally regarded as worthless. These viewers fail to realize that some movies are more interesting than others just as some books or stories are also more interesting than others. Films are generally visual. The images are either recorded with a camera or created through computer imaging. These images are carefully put together using different techniques to create the films we watch. Granted that there are different kinds of movies, any analysis of a movie should take into consideration, the type, form, content, and various techniques involved in making that particular movie. With this said, we can therefore say that movies can be analyzed as literature because the elements for analysis are similar in movies and literature. Burton F. Porter (2004) in analyzing Dawidoff’s “Aesthetic Experience of Film” says that it makes us recognize our own aesthetic response, and how her reflections explain why we are affected so strongly and take away such vivid impressions and lessons. The illuminated images on the screen have the power to engage our emotions at an unconscious level, so that we are persuaded, thrilled, enlightened, shocked,

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gratified, pained or what have you by the visual show. Above all, it is the immediacy of films that enables us to feel we have undergone the experience ourselves and to keep them in our memories long after we emerge from the darkness into the light. (xi)

For Cahir (2006), “film and literature have aesthetic equivalents in methods and styles . . . a film achieves its distinct style through its organizing and editing methods; its particular rhythms, tones and syntax; and its genre and subject matter” (45). Movies are unique to the culture and society in which they are produced. They have become part of world politics, entertainment, and sources of economy. Film studies have also been integrated as part of our curriculum in colleges and universities; therefore, movies can no longer be relegated to the background. “We go to the movies to be entertained, scared, grossed out; to make out, spend time, have something to discuss after word . . . attention must be paid to film because most of us get our stories—our narratives and myths—from it or from close cousin, television” (Kolker 2015, xv). There are different kinds of movies such as comedy, tragic, fantasy, energetic, horror, puppet shows, and children’s movies, created for entertainment. Nigerians and people from various nations all over the world relish these mass entertainment movies. Some movies reveal a way of life, a pace, an attitude, a freedom of form and a commitment to joy, that the story of gloom and thwarted passion could not. People have different reasons to watch movies; some watch for entertainment, relaxation or to be educated. Film is art, and as art, it must teach a positive or negative lesson, and sensitize our imaginations. Art is supposed to give us life as we don’t really live it; as we might live it, as we should like to live it, as we never imagined we could live it, even sometimes as we daren’t or mustn’t live it. That is the purpose of movie’s dissolve, which moves us silently and serenely from a completed scene to a new one, thus omitting the life between that we, in reality, hobble through minute by minute. (Porter 2004, xii–xiii)

Because of the heightened excitement and satisfaction we derive from films, producers create different realistic and non-realistic themes to retain our interests and elicit discussions, comments, and argument, whether positive or negative in relation to the movies we watch. Some of these themes vary from love, romances, religion, witchcraft, supernatural, horror, war and politics, to other social events that make us happy or sad. Nigerian movies thrive on all these different themes and more. Therefore, Nigerian films have earned the right to be reviewed as literature.

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It should be noted that in Africa, the development of national film industries has been limited because of poverty and lack of motivation resulting from ethnic, tribal, and regional wars. Wexman (2006) rightly observes that, In such a climate of economic scarcity, it is hardly surprising that sub-Saharan cinema of the late 1950s and early 1960s was little more than the work of a few isolated creators. Although white South African Jamie Uly’s 1980 hit with comedy, The Gods Must Be Crazy, drew world attention to African continent, it took longer for the films of black African movie makers to find audiences abroad. As in Latin America, African films, when they finally appeared, were socially and politically inspired, post-(and anti-) colonialist, part of what was then called “third-world Euphoria.” (433)

One of Africa’s writers and filmmaker is Sembene Ousmane. His first film, Black Girl, produced in 1966 attacked the exploitation and racism on blacks by the French colonialists. The themes in the film are the same as themes explored in his novel Xala. In Xala, Ousmane uses satire and humor to show how the new black state mimics the lifestyles of colonial masters to the continued detriment of the people. By the turn of the century, Africans started making names for themselves by producing numerous popular movies on varieties of themes. Nigerians are not left out in this race, and their film producers have carved a niche for themselves regarding film production. Nigerian movies in their profusion and variety, deal with all life’s situations, creatively and intelligently. Nigerian producers in their early films perceive women as weak, wicked, treacherous, jealous, and lacking in physical and emotional strength, thereby towing the same line as their novelist counterparts. Akachi Ezeigbo (1996) traces the origin of this perception to Igbo folktales and the story of Adam and Eve in the Bible, where women are portrayed as the source of man’s down fall and the root of evil in the world (115). In Achebe’s (1958) Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God (1960), women are relegated to the background. They are barely mentioned as strong characters except for Chielo, the priestess of Agbala in Things Fall Apart when she performs her duties as a priestess. However, the trend of negative portrayal of women changes starting with Flora Nwapa’s (1966) Efuru and Idu (1970) where women are shown to work hard in their trades to become economically independent. The patriarchal society they operate in dictates the tune, but it does not stop the women from embarking on their trades to prove themselves worthy and effectual members of their society. Their independence is seen in their success in business at this initial time, however, the writer still makes Efuru, a votary for Uhamiri, the sea goddess. Knowing that all these negative attributes are not realistic, recent film producers are giving equal roles and status to both men and women in their

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movies. Some contemporary writers are also depicting women in a positive light, giving them choices, and making them speak out for themselves. Some of these works are, Achebe’s (1988) Anthill of the Savannah with the main character Beatrice standing up for herself, Nwapa’s later novels, One Is Enough (1982) and Women Are Different (1986) and Buchi Emecheta’s (2004) Bride Price. In One Is Enough, the main character Amaka, leaves her husband after he marries a second wife. Amaka refuses the option to remarry fearing that it threatens her independence. For her, one husband is enough; while Akunna in Bride Price elopes with her husband without the bride price paid. The themes in these books are completely different from those in the earlier novels where women play servile roles according to patriarchal laws. Just as recent writers give different opportunities to women to express themselves, and live their lives like normal human beings, Nigerian film producers are also doing the same. One of the early Nigerian movies titled Living in Bondage (1992) depicts the evil desire to get rich fast by young men. The main character Andy sacrifices his lovely wife, Merrit, to the shrine of money doublers. He loses his wife and becomes rich. The spirit of his wife haunts him continuously causing him to lose Ego, his girlfriend and Chinyere, his new wife. Chinyere and Ego end their lives disastrously as they make away with Andy’s money. He goes crazy but the spirit of Merrit is pacified by Andy’s mother, thus he recovers his sanity but loses his ill-gotten wealth. Another early movie titled The Missing Mask (1994) is the story of Mbogu, a great wrestler and warrior. His wife has twin boys without his knowing, thus breaking the law of the land, as twins are regarded as abomination. His wife gives one of the twins to her sister living in another village to avoid his being killed. The gods find out that an abomination has been committed against the earth goddess, which results in the killing of one of the twins. The people kill the promising young boy who is Mbogu’s son, and his wife runs away to a safe place where the other twin is hidden. Mbogu’s sister-in-law, whose husband is killed by the chief so he (the chief) can acquire the man’s land, is tied to a stake, while the chief waits for her to tell the truth about the surviving twin or be killed. Mbogu comes back and is shocked to hear this news. He promises to find the truth and to make sure his son is not killed out of spite for his success. Meanwhile, another surviving twin, Ikem, goes to his village with his pastor friend to steal the “Mask” which is highly revered and worshipped by the people. On getting to the chief’s palace, Ikem unties his mother and shoots the chief, avenging his father’s death. Meanwhile, his friend goes to the shrine and takes away the “Mask.” Mbogu sees Ikem and his mother but allows them to escape. The villagers after setting Ikem’s mother’s house on fire go after Mbogu. He is outnumbered, so he quickly drowns two people and escapes in a boat to the village where Ikem is taking refuge.

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Mbogu runs to the church and sees the white pastor burning the “Mask” but is not able to save it. He therefore kills himself because he cannot go home without the “Mask.” The films portray greed and intrigue on the part of both men and women, but the women remain the sacrificial lamb. In the first film, Andy kills his wife to become as rich as his friends. Merrit is portrayed as the model wife who loves and takes care of her husband. She gets money from her parents to help Andy start a business, but he misuses the money. Merrit, like Nwapa’s Efuru goes out of her way to please her husband but in the end, she is killed. She represents the traditional woman whose main job is to please her husband, rear children and never question her husband’s decision. She lives up to Phoenix’s (1986) assertion that “women are stereotyped as being the complementary opposite of men. They are supposed to be nurturant, passive, weak and non-competitive” (126). Consequently, Chukwuma (2012) observes that “women are the custodians of culture because they are rooted in their homesteads and on the land. They bear life, nurture life, and ensure life continuity despite all odds” (xv). If Andy had told Merrit about his plans with his friend Paul; she probably would have talked him out of it. In The Missing Mask, the chief schemes and takes Ikem’s father’s land and thereafter plots his death. Ikem’s mother’s house is also burnt because the chief suspects she is hiding Mbogu’s wife, and it is also an opportunity for him to acquire her remaining land. Destroying the “Mask” is a way to prove to the people that they can challenge the bad people among them instead of feeling powerless because of the “Mask.” The “Mask,” a carved wooden object, is a symbol of unity for the people, but the film exposes the intrigue surrounding its belief, and how the generality of the villagers can be manipulated through their belief in it. Co-wives are also portrayed in this movie as people who cannot tolerate one another, implying that women cannot bond as well as the men do. Two recent Nigerian movies Guys on the Line (2005) and August Meeting (2001) portray men and women in a more realistic light. The women are portrayed as strong-willed and independent in the movies. In Guys on the Line, the main character Tabitha is preparing to marry her fiancé, Chris. We see that they are both in love with each other. Tabitha works in an art gallery while Chris is a young lawyer. He is always making unplanned business trips, and this upsets Tabitha and all the things they plan to do together. Even when their friends plan a party for them, a few hours before the party, Chris leaves for Abuja, telling Tabitha to apologize on his behalf. On another occasion when he is supposed to be at Abuja, a friend of Tabitha’s sees Chris in a restaurant with a lady and casually mentions this to Tabitha, who believes her husband is in Abuja. Tabitha leaves the gym and meets her fiancé at the restaurant as he is explaining legal matters to a female client. After confronting him,

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Tabitha refuses to continue with the wedding because of Chris’ numerous lame excuses, and the fact that he puts his business first, even when he can make concessions. Meanwhile, another man named Shawn, alias “Sunshine,” has been falling head over heels for Tabitha, following her everywhere and professing his love for her. “Sunshine” as he calls himself, works for his fiancée’s father, and has been siphoning money into a private account in preparation for running away, leaving his fiancée, Beyonce. She finds out about the money and about his new girlfriend whom he also calls “Sunshine,” the same name they call each other. Beyonce confronts him and he runs away with another girl. Tabitha becomes pregnant by him and goes back to her former fiancé, but it is now too late, because Chris already has another girl he is getting married to. Disappointed, Tabitha goes back home crying. Her father insists that she must have the baby. At this time, her mother cannot do anything but is full of regrets. In August Meeting, some of the women are portrayed as greedy for material things, while two others, Amaka Chukwuka and Angela Odinaka are battling, campaigning for the presidency of their women’s meeting. Their husbands, John Chukwuka and Festus Odinaka get involved in women’s politics because of the money involved. The men figure they could use the women’s money for business and make a lot of profit before returning the money. For their wives to win, they pump a lot of money into the campaign, buying some food items and other gifts for the village women, who will vote in this election. Angela’s husband has spent so much money that she, in addition, seeks the help of an herbalist who makes Amaka become paralyzed before the election. Amaka is convinced by one of her friends to go beyond prayers and seek the help of the same herbalist who makes Angela insane. Angela initially does not want to run for office, but her husband talks her into it. Both women can no longer contest the election and will not recover from their illnesses until the August meeting is held. The village chief, after a series of consultations with the elders, interferes by stopping the election and cancelling the women’s meeting. Cancelling the meeting, they reason, will bring back sanity to their town and stop the women from destroying themselves. The purpose of the meeting is for the women to continue with their fundraising, which goes towards the development of their town. After much persuasion, the chief agrees that the meeting will be held, but appoints a neutral member to preside over the meeting. The producers of these films toe the line of recent writers who portray the positive and negative aspects of women. No gender is favored more than the other unnecessarily or derogatively like the earlier films. The women here are not docile; they are active participants in community events. Some of them have different professions; some are traders or businesswomen. The women in Guys on the Line are also professional women who know what

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they want and express themselves the way they want. When Chris makes all the arrangement about the wedding with Tabitha, including buying her wedding gown, Tabitha tells her father that this is also her wedding; therefore, she should have a say in the arrangement. She reminds her father that this is not the old days where women are not allowed to say anything even when it concerns them most. Here, father and daughter show complementarity and compromise towards buying the wedding dress as Nnaemeka (2004) and Ogunyemi (1996) proffer in their feminism theories. Tabitha asserts her independence just as the characters in Nwapa’s (1986) Women Are Different. We see that her father is also a gentleman who listens to his wife and child. We see him insist that Tabitha must have her child, because he has warned her and her mother to forgive Chris, and give him another chance, but they ignore his wise counseling. Tabitha’s mother is instrumental in her changing her mind easily. She accepts Shawn alias “Sunshine” easily and is carried away by his false pretenses and niceties. He goes to the extent of giving her a present which she happily accepts. She really comes across as materialistic, relishing her rich husband and a comfortable home. The men do not look down on the women but create opportunity for them to express themselves just as Bosasso, in Nuruddin Farah’s (1999) Gifts and Ibrahima Sall in Ba’s (1980) So Long a Letter. Shawn is portrayed as greedy and selfish, a Casanova who tries to get rich by stealing his boss’ money and cheating on his fiancée, Beyonce, his boss’ daughter. This portrayal is realistic because such things happen in real life situations. What baffles the viewers is the attitude of Chris in his relationship with Tabitha. Tabitha’s parents love him a lot. He is a promising young lawyer but very inconsistent with following through with his plans with Tabitha. A truly honest person will always explain his travel plans to his wife or partner and will also make room to be with his wife, especially as the wedding plans are under way. Chris creates a lot of room for suspicion and being abandoned by Tabitha will also teach him a lesson about real life. Another positive thing is that Tabitha is the only child of her parents, but her father does not bother his wife about having more children or even having a son as we find in African culture. In real life, we see this trend applying in African society today, though rarely. Many people appreciate that an offspring should be valued irrespective of the gender. The important thing is that the child should be well brought up as a responsible citizen, and probably take care of the parents in their old age, as is the norm in African tradition. In Emecheta’s (1979) Joys of Motherhood, Nnuego has nine children but they break away from the slum and depravity of their parents’ environment to improve themselves by going to school in different cities. Only one of her children, Taiwo, comes back to see his parents. Nnuego, because of not seeing her children, compares herself to a barren woman who has no children.

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This circumstance is realistic in today’s world especially when technology has helped to make the world smaller. Taking Nnuego’s predicament into consideration, Nnolim (1987) notes that “irony skirts those ‘joy’ as Emecheta clothes them with ambivalence” (3). The fact that Tabitha’s parents live happily with only one daughter is also a good sign that Africans are beginning to accept children as God’s gift, regardless of the sex. Nnuego’s complaint of loneliness portrays the fact that “having many children” is not a guarantee that they will care for their parents in their old age. In August Meeting, the women are portrayed as materialistic; even though most of them are big time traders and can afford costly outfits to show off at their annual August meeting. We see this same materialism among members of the “Cash Madams’ Club” in Flora Nwapa’s (1982) One Is Enough. This is a yearly meeting where decisions are made about how they can help in the development of their village, but women in August Meeting do not always see one another as they live in different cities. Most of them therefore want to show off their wealth to the detriment of their households. Some of them go to the extent of borrowing money and prostituting, to make new clothes, in order not to be relegated to the background by the rich among them. One can therefore understand the reason for the men to put an end to this meeting and later give strict conditions for its continuation which pleases both men and women. Nnaemeka (2004) observes that “Nego-Feminism is the feminism of negotiation. . . . African feminism . . . challenges through negotiations and compromise. It knows when, where, and how to detonate patriarchal landmines. In other words, it knows when, where and how to negotiate with or negotiate around patriarchy in different context” (377–378). With this new rule in place, there will be no unnecessary competition since every woman will be wearing the same color and quality of outfit. The timely intervention by the men and listening to the views of men and women who are realistic, show how men and women can work together for the development of a village, city, or country. There must be a compromise for things to work out well in our society, and one group should always complement the other. The setting of these movies is realistic, so are the portrayals of the male and female characters. We no longer see stereotypical females who are docile, passive and accommodating like the docile wives of Okonkwo in Things Fall Apart or the women in Nwapa’s (1970) Idu and (1966) Efuru. Rather we see active women who are very good at whatever business they choose to do. Women are portrayed both as single and married, living their lives the way they should. At the same time, some of them are also characterized as prostitutes or greedy, such as Ego and Chinyere in Living in Bondage, or as passive. This gives the female characterization a balance and the viewers are not manipulated into accepting negative and unrealistic portrayals of women. This balance is also seen in male characterization. Some males are macho,

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chauvinistic in their thinking and behavior while some are feminists who make room for the views of women. In this way, one delineates male and female characters that are very complex, but more psychologically satisfying. The bad characters are given the opportunity to change or try different things to succeed. The story lines are strong and complex. In these recent movies, one may be able to guess how the stories can end but may never guess the intricacies that lead to the end. The recent filmmakers in Nigeria such as Prince Emeka Ani, Lancelot Oduwa Imasuen and Moses Nnam to mention a few, have used various issues affecting Nigeria as their themes. The harsh economic realities, religious violence, corruption in high and low places, political corruption, abuse of power and traditional norms are all reflected in today’s Nigerian films. These issues affect both men and women; therefore, the film producers propagate correct views of the present day society for the consciousness and delectation of their viewers. Both men and women are portrayed as humans with a purpose in life. The women are shown participating actively in the affairs of the society as seen in August Meeting directed by Lancelot Imaseun (2001). The film producers are moving in the same direction as most of today’s literary artists in their perception of gender in their works, which is a positive thing. One of these writers is Buchi Emecheta (2004) on whose novel, Bride Price, Chukwuma (1989) commends as: a most welcome phenomenon primarily because it has filled the gaping gender gap between male and female characterization and shown the other side of the coin. The rural, backhouse, timid, subservient, lack-lustre woman has been replaced by her modern counterpart, a full-rounder human being, rational, individualistic, and assertive, fighting for, claiming, and keeping her own. (Otukunefor 1989, 2)

Movies “water our imaginations, intensifying life’s experiences, spurning us to be less ordinary, not necessarily in how we think about it. For art is meant to give us ideas, to give us a heightened sense of possibility, to set us thinking” (Porter 2004, xiii). Having Porter’s view at the back of our minds, we should not fail to point out that some of these recent Nigerian movies have more than two parts. It is only a few that have one full part or two complete parts. These numerous parts are mostly commercials of other movies, so the viewers end up watching only a little segment of the real movie at a time. We find out that this is all in the bid to make more money out of one movie. The trend now is that people are shying away from buying Nigerian movies because of these numerous movie commercials. Other than this short fall, the scenes and incidents in most of the movies are readily alive and people from

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diverse backgrounds can relate immediately to them through the actions and realistic portrayals of the characters. This chapter on “Gender, Ethnicity, and Sexuality in the Nigerian Movies” has been able to trace the portrayal of women from the earlier novels to the more recent ones. We have justified that like the traditional novels, earlier movies portrayed females as docile and incapable of thinking or asserting themselves. The new movies change their trend just like the recent novels to portray women as partners to the men in the household, women who are assertive and contributing members in the society, thus bringing all the chapters in this book together.

Conclusion

Visions of Womanhood in Contemporary African Literature has attempted to argue that with the earlier male writers, women were relegated to the background in most African societies so that patriarchy can maintain authority. However, with education, persistence, consistent hard work, and collaboration, women have attained higher status to gain freedom and operate on the same level with their husbands and men in general. All these successes are not easy to come by, but with diligence, women continue to exploit different strategies to liberate themselves and revalue their positions as effectual and contributing members of the society. Recent female characters as portrayed in the novels and movies are not cast as docile or passive, but as active in shaping their lives and those of their families and they influence their society towards progress. Their roles are ever changing and highly complex, from being wives, mothers, and educators, to working in various jobs outside the home. The contemporary African literature no longer depicts women as second-class citizens, rather women are seen struggling for survival, relevance and as progressives through their awareness, bonding, and activism. This work therefore explores various issues affecting women and how they strive to take control of their well-being and that of their society to create a peaceful and progressive society. The African novel has a tremendous capacity for change and new ideas evolve all the time in each work to reflect global issues, and the changing views of the societies as portrayed in the writers’ works. Working together with men creates progress and better functioning societies as envisioned by feminists like, Ogunyemi, Chukwuma, Opara, Nnaemeka, Azodo, and others. Visions of womanhood as explored in this book are varieties of fictions for students, scholars, and activists to read and enjoy the wider creative approaches to women’s studies. The changes made by the characters to transform their societies can also impact the readers in their own societal transformation. The questions that arise become, what are the next steps and the way forward? The answers will be the focus of another critical exploration. With cohesion, collaboration, consensus, and complementarity, a better society is always forged for posterity. 149

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Index

accommodation, 19, 123, 145 Achebe, Chinua: Anthills of the Savannah, 51, 115, 141; Arrow of God, 3, 83, 115, 140; Morning Yet on Creation Day, 4; “The Role of the Writer in a New Nation,” 81–82. See also Things Fall Apart Acholonu, Rose, 28 Achufusi, Grace Ify, 71 activism, 4, 8, 13, 110: in And They Didn’t Die, 71, 75–76, 82; assertiveness and, 130–31; in Crossroads, 84, 96; in God’s Bits of Wood, 126, 135; women’s activism, 12, 51, 101, 149 Adichie, Chimamanda, 9 Agyekum, Kofi, 126 Aidoo, Ama Atta, 94, 115 AIDS, 84–87, 90–93, 95 Amadi, Elechi, 3, 83, 97, 115 Amuta, Chidi, 126 Anderson, Bonnie S., 54, 73 And They Didn’t Die (Ncgobo): apartheid, living under, 69–70, 74, 78–79, 81: Jezile as protagonist, 75–77, 80; women’s power, recognition of, 71–73 Anthills of the Savannah (Achebe), 51, 115, 141

apartheid regime, 27, 69–70, 74, 78–79, 81 Ardnt, Susan, 3 Armah, Ayi Kwei, 3, 111 Arrow of God (Achebe), 3, 83, 115, 140 August Meeting (film), 142, 143, 145, 146 Awoonor, Kofi, 11 Azodo, Ada Uzoamaka, 96, 149 Ba, Mariama, 36, 122, 144 Bammer, Angelika, 130 Baruch, Elaine Hoffman, 83 Beauvoir, Simone de, 99 Berklay, Fatmague, 64, 129 Beyond the Marginal Land (Opara), x Black Girl (film), 140 Booth, Wayne, 21, 49 Les Bouts de Bois de Dieu. See God’s Bits of Wood Bressler, Charles, 110 Bride Price (Emecheta), 141, 146 Butterfly Burning (Vera), 58, 71 Cahir, Linda Constanzo, 138, 139 Carroll, Noel, 137–38 Choi, Jinhee, 137–38 Chuku, Gloria, xvi 159

160

Index

Chukwuma, Helen, 118, 142: African fiction, on female characters in, 17, 35, 122; as a feminist, 16, 50, 83, 100–101, 149; as a literary critic, 4, 116, 117, 146; patriarchy, on women’s roles within, 30–31, 101 collaboration, 95, 107, 149 Collins, Patricia Hill, 77 colonialism, 8, 21, 57, 138, 140: in African literature, 5, 125, 137; apartheid regime created due to, 70; class struggle, contributing to, 126; colonialists viewed as corrupt, 133– 34; colonial liberation, 25; education in the colonial system, 15 Colonialism and African Consciousness (Kolawole), 137 complementarity, 149: African sensibility of, 5–6, 107, 109; in Crossroads, 94, 95; in Guys on the Line, 144 compromise, 20, 95, 144: with the patriarchy, 96, 106–7, 145; with striking workers, 130, 133; womanism, in line with, 91 conciliation, 95, 107 The Concubine (Amadi), 3, 83, 97, 115 consensus, 5, 95, 107, 149 Critical Issues in African Literature (Ojukwu), x Crossroads: The Last Plague (Mwangi): birth control, on the promotion of, 87, 90, 92, 94; change in customs, resistance to, 85–86; circumcision, attempts to halt, 88; Janet as protagonist, 83–84, 89, 91, 93, 95–96 Dakar, 127, 130, 131, 133 Dangarembga, Tsitsi, 18 Dawidoff, Nicholas, 138–39 Devil on the Cross (Wa Thiong’O), 95 Le Docker Noir (Ousmane), 125 Dovey, Lindiwe, xvi

Efuru (Nwapa): on the docility of women, 145: Efuru as protagonist, 116–19, 142; Igbo imagery, utilizing, 123; women, showing hard work of, 140 Eke, Maureen, xvi Ekwensi, Cyprian, 99, 104, 115 El Saadawi, Nawal, 100: The Fall of the Imam, 45–50; The Hidden Face of Eve, 53–54; Woman at Point Zero, 58, 80. See also God Dies by the Nile emancipation, 19, 74, 83, 121, 132, 137 Emecheta, Buchi, 51, 115: Bride Price, 141, 146; Joys of Motherhood, 144– 45; Second Class Citizen, 122. See also Kehinde Enns, Carolyn, 31, 35, 70 The Epic of Gilgamesh, 6 Estrangement (Amadi), 115 exploitation, 110, 125, 127, 132, 140 Ezeigbo, Akachi Adimora, 122, 123, 140. See also The Last of the Strong Ones The Fall of the Imam (El Saadawi), 45–50 Fanon, Frantz, 45 Farah, Nuruddin, 42, 54, 97–98, 122, 144 Farred, Grant, 81 femalism philosophy, 94 feminism, 73, 80, 110, 123, 146: African feminism, 5–6, 107, 137, 144; Azodo, Di-Feminism of, 96; Chukwuma as a feminist, 16, 50, 83, 100–101, 149; cultural feminism, 31; feminist consciousness, 27, 28, 29, 33, 36, 71; the feminist stance, 57, 64, 116; Marxist feminists, 130, 131; nego-feminism theory, 91, 106, 145; radical feminism, 28, 32, 34, 55; in Season of Migration to the North, 54–55; The Trail, feminist empowerment in, 18. See also womanism

Index

Folola, Toyin, xvi Four Cs concept, 95 Freire, Paulo, 36, 39, 75–76 From a Crooked Rib (Farah), 54, 97–98, 122 Gagiano, Annie, 79 gender, 31, 94, 118: African offspring, gender as all-important, 7, 144; complementarity, traditional gender roles of, 6, 30; gender role conditioning, 70, 85; Nigerian film, positive gender portrayals in, 137, 143, 146, 147 Gifts (Farah), 144 Gikandi, Simon, 134 God Dies by the Nile (El Saadawi): patriarchal abuse, exposing, 39–40; physical violence in, 41, 55; Zakeya as protagonist, 39, 43–45 God’s Bits of Wood (Ousmane), 76, 81: Bakayoko as protagonist, 126, 128, 133, 135; exploitation, spotlighting, 125–26, 132, 134; worker’s strike, featuring, 127–28, 128–30; youth, awareness and activism of, 131–32 The Gods Must Be Crazy (film), 140 Gumucio-Dagron, Alfonso, 27–28 Guys on the Line (film), 142, 143–44 Gyasi, Yaa, 78 gynandrism, x, xx Half of a Yellow Sun (Adichie), 9 Hartsock, Nancy, 130–31 The Hidden Face of Eve (El Saadawi), 53–54 A History of Africana Women’s Literature (Mezu), 51 Homecoming (Gyasi), 78–79 hooks, bell, 28 House-Soremekun, Bessie, xvi Hudson-Weems, Clenora, 34–35, 36, 63, 79–80 Hurston, Zora Neale, 7

161

identity, 9: as evolving, 18, 75; female identity, 74, 117, 121; non-identity, 69, 78; positive identity, 16, 50, 83, 101; search for, 21, 23; self-identity, 13, 14, 15, 19 Idu (Nwapa), 116, 119, 123, 140, 145 I Harmattan (Ousmane), 125 Imaseun, Lancelot Oduwa, 146 The Interpreters (Soyinka), 3, 57 In the Fog of the Season’s End (La Guma), 73 Jagua Nana (Ekwensi), 115 Joys of Motherhood (Emecheta), 144–45 Kane, Cheikh Hamidou, 157 Kehinde (Emecheta): awareness and liberation, realizing, 64–65; Kehinde as protagonist, 52, 59, 62; patriarchal attitude in, 60–63 Knots (Farah): Beauvoir’s theory of otherness, applying lens to, 99–100; Cambara as protagonist, 97–98, 101–3, 105–6, 108–10; patriarchal intimidation, working through, 107, 111; wife battering, women’s group against, 89, 104; youth participation, spotlighting, 132 Kolawole, Mary Modupe, 51, 137 La Guma, Alex, 71, 73 The Last of the Empire (Ousmane), 125 The Last of the Strong Ones (Ezeigbo), 3–8: complementarity of women in, 5–6, 51; Igoo background, portraying, 11; oral tradition, utilizing, 3–4, 12; suicide as a theme in, 10 Lemke, Stefanie, 121 liberation: colonial liberation, 25; consciousness-raising and, 18, 73; economic liberation, 135; educational liberation, 16; femalism, struggle for liberation in, 94; individuality as

162

Index

linked to, 64, 129; Kehinde, personal liberation in, 52 Living in Bondage (film), 141, 142, 145 Lukacs, Georg, 13, 81 The Madams (Wanner): African feminism of, 28, 34, 36; domestic abuse scenes, 33, 36; infidelity, confronting, 31–32; patriarchy, insights on, 30–31; Thandi as protagonist, 27, 29, 35 Maduka, Chidi, 14 Mama, Amina, 85 Le Mandat (Ousmane), 125 marriage, 20, 28, 30, 41: arranged marriages, 6–7, 9, 120; betrothal, 9–10, 143; childbirth, emphasis on, 117, 118; divorce, 33, 36, 42, 48, 80, 119–21; feminists, marriages of, 31, 116; forced marriages, 53; Nwapa on, 124, 145; polygamy, 6, 62, 116, 119, 133; remarriage, 33, 54, 85, 86, 119, 141; widowhood, 54, 119 marriage in African literature: And They Didn’t Die, 81; From a Crooked Rib, 54; Crossroads, 87, 95–96; The Fall of the Imam, 57; God Dies by the Nile, 44, 55; Kehinde, 52, 59–61; Knots, 97, 98, 101, 104, 111; Season of Migration to the North, 58–59; Things Fall Apart, 75; Martial Bliss (Udoh), 4, 8–12 Masitera, Lilian, 13–25 Mau Mau of Kenya, 73 Mbiti, John S., 8 Mezu, Rose, 51, 71 Mikailu, David, 100 Mitchell, Juliette, 74, 107 Mogadishu, 106, 108, 110: future of men in, 100, 107; patriarchy of, 97, 98, 99, 102; peace, transitioning to, 111; progressive Mogadishu, envisioning, 109 Moi, Toril, 34 Moremi, Charles, 18, 73

Morning Yet on Creation Day (Achebe), 4 Mwangi, Meja, 83–84, 88, 89, 95–96 Ncgobo, Lauretta, 70–82 negotiation: in Crossroads, 84, 91, 95–96; in God’s Bits of Wood, 133; with the patriarchy, 106, 145 Nervous Condition (Dangarembga), 18 Ngara, Emmanuel, 13 Nigerian films and filmmaking, 98: film producers, 140–41, 146; greed and intrigue, films portraying, 142; literature and film as a genre, 137–39; realistic settings of Nigerian movies, 145; women, film portrayal of, 140, 143, 146, 147, 149 Nnaemeka, Obioma, 149: on African feminism, 107, 137, 144; negofeminism theory, 91, 106, 145; on societal transformation, 96 Nnolim, Charles, 50, 116, 123, 145 Nunez, Elizabeth, 25 Nutsukpo, Fafa, 19, 28, 74 Nwapa, Flora: Idu, 116, 119, 123, 140, 145; Women Are Different, 119–23, 141, 144. See also Efuru; One Is Enough Nwosu, Oriaku, xvi, xviii Obiechina, Emmanuel, 3 The Odyssey, 6 Ogot, Grace, 95 Ogunbiyi, Olatunde Oyewole, 16 Ogundipe-Leslie, Molara, 85, 93 Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo, 91, 95, 107, 137, 144, 149 Ojukwu, Chinyelu, x Okoro, Sussie, xvi One Is Enough (Nwapa), 116, 145: Amaka as protagonist, 87, 117–18, 141; self-esteem, characters portraying, 123; survivors, women depicted as, 121–22 Opara, Chioma, x, 94, 118, 149

Index

Ô Pays, Mon Beau Peuple (Ousmane), 125, 128–29 oppression, 34, 51, 72, 74, 75: in And They Didn’t Die, 69–71;, 79; colonial oppression, 57, 126, 128; in Crossroads, 84; in The Fall of the Imam, 45, 49; in God’s Bits of Wood, 76, 132, 134; in Kehinde, 52, 63, 64; of laborers, 127, 129; patriarchal oppression, 110–11; in The Trail, 17, 20, 25; of women, 50, 59, 70, 73, 83, 100–101, 102 oral tradition, 3–4, 5–8, 8–12 Ousmane, Sembene: Black Girl, 140; Ô Pays, Mon Beau Peuple, 125, 128–29; Xala, 42, 125, 140. See also God’s Bits of Wood patriarchal society, 51, 59, 104, 132, 137: in Crossroads, 85–88, 90, 93–96; debasing aspect to patriarchy, 42–43; education in the patriarchy, 15, 25; in Efuru, 116, 140; feminism and, 28, 34, 54–58, 100, 106, 131, 145; in Kehinde, 60–63; in Mogadishu, 97, 98, 99, 102; Nigerian films, portrayal of the patriarchy in, 141; patriarchal abuse, 39, 46; patriarchal attitude, boys imbibing from a young age, 103; patriarchal intimidation, 89, 107, 111; religious patriarchy, 108–10; in The Trail, 16–17; women within, 17, 29–31, 53, 83, 101, 105, 110–11, 149 Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire), 36 Philosophy of Film and Motion Pictures (Carroll/Choi), 137–38 Phoenix, Anne, 142 Porter, Burton F., 138–39, 146 racism: African feminism as resisting, 101; apartheid regime, role in creation of, 70; colonial racism, 57, 140; in South African literature,

163

27, 69, 77; traditional laws as perpetuating, 78 resistance, 87: in Crossroads, 84; in God’s Bits of Wood, 126, 135; in Knots, 110; in South African literature, 69, 70, 75, 81 Rich, Adrienne, 99 “The Role of the Writer in a New Nation” (Achebe), 81–82 Salih, Tayeb. See Season of Migration to the North Sardines (Farah), 42 Season of Migration to the North (Salih), 52, 58, 64: feminist values, portraying, 54–55; Hosna Bint Mahmoud as protagonist, 53, 56–57; women, revealing abusive treatment of, 41, 51, 55, 64 Second Class Citizen (Emecheta), 122 self awareness, 14: feminist consciousness as embodying, 13, 131; objective choices, as key to helping make, 33; self-emancipation, as leading to, 19, 74 Senegal, 125–26, 128, 132, 135 Serrano, Lucienne J., 83 sex and sexism, 34, 71, 85: in The Madams, 28, 32; sex education, 87, 90; sexual discrimination, 101, 122; sexual exploitation, 54, 59; in South African literature, 81 Shaull, Richard, 20, 36, 133 Sigelmann, Lee, 127 Simpson, Miles, 127 Sinacore, Ada, 31, 35, 70 The Slave (Amadi), 3 So Long a Letter (Ba), 36, 122, 144 Somalia, 108, 111 South Africa, 27, 69–70, 80, 81 Soyinka, Wole, 3, 57 Steady, Filomena, 5–6, 101 Steihn, Judith, 42 Stratton, Florence, 57

164

struggle, 27, 30, 31, 49, 149: in And They Didn’t Die, 71, 73, 77, 79, 81; class struggle, 126, 127, 130; in Crossroads, 94; of feminism, 25, 28, 34, 137; identity, struggle to determine, 121; New Africa, struggle to freedom in, 128; theory of otherness, applying to, 99; of the womanist, 35–36, 96 Sudan, 52, 59 Survive the Peace (Ekwensi), 104–5 Taiwo, Oladele, 4, 63, 144 Taylor, Richard, 18, 75 Their Eyes Were Watching God (Hurston), 7 Things Fall Apart (Achebe), 3, 6, 34, 62, 97, 140: loss of identity in, 74–75; patriarchal setting of, 83; women, portraying as docile, 115, 145 third-world Euphoria, 140 Time of the Butcherbird (La Guma), 73 The Trail (Masitera): education system, featuring, 15–16, 19–21; Lindiwe as protagonist, 13–14, 17–18, 25; technique and form in, 21–24 Tufte, Thomas, 27–28 Two Thousand Seasons (Armah), 3 Udenta, Udenta O., 24

Index

Udoh, Sunny, 4, 8–12 Uly, Jamie, 140 Van Riebeeck, Jan, 69 Vera, Yvonne, 13, 58, 71 Voltaigue (Ousmane), 125 Walker, Alice, 94–95 A Walk in the Night (La Guma), 71 Wanner, Zukiswa, 27–36 Warren, Austin, 13 Wa Thiong’O, Ngugi, 15, 95, 127 Wellek, Rene, 13 Wexman, Virginia Wright, 157 Without a Name (Vera), 13 Woman at Point Zero (El Saadawi), 58, 80 womanhood, 70, 89, 149: Kehinde, assertion of womanhood in, 64; Nwapa, in worldview of, 118, 120; pregnancy, as a badge of, 61 womanism, 34–35, 51, 91 Womanism and African Consciousness (Kolawole), 51 Women Are Different (Nwapa), 119– 23, 141, 144 Writers in Politics (Wa Thiong’O), 127 Xala (Ousmane), 42, 125, 140 Zinsser, Judith P., 54, 73

About the Author

Blessing Diala-Ogamba, PhD, is professor of English at Coppin State University in Baltimore, Maryland. She teaches English composition, world literature, and other literature courses. She has published several scholarly articles in books and journals. She holds a Sloan-C certificate in design and delivery, and she is also a QM (Quality Matters) peer reviewer. Dr. DialaOgamba is the coeditor of Literary Crossroads: An International Exploration of Women, Gender, and Otherhood (Lexington Books, 2015) and Emerging Perspectives on Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo (Lexington Books, 2017). Her academic interests are women’s literature, world literature, and immigration/ migration issues. She is currently working on a manuscript on South African literature.

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