The Rise of Colleges 9781474470643

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THE RISE OF COLLEGES

THE REQUISITES OF KNOWLEDGE

A quick mind, zeal, poverty, foreign land, A professor's inspiration, and of life a long span.

A humble mind, zeal for learning, a quiet life, Silent investigation, poverty, a foreign land.

Mens humilis, studium quaerendi, vita quitta, Scrutinium taciturn, paupertas, terra alitna. Bernard of Chartres (d.c.1130) (Policraticus, VII, 13)

TO THE MEMORY OF MY WIFE MARGARET

wlwse inteTest in Chaucer's CanteTbury Tales first inspired the comparative aspect of my studies

THE

RISE OF COLLEGES INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING IN ISLAM AND THE WEST

GEORGE MAKDISI

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY PRESS 1981

© George Makdisi 1981 Edinburgh University Press 22 George Square, Edinburgh Transferred to digital print 2008 Set in Monotype Baskerville by Speedspools, Edinburgh Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Eastbourne, East Sussex

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Makdisi, George The rise of colleges. 1. Islamic universities and colleges Iraq - Baghdad - History I. Title 377'·97 LA99 ISBN 0-85221.-B? 5-8 ISBN 978-0-8522-1.B7 5-6

CONTENTS

Chapter I.

1.

INSTITUTIONS

THE RisE oF THE ScHooLs oF LAw I.

2.

3· 4· 5· 6.

II.

School of Law ( Madhab) and College of Law (Madrasa) Scl:iools in an Individualistic System of Law Emergence of Four Schools Relationship between the Schools of Law and Theological Movements Some of the Answers given and their Inadequacy Key to Understanding the Phenomenon of the Schools

TYPOLOGY OF INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 2.

General Remarks Pre-Madrasa Institutions

a.

Institutions Exclusive

I.

of the Foreign Sciences

The term Majlis and the Primacy ofthe Mosque 2) Thejami• and its Halqas in Baghdad a. Thejami• b. Appointments to Halqa Posts I ) The Case of al-Khatib al-Baghdadi 2 ) The Case of al-Bakri 3) The Case ofaVAbbadi 4) The Case of al-Qutrub c. Variety of Subjects in the Halqas d. The Maktab and the Kuttab 3) Thejami• in Damascus a. Halqas and Mi•ad b. Tasdirs c. Sab•s d. Zawiyas 4) Thejami• in Cairo a. Zawiya I)

I

2 2

3 4 6

9 9 IO 10

IO

12 I2

14 I4

I5

I6 I6 I 7 I9 I9 20 20 20 20 20 20

vi

Contents

b.

3·

a. b.

b. Halqa c. The Madrasa-Jami' 5) The Masjid 6) The Khan Institutions Inclusive of the Foreign Sciences I ) The Libraries 2 ) The Hospitals The Madrasa and Cognate Institutions The Madrasa Cognate Institutions

III. THE LAw OF w AQ.F I. The Founder a. Qualifications b. Founder's Freedom ofChoice c. Limitation of the Founder's Freedom of Choice 2. The Corpus 3· Objects of the Waqf a. Charitable Object b. Declaration of Object and Other Considerations 4· Motives of the Founder a. Qurba b. Undeclared Motives c. Misappropriation I ) Some Cases 2 ) Anger and Indignation of the Doctors 5· The Mutawalli a. Qualifications b. Appointment c. Rights and Responsibilities d. Committee of Overseers e. Dismissal 6. The Qadi a. Prerogatives as Overseer b. Finality of Qadi's Decision 7· Other Officials a. The Mazalim Officer b. TheNaqib 8. Endowment Income a. General Remarks b. Stipends of Beneficiaries I ) Nature of Stipends 2) Terminology 3 ) Classification ofBeneficiaries c. Liability of the Mutawalli

20 20 2I 23 24 24 27 27 27 32 35 35 35 35 36 38 38 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 43 44

44 45 47 52 54 55 55 s6 57 57 57 57 57 58 58 58 59 59

Contents d. e.

f.

Rights of the Beneficiaries Methods of Disbursement Other Dispositions of Income I ) Surplus Income 2) Stipend ofVacant Professorial Chair 3 ) Disbursements When Deed Was Lost 4 ) Disposition of Salary of Professor Without Students

vii

6o 64 72 72 73 74 74

Chapter 2. INSTRUCTION

75

I.

75 75 76 76 76 77

DIVISIONS OF THE FIELDS OF KNOWLEDGE

I. 2. a. b. 3·

II.

Ibn Butlan and the Tripartite Division The Subordination of the Literary Arts Tha'lab and the Place of Grammar Ghulam Ibn Shunbudh and the Place of Poetry Waqf and the Dichotomous Division of Knowledge

ORGANIZATION oF LEARNING

Curriculum a. Theoretical Sequence of Courses: Two Examples I ) Haitami 2 ) Hajji Khalifa b. Examples of Actual Sequences I ) Sequences Taught a. Shafi'i b. Abu '1-Hasan an-Nahwi c. Ibn Abi Muslim al-Faradi 2 ) Sequences Learned a. Abu '1-Qasim al-Qushairi b. Abu 'Ali al-Fariqi c. Ibn al-Waqshi ofToledo d. 'Abd al-Ghafir al-Farisi e. Abu Bakr b. 'Abd al-Baqi f. Al-Luraqi of Andalusia g. Al-Qifti c. Curriculum Vitae of'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi 2. Class Procedure a. Position in Class b. Function ofFellows c. Class Prayers d. Daily Routine at the Madrasa Salihiya and Elsewhere 3· Teaching Days and Holidays 4· The Long Years of Study I.

8o 8o So 8o 8I 81 81 8I 81 8I 82 82 82 82 82 83 83 84 84 91

9I 92 93 93 95 96

Contents

viii

III. THE METHODOLOGY OF LEARNING Memory and Its Aids Memorization b. Repetition c. Understanding d. Mudhakara e. The Notebook 2. The Scholastic Method: Origins and Development a. The Attraction of Dialectic b. Consensus vs. Caliphal Enactment of Decisions c. The Antithesis of ljma'-Khilaf I ) The Topics of Aristotle 2) Ijma' and the Chain of Authority 3 ) Legal Dialectic: Forensic 4 ) Technical Terms 5 ) Disputation at the Core of Legal Studies 3· The Scholastic Method as Form: the Ta'liqaReport a. Advocacy b. Some General Terms c. The Ta'liqa: Disputed Questions and Method d. Authors of Ta'liqas e. Dimensions and Contents f. The Ta'liqa and Fields Other Than Law I) Grammar 2) Kalam 3) Medicine g. The Ta'liqa and the Teaching of Law 4· The Scholastic Method as Function: The Munazara-Disputation a. The Suhba Stage of Studentship and the Aim for Riyasa I ) Suhba 2) Riyasa b. Regular Sessions of Disputation c. Tactics, Violence and Recurrent Injunctions d. Origin and Development of the Licence to Teach I ) Origin of the Concept of the Ijaza 2 ) Development of Fiqh 3 ) Authorization to Teach Law and Issue Legal Opinions I. a.

99 99 99 102 I03 I03 I04 105 105 106 I07 107 107 108 108 109 III II I

II2 116 118 I2I I22 I22 I25 I26 I26 I28 I28 I28 I29 I33 I34 I40 I40 I46 I48

Contents

ix

Chapter 3· THE SCHOLASTIC COMMUNITY

153

I. PROFESSORS Designations I. 2. Status in the Community a. Importance of the Professorial Post b. Inaugural Lectures 3· Sources of Income a. Fees from Students b. Pensions c. Endowed Salaries d. Budgets of Some Colleges r ) The Shafi'i 'lmadiya College of Law 2) The Shamiya College of Law Intra-Muros 3) The Tankiziya College for Koran and Hadith 4) The Farisiya College of Law 4· Instability of Income and Resort to Abuses a. Instability of Income b. Embezzlement of Endowment Income c. Multiplicity of Posts d. Divisibility of Posts 4· Accession to Professorial Posts a. By Line of Descent b. By Sale c. Other Abuses

153 153 153 153 154 159 159 r62 163 163 163 164 164 r65 165 165 166 167 r68 170 170 171 171

II. STUDENTS I. Classifications a. By Relative Levels of Studentship b. As Stipendiaries c. As Foundationers d. As Participants in Class e. Other Terms for Students 2. Some Aspects of Student Life a. The Idle Student b. The Sham Sufi Novice 3· Financial Conditions a. Professors' Support of Students b. Patrons Among the Powerful c. Mutual Aid d. Wealthy Parents e. The Endowed College

171 171 171 172 172 175 175 175 175 177 180 180 181 182 r82 184

Contents

X

III. PosTs, OccuPATIONs, FuNCTIONS I. a.

b. c. d. e.

f.

g.

2. a.

b.

c. d. e.

f.

g. h. I.

3· a. b. c. d. e.

f.

g. h.

Posts Pertaining to Law Mudarris, and Na'ib-Mudarris: Professor of Law and Deputy-Professor of Law Assistants to the Professor of Law I ) Mu'id, Repetitor 2 ) Mufid, Docent of Law Ra'is Mufti, Jurisconsult The Qadi The Shahid-Notary, and other Auxiliaries of the Qadi Mutasaddir I ) Terminology 2) Tasdir: A Regular Post 3 ) Tasdir and the Halqa 4 ) Mutasaddir and Mufid 5) Tasdir: A Paid Post 6 ) Tasdir and Ishghal f Ishtighal Posts Pertaining to Other Fields Shaikh al-hadith, Professor of Hadith 1 ) Hadith and the Mi'ad 2 ) Meaning of Mi'ad Assistants to the Professor of Hadith I ) Mustamli, Repeater of the Professor's Dictation 2) Mufid, Docent ofHadith Nahwi, Grammarian, Professor of the Literary Arts Shaikh al-Qjra' a, Professor of Koranic Science Other Occupations Pertaining to the Koran Shaikh ar-Ribat, the Monastery Abbot The Preachers Imam, Leader of the Five Daily Prayers Mu'allim, Mu'addib, Faqih: Elementary School Teacher Other Occupations 'Arij, Monitor Naqib, Marshall of the Nobility Katib al-ghaiba, Keeper of Class Attendance Nasikh, Warraq- Copyist, Copyist-Bookseller The Corrector The Collator Khadim, Servitor Khadim al-Khanqah, Administrator of a Monastery

I87 I88 188 I92 I93 I95 197 197 200 20I 203 203 203 204 204 205 206 210 210 213 213 213 213 2I4 214 215 215 216 217 2I8 219 220 220 220 220 221 222 222 222 223

Contents

xi

Chapter 4· ISLAM AND THE CHRISTIAN WEST

224

I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

224

II. INSTITUTIONS I. The University as a Corporation 2. The College as a Charitable Trust a. Waqf and the 'Pia Causa' of Byzantium b. Waqf and the 'Fondation' ofFrance c. W aqf and the Charitable Trust of England 3· The College-University as an Incorporated Charitable Trust a. Siguifnza, King's, Marischal and Trinity b. Colleges of Colonial America: The Case of Dartmouth 4· Waqfin Western Islam and Two Universities of Southern Europe

224 224 225 226 226 227

III. INSTRUCTION I. The Lecture 2. The Report 3· The Scholastic Method as Finished Product: The Summa a. The Studies of Endres and Grabmann b. The Studies of Pelster and Kantorowicz c. Two Authors of Model Summae: Ibn 'Aqil and St Thomas Aquinas d. The Channels of Communication 4· The Superior Faculties a. Medicine at Salerno b. Law at Bologna 5· Decline of the Literary Arts and Other Phenomena a. Paetow' s Five Causes b. Ars Dictaminis c. Peter of Helias and Grammar I ) Grammar in Verse 2 ) Government in Grammar

238 24I 243

IV. THE ScHOLASTIC CoMMUNITY I. The Professor and the Licence to Teach 2. Mufti, Magister and Magisterium

270 270 276

CoNCLUSION

28I

229 229 230 237

245 245 249 253 259 260 26I 262 263 264 266 268 268 268

xii

Contents

APPENDIX A: REVIEW oF PREVIous ScHOLARSHIP 1.

2. a. b. 3· a. b. c. 4· a. b. 5· 6. a. b.

Preliminary Remarks Julian Ribera on Islamic Influence Powicke and Rashdall on Islamic Influence Ribera's Contribution The Madrasa According to Max van Berchem His Sources His Theories Critique The Madrasa According to Ignaz Goldziher Modification of van Berchem's Thesis Critique The Madrasa According toJ.Pedersen The Madrasa According to YoussefEche The Role of Dar ai-