The Language Situation in China: Volume 6 2015 9783110711790, 9783110711769

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The Language Situation in China Volume 8

Language Policies and Practices in China

Edited by Li Wei (李嵬)

Volume 8

The Language Situation in China Volume 6. 2015 Editor-in-Chief: Li Yuming (李宇明) Associate Editors: Guo Xi (郭熙), Zhou Hongbo (周洪波), Zhou Qingsheng (周庆生) English Editor: Li Wei (李嵬) Editorial Assistants: Xu Xiaoying (许小颖), Dai Wenying (戴文颖) Translation Advisors: Fletcher Translations, Inc.

The Commercial Press

ISBN 978-3-11-071176-9 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-071179-0 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-071181-3 ISSN 2195-9838 Library of Congress Control Number: 2020946257 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH., Berlin/Boston and the Commercial Press, Beijing, China Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

Contents Editorial Teams of the English Edition

XI

Introduction 1

The language situation in China: 2014

1

Part I Special report Guo Xi (郭熙) 2 One decade of The Language Situation in China

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Hou Min (侯敏) and Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) 3 Ten years of language monitoring and research in China

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Part II Special focuses Liu Yandong (刘延东) 4 Promoting mutual enhancement of language ability, furthering human development and social progress – Address at the opening ceremony of the International Conference on Language 53 Irina Bokova 5 Enhancing language ability and education for the 21st century – Address at the opening ceremony of the International Conference on Language 61 Xu Jialu (许嘉璐) 6 Modern interpretations of language functions: cross-civilizational dialogue, narrowing divides, and building new humanism – Address at the plenary session of the International Conference on Language 65 Li Weihong (李卫红) 7 Enhancing language ability and promoting civilizational exchanges – Address at the plenary session of the International Conference on Language 73

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Contents

Hao Ping (郝平) 8 Making greater contributions to the enhancement of humanity’s language ability and the progress of human civilization – Address at the closing ceremony of the International Conference on Language 85 9

Conclusions of the International Conference on Language (Suzhou Conclusions) (June 6, 2014, Suzhou, China) 89

Part III Special fields Li Jie (李 节) and Zhou Hongbo (周 洪波) 10 Diverse and colorful National Reading

93

Li Qian (李倩), Zheng Guomin (郑国民), Zhang Yuan (张媛), and Xu Shasha (徐沙沙) 11 Overview of recent writing tasks on the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination 105 Guo Jun (郭 骏) 12 Survey of the state of practical writing studies among Nanjing primary school students 115 Fu Yirong (付义荣) 13 Survey of the state of language among new and earlier rural migrant workers 129 Li Xianle (李现乐) and Shen Pei (沈佩) 14 The state of banking language services

145

Liu Yanhong (刘 艳虹), Gu Dingqian (顾定倩), Cheng Li (程黎), Wei Dan (魏丹), Cheng Xia (程霞), and Huo Wenyao (霍文瑶) 15 Survey of the state of research and use of minority sign languages 159

Contents

Shen Yulin (沈玉林) and Zhao Qingchun (赵庆春) 16 Survey of sign language comprehension in the CCTV program Focus On 175 Zhu Xiaohong (祝晓宏), Lu Junlin (卢俊霖), Luo Xiaochun (罗晓春), Chen Qiuyue (陈秋月), and Wu Cuiqin (吴翠芹) 17 Survey of language in public service announcements in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou 183 Su Xinchun (苏新春) and Liu Rui (刘锐) 18 Survey of language use in white and color papers

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Chen Xiaoran (陈晓冉), Zhou Yaqiong (周亚琼), and Ding Shuxian (丁淑贤) 19 Report on language phenomena on the Chinese Internet Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Wang Hui (王慧), and Luo Qingping (罗清平) 20 State of development of the Confucius Institutes Yang Wanbing (杨万兵) 21 State of development of overseas Chinese education

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Part IV Hot topics Feng Xuefeng (冯 学锋) and Jiang Lu (姜 露) 22 Galvanizing reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination 267 Hou Min (侯 敏), Zhou Hongzhao (周 红照 ), Liu Peng (刘 鹏 ), and Cheng Nanchang (程 南昌) 23 Internet language norms incite heated debate 281 Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Chen Xi (陈熹) 24 English slang with “Chinese intonation”

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VII

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Contents

Part V Words and passages Liu Lan (刘 兰) 25 Characters and words of 2014 as mementos of history Hou Min (侯 敏), Liang Linlin (梁 琳琳), Zou Yu (邹 煜), and Teng Yonglin (滕 永林) 26 Hot topics in society among the neologisms of 2014

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Yang Erhong (杨尔弘), Zhang Ken (张肯), and Guo Jingxuan (郭璟璇) 27 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2014 331 He Tingting (何 婷婷) 28 The grassroots diversity of Internet slang in 2014

345

Zheng Ping (郑萍) and Wang Lei (汪磊) 29 The powerful impact of shilian 357 Sheng Lin (盛 林) 30 Words that have experienced “expressional” changes in recent years 369

Part VI Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan Tin Siu Lam (田小琳), Chun Ka Lai (秦嘉丽), and Lam Oi Ni (林爱妮) 31 Language education in Hong Kong primary and secondary schools Tong Choi Lan (汤 翠兰) 32 The media of instruction at institutions of higher education in Macau 399 Yu Guilin (余桂林) 33 The state of language life in Taiwan (2014)

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Contents

Appendices Xu Xiaoying (许小颖) I Language-related content in the official documents of other national ministries and commissions 419 II Recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms (batches 1–3) 437 III The first batch of terms for the “Project for the Translation and Communication of Key Concepts in Chinese Culture and Thought” (中华思想文化术语传播工程) 445 Bai Juan (白娟) IV Chronology of major events in language life 2014 Index

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449

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Editorial Teams of the English Edition Editor

Li Yuming (李宇明) Beijing Language and Culture University liyum@.net

English Editor

Li Wei (李嵬) University College London [email protected]

Associate Editors

Guo Xi (郭熙) Jinan University guoxi@.com Zhou Hongbo (周洪波) The Commercial Press [email protected] Zhou Qingsheng (周庆生) Chinese Academy of Social Sciences [email protected]

Editorial Assistants

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖) Beijing Normal University xuxiaoying@bnu.edu.cn Dai Wenying (戴文颖) The Commercial Press [email protected]

Translation

Fletcher Translations, Inc. Contact person: Carissa Fletcher cfletcher@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-202

Introduction 1 The language situation in China: 2014 In 2014, the cause of the spoken and written Chinese language achieved solid progress and steady development. The significant statements regarding language and culture in the series of important speeches by General Secretary Xi Jinping (习近平) exerted far-reaching influence from a commanding height. The system of laws and regulations on the spoken and written language essentially took shape, centered on the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法), and supported by local laws and regulations. The Outline of National Mid- to Long-Term Plans for Language Reform and Development (2012–2020) (国家中长 期语言文字事业改革和发展规划纲要[2012–2020年]) improved national language ability and constructed a harmonious language life, becoming a major theme in the development of the spoken and written Chinese language.

1 Strengthening the construction of the institutionalization and standardization of language In implementing the spirit of the 4th Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee regarding the rule of law, the construction of the institutionalization and standardization of language was further perfected, and significant results were achieved.

1.1 Essential formation of the legal system for language The preparation of language legislation, standards and criteria for the new era drew a high degree of attention. In 31 provinces (regions, municipalities) nationwide, the task of provincial-level language legislation was fully completed, and the system of laws and regulations on the spoken and written language essentially took shape, centered on the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (中华人民共和国国家通用语言文 字法), and supported by local laws and regulations. Efforts were launched to https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-001

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formulate measures for the implementation of the National Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字法), and steady progress was made on the Provisions for Regulation of the Use of Foreign Languages (外国 语言文字使用管理规定), which are currently being formulated.

1.2 Formulation and issuance of a series of standards and criteria On the foundation of the two rounds of efforts for the determination of pronunciation in Putonghua successively launched in the 1950s and the 1980s, the third round for the determination of pronunciation proceeded smoothly, and a revised draft of the Standard Table for Variant Pronunciations in Putonghua (普通话异读词 审音表) was completed. The Standard Guidelines on English Translations in the Public Services Sector (公共服务领域英文译写规范通则) were officially implemented; preparations were completed for special provisions on English translation standards involving 9 sectors, including “transportation,” “tourism” and “medicine and health”; and translation standards were initiated for Russian, Japanese, and the North and South Korean languages. 38 groups of recommended Chinese translations for foreign words were successively released under the 2nd and 3rd batches. Efforts for the standardization of neologisms and technical terms in minority languages proceeded smoothly, and one batch of neologisms and technical terms passed final review. The State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television issued a call for use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language in radio and television programs and advertising, and completed special preparations for integrated national satellite television channels.

1.3 Deepening efforts for the promotion of the standard spoken and written Chinese language 29 provinces (regions, municipalities) nation-wide incorporated work on the spoken and written Chinese language into their education oversight. The 17th National Putonghua Awareness Week, which took the theme of “Speak Putonghua well, and our dreams will come true” (说好普通话, 圆梦你我他), adopted a novel format for its promotional activities, with abundant content. The completion of tasks for the construction of language standardization in 2nd-tier and 3rd-tier cities reached 80% and 40%. Support for the Central Western Region and minority areas was further strengthened, and the scale of Putonghua training for minority teachers expanded from 1000 to 2000 individuals annually.

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1.4 Attention for the application of language in information technology products The Internet has become an important sphere of language life: The State Council issued a notice calling for strengthened construction of the information content of government websites, and completed dynamic surveys of the use of language on the websites of government departments at all levels. The regulations specified that available foreign-language versions of websites must have professional, standards-compliant support capabilities, to ensure standard and accurate language. The National Working Conference on Language Informatization issued Certain Recommendations of the State Language Commission on Further Accomplishing Language Informatization Work (国家语委进一步做好语言文字信息化工作的若 干意见). Beijing took the first steps to construct the Beijing Digital Museum for Language and Culture, and Jilin inaugurated its WeChat Open Platform on Language. The formulation of the Provisions for Regulation of the Use of Language in Information Technology Products (信息技术产品语言文字使用管理规定) proceeded smoothly.

2 Improving language ability The issue of language ability drew unprecedented attention in 2014, and generated an enormous impact on society.

2.1 Important statements by General Secretary Xi Jinping indicate new direction for language work Since the Party’s 18th National Congress, General Secretary Xi Jinping has made a series of important speeches, including significant statements regarding language and culture. The speeches emphasize the importance of language and culture, and that the strength and prosperity of a nation and a people is always sustained by culture; they emphasize that the excellent traditional Chinese culture, which takes the spoken and written language as its primary vehicle, is an important source for conserving core socialist values, and that the profound spirit of the excellent traditional Chinese culture is the foundation upon which we can gain a foothold amidst the agitations of global culture; they emphasize the important role of language in cultural exchanges, noting that a nation’s cultural charms and a people’s cohesiveness are primarily expressed and conveyed

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through language, and that mastering a language means grasping the key to a nation’s culture; and they emphasize the function of language in the perpetuation of culture, noting that the ancient literary classics must be ingrained in students’ minds, becoming the genes for Chinese culture.

2.2 Suzhou Conclusions (苏州共识) reached at the International Conference on Language In June, the International Conference on Language was successfully convened in Suzhou under joint sponsorship by China and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization for the first time: more than 400 government officials, scholars and representatives of academic organizations from nearly one hundred countries and regions around the world attended the conference. Led by the Chinese government, the conference outcome document took shape as the Suzhou Conclusions (苏州共识), which proposed the concept of “language ability” for the first time at a conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, conveyed China’s voice to the world, introduced China’s plans, and contributed China’s wisdom; this was our first successful endeavor to build discourse at an international conference.

2.3 Further attention for improving language ability With respect to work on ethnic languages under the new circumstances, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the State Council clearly stated that it is necessary to unswervingly implement education in the standard spoken and written Chinese language, comprehensively offer curricula for the standard spoken and written Chinese language, comprehensively promote the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and ensure that minority students basically master and use the standard spoken and written Chinese language, while simultaneously respecting and guaranteeing the right of minorities to use and receive education in their own ethnic languages, and continuously improving the standards for minority language education. Efforts for the formulation of the Language Education Syllabus for Citizens (国 民语言教育大纲) proceeded smoothly. The Central Advanced Study Program for Putonghua was resumed. Fundamental phase studies related to citizens’ language ability progressively reached greater depths. Data surveys showed that outcomes in the study of practical writing among primary school students are not ideal, and that education and testing for writing should be further improved. Revisions were

1 The language situation in China: 2014

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completed for the Chinese Character Usage Proficiency Assessment and Testing Guidelines (汉字应用水平等级及测试大纲), and more provinces (regions, municipalities) launched the Chinese Character Usage Proficiency Test.

2.4 Capacity-building for language services draws attention Pertinent documents from the Office of the Central Committee and the Office of the State Council clearly proposed the relevant requirements for capacity-building for language services. In minority regions, radio and television broadcasting organizations are to popularize the standard spoken and written Chinese language, while simultaneously offering frequencies and channels in minority languages, and improving the coverage for dubbing, creation, broadcasting and transmission of minority language programs. The construction of minority language websites was promoted. The Braille Publishing Project was implemented. A sign language comprehension survey for the China Central Television program Focus On (共同关 注) indicated that it is necessary to adhere to the sign language usage regulations for hearing-impaired audiences, and engage in scientific efforts for sign language standardization.

3 Perpetuating and promoting Chinese language and culture Perpetuating and promoting Chinese language and culture was an important part of language life in 2014. Many forms of language and cultural dissemination activities repeatedly took the stage in the mainstream media, stimulating widespread interest across society in improving citizens’ language ability and perpetuating the excellent traditional Chinese culture.

3.1 Continuing to hold the Chinese Character Dictation Contest (中国汉字听写大会) In the wake of the 1st Chinese Character Dictation Contest (中国汉字听写大会), the State Language Commission and China Central Television succeeded in jointly sponsoring the 2nd Chinese Character Dictation Contest (中国汉字听写大 会): a total of 180 students, including students from the Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan regions as well as foreign students, participated in the rematch,

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and the number of viewers reached 430 million. The long-term mechanisms of the Chinese Character Dictation Contest (中国汉字听写大会) gradually formed a brand effect.

3.2 Successfully holding the first Chinese Idiom Contest (中国成语大会) The State Language Commission and China Central Television jointly sponsored the first Chinese Idiom Contest (中国成语大会): a total of more than 30,000 people nation-wide registered, and 36 contestants reached the finals, while the number of viewers reached 559 million. The activity became another original trademark program in the language and culture category promoting the excellent Chinese culture, and cultivating and implementing core socialist values.

3.3 Calligraphy Masters Enter School Campuses 15 provinces (regions, municipalities) nation-wide successively launched the activity series “Calligraphy Masters Enter School Campuses” (书法名家进校园). By combining calligraphy exhibitions and lectures by master calligraphers, young people were guided to perpetuate Chinese traditions. The Traveling Calligraphy Exhibition for the cultivation and implementation of core socialist values and “My Youth ∙ My Chinese Dream” (我的青春 ∙ 我的中国梦) Exhibition Activity, which nominated one hundred college students and was jointly organized by the China Calligraphers Association, received 1486 submissions from college students enrolled at general institutions of higher education nation-wide.

3.4 Launch of the Project for the Translation and Communication of Key Concepts in Chinese Culture and Thought The first batch of 81 term translations was released. The purpose was to allow the world to more objectively and comprehensively understand China by carrying out comprehensive and systematic compiling, annotation, translation, popularization and dissemination of concepts representing Chinese philosophical ideas, humanistic spirit, ways of thinking, and values, as well as core cultural terms, to promote peaceful dialogue between nations as well as exchanges and mutual learning between different civilizations. The Phase 1 Project for the Video Library

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of Chinese Classics (中华经典资源库) reached its final stage, and the Phase 2 and Phase 3 projects were initiated.

3.5 Continuously expanding coverage in national language survey and resource conservation work National language surveys were comprehensively implemented, and special surveys on the state of the spoken and written language in the central Chinese Soviet areas, the Yan’an period, Silk Road Economic Belt, Shanghai Free Trade Zone and other special historical periods and special areas achieved ever-greater depths. The Hubei Branch of the China Language Resource Audio Database (中 国语言资源有声数据库) was constructed; the Beijing and Shanghai branches completed construction and passed review; and Liaoning, Guangxi, Fujian, Shandong, Hubei and other places are currently making orderly progress. The Technical Platform Research & Development Project for the Construction of the National Audio Database obtained approval and support under the National Science and Technology Support Program and was officially launched, and the Chinese Language Resources Conservation Project won the support of the state fiscal administration.

3.6 “National Reading” (全民阅读) activities pervade the public consciousness The Government Work Report of the State Council proposed the concept of “promoting national reading,” and relevant reading activities have flourished across the country: Hubei Province and Jiangsu Province incorporated national reading into their provincial development strategies by means of local legislation, while Shenzhen Reading Month, the Beijing Reading Festival, the South China Book Festival and so on have become well-known trademarks for reading activities; several private charitable organizations have also made reading on school campuses the focal point of their financial support and planning projects, and private reading organizations of various categories and service characteristics have emerged one after another. A social atmosphere of valuing reading and respecting studies is currently taking shape. Reading activities in the Taiwan region have also displayed distinctive characteristics.

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4 Paying attention to diverse social conditions behind popular words In 2014, the momentum of popular words and phrases was unabated. A bevy of terms reflecting diverse social conditions were active in social language life, becoming records of social changes throughout the year. Fa (法, ‘law’), fan fu (反腐, ‘anti-corruption’), shi (失, ‘lost,’), and Ma hang (马航, ‘Malaysia Airlines’) respectively headed the lists for domestic character, domestic word, international character, and international word of the year, while the “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点) continued to exhibit its unique charm as a new cultural brand activity.

4.1 Neologisms On the basis of a corpus of 1.17 million texts and 1.2 billion word-instances, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center extracted 424 neologisms. These neologisms truly recorded the emerging things, emerging concepts, and emerging situations in China in the year 2014, as well as quiet changes to the psyche and ideas of ordinary people during this year. Xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’) demonstrated that Chinese economic development had entered a new phase; Hu Gang tong (沪港通, ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect’) became a greenhouse cultivating the internationalization of the mainland stock market; yi dai yi lu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) will open a window for exchanges and mutual benefit between China and the countries along the line; bingtong tiaozhan (冰桶挑战, ‘ice bucket challenge’) became a global coming together for charity; APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’) connotes the people’s hope for a beautiful environment; xiaoguan ju fu (小官巨腐, ‘little official, giant corruption’) left people speechlessly staring in amazement; Weixin hongbao (微信红包, ‘WeChat red envelope’) promoted Internet finance; in addition, there was the forthright ice-breaking and risk-taking of shen gai (深改, ‘deepening reforms’), while kang Ai (抗埃, ‘fight against Ebola’) presented an even greater challenge involving all of humanity.

4.2 Popular phrases The top ten popular phrases, yifa zhiguo (依法治国, ‘rule of law’), shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), Beijing APEC (北京 APEC, ‘Beijing APEC’), Aibola (埃博拉, ‘Ebola’), yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’), Baxi shijie bei (巴西世界杯, ‘Brazil World Cup’), Hu Gang tong (沪港通, ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock

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Connect’), zhan zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’), guojia gongji ri (国家公祭日, ‘National Memorial Day’), and Chang’e wu (嫦娥五, ‘Chang’e 5ʹ), truly recorded global phenomena and diverse social conditions from the perspective of the media, objectively reflecting focal points and hot topics in domestic and international politics, economy, culture, education, science and technology, and various other sectors, sketching an outline of human affairs, the state of the people, and social life from the media’s perspective. Yifa zhiguo (依法治国, ‘rule of law’) headed the list of popular phrases, becoming the most important topic in current politics in the country this year.

4.3 Internet slang terms The top ten Internet slang terms, wo ye shi zui le (我也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too’), youqian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘having money makes you headstrong’), man pin de (蛮拼的, ‘making all efforts’), wajueji jishu najia qiang (挖 掘机技术哪家强, ‘who has the best excavator technology’), baozheng bu dasi ni (保证不打死你, ‘I promise not to beat you to death’), mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘so adorable’), shijian dou qu na le (时间都去哪了, ‘where did all the time go’), wo dushu shao ni bie pian wo (我读书少你别骗我, ‘I don’t have much education, don’t swindle me’), huamian tai mei wo bu gan kan (画面太美我不敢看, ‘the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look’), and qie xing qie zhenxi (且行且珍惜, ‘cherish life’), represented the distinctive characteristics of online language usage among netizens in the year 2014, drawing a rough outline of the points of popular interest online.

5 Focusing on popular topics in language life In 2014, a number of popular topics emerged in Chinese language life. Online language standards, Chinglish, and so on all attracted enormous attention from the people.

5.1 Online language standards incite heated debate The issue of online language appearing in radio and television programs, entering textbooks, and making its way into dictionaries incited heated debate in society: despite differences in understanding, it is no simple matter to yi dao qie

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(一刀切, ‘impose uniformity’) in language issues. The necessity of taming the vulgarization of online language and standardizing online language has gradually been recognized by society.

5.2 Chinglish enters English slang dictionaries “No zuo no die” (bu zuo si jiu bu hui si [不作死就不会死, ‘you won’t find trouble if you don’t go looking for it’]) and a group of other Chinese “popular words” and “popular phrases” (Internet slang terms) have been included in the American online slang dictionary Urban Dictionary as slang expressions of Chinese origin: these English slang terms with a Hanyu qiang (汉语腔, ‘Chinese intonation’) have drawn widespread attention from major media outlets around the world.

5.3 Language usage among rural migrant workers exhibits intergenerational differentiation The earlier generation of rural migrant workers speaks non-standard Putonghua but still makes great efforts to speak Putonghua; the newer generation of rural migrant workers is fairly proficient in Putonghua. However, dialects still serve as important regional identifiers, providing sustenance for nostalgia. Comparatively speaking, those proficient in Putonghua are able to obtain higher economic returns, and have a better capacity to adapt to cities.

6 Promoting cooperative exchanges on language and culture In 2014, cooperative exchanges on language and culture continued to be expanded and deepened. General Secretary Xi Jinping and Premier Li Keqiang (李克 强) offered congratulations for holding the world’s first Confucius Institute Day. A biweekly session of the CPPCC focused on the discussion of overseas Chinese language education.

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6.1 Strengthening cross-strait cooperative exchanges on the spoken and written language The 10th round of talks on Cross-Strait Efforts for Collaborative Compiling of Chinese-Language Reference Books was successfully held, and the Cross-Strait Dictionary of Divergent Terms (两岸差异词词典) and Reference Handbook on Common Words in Cross-Strait Life (两岸生活常用词汇对照手册) were compiled and published. The formulation of the “Simplified and Traditional Chinese Character Smart Text Conversion System” (汉字简繁文本智能转换系统) was completed, and it was provided for free use by the public, with accuracy reaching 99.991%, resolving key problems in the cross-strait conversion of simplified and traditional terms, conversion of punctuation marks, and so on, playing an important role in facilitating cross-strait popular communication and promoting cross-strait cultural exchanges. Cross-strait academic exchange activities on the spoken and written language were organized and launched, along with the Chinese Character Calligraphy and Art Exchange Summer Camp activity for one hundred cross-straits university students, establishing self-confidence and selfawareness for the joint promotion and perpetuation of the excellent traditional Chinese culture.

6.2 Promoting cooperative exchanges on language and culture The 2nd Chinese-French Language Policy and Planning Symposium was convened in Paris as one of the series of commemorative activities marking the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and France, as well as an important part of the Mechanisms for High-Level Chinese-French Human Exchanges; the Joint Declaration on the 1st Conference on Mechanisms for High-Level Chinese-French Human Exchanges (中法高级别人 文交流机制首次会议联合宣言) formally included “strengthening cooperation on language education, and continuing to cooperate on holding the Chinese Language Policy and Planning Symposium.” The China Exchange Program for International Senior Language Experts was implemented, absorbing lessons from overseas research achievements on spoken and written language.

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6.3 Confucius Institutes The Confucius Institutes welcomed the 10th anniversary of their founding, and the inaugural ceremony for the world’s first “Confucius Institute Day” was held in Beijing. In the last 10 years, the Confucius Institutes have grown and expanded out of nothing: 475 Confucius Institutes and 851 Confucius Classrooms have already been established in 126 countries and regions, cumulatively registering 3.45 million students.

6.4 Overseas Chinese language education The state attaches a high degree of importance to overseas Chinese language education. The CPPCC convened a biweekly session focused on discussing the issue of promoting overseas Chinese language education. The Office for Overseas Chinese Affairs of the State Council held the 3rd World Conference on Overseas Chinese Language Education, introducing significant measures to support the development of overseas Chinese language education, and promoting the transformative upgrading and leapfrog development of overseas Chinese language education. Various sectors of society continued to provide strong support to overseas Chinese language education. Efforts for teacher training were expanded, and fresh progress was achieved in the compiling of “localized, country-specific” Chinese language teaching materials.

Part I Special report

Guo Xi (郭熙)

2 One decade of The Language Situation in China This year is the 10-year anniversary of the publication of The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况报告; abbreviated below as The Language Situation). Over the last ten years, The Language Situation has flowered from nothing, developing from domestic Chinese-language editions into international English-language editions, evolving from an isolated report into a companion work alongside The Concise Language Situation in China (中国语言生活 要况), continuously exploring and advancing, and increasingly attracting attention. As of the writing of this paper, The Language Situation had reached 2140 citations on the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (中国知网, CNKI). It is said that shinian shumu (十年树木, ‘it takes a decade to grow a tree’). Indeed, the seedling planted by a group of enthusiasts ten years ago has now grown tall.

1 Evolution of the framework of The Language Situation As there was no precedent to guide the publication of a report on the language situation in China, the editors of The Language Situation have experienced some changes in their understanding following developments in their undertaking, thus the framework of The Language Situation has not remained entirely unaltered over the last decade. The Language Situation 2005 (报告[2005]) was originally divided into two volumes. Excluding the summary and appendices, Volume 1 consisted of 5 sections: (1) “Area Studies” (领域篇); (2) “Special Research” (专题篇); (3) “Language Focuses” (热点篇); (4) “Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan” (港澳台篇); and (5) “Reference Works” (参考篇). Volume 2 was divided into two sections: survey reports and survey data. “Special Research” (专题篇) encompassed laws, regulations and policies on the spoken and written language as well as advances in language work over the course of the year, and was distinct from “Area Studies” (领域篇) (which addressed the language situation in a particular field, such as radio and television or education, et cetera). The second volume provided survey reports and statistical data on certain aspects of the use of language in the https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-002

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media: relative to the work as a whole, it could be referred to as “Data Studies” (数据篇), complementing and supplementing “Area Studies” (领域篇), “Special Research” (专题篇), and the other sections in Volume 1. Beginning with The Language Situation 2006 (报告[2006]), language work was differentiated under the section “Language Work” (工作篇), while “Special Research” (专题篇) replaced “Area Studies” (领域篇). In 2011, The Language Situation was revised. This revision was completed on the foundation of a summary of work over the previous five years. Considering the conventions of various types of authoritative reports, the editorial board decided to switch the labeled year of The Language Situation in China (中国语言生 活状况报告) from the “year of content” to the “year of publication.” For instance, for The Language Situation 2005 (报告[2005]), 2005 was the year of content for The Language Situation, while the year of publication was 2006; but for The Language Situation 2011 (报告[2011]), 2011 was the year of publication, and the report presented content on the year 2010. At the same time, the original twovolume format was combined into one book, and the data section which had previously been presented in the second volume was recorded on a CD-ROM provided with the book. The relevant section headings were also correspondingly adjusted. In 2013, “Special Contributions” (特稿篇) were presented in The Language Situation for the first time. In 2014, The Language Situation was again revised on the basis of experiences over the years. With respect to its framework, the content of the “Special Research” (专题篇) section was restructured, and the “Area Studies” (领域篇) section was restored, while the content of “Data Studies” (数据篇) was entirely placed onto a CD-ROM, greatly condensing the length of each report. Emphasis was also placed on the conciseness and readability of the report. In terms of the operating model, a system of section chairs was implemented. The framework of The Language Situation was thus essentially finalized. Apart from the preface, summary, and appendices, it is divided into a total of 8 sections: (1) “Special Contributions” (特稿篇); (2) “Special Research” (专题篇); (3) “Language Work” (工作篇); (4) “Area Studies” (领域篇); (5) “Language Focuses” (热点篇); (6) “Characters and Words” (字词语篇); (7) “Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan” (港澳 台篇); and (8) “Reference Works” (参考篇). In addition, two events of note shall also be addressed here. The first is the publication of foreign-language editions of The Language Situation. In April 2013, Volume 1 of the English-language edition of The Language Situation was published by De Gruyter Publishing House of Germany. As of the present, two volumes have already been released in English, and Volume 3 has

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been submitted to the publisher; the translation of a Korean-language edition has been completed, and the work is currently being reviewed. The second is the publication of The Concise Language Situation in China (中国语言生活要况). In their use of The Language Situation, leaders, experts and readers proposed refinements and improvements that could be made on the basis of The Language Situation, concentrating its abundantly detailed content into an “abridged edition,” which would allow readers to quickly grasp the full picture and quintessential elements of language life in the course of the year, pairing detailed and summary versions of the work, each of which would have their own strengths. The Concise Language Situation (要况), which was subsequently published by the editors, is not merely an abridgement: it also highlights the unique facets of language life throughout the year, focusing on the selection of important texts, focal issues, policy recommendations, and new viewpoints on language life in the given year, achieving “refinement, novelty and uniqueness.”

2 Principal content The aim of The Language Situation is to analyze the current state of the use of language in China, reflect new characteristics and changes in the use of language in each sector of society, set forth the key theories and practical issues in the use of language in China throughout the year, predict trends in the development and transformation of language, and propose corresponding policy recommendations. Over the last ten years, The Language Situation has always adhered to these objectives, publishing a total of 444 reports, monographs, and other works. The specific details on the number of works under each section are as follows (see Table 1). Below, a general description is provided for the content under the relevant sections.

2.1 Preface By the time of The Language Situation 2014 (报告[2014]), a total of 7 “Preface” (总序) pieces had been published. The topics included the construction of healthy and harmonious language life (2005), preservation and development of language resources (2008), language problems in the course of China’s urbanization (2009), living a good virtual language life (2011), scientific preservation of

Number of Works

Section



Preface



Summary



Special Research / Special Contributions / Language Work / Area Studies 

Language Focuses







Characters & Hong Kong, Macau Reference Words / and Taiwan Works Data Studies

Table 1: Statistics on the number of publications under various sections in the past decade of The Language Situation.



Appendices

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ethnic languages in spoken and written form (2012), calls for language consciousness across society (2013), as well as diglossic, bilingual life and diglossic, bilingual policies (2014). These topics were all based on the reality of language life in China, and oriented toward China’s social development and national construction, with a lofty approach, forming an integral whole alongside The Language Situation, and serving as the finishing touch for the report.

2.2 Summary The “Summary” (总述) serves as a summarization of the heights of the language situation throughout the year. It reflects the characteristics of language life in the given year, major efforts, the advancement of the cause, and other aspects. The press releases issued to the public by the State Language Commission always take this piece as their basis. The “Summary” sketches the general contours of language life throughout the year, but it also provides clear answers to some of the questions concerning the public. For instance, apart from specifically noting the characteristics of the given year, The Language Situation 2005 (报告[2005]) also clearly stated that, “Although the number of foreign language learners is continuously increasing, and practical proficiency has also improved to some extent, there is still some way to go with respect to the needs of national construction and development,” “Society has devoted insufficient attention to the study of certain other languages, particularly minority languages,” et cetera, revealing approaches to certain difficult issues in society revolving around foreign language education.

2.3 Special Contributions / Language Work / Area Studies / Special Research As these sections have experienced intersecting changes, they are discussed together. From the number of pieces (187), we can see the weight of these sections in The Language Situation. Over the last 10 years, these sections have addressed national development, changes to social language life, and existing and imminent problems from different perspectives for presentation to the public. For instance, The Language Situation 2013 (报告[2013]) published four special contribution pieces for the first time. Among these, the Outline of national mid- to long-term plans for language reform and development (2012–2020) (国家中长期语言文字事业改革和发展 规划纲要[2012–2020年]), “Implementing the language plan outline and promoting

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the scientific development of language” (落实语言文字规划纲要, 推进语言文字事 业科学发展), and “Setting a new course for the cause of language – Interpretation of the language plan outline” (开启语言文字事业新里程 – – 语言文字规划纲要 解读) served as important references for the development of spoken and written language, while “Stylistic improvement” (改进文风) recorded different aspects of stylistic improvement, as promoted by the central authorities. The “Language Work” (工作篇) section reflected relevant documents on the cause of national language issued over the years by the central authorities to various national departments, particularly the various local-level language commissions under the State Language Commission and the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, as well as the important work which they implemented. The Language Situation has given great attention to the survival of minority languages and dialects, minority language education, minority scripts, and the informatization of minority languages, publishing a series of reports, such as: “Recent developments in the Jino language” (基诺族语言近况) (2006, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The state of bilingual education among minority groups” (少数民族双语教育状况) (2005, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Survey on informatization of the Tibetan language and use of software” (藏语文信息化及软件 使用情况调查) (2006, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Bilingual education and social harmony in the Altay region of Xinjiang” (新疆阿勒泰地区双语教学与社 会和谐) (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Issues in the use of minority languages in court trials in minority regions” (民族地区法庭审判中少数民族语言 使用问题) (2009, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Survey on language use by ethnic Russians in Ergun city, Mongolia” (内蒙古额尔古纳市俄罗斯族语言使用 调查) (2011, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Decline of native languages and language preservation among the smaller northern ethnic groups” (北方较小民族 母语衰变与语言保护) (2013, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Issues in the use of new and old scripts by the Lisu ethnic group” (傈僳族新老文字使用问题) (2013, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The state of trans-border minority languages” (2013, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Reclamation, perpetuation and application of the Manchu language” (满语文的抢救、 传承与应用) (2014), “The state of minority-language websites” (少数民族语文网站现状) (2014), and “Survey on the state of sign language research and use among ethnic minorities” (少数 民族手语研究和使用状况调查) (2015, “Area Studies” [领域篇]). National language proficiency and national security are closely linked to national development and the country’s international status. The Language Situation places great emphasis on these issues, with articles such as “Language barriers and language support during the Qinghai Yushu disaster relief” (青海玉树救灾中 的语言障碍与语言援助) (2011, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Use of sign language and relevant issues” (手语使用及相关问题) (2009, “Special Research” [专题篇]),

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“Survey on the use of Braille” (盲文使用状况调查) (2013, “Special Research” [专 题篇]), “Survey on the use of sign language” (手语使用状况调查) (2014), “Survey of sign language comprehension in the CCTV program Focus On” (央视« 共同关 注»节目手语理解调查) (2015, “Area Studies” [领域篇]), “The state of development of the language information industry” (语言信息产业发展状况) (2009, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Protection of intellectual property rights for digitalized Chinese character libraries” (数字化中文字体库的知识产权保护) (2013, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The state of national foreign language proficiency” (2012, “Special Research” [专题篇]), and “Interest in China’s neighboring languages” (关注中国周边语言) (2014, “Area Studies” [领域篇]) all reflecting the patriotic sentiment of The Language Situation. Native-language education and the language proficiency of the next generation affect every family nation-wide. The Language Situation has published “Survey on the use of Putonghua and Shanghai dialect among Shanghai students” (上海市学生普通话和上海话使用情况调查) (2006, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Native-language education at institutions of higher education” (2007, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Recent trends in changes to essay questions in the national college entrance examination” (近年高考作文试题变化 趋势) (2014), “Comparison of character and word usage in primary school language textbooks of the Republic Period and textbooks published by People’s Education Press” (民国时期小学语文教材与人教版教材的用字用词比较) (2014), “Concise review of recent essay questions on the high school entrance examination” (近年中考写作试题要况) (2015, “Area Studies” [领域篇]), “Survey on the state of practical writing studies among Nanjing primary school students” (南京 市小学生应用文学习状况调查) (2015, “Area Studies” [领域篇]), and “Diverse and colorful national reading” (色彩斑斓的全民阅读) (2015, “Area Studies” [领域篇]), recording reflections on native-language education across each sector of society. With respect to language services, “The state of language in the service industry, public infrastructure, and other fields” (2005), “The state of language in tourism services” (2006, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The state of language use in product manuals” (产品说明书语言文字使用状况) (2006, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The state of language use in medical documents and pharmaceutical packaging” (医疗文书及药品包装用语用字状况) (2006, “Special Research” [专题 篇]), “The state of language use on the Qinghai-Tibet railway” (青藏铁路语言使 用状况) (2007, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Terminology of psychological support following earthquakes” (地震灾后心理援助用语) (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The current state of language service concepts and the language services industry” (语言服务理念与语言服务产业现状) (2012, “Special Research” [专 题篇]), “Language services and language elements at the Guangzhou Asian Games” (广州亚运会语言服务与语言元素) (2011, “Special Research” [专题篇]),

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“Current state of the language services industry” (语言服务产业现状) (2012, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Survey of the economic value of languages in the service industry” (服务行业的语言经济价值调查) (2012, “Special Research” [专题 篇]), “The state of language services in the healthcare industry” (医疗行业语言服 务状况) (2014, “Area Studies” [领域篇]), “The state of language services in banking” (银行语言服务状况) (2015, “Area Studies” [领域篇]), “Survey of language in public service announcements in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou” (北京、 上 海、 广州城市公益广告语调查) (2015, “Area Studies” [领域篇]), and so on all revealed efforts on society related to the study and operation of language services. In the course of urbanization, language has experienced enormous changes; these have been faithfully documented in The Language Situation. Examples include: “The state of language among rural migrant workers” (农民工语言状况) (2006, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Survey on the state of language work at schools for the children of migrant workers in Shanghai” (上海市民工子弟学校 语言文字工作状况调查) (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Survey on language use and identity among the children of rural migrant workers in Beijing” (北京农民工子弟语言使用与身份认同调查) (2011, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Putonghua proficiency, social interactions and identity among urban laborers” (城市务工人员普通话水平与社会交往及身份认同) (2013, “Special Research” [专 题篇]), “Language life for migrant workers of Sichuan origin” (四川籍外出务工人 员语言生活状况) (2014, “Area Studies” [领域篇]), “Survey on the state of language among early and recent rural migrant workers” (2015, “Area Studies” [领域篇]), and so on. China is currently advancing along the path of rule of law, and it is fair to say that The Language Situation has diligently tracked the historical progress of statutes on language and other areas. Examples include: “Issues in language legislation” (立法语言问题) (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Issues in language standards in criminal courts” (刑事法庭语言规范问题) (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Issues in the use of minority languages in court trials in minority regions” (民族地区法庭审判中少数民族语言使用问题) (2009, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Further standardization in language legislation from the perspective of the new Criminal Procedure Law” (从新《刑事诉讼法》看立法语 言的进一步规范) (2013, “Special Research” [专题篇]), et cetera. China is increasingly engaged in international exchanges and international trade activities, and the language situation in this field is also a focal point of The Language Situation. Examples include “The state of construction of the language environment for the Beijing Olympics” (北京奥运会语言环境建设状况) (2006, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The state of construction of the language environment for the Shanghai World Expo” (上海世界博览会语言环境建设状 况) (2007, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The state of language use in the

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international trade markets of Beijing – In the example of Xiushui market” (北 京涉外集贸市场语言使用状况 – – 以秀水市场为例) (2007, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The state of language life in the workplace of foreign enterprises: in the example of Shanghai” (外企职场语言生活状况: 以上海为例) (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Use of diverse languages at the Beijing Olympics” (北京奥运会多种语言使用) (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “On ‘Chinglish’” (关于 “中式英语”) (2009, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “The state of language use in China Commodity City of Yiwu, Zhejiang” (浙江义乌中国小 商品城语言使用状况) (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Construction of an international language environment in Beijing” (北京国际语言环境建设) (2011, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Survey of Chinese language skills among foreign employees of multinational corporations in Jiangsu” (江苏跨国公司外籍员工汉 语技能调查) (2012, “Special Research” [专题篇]), and “The state of language life for foreign residents on Xiaobei road, Guangzhou” (广州小北路外国居民语 言生活状况) (2012, “Special Research” [专题篇]). Language issues among immigrants have also been closely followed by The Language Situation: although few pieces have been published on this subject, they are of great value. Examples include “Preliminary study of the state of language use among Three Gorges immigrants” (长江三峡移民语言使用状况初步 考察) (2007, “Special Research” [专题篇]), and “Language survey of immigrants in border regions with the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps” (新疆 生产建设兵团戍边移民语言调查) (2007, “Special Research” [专题篇]). A variety of other fields have also been addressed, with “The state of language in film and television dramas” (影视剧语言状况) (2009, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Issues in the standardization of English translations for Chineselanguage menus” (中文菜单英译规范问题) (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), “Issues of language preservation in the protection of non-material cultural heritage” (2008, “Special Research” [专题篇]), and so on all presenting their own bright spots.

2.4 Language Focuses and Characters and Words Over the last ten years, linguistic events have frequently emerged in China, and hot topics in language life have been never-ending. There has been the debate over simplified and traditional Chinese characters, zimuci (字母词, ‘alphabetic words’), the Yingyu re (英语热, ‘English craze’), bilingual education, the debate over classical and vernacular Chinese, the preservation of dialects, updating of local place names, critically endangered languages, Weibo language, the Hanzi shuxie weiji (汉字书写危机, ‘Chinese character writing crisis’), and so on. These issues have been intensively reflected in the “Language Focuses” (热点篇) section.

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The authors and editors of The Language Situation make impartial observations so as to present the most objective record possible, expressing their own voices on major issues in timely fashion, and providing correct guidance for society. Developments and changes to words and expressions represent the most upto-date minutes on developments and changes to society. The “Characters and Words” (字词语篇) and “Data Studies” (数据篇) sections have published a slew of language monitoring data, the contents of neologism inventories, as well as tracking of popular words, online terms, word cases, and so on. The annual language inventories and a few major language events are all reflected in the words and terms. Examples include: Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘Chinese dream’), meili Zhongguo (美丽中国, ‘beautiful China’), zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’), ni xingfu ma (你幸福吗, ‘Are you happy?’), and Diaoyu dao (钓鱼岛, ‘Diaoyu Islands’) in 2012, as well as zhongyang baxiang guiding (中央八项规定, ‘Central Eight-Point Regulation’), Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’), and wumai (雾霾, ‘haze’) in 2013, et cetera, which not only encapsulated language life in China and reflected society’s concerns, but also revealed ephemeral changes in the international situation. “PM2.5 amidst the haze on all sides” (十面霾伏中的 PM2.5) gave heft to the small, obliquely reflecting the ubiquity of language competition in Chinese language life, and revealing patterns in the emergence, survival and development of words.

2.5 Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan Research on the state of language life in China must perforce give attention to Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. Considering the unique social backgrounds of Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, The Language Situation separately established the “Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan” (港澳台篇) section, for focused reports on the situations in these three regions. The reports that have previously been published have provided us with a clearer understanding of the language situation, language education, language communities, language policies, and distinctive language in these three reasons, offering beneficial lessons for language planning and the formulation of policies. The authentic re-creation of language life in each region also allows us to see the relevant impact of local language life.

2.6 Reference Works 48 works containing information on every aspect of global language life have provided us with a window to the world. Examples include “The state of language

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and language policies in the European Union” (欧洲联盟语言状况及语言政策) (2005, “Reference Works” [参考篇]), “The state of regional language legislation in the Soviet-Aligned Republics” (苏联加盟共和国地区语言立法状况) (2006), “The course of language policies and planning in Australia” (澳大利亚语言政策与规划 进程) (2007), “Foreign-language education policies in New Zealand: actions and challenges” (新西兰外语教育政策: 举措与挑战) (2007), “Language policies and planning in Nigeria” (尼日利亚语言政策与规划) (2007), “Language policies and language conflicts in Georgia” (格鲁吉亚语言政策和语言冲突) (2008), “Challenges faced by the official policy of language equality in the European Union” (欧盟官方 语言平等政策面临的挑战) (2009), “The state of language and language policies in Brazil” (巴西语言状况与语言政策) (2009), “The state of language and language planning in Pakistan” (巴基斯坦语言状况与语言规划) (2009), “Strategies for addressing the threat of language extinction in Botswana” (博茨瓦纳应对语言消亡威 胁的策略) (2009), “Language problems and government crisis in Belgium” (比利时 语言问题与政府危机) (2011), “Recent developments in language education policies in the United States and Australia” (美国、澳大利亚语言教育政策近况) (2011), “The popularization and international dissemination of the Russian national language” (俄罗斯的国语推广与国际传播) (2013), “New mechanisms, new concepts and new actions for the dissemination of French in France” (法国法语传播的新机 构新理念新举措) (2013), and “Intensifying language conflict in Ukraine” (乌克兰语 言冲突升温) (2014). These pieces have provided us with much enlightenment.

3 New concepts Over the last ten years, a series of new concepts have been presented more broadly to society and have drawn greater attention through the publication of The Language Situation. These principally include (in order by Chinese pinyin): Binwei yuyan (濒危语言, ‘critically endangered language’), da Huayu (大华 语, ‘greater Chinese’), diyu Putonghua (地域普通话, ‘regional Mandarin Chinese’), dongtai liutong yuliaoku (动态流通语料库, ‘Dynamic Circulating Corpus’), guojia yuyan (国家语言, ‘national language’), guojia yuyan nengli (国家语言能力, ‘national language ability’), guoyu (国语, ‘national language’), guojia gongzuo yuyan (国家工作语言, ‘national working language’), Hanyu (汉语, ‘Chinese language’), hexie yuyan shenghuo (和谐语言生活, ‘harmonious language life’), Huayu (华语, ‘Chinese language’), Huayu shehui bianti (华语社会变体, ‘social variants of the Chinese language’), Huayu shequ (华语社区, ‘Chinese-speaking community’), jiating yuyan (家庭语言, ‘home language’), jiaoyu yuyanxue (教育语言学, ‘educational linguistics’), kexue de baohu ge minzu yuyan wenzi (科学地保护各民族语言

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文字, ‘scientific preservation of the spoken and written language of all ethnic groups’), shuangyu (双语, ‘bilingual’), shuangyu ren (双语人, ‘bilingual person’), shuangyu shehui (双语社会, ‘bilingual society’), shuangyu zhengce (双语政策, ‘bilingual policy’), shuangyu zhuyi (双语主义, ‘bilingualism’), xianxing yuyan zhengce (显性语言政策, ‘explicit language policy’), yinxing yuyan zhengce (隐性语 言政策, ‘implicit language policy’), yuqing (语情, ‘language sentiment), yuyan anquan (语言安全, ‘language security’), yuyan baohu (语言保护, ‘language preservation’), yuyan chanye (语言产业, ‘language industry’), yuyan chongtu (语言冲突, ‘language conflict’), yuyan fuwu (语言服务, ‘language services’), yuyan gongneng (语言功能, ‘language functions’), yuyan guanli (语言管理, ‘language management’), yuyan guihua (语言规划, ‘language planning’), yuyan hongli (语言红利, ‘language dividends’), yuyan jiance (语言监测, ‘language monitoring’), yuyan jingji (语言经济, ‘economy of language’), yuyan jingjixue (语言经济学, ‘economics of language’), yuyan jingguan (语言景观, ‘language landscape’), yuyan jingzheng (语言竞争, ‘language competition’), yuyan kongzhi (语言控制, language control), yuyan lingyu (语言领域, ‘language domain’), yuyan maodun (语言矛盾, ‘language contradiction’), yuyan nengli (语言能力, ‘language ability’), yuyan shangpin (语言 商品, ‘language commodities’), yuyan shengtai (语言生态, ‘language ecology’), yuyan shitai (语言实态, ‘language reality’), yuyan shichang (语言市场, ‘language market’), yuyan weihu xitong (语言维护系统, ‘language maintenance system’), yuyan wenti (语言问题, ‘language problem’), yuyan yulun yindao (语言舆论引导, ‘guidance of linguistic public opinion’), yuyan yuqing fenxi (语言舆情分析, ‘language sentiment analysis’), yuyan yuqing jiance (语言舆情监测, ‘language sentiment monitoring’), yuyan yuqing jiance fangfa (语言舆情监测方法, ‘language sentiment monitoring methods’), yuyan yuqing jiance lilun (语言舆情监测理论, ‘language sentiment monitoring theory’), yuyan zhanlüe (语言战略, ‘language strategies’), yuyan shenghuo pai (语言生活派, ‘School of Language Life’), yuyan ziben (语言资本, ‘language capital’), and yuyan ziyuan (语言资源, ‘language resources’). A few examples are given below (listed in order of the classification number used by China National Knowledge Infrastructure; the figure in parentheses is the CNKI classification number).

3.1 Yuyan shenghuo (语言生活, ‘language life’) (973 912) From the sources we reviewed, the first formal definition of the concept of yuyan shenghuo (语言生活, ‘language life’) was found in Mouzi (眸子, aka Li Yuming [李宇明]) (1997): The various social activities and individual activities involving the utilization and application of the spoken and written language,

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which can be generally termed yuyan shenghuo (语言生活, ‘language life’). Thereafter, Guo Xi (郭熙) (2004), Guo Xi and Zhu Deyong (郭熙, 朱德勇) (2006), et cetera, all adopted this definition. However, it was the decade of publication of The Language Situation which caused this term to truly pervade the public consciousness. Today, it has developed into an academic term with extremely rich connotations. The number of papers on CNKI with the term yuyan shenghuo (语言生活, ‘language life’) appearing in the title has reached 476. This demonstrates that this term has not only kindled people’s interest in language life itself, but has moreover promoted understanding of the relationship between language and language life, as well as the relationship between language and society, and spurred further academic development. Constructing a health and harmonious language life has become a consensus in society.

3.2 Yuyan ziyuan (语言资源, ‘language resources’) (482 190) The concept of yuyan ziyuan (语言资源, ‘language resources’) was proposed by Qiu Zhipu (邱质朴) (1982) in the 1980s, and was later continuously deepened and expanded by academic circles, while the State Language Commission founded the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center. However, that the term yuyan ziyuan (语言资源, ‘language resources’) has continuously been impressed upon the public’s mind, drawing attention from all sectors of society and becoming a highly regarded academic term, is likely inseparable from its decade of dissemination in The Language Situation. In the past, people were accustomed to viewing the diversity of language phenomena and language life as a problem: the expansion of the concept of yuyan ziyuan (语言资源, ‘language resources’) led to great changes in academic circles on the concept of language. People have gradually realized that language is not only national resource, but also a personal resource; it is not just an economic resource, but also a cultural resource.

3.3 Yuyan fuwu (语言服务, ‘language services’) (463 404) Yuyan fuwu (语言服务, ‘language services’) have been among the central topics in The Language Situation over the last ten years. Outstanding achievements have been made with respect to language services for the Olympics, language services for the Asian Games, as well as language services for the World Expo. Language services for disadvantaged groups, language services for foreigners, language aid, and so on have all become focal points in language life.

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3.4 Yuyan anquan (语言安全, ‘language security’) (239 317) The degree of emphasis which society places on yuyan anquan (语言安全, ‘language security’) has increased significantly. Language and national security, language and cultural security, and language and economic security have all become popular topics both in academic circles and in society.

3.5 Yuyan baohu (语言保护, ‘language preservation’) (228 610) The “scientific preservation of the spoken and written language of all ethnic groups” was written into the Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party on Certain Major Issues Related to Deepening the Reform of Cultural Institutions and Promoting Great Development and Great Prosperity of Socialist Culture (中共中央关于深化文化体制改革 推动社会主义文化大发展大 繁荣若干重大问题的决定) (October 2011). Discussions on the preservation of critically endangered languages and dialects have multiplied, and some preservation measures have begun to be implemented, while the establishment of audio databases to record dialects and ethnic languages has proceeded in scintillating fashion.

3.6 Yuyan chanye (语言产业, ‘language industry’) (106 913) China is a major country for language resources and language consumption: the concept of the yuyan chanye (语言产业, ‘language industry’) is tied to the yuyan jingji (语言经济, ‘economy of language’), yuyan xiaofei (语言消费, ‘language consumption’), yuyan fuwu (语言服务, ‘language services’), and so on, forming a new chain. Beijing also held the first Language Industry Forum (语言 产业论坛).

3.7 Guojia yuyan nengli (国家语言能力, ‘national language ability’) (31 969) Language ability is an oft-mentioned concept, but the proposal of guojia yuyan nengli (国家语言能力, ‘national language ability’) is closely tied to national development, national construction, national security, national harmony, et cetera,

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causing people to reevaluate their understanding of foreign languages, dialects, and the diverse social variants of language.

3.8 Yuyan zhanlüe (语言战略, ‘language strategies’) (96 663) Many of the issues discussed in The Language Situation involve yuyan zhanlüe (语言战略, ‘language strategies’). China is a multiethnic, multilingual state, with a complex language structure: added to foreign-language education and Chinese going global, issues such as how to strengthen universal language consciousness, uphold native language, protect minority language and dialects, carefully study the actual needs of foreign-language education, et cetera, can all be considered using the concept of yuyan zhanlüe (语言战略, ‘language strategies’).

3.9 Dongtai liutong yuliaoku (动态流通语料库, ‘Dynamic Circulating Corpus’) (570) Seeking to use dynamic methods to process complex and variable language phenomena is an important tool in language monitoring. The data published in The Language Situation is sourced from the large-scale Dynamic Circulating Corpus (动态流通语料库); at the same time, it also generates a greater impact for the concepts in the Dynamic Circulating Corpus (动态流通语料库), thus promoting the expansion of language research fields based on the corpus.

3.10 Yuyan shitai (语言实态, ‘language reality’) (495) The term yuyan shitai (语言实态, ‘language reality’) does not appear with great frequency in the China National Knowledge Infrastructure. However, the significance of the proposal of this concept has been profound and far-reaching. Recording the yuyan shitai (语言实态, ‘language reality’) is tantamount to recording the progress of human civilization. Research on yuyan shitai (语言实态, ‘language reality’) is always indispensable, whether with regard to language education, or understandings of the development of language. These concepts have already become or are now becoming the foundation of the theoretical system for future research on language life in China.

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4 New ideas The new ideas proposed and formulated in The Language Situation can be divided into two areas: the first is the idea of a language report itself, while the other consists of the ideas in the research found in The Language Situation. Zhou Hongbo (周洪波) (2014) summarized the idea of The Language Situation in five points: (1) From language problems to language resources; (2) From language homogeny to language pluralism; (3) Language planning as language guidance; (4) From language preservation to language development; and (5) From language research to language services. From the perspective of research, the new ideas of The Language Situation have manifested in the following few areas.

4.1 International perspective Global interactions are currently accelerating. Language issues are no longer a matter for one country or one region. While focusing on the state of language life in China, The Language Situation has always remained committed to studying diverse phenomena from an international perspective, guarding against populism, national nihilism, and national chauvinism. For instance, in Chinese language life, the issues of how to handle the relationship between native-language education and foreign-language education, language standardization and the absorption of loanwords, national standard language and minority languages, national standard language and dialects, simplified Chinese characters and traditional Chinese characters, et cetera, how to engage in the international dissemination of the Chinese language, how to handle Chinese-language issues in overseas Chinese language education, and so on are not only inescapable, but also go against the tide.

4.2 Issue-driven In the selection of topics, The Language Situation is committed to being issuedriven. Being issue-driven originates from concerns in society. The colleagues at The Language Situation refer to this as jie diqi (接地气, ‘being grounded’). In surveying the topics in The Language Situation over the last decade, the vast majority are directly connected to social life, while also assuming the responsibility of arousing society’s language consciousness. The topics focus on language life in the virtual world as well as the language life of foreigners in China, devoting great efforts to fields in which language life experiences more prominent problems and conflicts. Examples include language problems emerging in the course

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of urbanization, the state of language use within ethnic groups, sign language issues for deaf-mute individuals, the state of language among rural migrant workers, language in textbooks, language aid, place name and street sign issues, and so on.

4.3 Serving the nation The Language Situation has always placed the greatest emphasis on serving the nation, putting national interests in first place, upholding academic services for society, and focusing on social life. For instance, the international dissemination of the Chinese language and overseas Chinese language education have always been essential subjects to be reported on annually since The Language Situation was first created. This spirit has also been embodied with respect to issues such as recent language developments Taiwan, the state of national foreign-language ability, and so on. The Concise Language Situation 2014 (要况 [2014]) presented a special column on language and national security, publishing a series of important recommendations, such as the urgent need to formulate strategies and plans on national security and language, the need for the construction of solid language guarantees with respect to national security, attention for the issue of neighboring languages, how the Ukraine language conflict is endangering its national security, and the United States’ language strategies and plans for national defense. The special column for policy recommendations has published proposals regarding the construction of a national language think tank, how it is unsuitable for elementary school language textbooks to return to the Republican period, calls for appropriately addressing the “preservation of dialects,” language communication issues of concern to both doctors and patients, attention for language issues arising within the floating population, how the government should increase its level of support for minority-language websites, the urgent need for attention on the phenomenon of declining numbers of yang jiaoshi (洋教师, ‘foreign teachers’) of the Chinese language, attention for the organization of foreign scholars to translate contemporary Chinese works in the humanities and social sciences, and so on.

4.4 Discussion of data (materials) Another important idea of The Language Situation is to engage in discussion on the basis of data, materials and facts. Publishing an array of relevant data is one of the central missions of the report. The various survey reports also require

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engagement in analysis and consideration on the foundation of materials or data, as well as the proposal of focused recommendations. Over the last decade, apart from publishing detailed data with respect to character, word, and phrase usage in the media and online, including BBS, blogs, WeChat, et cetera, The Language Situation has also presented copious data on other areas. Examples include “survey of characters, words and word meaning in teaching materials for chinese as a second language” (汉语作为第二语言教材字、 词和 词语义项调查) (2006, Vol. 2), “Survey of character usage and terminology in teaching materials for new language and literature courses in basic education” (基础教育语文新课标教材用字用语调查) (2007, Vol. 2), “Survey of character usage and terminology in Chinese-language media in Southeast Asia” (东南亚 华文媒体用字用语调查) (2008, Vol. 2, “Appendix” [附录]), “Survey of Chinese character usage in elementary school language and literature teaching materials in the basic education stage” (基础教育阶段小学语文教材汉字使用调查) (2009, Vol. 2), “Survey of word usage on websites in modern Uyghur script” (现 代维吾尔文网站用词调查) (2009, Vol. 2), “Survey of word usage in teaching materials for new Tibetan language courses in elementary schools” (小学藏语 文新课标教材用词调查) (2009, Vol. 2), “Survey of word usage in Uyghurlanguage primary and junior secondary school language and literature teaching materials” (维吾尔语小学、 初中语文教材用词调查) (2011), “Survey of word usage in Uyghur-language senior secondary school language and literature teaching materials” (维吾尔语高中语文教材用词调查) (2012), “Survey of word usage in Kazakh-language primary school language and literature teaching materials” (哈萨克语小学语文教材用词调查) (2012), “Survey of word usage in Kazakh-language secondary school language and literature teaching materials” (哈萨克语中学语文教材用词调查) (2013), “Survey of word usage in Tibetanlanguage junior and senior secondary school language and literature teaching materials” (藏语初中、 高中语文教材用词调查) (2011), “Survey of character usage in overseas Chinese-language teaching materials” (2011, “Appendix” [附篇]), “Survey of character usage in Chinese-language teaching materials and texts in Southeast Asian primary schools” (东南亚小学华文教材课文用字调查) (2011, “Appendix” [附篇]), “Table of alphabetic words in Chinese-language media in Southeast Asia (examples)” (东南亚华文媒体字母词表[示例]) (2011, “Appendix” [附篇]), “Survey of word usage in Tibetan-language newspapers and online (news) in the year 2010” (2010 年度藏文报纸、网络(新闻)用词调查) (2012), “Survey of character and word usage in mathematics, physics and chemistry teaching materials in basic education” (基础教育数理化教材用字用 词调查) (2012), “Survey of usage and terminology for the word Huawen [华文, ‘Chinese language’] in Chinese-Language Primary School Language and Literature Teaching Materials in Malaysia” (马来西亚华文小学语文教材《华

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文》用词用语调查) (2012), “Comparison of texts selected for cross-straits primary and secondary language and literature teaching materials” (海峡两岸中 小学语文教材选文比较) (2013), “Survey of the usage of general standard Chinese characters” (通用规范汉字使用情况调查) (2014), and so on.

4.5 Building the Yuyan shenghuo pai (语言生活派, ‘School of Language Life’) Research on language life is a burgeoning field in China. This emerging field comprises an assembly of scholars on linguistics, computer science, information processing, ethnology, public opinion, and so on. They include well-known professors and experts as well as PhD candidates and Master’s students, civil servants, corporate leaders, and professionals. In terms of their age, they are a mix of old, middle-aged and young, though the young and middle-aged are in the majority. A few individuals of high prestige take part in reviews, participating in proposals and manuscript revisions year after year. Under their leadership by both precept and practice, a group of scholars with shared research ideas has gradually taken shape, referring to themselves as the Yuyan shenghuo pai (语言 生活派, ‘School of Language Life’). Building the School of Language Life was an idea of the colleagues at The Language Situation. The growth of the School of Language Life has also been broadly supported by academic circles and government departments. A number of Chinese academic conferences on sociolinguistics have taken language life as their theme, while the State Language Commission has specially sponsored the “Training Program for Outstanding Young and Middle-Aged Scholars for Applied Research on Spoken and Written Language” (语 言文字应用研究优秀中青年学者培训班). This represents an effort to cultivate an academic cohort in the new generation. The State Language Commission has supported the construction of a group of research centers (bases), which have currently reached 17 in total. Beijing Language and Culture University, Beijing Foreign Studies University, and Shanghai International Studies University have established doctoral programs for language planning and language policy studies. The National Social Science Fund, Humanities and Social Science Fund of the Ministry of Education, and Scientific Research Program of the State Language Commission have also stepped up their efforts with respect to research on language life. According to the statistics by Su Xinchun (苏新春), the category of yuyan shenghuo (语言生活, ‘language life’) includes 13 key projects, as well as 13 major projects, amounting to 26 projects in total, and representing one tenth of the total number of 269 projects.

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5 Conclusions and reflections On the whole, the achievements of The Language Situation over the past decade have primarily manifested in the following few areas: (1) Observing and understanding language as part of language life, chronicling the various facets of language life in China, and setting down precious records in history; (2) Proposing and expanding new concepts, and laying the foundation to build the theoretical system for research on language life in China; (3) Presenting a series of new research ideas, views on language, and research perspectives, enriching Chinese sociolinguistics and even the theories and methods of linguistics; (4) Publishing a series of focused surveys and policy advice reports, and proposing substantive recommendations with respect to issues in language life; (5) Building a research time with shared ideals and convictions, and objectively forming the academic concept of the Zhongguo yuyan shenghuo pai (中国语言生活派, ‘Chinese School of Language Life’). In the course of its development and growth, The Language Situation still requires further improvement with respect to many issues. First, the represented fields are not comprehensive. At present, while The Language Situation of course already has its fundamental team, its composition is still somewhat homogeneous, its sources for manuscript contributions are not ideal, and it lacks the capacity to address certain fields. A number of special topics which have previously been considered still have yet to become a reality. Examples include issues involving literature and language in the new era, Chinese translations of foreign-language texts, foreign translations of Chineselanguage texts, and so on. Second, the survey reports are still too few, while the scientific nature of the survey methods and approaches must be enhanced. The depth of analysis remains insufficient, while theoretical improvements must be augmented. Third, the readability is still not ideal. In recent years, great improvements have been made with respect to concise language, but the report is still not sufficiently lively. Continuing efforts must be devoted to properly handling the relationships between popularization and refinement as well as academic research and service to the public in The Language Situation. In the future, The Language Situation should reinforce its top-down design, further strengthen the construction of a youth cohort, and make efforts to cultivate interdisciplinary talents. Consideration should be given to building a website and exercising the advantages of the Internet. It must also further widen its field of vision and expand its fields of research. It must zou chuqu (走出去, ‘go global’) to address language life in overseas Chinese societies, as well as language life in Chinese-speaking societies.

Hou Min (侯敏) and Yang Erhong (杨尔弘)

3 Ten years of language monitoring and research in China Language monitoring is a large-scale social language project guided by linguistics, applied linguistics and relevant theories, taking information processing technology as its primary tool and field surveys as its fundamental method, with participation by scholars in multiple disciplines, the aim of which is to provide timely reports on the state of language life and describe the realities of language usage, so as to better develop and utilize such language resources, and achieve the objectives of preserving the language ecology and establishing harmonious language life. China’s language monitoring project was implemented beginning in 2005, and has experienced ten years of development to date.

1 Organizations and resources Language monitoring work in China is pursued with the support and guidance of the government. In 2004, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center was established under the guidance of the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education; the Department of Language Information Management also founded six branch centers for print media, broadcast media, online media, educational materials, minority languages, and overseas Chinese language at Beijing Language and Culture University, Communication University of China, Central China Normal University, Xiamen University, Minzu University of China, and Jinan University, respectively.1 The subjects of language monitoring include mass media, which is best able to represent the public’s sense of language, as well as basic education, which has the greatest impact on language development in an ethnic group, encompassing both the national standard language as well as minority languages. Language monitoring work primarily takes place through the National Language Monitoring Corpus (国家语言监测语料库). The National Language Monitoring Corpus includes three sub-databases: the Standard-Language Media 1 Due to considerations that the overseas Chinese language was not a suitable subject for monitoring, the Center for Overseas Chinese Language Research was later established as a separate institution, and only five branch centers remain under the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-003

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Corpus (通用语媒体语料库), Educational Materials Corpus (教育教材语料库), and Minority Languages Corpus (少数民族语言语料库). The Educational Materials Corpus has already collected a teaching materials corpus of 19 million characters; the Minority Languages Corpus currently includes Tibetan, Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Mongolian, and other languages, and the scale of the corpora for each language is growing by 200 million words per year; the Standard-Language Media Corpus is further divided into three sub-databases for print media, broadcast media, and online media, with rolling construction at the scale of 1.0 billion character instances each year. Typical and representative data is selected from the different media on the basis of the degree of circulation. These language resources reflecting language life are the foundation and the living heart of language monitoring. On the foundation of the National Language Monitoring Corpus, we have completed one language monitoring project after another, making achievements in language monitoring.

2 Practices and achievements On the basis of large-scale corpora, we have completed a series of surveys on the realities of language usage, including surveys of character and word usage, neologisms, and alphabetic words in standard-language media, language in new online media, language in teaching materials, and minority languages, obtaining abundant and valuable language data, and discovering certain patterns of language usage. Below, a brief explanation shall be provided by way of several examples.

2.1 Surveys of character and word usage in standardlanguage media For the last ten years, a large-scale annual survey of character and word usage2 has been launched each year once the Standard-Language Media Corpus reaches 2 See the five works: National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center (国家语言 资源监测与研究中心) (ed.), The Language Situation in China 2005 (中国语言生活状况报告 [2005]) (Vol. 2) through The Language Situation in China 2009 (中国语言生活状况报告[2009]) (Vol. 2); see also the five works: Department of Language Information Management, Ministry of Education (教育部语言文字信息管理司) (ed.), The Language Situation in China 2011 (中国语 言生活状况报告[2011]) through The Language Situation in China 2015 (中国语言生活状况报告 [2015]). The above works were all published by the Commercial Press (商务印书馆).

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1.0 billion character instances.3 Although social life experiences enormous changes every year, Chinese character usage exhibits strong regularity: Each year, approximately 10,000 Chinese characters are used in mass media; the number of Chinese characters accounting for 80% of the corpus is approximately 600, while less than 1000 account for 90% of the corpus, and approximately 2400 account for 99% of the corpus. This provides us with quantitative standards for the different rankings of common Chinese characters. The use of Chinese characters in words also exhibits strong regularity: Each year, the number of words used in mass media presents a positive correlation with the scale of the corpus, and the greater the scale of the corpus, the higher the number of words used. A corpus at the scale of 1.0 billion character instances involves the use of approximately 2.2 million words, and the number of words accounting for 80% of the corpus is approximately 4700, while approximately 13,000 account for 90% of the corpus. This also provides us with quantitative standards for the different rankings of common words in the Chinese language. With a coverage rate reaching 90%, the quantities of the most common characters and words in the Chinese language can be summarized in a four-character format – qian zi wan ci (千字万词, ‘one thousand characters, ten thousand words’). In the wake of changes in society, the characters and words used in different years have also experienced changes: this can be examined from the perspectives of common use and unique use. Among the Chinese characters, common Chinese characters always represent more than 65% each year, while unique Chinese characters essentially never exceed 5%. If one were to concisely describe the state of annual Chinese character usage using a single character, it would be wen (稳, ‘stable’). In comparison with Chinese characters, word usage experiences relatively major changes. The common words never surpass 10%, while unique words account for nearly half each year. In comparing two consecutive years, common words represent approximately 30%, while unique words account for approximately 70%. If a single character were again used to concisely describe the annual state of word usage, it would be bian (变, ‘variable’). It appears that characters are largely stable, with variability amidst constancy, while stability is the main trend; and words are largely variable, with constancy amidst variability, while variability is the main trend. As a unit larger than words, sentences thus obviously experience even greater variability, while syllables, as a unit more basic than characters, exhibit more stability than characters. This also proves a 3 The survey was first conducted in 2005, but was marred by poor planning, with a corpus of only 700 million character instances; beginning in 2006, the survey was launched each year upon reaching 1.0 billion character instances, including newspapers, radio and television, and online news in the corpus at a ratio of 5:1:4.

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pattern: Smaller linguistic units have stronger stability, and a smaller number of types; larger linguistic units have weaker stability, and a larger number of types. The facts of language confirm the linguistic philosophies of Wilhelm von Humboldt and Noam Chomsky: Language uses limited forms to achieve unlimited expression. Among the more than 2 million word types obtained from the annual corpus at the scale of 1.0 billion character instances in the Standard-Language Media Corpus, personal names appear most frequently, constituting nearly one third of all words; these are followed by organization names, place names, and other proper nouns, as well as expression of time and numbers, et cetera; in contrast, putong ciyu (普通词语, ‘common words’) – that is, yuwen ci (语文词, ‘lexical words’) – represented only 10%. However, the frequency of use varied for these words. The frequency of use of common words accounted for 91%, while personal names and place names each represented only 2%. If the words other than common words are all categorized as mingming shiti (命名实体, ‘named entities’), then there would be an enormous contrast between the word type distribution and word instance distribution of “common words” and “named entities.” Common words representing 10% of word types encompass 91% of the corpus, while “named entities” representing 90% of word types only cover 9% of the corpus. This indicates that the frequency of use for common words is far higher than for the various categories of named entities. This is the practical state of affairs in language usage.

2.2 Surveys of neologisms The annual survey of neologisms began in 2006. Over the last 9 years, a total of 5264 annual neologisms have been collected.4 These neologisms record the historical process of social development, and can also reveal patterns in the emergence, development, and obsolescence of neologisms over the past few years. Unlike existing Chinese words, most of which are disyllabic, the majority of these 5264 neologisms are trisyllabic, constituting 46.26%, while disyllables

4 See Zhou, Jian (周荐) (ed.), Chinese Neologisms in 2006 (2006 汉语新词语); the four works: Hou, Min (侯敏) & Zhou, Jian (周荐) (eds.), Chinese Neologisms in 2007 (2007 汉语新词语) through Chinese Neologisms in 2010 (2010 汉语新词语); Hou, Min (侯敏) & Yang, Erhong (杨尔弘) (eds.), Chinese Neologisms in 2011 (2011 汉语新词语); as well as the three works: Hou, Min (侯敏) & Zou, Yu (邹煜) (eds.), Chinese Neologisms in 2012 (2012 汉语新词语), Chinese Neologisms in 2013 (2013 汉语新词语), and Chinese Neologisms in 2014 (2014 汉语新词语). The above works were all published by the Commercial Press (商务印书馆).

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and quadrisyllables respectively account for 21.56% and 22.89%. The edge held by trisyllables is related to the frequent use of words to formulate new words during this period: 333 words were created with the suffix zu (族, ‘clan’), while 162 take the format – men (–门, ‘ – school’), 69 consist of – ge (–哥, ‘ – brother’), 65 consist of – ke (–客, ‘ – guest’), 212 consist of wei – (微–, ‘micro – ’), 66 consist of bei – (被–, ‘–ed’ [passive voice]), and 57 consist of yun – (云–, ‘cloud – ’). Among all neologisms, more than 1300 were formulated using existing words, constituting approximately 25% of all neologisms. This 9-year period was a time of social transformation, during which online culture and particularly self-media became prevalent. High frequency of appearance and niche usage have become the characteristics of neologisms; at the same time, rapid dissemination, rapid obsolescence and short lifespans are also characteristics of neologisms during this time period. Among the neologisms of a given year, often one third will have ceased to appear by the following year, becoming yintui ci (隐退词, ‘retired words’). In addition, a high number of words expressing events and concepts has also been a characteristic of neologisms in this period: this is one reason why a fair number of neologisms are retired so quickly.

2.3 Surveys of alphabetic words The widespread use of zimu ci (字母词, ‘alphabetic words’) represents a major change in the written Chinese language usage system in the new era. The issue of the use of alphabetic words has long been controversial. Some have proposed the Hanyu weiji lun (汉语危机论, ‘theory of the Chinese language in crisis’), arguing that the use of foreign-language acronyms such as NBA, WTO and GDP will lead to the death of the Chinese language within 300 years, and issuing calls to wage a Hanyu baowei zhan (汉语保卫战, ‘war for the defense of the Chinese language’) (Fu 2009; Fu 2010). Will the Chinese language really become obsolete? What is the real situation of the use of alphabetic words? How should they be regarded? Based on the principle of being issue-driven, we carried out a survey on the use of alphabetic words in The People’s Daily (人民日报) from 1990–2012. Figure 1 shows the trend of changes in the use of alphabetic word types during this 23-year period. Figure 1 is divided into two segments, with the year 2000 as the dividing line. During the 11-year period in the first segment, the number of alphabetic words rose relatively rapidly, soaring from annual usage of over 300 to more than 1000; in the 12-year period after 2000, the number of alphabetic words rose slightly, but essentially fluctuated around 1000. This seems to tell us that,

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1400

number of word types

1200 1000

Initially increasing by a scale of approximately 300 per year, alphabetic words essentially remained stable at approximately 1000 after the year 2000

800 600 400 200

f luctuations amidst stability

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Figure 1: Trend of changes in the use of alphabetic word types in 1990–2012.

0.08% 0.07% 0.06% 0.05% 0.04% 0.03% 0.02% 0.01% 0.00% 0.60% 0.50%

hundredth of a percent

essentially stable

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word type ratio

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due to the requirements of linguistic instrumentalism, the absorption and use of alphabetic words in the Chinese language is not unlimited, and will arrive at a state of saturation on reaching a certain quantity. See Figure 2.

year

Figure 2: Trend of proportional changes to alphabetic word type and word instance usage in 1990–2012.

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Figure 2 is actually two graphs: The lower section is a proportional graph of changes to alphabetic word type usage, and the upper section is a proportional graph of changes to word instance usage. These two graphs display the same change curve and trends as seen in Figure 1 above. The proportions on the vertical axis should be noted: The word type ratio is measured in tenths of a percent, standing at two tenths of a percent (0.02%) in 1990, and five tenths of a percent (0.05%) in 2000; while the word instance ratio is measured in hundredths of a percent, standing at less than one hundredth of a percent (0.01%) in 1990, and reaching near its peak in 2001, at only six hundredths of a percent (0.06%). This demonstrates that the majority of alphabetic words are low-frequency words, and their frequency of use is far lower than Chinese-character words. What informs the stability of the use of alphabetic words? This can also be explained using the general statistical data for this period. In this 23-year period, The People’s Daily (人民日报) used a total of nearly 10,000 different alphabetic words, but there were only 23 common alphabetic words: ABC, BBC, B chao (B 超, ‘B-scan [ultrasonography]’), CAD, CCTV, CNN, CT, DNA, GE, IBM, NEC, NHK, PC, PVC, SOS ertong cun (SOS儿童村, ‘SOS Children’s Villages’), T xu (T 恤, ‘Tshirt’), T xu shan (T 恤衫, ‘T-shirt’), X guang (X 光, ‘X-ray’), X guangji (X 光机, ‘Xray machine’), Ah Q (阿 Q, ‘Ah Q’), kala OK (卡拉 OK, ‘karaoke’), weishengsu A (维生素 A, ‘vitamin A’), and weishengsu C (维生素 C, ‘vitamin C’). Furthermore, the terms with which people are more familiar, such as APEC, NBA, GPS, MBA, MTV, et cetera, all came into use after the year 1992. This survey proves that: (1) The Chinese language is not in crisis, and will not die out in 300 years due to the use of alphabetic words; (2) The usage of alphabetic words is rather unstable: The vast majority of alphabetic words are used with low frequency, are unfamiliar to most people, and should be used as infrequently as possible; (3) Efforts for the Sinicization of foreign-language acronyms should be promoted. Fortunately, on June 20, 2012, China established the Expert Committee of the Interministerial Joint Conference for Standardization of the Translation of Foreign Languages to Chinese (外语中文译写规范部际联席会议专家委员会), which is dedicated to such efforts. With the support of data from the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, following deliberations by experts, on April 19, 2013, the Chinese term for PM2.5 was announced to be xi keli wu (细 颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’); and on September 13, the Chinese terms for 10 foreign-language acronyms including PM2.5, IT, IQ, WTO, and WHO were announced. In 2014, another two batches of Chinese terms for foreign-language acronyms were released. It is believed that, as this work unfolds, the Chinese language will develop in an increasingly healthy direction.

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2.4 Language surveys for new online media The Internet has developed at a rapid pace over the last decade, and a number of new media formats have successively emerged, from online forums, to blogs and Weibo microblogging, and finally developing into WeChat. The transformation of the media has also brought linguistic changes. Surveys of the state of language usage in blogs have discovered some interesting phenomenon: for instance, blog users of different genders each have their own characteristics in terms of word usage. Below are the top 10 nouns used most often by male and female users (Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education 2012): Male: shehui (社会, ‘society’), wenti (问题, ‘problem’), guojia (国家, ‘country’), zhengfu (政府, ‘government), xuesheng (学生, ‘student’), wenhua (文化, ‘culture’), zhengzhi (政治, ‘politics’), lishi (历史, ‘history’), xuexiao (学校, ‘school’), daxue (大学, ‘university’) Female: nüren (女人, ‘woman’), nanren (男人, ‘man’), shihou (时候, ‘time’), nüxing (女性, ‘female’), aiqing (爱情, ‘love’), pengyou (朋友, ‘friend’), haizi (孩子, ‘child’), meinü (美女, ‘beautiful woman’), mingxing (明星, ‘star’), mama (妈妈, ‘mama’) From these terms, it is evident that male users are more focused on society and politics, while female users show more interest in the family and life. This may illustrate that, if one wished to return to a people-oriented society, female administrators and female presidents might be more advantageous. The changing gender ratio among the leaders of nations and regions since the turn of the 21st century seems to prove this point.

2.5 Surveys on language in educational materials In terms of the standard language, surveys have primarily focused on educational materials for basic education and educational materials for teaching Chinese as a second language, illustrating the reality of language usage in educational materials, and bearing important significance for further rational application and improvement of educational materials. For instance, a survey on character types, the amount of characters, and character order in primary school language and literature educational materials found that the number of characters was roughly equivalent between different editions of textbooks, essentially remaining around 2500 characters, as required under the Language and Literature Curriculum Criteria for Full-Time Compulsory Education (Experimental) (全日制义务教育语文课程标准[实 验版]) (National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center 2010).

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However, the character types varied significantly: in the 8 surveyed textbook sets, the character types for new characters totaled 3855, exceeding the 2500 characters which are required to be mastered by 53.4%; among these, some even exceeded the scope of the 3500 frequently-used characters. The new characters which were shared in the first volumes of the 8 sets of educational materials numbered only 33, constituting only 4.27% of the total number of 773 new characters in the first volumes. This indicates that selection should be made for the Chinese characters to be taught in the preliminary stages of Chinese character education, while the issue of character order also merits further research. In another example, a comparative survey of primary school educational materials for language and literature in the mainland China and Taiwan regions shows that, given an identical length of schooling and class hours, mainland textbooks are thicker and contain more text, resulting in an excessive burden on students (Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education 2013). It is therefore necessary to boost research on the educational content of primary and secondary language and literature textbooks as well as the capacity of educational materials, so as to avert the trends of increasingly cumbersome educational content and increasingly thick textbooks, and make substantive progress in jian fu (减负, ‘reducing the burden’) for primary and secondary school students.

2.6 Surveys on minority languages Conducting surveys on the state of usage of minority languages is also an important task of the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center. Beginning in 2009, surveys have primarily been conducted with respect to word usage in the media in the Uyghur, Tibetan, and Kazakh languages, as well as the state of language usage in primary and secondary school educational materials for language and literature: among these, the majority have represented the first factual survey conducted domestically on the state of usage of the given minority language, with important significance for understanding the actual state of usage of minority languages. In addition, surveys have also been conducted on the state of usage of the Chinese language overseas, primarily examining the state of language usage in the media and in primary school educational materials for language and literature in the region of Southeast Asia. The majority of the language monitoring achievements described above were included in the given year’s edition of The Language Situation in China (中国语言 生活状况报告). As of now, this green paper series has been translated into English and published by the German publisher De Gruyter, for distribution

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world-wide; the Korean-language edition is also on the verge of being published, offering beneficial exploration and endeavors to present Chinese academia to the world. Beginning in 2006, the Commercial Press has published an annual series on neologisms, with one edition per year, recording the neologisms of the current year to reflect sociohistorical changes. In addition, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center has issued a series of announcements: (1) “Announcement of the Top Ten Popular Phrases in Mainstream Chinese Newspapers (2003–2006)” (中国主流报纸十大流行语的发布 [2003–2006]) (2) “Announcement of the Top Ten Popular Phrases in the Chinese Media (2007–2014)” (中国媒体十大流行语的发布[2007–2014]) (3) “Announcement of the Top Ten Neologisms in the Chinese Media (2011–2014)” (中国媒体十大新词语的发布[2011–2014]) (4) “Announcement of the Top Ten Popular Online Phrases in China (2012–2014)” (中国十大网络流行语的发布[2012–2014]) (5) “Chinese Character and Word Inventory (2006–2014)” (汉语字词盘点 [2006–2014]) Each of these announcements had great impact on society, drawing widespread attention, and mainstream media outlets such as Xinwen Lianbo (新闻联播), Focus Report (焦点访谈), et cetera all provided relevant reports. Beginning with the announcement of popular phrases in newspapers in 2003, and continuing for more than a decade, language inventories on social life have already become a grand banquet and a new annual custom. On nearing the end of each year, people wait expectantly and guess at which characters and words will be able to represent the current year. Language monitoring also includes attention for and comprehension of language sentiment. Since January 1, 2013, we have used our self-developed Language Sentiment Monitoring System (Cheng 2013) to monitor the trends of language sentiment in real time, scraping, sifting and refining relevant information, to form the bimonthly internal reference Language Sentiment Information (语情信息). The National Institute of Chinese Language Matters and Social Development (中国语情与社会发展研究中心) jointly established by the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education and Wuhan University also closely follows language sentiment, and since 2010, it has issued the quarterly restricted publication Chinese Language Matters (中国 语情), which provides a certain depth of analysis.

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3 Theory and technology As a language project, language monitoring has three sources of support: resources, theory, and technology. Resources are the foundation and source of life for language monitoring; theory is the guide for language monitoring, allowing it to develop in a scientific and healthy direction; and technology serves as the guarantee for achieving language monitoring. In the practice of language monitoring, apart from using existing theories on language, we have also proposed a number of theoretical models suited to language monitoring, such as yuyan dongtai wentai lilun (语言动态稳态理论, ‘dynamic and static language theory’), xiangdui shijian lilun (相对时间理论, ‘relative time theory’) (Zhang 2009), cihui shikong yundong moxing (词汇时空运动 模型, ‘temporospatial lexical movement model’) (He, Hou, & Wen 2007), yuyan jiance kuangjia tixi (语言监测框架体系, ‘language monitoring framework system’), and so on. “The diachronic contains the synchronic, and the synchronic contains the diachronic” is a core view on the dynamic updating of language knowledge, as well as the theoretical foundation for the implementation of language monitoring (Zhang 2003). Each element of language has both diachronic and synchronic characteristics. The mutual embodiment and fusion of the diachronic and the synchronic is the philosophical idea of seeking and discovering dynamic and static phenomena in language by means of points in time. The basis for the temporospatial lexical movement model is that each word in a lexical system has its own trajectory of movement, which can be observed in the two dimensions of time and space. The temporospatial movement of a lexicon can be expressed through changes over time to its spatial distribution within a lexical system. The normalized rate of use, comparative rate of use, and speed function can be used as characteristic sets in the temporospatial lexical movement model. In this way, it is possible to incorporate changyong ci (常用词, ‘frequently used words’), liuxing yu (流行语, ‘popular phrases’), xin ciyu (新词语, ‘neologisms’), zimu ci (字母词, ‘alphabetic words’), shuyu (术语, ‘technical terms’), tufa shijian yongci (突发事件用词, ‘contingent words’), and various other different lexical phenomena into a unified theoretical model, satisfying the requirements for the yearly task of publishing The Language Situation in China (中 国言生活状况报告). Figure 3 is a diagram of the language monitoring framework system which we have proposed. The language monitoring framework system divides language monitoring into four bottom-up, interlinked modules: language resources – technological platforms – monitoring data – implementation of services. Among these, language resources serve as the foundation, providing the raw materials for language

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Hou Min (侯敏) and Yang Erhong (杨尔弘)

serving society

serving the country

serving academia

implementation of services

technological platforms

continuously improving and perfecting through review & evaluation mechanisms

monitoring data

word segmentation tagging system

…

language security

cultural elements

media trends

popular topics

language views

…

internet slang

alphabetic words

neologisms

popular phrases

platforms for release of information character & word frequency

achieving service functions through sharing mechanisms

implementation of monitoring functions

monitoring of language content

monitoring of linguistic forms

language monitoring data

syntax analysis system

guided by monitoring theory

semantic analysis system

temporo spatial lexical model

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speech analytics system

statistics retrieval system

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knowledge mining system

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national language resource monitoring corpora

language resources print media corpus

broadcast media corpus

online media corpus

educational materials corpus

minority language corpora

Figure 3: Diagram of language monitoring framework system.

monitoring; technological platforms provide support, allowing corpora to be transformed into usable data through processing by technological platforms; data is the outcome of monitoring, and must be released via certain platforms so as to achieve the functions of serving the country, serving society, and serving academia.

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Language monitoring thus achieves its service functions through sharing mechanisms, while also continuously improving and perfecting by means of mechanisms for review and evaluation. Apart from being guided by language theory, language monitoring also requires support from modern technology: language monitoring cannot be achieved without a technological platform which can support the following functions. (1) Automatic collection, sorting, tagging, and storage of text corpora; (2) Collection, storage, and retrieval of speech corpora, and convenient searches for word pronunciation; (3) Extraction and sorting of corpora to form subcorpora; (4) Automatic word segmentation and part-of-speech tagging for large corpora; (5) Statistical functions for character frequency and word frequency; retrieval of any character string or word string; (6) Highlighting of new language phenomena, to facilitate extraction of neologisms and popular phrases; (7) Highlighting of particular words, to facilitate extraction of words closely related to social development and change (organization names, personal names, surnames, alphabetic words, cultural elements, et cetera); (8) Monitoring, sorting, tracking and analysis of language sentiment; (9) Identification and tracking of popular topics; (10) Carrying out analysis of text sentiment orientation; (11) . . . The collection of corpora, surveys of characters and words, and extraction of neologisms, popular phrases, online slang, et cetera over the years has given shape to mature technological pathways and processes supporting massive corpus data processing (Yang 2010). To facilitate access and use of language monitoring survey reports and data by readers, we have collected, compiled and published Terms Related to Language Resource Monitoring and Research (语言资源监测与研究相关术语), including some terms already in use within academic circles, as well as a number of terms gradually formed through our monitoring and research practices; a new edition is released each year, with continuous supplementation and revision, to gradually achieve perfection.5

5 See: National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center (国家语言资源监测与研究 中心) (ed.), The Language Situation in China 2007 (中国语言生活状况报告[2007]) (Vol. 2), The Language Situation in China 2008 (中国语言生活状况报告[2008]) (Vol. 2), and The Language Situation in China 2009 (中国语言生活状况报告[2009]) (Vol. 2); see also: Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education (教育部语言文字信息管理司) (ed.), The

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4 Monitoring and services Language services are the ultimate goal of language monitoring, including services for the country, for society, and for academia. These include: Serving the country primarily involves service of government policy decisions. The National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center has taken on the responsibility of being a language think tank. Through language monitoring, a series of data is provided to powerfully support the State Language Commission in the formulation of language regulations and standards; and a series of policy advice reports are composed to serve as important references in the state’s formulation of language policies and language education policies. Serving society chiefly consists of serving the public. National resources must be gathered from the people and returned to the people. The annual data releases can guide the public’s interest in language life, allowing people to grasp the national language situation, and impartially and objectively view and respond to various new changes and divergent phenomena in language life, so as to build a harmonious language life. Serving academia can be divided into two channels, online and offline. Online services primarily involve the use of various central websites to publish language resources, technical resources, and literature resources, achieving maximal sharing of resources. Offline services involve the adoption of collaborative research methods, using corpora, data and tools to support research projects undertaken by affiliate educational institutions and scientific research organizations, as well as domestic and overseas language research personnel, particularly research projects by doctoral candidates, Master’s students, and undergraduate students. In summary, it is evident that language monitoring work encompasses three basic elements: language + metrics + society. Its aims are to use quantitative methods to understand language life, and grasp language trends; to use language as a measuring stick to gauge society, and observe society through the mirror of language, thus drawing on the power of language to promote society’s development in a harmonious and healthy direction. Treasuring Chinese language resources and striving to closely link language research to social life, national development and language services has given shape to a school of linguistics born on Chinese soil, distinct from the past, and not following in

Language Situation in China 2011 (中国语言生活状况报告[2011]), The Language Situation in China 2012 (中国语言生活状况报告[2012]), and The Language Situation in China 2013 (中国语言生活状况 报告[2013]). The above works were all published by the Commercial Press (商务印书馆).

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foreign footsteps – the School of Language Life. The research by this school is characterized by being grounded, seeking true knowledge, and emphasizing practicality. We will continue to move forward in this direction.

References Cheng, Nanchang (程南昌). 2013. Study and implementation of system for automatic language sentiment monitoring methods (语言文字舆情自动监测方法研究与系统实现). Dissertation submitted to Communication University of China (中国传媒大学). Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education (教育部语言信 息管理司). 2012. The Language Situation in China 2012 (中国语言生活状况报告[2012]), pp. 276–277. The Commercial Press (商务印书馆). Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education (教育部语言信 息管理司). 2013. The Language Situation in China 2013 (中国语言生活状况报告[2013]), pp. 234–240. The Commercial Press (商务印书馆). Fu, Zhenguo (傅振国). 2009. English ants dig holes in the dams for the Chinese language (英语蚂蚁在汉语长堤打洞). Community for a Strong Nation (强国社区), People.com (人民 网), http://www.people.com.cn/GB/32306/33232/10449570.html, Nov. 25, 2009. Fu, Zhenguo (傅振国). 2010. Will the Chinese language disappear in 300 years? (300 年后汉语 会消亡吗?). Wenhui Daily (文汇报), Feb. 28, 2010. He, Wei (何伟), Hou, Min (侯敏), & Wen, Caiju (文采菊). 2007. Study of model for temporospatial monitoring of popular phrases (流行语时空监测模型研究). Research and Cutting-edge Applications of Content Computing (内容计算的研究与应用前沿). Tsinghua University Press (清华大学出版社). National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center (国家语言资源监测与研究中心). 2010. The Language Situation in China 2009 (中国语言生活状况报告[2009]), pp. 435–458. The Commercial Press (商务印书馆). Yang, Erhong (杨尔弘). 2010. The massive data processing technology supporting language monitoring (支持语言监测的海量数据处理技术). Terminology Standardization & Information Technology (术语标准化与信息技术), No. 2. Zhang, Pu (张普). 2003. On the diachronic containing the synchronic, and the synchronic containing the diachronic (论历时中包含有共时与共时中包含有历时). Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies (语言教学与研究), No. 3. Zhang, Pu (张普). 2009. Study of dynamic language knowledge updating (动态语言知识更 新研究). The Commercial Press (商务印书馆).

Part II Special focuses

Liu Yandong (刘延东)

4 Promoting mutual enhancement of language ability, furthering human development and social progress – Address at the opening ceremony of the International Conference on Language Honored guests, ladies and gentlemen: Good morning, everyone! I am very happy to be able to come together with friends new and old in Suzhou, a city famed in Chinese history and culture as “heaven on earth,” to participate in the International Conference on Language, jointly organized by the Chinese government and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This conference has adopted the theme of “Language Ability, Human Civilization and Social Progress,” and representatives from nearly 100 countries and regions have gathered under one roof to exchange and share experiences on promoting enhancement of language ability, and furthering progress in human civilization and society, with weighty and far-reaching significance. Here, on behalf of the Chinese government, I express warm congratulations for the convening of this conference, and a sincere welcome to Director-General Bokova and each distinguished guest! Ladies and gentlemen, the civilization of a nation and a people serves as the collective memory of that nation and people, and each civilization created by humanity is the crystallization of labor and wisdom. From primitive societies to agricultural societies, from the Industrial Revolution to knowledge and information societies, these constitute the magnificent atlas of civilizations, and compose the thrilling book of civilizations. Today, we live in a world with more than 200 countries and regions, over 2500 ethnic groups, and more than 6000 languages. The colorful splendor of different languages reflects the diversity and commonality of the world’s civilizations. Within the same time and space, the extent of the interconnection and interdependence between each country has reached unprecedented depths, increasingly shaping a community of shared destiny in which you are among us, and we are among you. As an extraordinary creation by humanity, the role of language in promoting civilizational development and social progress is becoming increasingly prominent. Note: Liu Yandong (刘延东), Vice Premier of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-004

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Language is the vehicle passing down human civilization from generation to generation. Language contains the unique cultural genes inherent to different ethnic groups, and serves as the companion to the progress of human civilizations, for mutual development. It is the existence of different languages that allows different cultures to be perpetuated, propagated and developed, thus giving rise to the radiant resplendence of human civilizations. Language is the key to opening the door of communication and understanding. Spoken and written language serves as the fundamental tool for humanity to express ideas, acquire knowledge, and communicate with one another. Misunderstanding and prejudice arise from barriers and estrangement, while mastering different languages facilitates engagement in effective communication, allowing people from different cultures, ethnic groups and nations to know and understand one another through the process of experiencing the profound connotations of different civilizations, thus lessening the distance between people and between nations, and promoting mutual tolerance and harmonious coexistence among the world’s civilizations. Language is the bond which promotes exchanges and mutual learning between civilizations. Each language represents the crystallization of human wisdom, each one is equal, each has made irreplaceable contributions to human history, and each is worthy of being cherished and respected. Only by building more language bridges, and achieving exchanges and mutual learning between each civilization, can the development of civilizations continue to be furthered. Language is an important force for furthering historical development and social progress. Human lives cannot be separated from language for a single moment. As the division of labor in society is increasingly refined and cooperation grows ever closer, the role of citizens’ language ability in maintaining the harmonious functioning of society and improving standards of production and living is increasingly prominent, becoming an important symbol of national strength. Language is an essential prerequisite in promoting the comprehensive development of humanity. Language ability is the foundation of cognitive development and lifelong learning. Particularly in the Information Age, as the space for human communication continuously expands, the instant convenience of massive data exists alongside communication barriers between different languages; and as the fusion of language, science and technology grows increasingly profound, new challenges are presented for human language ability. Therefore, as an irreplaceable element in comprehensive human development, enhancing language ability has already become an important task in the current era. Ladies and gentlemen, the great Chinese thinker Confucius said, “Inelegant speech will not carry far.” The history of the civilization of the Chinese people

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has stretched unbroken for over 5000 years until today, and the contributions by spoken and written language cannot be left unrecognized. As early as the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods over two thousand years ago, Chinese thinkers had developed the “debate on language and meaning” and the “discourse on names and reality,” commencing inquiries into the relationships between language and meaning, between language and the world, and so on. By the Qin Dynasty, “uniformity of script” was implemented as a decree throughout the nation. In surveying China’s brilliant and resplendent language and culture, it contains not only the mystical legend of “Cangjie’s creation of characters,” but also The Erya (尔雅), Shuowen Dictionary (说文解字), Kangxi Dictionary (康熙字典), and other classics on the spoken and written language passed down for generations, becoming precious treasures of human civilization. According to legend, Cangjie, the “Progenitor of Chinese Writing,” created the first pictographic characters; Heaven was moved by this, and sent down rain for the millet, thus Gu Yu (谷雨, ‘Grain Rain’) became one of the twentyfour solar terms in the Chinese lunar calendar. In 2010, the United Nations officially designated Gu Yu under the yearly Chinese lunar calendar as “United Nations Chinese Language Day,” commemorating Cangjie’s contributions to humanity in the creation of characters, promoting the equal use of the six official languages of the United Nations, and fostering the diversity of world languages and civilizations. As a multiethnic, multilingual, and multi-dialect nation with a vast population, the Chinese government highly values spoken and written language work. Soon after the founding of the People Republic of China, the three great tasks of simplifying Chinese characters, popularizing Putonghua, and formulating and implementing the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet (汉语拼音方案) were established, with active engagement in surveying and preservation of minority languages. Particularly in the 36 years since the Opening and Reforms, China has made great efforts to popularize and disseminate the standard spoken and written Chinese language, scientifically preserve various spoken and written minority languages, and comprehensively promote the institutionalization, standardization, normalization and informatization of the use of spoken and written language, following a path for language development with Chinese characteristics. Over more than 60 years, the cause of spoken and written language in China has developed alongside its economy and society, and advanced together with the times, making remarkable achievements, and playing an important promotional role in the construction of informatization. First is the gradual elevation of the status of the cause of spoken and written language. Content related to spoken and written language was written into the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国宪法), and

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the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言 文字法) was promulgated and implemented, forming a relatively complete system of laws and regulations. Spoken and written language was listed in a series of national strategic plans for culture and education. Working mechanisms were established from the national to the local levels, providing powerful guarantees for augmenting spoken and written language work. Second is the continuous enhancement of spoken and written language education. China has comprehensively popularized nine-year free, compulsory education: the number of enrolled students has reached 140 million people, and the illiteracy rate has fallen from 80% 65 years ago to 4.08%; the world’s largestscale education system has been established, effectively meeting mass demand for learning and using spoken and written language. The Chinese public is now increasingly placing emphasis on the study and use of spoken and written language: last year, China Central Television broadcasted the program Chinese Character Dictation Contest (汉字听写大会), drawing more than 600 million viewers. Third is the essential disappearance of barriers to language communication. China has many dialects, and in the past, some regions had “a different dialect every ten li”: over the mountain or across the river, people faced potential barriers in communication with one another. For many years, China has persevered in popularizing the standard spoken and written Chinese language: the Putonghua popularization rate has risen to above 70%, and the ratio of those among the literate population using standard Chinese characters has surpassed 95%. Fourth is the harmonious development of social language life. China has 56 minority ethnic groups, most of which have their own languages. We respect and lawfully protect the rights of each minority ethnic group to use and develop their spoken and written languages. We also appropriately handle the relationship between the national standard language and foreign languages, Putonghua and dialects, and simplified Chinese characters and traditional Chinese characters, allowing each to play its role, and display its strengths. At the same time, there has been solid engagement in efforts for the development and promotion of national standard sign language and Braille, improving the integration of handicapped persons into society. In summary, through untiring efforts, the cause of spoken and written language in China has steadily developed, and citizens’ language ability has been substantially improved, promoting interpersonal communication, the dissemination of knowledge, and cultural prosperity, providing solid support for the flow of the essential factors of production, the development of the market

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economy, social harmony, and improvement of the people’s lives, and greatly enhancing the happiness of hundreds of millions of people. At present, China’s modernization drive stands at a new historical turning point, and untiring efforts are now being made to implement the Chinese dream of a strong and prosperous state, national revitalization, and the people’s happiness. The achievement of this dream is not only embodied on the material level of flourishing plentitude, but even more so in the provision of a rich and healthy spiritual and cultural life to the citizens. As an important foundation for cultural construction and social development, the further enhancement of language ability has increasingly become a pressing need of the era. We will adapt to the new requirements of socioeconomic development, respect the patterns of development of spoken and written language, and further exercise the fundamental, all-encompassing, social, and nation-wide role of the cause of spoken and written language; we will place more emphasis on the bidirectional interaction between educational development and language ability, improving the modernization of education and citizens’ scientific and cultural qualities, and greatly enhancing spoken and written language education, forming a beneficial structure for mutual support and promotion; we will better exercise the unique advantages of spoken and written language in cultural perpetuation and innovation, launching rich and varied activities for recitation of the classics, the art of calligraphy, traditional opera and folk songs, et cetera, supporting scientific research revolving around language ability, and highlighting the vigor and vitality of our excellent traditional culture; we will plan and coordinate various efforts, upholding government leadership and participation by society, to improve awareness and proficiency in the standard use of spoken and written language across society, and build a harmonious environment for language life. Ladies and gentlemen, our era is a time of exchanges and fusion of diverse civilizations. Particularly following the rapid development of modern science and Internet technology, the trend toward exchanges, collaboration, and mutual studying and learning between different languages and cultures is already irresistible. China has always remained committed to equal treatment, open cooperation, and mutual benefit among nations, expanding human exchanges and cultural interactions. We encourage the people of China to study foreign languages: today, more than 300 million people are studying an array of 65 foreign languages, including 260 million primary and secondary school and university students. We have also responded to the demand for studying the Chinese language in various countries, actively launching international Chinese-language education, and supporting Chinese-foreign cooperative sponsorship of 445 Confucius Institutes and 665 Confucius Classrooms, which are distributed across 122 countries and regions;

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worldwide, the number of Chinese language learners has already exceeded 100 million people. We anticipate that the continuous deepening of human exchanges will lead to promotion of mutual enhancement of language ability, the construction of bridges for communication and understanding, and the sowing of seeds of peace and friendship, creating a more solid foundation for a friendly and cooperative society. Facing the future, the attitudes and methods adopted by humanity to approach the enhancement of language ability will have important and farreaching influence on the future development of the world. Here, I wish to make the following proposals: First, promote exchanges and mutual learning on human linguistic and cultural achievements. Throughout the ages, any one civilization has always needed to derive nutrients from and embrace good aspects of other civilizations. We should respect the characteristics and advantages of each nation’s spoken and written language, place more emphasis on the unique status of language ability in dialogues between civilizations and human exchanges, promote mutual learning and borrowing of others’ strengths with respect to spoken and written language work in different countries, and share humanity’s linguistic and cultural achievements. Second, emphasize and enhance language and cultural education. Education is the only path to enhancing language ability. Each nation should place the development of education and improvement of citizens’ cultural caliber in a more prominent position, guaranteeing that all people will enjoy opportunities to receive language education. Innovate educational concepts: on the foundation of improving and perfecting conventional language education, pay attention to human language ability and robot language ability, develop creative language teaching methods, and build a high-quality language education system. Actively respond to the impact of “online language” and other elements of the Information Age on language life, and explore scientific channels for enhancing language ability. Third, boost fundamental research on spoken and written language. We should regard spoken and written language as an indispensable strategic resource, and advocate understanding and recognition of the importance of language ability on a global scale. Vigorously engage in scientific research in the field of spoken and written language, and profoundly explore the unique role of different languages in the development of diverse human civilizations, so as to build a solid foundation for the development, preservation, use and sustainable development of spoken and written languages. Fourth, strengthen legal protections for spoken and written language. The basic national situation and cultural traditions vary in each country, thus each nation should set out from its own reality to continuously improve the system

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of laws and regulations and the system of standards and norms for spoken and written language, allowing the cause of spoken and written language to have laws which can be followed. At the same time, promote equal emphasis on standards and services, strengthening the people’s sense of the rule of law and awareness of standards for spoken and written language, and allowing social language life to become more harmonious. Fifth, actively promote international cooperation and exchanges on spoken and written language, and strengthen multilingual education and education for international understanding. Encourage and inspire the people of each nation to learn one another’s languages, and improve the capacity for cross-cultural exchanges. Encourage more schools and social organizations to engage in practical cooperation and build more platforms for exchanges, allowing for the institutionalization and normalization of cooperation, and adding inexhaustible impetus to the overall enhancement of language ability on a global scale. For a long period of time, the UNESCO has not only showed great concern for the preservation, use and development of language, but has also striven to promote cultural exchanges and cooperation between each nation: in recent years, it has dedicated even greater efforts to the sustainable development of human society, which is highly appreciated by the Chinese government. We have engaged in highly effective cooperation with the UNESCO in many spheres, including the fields of culture, education and science. In the future, we will continue to support and participate in the relevant work of the UNESCO, strengthening exchanges and cooperation with various countries around the world, and further improving the level of cooperation in the fields of language and culture. Ladies and gentlemen, enhancing language ability will open humanity’s door to wisdom, and create a more beautiful future for the world’s sustainable development. Let us join hands and stand side by side, working together to make greater contributions to lasting peace, mutual prosperity, and a harmonious world! May the International Conference on Language be a complete success! Thank you, everyone!

Irina Bokova

5 Enhancing language ability and education for the 21st century – Address at the opening ceremony of the International Conference on Language Ladies and Gentlemen, I wish to thank the Ministry of Education, the State Language Commission, the National Commission of China for UNESCO and the Jiangsu Provincial Government for this initiative. I thank most especially Her Excellency Ms. Liu Yandong, Vice Premier of the People’s Republic of China, for her personal commitment and leadership on issues that go to the heart of UNESCO‘s mandate – for instance, in the field of culture for development, during the Hangzhou Conference last year, and in the field of education, during the Shanghai Conference on Technical and Vocational Education and Training in 2012. Let me say also how pleased I am UNESCO is so strongly represented today . . . all UNESCO is here, embodied by the three Heads of the UNESCO Governing Bodies. I see this as a powerful sign of the commitment and synergy that guides the Organisation. It is a special pleasure to return to Suzhou, after my visit in 2012. The gardens of Suzhou are inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, embodying millennial traditions, carrying universal value. As the old saying goes: “The gardens of Suzhou are unmatched under heaven.” This “Venice of the East” expresses also the vibrant modernity and diversity of China today. On 27 March, 2014, I had the honour to welcome His Excellency President Xi Jinping to UNESCO, when he spoke about the importance of diversity: “Civilizations have come in different colours and this diversity has made exchanges and mutual learning relevant and valuable. Just as the sunlight has seven colours, our world is a place of dazzling colours.” Once again, on Tuesday, President Xi emphasised harmonious societies can only be built through promoting mutual understanding between countries and cultures, based on what he called a “a community of shared destiny.”

Note: Irina Bokova, Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-005

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This is also the importance of languages. Every language is equal and linked. Each is a unique force for understanding, writing and expressing reality. Languages provide the lens through which the world is understood and the material through which it is voiced. They express the values we share and give shape to ideas, linking the past with the future. They are the foundation for human rights and dignity and the channel for communicating and sharing, for strengthening social cohesion and joint action. It is through language that we make sense of the world and that we can transform it for the better. This is why it is critical children are taught in the language most natural for them. The evidence is compelling – the use of mother tongue in school can be a powerful cure against illiteracy. Language education is key to achieving the Education for All goals. This is inseparable from that of safeguarding endangered languages, and UNESCO is determined to promote language diversity as a building block of cultural diversity. This message stands at the heart of UNESCO‘s cultural Conventions, to safeguard and promote the diversity of cultural expressions – this same spirit guides the International Decade for the Rapprochement of Cultures (2013–2022), led by UNESCO, and it is also the purpose of the future UNESCO Vigdís International Centre for Multilingualism. All this starts on the benches of school. UNESCO is supporting language education, especially multilingual education, through the teaching of mothertongue languages and the learning of foreign languages – because this is indispensable for any strategy to promote poverty eradication, sustainable development and lasting peace. Multilingualism opens fabulous opportunities for mutual understanding and cooperation – a plural linguistic space allows the wealth of diversity to be put in common. In 1999, UNESCO adopted the term ‘multilingual education’ to refer to the use of at least three languages in education – the mother tongue, a regional or national language and an international language. We took this further in 2003, with the publication Education in a Multilingual World, underlining multilingualism as a condition for the development of language ability. In Latin America, UNESCO is advancing an approach of Intercultural Bilingual Education, for indigenous languages to become important pedagogical resources. In the Asia-Pacific, we support polices to integrate mother tongue-based multilingual education into early learning. In China, the UNESCO Beijing Office supported the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in researching eight endangered languages – Manchu, She, Lakkia, Tujia, Western Yugur, Anong, Hezhen and Ersu – to facilitate their use in education. Regarding the Arab world, I am especially proud UNESCO has pioneered World Arabic Language Day, as a moment for the world to acknowledge and celebrate the immense contribution of the Arabic

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language – this language of a great religion and civilization – to the universal culture of all humanity. Multilingualism is a force for inclusion and social cohesion – it is also a foundation for global citizenship. Promoting global citizenship is a key goal of the United Nations SecretaryGeneral’s Global Education First Initiative, which UNESCO is steering forward – China is a Champion Country of this Initiative, and I am very grateful for their leadership. Nelson Mandela once said: “If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.” In a world of rising diversity, language ability is vital for intercultural understanding, for working cross-culturally, for “living together.” I see multilingualism as essential to crafting more inclusive human development, reflecting the needs of every society. There can be no ‘one size fits all’ model. The new development agenda to follow 2015 should be universal in order to be sustainable, engaging all countries equally and reflecting their diversity. This is an issue of human rights. It is an issue for poverty eradication and sustainable development. Ultimately, it is an issue for lasting peace, for respect and tolerance. Each of the world’s 6,000 or so languages contains its own wealth of knowledge. Linguistic diversity is the other side of biological diversity, and this is why UNESCO crafted a “Linguistic Diversity Indicator” as part of the Biodiversity Indicators Partnership, mandated by the Convention on Biological Diversity. Let me give you one example. The tropical rainforest along the border between Nicaragua and Honduras is home to the indigenous Mayangna people – this is the second-largest rainforest in the Americas after the Amazon, and the Mayangna people have played a key role in protecting its biodiversity. UNESCO published the first-ever book written in Mayangna, to document and share their unique knowledge on biodiversity. Just imagine how much we can learn from similar communities across the world! We must develop many more such tools, indicators and statistics, both offline and online. It is not enough today to invest in technology – we must invest in local content, in local languages, so that the digital divide does not deepen the language divide. This is a goal of the Broadband Commission for Digital Development that UNESCO is co-chairing. In 2010, I signed an agreement with ICANN, the organization coordinating the Internet’s domain names system, to make it possible for names to be created in any alphabet. Since then, we have produced training

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materials on indigenous languages on our Open Training Platform – the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger is also accessible online. Ladies and Gentlemen, We must promote new skills and competencies, to nurture a new generation of multilingual diplomats, politicians, and citizens. I see this Conference as an opportunity for all of us to join forces to this end, to craft the right sets of skills for teachers, along with the right policies and pedagogies. The stakes are high, because languages do not only express the world – they shape it. This echoes the wisdom of the Great Teacher, Confucius: If language is not correct, then what is said is not what is meant; if what is said is not what is meant, then what must be done remains undone. Language is the bridge between ideas and action – it is an essential part of what I call a new humanism, rooted in respect for human dignity, fundamental rights and the diversity of cultures. I believe we need today a new vision of human development, and, for this, enhancing language ability and language education is essential. In this spirit, I thank the Government of China once again and I wish you a productive conference. (Bokova 2014)

References Bokova, Irina. 2014. Address by Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO on the occasion of the International Conference: Enhancing Language Ability and Education for the 21st Century, Suzhou, 5 June 2014. UNESDOC Digital Library, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000228060?posInSet=4&queryId=762acf75-f7e3-4e21-91e90a1acb53f5f5.

Xu Jialu (许嘉璐)

6 Modern interpretations of language functions: cross-civilizational dialogue, narrowing divides, and building new humanism – Address at the plenary session of the International Conference on Language Guests and experts, ladies and gentlemen: The theme of this International Conference on Language – “Language Ability, Human Civilization and Social Progress” – clearly reveals the historic task which must now be undertaken in the cause of language. Language is humanity’s greatest creation. It was born of exchanges and ideas, and it is the direct reality of human thoughts and emotions. As humanity entered the Age of Industrialization, the functions of language rapidly leapt across the boundaries between peoples, becoming an important tool for communication between different civilizations. However, over the last two centuries, “me talking at you” or “I talk and you listen” have become the norm, often involving coercion, admonishment and instruction. After experiencing the painful era of colonization, and particularly following increasingly strong appeals for national awakening, economic globalization, and attention for cultural diversity, the function of language for exchanges has played an increasingly prominent role in comprehensive exchanges between peoples and between countries. For the sake of their own comprehensive, balanced and sustainable development, many countries have pinned their hopes on language communication to eliminate barriers between dialects, as well as the beliefs, views and moral principles of different peoples. In a word, more and more people are realizing that, for the sustainable development of humanity, national stability, and world peace, it is necessary to have dialogue on many levels, between many countries and among many peoples. It is in this context that duihua (对话, ‘dialogue’) has gradually become a term used with increasing frequency internationally. “I talk and you listen” has become “You talk, and I talk”: this is a major change in the world, signifying that peace, respect and cooperation have attained “orthodox” status in international exchanges, Note: Xu Jialu, Vice-Chairman of the 9th and 10th Standing Committees of the National People’s Congress of China and Director of the Advisory Committee to the State Language Commission https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-006

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signifying that the divides created by history may gradually be narrowed, and also signifying that the function of language for exchanges has transcended day-to-day life and the relatively fixed huayu (话域, ‘domain of discourse’), and now faces an unlimited space. Ladies and gentlemen, the maturation and dissemination of humanity’s wisdom relies on dialogue. If we look back at the great figures of the Axial Age, including Confucius, Mencius, Socrates, Plato, Jesus Christ, and Siddhartha Gautama, did they not give forth the spark of wisdom and seek the truth through countless instances of dialogue with students and the public? There are many examples in human history in which peace was achieved through dialogue, and there are an equal number or perhaps even more instances of tragedies arising due to rejection of dialogue or inadequate, inept engagement in dialogue. It was due to their realization that dialogue has achieved consensus as the principal means of eliminating misunderstanding and barriers between different cultures that 6,000 religious leaders at the 1993 Parliament of the World’s Religions adopted “Towards a Global Ethic: An Initial Declaration” for the sake of lasting world peace; while the United Nations and UNESCO have endeavored to advocate and organize dialogue between different civilizations since the turn of the century, with remarkable results. In addition, over the last few decades, philosophers on the theory of exchanges, as represented by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Jürgen Habermas, and other figures, have produced studies with a wealth of results on the logic and rules of dialogue as well as language communication and evolution in the public domain: “dialogue” has already become a popular topic of research in global philosophical circles in recent years, and philosophers have intentionally or unintentionally treated language communication as a necessary premise in building common moral principles for humanity or a new humanism. However, in order to achieve the objectives proposed by the United Nations and UNESCO, realize the aspirations for peace and happiness among the people of the world, particularly the people of formerly colonized countries, and seek common moral principles and universal truths for humanity through dialogue, as advocated by philosophers, the proposals and appeals by international organizations must be firmly put into practice, while the research and appeals by the academic elite must be made known throughout the world. Obviously, dialogue must involve the participation of millions upon millions of members of the public. However, under the current circumstances, the people involved in bilateral and even multilateral exchanges are more focused on commodities, historical sites, scenery and food, with little desire to understand other people’s culture, beliefs and moral principles. The reasons why such a situation has emerged are multi-faceted: This is an era in which the material is prioritized,

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while the spiritual is neglected. Material things directly stimulate people’s senses, and are easily understood and accepted. With respect to the applications of language, words for the material things and technologies encountered in day-to-day life have much simpler correspondence to one another between different languages in comparison with the humanities, particularly in terms of beliefs and moral principles, though correspondence in sentence structure is still a troublesome matter. This is a new challenge for the cause of language. Alongside economic globalization, the need to emphasize cultural pluralism has also emerged, and the latter to a very great extent involves the expression of concepts in the spiritual realm. Within this realm, differences in sentence structure and rhetorical style are conversely relegated to second place. The Moroccan philosopher Professor Bensalem Himmich, the 2003 winner of UNESCO‘s Sharjah Prize and the Minister of Culture for Morocco since 2009, stated in an essay published in 2010 that, in order to make dialogue on different beliefs or between cultures clearer and more rigorous, it is necessary to resist disorderly, uncompromising and non-standard modes of terminology, allowing the names of things to conform to their nature and function as far as possible. Himmich gave the example that, “For centuries, Europeans have regarded the Islamic religion, Islam, and Islamism as synonyms, or variations on proper nouns with the same origin.” He therefore pleaded that, “Reexamining the entire vocabulary of intercultural dialogue and engaging conceptual criticism is an important prerequisite for the creation of peaceful culture in which names match the reality. The foundation of such a peaceful culture is true dialogue between collaborators.” The problem which Himmich refers to has in fact existed for hundreds of years in the history of exchanges between the Chinese and Western cultures. For instance, the famous 16th-century missionary Matteo Ricci, the great 17th-century mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, and other figures all used the Christian concepts of shen (神, ‘god’), ai (爱, ‘love’), shan (善, ‘goodness’), li (礼, ‘rites’) and so on to understand Chinese Confucian culture, and even argued that Confucians also believed in a personal god, which served to prove that the Christian religion featured universal values; this misunderstanding is still an obstacle in exchanges between the Chinese and Western cultures even today. Over the last few decades, this issue has already drawn a high degree of attention from European, American and Chinese scholars, but the circumstances which Himmich envisaged have not emerged. People are only able to process such concepts using a makeshift device or, one might say, a provisional approach: on encountering concepts in Chinese culture, they are directly transcribed in Chinese pinyin, such as dao (道, ‘way’), li (理, ‘reason’), ren (仁, ‘benevolence’), xing (性, ‘nature’), qi

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(气, ‘spirit’), xiao (孝, ‘filial piety’), and so on. However, this approach ultimately can only be used for a small number of terms, and has obvious limitations. To engage in wide-ranging and profound dialogues between different civilizations, the difficulties mentioned by Himmich must be resolved. Of course, the language problems involved in dialogue between different civilizations which must be resolved are far from being limited to those alluded to by Himmich. For instance, the following few issues have continuously been adverted to in recent years: In future human exchanges, the phenomenon of multilingual individuals (including dialects of a given people and the languages of other peoples in a given country) will become increasingly common; how will society meet this demand? One important accompanying trend is that, as cultural symbols and records of the history of different peoples or regions, minority languages and dialects as well as the languages of countries with relatively small populations (such as the Maldives) have experienced signs of rapid decline. What countermeasures can we adopt? How can these languages be saved and preserved? Many countries have already adopted a number of measures to protect domestic minority languages and languages used by a small number of people. However, can the objectives of preservation be met? What are the benefits and drawbacks of dividing regions and schools by language to provide nativelanguage education? Is immoderate financial support for minority students “reverse discrimination”? How can the problems of the shortage of qualified teachers and teaching materials and overly high costs be resolved? How can foreignlanguage education and native-language education be prevented from cancelling each other out, to bring out the best in one another? How can bilingual or multilingual dictionaries for dialogue services between different civilizations be compiled? For lexicons involving subjects in the humanities in different languages, can dengzhi (等值, ‘equivalence’) be achieved for explicated terms and explanatory language via the path of Western lexicography? What adjustments and reforms are needed for our language education and research to cultivate linguists adapted to future requirements? How can the ever-evolving IT and Internet technology directly provide dialogue services between different languages? Ladies and gentlemen, the fact that we can draw up such a long list of problems demonstrates that the challenges we face to build language bridges for human exchanges and cooperation are quite severe, and require a long-term struggle. These issues can be summarized as: To narrow international and interpersonal divides, the first challenges will be language policies, language education, and language technology; while the primary tasks will be to persuade the governments

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of each country to adopt adequate policies, and persuade enterprises with economic and technological power to actively participate in the project of building language bridges. Solely with respect to IT and Internet technology, there is enormous and pressing demand for cooperation on language education and exchanges, and of course, there is also enormous space for the development of language technology. At present, a number of countries are investing considerable capital and human resources with respect to the study and application of machine translation and human-machine dialogue, and have achieved a certain degree of progress. However, apart from a small number of companies which are focused on improving people’s language ability, saving critically endangered languages, and creating dictionaries and educational software (including videos), the majority are pursuing development revolving around economic matters and technological benefits. This is the inevitable result of limitations on the sources of capital. In the example of the technical team under my leadership, over the course of three years, spending on the applied technology which we have developed for Chinese-English translation software (primarily for patent texts) has already approached 10 million yuan RMB. As of the present, with the translation accuracy rate and recall rate for authentic texts already reaching 85%, it is predicted that, by year-end 2014, this figure will be even higher. If the scope of translation is expanded and the translation accuracy rate continues to be improved, the amount of capital required will be even higher. The reasons why I am single-mindedly dedicated to developing applied technology for translation software are, first, because I know that, in order to achieve human exchanges, it is necessary to first resolve the problem of dialogue translation between different languages; and second, because the task of raising capital is comparatively easy at present. For a very long time, I have dreamed of being able to develop software for use in human exchanges; that is, technology for human-machine interaction in the true sense. I know the degree of difficulty here, and it is precisely due to this high degree of difficulty that it would be impossible to set to without the backing of more capital. The first step has already been taken on this long road for humanity, but we have lingered here for too long. In my own experience, my feeling is that: This is a cause that must draw the world’s attention, and furthermore is a cause which requires boundless love. I therefore declare the hope that the IT industry and network providers will be able to treat human exchanges and dialogue as a long-term cause, reducing their pursuit of the maximization of immediate interests; the hope that the governments of each country will place a high degree of emphasis on language education, adjust language policies, and guarantee complete equality between different languages, while countries with

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strong economic power should generously aid rising countries; the hope that relevant governments will support the IT industry in terms of capital and policies, encouraging network providers to step beyond purely commercial views to focus on humanity’s long-term, common interests, and expand the development of technology for language exchanges; and of course, I simultaneously hope that UNESCO will play a greater promotional role in this process. Ladies and gentlemen, as we continue to emphasize the importance of dialogue between different civilizations, we should also soberly realize that dialogue is not all-powerful with respect to resolving the problem of harmony in the world and between countries. For those who consider themselves to be of a superior race and the modern constituency of God, who stubbornly regard profit and power as the criteria for action, and persist in pursuing colonialist thinking, regarding the people as subjects of enslavement, dialogue is no more than a game for hoodwinking others. However, we are still filled with confidence for humanity’s future. Just as the UNESCO Constitution states, “Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed.” This line reflects awareness of the way forward following the most tragic and brutal war in human history. At the 3rd Nishan Forum, which was held not long ago, I made the following statement: “Here, the word ‘war’ refers to an extreme form of human crisis which ultimately erupts following layer upon layer of accumulation; as for what ‘the minds of men’ refers to, a passage by the American process philospher Stephen Rowe of Grand Valley State University, Michigan, can be regarded as a fairly good explanation. He said: ‘The worst parts of modernity are the self-interested “disease of morality” steeped in materialism; excessive fascination with “consumerism”; and a tendency toward the immature absolutization of everything, resulting in ideological deadlock. The biggest problem is the high-decibel praise of material life and the denigration of spiritual life, the denigration of our human nature.’”1 Ladies and gentlemen, who will build the “defences of peace,” as proposed by UNESCO? The people! Unity among the people is the most powerful weapon against evil. To unite, we must understand the hearts of others, and expand the field of vision for ourselves and for others, so that all of us are together freed from fascination with the material; to understand the hearts of others, it is necessary to have unobstructed exchanges; to have unobstructed exchanges, it is necessary to improve language ability; and to improve language ability, it is

1 From a conversation in 2014; see Guangming Daily (光明日报), Apr. 16, 2014.

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necessary to take action, without being limited by the internal actions of other countries. This is a logical chain of cause and effect based on reason, and those involved in the cause of language, the governments of each country, and experts are positioned at the end of this chain. Ladies and gentlemen, let us join hands and work together!

Li Weihong (李卫红)

7 Enhancing language ability and promoting civilizational exchanges – Address at the plenary session of the International Conference on Language Esteemed representatives, ladies and gentlemen: I am sincerely happy to be gathered under one roof with each of the representatives of the International Conference on Language, joining together on this grand occasion in the midsummer season in Suzhou, China, a city of ancient civilization with a long history and beautiful landscapes. At the opening ceremony, Vice Premier Liu Yandong (刘延东) gave an important address on behalf of the Chinese government, setting forth China’s concepts for enhancing language ability and strategies for the development of the cause of language. Director-General Irina Bokova represented the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in delivering an impassioned speech. Next, I will focus on providing an introduction for our friends from each of the different nations with respect to our understanding of the relationships between language, language ability, human civilization and social progress, the efforts which the Chinese government is making to promote the development of the cause of language and the enhancement of language ability, as well as our working plans for the next step.

1 Language and language ability are cornerstones in the promotion of human civilization and social progress Humanity has long recognized the importance of language. As early as two thousand five hundred-odd years ago, the “four branches of the School of Confucius” proposed by the great Chinese thinker and educator Confucius (孔子) astonishingly included “speech” as one branch of study. In the 4th century BCE, Plato of ancient Greece similarly addressed the origins of language and the prominent Li Weihong, Vice-Minister of the Ministry of Education of China and Director of the State Language Commission. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-007

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position which language has in understanding in Selected Dialogues. Language is closely bound up with human civilization, and has played an important role in every moment of human development. The emergence of language allowed humanity to finally bid farewell to the animal kingdom; the emergence of writing initiated the progress of human civilization; and the fusion of language and information technology has unfurled the magnificent history of modern civilization. The theme of this conference is “Language Ability, Human Civilization and Social Progress.” Language ability is the ability to master language, the ability to properly express oneself and understand others, and the ability to comprehensively apply listening, speaking, reading, writing, translation and other language skills. As a fundamental ability for the survival and development of humanity, language ability has played a key role in founding and perpetuating human civilization: it is the cornerstone of social development, an important part of language education, as well as the bridge and bond for communication with the world. Enhancing language ability is a necessary requirement for sustainable social development. Sustainable social development not only includes political, economic, social, and cultural development, et cetera, but also includes the comprehensive development of people. To a certain extent, sustainable social development is determined by the degree of comprehensive development of people. Without the enhancement of language ability, without improvement of the comprehensive caliber of people, without the development of human resources, there can be no sustainable development of society. Historical parables from Chinese antiquity, such as “Yanzi is sent as an ambassador to Chu” (晏子使楚), “Chulong persuades the empress of Zhao” (触龙说赵太后), “The war of words between Zhuge Liang and a group of scholars” (诸葛亮舌战群儒), and so on all demonstrate the important role of language ability in personal development and general social progress. Sustainable social development also poses comprehensive requirements with respect to the development of people. The sustainable development of society is only guaranteed where intelligence (including language ability), physical strength, creativity and so on are fully developed. The story of the “Tower of Babel” in ancient Babylon tells us that when humanity is able to communicate unhindered, intelligence and ability grow exponentially, and the pace of civilization is accelerated significantly. Humans communicate ideas, share experiences, and perpetuate culture through language exchanges, promoting social progress and development; while the enhancement of language ability promotes understanding, improves character, and strengthens abilities, establishing a foundation and creating the conditions for sustainable social development.

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Enhancing language ability is an important part of innovation in language education. There are approximately 5000 to 7000 languages around the world. Language education is not only an important channel for studying languages and enhancing language ability, it is also an effective method for breaking down the barriers between tradition and modernity, and promoting traditional culture. The ancient people of China said that, “Studying primarily consists of the interpretation of classical texts,” indicating that language education should impart more traditional culture. At the same time, the enhancement of language ability also plays a positive promotional role in innovation in language education. For instance, the Internet and other modern applications of language for human-machine interaction have greatly promoted improvement in the level of modernization of language education. At present, international exchanges are steadily increasing, posing new and higher requirements for language education. Language education must apply modern communication methods, to improve efficiency and quality; language education must broaden its horizons, focusing on socioeconomic development, and incorporating socioeconomic development; and language education must place more emphasis on the enhancement of language ability and the perpetuation of traditional culture – these are the important missions of language education. Enhancing language ability is the bridge and bond for promoting international exchanges and cooperation. Language is the foundation of exchanges, and the bridge for communications. Only by mastering language is it possible to achieve transnational exchanges and cooperation. In the time of our country’s Emperor Wu of Han (汉武帝), Zhang Qian (张骞) was twice sent as an ambassador to the Western Regions, where he studied the language of the Huns, and established the world-famous “Silk Road.” Language also achieves richness through exchanges and the lessons learned from experience. At the dawn of the Common Era, Indian Buddhism spread to China, not only introducing the phonetic transcription method of fanqie (反切, ‘initial-final method’) to the Chinese language, but also enriching the vocabulary and expression in the Chinese language. As international exchanges have deepened, the international influence of the Chinese language has grown: words like gongfu (功夫, ‘kung fu’), wushu (武术, ‘martial arts’), Putonghua (普通话, ‘Mandarin Chinese’) and so on were formed through direct transliteration of Chinese pinyin. “One flower alone does not make spring; when a hundred flowers bloom, spring fills the garden.” The world has such rich abundance because each civilization is reflected in the others; and the fact that multiple civilizations can engage in exchanges and interactions is precisely due to the bridge and bond of language. Only by enhancing language ability and strengthening exchanges and cooperation can the fresh blossoms of diverse human civilizations vie with one another

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in a riot of blooming, and only then can the infinite charm of the culture and history of each nation be put on full display. Enhancing language ability is the key to understanding the world and comprehending the culture of different nations. President Xi Jinping (习近平) said, “Mastering a language means grasping the key to a country’s culture.” The early modern Chinese thinker and translator Yan Fu (严复) translated a multitude of famous Western works, including Evolution and Ethics, The Wealth of Nations, and so on, becoming a great master of the expansion of popular knowledge for a generation in early modern China. In the 13th century CE, the famed Italian traveler Marco Polo journeyed to China, and The Travels of Marco Polo was later written on the basis of his oral account, providing a detailed introduction to the humanities, geography, customs and culture in China. This book opened a window for Europe to understand China, and had an important influence on later exchanges between China and Europe. At present, with the steady deepening of economic globalization, the unique value and epochal significance of language, as humanity’s first tool for communication, have become even more prominent. Studying new languages and developing multilingualism signify the possession of keys and the opening of windows, which can broaden our horizons and promote exchanges between different nations.

2 Progress achieved by China with respect to developing the cause of language and enhancing language ability China is a unified multiethnic country, featuring nearly one hundred languages and approximately 30 writing systems. Among these, Putonghua and standard Chinese characters are legally established as the standard spoken and written Chinese language. The Chinese government is committed to implementing policies for ethnic equality: apart from the Han ethnic group, 53 minority ethnic groups have their own languages, and 22 minority ethnic groups officially use 28 writing scripts. Since the founding of New China, in order to eliminate illiteracy, universalize education, improve cultural development, and promote social development, China specially established the Script and Language Reform Committee, taking the simplification of Chinese characters, popularization of Putonghua, and the formulation and implementation of the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet (汉语拼音方案) as the three important tasks of contemporary language reform.

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In 2000, the China National People’s Congress passed a dedicated law on script and language, the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国 家通用语言文字法). In late 2012, the Chinese government formulated and comprehensively implemented the Outline of National Mid – to Long-Term Plans for Language Reform and Development (2012–2020) (国家中长期语言文字事业改革 和发展规划纲要[2012–2020 年]). After more than 60 years of efforts, language work in China has achieved considerable progress. The language communication barriers among citizens have essentially been eliminated, language concepts have experienced profound changes, and language ability has achieved significant improvement. At present, more than 70% of the population nationwide has practical ability in Putonghua, approximately 70% of the population has mastered Chinese pinyin, and more than 95% of the literate population uses standard Chinese characters, essentially realizing the Chinese dream of several thousand years of “uniformity of script, and uniform pronunciation of language.” The achievements in the standardization and regularization of Putonghua, standard Chinese characters, Chinese pinyin, and other spoken and written languages have been widely applied to economic construction, cultural development and social life, so as to improve the efficiency of education and attainment of literacy, wipe out illiteracy, and eliminate the barriers to universal education, to establish a foundation for radio and television, news and publishing, modern communications, and Chinese-language information processing, et cetera, to provide the conditions to ensure that the state’s government decrees are unimpeded and guarantee the development of the market economy, and to build a bridge for communication to promote exchanges between various ethnic groups, and enhance the cohesiveness of the Chinese people. First, the system of laws and regulations for spoken and written language have been preliminarily established, and the construction of standards and norms is continuously moving forward. The Chinese government has placed great emphasis on the construction of the legal system for spoken and written language, and has endeavored to promote the establishment of legal institutions in the field of spoken and written language. The Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字法) has been promulgated and implemented alongside 35 local laws, regulations and government decrees, and several hundred laws and regulations with provisions addressing spoken and written language. The state has issued an outline for language planning, and each province nationwide has formulated an implementation plan. 31 provinces and the majority of localities (cities) and counties (municipalities) nationwide have established agencies and dedicated working personnel for language work. The Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) and more

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than 150 other standards and regulations have been developed, along with several corpus systems. Second, the standard spoken and written Chinese language has been vigorously promoted, and the spoken and written languages of each ethnic group have been scientifically protected. Vigorously promoting the standard spoken and written Chinese language and scientifically preserving the spoken and written languages of each ethnic group are the most important missions of our country’s language work. The Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字法) established the legal status of Putonghua and standard Chinese characters. The long-running National Publicity Week for Promotion of Putonghua, urban language work assessment, and so on have promoted the comprehensive enhancement of proficiency in the use of spoken and written language in society, in cities, and in schools. China has formulated 16 writing schemes in the Latin alphabet for 12 ethnic groups, and has established the China Language Resources Audio Database, along with standards and regulations for general, traditional spoken and written languages in the Mongolian ethnic group, Tibetan ethnic group, Uyghur ethnic group, Kazakh ethnic group, Korean ethnic group, Yi ethnic group, and other minority ethnic groups. Third, significant results have been achieved in the cultivation of traditional Chinese culture, and international exchanges and cooperation on spoken and written language have continuously deepened. The Chinese civilization experienced evolution over more than 5000 years of history, accumulating the spiritual pursuits of the Chinese people on the most profound level, and representing a unique spiritual symbol of the Chinese people: promoting excellent traditional culture is an important element of our country’s language work in the new era. Over the last few years, calligraphy education at primary and secondary schools, the construction of resource libraries for the Chinese classics, activities for oral reading of the Chinese classics, visits to school campuses by calligraphy masters, and other efforts which we have pursued have had a wide-ranging impact. The mainstream media in China has supported the language and culture work, successively presenting the Chinese Character Dictation Contest (中国汉字听写大会), Chinese Riddle Contest (中国谜语大会), Chinese Idiom Contest (中国成语大会) and other television programs in the category of language and culture, building a good atmosphere for enhancing citizens’ language ability. There have also been dynamic international exchanges on language and culture: over the last few years, a series of activities for the “China-Germany Year of Language”, “China-France Year of Language”, and “China-Russia Year of Language” have promoted profound exchanges between different languages and cultures, enhancing mutual trust and understanding between the people of China and other nations. The 445 Confucius

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Institutes and 664 Confucius Classrooms distributed across 121 countries (regions) around the world have already become language bridges for strengthening friendship and cooperation between the Chinese people and the people of different countries around the world. Fourth, national language education has been universally launched, achieving considerable enhancement of language ability. The Chinese government has placed great emphasis on language education, regarding the enhancement of citizens’ language ability as an important part of language work in the new era. Language and literature courses are among the subjects with the most class hours in primary and secondary school, and foreign language education has essentially achieved popularization at primary and secondary schools. The Putonghua Proficiency Test, Chinese Character Usage Proficiency Test, and Chinese Language Ability Test have been developed and implemented. As of the present, the number of people who have participated in the Putonghua Proficiency Test have cumulatively reached more than 40 million person-times, and an employment system has been implemented requiring that announcers, television anchors, teachers, and so on hold a Certificate of Putonghua Proficiency. In addition, training of bilingual teachers for minority ethnic groups, training of core teachers for oral reading of the classics, and training of calligraphy teachers have also been dynamically launched at multiple levels, along with Putonghua training for laborers entering the cities, pursuing efforts in multiple areas to enhance the ability of all citizens in the use of spoken and written language. Ladies and gentlemen, as a country of many ethnic groups, many languages, many scripts and many dialects, in our practices of promoting the development of the cause of language for more than 60 years, we have gradually formed concepts and working systems for language work with Chinese characteristics. First, we are committed to the popularization and dissemination of the standard spoken and written Chinese language as an important, long-term task. “The soul of a people is transformed by language; the spirit of a nation is tempered by language.” We believe that the popularization and dissemination of the standard spoken and written Chinese language will not only be beneficial to communications and exchanges between citizens and the promotion of socioeconomic development, it will also have an impact on the cultural identity and national unity of the Chinese people: this is the most important task of language work over the long term. Second, the working objective of “building harmonious language life” has been clarified. The Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi (朱熹) once said, “Harmonious yet different, one upholds both sides while taking the middle way.” This profoundly embodies the intellectual characteristics of the Chinese people of rational analysis, balance and harmonizing: extremism has never been a tradition in Chinese philosophy. Appropriately handling the relationship between the standard spoken and written

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Chinese language and minority languages, between the national standard language and foreign languages, between Putonghua and dialects, and between simplified Chinese characters and traditional Chinese characters requires that we attain the state of being “harmonious yet different,” in the dialectic of unity: we must respect the patterns of the development of spoken and written language, and approach the study and use of different languages in accordance with the law. Third, the new concept that spoken and written languages are a fundamental national resource has been established. Language is a cultural resource. According to statistics, 80% of culture is passed down orally and in writing. The first group of 518 items of intangible cultural heritage announced by China, including folklore, work songs, folk ballads, traditional opera, and so on, were all related in some way to spoken and written language. Language is an economic resource. In our country, the annual value of the English language learning market alone exceeds 10 billion yuan RMB, while the annual value of the translation market is approximately 12 billion yuan RMB. The English language industry of the United Kingdom derives 10 billion Euros in profits each year, while turnover in language industries in the European Union is growing by at least 10% every year, and is expected to reach 16.5 to 20 billion Euros in 2015. Language is a vehicle for and an important component of culture, it is a country’s non-renewable, precious, intangible cultural wealth, and it is an important, fundamental resource, which must be carefully preserved, constructed, developed and utilized. Fourth, a working approach of serving society and integrating with development has been formed. The traditional Chinese classic Great Learning (大学) emphasizes that, if we seek to “govern without,” we must first “cultivate within”: only by serving society can we realize the value of human life. China also has the saying that, “One who wishes to become established helps others to become established; one who wishes to become prominent helps others to become prominent,” which is quite right: an individual who wishes to achieve success must be integrated with society, and must help others so as to realize their own ideals. The cause of language has the characteristics of being fundamental, global, social and national: in the era of economic integration and social informatization, language work must broaden its horizons and become integrated with society, fusing with development and providing services promoting the comprehensive development of the economy, society and people, thus promoting its own development, and realizing its own value.

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3 Comprehensively developing the cause of language, striving to enhance language ability, and making fitting contributions to the promotion of human civilization Human society has already entered the second decade of the 21st century. As a great nation of languages, now and for a period of time in the future, China will proactively respond to the new requirements and new challenges which the age of economic globalization poses for the cause of language, regarding the strengthening of language education as an important channel for promoting sustainable development in the field of language; regarding engagement in language and cultural exchanges through multiple channels and in multiple forms as an important method for achieving cross-cultural understanding; and regarding the improvement of governing capabilities and perfection of management systems as an important means of enhancing language ability, striving to enhance language ability, and comprehensively promoting the scientific development and harmonious development of the cause of language in the new era. – We will comprehensively and profoundly implement the outline for national language planning. The outline for national language planning has established the overall objectives, principal tasks, key working points, and supporting measures for the cause of language in our country over the mid to long term. We will take the strengthening of national language power, enhancement of citizens’ language ability, and construction of a harmonious language life as the overall objectives, and “popularization and dissemination,” “perpetuation of culture,” “fundamental construction,” “supervision and monitoring services,” et cetera as the key working points, updating concepts, innovating mechanisms, and adopting measures to adapt to the new requirements of national socioeconomic development, and comprehensively promote the scientific development of the cause of language. – We will continue to make efforts to perfect the management system of “leadership by the government, coordination by the Language Commission, support by departments, and participation by society.” We shall further clarify the leadership responsibilities of each level of government with respect to language work, actively strive for support from relevant departments and social organization, and gradually form and perfect the working mechanisms of “cooperation through division of labor, a joint approach for co-management, and orderly harmonization,” promoting the orderly development of language work in terms of

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institutions and mechanisms, and improving the standards for management and services in language work. – We will continue to build a rigorously scientific language education system. We shall continue to make great efforts to promote and standardize the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and enhance citizens’ language ability; reform education and teaching methods, and improve the quality of language learning; coordinate foreign language planning and foreign language education, and cultivate citizens’ multilingual abilities; strengthen bilingual education in minority regions, and scientifically preserve the spoken and written languages of each ethnic group; build a comprehensive language testing system, and provide scientific assessment methods; serve education for Chinese as a second language, and strive to satisfy the desire and need of lovers of the Chinese language around the world for studying the Chinese language. – We will continue to expand foreign exchanges on language. The degree of openness to the outside world shall be further expanded in language work. Through teaching at the Confucius Institutes, education of overseas students in China at institutions of higher education, as well as private diplomacy, youth exchange activities, and various other formats and channels, we will actively disseminate Chinese culture, including its spoken and written language, and promote sharing of the achievements of human civilization. Ladies and gentlemen, the cause of language is a glorious and sacred cause affecting personal development, social progress, the rise and fall of nations, and the perpetuation of culture. All nations have gathered together to take part in this grand occasion: this conference provides a valuable vehicle for learning and exchanges and a platform for promoting friendship in the long-term development of the global cause of language and the enhancement of language ability, and I would like to take this opportunity to offer three proposals: The first is emphasizing language ability to promote social development. President Xi Jinping noted during an informal discussion with German Sinologists and others while visiting Europe this year that, “The charm of a country’s culture and the cohesiveness of a people are primarily expressed and conveyed through language.” Language ability is the foundation of social development, and enhancing language ability affects the people’s welfare and promotes social progress. We must further strengthen research on language ability and its patterns of improvement, perfect the system of laws, regulations and standards for spoken and written language, strengthen practical management of spoken and written language,

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rationally develop and utilize language resources, actively support scientific research and technological innovation revolving around language ability, and build various platforms for enhancement of language ability, so as to further exercise the important role of language ability in promoting scientific and technological advancement, cultural flourishing, and sustainable social development. The second is strengthening language education to enhance language ability. Language education is the principal channel and an effective method for enhancing citizens’ language ability. Many countries around the world all give great attention to language education. The United States offers courses in 276 foreign languages; Saint Petersburg University in Russia can offer courses in 124 foreign languages; and France’s National Institute for Languages is able to provide 93 foreign languages. At present, China offers foreign language education for approximately 60 languages, and it is currently gradually increasing the number of languages. We must further strengthen scientific planning of language education, formulate standards for the enhancement of language ability, engage in assessment of language education and testing for language ability, promote the updating and reform of educational concepts, continue to innovate the content and teaching methods for language education, perfect the educational system, innovate teaching models, improve the quality of teaching, and build a multilingual educational environment, providing recipients of education with pluralized learning opportunities, and continuously enhancing humanity’s language ability. The third is to strengthen exchanges and cooperation to promote crosscultural understanding. Chinese civilization has always emphasized communication and intermingling, advocating for “prizing harmony” and “peace among nations,” and venerating “incorporating things of diverse nature” and “the virtue of tolerance.” Much of the prejudice in the world is due not to disagreement, but primarily arises from unfamiliarity, estrangement, and lack of understanding. Language is the bridge and bond for connecting people to people, people to society, and people to the world. “It is the nature of things to be different.” We must further exercise the role of language as a bridge and bond, break down the barriers to language and cultural exchanges between nations, and strengthen international cooperation on language education, for exchanges, mutual learning and mutual appreciation, stimulating interest in and understanding of one another’s languages and civilizations, and promoting affection and friendship between the people of each nation around the world. Ladies and gentlemen, the “Chinese dream” is the great dream of all the Chinese people: in every field, we are striving to achieve the Chinese dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese people. The dream of language not only includes the enhancement of citizens’ language ability, strengthening of the

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country’s language power, and construction of a harmonious life in society, but also includes the perpetuation and dissemination of the enduring and perpetually new Chinese culture, which has spanned thousands of years. The dream of language is an important component of the Chinese dream, and it is also the ideal which Chinese language workers untiringly strive toward. This conference will formulate the Suzhou Conclusions (苏州共识). We will carry on the spirit of the conference, implement the contents of the conclusions, and undertake our rightful duties and responsibilities, jointly striving together with our peers in each nation to promote the development of the cause of human language, and build a harmonious language life on a global scale. Finally, I hope that this conference will be crowned with complete success! I hope each guest finds that their time in China goes happily and smoothly! Thank you, everyone.

Hao Ping (郝平)

8 Making greater contributions to the enhancement of humanity’s language ability and the progress of human civilization – Address at the closing ceremony of the International Conference on Language Experts and scholars, ladies, gentlemen and friends: Through the concerted efforts of the attending representatives, the International Conference on Language has successfully completed each item on the agenda, and will soon draw to a close. Over the last two days, the representatives have engaged in in-depth exchanges revolving around the theme of “Language Ability, Human Civilization and Social Progress,” reaching vital consensuses regarding the cause of language and the development of language education, and formulating an important conference outcome document, the Suzhou Conclusions (苏州共识); the conference has achieved complete success in accomplishing the objectives which were set forth. Madam Vice Premier Liu Yandong (刘延东) of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China attended the Opening Ceremony of the conference and gave an important speech. She offered the five important proposals of “Promoting exchanges and mutual learning on human linguistic and cultural achievements; emphasizing and enhancing language and cultural education; boosting fundamental research on spoken and written language; strengthening legal protections for spoken and written language; actively promoting international cooperation and exchanges on spoken and written language, and strengthening multilingual education and education for international understanding,” providing guiding principles of important significance for the discussions at this conference. Director-General Irina Bokova of the Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and Mohamed Amr, Chairperson of the Executive Board, also delivered addresses at the Opening Ceremony. Ministers for Education, language experts and scholars from various nations aired their views revolving around the

Note: Hao Ping, President of the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, and Vice-Minister of the Ministry of Education of China. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-008

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enhancement of language ability and standards in language education. The following five points discussed at the conference left the deepest impression on me: First, the conceptual issue of language ability under the new circumstances was proposed at the conference. Language ability does not merely consist of the conventional ability to understand written text, or the ability to listen, speak, read, write and translate, but also includes the ability to master various modern language technologies to engage in language activities; it not only includes ability in one’s native language, but also encompasses ability in a foreign language and multilingualism; it not only includes the language ability of ordinary people, but also the language ability of individuals with language impairments; it not only includes humanity’s language ability, but also encompasses the language ability of machines. In addition, it also incorporates professional language ability, social language ability, artistic language ability, and so on. Second, language plays a decisive role in social progress and the development of human understanding. Building up language ability has important significance in improving cultural soft power, perpetuating civilizations, and promoting sustainable development. The level of language ability determines the linguistic and cultural atmosphere in a country. The cultivation of language ability is not only beneficial to the development of children’s cognitive abilities, but also aids in delaying the decline of adult cognition, and has an important influence on the comprehensive development of individuals. Third, it is necessary to strengthen fundamental research on language ability. Language ability is complex and developmental in nature, requiring collaborative efforts between brain science, cognitive science, life science, information technology and science, and various other disciplines, relevant industries, and all sectors of society, and it represents a frontier in international scientific development as well as an emerging field in industrial development. Research on language ability could effectively resolve the current problem of low efficiency in language education. Research on language ability in machines should be strengthened, promoting scientific and technological innovation and industrial development with respect to human-machine dialogue, artificial intelligence, the Internet, et cetera, and striving to improve citizens’ ability to utilize modern science and technology to engage in languages exchanges; at the same time, it is also necessary to give special attention to groups which are marginalized from information technology. Fourth, it is necessary to emphasize the formulation of national language plans and language policies suited to the requirements of the new circumstances. We should incorporate these into economic, social, cultural and educational development planning as a national policy; promote the construction of a system of laws, regulations and standards for spoken and written language; scientifically and rationally protect and develop language resources; strengthen multilingual

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education so as to promote social inclusiveness through the enhancement of language ability; actively support scientific and technological innovation revolving around language ability; and promote the development of the language industry. Fifth, it is necessary to break down the barriers to international exchanges on language and culture. We should place the enhancement of language ability at a central position in cross-cultural exchanges, allowing it to become an important element of human exchanges between nations. While protecting and disseminating the language and culture of a given country and a given people, we should actively encourage and guide the citizens of each nation to study the language, history and culture of foreign countries. We should support exchanges of overseas students, promoting cross-cultural interaction, and adopt various measures to clear the channels for the dissemination of language, so as to promote language and cultural exchanges and sharing of the achievements of human civilization. Finally, on behalf of the General Conference of the UNESCO and the hosts of this conference, I would like to express heartfelt gratitude to each of the distinguished guests and all of the staff members and volunteers who devoted such hardworking efforts to the success of this conference! Let us work together to make greater contributions to the enhancement of humanity’s language ability and the progress of human civilization! Thank you, everyone!

9 Conclusions of the International Conference on Language (Suzhou Conclusions) (June 6, 2014, Suzhou, China) The International Conference on Languages was held on 5–6 June 2014 in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, People’s Republic of China. The participants acknowledge the generous contribution of the People’s Republic of China in hosting this conference, in partnership with UNESCO. Focusing on the enhancement of language ability for human civilization and social progress, participants deliberated on language ability and sustainable social development, innovation in language education and international exchanges, and reached the following conclusions.

1 Language ability and sustainable social development Language is the carrier of human civilization and the key to mutual understanding. It is also a bond cementing exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations. As a major historical force, language is critical to the fulfillment of individual potential, as well as the attainment of internationally agreed development goals beyond 2015. Language ability is essential to cultural vitality, cognitive development, social progress and economic prosperity. Measures to improve ability in a variety of languages for all citizens will also help to meet the needs of an emerging global society. Language ability should include the mother tongue, national and regional languages, and languages of world-wide communication, among others.

2 Innovation in language education Innovations in language education, grounded in research, are needed to enhance language ability. Areas for exploration include the brain mechanism of language, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), effective pedagogies, and the use of mother tongue-based multilingual education.

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As instruction in the learner’s mother tongue is fundamental to improving educational outcomes and fostering identity, mother tongue-based education needs to continue at least through primary education. Families and communities play a crucial role in fostering mother tongue learning. The sign language and braille should be respected and used in education. The efforts of ethnic and indigenous populations to transmit their languages across generations are crucial for a more just and productive world. Teacher education is a vital investment to enhance of language ability.

3 International exchanges and cooperation Promoting exchange and learning among peoples, institutions and nations is an important means of enhancing language abilities, and the enhancement of language ability will greatly facilitate the exchange and learning among peoples, institutions and nations. Cyberspace should reflect the linguistic diversity of the world, and all language communities should benefit from the potential of ICT. Language policies and practices responding to the needs of national, indigenous, and immigrant communities can enhance effective communication for peaceful co-existence in global society. (International Conference on Language / UNESCO 2014)

References International Conference on Language / UNESCO. 2014. Conclusions of theInternational Conference on Language. Suzhou, China. 6 June 2014. www.un.org/en/events/motherlan guageday/pdfs/suzhou_conclusions_en.pdf.

Part III Special fields

Li Jie (李 节) and Zhou Hongbo (周洪 波)

10 Diverse and colorful National Reading National Reading (全民阅读) was derived from “World Book Day” (世界读书日). The full designation for “World Book Day” is “World Book and Copyright Day” (世界图书与版权日), also translated into Chinese as shijie tushu ri (世界图书日, ‘World Book Day’), and the purpose of its establishment was to encourage more people to read and write. As early as 1972, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) began advocating “Towards a Reading Society” (走向 阅读社会), calling upon all members of society to read, and making reading an indispensable part of people’s everyday lives. In 1995, UNESCO officially designated April 23 of each year as “World Book Day,” and since then, more than 100 countries around the world have held a variety of celebrations and book promotional activities on April 23 of each year, with the result that advocacy of national reading and the establishment of a reading society have already become global trends.

1 Government advocacy The principal developed nations of the world all regard national reading as a key factor in comprehensive national strength, promoting reading for citizens at the level of a national strategy, primarily encompassing government legislation to support reading, the establishment of special agencies to promote reading, personal advocacy of reading by heads of state, and other areas. Our government has actively participated in such activities, and national reading is currently drawing more and more attention. In January 1997, nine ministries and commissions, including the Publicity Department of the Central Committee, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Culture, State Science and Technology Commission, the State Administration of Radio, Film and Television, the General Administration of Press and Publication, the AllChina Federation of Trade Unions, the Central Committee of the Communist Youth

Note: The data addressed in this paper primarily stems from the data and annual reports published on the official websites of various charity organizations, for which we express our gratitude here. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-010

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League, and the All-China Women’s Federation jointly issued the Notice Regarding the Nationwide Organization and Implementation of the “Knowledge Project” (关于在全国组织实施“知识工程”的通知), proposing the implementation of a “Knowledge Project” to “promote national reading and build a reading society.” Beginning in 1999, with the approval of the General Administration of Press and Publication, the Chinese Academy of Press and Publication organized and implemented the “National Survey of Reading Among Citizens” (全国国民阅读调查), conducted once every two years, chiefly examining the reading habits of citizens nationwide, trends of development, and the state of cultural consumption. The results of the surveys are published on China National Reading Net (www.cnread ing.org). In 2000, the “Leading Team for the National Knowledge Project” determined that “National Reading Month” activities would be held nationwide in December of each year. In 2004, the Leading Team for the National Knowledge Project handed over responsibility for sponsorship of “National Reading Month” activities to the Library Society of China, to hold extensive reading activities on a national scale. In 2006, 11 ministries and commissions, including the Publicity Department of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, Central Civilization Office, General Administration of Press and Publication, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Education, Publicity Division of the General Political Department, All-China Federation of Trade Unions, Central Committee of the Communist Youth League, All-China Women’s Federation, State Science and Technology Commission, and the China Writers Association, jointly issued the Proposal on the Launch of National Reading Activities (关于开展全民阅读活动的倡议书), calling for national reading activities for “Love to Read, Read Good Books” (爱读书, 读好书) to be held around the time of “World Book Day” on April 23, 2006. In February 2012, the General Office of the CCP Central Committee and the Office of the State Council issued the Outline of National Planning for Cultural Reform and Development in the ‘12th Five-Year’ Period (国家“十二五”时期文化改 革发展规划纲要), which clearly proposed “profound engagement in national reading.” In July, the State Council issued the National ‘12th Five-Year’ Plan for the Basic Public Service System (国家基本公共服务体系“十二五”规划), which notes the need to “broadly engage in national reading activities, and gradually expand the scope of basic free or low-income reading services.” In November 2012, the Party’s 18th National Congress reported the strategic plan for “engaging in national reading activities.” In March 2014, the government work report of the State Council proposed “advocacy of national reading” for the first time, reflecting the high degree of attention accorded to national reading work by the Party Central Committee and the State Council.

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In November 2014, the Measures for the Promotion of National Reading in Hubei Provinces (湖北省全民阅读促进办法) were deliberated upon and passed by the Executive Meeting of the Hubei Provincial People’s Government, while the Decision of Jiangsu Province on the Promotion of National Reading (江苏省关 于促进全民阅读的决定) was deliberated upon and passed at the 13th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the 12th People’s Congress of Jiangsu Province, thus incorporating national reading into the development strategies of the given provinces by means of local legislation, and providing important explorations for legislative work for national reading at the central level. In March 2014, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television issued notice of the decision to continue pursuing extensive engagement in national reading activities in 2014, on the foundation of many years of advocacy and organization in pursuit of the establishment of “Literary China” (书香中国). The following influential, large-scale mass reading and cultural activities will be taking place nationwide.

1.1 Shenzhen Reading Month (深圳读书月) Founded in 2000 by the Shenzhen Municipal Party Committee and Municipal Government, running from November 1–30 each year. For 15 years, Shenzhen Reading Month has taken “Reading-Progress- Harmony” as its general themes, creating the Shenzhen Reading Forum (深圳读书论坛), Top Ten Books of the Year (年度十大好书), the Classical Poetry Recital (经典诗文朗诵会), ParentChild Reading Forum (亲子阅读论坛), Live Essay-Writing Competition for Primary and Secondary Students (中小学生现场作文大赛), Picture Book Play Competition (绘本剧大赛), Sunshine Reading for Young Workers (青工阳光阅 读), Mobile Reading Festival (手机阅读季), Warm Reading Nights (温馨阅读夜), and other trademarked activities, leading Shenzhen to be recognized by UNESCO with the honorary title of “Global Model City for the Promotion of Nationwide Reading.” The 2014 “Shenzhen Reading Month,” which took the theme of “Relaying National Spirit, Creating Civilized Life,” marked the occasion of the first release of the 2014 Shenzhen Reading Index Report (2014 年度深圳阅 读指数报告), he official establishment of the Shenzhen Center for Research and Promotion of National Reading, the Expert Forum on the Regulations for Promotion of National Reading in Shenzhen Special Economic Zone (深圳经济特区 全民阅读促进条例), the International Seminar on “Digital Books and Future Science and Technology” (数字图书与未来科技), and the worldwide release of the 2014 Shenzhen Declaration (2014 深圳宣言).

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1.2 Beijing Reading Festival (北京阅读季) Jointly initiated by the Publicity Department of the Beijing Municipal Party Committee, the Municipal Bureau of Press and Publication, and other member organizations in 2010, running from April to December each year. Over the last five years, the Beijing Reading Festival has introduced reading into communities and into people’s lives, preliminarily forming the operating model of “Government promotion, expert guidance, and social participation.” Beginning in 2014, the Beijing Reading Festival was upgraded as the first national reading activity nationwide to obtain a national-level trademark, designated as “Literary China: Beijing Reading Festival” (书香中国•北京阅读季), with the theme of “Sharing national reading, together sketching out the Chinese dream.” The principal activities include the Beijing Book Market (北京书市), Literary China Walk (书香中国万里行), Beijing Reading Index Survey and Announcement (北京市阅 读指数调查及发布), Lead-Reading Program (领读者计划), Ordinary Reading Lecture Hall (百姓读书大讲堂), Peking University Student Reading Festival (北京 大学生读书节), Beijing Youth Reading Festival (北京少年读书节), Parent-Child Reading (亲子阅读), Women’s Reading (女性读书), Reading by Personnel of “Literary Agencies” (“书香机关”公务员读书), the “Literary Beijing” public voting series (“书香北京”系列评选), and so on.

1.3 South China Book Festival (南国书香节) Sponsored by the Publicity Department of the Guangdong Provincial Party Committee, Guangdong Provincial Bureau of Press, Publication, Radio and Television, Publicity Department of the Guangzhou Municipal Party Committee, and Guangzhou Municipal Bureau of Culture, Radio, Television, Press and Publication, founded in 1993. Beginning in 2007, the “South China Literary Festival” (南国书香节) and “Guangzhou Book Fair” (羊城书展) integrated their resources, displaying the characteristics of pluralism, diversification and internationalization in terms of the items on exhibition and on sale, activity formats, and public participation, with the successive establishment of the Taiwan Hall, Hong Kong Hall, and Malaysia Hall. As of the present, the South China Book Festival has already developed from a simple book exchange activity into a cultural gala integrating displays of published works, the exhibition and sale of publications, cultural activities, cultural exchanges on publishing, and publishing information services into one, and has evolved into a grand holiday for writers, book-sellers, readers, book critics, and book collectors, becoming a fine time for

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reading eliciting eager anticipation and general participation by the broader public in southern China. In addition, “Literary Lingnan” (书香岭南), “Literary Hubei” (书香荆楚), “Literary Fujian” (书香八闽), “Literary Chongqing” (书香重庆), “Literary Bagui” (书香八桂), “Literary Longjiang” (书香龙江), “Jiangsu Reading Festival” (江苏读 书节), “Hunan Reading Month” (三湘读书月), “Tianshan Reading Festival” (天山 读书节), “Three Qins Book Month” (三秦书月), “Suzhou Reading Festival” (苏州 阅读节), “Literary China: Shanghai Week” (书香中国•上海周) and other wellknown reading activity trademarks, creating a saturated atmosphere for promoting national reading and building a literary society.

2 Private participation As early as the late 1980s, a number of private charitable organizations had already begun participating in Chinese education, focusing on donations for the construction of Hope Primary Schools (希望小学), financial aid for impoverished students, assistance for disabled children, and other areas. Since 2008, private charitable organizations have coincidentally selected school reading as a focal point for financial support and planning projects, giving rise to a succession of private reading organizations of different categories and service characteristics.

2.1 New Reading Institute (新阅读研究所) Founded in 2010 by Professor Zhu Yongxin (朱永新). Its aims and mission are: to promote an emphasis on reading in schools, families and society through research and popularization of reading; to popularize new reading concepts and reading methods and promote improvement in people’s reading ability and reading proficiency by advocating the core value system of reading; and to build an atmosphere of national reading, and make reading a way of life for people through reading research projects and charitable activities. Since 2010, the “New Education Experiment” (新教育实验) has advocated “the construction of literary school campuses,” developing a basic reading list for Chinese people, and planning, compiling and publishing the “New Reading Library” (新阅 读文库). In September 2014, the New Reading Institute issued the “Basic Reading List for Chinese Secondary Students” (中国中学生基础阅读书目) in Beijing, and released the guided reading handbook Reading List for Chinese People (中国人阅读书目).

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2.2 Hug Chinese Institute (亲近母语研究院) Established in 2003 by Ms. Xu Dongmei (徐冬梅). This institute took shape on the foundation of the “Hug Chinese” pilot program under the National “10th Five-Year” Plan for Education Science, following the concept of “Hug Chinese, Cherish Childhood,” and adopting the aims of “advocating children’s reading, promoting native language education, and building a spiritual homeland.” The institute integrates research, publication and promotion into one, and is devoted to native language education reforms, promotion of children’s reading, and native language and cultural dissemination, providing consulting services on children’s reading and native language education for all organizations, schools, families and individuals in society. The “Chinese Children’s Reading Forum and Hug Chinese Education Symposium” (中国儿童阅读论坛暨亲近母语 教育研讨会), which it holds each year, has become a platform for research and popularization domestically and in Chinese-speaking regions, with the objective of promoting children’s reading.

2.3 Center for Promotion of Reading of the National Chinese Language Association (全国中语会阅读推广中心) Jointly founded by the National Chinese Language Association and the Commercial Press in 2012. Its reading concepts are: expanding reading from the field of literature to the fields of history, science, philosophy, social sciences, art, natural science, and so on, and advocating that students read more, like to read, read good books, read whole books, and read some books which may be useless at the time. Since the founding of the Center, it has established “reading” as an “action”: for instance, holding forums on reading as an action, creating lesson plans for reading as an action, writing textbooks for reading as an action, establishing a website for reading as an action, and engaging in charitable efforts for reading as an action. In April 2014, it held the activity “Announcement Ceremony for the Promotion of the Top Ten Reading Figures in 2013 by China Education Newspaper” (中国教育报 2013 年度推动读书十大人物揭晓仪式) in Beijing. In July, it held “Reading for China’s Future – 2014 Reading Forum” (为中国未来 而读 – 2014 阅读论坛) in Xining, Qinghai.

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2.4 Publishing and Library Circles’ Annual Meeting for National Reading (出版界图书馆界全民阅读年会) Initiated in 2012 on the foundation of library circles, publishing circles, and Xinhua Bookstore, the Annual Meeting has gradually radiated outward toward education circles, press circles, and cultural circles, striving to build a fine time for reading on a national scale. In November 2014, the Publishing and Library Circles’ Annual Meeting for National Reading was held at the Hunan Library, with the theme of “Cooperation between all sectors to jointly promote reading in the Age of Omnimedia.” At the meeting, the National Library-Recommended Booklist (2013) (全国图书馆推荐书目[2013年度]) and 50 Key Recommended Books of the Annual Meeting for National Reading (全民阅读年会 50 种重点推荐 图书) were announced. According to rough statistics by Wu Song (伍松), the Secretary-General of the Platform for Private Reading Charity, since 2008, there have been approximately 200 or more charitable organizations dedicated to the promotion of children’s reading, of which 60 to 80 organizations are comparatively active (Xu 2014). Some private reading organizations focus on financial support for charity, principally devoting their efforts toward encouraging other charitable organizations to launch reading programs. For instance, the “Xinping Foundation” (心平公益基金会) calls for charitable organizations of various categories to engage in cooperation in the field of children’s reading, donate high-quality books to schools in rural or impoverished areas, and assist such regions to continue promoting and improving children’s reading; this foundation has already become our country’s most influential charitable platform for support and promotion of reading. In another example, the “Stone Soup” (石头汤) Happy Reading Campus Alliance project of the “Chen Yet-Sen Family Foundation” (陈一心家族基金会) is led by local, core schools, which plan and promote the mutual growth of alliance schools: special book reading spaces and reading times are established at each alliance school, and reading-related extension activities are held, beginning with teachers and students reading a book together, allowing teachers to experience the joy of diving into children’s books and returning to innocence. Some private reading organizations not only have a fund-raising side, but also directly engage in the operation of reading programs. For instance, the core programs of the “Shanghai Adream Foundation” (上海真爱梦想公益基金 会) include the “Adream Center,” “Adream Curriculum,” “Adream Guides,” and

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“Adream Bank,” endeavoring to build unified, standardized products and services for educational charity. In another example, the core program of “Shoulder Action” (担当者行动) is “A Book Corner for Every Class,” establishing a book corner with a standardized configuration in every classroom at schools in rural areas and for migrant workers’ children which are relatively lacking in resources for extracurricular books, with no need for a special site or dedicated management, allowing the children to pick up a book and read at any time during class or after school. In addition, some private reading organizations are primarily involved in planning executing reading programs, with an emphasis on a technical approach and executability. For instances, the Charitable Book Collection Mid-Game project of the “Beijing Brooks Education Center” (北京天下溪教育咨询中心) is aimed at uniting foundations, enterprises and institutions, book publishing and distributing organizations, charitable organizations, and volunteers to build a specialized, non-profit service platform for the construction of reading rooms in rural areas in China. In another example, “6hedu.com” (六和公益) is dedicated to encouraging adolescent reading education and promoting physical and mental growth: it is currently implementing the “Hometown” Native Soil Project to collect, compile and develop local culture, reflecting the respect which charitable organizations have for local resources and native language culture.

3 Proposals at the “Two Sessions” In 2003–2006, Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference member Zhu Yongxin (朱永新) presented his “Recommendations on the Establishment of a National Reading Festival (Day) and the Promotion of National Reading” (关于设 立国家阅读节[日], 推进全民阅读的建议) for four years running at the “Two Sessions,” and through the “New Education Experiment,” which he sponsored, Zhu advocated the “construction of literary school campuses” and the promotion of co-reading by teachers and students, exercising great influence domestically. In 2007, Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference member Nie Zhenning (聂震宁) jointly presented a proposal for “Engagement in National Reading Activities and Establishment of a National Reading Festival” (开展全民 阅读活动,设立国家读书节) at the “Two Sessions” as the first proposer, alongside 30 other members of the Conference, including Shao Huaze (邵华泽), Yu Youxian (于友先), Gui Xiaofeng (桂晓风), Zhou Haiying (周海婴), and Su Shishu (苏士澍), drawing enthusiastic attention from society and the media.

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In March 2013, Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference member Wu Shulin (邬书林) served as the first proposer for the Proposal on the Formulation and Implementation of a National Strategy for National Reading, jointly signed by Li Weihong (李卫红), Zhou Wenzhang (周文彰), Wang Tao (王涛), Hao Zhensheng (郝振省), and other members of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, obtaining the support of Conference members in Press and Publication, Literature and Art, Education, Social Sciences, Economics and several other divisions: 115 socially influential Conference members, including Ge Jianxiong (葛剑雄), Wang Mingming (王明明), Bai Yansong (白岩松), Wang Anyi (王安忆), Chen Jiangong (陈建功), He Jianming (何建明) and so on all signed the proposal, making it one of the proposals submitted in that session of the Conference which obtained the most member signatures. The Conference members believe that, although the National Reading Project advocated and implemented by China since 2006 has already achieved extraordinary results, there are still four major problems which urgently require resolution. The first is the lack of national legal and regulatory support: national reading work is still characterized as a spontaneous activity by government departments, and has not been incorporated into the government’s assessment index system; it is largely spontaneously furthered by regional organizations, institutions and leaders, and lacks the impetus for long-term, sustained, in-depth engagement. Second, no permanent institution for the organization and leadership of national reading has been established at the national level: organizational guarantees and special funding support are lacking, and it is not possible to establish long-acting mechanisms. Third, citizens’ reading ability is rather low overall, and there is still a significant gap in comparison with the international community, particularly the developed nations. Fourth, the basic reading needs of special disadvantaged groups cannot be effectively met. Setting out from the practical situation in China, the proposal calls for the formulation and implementation of a national strategy for national reading, and offers five specific recommendations. The first involves the creation of a State Advisory Committee for National Reading, to strengthen leadership, centrally coordinate the resources of departments in various regions, and form pooled efforts; the establishment of long-acting mechanisms to form long-term national strategies; and the resolution of major difficulties and problems in national reading work. The second is the establishment of a state holiday for national reading, setting September 28, Confucius’ birthday, as National Reading Day. The third is engagement in legislation for national reading, to channel national reading work onto the path of legal institutionalization by means of laws and regulations, through the Law on National Reading (全民阅读法) drafted by the National People’s Congress, and the Regulations on National Reading (全民阅读条例)

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drafted by the State Council. The fourth is the formulation of a national reading plan, to serve as a guidance document in the pursuit of national reading. The fifth is the founding of a National Reading Foundation, and the establishment of key projects for national reading. In March 2013, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television officially initiated legislative work on the Regulations for Promotion of National Reading (全民阅读促进条例): this project was successively included in the legislative work plan of the State Council and the fiveyear legislative plan of the Publicity Department of the Central Committee in the area of culture, and as of early 2015, the 9th draft had already been completed. It is expected that the Regulations for Promotion of National Reading and other local laws and regulations on reading will soon be unveiled.

4 Relevant considerations National reading is an important matter concerning citizens’ character, comprehensive national strength, and the future of the nation. Engagement in national reading activities is an important outlay of effort in China’s construction of a public cultural services system, and is of vital significance in the cultivation and implementation of core socialist values, the improvement of citizens’ intellectual and moral character and scientific and cultural development, the establishment of a strong nation for socialist culture, the enhancement of the state’s cultural soft power, and the achievement of the Chinese dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese people.

4.1 Implications of national reading When people talk about reading, they often immediately think of individual learning and education. Although the goals of reading vary from one person to the next – some seek to change their lot in life, some hope to pass on moral values, some are pursuing personal accomplishment, and some merely regard reading as a pleasure in life and a good lifestyle – generally speaking, they do not fall outside the scope of the two categories of “studying for the sake of practical application” and “studying for the sake of personal accomplishment.” The former emphasizes practical usefulness, and is the motivation for human society to continuously forge ahead; the latter focuses on aestheticism and pleasure, and it is necessary for an individual’s achievement of comprehensive development (Nie 2015a).

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Regrettably, the public understanding of the significance of “national reading” has long been flawed: The slogan “Read books to change your destiny” is often used in appeals for the public to read books, while examples of successful people who read are used to inspire the public to read, but this is by no means in accord with the purpose of national reading. The UNESCO proclamation of World Book Day declares the hope that people living around the world, whether young or old, rich or poor, sick or well, can all enjoy the pleasure of reading, can all respect and be grateful to the great masters of literature, culture and scientific thought who made such enormous contributions to human civilization, and can all protect intellectual property. It is therefore clear that the most essential significance of advocacy of national reading is to allow more people to read books and enjoy the pleasure of reading, thus improving the general character of the entire nation and all of society, and continuously enhancing competitiveness and influence. As Mr. Zhu Yongxin (朱永新) said, “An individual’s history of spiritual development is his history of reading; a nation’s spiritual state is determined by the nation’s proficiency in reading.”

4.2 The challenges of digital reading Modern people read mobile phones, read texts, read Weibo, scroll through WeChat . . . . Several hundred million netizens now duwang (读网, ‘read the Internet’), and are seemingly moving further and further away from books, giving rise to concern among some figures. Some believe that reading should consist of integrated, in-depth perusal, and regard fragmented, browsing-style reading as “superficial,” impacting the development of thinking skills. In fact, reading is innately diversified, and fragmented reading cannot be generalized. Nie Zhenning (聂震宁) gave the example that the Analects of Confucius (论语) are themselves fragmentary, consisting of scattered discussions and reflections, while many works of literature are knitted together from a collection of essays, thus how can we say that this is reading, and that is not reading? Furthermore, the information published on certain public WeChat accounts nowadays is in no way inferior to the extracts section of a newspaper: the energy and influence of representative examples such as The Paper (澎湃新闻) and Luogic Talkshow (罗辑思维), et cetera must not be underestimated. In metropolitan life, which has experienced the dismembering of time to the point of fragmentation, mobile reading offers relatively good utilization of these splinters of time, so why not do it ? (Nie 2015b)

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It is undeniable that the integrated, in-depth, and serious approach advocated in traditional reading has faced unprecedented challenges in the Age of Digitalization; this is still a problem that cannot be overlooked. We must not only gladly accept the positive energy of the Information Revolution ushered in by digital technology, but must also uphold the correct value system of traditional reading, relying on the reading of certain classical works to lay the foundation for enhancement of citizens’ character. It can be predicted that digitalized communications will become the mainstream in future social communications, and that digitalized reading will undoubtedly become the principal form of reading: there is an urgent need for serious research on aspects related to the question of how to better develop digitalized reading as a part of national reading under the conditions of integration with the media.

References Nie, Zhenning (聂震宁). 2015a. The state of reading among citizens and the significance of national reading (国民阅读的状况与全民阅读的意义). Modern Publishing (现代出版), No. 1. Nie, Zhenning (聂震宁). 2015b. A few considerations with regard to national reading (关于全民 阅读的几点思考). Xinhua Digest (新华文摘), No. 8. Xu, Dongmei (徐冬梅). 2014. Report on the development of private Mainland charitable organizations for reading since 2008 (2008 年以来大陆民间阅读公益组织发展报告). Annual Report on China’s Education (2014) (中国教育发展报告[2014]). Social Sciences Academic Press (社会科学文献出版社), pp. 151–159.

Li Qian (李倩), Zheng Guomin (郑国民), Zhang Yuan (张媛), and Xu Shasha (徐沙沙)

11 Overview of recent writing tasks on the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination The Senior Secondary Entrance Examination (中考) is often regarded as one of the more exacting forms of educational evaluation in China. The exam question system is independently formulated each province, city and autonomous region nationwide on the basis of the Language and Literature Curriculum Standards for Compulsory Education (义务教育语文课程标准) (2011 version) (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China 2012), referred to below as the Curriculum Standards, as well as the Examination Specifications (考试说明). In comparison with the College Entrance Examination, the language and literature test questions on the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination are characterized by richer diversity in the examination content, flexible and variable examination formats, and distinctive individualization in terms of the examination materials. Language and literature test papers for the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination are generally composed of language accumulation and application, transcribing poetry and prose passages from memory, reading ancient poetry and prose passages, reading modern passages, reading famous works, oral communication, comprehensive learning, essay-writing, and other segments, among which the reading and writing segments serve as the core fields of evaluation for test papers. The point value for writing tasks accounts for 40%–42% of test papers as a whole. In order to comprehensively understand the characteristics of the development of writing tasks on the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination in China in recent years, we collected and compiled writing tasks from Senior Secondary Entrance Examinations in 2010–2014 in 22 provinces and prefectural cities, including Beijing; Shanxi; Ningbo, Zhejiang; Linyi, Shandong; et cetera,1 and carried out preliminary statistical tabulation and analysis with respect to the examination content, materials, format, and other areas, in an effort to reveal

1 The 22 provinces and prefectural cities included: Beijing; Anhui; Jilin; Jiangxi; Shanxi; Shaanxi; Ningbo, Zhejiang; Fuzhou, Fujian; Shenzhen, Guangdong; Nanning, Guangxi; Harbin, Heilongjiang; Huanggang, Hubei; Nanjing, Jiangsu; Wuxi, Jiangsu; Dalian, Liaoning; Shenyang, Liaoning; Linyi, Shandong; Weifang, Shandong; Tianjin; Chongqing; Shanghai; and Leshan, Sichuan. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-011

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the trends of recent changes to writing tasks on the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination.

1 Examination content Overall, the examination contents for writing tasks adhere closely to the practical circumstances of life, emphasizing the examinees’ observations of and reflections on real life and expression of their true feelings, focusing on development of individuality, encouraging creative expression, and exercising the guiding role of emotions, attitudes and value systems, thus reflecting how writing tasks on the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination evaluate students’ state of development in terms of language and literature learning objectives in the junior secondary school stage.

1.1 Spiritual growth Language and literature represents a comprehensive, practical curriculum for the application of spoken and written language, undertaking the important responsibilities of perpetuating national culture and cultivating national spirit. The Curriculum Standards refer to “the absorption of excellent culture, past and present, in China and overseas; the enhancement of intellectual and cultural accomplishments; and the promotion of personal spiritual growth.” For students, observing life and understanding the world are external needs, and it is simultaneously necessary to foster the internal need of personal spiritual growth. Only through spiritual growth can they continuously reconcile internal contradictions and conflicts and strive to attain harmony of body and mind, and only then can they build a good relationship with the outside world. The essay questions “The Sun Rising in Your Heart” (升起心中的太阳) in Weifang, Shandong, in 2011; “Building Up Yourself” (垒高自己) in Jiangxi in 2012; and “Walking on the Street” (走在路上) in Fuzhou, Fujian, in 2014 all feature the common focal point of ziwo (自我, ‘self’), guiding students to pay attention to their own experiences of growth, form positive and optimistic value concepts, and continuously engage in self-improvement. Reading plays an enormous role in human spiritual growth, and accomplishments in the humanities also determine the mode of life displayed by the individual to a very great extent. Treating accomplishments in reading and the humanities as the content for essay examinations allows for more direct

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evaluation of whether examinees are conscious of the rich significance of their own culture in their everyday studies. The writing tasks from recent years reveal the effort by question writers to pay attention to the close association between reading and writing, and test questions related to accomplishments in reading and the humanities have increased significantly. The test questions from 2012 included “Taking a Book on a Journey” (带一本书去旅行) in Nanjing, Jiangsu, and “You Are a Book of Mine” (你是我的一本书) in Ningbo, Zhejiang; 2013 saw “Reading is Truly Good” (阅读, 真好) in Chongqing and “My _____ Book _____” (我_____书_____) in Taiyuan, Shanxi; while the test question in Nanjing, Jiangsu, in 2014 was “Just Because of _____” (只是因为_____), asking students to select either “That Book” (那本书), “That Person” (那个人) or “That Street” (那条路) to serve as the writing topic.

1.2 Practical expression The objective of education is to foster competent members of society with the accomplishments of a citizen, who have learned how to express and present themselves in accordance with the needs and norms of life. Therefore, the language and literature curriculum not only focuses on guiding students to express their individualized aesthetic experiences, but also emphasizes the cultivation of the capacity for practical expression. Test papers from recent years reveal that wei xiezuo (微写作, ‘micro-writing’) has become a new trend in the creation of questions for the field of writing. For this type of test question, the question stem is brief, and the point value averages 8–10 points; in terms of the examination content, it chiefly focuses on a clear intent and object of expression, and a fixed form of expression, examining whether students are able to present their own views and understanding using a limited number of words. This approach arguably also represents exploration and supplementation outside of traditional long essay-writing. In 2010–2013, only 1–2 provinces and cities featured the question format of wei xiezuo, but these increased to 6 provinces and cities in 2014, respectively including Beijing; Shanxi Province; Hohhot city, Inner Mongolia; Changsha city, Hunan; Changchun city, Jilin; and Wuxi city, Jiangsu. The materials selected for the wei xiezuo format have a clear orientation and a relatively high degree of openness, granting students greater choice, and students can draw on their life and learning experiences to carry out the writing. The number of characters is restricted to approximately 100 characters, and there are rigorous requirements with respect to textual presentation; these

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strict limitations signify that students must be more concise in terms of language expression. If long essays are directed more toward life, inner being, and thought, wei xiezuo leans more toward functionality, emphasizing the practicality of language expression. Scene-setting in wei xiezuo is intended to create an authentic and free stage for interaction, guiding students to complete the task of genuine language communication.

1.3 Encouraging imagination and creativity Writing is a process of self-expression: due to differences in life experiences and cognitive perspectives, different living beings display a rich diversity of perceptual responses to things. For this reason, the new language and literature curriculum reforms encourage students to “observe life from multiple perspectives, discover the rich colors of life, be able to capture the characteristics of a thing, have one’s own feelings and understanding, and strive for creativity in expression.” In examining writing tasks in the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination over the years, question writers have ceaselessly explored examination formats for stimulating students’ imagination and creativity. One example is “Meeting the Best You Ten Years From Now” (十年后, 与最好的自己相遇) (or “Letter to Yourself Ten Years From Now” [致十年后的自己]) in the 2013 test paper for Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. For “Best City to Live In” (宜居 城市) in the Beijing test paper in 2014, during the writing process, students not only had to take “the best city to live in” as the context for an expository essay, but also had to design a credible story. The dual conceptualization of context and story steeply increased the difficulty of this question.

2 Examination materials The materials used in writing tasks stem from wide-ranging sources, encompassing hot topics in current politics, advertisements and magazines, poetry and prose, fables and tales, test paper materials, and self-compiled materials, et cetera. The content displays distinct timeliness, focusing on learning and life, with an emphasis on guiding students to engage in rational thinking, while simultaneously considering openness, and providing students with ample room for expression.

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2.1 Diversification of sources Over the last five years, examination materials for writing have primarily stemmed from self-compiled materials and philosophical narratives. Among these, self-compiled materials represent the majority, followed by essay materials in the categories of philosophical narratives, fables and tales. Examination materials on hot topics in current politics and interpretation of terms are relatively rare, and materials in the category of cartoons are not seen in sample test papers. For the specific distribution, see Table 1. Table 1: Statistical overview of sources for examination materials in essay questions for the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination in 2010–2014. Year

Interpretation Famous SelfPhilosophical Hot Number poetic compiled narratives topics of terms and passages in percentage materials current of test politics questions

 Number of essay prompts Percentage  Number of essay prompts Percentage  Number of essay prompts Percentage  Number of essay prompts Percentage  Number of essay prompts Percentage

Language & literature teaching materials











–

.%

.%

.%

.%

.%

–







–





.%

.%

.%

%

.%

.%











–

.%

.%

.%

.%

.%

–











–

.%

.%

.%

.%

.%

–







–

–

–

.%

.%

.%

–

–

–

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2.2 Stimulating interest in writing Question writers meticulously design the background text expressing the intent of the assigned question: whether this text adopts an expansive approach or a graceful style, the prompts are configured so as to easily mobilize examinees’ life experiences in a display of writing ability. In the test paper for Wuxi, Jiangsu, in 2010, the examination prompt was: “In life, many occasions and many matters require us to make decisions: In a disaster relief campaign, would you make generous donations; in a misunderstanding with classmates, would you bravely say the words to dispel the estrangement; if someone encountered setbacks in life, would you send a text inspiring the other person to face them bravely; if you were faced with a new opportunity, would you be able to ‘dauntlessly’ make a decision . . . . Each of these unforgettable decisions leave deep impressions on us, becoming memories that we should treasure forever.” The question writers patiently and systematically created an array of moments in life when one has to make a decision for students to ponder over, stimulating the students to think, and making it fairly likely that they would think of moments that were part of their own life experiences. The examination prompt for the test paper in Harbin, Heilongjiang, in 2012 was: “Flowers bloom and fade, spring departs and autumn arrives. Without noticing, we find that we have slowly grown up. Looking back on the months and years that have gone by, there are always a few people who fill our hearts with gratitude: perhaps the family members and teachers whom we depend on and spend time with, or the classmates and friends whom we briefly encounter, or the strangers whom we brush past; their solicitous care, stern yet well-intentioned criticism, a seemingly ordinary word or two . . . these are all converted into rich emotions accumulating in our hearts, which accompany us as we grow up, and which we can never forget.” The recreation of slices of life prompted students to ponder the true meaning of “gratitude,” and explore the forces of life growth. Prompts with elegant diction reduce the difficulty of pondering the issue at hand, making it easy for students to draw on their accumulated experiences and exercise their skills. Lyricism and revelation require a vehicle: in drafting essay prompts, question writers strive to give students a springboard, focusing on guiding students to “see the big through the small, and pin emotions to objects” in their writing. Lyricism and revelation need a clear and archetypal starting point, otherwise they are easily reduced to generalities, or lost in abstract stereotypes.

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3 Examination formats The writing tasks for the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination in each province and city continue to feature the four primary question formats of fully assigned essays, semi-assigned essays, topical essays, and material-based essays, and new examination formats have not emerged. The different examination formats each have their own emphases in terms of their testing function: assigned essays place emphasis on testing the ability to consider issues, while topical essays focus on testing creative ability, and material-based essays place emphasis on testing combined reading and writing abilities. In terms of the statement of the question stem, on the foundation of maintaining the original format, the different examination formats also borrow from and fuse with one another, with the aim of highlighting the orientation, constraints and evocativeness of writing tasks.

3.1 General overview From the statistics for data over the past five years, we can see that the configurations of writing tasks for the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination include two categories, closed essay questions and selectable essay questions. As shown in Table 2, among the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination test papers 22

Table 2: Diagram of changing trends in configuration of writing tasks in 2010–2014.

18 16 14 12 10

Closed essay questions Selectable essay questions

8 6 4 2 0 2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

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selected provinces and prefectural cities, in 2010–2014, the configuration of closed essay questions consistently outnumbered the configuration of selectable essay questions, respectively standing at 15: 7, 16: 6, 17: 5, 15: 8, and 14: 8. From the statistics on test papers for the Senior Secondary Entrance Examination in the different provinces and cities, we can see that question assignment formats for writing tasks have changed somewhat over the last five years while generally remaining stable: the mainstream status of fully assigned essays is still obvious, but the percentage of topical essays and semi-assigned essays has declined; the percentage of material-based essays has remained fairly steady, and xiao zuowen (小作文, ‘mini-essay’) testing has emerged in some provinces and cities.

3.2 Closed-question writing occupies the mainstream In terms of the question assignment format, the mainstream status of fully assigned essays is increasingly obvious. Since their emphatic return in 2008, the percentage of fully assigned essays has generally presented a rising trend: in 2010–2014, the percentages out of the total number of sample questions for the given year were, respectively, 32.26%, 51.72%, 53.33%, 54.55%, and 56.67% (see Table 3). Since 2011, the percentage of fully assigned essays has sharply increased, and is far higher than the other question assignment formats.

Table 3: Overview of question assignment formats for writing tasks in 2010–2014. Year

Question assignment method Fully assigned

Semi-assigned

essays

essays

Total

Topical essays

number of

Material-based

questions

essays

Number of

Pct. Number of

Pct. Number of

Pct. Number of

questions

questions

questions

questions

Pct.



 .%

 .%

 .%

 .%



 

 .%  .%

 .%  .%

 

.% %

 .%  .%

 

 

 .%  .%

 .%  .%

 

.% .%

 .%  %

 

Fully assigned essays consist of a writing task format in which the questionwriter completely provides the essay topic, requiring students to engage in consideration, conceptualization, ideation and composition on the basis of a set

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topic. Fully assigned essays generally feature a single topic, a concise question stem, clear orientation, and other characteristics; at the same time, the scope for selection of materials is subject to fairly significant limitations. The exam question for a fully assigned essay may consist of a single word, and could also be a phrase or sentence; question-writers often cleverly use grammar and rhetorical knowledge in the question to prescribe certain limitations for the scope of the selection of materials, conceptualization, and so on.

3.3 Decline of selectable essay questions Over the last few years, the percentage of topical essays has experienced a clear declining trend: this question assignment format features high openness, wideranging writing content, flexible writing techniques, and free selection of literary style, but it is also apt to leave students uncertain what to do, resulting in unnecessary mistakes. In the last five years, the percentages of topical essays were, respectively, 16.13%, 3.45%, 10%, 3.03%, and 6.67%, demonstrating that question-writers have been fairly cautious with respect to the question format of topical essays. The percentage of semi-assigned essays has also displayed an overall declining trend: test questions in this category feature a certain degree of limitation, but also a certain degree of openness, providing students with a certain amount of space for free choice, which is more conducive to performance by some creative students, but is by no means suitable for all examinees. The percentage of material-based essays has remained fairly steady: as the most difficult of the four question assignment formats, material-based essays have experienced slight fluctuations while generally remaining stable. Apart from 2011, when they represented 17.24% of the total number of questions for the given year, in 2010, 2012, 2013 and 2014, they respectively accounted for 25.81%, 23.33%, 27.27%, and 20%.

References Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国教育部). 2012. Language and Literature Curriculum Standards for Compulsory Education (义务教育语文课 程标准) (2011 version). Beijing Normal University Publishing (北京师范大学出版社), p. 6.

Guo Jun (郭 骏)

12 Survey of the state of practical writing studies among Nanjing primary school students Practical writing is an instrumental style indispensable to people’s studies, work and life. Instruction in knowledge related to practical writing and cultivation of practical writing abilities are important tasks in primary school language arts education. In order to understand the current state of practical writing education within primary school language arts education, from December 2013 to January 2014, we conducted a sampling survey on the state of practical writing studies among primary school students in Nanjing.

1 Basic circumstances 1.1 Objectives of primary school practical writing education and presentation of teaching materials The New Language Arts Curriculum Standards for Primary Schools (小学语文新课程 标准) (2011 version) notes in the section “General Curriculum Objectives” (课程总 目标) that, “Writing ability is the comprehensive reflection of accomplishments in language arts,” requiring that the individual “be able to concretely, clearly, readably and smoothly express their own ideas” and “be able to apply the common forms of expression for writing in accordance with the needs of everyday life.” The section “Phase Objectives” (阶段目标) states that, by the 2nd learning phase (3rd and 4th grade), the individual must “be able to use brief letters or notes to engage in written communication,” and by the 3rd learning phase (5th and 6th grade), the individual must “learn how to write reading notes and common practical writing.” Here, “common practical writing” refers to everyday practical writing, rather than official or professional practical writing. The presentation of content on practical writing education within the primary school language arts teaching materials in Nanjing touches upon ten forms of everyday practical writing, including short messages, requests for leave, advertising slogans, diaries, letters, proposals, recommendation essays, news reports, speech scripts, and announcements; among these, specific writing requirements are not https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-012

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presented for the three categories of advertising slogans, announcements and speech scripts (for details, see Table 1).

Table 1: Statistical table of the presentation of practical writing in primary school language arts teaching materials. presentation of practical writing

grade

presentation of practical writing

grade

short messages, requests for leave, advertising slogans, diaries (i)

 grade

news reports, announcements, speech scripts

th grade

diaries (ii), letters (i), proposals, recommendation essays

th grade

letters (ii)

th grade

rd

1.2 Explanation of survey 1.2.1 Design of test questions and interview topics This survey was divided into two parts, practical writing proficiency tests administered to primary school students, and interviews conducted with relevant teachers. The practical writing tests were geared toward the actual circumstances of language arts teaching materials and language arts education in Nanjing, and 4th, 5th and 6th-grade students were selected to conduct the tests. These specifically consisted of: the 4th-grade test “requests for leave” (请假条), the 5th-grade test “Observational diaries” (观察日记), and the 6th-grade test “letters” (书信). The teacher interviews addressed four topics: (1) The current overall state of practical writing education at primary schools; (2) Issues of note in practical writing education at primary schools; (3) Presentation of content on practical writing education in the applicable teaching materials; and (4) Recommendations for reforms to practical writing education at primary schools.

1.2.2 Sampling of survey subjects Sampling of surveyed schools: the method of stratified sampling was adopted, and on the basis of differences in regional distribution (urban districts, suburban districts, formerly suburban counties) and school category (renowned primary schools, general provincial-level experimental primary schools, central

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primary schools), samples were collected from a total of 7 primary schools, including 2 renowned primary schools (referred to below as M1 and M2), 3 general provincial-level experimental primary schools (referred to below as S1, S2 and S3), and 2 central primary schools (referred to below as Z1 and Z2) in the five districts of Gulou (urban district), Xuanwu (urban district), Qixia (suburban district), Jiangning (formerly suburban county), and Lishui (formerly suburban county). Sampling of tested students: the method of simple random sampling was adopted to select 1 class each from the 4th, 5th and 6th grades at each of the schools to carry out testing; a total of 904 students were testing, including 312 4th-graders, 300 5th-graders, and 292 6th-graders. Selection of interviewed teachers: interviews were held with teachers engaged in 4th, 5th, and 6th-grade language arts education; in general, 2 teachers were arbitrarily selected from each grade at each school, for a total of 38 interviewees.

2 Details of student testing 2.1 Assessment standards The evaluation of the students’ practical writing tests was primarily dividing into four assessment items:

2.1.1 Format requirements (格式要求) The requests for leave were divided into the four sub-items of “heading” (标题), “address and salutation” (称谓问候), “complimentary language” (祝颂语), and “inscription” (落款), and specific requirements were also proposed for each respective sub-item (see Table 2); the observational diaries were divided into the four sub-items of “month and day” (月日), “week” (星期), “weather” (天气), and “sequence” (排序); and the letters were divided into the three sub-items of “address and salutation” (称谓问候), “complimentary language” (祝颂语), and “inscription” (落款), and specific requirements were also proposed for each of the sub-items (see Table 3).

































m

s

s

s

z

z

total

















































requests for leave

































flush with margin

















































inscription































 















format signature date

complimentary language

colon salutation complimentary language

address and salutation

centered address job title

heading

heading at top

m

school no. of individuals

Table 2: Statistical data table for “format requirements” for requests for leave.

118 Guo Jun (郭 骏)

observational diaries































m

s

s

s

z

z

total

and day

















































month week weather sequence

specific requirements



individuals

no. of

m

school

















individuals

no. of

















endearment

terms of

letters

















margin

















address flush with

















































closing

















wishing

well-

language

complimentary

colon salutation respectful

address and salutation

Table 3: Statistical data table for “format requirements” for observational diaries and letters.

































signature date

inscription

12 Survey of the state of practical writing studies

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Guo Jun (郭 骏)

2.1.2 Content requirements (内容要求) The requests for leave were divided into the five sub-items of “reason” (缘由), “time” (时间) (start and end time) and “forwarding” (转交) (forwarding information), “telephone” (电话) (telephone contact information), and “approval” (批准) (request for approval); the observational diaries were divided into the four subitems of “purpose” (目的) (purpose of the observations), “comprehensiveness” (全面) (comprehensiveness of the observations), “attentiveness” (仔细) (attentiveness of the observations), and “thread” (线索) (thread of the observations); and the letters were divided into the five sub-items of “studies” (学习) (state of studies), “winter vacation” (寒假) (plans for winter vacation), “smog” (雾霾) (the nanjing smog), “thanks for invitation” (谢邀) (thanking their mothers for the invitation), and “invitation” (邀请) (inviting their mothers to come to Nanjing.

2.1.3 Language requirements (语言要求) The two sub-items of “wording and phrasing” (遣词造句) and “language expression” (语言表述) were established for each of the three categories of practical writing. “wording and phrasing” encompassed the four elements of “character use” (用字) (not writing mistaken characters), “word use” (用词) (using words correctly), “sentence use” (用句) (correct sentence structure), and “punctuation” (标点) (correct punctuation). “language expression” encompassed the three elements of “accuracy” (准确) (referring to the accurate statement of facts), “properness” (得体) (referring to the appropriate expression of identity), and “conciseness” (简洁) (referring to simple and clear expression of language).

2.1.4 Comprehensive evaluations (综合评价) The four grades of Excellent, Good, Satisfactory and Poor were used to conduct comprehensive evaluations of the students’ observational diaries and letters. Given that the contents of the requests for leave were relatively simple, comprehensive evaluations were not conducted.

2.2 Statistical data The three items “format requirements” (格式要求), “content requirements” (内 容要求) and “language requirements” (语言要求) are a tabulation of data on

12 Survey of the state of practical writing studies

121

failure to conform to the evaluation requirements, while the item “comprehensive evaluations” (综合评价) is a tabulation of data on the different grades obtained. For details, see Tables 2–6.

2.3 Analysis of results The results of the survey show that, by means of classroom learning and everyday training, the responding primary school students had generally developed a preliminary understanding of the basic formats, modes of expression, and so on in practical writing, as well as certain practical writing ability. However, there were fairly significant disparities between the different school categories. The three categories of schools were ranked as “high,” “middling,” and “low” based on their grades for each of the given items: among the 11 items of comparison, the renowned primary schools obtained 6 “high” items, 4 “middling” items, and 1 “low” item; the general provincial-level experimental primary schools obtained 2 “high” items, 6 “middling” items, and 3 “low” items; and the central primary schools obtained 3 “high” items, 1 “middling” item, and 7 “low” items (see Table 7). On the whole, the state of practical writing studies among students at renowned primary schools is clearly better than at general provincial-level experimental primary schools and central primary schools, while the general provincial-level experimental primary schools were slightly better than the central primary schools. There are still fairly salient problems with respect to the concrete use of practical writing.

2.3.1 High occurrence of format errors Although the performance with respect to the use of addressing was relatively good, there were severe problems with respect to headings, salutations, and other aspects. For instance, in the requests for leave, nearly 44% of students lacked opening salutations; 37% of individuals failed to include the inscription date or wrote it incorrectly. At one school (S3), not a single individual included a “heading,” while at another school (Z2), nearly 75% of students failed to write it in. In the case of the observational diaries, the number of students who omitted or incorrectly wrote down the “month and day,” “week,” and “weather” respectively accounted for 29%, 30% and 29% of the total number of individuals. At one school (Z1), of the 43 individuals, 42 failed to meet the requirements. With respect to the letters, 42.8% of students omitted the opening salutations;

122

Guo Jun (郭 骏)

and nearly 90% of individuals failed to include the phrase cizhi jingli (此致敬 礼, ‘respectfully yours’).

2.3.2 Content omissions A number of the completed tests omitted important content: for instance, in the requests for leave, apart from explaining the reason, it was also necessary to describe the start and end time, forwarding information, telephone contact information, request for approval, and other content. From the statistical data (see Table 3), we can see that these elements were respectively omitted by 120 (38.5%), 241 (77.2%), 169 (54.2%) and 90 (28.8%) of students.

2.3.3 High frequency of language errors On the whole, severe problems were exhibited in terms of language use. With respect to “wording and phrasing” (see Table 4), for the character error rate, word error rate, sentence error rate, and punctuation error rate, the requests for leave reached a per capita average of 0.21, 0.12, 0.24, and 0.62, respectively; the observational diaries reached a per capita average of 2.04, 0.43, 0.73 and 3.26; and the letters reached a per capita average of 1.37, 0.49, 0.85, and 3.41. The main issues in terms of “language expression” were inaccurate and unconcise expression. Problems with inaccurate expression were exhibited by 122 individuals in the requests for leave, 62 individuals in the observational diaries, and 85 individuals in the letters, respectively constituting 39.1%, 20.7% and 29.1% of the total; problems with unconcise expression were exhibited by 236 individuals in the requests for leave, 46 individuals in the observational diaries, and 119 individuals in the letters, respectively constituting 75.6%, 15.3% and 40.8% of the total.

3 Details of teacher interviews The interviewed teachers discussed their personal views revolving around the four aspects of the current overall state of practical writing education at primary schools, issues of note in education, the compiling of teaching materials, and recommendations for educational reforms.































m

s

s

s

z

z

total

reason



no. of individuals

m

school

















time

















forwarding

















telephone

content of requests for leave

requests for leave

















approval

















no. of individuals

Table 4: Statistical data table for “content requirements”.

















purpose

















comprehensiveness

















attentiveness

observational requirements

observational diaries

















thread

















no. of individuals

















studies

















winter vacation

















smog

















thanks for invitation

letter content

letters

















invitation

12 Survey of the state of practical writing studies

123

















no. of individuals

















school

m

m

s

s

s

z

z

total

word use

















sentence use

















punctuation

















accuracy

































properness

conciseness 















no. of individuals 















character use 































word use

phrasing

wording and

















sentence use

language

expression

punctuation 















language expression

















accuracy

phrasing

















conciseness 















no. of individuals 















character use 















phrasing

wording and

















word use

wording and

properness

character use

letters

















sentence use

observational diaries

















punctuation

requests for leave

language















































conciseness 

expression

accuracy

Table 5: Statistical data table for “language requirements”.

properness

124 Guo Jun (郭 骏)

12 Survey of the state of practical writing studies

125

3.1 Current overall state The interviewed teachers universally believed that the overall state of practical writing education at primary schools is not very optimistic at present. This is primarily reflected in four areas: (1) Inadequate conceptual understanding. Both frontline teachers and educational administrators had an inadequate understanding of the importance of practical writing education, and believed that practical writing has a low degree of difficulty, its rate of use in everyday life is low, and it is not hard for students to learn. (2) Deficient teacher quality. The teachers themselves lack knowledge on practical writing, and some teachers are unable to perform practical writing, or write it poorly, and have great difficulty playing the role of an example. (3) Insufficient attention. Practical writing represents an extremely small proportion of writing education, with very few writing exercises, and an extremely low rate of appearance in examinations and open courses, while teachers’ instruction is far less intensive and detailed than their instruction on texts. (4) Poor learning outcomes. Students lack interest in practical writing studies and have fairly weak practical writing ability; in particular, their mastery of format requirements is far from ideal.

3.2 Issues of note The interviewed teachers identified four issues of note with respect to practical writing education: (1) Setting out from students’ real lives to create applied scenarios, and stimulate their interest to learn; (2) Paying attention to the three major educational focuses of format, stylistic category, and stylistic expression; (3) Timely training and increased practice, encouraging students to apply practical writing in their everyday lives, for consolidation through application; (4) Integration with training for language expression abilities.

3.3 Compiling of teaching materials The interviewed teachers identified five major problems with respect to the compiling of educational content on practical writing in the applicable teaching materials: (1) Practical writing constitutes an excessively small proportion of the teacher materials, and is not presented as a separate category; (2) Both introductions to stylistic knowledge and writing drills lack systematicness: practical writing is merely included among the exercises, and furthermore does not appear in every chapter, with poor continuity, and disconnection between the





 

  

















m

s

s

s

z

z

total

excellent



no. of individuals

















good

















satisfactory

grade divisions

observational diaries

m

school

Table 6: Statistical data table for “comprehensive evaluations”.

















poor

















no. of individuals

















excellent

















good

















satisfactory

grade divisions

letters

















poor

126 Guo Jun (郭 骏)

high

z

low

middling

low

s

high

content requirements

high

middling low

high

middling

high

low

language requirements

low

low

middling middling

high

low

comprehensive evaluations

middling

low

low

middling

high

observational letters diaries

middling high

high

requests observational letters for leave diaries

middling high

requests observational letters for leave diaries

middling low

low

observational letters diaries

middling high

requests for leave

format requirements

m

schools

Table 7: Comparative table of average scores and rate of excellence among the different categories of schools.

12 Survey of the state of practical writing studies

127

128

Guo Jun (郭 骏)

text and the exercises; (3) Practical writing with strong functionality such as “agreements,” “contracts,” “manuals,” “research reports,” and so on are lacking, and emerging practical writing categories such as emails, microblogs, electronic greeting cards, and so on are also lacking; (4) Greater emphasis is placed on letters, weakening education in applied writing categories such as short messages, requests for leave, diaries, proposals, debate outlines, and so on; (5) Teaching materials provide few model texts, and there is a lack of samples for students to learn from; the samples which are provided in the teaching materials are largely of poor quality, and lack significance as an example; the model texts are not integrated closely enough with the students’ real lives.

3.4 Recommendations for reforms It is necessary to improve understanding of the importance of practical writing, and pay attention to systematicness in practical writing education, with particular emphases for each grade. Common forms of practical writing must be selectively included or incorporated into textbooks in the form of texts, and practical writing education must be in line with the times, with appropriate additions of new practical writing categories. Practice and training exercises should be strengthened, with learning for the purpose of application, truly reflecting the skill-based and applied nature of practical writing. Teachers must strive to improve their own theoretical accomplishments and writing ability with respect to practical writing.

Fu Yirong (付义荣)

13 Survey of the state of language among new and earlier rural migrant workers The new generation of rural migrant workers generally refers to individuals born in the 1980s and 1990s who hold household registration in a rural area but are employed in an urban area. According to the data published by the National Bureau of Statistics, as of 2009, the total number of rural migrant workers nationwide had reached 145.33 million, including 84.87 million individuals in the new generation of rural migrant workers, accounting for 58.4% of the total number of rural migrant workers; the new generation has already become the predominant groups among rural migrant workers, exercising increasing influence in the economy and society as a whole (Research Task Group on the Basic Circumstances of the New Generation of Rural Migrant Workers 2011). Furthermore, according to the latest data from the National Bureau of Statistics, as of the third quarter of 2014, the total number of rural migrant workers nationwide had already reached 175.61 million.1 Although the proportion of rural migrant workers in the new generation has remained steady, their numbers have already surpassed 100 million. Since the turn of the century, the issue of sociolinguistic adaptability within the new generation of rural migrant workers has drawn attention on all sides. Accordingly, we utilized the winter and summer vacations in the period from 2012–2013 to conduct a “Questionnaire Survey of Social Identity and Language Use Among Rural Migrant Workers” (农民工社会认同和语言使用之 问卷调查) in Shanghai, Xiamen, and other places, to reveal the trends of language development among rural migrant workers.

1 Basic details For this survey, a total of more than 510 questionnaires were issued, and 497 were returned, including 483 valid questionnaires; for the basic details, see Table 1. As shown in Table 1, rural migrant workers are composed of more men than women, and the majority stem from the Central China region as well as the belt region peripheral to Shanghai and Xiamen, including Anhui, Jiangxi,

1 Source of data: website of the National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China (http://data.stats.gov.cn). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-013

pct. . . . . . . . . . . .

          

male

female

eastern region

central region

western region

level of no schooling education primary school

junior secondary school

senior secondary school

professional / vocational / technical secondary school

higher vocational school or above

place of origin

sex

sample category

no. of individuals

Table 1: Composition of survey sample (N = 483).

occupation

generation

other

cultural education

transportation and shipping industry

security and property management

home services industry

wholesale and retail industry

lodging, food and beverage industry

construction industry

processing and manufacturing industry

earlier generation of rural migrant workers

new generation of rural migrant workers

sample category

pct.









.

.

.

.

 .

 .

 .

 .

 .

 .

 .

no. of individuals

130 Fu Yirong (付义荣)

13 Survey of the state of language among new and earlier rural migrant workers

131

Henan, Sichuan, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and other places; their level of education chiefly falls in the secondary school stage (including junior and senior secondary school), accounting for 65%; their principal areas of work include processing and manufacturing, lodging, food and beverage, construction, and other industries, with the latter three sectors representing 54%; the new generation of rural migrant workers constitutes 54.9%, outnumbering the early generation of rural migrant workers by nearly 10%. The highest age among the survey subjects was 64, while the lowest age was 18. 30 individuals had out-migrated for work for a period of 2 years or less, 126 individuals fell within 3–5 years, 164 individuals fell within 6–10 years, 85 individuals fell within 11–15 years, 47 individuals fell within 16–20 years, and 31 individuals had reached 21 years or more. We can see that the great majority of rural migrant workers have engaged in migrant labor for a period ranging 3–15 years, constituting approximately 77.4%. On the whole, this survey sample consisted of a group predominated by the new generation of rural migrant workers, with a middling level of education, and primarily engaged in low-end occupations in urban areas.

2 Language ability As shown in Table 2, the new and earlier generations of rural migrant workers exhibits a number of commonalities in terms of their language ability: First, the languages which the new and earlier generations of rural migrant workers are able to speak primarily include Putonghua and their native regional language, while a very small number of individuals are able to speak other languages or dialects. More than nine tenths of individuals are able to speak Putonghua or a native regional language, while less than one tenth are able to speak other languages. Second, although Putonghua was fairly prevalent within the group of rural migrant workers, their proficiency was generally average. Table 2 shows that more than half of individuals had “average” Putonghua proficiency, while less than 40% had reached the level of being “highly proficient.” Third, the new and earlier generations of rural migrant workers were essentially all able to speak their native regional language, and their proficiency was also relatively high. Table 2 shows that the vast majority of individuals within the new generation of rural migrant workers reached the level of being “highly proficient.” However, Table 2 also reveals differentiation between the newer and earlier rural migrant workers in terms of their language ability: (1) The number of

132

Fu Yirong (付义荣)

Table 2: Distribution and assigned value of various indices for language proficiency among rural migrant workers (N = 483).2 language acquisition variables

name

new generation of rural migrant workers assigned value

no. of individuals

earlier generation of rural migrant workers

pct. no. of individuals

pct.

languages spoken: Putonghua native regional language other language

  

 .  .  .

  

. . .

proficiency in Putonghua: cannot speak at all can only use a few simple phrases average highly proficient

   

 .  .  .  .

   

. . . .

proficiency in native regional language: cannot speak at all can only use a few simple phrases average highly proficient

   

 .  .  .  .

   

. . . .

proficiency in dialect of place of employment: cannot speak at all can only use a few simple phrases average highly proficient

   

 .  .  .  .

   

. . . .

individuals who were able to speak Putonghua was slightly higher among the new generation compared to the earlier generation, while the number of individuals who were able to speak their native regional language was slightly 2 The questions involved in this table may have experienced situations where they were not filled out by the subjects in accordance with requirements. In such cases, the given subject was not included in the total number of subjects for the given question. Therefore, the total number of subjects for each question in this table is often less than the total number of individuals who participated in this survey (new generation: 265 individuals, earlier generation: 218 individuals); furthermore, inconsistences are exhibited in the total number of subjects for each question. Similar circumstances also arose in the other tables below; in order to save space, separate annotations shall not be made. 3 The item “languages spoken” in the table is classified as categorical data, while the remainder are classified as ordinal data.

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13 Survey of the state of language among new and earlier rural migrant workers

higher among the earlier generation compared to the new generation; (2) With respect to native regional languages, the new generation was unequal to the earlier generation both in general and at the level of being “highly proficient”; (3) With respect to the dialect of their place of employment, the earlier generation performed slightly better than the new generation, with 5% of individuals reaching an “average” or “highly proficient” level. However, in terms of the data, these differences between new and earlier rural migrant workers are very small. Below are the results of the Z-test for average deviation between the two samples (see Table 3).

Table 3: Results of significance test for differences in language ability among early and new rural migrant workers. languages spoken

proficiency in putonghua

proficiency in proficiency in native regional dialect of place language of employment

mean variance mean variance mean variance mean variance new generation of rural migrant workers

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

earlier generation of rural migrant workers

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Z value

.

.

–.*

–.

Note: At the level of significance of *, p < 0.05.

Table 3 shows that the new and earlier rural migrant workers only exhibit significant differences with respect to “Proficiency in native regional language.” For this variable, the mean values are above 3.5 for both new and earlier rural migrant workers, signifying that they are at the “average” level or above; herein, the mean value for the earlier generation of rural migrant workers is higher than for the new generation. This demonstrates that, although “Proficiency in native regional language” is good overall among both new and earlier rural migrant workers, proficiency in a native regional language among the new generation of rural migrant workers is clearly unequal to the earlier generation, reflecting the current trend toward the atrophying of Chinese dialects in China.

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Fu Yirong (付义荣)

3 Language acquisition The commonalities among new and earlier rural migrant workers in terms of language acquisition include the following: First, they essentially all learned their Putonghua through school or in the city. Table 4 shows that more than 90% of individuals among both new and earlier rural migrant workers learned Putonghua by studying in school or spontaneously by working and living in the city; television and other mass media also played a certain role, while the role of family members, et cetera, was negligible. Table 4: Details and assigned values for language acquisition among new and earlier rural migrant workers. language acquisition variables

question

answer

new generation of rural migrant workers

assigned no. of value individuals

earlier generation of rural migrant workers

pct. no. of individuals

pct.

A. How did learned at school you learn learned spontaneously in Putonghua? the city



 .

 .



 .

 .

learned through television and other media





.

taught by family members (such as parents, et cetera)





.



.

other





.



.

learned at school





.



.

learned spontaneously in hometown



learned through television and other media



taught by family members (such as parents, et cetera)



 .

other





B. How did you learn your native regional language?

 . 

.

.

 .

 . 

.

 . 

.

13 Survey of the state of language among new and earlier rural migrant workers

135

Second, both new and earlier rural migrant workers essentially all learned their native regional language in their hometowns. Table 4 shows that more than 90% of rural migrant workers spontaneously learned their native regional language in their hometown. Education by parents and other family members also played a not-insignificant role, but this option could in fact be encompassed within the previous item: since the vast majority of rural migrant workers all have experience living in their hometowns together with their families, it is quite normal that they would learn native regional language through being exposed to their influence. The role of schools, television and other media was understandably quite limited, since relevant national laws and pertinent institutions generally all require that schools, radio, television and other media use Putonghua. However, new and earlier rural migrant workers also exhibited the following differences with respect to language acquisition: First, the primary avenue by which the new generation learned Putonghua was studying it at school, while the earlier generation instead learned it spontaneously by working and living in the city. From Table 4, we can see that more than 50% of the new generation selected the option of learning it at school, while nearly 60% of the earlier generation selected the option of learning it spontaneously in the city. Second, the new generation featured more diversified channels for learning Putonghua compared to the earlier generation. Each of the options listed in Table 4 were selected by individuals in the new generation, while the last two options were not selected by any individuals in the earlier generation. This may signify that individuals who are able to speak Putonghua have emerged within the families of the new generation of rural migrant workers, especially among their parents, providing them with the conditions for learning Putonghua from a young age. Third, more individuals within the new generation studied their native regional language at school. From Table 4, we can see that 8.7% of individuals within the new generation selected the option of learning their native regional language at school, which is 6.4% higher compared to the earlier generation. Fourth, the percentage of the new generation who learned their native regional language in their hometown or from family members was lower than in the earlier generation. It is clear from Table 4 that, although more than nine tenths of individuals among both the new and earlier generations of rural migrant workers spontaneously learned their native regional language in their hometown, the new generation falls 3.4% below the earlier generation in this respect; in terms of the percentage which learned their native regional language from family members, the new generation falls 9.1% below the earlier generation.

136

Fu Yirong (付义荣)

Further testing was necessary to determine whether these differences between the new and earlier rural migrant workers were significant. From the test results, we can see that new and earlier rural migrant workers exhibit differences in terms of the acquisition of Putonghua (see Table 5). Table 5: Results of significance test for differences in language acquisition among early and new rural migrant workers. acquisition of Putonghua (A)

acquisition of native regional language (B)

mean

variance

mean

variance

new generation of rural migrant workers

.

.

.

.

earlier generation of rural migrant workers

.

.

.

.

Z value

.*

–.

Note: At the level of significance of *, p < 0.05.

In summary, the state of language ability and acquisition among the new and earlier generations of rural migrant workers exhibits many similarities: in general, they are all able to speak Putonghua and their native regional language; their proficiency in Putonghua does not exhibit significant differences, but significant differences are present with respect to their methods of acquisition of Putonghua; within the new generation, their proficiency in their native regional language is slightly lower than the earlier generation, but no significant differences are present in terms of their methods of acquisition of their native regional language.

4 Language use New and earlier rural migrant workers have the following shared characteristics in terms of the languages they use in urban and rural areas (for the relevant data, see Table 6). First, they generally use their native regional language in their hometown, and use Putonghua while in the city. Among the new and earlier rural migrant workers, more than 94% of individuals use their native regional language while in their hometown, and 90% of individuals use Putonghua in the city. Second, when they encounter individuals from their hometown in the city, they are more likely to use their native regional language. Among the new and

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13 Survey of the state of language among new and earlier rural migrant workers

Table 6: Details and assigned values for language use among early and new rural migrant workers. variables

name

new generation of earlier generation rural migrant of rural migrant workers workers assigned value

no. of individuals

% no. of individuals

%

. generally used while in hometown: Putonghua native regional language other language

  

  

. . .

  

. . .

. generally used while in the city: Putonghua native regional language oher language

  

  

. . .

  

. . .

. generally used when encountering individuals from hometown in the city: Putonghua native regional language other language

  

  

. . .

  

. . .

. generally used while working in the city: Putonghua native regional language other language

  

  

. . .

  

. . .

. generally used while at place of residence in the city: Putonghua native regional language other language

  

  

. . .

  

. . .

earlier rural migrant workers, 83.2% and 77.1% of individuals, respectively, use their native regional language with individuals from their own hometown; there is also an appreciable number of individuals within these groups who use Putonghua when encountering individuals from their hometown, reaching a percentage of approximately 16%–23%. No individuals used another language with individuals from their hometown. Third, they generally use Putonghua while working. The percentage of new and earlier rural migrant workers who use Putonghua while working respectively

138

Fu Yirong (付义荣)

reached 97.3% and 93.9%; this is clearly higher than the total percentage of those who use Putonghua while in the city. Fourth, under most circumstances, they use their native regional language while at their place of residence in the city. While at their place of residence in the city, more than seven tenths of individuals among both new and earlier rural migrant workers use their native regional language, while more than two tenths of individuals used Putonghua; no individuals used another language. In comparing the two groups, language use among new and earlier rural migrant workers is extremely similar. The three situations of “being in one’s hometown,” “encountering an individual from one’s hometown in the city,” and “being at one’s place of residence in the city” are roughly characterized as internal communications, while “being in the city” and “working in the city” are characterized as external communications: the social circle for the former often consists of individuals with whom they have a relatively familiar, intimate relationship, while the social circle for the latter consists of individuals with whom they have a relatively unfamiliar, distant relationship. It is very clear that, within both the new generation and the earlier generation, individuals generally use their native regional language in internal communications, and generally use Putonghua in external communications. Language use among new and earlier rural migrant workers does not exhibit great variation for each data item, essentially all falling between 1%–4%; slightly higher variation is only seen for the third variable, reaching 6.1%. From the results of the Z-test, we can see that language use among new and earlier rural migrant workers does not exhibit significant differences between the two groups (see Table 7). These results are quite unexpected, because they are at odds with the conclusions of relevant domestic studies. For instance, the surveys conducted by Guo Xi (郭熙) et al in Guangzhou (Guo, Zeng, & Liu 2005) and by Yu Weiqi (俞 玮奇) in Nanjing, Suzhou and other locations (Yu 2012) both found that: Putonghua is often prevalent among those of younger age, while Chinese dialects are more prevalent among those of higher age.

5 Analysis of causes The characteristics presented in the state of language among the new generation of rural migrant workers may arise from the following few causes: First, as the national lingua franca in China, Putonghua has higher communicative value. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China more than

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13 Survey of the state of language among new and earlier rural migrant workers

Table 7: Results of significance test for differences in language use among early and new rural migrant workers. variable 

variable 

variable 

variable 

variable 

mean variance mean variance mean variance mean variance mean variance new generation of rural migrant workers

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

earlier generation of rural migrant workers

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Z value

–.

.

.

–.

.

Note: At the level of significance of *, p < 0.05.

60 years ago, the nationwide penetration rate of Putonghua has already reached more than 54% (Jin 2010). The rapid popularization of Putonghua has allowed people from different places to interact more freely, and for rural migrant workers, the ability to speak Putonghua is obviously conducive to their attainment of a better job and a more convenient life in the city. Surveys have found that the higher the Putonghua proficiency of rural migrant workers, the higher their economic income. Li Qiang (李强) calculated on the basis of data from a nationwide survey that, for each level of improvement in the Putonghua proficiency of rural migrant workers, their income can increase by 7.27% (Li 2002). Qin Guangqiang (秦广强) discovered in a survey of rural migrant workers in Beijing that those who are proficient in Putonghua can obtain higher economic returns and have better urban adaptability compared to those who are non-proficient (Qin 2014). According to the patterns of the economics of language, as long as people have the opportunity, they will choose to learn and use languages which offer greater convenience in communication. Second, Chinese dialects are still important regional identifiers, and therefore hold potential popularity. A dialect is an important regional identifier, often serving as an important criterion through which people differentiate between laoxiang (老乡, ‘hometown people’) and tongxiang (同乡, ‘fellow natives’) versus yixiang ren (异乡人, ‘non-natives’) and waidi ren (外地人, ‘outsiders’). The regionality of dialects endows them with the special function of uniting friends, family and close neighbors: this is the potential popularity of dialects, as

140

Fu Yirong (付义荣)

described by scholars of sociolinguistics. For this reason, in interactions with fellow natives, people are more likely to use dialect than Putonghua, and even rural migrant workers living in the cities are no exception. Third, new and earlier rural migrant workers each exhibit advantages in terms of the acquisition of Putonghua, which may close the gap with respect to their proficiency in Putonghua. A number of surveys have found that there are two primary methods through which rural migrant workers acquire Putonghua: the first is spontaneously learning it after coming to the city, and the second is learning it through school. It is difficult to say which of these two methods is more advantageous. However, regardless of which method is more advantageous, both signify that: the longer a rural migrant worker stays in the city or stays in school, the more likely he or she is to learn and master Putonghua. Fortunately, new and earlier rural migrant workers each have advantages with respect to these two avenues. In this survey, the average amount of time which the earlier generation of rural migrant workers had spent in the city reached 11.5 years, compared to only 6.8 years for the new generation; while the new generation surpassed the earlier generation as a whole in terms of their level of education. This may be the reason why the new and earlier rural migrant workers do not exhibit clear differences in terms of their proficiency in Putonghua. Fourth, the methods for acquisition of native regional languages were fairly undiversified, causing the new and earlier rural migrant workers to exhibit variance in terms of proficiency in their native regional language. The primary method by which new and earlier rural migrant workers acquired their native regional language was spontaneously learning it in their hometown: this signifies that individuals who spend more time in their rural hometown and exhibit a more profound degree of integration into their rural hometown will have greater proficiency in their native regional language. In this respect, the earlier generation of rural migrant workers obviously holds an advantage: they essentially all were born and grew up in rural areas, and did not come to the city for work until adulthood. However, a number of individuals within the new generation of rural migrant workers followed their parents to the city at a very young age, and some were even born in the city: they have naturally spent less time in rural areas compared to their parents’ generation, and have a shallower degree of integration into their rural hometown. This point has been verified in several sociological surveys: for instance, a survey by the All-China Federation of Trade Unions showed that 89.4% of rural migrant workers in the new generation essentially know nothing of agricultural work; furthermore, many rural migrant workers in the new generation were born in the city, and do not own land or other means of production in rural areas (Task Group of the All-China

13 Survey of the state of language among new and earlier rural migrant workers

141

Federation of Trade Unions on the Issue of the New Generation of Migrant Workers Entering the Cities 2010). Fifth, in the process of urbanization, both new and earlier rural migrant workers are situated on the urban periphery, and their similar circumstances cause them to exhibit similar language use. Although rural migrant workers have made enormous contributions to the industrialization, urbanization and modernization of China, the household registration system and other obstacles give them the status of nongmin (农民, ‘rural resident’), and prevent them from enjoying the same benefits as urban residents. Apart from their status as nongmin, rural migrant workers who come to the cities also hold the status of waidi ren (外地人, ‘outsiders’), and animosity toward outsiders is a universal phenomenon around the world (Solinger 1999). One survey showed that a total of approximately 55.63% of rural migrant workers feel that urban residents hold fairly negative opinions of them, such as being “uneducated, low quality, immoral,” and so on (Guo 2011). Although some places have relaxed the restrictions for household registration and other systems in recent years, the “inertia” effect of existing institutions means that the problems cannot all be resolved overnight: for the vast majority of rural migrant workers, establishing household registration and integrating into the city is still quite difficult, and this difficulty is not mitigated by being part of the new generation of rural migrant workers. Although the new generation has the advantages of being younger and having a higher level of education compared to the earlier generation, they also lack work experience and are less willing to tirelessly endure hardship, thus it is no less difficult for them to integrate into the city than it is for the earlier generation. In reality, China’s rural migrant workers are not truly accepted in the cities regardless of whether they are in the early or new generation; they are in fact situated in a position of being “neither rural nor urban,” and are thus regarded as a “doubly marginalized population” (Tang 2002). It is precisely due to the similar circumstances they face that new and earlier rural migrant workers exhibit similar language use: they speak Putonghua in the city, and speak their native regional language on returning to their hometown or encountering individuals from their hometown. Such language alternation and language selection both arise from their needs for survival: The former facilitates their interaction with strangers in the city, allowing them to acquire corresponding urban resources; and the latter facilitates their contact and emotional connection with people from their hometown, allowing them to obtain the emotional support which is lacking in urban society. China is currently experiencing a period of transition from a traditional rural society to a modern industrial society, which will require the transformation of large numbers of rural residents into urban residents in the future.

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Fu Yirong (付义荣)

Solely with respect to language itself, rural migrant workers are already prepared for this: most are able to consciously utilize Putonghua and their native regional language to engage in internal and external communications. In terms of language ability, they surpass the monodialectal ability of rural areas, and also surpass the monolingual Putonghua ability of urban areas. However, rural migrant workers face certain language barriers in the course of their transformation into urban residents, as well as the household registration system, status discrimination, psychological identification, and other barriers, and these barriers are not easily surmountable. New and earlier rural migrant workers face nearly identical survival situations in the city, which determine that they exhibit generally similar language situations, while also determining that their transformation into urban residents will inevitably be a long and arduous process.

References Guo, Xi (郭熙), Zeng, Wei (曾炜), & Liu, Zhengwen (刘正文). 2005. Survey report on the state of language and character usage in Guangzhou City (广州市语言文字使用情况调查报告). Journal of Chinese Sociolinguistics (中国社会语言学), No. 2. Guo, Xinghua (郭星华). 2011. Drifting and seeking roots: study on transient population’s social identity (漂泊与寻根 — 流动人口的社会认同研究). Beijing: China Renmin University Press (中国人民大学出版社), p. 134. Jin, Xiaoyan (靳晓燕). 2010. Putonghua penetration rate reaches 54% nationwide (普通话普及 率全国超 54%). Guangming Daily (光明日报), Sept. 4, 2010. Li, Qiang (李强). 2002. Structure of social stratification in China in the transitional period (转 型时期的中国社会分层结构). Harbin: Heilongjiang People’s Publishing House (黑龙江人 民出版社), p. 253. Qin, Guangqiang (秦广强). 2014. Language ability and urban integration among migrant workers entering Beijing and the cities (进京进城务工人员的语言能力与城市融入). Applied Linguistics (语言文字应用), No. 3. Research Task Group on the Basic Circumstances of the New Generation of Rural Migrant Workers (新生代农民工基本情况研究课题组). 2011. The number, composition and characteristics of the new generation of rural migrant workers (新生代农民工的数量、 结 构和特点). Shuju (Data), No. 4. Solinger, Dorothy J. 1999. Contesting citizenship in urban China: peasant migrants, the state, and the logic of the market. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, p. 103. Tang, Bin (唐斌). 2002. The ‘doubly marginalized population’: formation of self-identity among migrant workers entering the cities and the social impact (“双重边缘人”: 城市进城务工人 员自我认同的形成及社会影响). Journal of South-Central University for Nationalities (中南 民族大学学报), No. 8.

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Task Group of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions on the Issue of the New Generation of Migrant Workers Entering the Cities (全国总工会新生代进城务工人员问题课题组). 2010. Research report on the issue of the new generation of migrant workers entering the cities (关于新生代进城务工人员问题的研究报告). Workers’ Daily (工人日报), Jun. 21, 2010. Yu, Weiqi (俞玮奇). 2012. Social differences in the state of language use in urban public spheres (城市公共领域语言使用状况的社会差异). Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies (语言教学与研究), No. 1.

Li Xianle (李现乐) and Shen Pei (沈佩)

14 The state of banking language services In the process of economic globalization, increasing numbers of people have become financial consumers. Finance and money management, online payments, credit card consumption, and other forms of financial products and services have become part of public life. From branch services to online services, telephone services, and other financial services, language always plays an important role. This survey focuses on analysis of the state of language use in banking from the perspective of language services.

1 Survey design This survey primarily selected three representative cities, respectively including the major coastal city of Shanghai, the mid-sized city of Yangzhou, Jiangsu, in Eastern China, and the small city of Xuancheng, Anhui, in Central China. Between December 2014 and January 2015, we respectively conducted questionnaire surveys and a subset of interviews at more than 50 bank branches in the above three cities, including 21 units in the different categories of state-owned banks, commercial banks, and so on. Based on the bidirectional characteristics of language services, the survey was divided into two sections: The first section was for bank employees, or service providers (hereafter referred to as “employees”); the other section was for customers who came to the bank to handle transactions, or service receivers (hereafter referred to as “customers”). A total of 647 questionnaires were issued, and 614 valid questionnaires were returned, including 312 employee questionnaires, and 302 customer questionnaires. At the same time, the task group also visited several banks, and collected written materials. Based on the issues reflected in the questionnaires and the written materials, we then

Note: This study is among the phase results for the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Youth Project “Study of language services in the context of the service economy: perspectives on language resource outlook and the economics of language (No. 12YJC740050)” (服务经济背 景下的语言服务研究: 语言资源观与语言经济学的视 角[编号12YJC740050]) of the Ministry of Education and the Youth Project “Studies on the value and strategies of language services (No. 14CYY10)” (语言服务的价值与战略研究[编号14CYY010]) of the National Social Science Fund. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-014

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Li Xianle (李现乐) and Shen Pei (沈佩)

conducted in-depth interviews with a subset of employees and customers. This report was formed on the basis of analysis of the above survey data.

2 Survey results Language use and language services in banking involve a variety of aspects: this survey primarily analyzed the state of banking language services in the three areas of language service awareness, language information services, and special language services. By comparing the survey results for employees and customers, we analyzed the state of language services and language use as well as problems for each side.

2.1 Language service awareness The language service awareness survey primarily encompassed the use of courteous phrasing by employees and understanding of the necessity of language services.

2.1.1 Use of courteous phrasing Service awareness is often reflected in service behaviors. The survey shows (Table 1) that 57.4% of employees indicated that they “always use” courteous and polite phrasing such as nin hao (您好, ‘hello [polite form]’), xiexie (谢谢, ‘thank you’), qingzuo (请坐, ‘please be seated’) and so on when handling transactions; 35.9% of employees indicated that they “often use” courteous phrasing, and Table 1: Use of courteous and polite phrasing by employees. Courteous and polite phrasing

Always use Frequently use Sometimes use Rarely use Never use Total

Employees’ self-evaluation

Customers’ evaluation

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

     

. . .   

     

. . . . . 

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14 The state of banking language services

another 6.7% employees indicated that they “sometimes use” it. From the customers’ perspective, 32.1% of the responding customers believed that employees “always use” courteous and polite phrasing when handling transactions; 33.8% of customers believed that employees “frequently use” courteous phrasing; 22.2% of customers believed that employees “sometimes use” courteous language, and another 11.9% of customers believed that employees “rarely use” or “never use” it. Through comparison, it is clear that there is a relatively large gap between employees’ self-evaluations and customers’ evaluations.

2.1.2 Understanding of the necessity of language services In terms of employees’ language service awareness, the survey shows that 88.1% of employees believed that it is “very necessary” or “necessary” to simultaneously provide language services while providing banking services; only 11.9% of employees believed that it was “indifferent” or “not necessary” to provide language services. From the customers’ perspective, the survey shows (Table 2) that 83.2% of customers believed that it is “very necessary” or “necessary” for banks to conduct language skills training for employees, while those who believed that training was “indifferent” or “not necessary” respectively constituted 11.9% and 4.6%.1 This Table 2: Customers’ understanding of language services. Necessity of language training

No. of Pct. individuals (%)

Very necessary



Necessary Indifferent Essentially unnecessary Completely unnecessary No selection Total

     

Influence on selection of branch

. Absolutely has an influence . Has an influence . Indifferent . Essentially uninfluential . Completely uninfluential . No selection  Total

No. of Pct. individuals (%) 

.

     

. . . . . 

1 In addition, one individual made “no selection” here, indicating that the respondent did not choose any of the options for the question in the questionnaire. In order to objectively present the survey data, this was not consolidated with the other options, but rather separately displayed. Same below.

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understanding is fairly consistent with the relevant views of employees, as described above. The survey simultaneously shows that 52.1% of customers believed that the state of language use at banks is “absolutely influential” or “influential” on a customer’s selection of a branch for doing business; those who believed it is “essentially uninfluential” or “completely uninfluential” constituted 24.8%, while 22.8% of the responding customers held an “indifferent” attitude.

2.2 Language information services As representatives of the financial system, banks exhibit a very high degree of specialization. In the process of handling transactions, exchanges and interactions between bank employees and customers contain a high volume of specialized information: the majority of this information is conveyed by the employees to the customers in the form of oral or written language, thus during such times, employees’ language use manifests as a high volume of specialized information services. Below, we focus on examining the state of specialized information services as embodied by language services in the course of interactions.

2.2.1 Use of specialized terminology The specialization of the finance industry determines that communications and exchanges in the course of handling transactions touch upon specialized information, thus the two interacting parties use specialized terminology to varying extents. The survey directed at employees shows (Table 3) that, during exchanges between employees and customers, employees who “always use” and “frequently use” specialized terminology constituted 18.3% and 40.1%, those Table 3: Use of specialized terminology by employees. Use of specialized terminology

Always use Frequently use Sometimes use Rarely use Never use No selection Total

Employees’ self-evaluation

Customers’ evaluation

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

      

. . . . . . 

      

. . . . . . 

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who “sometimes use” specialized terminology accounted for 31.4%, and those who “rarely use” or “never use” it constituted 9.9%. From the customers’ perspective, those who believed that bank employees “always use” and “frequently use” specialized terminology respectively accounted for 12.3% and 20.2%, and those who believed that they “sometimes use” it constituted 42.0%, while “rarely use” and “never use” accounted for 24.2%. Through comparison, we find that there is a fairly significant gap between employees and customers in terms of their judgment of the frequency of specialized terminology. The employees’ self-determination of the frequency of use of specialized language was noticeably higher than the customers’ judgment, with a particularly clear contrast in the category “frequently use.” One possible explanation here is that customers have already attained a relatively good mastery of certain specialized knowledge in banking. Of course, this only represented a subset of specialized terminology: as the survey data below further demonstrates, the use of specialized financial terminology still introduces certain obstacles in interactions between employees and customers.

2.2.2 Level of detail in financial information services Language services in banking act as a vehicle for a high volume of specialized financial information. Some money management products or financial services require employees to offer a suitable oral explanation, thus the provision of detailed, specialized information is an important criterion in assessing the quality of banking language services. Table 4 shows that the employees who believed they are “frequently” or “always” able to answer customers’ questions in detail Table 4: Level of detail in employees’ explanations of transactions. Explanation of transactions

Employees’ selfevaluation

Level of detail

Customers’ evaluation

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

Always Frequently Sometimes Rarely No selection

    

. . . . .

Total



      

. . . . . . 

Extremely detailed Relatively detailed Average Not very detailed Really not detailed No selection  Total

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constituted 93%. From the customers’ perspective, those who believed that the answers are “extremely detailed” or “relatively detailed” respectively accounted for 21.2% and 49.7%, and those who believed the level of detail was “average” constituted 25.2%. It is clear that, in the employees’ view, bank employees provide sufficiently detailed language information services; but from the customers’ perspective, the level of detail in employees’ explanations of transactions still has room for improvement. The survey shows that, with respect to circumstances where customers could not understand employees’ explanations of transactions, customers who believed that employees “always use” and “frequently use” unintelligible language respectively constituted 3.0% and 7.3%, those who believed that employees “sometimes use” unintelligible language accounted for 51.7%, while those who believed that employees “rarely use” and “never use” unintelligible language respectively constituted 26.5% and 11.5%. These percentages reflect that communication problems rarely emerge in exchanges between employees and customers. In further analysis of the reasons for incomprehension, use of specialized terminology accounted for 46.0%, an overly rapid pace of speech accounted for 21.5%, an excessively low sound volume represented 17.9%, convoluted formulations constituted 14.9%, lack of organization accounted for 11.9%, use of dialect represented 7.9%, use of foreign-language abbreviations accounted for 6.6%, and non-standard Putonghua constituted 5.6%. There were also several other reasons, such as (customers) not understanding the transaction, (employee explanations) being overly simplified, an excessive number of clauses, and so on. When customers could not understand employees’ explanations of transactions, 56.6% of customers would “ask the employee to explain in detail, and continuously raise questions until reaching a clear understanding”; 34.1% of customers would “ask the employee to explain one more time, and then ask no further questions if one still does not understand”; another 7.6% of customers “would not ask questions even if one does not understand, up to the point of signing or filling out the contract or documentation.” Another 5 individuals (1.7%) made no selection.

2.2.3 Reminders and notifications on matters needing attention and transaction risks The specialization of the finance industry means that customers must pay attention to certain matters when consuming certain financial services or products. In the process of customers handling transactions, certain written materials (such

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as transaction application forms, documentation, and so on) must be signed and confirmed by the customer, such as a “Customer Notice” (客户须知), et cetera. Table 5 shows that 78.2% of employees believed that they “actively give notice” on “all” matters needing attention related to financial services; 20.2% of employees would “actively give notice on some” matters needing attention 此处”应删除; and only 1.6% of employees indicated that they “would not actively give notice.” From the customers’ perspective, 42.7% believed that employees would “actively give notice on all matters needing attention”; 42.1% believed that employees would “actively give notice on some matters needing attention”; and 13.2% believed that employees “do not actively give notice, and only give full notice after close questioning.” Through comparison, we find that, in the area of actively giving notice, with respect either to the sum of the two items or “actively giving full notice,” there was a relatively large gap between employees’ judgment and customers’ perceptions. It can therefore be inferred that, in employees’ view, it is not necessary to give notice on certain matters for attention, but reminders are indeed necessary from the customers’ perspective. This also offers a certain reference for banks in improving their transaction services. Financial transactions (such as certain money management products and services) involve the flow of capital, and often bear a certain risk; at the same time, due to customers’ lack of specialized financial knowledge, it is necessary to employees to give appropriate reminders and notices of the risks of transactions. The survey shows that 98.7% of employees believe that it is very necessary or necessary to notify customers of transaction risks. Table 6 shows that 91.6% of employees believed that they would actively remind customers several times about the potential risks of a transaction, while very few employees

Table 5: State of notice given by employees on matters needing attention. State of notice given on matters needing attention

Employees’ selfevaluation No. of individuals

Actively give all notices Actively give some notices Do not actively give notice, and only give full notice after close questioning Do not actively give notice, and still do not give notice upon close questioning No selection Total

Pct. (%)

 .  .  .

Customers’ evaluation No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

 .  .  .



.



.





 

. 

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Table 6: State of employees’ reminders about transaction risks. State of reminders about transaction risks

Employees’ self- State of reminders about evaluation transaction risks No. of Pct. individuals (%)

Actively and repeatedly give reminders

Actively give reminders several times Actively give a reminder just once Will not actively give reminders, but will respond when customers ask

Total

Customers’ evaluation No. of Pct. individuals (%)

 . Advertise profits while simultaneously also actively and repeatedly giving reminders about risks  . Explicitly give a reminder once, and otherwise just discuss profits  . Subtly give a reminder, and focus on introducing the product’s profits  . Will not actively give reminders about the risks, and will only respond once asked Will not actively give reminders about the risks, and still will not respond when asked Not filled out   Total

 .

 .

 .

 .



.

 

. 

believed that they would not actively give reminders. From the customers’ perspective, 40.1% believed that employees will “advertise profits while simultaneously also actively and repeatedly giving reminders about risks”; 26.5% believed that they “will explicitly give a reminder once, and otherwise just discuss profits”; 18.5% believed that they will “subtly give a reminder, and focus on introducing the product’s profits”; and 11.3% believed that they “will not actively give reminders about the risks, and will only give answers once asked.” Through comparison, we find that there is again a fairly significant gap in terms of the experiences and evaluations of the two sides.

2.2.4 Assistance and recommendations for financial transactions The provision of specialized information services by employees also manifests as providing specialized assistance and recommendations to customers, when

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Table 7: State of transaction assistance and recommendations provided by employees. Provision of assistance in transactions

Always Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never No selection Total

Employees’ self-evaluation

Customers’ evaluation

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

      

. . . .  . 

      

. . . . . . 

necessary. Table 7 shows that, from employees’ perspective. 79.2% of employees believed that they can “frequently” or “always” give recommendations when customers are hesitating over a choice with regard to a transaction, 17.6% believed that they will “sometimes” do so, and 2.6% will “rarely” give recommendations. From the customers’ perspective, 49% of customers believed that, when they were hesitating with regard to handling transactions, bank employees would “frequently” or “always” give recommendations; 34.8% believed that employees will “sometimes” give recommendations; and 15.5% believed that employees “rarely” or “never” do so. Through comparison, we find that there is a relatively significant gap between the two sides: in particular, the difference is especially clear with respect to the categories of “always,” “frequently,” and “rarely.” It seems that customers’ demand for specialized information is important content which bank employees must carefully consider while providing language services.

2.2.5 Intelligibility of service language Apart from language services by teller personnel, as described above, we also surveyed customers’ evaluations of the intelligibility of language in different contexts, including contracts and agreements, customer service hotlines, electronic banking, and so on. Table 8 shows that 8.6% of customers believed that “all” of an agreement or contract is intelligible; 36.8% believed that the “majority” is intelligible; and 48% believed that “parts” or “very little” is intelligible. On reviewing the selection of written bank materials we collected, some contracts and agreements had complex content, and the language was relatively difficult to understand. Some

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Table 8: Customer evaluations of the intelligibility of contract and agreement language. Evaluation

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

  

. . .

All Majority Parts

Evaluation

No. of individuals

Pct. (%)

   

. . . 

Very little None No selection Total

exhibited complex sentence structure, with a relatively high number of compound elements or qualifying elements, and abundant use of specialized terminology. For customers handling transactions in a teller setting, it is very difficult to accurately understand their significance within a short period of time. Table 9 shows that, with respect to language expression for operating procedures on electronic banking pages, 34.1% of customers believed that it is “simple and easy to understand”; 32.8% of customers expressed that “the majority is understandable”; and 5.3% believed that it is “relatively difficult to understand” or “simply impossible to understand.” With respect to voice prompts on bank customer service hotlines, 9.3% of customers believed that they are “extremely tedious, and overly specialized”; 43% of customers believed that they are “somewhat tedious, and relatively specialized”; and 29.2% believed that they are

Table 9: Customer evaluations of the intelligibility of language in electronic banking and customer service hotlines. Operating procedures in electronic banking Simple and easy to understand Majority is understandable Average Relatively difficult to understand Simply impossible to understand Never used No selection Total

No. of individuals

Pct. Voice prompts on No. of (%) customer service hotlines individuals

 . Extremely tedious, and overly specialized  . Somewhat tedious, and relatively specialized  . Somewhat tedious, but not specialized  . Somewhat specialized, but not tedious  . Reasonably simple and convenient  . Extremely simple and convenient  . Never called hotline No selection   Total



Pct. (%) .

 . 

.



.

 . 

.

  

. . 

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“simple and convenient” (including “reasonably simple and convenient” and “extremely simple and convenient”). Comparatively speaking, in terms of the intelligibility of language, language expression for operating procedures in electronic banking seems to be better than voice prompts on customer service hotlines.

2.3 Special language services There are tens of millions of hearing- and vision-impaired people in China, who use the special languages of sign language and Braille (Liu et al 2013). For customers in these special communities (referred to below as “special groups”), the finance industry must also provide the necessary special language services.

2.3.1 Special language service awareness and service capability The survey shows that 68.3% of employees believed that it is “very necessary” or “necessary” to establish special windows to provide special language services, while those who believed that it is “indifferent” or “unnecessary” respectively constituted 12.2% and 19.5%. At the same time, 83.1% of customers believed that it is “very necessary” or “necessary” to provide special language services, while those who believed that it is “indifferent” or “unnecessary” respectively accounted for 10.9% and 4.9%; another 3 individuals made no selection. With respect to special language service capability, 8% of employees believed that they are “completely capable” of providing special language services to special groups; 32.1% of employees believed that they are “essentially capable” of providing special language services; and 59% of employees believed that they are “almost incapable” and “completely incapable”; in addition, 3 individuals made no selection. A comparison shows that the percentage of those who believed that it is necessary to provide special language services (among both employees and customers) was far greater than the percentage of employees who were capable of providing special language services. The data indicates that it is necessary to enhance employee training in the area of special language service capability.

2.3.2 State of special language services in banking The survey shows that, from the perspective of bank management, 45.2% of employees believed that their unit (bank) had special language services, and

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provided special care to special groups with respect to language; 30.8% of employees believed that their unit did not provide special language services, and another 24% of employees were unsure whether or not they were provided. Herein, the percentage of 45.2% approaches fairly closely to the above percentages of employees who were capable of providing special language services (32.1% and 8%), indicating that employees’ special language service capabilities essentially match the special language services provided by banks at present. In terms of employee training, 80.1% of employees indicated that professional training at their respective bank did not include training in the area of special language service skills, and 18.9% of employees believed that their professional training included a certain amount of training in special language service skills. Another 3 individuals made no selection. It appears that banks must greatly enhance the training provided to employees for certain special language service skills.

3 Considerations and recommendations 3.1 Enhancing language service awareness among banks and employees As part of the service sector, the financial services provided by banks are inseparable from language services. The communication and transmission of a high volume of information must be completed by means of language. On the whole, employees have relatively strong language service awareness, but there is still a relatively large amount of room for improvement with respect to certain language service behaviors, such as the use of courteous and polite language. The state of language in banking has a relatively high impact on customers’ selection of branches for doing business, and in the course of language management and language services in banking, bank managers and employees must strengthen their customer concept, and improve language service awareness.

3.2 Improving the quality and efficiency of specialized information services in banking The core services in banking are financial services, which have a very high degree of specialization. During the limited time frame for handling transactions,

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customers must achieve a rapid and accurate understanding of the characteristics of a financial transaction, which requires that employees provide highquality, high-efficiency language information services. However, with respect to the issues of use of specialized terminology, reminders and notices on matters for attention and transaction risks, transaction assistance and recommendations, and so on, there is a relatively large gap between employees’ self-evaluations and customers’ experiences, indicating that it is necessary for banks to further improve service standards in order to satisfy customers with respect to the provision of specialized information services.

3.3 Caring for special groups, and providing the necessary special language services The survey indicates that the capabilities and current state of special language services provided by banks are still unsatisfactory. Bank managers should appropriately add training for special language service skills to professional training, allowing more employees to have the basic capability for special language services, to meet the needs of special groups with respect to special language services.

References Liu, Yanhong (刘艳虹), et al. 2013. Survey of the use of Braille (盲文使用状况调查). The Language Situation in China (2013) (中国语言生活状况报告[2013]). The Commercial Press (商务印书馆), pp. 153–159.

Liu Yanhong (刘艳虹), Gu Dingqian (顾定倩), Cheng Li (程黎), Wei Dan (魏丹), Cheng Xia (程霞), and Huo Wenyao (霍文瑶)

15 Survey of the state of research and use of minority sign languages The Outline of National Mid- to Long-Term Plans for Language Reform and Development (2012–2020) (国家中长期语言文字事业改革和发展规划纲要[2012– 2020年]) states that: “The state of use of sign language, Braille, and other special spoken and written languages shall be surveyed so as to formulate and perfect standards and criteria for sign language and Braille, improve the quality of special education, and provide services”; “On the basis of demand, minority sign languages and Braille shall be studied and formulated. The popularization and application of sign language and Braille shall be strengthened. In combination with curriculum reforms for special-education schools, the use of national standard sign language and Braille shall be promoted” (Ministry of Education & State Language Commission 2012). Data from the 2nd National Sample Survey of Disabled Persons in 2006 shows that there are approximately 1.64 million minority hearing-impaired individuals (referred to below as deaf persons) in China, a considerable proportion of whom need to use sign language. However, a comprehensive understanding of the state of use of sign language among minority deaf persons has long been lacking. For this reason, the National Research Center for Sign Language and Braille conducted the first survey of the state of use of certain minority sign languages and Braille in China in 2013–2014.

1 Survey proposal 1.1 Surveyed regions and subjects China’s 55 minority ethnic groups use more than 80 ethnic languages; among these, 22 ethnic groups use 28 different ethnic written languages. This survey only included the Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Kazakh, Korean, Yi, and Zhuang ethnic groups as subjects: this approach was based on the use of these 7 spoken and written languages for simultaneous interpretation and translation of documents at the Two Sessions for the National People’s Congress and the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-015

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On the basis of demographic data from the 6th National Census in 2010 related to people in the Mongol, Tibetan, Uyghur, Kazakh, Korean, Yi and Zhuang ethnic groups, this survey selected 20 cities and prefectures as the surveyed regions, including Hohhot City, Tongliao City, and Xilin Gol League, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu Province; Xining City and Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai Province; Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province; Lhasa City and Shigatse City, Tibet Autonomous Region; Urumqi City, Aksu Prefecture, Kashgar Prefecture, and Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region; Kunming City and Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan Province; as well as Nanning City, Beise City, and Hechi City, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. 39 questionnaire survey units and 30 interview survey units were defined within these regions.

1.2 Survey methods 1.2.1 Interview method The approach of small group interviews combined with individual interviews as well as semi-structured interviews was adopted, and the interviews were held with relevant leaders of organizations under the Disabled Persons’ Federation, responsible personnel at special-education schools, minority teachers, minority deaf students in the 5th grade and above, as well as employed minority deaf adults, for a total of more than 300 person-times, so as to learn about awareness of the use of sign language by deaf persons in the given ethnic group, ideas about minority sign language work, and attitudes toward the formulation of a national standard sign language among the interview subjects.

1.2.2 Questionnaire method The questionnaire content encompassed the two aspects of categories of use of sign language and the main difficulties encountered in the process of using sign language. The survey subjects included minority teachers at special-education schools, minority deaf students in the 5th grade and above, as well as employed minority deaf adults. A total of 1400 survey questionnaires were issued, and 1287 valid questionnaires were returned, with a response rate of 92%.

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1.2.3 Text analysis method The method of text analysis was used to conduct a comparison of the dictionary entries included in the two works Standard Tibetan Sign Language Dictionary (常用藏族手语词典) and Chinese Sign Language (中国手语), and evaluate the differences and similarities between the sign movements for matching lexical entries in the two works.

2 State of research According to the survey, among the seven minority ethnic groups, the Mongolian, Kazakh, Korean, Yi and Zhuang ethnic groups do not have a native ethnic sign language; only the Tibetan and Uyghur ethnic groups have native ethnic sign languages, which are yet to be perfected.

2.1 Research on Tibetan sign language Tibetan deaf persons originally had not formed a systematic sign language. Beginning in 2001, with funding support from the Belgian Development Cooperation, the Luxembourg Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Canada Fund, the Tibetan Autonomous Region Disabled Persons’ Federation and Handicap International launched a collaborative project to study Tibetan sign language, with concrete efforts organized and carried out by the Tibet Deaf Association. The project group first established the Sign Language Project Deaf-Mute Persons’ Club under the Sign Language Project, and the club members fanned out into pastoral areas and communities in Shigatse, Lhoka, Nyingchi, Qamdo, and Nagqu, collecting more than 800 signs from deaf persons. They found that deaf persons in the Nagqu region had a relatively high number of signs for expressing livestock production and pastoral life, while deaf persons in the city of Lhasa had a relatively high number of signs for expressing city life. The Club regularly held seminars, using photographs, video recordings, material objects, pantomime, and many other formats to present content on the sign language words that had been collected. In addition, with the consent of the deaf persons at the seminars, a pictorial format was used to record the sign language with associated textual explanations, to compile the three-volume work Tibetan Sign Language Dictionary for Deaf Persons (聋人手语藏语词典), for private learning purposes only. In 2011, the work was supplemented and revised, and official published

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under the title Standard Tibetan Sign Language Dictionary (常用藏族手语词典) (Tsering 2011). The entire project lasted 10 years. The Standard Tibetan Sign Language Dictionary (常用藏族手语词典) contains 1407 sign language entries reflecting 12 areas, including social life, description and characterization, farm crops and plants, the names of regional, national and ethnic places of interest, transportation and compass orientation, physiology and health, sports and culture, education, time and space, religion, astronomy and geography, numbers and function words, and so on. At the same time, a 38-letter sign language alphabet was formulated on the basis of the Tibetan alphabet (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Diagram of Tibetan sign language alphabet.

In comparing the Standard Tibetan Sign Language Dictionary (常用藏族手语词 典) and Chinese Sign Language (中国手语) (which include a total of 5586 dictionary entries), the former has 418 entries which do not appear in the latter, constituting 29.7%; and there are 989 entries which completely match between the two works, accounting for 70.3%. For details of differences in the sign movements for the matching entries between the two works, see Table 1.

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Table 1: Comparison of gestures for matching entries in the Standard Tibetan Sign Language Dictionary and Chinese Sign Language. Completely identical gestures

Partially similar gestures

Completely different gestures

Total

Quantity









Percentage (%)

.

.

.



It is clear that: (1) The research on compiling the Tibetan sign language is still in the preliminary stages, and the dictionary only contains frequently-used words; (2) The selection of frequently-used words is associated with the life and cultural context, including unique terms reflecting the everyday necessities of life, cultural customs, and other areas for the Tibetan people; (3) The sign movements for expressing matching dictionary entries exhibit significant differences compared to Chinese Sign Language (中国手语), and only 23% of entries have completely identical sign movements.

2.2 State of research on Uyghur sign language Research on Uyghur sign language has primarily focused on the area of the sign language alphabet. The inventor of the Uyghur sign language alphabet was Gulbostan Gupur (古丽波斯坦·吾甫尔). She used 25 letters from the Chinese sign language manual alphabet to express letters in the Uyghur language, and created another 7 phonetic manual alphabet signs unique to the Uyghur language, thus forming a Uyghur-language manual alphabet plan composed of 32 manual alphabet signs (see Figure 2). Research for the Uyghur-language manual alphabet diagram has drawn on the experiences of research on the Chinese-language manual alphabet, while also bearing the characteristics of the ethnic language. The Uyghur-language manual alphabet diagram was included in the Uyghurlanguage edition of the work Picture-Based Speaking (看图说话) for use in language rehabilitation for preschool-aged deaf children, which was commissioned by the Xinjiang Autonomous Region Disabled Persons’ Federation in the early 1990s, as well as the Uyghur-language edition of Chinese Sign Language (中国手 语), which was organized and translated by the Xinjiang Autonomous Region Department of Education in 2000. As of the present, this Uyghur manual alphabet is still in use in special-education schools in Xinjiang.

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Figure 2: Diagram of Uyghur manual alphabet.

On the whole, independent research on sign language for these seven minority ethnic groups has been rather weak, and the majority do not have a sign language for the given ethnic language. The history of research on Tibetan and Uyghur sign language is very short, and the results have been extremely limited, and unable to adapt to the needs of deaf persons in everyday life, studies and work.

3 State of use 3.1 Use of Tibetan sign language Since the emergence of Tibetan sign language, it has primarily been studied and used by personnel in the Tibetan Disabled Persons’ Federation system, as well as interested members of the public. Although personnel from the Sign Language Project Deaf-Mute Persons’ Club previously visited special-education schools in Lhasa to teach Tibetan sign language, the state-run special-education schools in Lhasa currently use the sign language from the work Chinese Sign Language

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(中国手语). This demonstrates that Tibetan sign language has not been completely implemented in Tibet, a region where the Tibetan language has been preserved, and it is known by even fewer individuals among deaf Tibetan students outside of Tibet. For instance, a teacher at Xining School for the Deaf explained that college student volunteers had previously visited the school to teach Tibetan sign language, but due to the brief time period, although some students remembered a few elements of the Tibetan sign language, these were not applied in their lives.

3.2 Use of Uyghur sign language According to the survey, prior to the Cultural Revolution, the Urumqi School for the Blind, Deaf and Mute, which was the first and largest such school to be established in Xinjiang (founded in 1958), had provided education using the sign language in A Scheme of a General Sign Language for Deaf-Mute Persons (聋哑 人通用手语草图), compiled by the China Association for the Blind and Deaf. Between 1979 and 1982, the China Association for the Blind and Deaf compiled three volumes of A Scheme of a General Sign Language for Deaf-Mute Persons (聋哑人通用手语草图). In 1982, the Unified Gestures for Sign Language Words for Deaf-Mute Persons in the Uyghur Language (维吾尔文聋哑人手语词统一手势 动作) (three volumes), compiled by Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and Urumqi Municipal Association for the Blind and Deaf, was reviewed and approved by the Department of Civil Affairs, Department of Education, and Ethnic Language Work Committee of the Xinjiang Autonomous Region, for trial implementation beginning in November of that year (Local Gazette Editing Committee of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region 1992). 1990 and 1994 saw the publication of the first and second volumes of Chinese Sign Language (中国手语), compiled by the China Disabled Persons’ Federation and the China Association of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing. In 2000, the Xinjiang Autonomous Region Department of Education organized and translated a Uyghur-language edition of Chinese Sign Language (中国手语), which was officially published in October 2003 (Nur 2003). Gulbostan Gupur again served as the translator. The Uyghur-language edition of Chinese Sign Language (中国手语) revised the work’s contents in accordance with the local requirements for practical use, including a total of 3330 entries, a reduction of 2256 compared to the Chinese-language edition. This work is widely used in Xinjiang’s schools for the deaf. The Uyghur language thus lacks an independent and complete sign language system, and deaf persons in the Uyghur ethnic group and deaf education in Xinjiang use the same sign language as in Mainland China.

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3.3 Use of sign language in the Korean ethnic group The Korean language as used in China belongs to the same language family as Chaoxian yu (朝鲜语, ‘North Korean language’), the North Korean standard language used in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, and Hanyu (韩语, ‘South Korean language’), the language of South Korea. Since the Opening and Reforms, foreign sign languages have had an influence on sign language use by deaf persons of Korean ethnicity and in deaf education. In 1992, No. 1 Special-Education School of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture received a set of teaching materials for schools for the deaf published in North Korea entitled Our Language Learning (我们的语言学习), which contained a diagram of the manual alphabet for the North Korean language. The North Korean manual alphabet contains a total of 40 signs, including 19 consonant signs and 21 vowel signs (see Figure 3 and Figure 4). The school therefore used the sign language found in the work Chinese Sign Language (中国手语) for the Chineselanguage curriculum for deaf students of Korean ethnicity, and uses the North Korean sign language for its Korean-language curriculum. Following a subsequent decline in the number of deaf students of Korean ethnicity, the school no

Figure 3: Diagram of North Korean consonant letter signs.

Figure 4: Diagram of North Korean vowel letter signs.

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longer offered separate classes for bilingual studies, and the North Korean sign language also fell into disuse. At present, there are many opportunities for exchanges between deaf persons of Korean ethnicity in the Yanbian region and deaf persons in South Korea, and many individuals have learned South Korean sign language. The director of the Education and Employment Department of the Autonomous Prefecture Disabled Persons’ Federation explained: “When engaging in exchanges with South Korean deaf persons, local deaf persons have discovered that many of the South Korean signs is simple and easy to understand, so they have combined these signs with the Chinese sign language, and disseminated them.” During the interviews, we also encountered deaf persons of Chinese ethnicity who had learned the South Korean sign language, but in practical life, deaf persons of Korean ethnicity still use the Chinese sign language as well as the natural sign language of local deaf persons.

3.4 Use of Chinese Sign Language (中国手语) The majority of these seven minority ethnic groups do not have a native ethnic sign language, and while the Tibetan and Uyghur languages do have their own sign languages, they are not yet perfected. Therefore, objectively speaking, Chinese Sign Language (中国手语), containing what is characterized as the standard sign language (referred to below as “Chinese sign language”), has become the most commonly-used reference book for minority deaf persons and education at schools for the deaf in minority regions. Although the sample size of minority subjects obtained in this survey was extremely limited, this characteristic can still be reflected by the limited data. Apart from Tibetan deaf adults, a relatively high proportion of other Tibetan and Uyghur groups use Chinese sign language (see Table 2). Secondly, upon synthesizing the data for different communities within Table 2: Number of individuals and percentage of those using different sign language categories. Ethnicity

Number of survey subjects

Minority sign language N (%)

Chinese sign language N (%)

Other N (%)

Tibetan ethnicity

Deaf students () Teachers () Deaf adults ()

 (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  ()  (.)

 (.)  (.)  ()

Uyghur ethnicity

Deaf students () Teachers () Deaf adults ()

 (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)

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these seven minority ethnic groups, the proportion of those who use Chinese sign language is 83.9% among deaf students, 91.5% among teachers, and 60.3% among deaf adults. This demonstrates that Chinese sign language has already achieved a relatively high degree of popularization in the minority regions of China.

3.5 Difficulties of deaf students in the use of sign language Differences in sign language expression are a common phenomenon, but when a high volume of significant variation is present in the sign language used within a school or region, it has an impact on the fluency of interactions. This survey examined perceptions of sign language differences among minority deaf students, to understand their views on the difficulties presented by sign language use in school and outside of school. In response to the question, “Are there differences in the sign language used by the teachers at your school?”, among deaf students, 44.6% believed that there are “some differences,” 36.2% believed that there are “essentially no differences,” and those who felt that they were “unsure” or that there are “big differences” respectively constituted 13.3% and 6.0% (see Table 3). Table 3: Perceptions of the degree of difference in teachers’ sign language among deaf students of different ethnicities. Big differences N (%)

Some differences N (%)

Essentially no Unsure differences N (%) N (%)

Manchu ethnicity (n = ) Tibetan ethnicity (n = ) Uyghur ethnicity (n = ) Kazakh ethnicity (n = ) Korean ethnicity (n = ) Yi ethnicity (n = ) Zhuang ethnicity (n = )

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

Total (n = )

 (.)

 (.)

 (.)

 (.)

In response to the question, “Are there differences in the sign language used by life teachers, kitchen staff, clinic doctors, and instructional teachers?”, the deaf students who selected “some differences” and “essentially no differences”

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respectively constituted 53.0% and 27.0%, while 9.1% selected “big differences” (see Table 4).

Table 4: Perceptions of the degree of difference in the sign language of instructional teachers and logistical personnel among deaf students (single selection).

Manchu ethnicity (n = ) Tibetan ethnicity (n = ) Uyghur ethnicity (n = ) Kazakh ethnicity (n = ) Korean ethnicity (n = ) Yi ethnicity (n = ) Zhuang ethnicity (n = ) Total (n = )

Big differences N (%)

Some differences N (%)

Essentially no differences N (%)

Unsure N (%)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)

 (.)

 (.)

 (.)

In response to the question, “If the sign language used by teachers is inconsistent, is it difficult for you to concentrate in class?”, the proportion of deaf students who selected that there is “some” difficulty constituted 71.0%, while 11.0% of deaf students believed that there is “a lot” of difficulty (see Table 5). Table 5: Degree of difficulty in deaf students’ studies caused by differences in teachers’ sign language (single selection)’. A lot N (%)

Some N (%)

None N (%)

Manchu ethnicity (n = ) Tibetan ethnicity (n = ) Uyghur ethnicity (n = ) Kazakh ethnicity (n = ) Korean ethnicity (n = ) Yi ethnicity (n = ) Zhuang ethnicity (n = )

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

Total (n = )

 (.)

 (.)

 (.)

In response to the question, “When you converse with other deaf persons, are there situations where your sign language gestures are not consistent?”, the

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proportion of minority deaf students who selected “occasionally” and “frequently” were respectively 61.3% and 26.5% (see Table 6). Table 6: Situations of inconsistent sign language gestures between deaf students and other deaf persons (single selection).

Manchu ethnicity (n = ) Tibetan ethnicity (n = ) Uyghur ethnicity (n = ) Kazakh ethnicity (n = ) Korean ethnicity (n = ) Yi ethnicity (n = ) Zhuang ethnicity (n = ) Total (n = )

Frequently N (%)

Occasionally N (%)

Never N (%)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)

 (.)

 (.)

In response to the question, “If the sign language of other deaf persons is different from yours, is it difficult for you to converse?”, the proportion of deaf students who selected “somewhat difficult” constituted 69.1%, and the proportion of deaf students who selected “very difficult” was 11.4% (see Table 7). Table 7: Degree of difficulty in interactions between deaf students and other deaf persons caused by differences in sign language (single selection). Very difficult N (%)

Somewhat difficult N (%)

Not difficult N (%)

Manchu ethnicity (n = ) Tibetan ethnicity (n = ) Uyghur ethnicity (n = ) Kazakh ethnicity (n = ) Korean ethnicity (n = ) Yi ethnicity (n = ) Zhuang ethnicity (n = )

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

 (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)  (.)

Total (n = )

 (.)

 (.)

 (.)

The survey demonstrates that significant differences in the sign language used by minority deaf persons in a region and by minority teaching and administrative staff at a special-education school have an impact on the fluency of communication and the quality of education and teaching work.

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4 Views and attitudes 4.1 Views on the formulation of native ethnic sign languages The different interviewed communities among the seven minority ethnic groups did not have uniform views regarding the need to formulate a native ethnic sign language. Among them, the majority of the deaf adults were illiterate or semi-illiterate, and their capacity for sign language expression was extremely limited: they did not understand this issue, and could not express a view on their preference. Among enrolled students and teachers, the views were comparatively clearer.

4.1.1 Belief that it is unnecessary to formulate native ethnic sign languages Given the current conditions of the lack of a native ethnic sign language up to the present and the popularization of the study and use of the Chinese language and Chinese sign language, deaf students and teachers within the Mongol, Kazakh, Korean, Yi and Zhuang ethnic groups, along with personnel at various local branches of the Disabled Persons’ Federation and education departments, held the fairly unanimous perception that it is not necessary to separately formulate a native ethnic sign language. They noted that, if a separate minority ethnic sign language were formulated, it would not only add to the learning burden for deaf students, but would also increase the pressure on teacher training. A number of teachers in the Tibetan and Uyghur ethnic groups also noted that state-run special-education schools have always used Chinese sign language; Tibetan sign language exhibits certain shortcomings, has a limited scope of usage, and does not have a fundamental impact on the lives of Tibetan deaf persons. Therefore, there is no need to separately formulate another sign language. For instance, one teacher at a rehabilitation center and school in Ili stated, “It’s better to treat the national standard sign language as the norm; special signs from the Kazakh and Uyghur ethnic groups can be included in the vocabulary, allowing them to coexist; that way, the cultures of the minority ethnic groups can also be present, and it’s very meaningful. Minority ethnic sign languages are inseparable from the existence of Chinese sign language, and it would be extremely difficult if they were to be separately formulated. It’s fine just to translate Chinese sign language into the Uyghur script, and practice Chinese sign language.”

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4.1.2 Belief that it is necessary to formulate native ethnic sign languages Some of the deaf students and teachers in the Uyghur ethnic group whom we interviewed believed that, since deaf students and their parents in the Uyghur ethnic group in certain remote areas of Xinjiang and the southern Xinjiang region only know the Uyghur language, it is very difficult for deaf students to learn and understand the Chinese sign language based on the Chinese language. Although the deaf students study Chinese sign language, when they go home, they are unable to communicate with their parents, who cannot speak the Chinese language. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate a Uyghur sign language. As one sign language teacher in Kashgar said, “We should formulate a Uyghur sign language. In minority regions, interactions between many deaf persons and their parents and friends are all conducted in the Uyghur language, and the Chinese sign language we use is very difficult for them to understand.” It is clear that the length of the history of promotion and use of the Chinese language and Chinese sign language in minority regions and the extent of their popularization, along with urban-rural differences and other socioeconomic, cultural, and educational factors, all play a constraining role in determining whether it is necessary to formulate a sign language for the local minority ethnic language.

4.2 Attitudes toward the formulation of a national standard sign language The different communities within the seven minority ethnic groups which were interviewed believed that a standard sign language for use on a national scale should be formulated and implemented on the basis of the current Chinese sign language, to facilitate interactions between minority deaf communities and Han deaf communities, as well as between deaf communities in different minority ethnic groups. For instance, on hearing that a scheme for a national standard sign language is currently being formulated, one deaf adult in the Korean ethnic group held up their thumb, and repeatedly nodded in approval. A staff member of the Disabled Persons’ Federation stated that, “The ultimate goal of shifting from Chinese sign language to standard Chinese sign language is to help deaf persons and hearing persons interact, and promote a normal life for them.” In addition, a number of teachers and minority deaf adults proposed specific recommendations for the formulation of a standard sign language. A teacher at a special-education school in Ili recommended that, “The sign movements must be

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simplified, that way they can be signed fairly quickly, and the signs for neologisms must be supplemented.” Some hoped that natural sign languages and local sign languages could be assimilated in the process of researching a standard sign language.

5 Considerations and recommendations 5.1 Incorporation of research and promotional efforts for minority ethnic sign languages into the work of responsible government departments Sign language is the embodiment of the right of deaf persons to language life, and it bears special significance in the efforts to improve the caliber of minority deaf persons, promote unity among ethnic groups, uphold the unification of the fatherland, oppose ethnic separatism and extremist religious forces, and resist infiltration by hostile overseas forces. For a long period of time, unified leadership and management has been lacking in the study of minority ethnic sign languages, essentially leaving it in an untended state. This situation must be reversed without delay. It is necessary to clarify the duties of responsible government departments in this field, and increase government investment, to firmly grasp the general orientation and take the initiative in research and promotional efforts for minority ethnic sign languages and Braille.

5.2 Categorized guiding policies for research on minority ethnic sign languages Apart from the seven surveyed minority ethnic groups, it is also necessary to incorporate surveys on the state of use of sign language among other minority ethnic groups with spoken and written languages into national language research planning, so as to comprehensively clarify the situation. On the basis of the principle of categorized guidance, efforts should be launched to research: minority ethnic sign language schemes which are already in use, along with appeals for the formulation of ethnic sign languages; the educational issues faced by minority deaf students in learning national standard sign language; the influence of foreign sign languages on minority ethnic groups in China; and the formulation of a working policy on minority ethnic sign languages in line with the practical circumstances in different minority ethnic regions in China.

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5.3 Training specialized talents with complex knowledge structures Research on minority ethnic sign languages involves ethnolinguistics, sign language linguistics, sociology, special education studies, and other disciplines. At present, such interdisciplinary talents are almost nonexistent in China, with the result that research in this area cannot be scientifically and sustainably pursued. It is necessary to organize relevant disciplines to jointly tackle this issue at the national level, and unite to train high-level specialized talents.

References Local Gazette Editing Committee of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (新疆维吾尔自治区地 方志编纂委员会). 1992. Xinjiang Local Gazette (新疆通志), Volume 24: Civil. Administration Gazette (民政志). Xinjiang People’s Publishing House (新疆人民出版社). Ministry of Education (教育部) & State Language Commission (国家语委). 2012. Outline of National Mid- to Long-Term Plans for Language Reform and Development (2012–2020) (国家中长期语言文字事业改革和发展规划纲要[2012–2020年]). http://www.moe.edu.cn/ public-files/business/htmlfiles/moe/s3127/index.html. Nur, Osman (吾斯曼·努尔), edited. 2003. Chinese Sign Language (中国手语). Xinjiang People’s Publishing House (新疆人民出版社). Tsering, Lhamo (拉姆次仁). 2011. Standard Tibetan Sign Language Dictionary (常用藏族手语词 典). Tibet People’s Publishing House (西藏人民出版社).

Shen Yulin (沈玉林) and Zhao Qingchun (赵庆春)

16 Survey of sign language comprehension in the CCTV program Focus On The program Focus On (共同关注), which airs on the China Central Television News Channel every day from 18:00–19:00, is bilingually simulcast in Chinese and sign language. This is an effective measure to provide viewer services for deaf persons and achieve barrier-free information. We conducted a survey test to examine the extent to which the sign language interpreting for this program is understood by deaf persons, as well as viewership. Below, we will provide statistics, analysis and reflections on the results of the survey.

1 Basic details 1.1 Survey subjects 39 deaf teachers who had taken part in the National Training Program for Deaf Teachers1 were selected as the survey subjects, including 2 individuals with a graduate level of education, 32 individuals with an undergraduate or associate level of education, 1 individual with a senior secondary school level of education, 1 individual with a junior secondary school level of education, and 3 individuals with no response. They have certain representativeness as a group with a relatively high level of education within the deaf community, and can essentially reflect the situation of comprehension of sign language broadcasting content in television programs within the deaf community.

1.2 Survey content The survey content was divided into two sections, with the first section testing the extent to which deaf persons comprehend sign language interpreting in television programs. We excerpted two segments from the CCTV program Focus 1 In July 2013, the Nanjing Amity Foundation held the National Training Program for Deaf Teachers in Suzhou, Jiangsu, organizing experts to carry out specialized training for deaf teachers with respect to work at schools for the deaf, with the aim of improving their knowledge of educational theory, teaching practices, and sign language linguistics. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-016

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On (共同关注): “Revealing the secrets of life in outer space” (揭秘太空生活) (40 seconds) and “Lifting a car to save a life” (抬车救人) (90 seconds). Both segments featured content in the category of social interest news, without a complex background context or uncommon specialized terms, so as to avoid thereby influencing the survey subjects’ comprehension of the content, and prevent viewer fatigue from impacting the survey subjects’ memory recall. The second section consisted of two open-ended questions: (1) Do you watch the sign language broadcasting for Focus On (共同关注) on CCTV? How long do you watch each time? Why? (2) Do you have any recommendations for improvements to sign language broadcasting in television programs? Below are the video captions and sign language interpreting content for the two segments. Segment 1: (Video captions) Revealing the secrets of life in outer space; Beijing; end of isolation; Shenzhou 10 astronauts meet with the media (Sign language interpreting) Continue / monitor / Shen / Ten / astronautic / personnel / experience / 15 / days / physical / recovery / after / astronautic / personnel / 3 / individual / today / end / medical / isolation / period / currently / 3 / astronautic / personnel / mental / state / good / all / normal / weight / recovery / today / media / meet / return / after / in accordance with / medical / isolation / regulations / isolation / today / come / speak / medical / isolation / end / later period / better / recovery / physical / caliber / We subdivided the above “sign language interpreting” content into 9 information units, and evaluated the survey subjects’ level of comprehension of the sign language interpreting by tabulating the number of information units they recorded on the answer sheet.2 (1) Continuing to monitor (2) Monitoring the Shenzhou 10 astronauts (3) Experienced 15 days of physical recovery (4) 3 astronauts ended medical isolation today (5) Good mental state, all (indicators) normal, weight has recovered (6) Met with the media today (7) After returning, [they] were isolated in accordance with medical isolation regulations (8) The medical isolation ended today (9) In the future, [they] will recover to a better physical caliber

2 The survey subjects’ comprehension of the news was partially derived from prompts in the captions and the video images.

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Segment 2: (Video captions) Lifting a car to save a life; news at the scene; Yueqing, Zhejiang; boy rolls under car; crowd lifts car to rescue [him] (Sign language interpreting) Domestic / occur / child / collision / situation / black / sedan car / hospital / entrance / run over / bend down / tie (shoelace) / boy / crowd / pooled strength / lift car / save / surveillance / record / affair / complete / process / record / image / see / black / car / arrive / main entrance / stop / a moment / boy / image / emerge / run (toward main entrance) / bend down / tie (shoelace) / black / car / drive / turn corner / knock down / boy / child rolls / under car / crowd / hospital / security guard / driver / run (over) / save / boy / lift car / rescue / send / hospital / understand / life / critical / out of / back side / flesh / injury / severe / driver / recalls / finish matters / drive car / leave / arrive / entrance / discover / parking card / cannot find / queue / car / many / prepare / drive to / side / cannot see clearly / knock down / boy / driver / full / responsible / compensation / discuss / We subdivided the sign language interpreting content for Segment 2 into 19 information units: (1) A domestic accident of collision with a child occurred (2) A black sedan car stopped at the hospital entrance (3) Ran over a boy bending down to tie his shoelace (4) The crowd pooled their strength to lift the car and save the boy (5) Surveillance recorded the complete process of the accident (6) From the recorded images, the black sedan car is seen driving to the main entrance and stopping (7) A moment later, the boy emerges in the image, and he runs over (8) The boy bends down to tie (his shoelace) (9) The black sedan car drives around the corner (10) Knocks down the boy, child rolls under the vehicle (11) The crowd, hospital security guard, and driver run (over) to save the boy (12) Lift the vehicle to rescue the boy and send to the hospital (13) (It is) understood that (the boy) is out of critical condition, flesh on back side (of buttocks) was severely injured (14) Driver recalls finishing matters and driving car to leave (15) Arrived at entrance and discovered that the parking card could not be found (16) Many cars were in the queue, prepared to drive to the side (17) Could not see clearly, knocked down boy (18) Driver bears full responsibility (19) Discussing compensation

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1.3 Survey methods The survey adopted the method of viewing – writing test: the test-takers watched the two segments, with each segment played 3 times; after watching each segment, they recorded the content which they comprehended on the questionnaire using Chinese characters; in their notes, they could use either Chinese language word order or sign language word order.

2 Results and analysis 2.1 Test results and analysis 2.1.1 Test results for Segment 1 Table 1: Test results for “Revealing the secrets of life in outer space” (揭秘太空生活). Number of information units 



Percentage (%)

. . . . . . . .  



Number of individuals





Percentage (%)

. . .











.

.



















Note: Of the 39 individuals, 1 did not take part in the test for Segment 1, and 38 individuals were actually tested.

Table 1 shows that, of the 38 test-takers, 19 individuals (50%) did not record any information units: they either did not write down a single character, or wrote “could not understand” or “nothing to say,” indicating that they were completely unable to understand the segment; 6 individuals (15.8%) recorded 1 information unit, acquiring 11.1% of the information; 9 individuals (23.7%) recorded 2 information units, acquiring 22.2% of the information; 3 individuals recorded 3 information units, acquiring 33.3% of the information; and 1 individual recorded 4 information units, representing 44.4% of the total amount of information.

2.1.2 Test results for Segment 2 Table 2 shows that, of the 39 test-takers, 10 individuals (25.6%) did not record any information, indicating that they were completely unable to understand

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Table 2: Test results for “Lifting a car to save a life” (抬车救人). Number of information units 







Number of individuals





Percentage (%)

.

. .

Number of information units 

Number of individuals











. . . . . . . .

Percentage (%)

Percentage (%)















.

















. . . 





. . . . . . . . .  



















Percentage (%)

the segment; 2 individuals (5.1%) recorded 1 information unit, acquiring 5.3% of the information; 10 individuals (25.6%) recorded 2 information units, acquiring 10.5% of the information; 3 individuals (7.7%) recorded 3 information units, acquiring 15.8% of the information; 9 individuals (23.1%) recorded 4 information units, acquiring 21.1% of the information; and 5 individuals (12.8%) recorded 5 information units, acquiring 26.3% of the information. To summarize the test circumstances for the two segments, the level of comprehension of the sign language broadcasting among the tested deaf persons is not optimistic. ¼ to ½ of individuals were completely unable to understand, and the amount of information they acquired was nil. The majority of individuals acquired 20%–30% of the information. A handful of individuals exceeded 40%, but did not reach 50%. In addition, the circumstances of information acquisition were better for Segment 2 as compared to Segment 1: this may be because Segment 2 comparatively featured more caption information, and the video images presented a relatively strong storyline. This demonstrates that the testtakers’ acquisition of information is not wholly derived from the sign language interpreting, but also stems from the captions and images. Individual test-takers with relatively good residual hearing who are able to effectively use hearing aids were also able to acquire some information from the voice broadcasting.

2.2 Survey results and analysis 2.2.1 In response to the question, “Do you watch the sign language broadcasting for Focus On (共同关注) on CCTV? How long do you watch each time? Why?”, 14 of the 39 individuals (36%) answered “do not watch”; 18 individuals (46%)

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answered “essentially do not watch”; 2 individuals (5%) answered that they frequently watch the program; 2 individuals (5%) answered that they had not heard of this program; and 1 individual gave no response. There were two primary reasons why the tested deaf persons “do not watch” or “essentially do not watch” the program: First, sign language interpreting uses shoushi Hanyu (手势汉语, ‘signed Chinese’), which “has a lot of Chinese pinyin,” “uses Chinese grammar,” “is too different from our sign language,” and “is not the sign language of deaf persons”; furthermore, “The sign language is not natural”; “There are no facial expressions, they’re impassive, and the signs are stiff and dull”; “It’s not natural sign language, but rather signs that the majority of deaf persons cannot understand, I don’t like this kind of signing”; “I’m not familiar with standard sign language.” Second, the sign language video image is small: “It’s tiresome to watch, and you can’t see it clearly.” 2.2.2 In response to the question, “Do you have any recommendations for improvements to sign language broadcasting in television programs?”, there were 4 principal recommendations. First, it is necessary to use “natural sign language.” Sign language interpreting “must be oriented toward deaf persons, and based on the characteristics of deaf persons’ sign language, rather than being word-by-word interpreting for one character at a time based on the structure of signed Chinese”; “Promote the inclusion of deaf persons’ sign language in sign language interpreting efforts for television as far as possible, to truly serve the deaf community.” Second, select suitable deaf persons to serve as sign language interpreters. Sign language is the native language of deaf persons, and when deaf persons are signing, they have vivid, diverse and natural facial expressions, with strong expressiveness. One individual also suggested that, “The sign language interpreters must be replaced with sign language interpreters who are like deaf persons, who are fluent in sign language and have the cultural ambience of deaf persons.” Another individual proposed having the hearing children of deaf adults (CODA, or Children of Deaf Adults) engage in sign language interpreting: they are familiar with deaf culture, have a proficient mastery of deaf persons’ sign language, and are balanced bilingual users. Third, it is necessary to add more captions. When captions synchronous with the sign language are added, “The meaning expressed in the captions is clear, there are no omissions, it’s not a strain to read them, and you can watch the images and read the captions at the same time.” Fourth, it is necessary to enlarge the sign language video image. Because sign language is a language of spatial movement, involving changes in gestures, position, direction, and facial expression, “The sign language image mustn’t be too small, or deaf persons cannot see it clearly.”

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It is thus clear that the primary reasons influencing viewership of the program Focus On (共同关注) among the tested deaf persons lie in sign language problems. Sign language interpreting uses shoushi Hanyu (手势汉语, ‘signed Chinese’), rather than the “natural sign language” used within the deaf community, and deaf persons cannot understand it. There is a causal relationship between being “unable to understand” and “not watching or rarely watching.” In order to truly improve viewership for sign language news broadcasting programs, it is necessary to set out from the practical circumstances to use a sign language which is well-received by the deaf community. A small sign language video image is a secondary reason influencing deaf viewership, involving issues with relevant technology, overall strategies, and so on.

3 Considerations and recommendations 3.1 Suitable use of deaf persons’ sign language in signed television news Analyzed from a linguistics perspective, shouyu (手语, ‘sign language’) is a communication tool used within the deaf community; it is a semiotic system composed of hand shapes, gestures, direction, and position, as well as facial expression, posture, and other key elements, and it is a non-spoken form of language. In China, this type of sign language is represented by Zhongguo shouyu (中国手语, ‘Chinese sign language’), generally referred to as ziran shouyu (自然手语, ‘natural sign language’). The sign language interpreting for Focus On (共同关注) does not use deaf persons’ sign language, but rather shoushi Hanyu (手势汉语, ‘signed Chinese’), which is expressed using signing gestures on the basis of Chinese grammar. It lacks the imagery, vividness and minimalism which characterize deaf persons’ sign language, and also lacks the information from rich facial expressions and postures. Since it is not a sign language in the linguistic sense, deaf viewers cannot understand it, find it fatiguing to watch, and are not fond of watching it. The audience for signed television news is the deaf community, and deaf viewership is an important indicator in evaluating the effectiveness of sign language broadcasting. Deaf persons’ viewing preferences and willingness to watch a program are determined by whether or not deaf persons’ sign language is used. Sign language broadcasting in television news must set out from the interests of deaf persons, carefully considering their needs in terms of comprehension of television news, and respecting the language rights of the deaf community and their feelings regarding sign language by using “natural sign language” as the interpreting language, thus maximally attracting a deaf audience. Signed

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television news broadcasting using deaf persons’ sign language could even allow deaf persons to provide the broadcasting, which is a common approach for signed television programs in many countries and regions, including the Taiwan region of China.

3.2 Scientific engagement in efforts for the standardization of sign language Some believe that sign language has a poor vocabulary and disorderly grammar, with major differences between dialects, all of which impact communication. We therefore propose that it is necessary to engage in standardization of sign language, research and popularize a standard Chinese sign language, and use the Chinese language to standardize deaf persons’ sign language. It is believed that signed Chinese is “standard,” and that this general sign language should be popularized nationwide. Given that signed television news ought to use “standard” sign language, using signed Chinese would seemingly be in conformity with the state’s requirements for standardization of television media language. However, based on the results of this survey, a paradox emerges wherein “standard” signed Chinese is not well-received by the majority of deaf persons, who prefer their own “non-standard” natural sign language. It would seem that we are engaging in wishful thinking in standardizing sign language on behalf of deaf persons. This involves the language policy issue of how to standardize deaf persons’ sign language. Efforts for the standardization of sign language should involve profound engagement with the deaf community, so as to understand and study the structure of sign language, respect the grammar of sign language, absorb the Chinese language and other external elements on the foundation of maintaining the linguistic independence of sign language, and perfect and develop the linguistic system for sign language. Efforts for the standardization of sign language must also proceed with the support and participation of deaf persons, respecting the feelings of deaf persons with regard to sign language, and maintaining the linguistic characteristics of deaf culture in sign language. Only in this way can efforts for the standardization of sign language gain the support of the deaf community, allowing the resultant “standard sign language” to gain favor and become popularized within the deaf community. If “signed Chinese” is treated as the “standard sign language” and forcibly promoted within the deaf community, this is equivalent to using the Chinese language to replace or even abolish deaf persons’ sign language. Therefore, it is certainly necessary to scientifically and prudently engage in efforts for the standardization of sign language.

Zhu Xiaohong (祝晓宏), Lu Junlin (卢俊霖), Luo Xiaochun (罗晓春), Chen Qiuyue (陈秋月), and Wu Cuiqin (吴翠芹)

17 Survey of language in public service announcements in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou Public service announcements represent the most important cultural landscape in modern urban spaces: some include gongyi guanggao (公益广告, ‘public service announcement’) and other phrases in their titles, or display the sponsor as a charitable organization, while others must be identified on the basis of the language in the announcement and the content of the images. Between October 2014 and February 2015, we conducted a survey of public service announcements at bus stops, subway stations, bus stations, train stations, airports, roadways, state agencies, tourist areas, and other major sites in the three locations of Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou.

1 Distribution of sites A total of 562 public service announcements were collected during this survey, including 128 in Beijing, 224 in Shanghai, and 210 in Guangzhou. For the specific places of use, see Table 1. Table 1 shows that subway stations are the sites with the highest number of public service announcements, followed in order by roadways, bus stops, train stations, tourist areas, and bus stations, while airports and agencies had the fewest. It is clear that roadways, transportation hubs, and other sites where a high flow of people congregate are the most common sites for public service announcements.

2 Content categories The content of public services announcements primarily falls into 4 overarching categories: political propaganda, promotion of virtues, civil advocacy, and safety tips. For the specific distribution, see Table 2.

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Table 1: Distribution of public service announcement sites in the three locations of Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou. City

Subway station

Train station

Bus Airport Bus station stop

Roadway Agency Tourist area

Total

Beijing



















Shanghai



















Guangzhou



















Total



















Table 2 shows that: Table 2: Content categories for public service announcements in the three locations. Content category

Political propaganda

Quantity



Percentage

.

Promotion of virtues

Civil advocacy

Safety tips

Total









.

.

.



The political propaganda category featured a total of 257 examples, constituting 45.7%. Among these, the majority consisted of promotion of socialist values, with 116 examples, accounting for 20.6% of the total; these were followed by promotion of the Chinese dream, with 108 examples, constituting 19.2%; and thereafter by explanations of policies and systems, with 33 examples, representing 5.9%. Examples include: “A few thatched cottages, filling the universe with harmony” (几间茅庐草舍 满装和谐乾坤) (see Figure 1); “Chinese dream, happy China” (中 国梦 中国喜) (see Figure 2); “The Opening and Reforms are good, life is sweeter than honey” (改革开放好 日子比蜜甜) (see Figure 3); “Without the Communist Party, there is no New China” (没有共产党就没有新中国), et cetera. The virtue promotion category featured a total of 43 examples, representing 7.7%. The content touched upon hard work, thriftiness, kindness, filial piety, caring for the young (for instance, caring for minors and building a good environment for growth), as well as showing compassion (for instance, learning from Lei Feng, donating blood and contributing money), et cetera. Examples include: “For the virtuous person, the universe is wide” (有德人 天地宽) (see Figure 4); “Those who respect the elderly would achieve happiness” (人敬老 己得福) (see Figure 5); “Learn from Lei Feng, get involved together” (学雷锋 齐参与) (see Figure 6).

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Figure 1: Below a flyover, Guangzhou. [Image title: “A few thatched cottages, filling heaven and earth with harmony” (几间茅庐草舍 满装和谐乾坤)]

Figure 2: Airport, Beijing. [Image title: “Chinese dream, happy China” (中国梦 中国喜)]

The category of civil initiatives featured a total of 212 examples, constituting 37.7%. The content touched upon tourism and commuting, tobacco control, environmental protection, traffic, business integrity, abiding by the law and promotion of legal knowledge, building civilized cities, and so on. Examples include: “Join hands for civilized commuting, promote Beijing spirit” (携文明出行 扬北京

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Figure 3: Xujiahui Road (徐家汇路), Shanghai. [Image title: “The Opening and Reforms are good, life is sweeter than honey” (改革开放好 日 子比蜜甜)]

Figure 4: Huanlong Road (环龙路), Shanghai. [Image title: “For the virtuous person, the universe is wide” (有德人 天地宽)]

17 Survey of language in public service announcements

Figure 5: Subway station, Beijing. [Image title: “Those who respect the elderly would achieve happiness” (人敬老 己得福)]

Figure 6: Subway station, Guangzhou. [Image title: “Learn from Lei Feng, get involved together” (学雷锋 齐参与)]

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Figure 7: Subway station, Beijing. [Image title: “Join hands for civilized commuting, promote Beijing spirit” (携文明出行 扬北京 精神)]

精神) (see Figure 7); “Controlling your lifespan is in your hands!” (生命长度掌握 在你手中!) (see Figure 8); “Protect intellectual property – starting with yourself” (保护知识产权 —— 从自身做起) (see Figure 9). The safety tips category featured a total of 50 examples, representing 8.9%. The content touched upon riding public transport, fire prevention, theft prevention, fraud prevention, and so on. Examples include: “Cherish the environment, use gas safely, for happiness and harmony” (爱护环境 安全用气 幸福和谐) (see Figure 10); “Don’t let ‘illegal taxis’ destroy your happiness” (莫让‘ 黑车’ 毁了幸 福) (see Figure 11); “Special column for theft and fraud prevention” (防盗防骗 专栏) (see Figure 12), et cetera. It must be noted that the boundaries between each category of public service announcements are not particularly distinct, and they often intersect with one another. For instance, the public service announcements “Under the Chinese dream, harmony is cherished” (中国梦 和为贵) and “Under the Chinese dream, everyone contributes a drop of love” (中国梦 人人都献出一点爱) are both classified as the “Chinese dream” (中国梦), but also contain content for moral initiatives. In addition, the public service announcements in the three locations also exhibited respective regional characteristics: for instance, Beijing featured content

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Figure 8: Taolin Road (桃林路), Shanghai. [Image title: “Controlling your lifespan is in your hands!” (生命长度掌握在你手中!)]

Figure 9: Guangzhou East Railway Station. [Image title: “Protect intellectual property – starting with yourself” (保护知识产权 —— 从自身 做起)]

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Figure 10: Subway station, Beijing. [Image title: “Cherish the environment, use gas safely, for happiness and harmony” (爱护环境 安全用气 幸福和谐)]

Figure 11: Subway station, Shanghai. [Image title: “Don’t let ‘illegal taxis’ destroy your happiness” (莫让‘ 黑车’ 毁了幸福)]

on prevention of desertification and safe use of central heating; Shanghai displayed more content on healthy living, business integrity, et cetera; and Guangzhou featured prevention and control of Dengue fever, and so on.

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Figure 12: Street in Guangzhou. [Image title: “Special column for theft and fraud prevention” (防盗防骗专栏)]

3 Use of language We conducted a statistical analysis of the use of language in the 562 public service announcements, the results of which are as follows.

3.1 High-frequency use of words with zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’) Among the high-frequency words in the public service announcements, apart from a handful of words like de (的, ‘of’) and wo (我, ‘I’), the majority were all positive energy terms bearing a positive significance. Table 3 provides the top 10 words with the highest frequency of use in the public service announcements for the three locations.

Table 3: Top 10 words with the highest frequency of use. City

Words

Beijing

wenming (文明, ‘civilized’), de (的, ‘of’), hexie (和谐, ‘harmony’), shehui zhuyi (社 会主义, ‘socialism’), jiazhi guan (价值观, ‘value system’), hexin (核心, ‘core’), anquan (安全, ‘safety’), ziyou (自由, ‘freedom’), wo (我, ‘I’), chengxin (诚信, ‘integrity’)

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Table 3 (continued) City

Words

Shanghai

wenming (文明, ‘civilized’), Zhongguo (中国, ‘China’), de (的, ‘of’), meng (梦, ‘dream’), wo (我, ‘I’), chengxin (诚信, ‘integrity’), youshan (友善, ‘friendly’), hexie (和谐, ‘harmony’), daode (道德, ‘morality’), shu (树, ‘cultivate’)

Guangzhou wenming (文明, ‘civilized’), de (的, ‘of’), Zhongguo (中国, ‘China’), wo (我, ‘I’), bu shi (不是, ‘not’), ni (你, ‘you’), hexie (和谐, ‘harmony’), zai (在, ‘at’), chengxin (诚 信, ‘integrity’), aiguo (爱国, ‘patriotism’)

Table 3 shows that the three locations exhibit slight differences in terms of their high-frequency words: for instance, Beijing features anquan (安全, ‘safety’) and ziyou (自由, ‘freedom’); Shanghai has shu (xinfeng) (树[新风], ‘cultivate [new trends]’); and Guangzhou includes aiguo (爱国, ‘patriotism’).

3.2 High use of the tactful declarative mood The 562 public service announcements contained a total of 1618 minor sentences, with an average of 2.9 per announcement. One central sentence was extracted from each announcement for computation; for the statistical results, see Table 4. Table 4: Statistics on use of sentence types. City

Declarative sentences

Interrogative sentences

Imperative sentences

Exclamatory sentences

Total

Qty.

Pct.

Qty.

Pct.

Qty.

Pct.

Qty.



.



.



.



.  .

Shanghai



.



.



.



.  .

Guangzhou



.



.



.



.  .

Total



.



.



.



.  .

Beijing

Pct. Qty.

Pct.

Table 4 shows that declarative sentences occupy the mainstream in public service announcements, followed by imperative sentences, while exclamatory sentences and interrogative sentences are the least common.

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From the perspective of the exhortative function of announcement language, imperative sentences signaling the directive mood ought to be the most commonly-used sentence type: however, the directive mood is often cold, making it difficult for people to accept, thus public service announcements often use declarative sentences, which are gentler and more tactful in their expression. For instance, the Shanghai public service announcement “What’s burning is the cigarette; what’s being consumed is your life” (燃烧的是香烟, 消耗的是 生命) is more easily accepted than “No smoking” (禁止吸烟), and has a better exhortative effect. Another Guangzhou public service announcement, “Being civilized is the most beautiful landscape” (文明是最美的风景) (see Figure 14), can have a more profound emotional impact on people compared to “Please be civilized in commuting and traveling, and do not spit and throw trash anywhere” (请文明出行旅游, 不随地吐痰扔垃圾) (see Figure 13).

Figure 13: Minsheng Road (民生路), Shanghai. [Image title: “Please be civilized in commuting and traveling, and do not spit and throw trash anywhere” (请文明出行旅游, 不随地吐痰扔垃圾)]

Public service announcements do not exclude the use of imperative sentences: for certain uncivilized behaviors, it is suitable to use mandatory and directory dissuading formats such as bu (不, ‘no’), wu (勿, ‘do not’), mo (莫, ‘not’), jinzhi (禁止, ‘prohibited’), jinjue (禁绝, ‘banned’), qie wu (切勿, ‘must never’), qie mo (切莫, ‘must not’), and so on. Examples include: “In fires, escaping with one’s life is the priority; you must not cling to material objects and money” (火灾逃生 命为先, 切莫贪恋物和钱) (see Figure 15); “When riding escalators, please tightly

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Figure 14: Sports center bus stop, Guangzhou. [Image title: “Being civilized is the most beautiful landscape” (文明是最美的风景)]

hold the handrail, walk on the left and stand on the right; running is prohibited, and you must never push” (乘坐自动扶梯时请紧握扶手 左行右立 禁止奔跑 切勿 推搡) (see Figure 16); “No spitting anywhere, no damaging of cultural property, no carving or drawing, no destruction of greenery, no bare chest or back” (不随地吐 痰 不损害文物 不乱刻乱画 不破坏绿化 不袒胸露背) (see Figure 17), et cetera. Interrogative sentences are also used in public service announcements: in general, the tone of interrogative sentences is less stiff; they seem more tactful, and easily attract attention. For instance, the language of the Guangzhou announcement “Could you help me out a little?” (你可以给我一点帮忙吗?) (see Figure 18) seems friendly and gentle, causing people to stop and think. The language of the Beijing announcement “How to breathe? Air pollution, environmental degradation – how can humanity survive?” (如此呼吸? 大气污染, 环境 破坏, 人类将如何生存?) (see Figure 19) uses two consecutive questions, giving people profound food for thought. Sample images are below.

3.3 Frequent use of neat couplet format As a form of language art, public service announcements place great emphasis on the use of figures of speech. Table 5 provides statistics on the use of common figures of speech.

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Figure 15: Subway station, Beijing. [Image title: “In fires, escaping with one’s life is the priority; you must not cling to material objects and money” (火灾逃生命为先, 切莫贪恋物和钱)]

Table 5 shows that couplets occupy an absolute advantage in public service announcements in the three cities, offering a symmetrical format with a pleasing rhythm. For example, the political propaganda public service announcement “Follow the Communist Party, run toward the Chinese dream” (跟着共产 党, 奔向中国梦) features five characters per line, while each line is arranged as a verb-object construction. The two virtue promotion public service announcements “Be honest in your heart and faithful in your trade; keeping promises is honorable, and breaking promises is shameful” (诚在心 信在行 守信为荣 失信 为耻) and “Those who take pleasure in helping others are welcomed by all the world; those who are of service to others find happiness in their hearts” (助人 为乐 香在人间 与人为善 福在心头) both contain four minor sentences, which correspond in pairs, with a consistent structure. The two safety tip public

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Figure 16: Subway station, Shanghai. [Image title: “When riding escalators, please tightly hold the handrail, walk on the left and stand on the right; running is prohibited, and you must never push” (乘坐自动扶梯时请紧握扶 手 左行右立 禁止奔跑 切勿推搡)]

service announcements “Do not underestimate a tiny cigarette butt; casually tossing it aside sows danger” (小小烟头莫小看 随便乱扔留隐患) and “When fleeing a fire, stay low; when fleeing, first run for the stairs” (火场逃生身要低 逃生首选跑楼梯) both consist of seven-character complete sentences, in a 2 + 2 + 3 foot pattern; furthermore, the final characters in each line rhyme with one another, creating an orderly rhythm which is easy to memorize. In the two civil initiative public service announcements “Attaching a leash to walk the dog is safe for you and me” (束链遛狗 安全你我) and “When he, you and I are civilized, ten million families are harmonious” (文明你我他, 和谐千万家), on the one hand, the adjectives anquan (安全, ‘safe’) and hexie (和谐, ‘harmonious’) are flexibly used as causative verbs; on the other hand, the personal pronouns ni wo (你我, ‘you and me’) and ni wo ta (你我他, ‘he, you and I’) are selectively used in reference to the beneficiaries of civilized behavior, dajia (大家, ‘everyone’), thus achieving a consistent number of syllables in each line and a rhyming effect for the final characters. This demonstrates that, in order to create a pleasing rhythm, the creators of public service announcements actively modify

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Figure 17: Tianhe North Road (天河北路), Guangzhou. [Image title: “No spitting anywhere, no damaging of cultural property, no carving or drawing, no destruction of greenery, no bare chest or back” (不随地吐痰 不损害文物 不乱刻乱画 不破 坏绿化 不袒胸露背)]

the language structure, selection of characters, and use of words to form a couplet format. Public service announcements also employ metaphors, personification, and parallelism. For instance, “Taking care of us is the embodiment of being civilized” (爱护我们, 是文明的体现) (Beijing), “Embrace the Earth, embrace green” (拥抱地球, 拥抱绿色) (Shanghai), and “The plants are green, the clouds are smiling, the air is fresh and the environment is good – protecting the environment means protecting ourselves” (草木绿, 云儿笑, 空气清新环境好! —— 保护环境就 是保护自己) (Guangzhou) all use the device of personification. Some public service announcements simultaneously use several figures of speech. For instance, the language in the blood donation announcement “When you donate blood, your soul is like a rainbow; the blood you donate is effervescent with life” (献血的您 灵魂如虹 您献的血 生命涌动) contains a couplet, while also featuring an analogy and chiasmus; the announcement language has an exquisite structural format, a pleasing rhythm on being read, and a lingering aftertaste.

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Figure 18: Subway station, Guangzhou. [Image title: “Could you help me out a little?” (你可以给我一点帮忙吗?)]

Figure 19: Bus stop, Beijing. [Image title: “How to breathe? Air pollution, environmental degradation – how can humanity survive?” (如此呼吸? 大气污染, 环境破坏, 人类将如何生存?)]

















Shanghai

Guangzhou

Total

Beijing

Metaphor

Couplet

City

Table 5: Use of figures of speech.









Parallelism









Personification









Chiasmus









Rhetorical Question









Synecdoche









Hypophora

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Zhu Xiaohong (祝晓宏) et al.,

3.4 Use of other language elements The language in public service announcements also uses contemporary slang terms, common colloquial language, sayings and aphorisms, and other language elements. For the specific details, see Table 6. Table 6: Use of sayings, aphorisms, colloquial language, and popular phrases. City

Sayings and aphorisms

Colloquial language

Slang terms







Shanghai







Guangzhou







Total







Beijing

The use of sayings and aphorisms can enhance the cultural caliber of public service announcements, allowing the classics to be part of the lives of ordinary people. Examples include the language of the Beijing public service announcement for protection of the natural environment, “All living things strive for freedom under the cold sky” (万类霜天竞自由); the Shanghai civil initiative announcement, “Civilization and refinement a gentleman make” (文明文质彬彬 然后君子); and the Guangzhou virtue promotion announcement, “The utmost goodness, like water, oft flows downward; the highest virtue is found in ordinary families” (上善若水常处下 至德本在百姓家). Colloquialized sentences make public service announcements conversational and straightforward, causing them to be more easily disseminated. Examples include the Shanghai public service announcements on caring for minors, “Papa, I want a healthy home” (爸爸, 我想要个健康的家) (with an image of smoke and a child’s face) and “My childhood shouldn’t be so dull” (我的童年不想如此单调) (with an image of an array of examinations); as well as Guangzhou’s “Traveling includes the style of traveling! Walking includes the style of walking!” (旅游有旅游样! 走路有走路样!) and “Carry bags with you, so thieves have no opportunity” (包包随身背, 贼人没机会). Internet slang has also become part of the language of urban public service announcements, reflecting the permeation and influence of virtual language life into real language and social life. Examples include Beijing’s “Rush the security gate, and the consequences will be severe!” (冲撞安全门, 后果很严重!) (see

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Figure 20: Subway station, Beijing. [Image title: “Rush the security gate, and the consequences will be severe!” (冲撞安全门, 后果 很严重!)]

Figure 20), which imitates the line “Uncle Li is very angry, and the consequences will be severe!” from the film A World Without Thieves (天下无贼); as well as the two Guangzhou public service announcements “Awesome trash sorting, to build a happy Guangzhou” (给力垃圾分类, 建设幸福广州) (see Figure 21) and “Special column for theft and fraud prevention – can you afford not to read it?” (防盗防骗 专栏 —— 不看, 你伤得起吗?), which feature the slang terms geili (给力, ‘awesome’) and shang de qi (伤得起, ‘afford’).

3.5 Use of English, dialect, and traditional characters The language in public service announcements features situations where English, dialect, and traditional characters are used. For the specific details, see Table 7.

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Figure 21: Yijing Road (艺景路), Guangzhou. [Image title: “Awesome garbage sorting, to build a happy Guangzhou” (给力垃圾分类, 建设幸 福广州)]

Table 7: Use of English, dialects and traditional characters. City Beijing Shanghai Guangzhou Total

English

Dialect

Traditional characters

























The use of English-language elements contributes to the contemporary value system regarding foreign understanding of China, while also reflecting the scope of China’s participation in globalization to a certain extent. In the example of Shanghai, among the 224 public service announcement, English text appeared 16 times. Traditional characters in public service announcements almost always appear in a calligraphic script, bearing the traits of yishu zi (艺术字, ‘art characters’), so as to highlight the message of the announcement text. Examples include “Public service announcement on the Chinese dream: rooted in morality and righteousness, holding up China as a shining example; righteousness” (中國夢公益广告 道义为 质 德耀中华 義) (see Figure 22), found in a subway station in Beijing; “Practicing

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Figure 22: Subway station, Beijing. [Image title: “Public service announcement on the Chinese dream: rooted in morality and righteousness, holding up China as a shining example; righteousness” (中國夢公益广告 道义 为质 德耀中华 義)]

etiquette, valuing harmony” (禮之用 和為貴) (see Figure 23), “Of the myriad of virtues, filial piety is foremost” (萬善孝為先), and “Forging the soul of China” (鼎铸中華魂), found in subway stations in Shanghai; and “Disasters are born of neglect; misfortunes arise from subtle nuances” (患生於所忽, 禍起於細微) (see Figure 24), found in a subway station in Guangzhou. The use of dialect only appeared in Guangzhou. Examples include the term heyong (河涌, ‘river tributary’) (corresponding to hecha, [河汊, ‘branching river’]) in “Careful in river” (小心河涌) and “Dangerous river, entering water is prohibited” (河涌危险 禁止下水); the term liudi (留低, ‘leave behind’) (corresponding to liuxia [留下, ‘leave behind’]) in “To spread good fortune, leave behind the manta rays” (传递福分 留低蝠鲼); and “Speed it up” (行快 D 啦) (corresponding to kuai dian zou la [快点走啦, ‘walk a little faster’]), all of which are typical examples of Cantonese dialect words. In accordance with the requirements of the Provisional Regulations for Administration of Spoken and Written Language in Advertising (广告语言文字管理暂行规定), dialect and local expressions are to be used rarely or not used wherever possible in public service announcements.

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Figure 23: Subway station, Shanghai. [Image title: “Practicing etiquette, valuing harmony” (禮之用 和為貴)]

4 Inspirations and considerations 4.1 Public service announcements must be in service of social themes The content of existing public service announcements is largely inclined toward achieving the Chinese dream and reflecting core socialist values, playing the role of positively striving upward, lifting up popular sentiment, and building consensus.

4.2 Public service announcement must reinforce overall planning The promotion of virtues, safety tips, and other elements closely ingrained in the people’s lives could be added to the content. In terms of the sites, it would be suitable to increase efforts for placement at airports, high-speed rail, and other places where people congregate.

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Figure 24: APM line, Guangzhou subway. [Image title: “Disasters are born of neglect; misfortunes arise from subtle nuances” (患生於所忽, 禍起於細微)]

4.3 Public service announcements could add a side-by-side Chinese-English format In Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and other internationalized metropolises, more attention should be given to this type of public service announcement, so as to facilitate understanding of relevant information on Chinese life and tourism among foreigners.

4.4 All efforts should be made for public service announcements to be colloquialized and easy to understand The use of dialect should be avoided as far as possible, and the phrasing must be pleasant to hear, eye-catching, and easy to remember, so as to promote the dissemination of the announcement on a broader scale.

Su Xinchun (苏新春) and Liu Rui (刘锐)

18 Survey of language use in white and color papers Pishu (皮书, ‘papers’) refer to important documents or research reports issued by government agencies or social organizations regarding an important issue in a particular field. Papers originated in the United Kingdom for use in the issuance of government statements, and were later popularized in nations around the world. Based on the color of their covers, papers can be divided into bai pishu (白皮书, ‘white papers’), lan pishu (蓝皮书, ‘blue papers), huang pishu (黄皮书, ‘yellow papers’), lü pishu (绿皮书, ‘green papers’), and so on. In terms of their respective domains, white papers tend to address major issues for national development in the areas of politics, national defense, and diplomacy; blue papers largely address issues in the categories of the economy, society, culture, and industry; yellow papers chiefly address certain country-specific and regional issues; and green papers primarily address issues related to rural areas, tourism, ecology, the environment, language, and so on. In China, regulations state that white papers are official documents which comprehensively and accurately introduce policy proposals, principled positions, and progress by the Chinese government with respect to major issues. They are published by the State Council Information Office, and issued via the news media, publishers, online media, embassies, and other channels. Apart from white papers, papers of other colors do not strictly correspond to an applicable domain, and may be issued either by government service departments or by scientific institutions and social organizations;1 this survey collectively refers to them as caise pishu (彩色皮书, ‘color papers’).

1 White papers 1.1 Overview China’s first white paper, entitled Human Rights in China (中国的人权状况) was published in 1991; as of 2014, a total of 91 white papers have been issued, 1 The Notice on the Prohibition Against Unauthorized Publication of Government White Papers (关于不得擅自出版政府白皮书的通知), issued by the General Administration of Press and Publication on September 10, 1998, stipulates that, “It is prohibited to take ‘white paper’ as a book title without authorization.” https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-018

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averaging 3.8 papers per year. The number of papers issued annually reached 1 at its lowest and 9 at its highest (2011).2 The statistics are as follows (see Table 1): Table 1: Annual issuance of government white papers. Year Quantity Year Quantity

            























            























White papers are generally published in Chinese and English. The contents of certain white papers involve non-English-speaking countries or multilingual regions: in such cases, editions in corresponding languages will be added. For instance, 2012’s The Diaoyu Islands are the Intrinsic Territory of China (钓鱼岛是中 国的固有领土) also included a Japanese-language edition, while 2010’s Economic and Trade Cooperation Between China and Africa (中国与非洲的经贸合作) also featured a French-language edition. Chinese-language editions of government white papers are published and distributed by the People’s Publishing House (人 民出版社), while side-by-side Chinese-foreign language editions are published and distributed by Foreign Languages Press (外文出版社). The previously issued Chinese government white papers are divided into the 5 areas of “National conditions” (国情), “Diplomacy” (外交), “National defense” (国防), “Human rights” (人权), and “Local issues” (地方问题).3 For details on their quantities, see Table 2. Table 2: Categorization of government white papers. Category

National conditions

Human rights

Local issues

National defense

Diplomacy

Total

Quantity













2 Source of data: Website of the State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, http://www.scio.gov.cn/zfbps/. 3 The categorization stems from the website of the State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, http://www.scio.gov.cn/zfbps/.

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The first category, “National conditions” (国情), can be regarded as a comprehensive category, including various aspects of social development, such as “Judicial reform” (司法改革), “Rare earth” (稀土), “Internet” (互联网), “Climate change” (气候变化), “Disaster mitigation operations” (减灾行动), “Building a clean government” (廉政建设), “Peaceful development” (和平发展), “Human resources” (人力 资源), “Labor and social security” (劳动与社会保障), and so on. The latter four categories are special topics. The “Human rights” (人权) category reached 14 papers, spanning the longest period of time, and boasting the largest share. Among these, apart from 3 monographs, the other 11 papers were all annual reports. The “National defense” (国防) category included “Arms control and disarmament” (军 备控制与裁军), “Anti-proliferation” (防 扩散), “Diaoyu Islands” (钓鱼岛), and other monographs, while more than half of the papers were annual reports. The “Local issues” (地方问题) category included 2 papers on Taiwan issues, 2 papers on Xinjiang issues, and 8 papers on Tibet issues, addressing several aspects of social life in Tibet.

1.2 Discursive functions Government white papers represent state huayu (话语, ‘discourses’), presented in the form of data surveys and quantified statistical analysis. They feature the five categories of the reporting function, refutational function, explanatory function, proclamatory function, and persuasive function. The reporting function is their basic function, referring to reports by the Chinese government on China’s situation with respect to important topics in politics, the economy, society, culture, and other areas, directed toward the entire national population and the international community, so as to promote their comprehensive understanding of China. The other functions all play a role on the foundation of this function. The first government white paper, Human Rights in China (中国的人权 状况), which was issued in 1991, refuted false rhetoric regarding human rights problems in China, featuring a typical reputational function. Arms Control and Disarmament in China (中国的军备控制与裁军) reported China’s dissolution of armed forces to the world, and actively promoted the practice of arms control, featuring a typical explanatory function; the white paper The Diaoyu Islands are the Intrinsic Territory of China (钓鱼岛是中国的固有领土) revealed the actions by Japan to usurp the Diaoyu Islands, and proclaimed that China holds indisputable sovereignty over the Diaoyu Islands, featuring a typical proclamatory function; The Peaceful Development of China (中国的和平发展) systematically set forth China’s roadmap to peaceful development, promising the world “a China with prosperous development, a China with democratic rule of law, and

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a China with harmonious stability, which will ultimately make greater contributions to the world,” featuring a typical persuasive function (State Council Information Office 2011). The discursive functions of government white papers have developed alongside changes to the international environment, exhibiting clear timeliness and focus. China’s Path to Peaceful Development (中国的和平发展道路), issued in 2005, argued that, “China’s development is inseparable from the world, and China is likewise needed for global prosperity,” and further stated that, “China must follow the path of peaceful development today, and must still follow the path of peaceful development in the future when it has become powerful.” The relevant statements in The Peaceful Development of China (中国的和平发展), issued in 2011, read: “China’s development is inseparable from the world, and global prosperity and stability are also inseparable from China”; “The developmental successes which China achieves are inseparable from friendly cooperation with the nations of the world, and China’s future development further requires the understanding and support of the international community; we are sincerely grateful to all nations and peoples who understand, care, support and aid in China’s development. The earlier paper, China’s Path to Peaceful Development (中国的和平发展道路), emphasizes China’s own approach, reflecting more of an explanatory function; while the later paper, The Peaceful Development of China (中国的和平发展), projects more self-confidence, proclaiming an open and inclusive approach, with the intention of persuading the international community to support China’s path to peaceful development.

1.3 Textual characteristics As important government documents, government white papers feature an orderly chapter structure, exhibiting rigorous accuracy in their expression, a rational tone, and a clear stance. After more than twenty years of development, government white papers have formed a regular chapter format. Government white papers generally all adopt the “general – specific – general” chapter format of “Introduction – Main text – Conclusion”; when necessary, an “Appendix” section is included. For instance, in Economic and Trade Cooperation Between China and Africa (中国与非洲的经贸合作), the “Introduction” (前言) proposes the key theme that, “Development of the economy and promotion of social progress are the tasks jointly faced by China and Africa,” and outlines the history of economic and trade cooperation between China and Africa, as well as the background of “South-South Cooperation.” The “Main text” (正文) section provides a detailed report on the state of development of economic and trade cooperation

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between China and Africa in the seven areas of “Promoting the development of the balance of trade” (促进贸易平衡发展), “Expanding the fields for mutual development” (拓展相互投资领域), “Emphasizing the construction of infrastructure” (重视基础设施建设), “Strengthening capacity-building for development” (加强发 展能力建设), “Helping to improve the people’s standard of living” (帮助提升民生 水准), “Broadening the fields for China-Africa cooperation” (拓宽中非合作领域), and “Exercising the leading role of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation” (发挥 中非合作论坛引领作用). The “Conclusion” (结束语) expresses the government’s stance of continuing to promote economic and trade cooperation between China and Africa, and proposes the bright vision that, “Economic and trade cooperation between China and Africa will certainly continue to develop on a larger scale, in broader fields, and on a higher level.” The “Appendix” (附录) provides information on the “Forum on China-Africa Cooperation” (中非经贸论坛). As official documents, government white papers use standard written language, and strive for rigorous accuracy in their expression; as a result, they feature a complex sentence structure and a preponderance of long sentences. The 91 government white papers contain a total of more than 1.57 million characters, and 27,702 sentences, with an average of 53.6 characters per sentence. Tonally, they achieve rationality and a clear stance. Their language expression primarily takes the forms of narration, explanation, and discussion, with little descriptiveness or lyricism, and places heavy emphasis on the citation of historical facts, a high volume of real data, and international and domestic law articles; they feature solidly and amply cited arguments, the thorough and accurate proposal of viewpoints, as well as rigorous and comprehensive discussions and explanations, exhibiting a pronounced rational and logical force. Government white papers express the positions and views of the Chinese governments, with clear stances: for instance, Human Rights in China (中国的人权状况) articulates that, “China’s arable land represents only 7% of the world’s arable land, with a per capita average of only 1.3 mu, compared to 12.16 mu per capita in the United States and a global average of 4.52 mu, yet it supports 22% of the global population,” as factual evidence, and then takes a clear stance in refutatively stating that, “Certain Western politicians have asserted that: China does not have a government which can resolve the problem of feeding its people. Yet socialist China has relied on its own efforts to resolve this historical difficulty.”

1.4 Word usage Government white papers represent the government’s introduction on national conditions in China to the international community, and the domains, levels

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and depths which they reflect are all clearly mirrored in their word usage. The 91 government white papers contained a total of more than 1.57 million characters, including 700,000 words, with a total of 18,738 unique words used. The top 100 high-frequency nouns were: Zhongguo (中国, ‘China’), guojia (国家, ‘nation’), Xizang (西藏, ‘Tibet’), zhengfu (政府, ‘government’), shehui (社会, ‘society’), jingji (经济, ‘economy’), quanguo (全国, ‘nationwide’), diqu (地区, ‘region’), zhidu (制度, ‘institution’), guoji (国际, ‘international’), gongzuo (工作, ‘work’), renmin (人民, ‘people’), falü (法律, ‘law’), minzu (民族, ‘ethnic group’), jishu (技术, ‘technology’), wenti (问题, ‘problem’), shaoshu minzu (少数民族, ‘minority ethnic group’), zuzhi (组织, ‘organization’), shijie (世界, ‘world’), difang (地方, ‘place’), ren (人, ‘people’), huanjing (环境, ‘environment’), renkou (人口, ‘population’), zhengce (政 策, ‘policy’), ziyuan (资源, ‘resources’), qiye (企业, ‘enterprise’), wenhua (文化, ‘culture’), funü (妇女, ‘women’), quanli (权利, ‘rights’), tixi (体系, ‘system’), jigou (机构, ‘agency’), shuiping (水平, ‘standard’), fa (法, ‘law’), renyuan (人员, ‘personnel’), shenghuo (生活, ‘life’), nongcun (农村, ‘rural area’), Zhonghua renmin gongheguo (中华人民共和国, ‘People’s Republic of China’), zizhi qu (自治区, ‘autonomous region’), junshi (军事, ‘military affairs’), nengli (能力, ‘ability’), lingyu (领域, ‘field’), nengyuan (能源, ‘energy’), guofang (国防, ‘national defense’), renquan (人权, ‘human rights’), zhongdian (重点, ‘focal point’), fangmian (方面, ‘aspect’), Lianheguo (联合国, ‘United Nations’), gongmin (公民, ‘citizen’), fagui (法规, ‘laws and regulations’), jizhi (机制, ‘mechanism’), cuoshi (措施, ‘measure’), Xinjiang (新疆, ‘Xinjiang’), bumen (部门, ‘department’), xiangmu (项目, ‘program’), gongcheng (工程, ‘project’), jundui (军队, ‘armed forces’), shiye (事业, ‘cause’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), keji (科技, ‘science and technology’), yuanze (原则, ‘principle’), xingzheng (行政, ‘administration’), tiaojian (条件, ‘conditions’), jichu (基础, ‘foundation’), budui (部队, ‘troops’), lingdao (领导, ‘leader’), guanxi (关系, ‘relationship’), shengtai (生 态, ‘ecology’), zhengzhi (政治, politics’), zhanlüe (战略, ‘strategy’), zhuangbei (装备, ‘equipment’), jiguan (机关, ‘agency’), tiaoli (条例, ‘regulation’), Xiang Gang (香港, ‘Hong Kong’), guihua (规划, ‘plan’), quanyi (权益, ‘rights and interests’), ertong (儿童, ‘children’), renwu (任务, ‘task’), canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’), qingkuang (情 况, ‘situation’), Renmin daibiao dahui (人民代表大会, ‘People’s Congress’), anjian (案件, ‘case’), daibiao (代表, ‘representative’), shichang (市场, ‘market’), nongye (农业, ‘agriculture’), sheshi (设施, ‘facilities’), Guowuyuan (国务院, ‘State Council’), kexue (科学, ‘science’), xianfa (宪法, ‘constitution’), huiyi (会议, ‘meeting’), gongyue (公约, ‘convention’), qihou (气候, ‘climate’), lishi (历史, ‘history’), zijin (资金, ‘capital’), mubiao (目标, ‘objective’), shehui zhuyi (社会主义, ‘socialism’), danwei (单位, ‘unit’), wuqi (武器, ‘weapon’), qunzhong (群众, ‘masses’), shipin (食品, ‘food’), Feizhou (非洲, Africa)

Among the high-frequency nouns, Zhongguo (中国, ‘China’), guojia (国家, ‘nation’), zhengfu (政府, ‘government’), renmin (人民, ‘people’), minzu (民族, ‘ethnic group’), shaoshu minzu (少数民族, ‘minority ethnic group’), ren (人, ‘people’), qiye (企业, ‘enterprise’), and gongmin (公民, ‘citizen’) represent the groups of people most commonly involved in white papers. Ren (人, ‘people’), funü (妇女, ‘women’), ertong (儿童, ‘children’), and canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’) reflect a focus on disadvantaged groups. Shehui (社会, ‘society’), jingji (经济,

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‘economy’), zhidu (制度, ‘institution’), falü (法律, ‘law’), jishu (技术, ‘technology’), zhengce (政策, ‘policy’), ziyuan (资源, ‘resources’), wenhua (文化, ‘culture’), quanli (权利, ‘rights’), junshi (军事, ‘military affairs’), nengyuan (能源, ‘energy’), guofang (国防, ‘national defense’), renquan (人权, ‘human rights’), shengtai (生态, ‘ecology’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), and so on reflect important aspects of national life, as well as the key field of concern for human rights. Shehui zhuyi (社会主义, ‘socialism’), Renmin daibiao dahui (人民代表大会, ‘People’s Congress’), zizhi qu (自治区, ‘autonomous region’), Guowuyuan (国务院, ‘State Council’), and so on reveal the nature of the national political system. Nongcun (农村, ‘rural area’), nongye (农业, ‘agriculture’), jichu (基础, ‘foundation’), quanyi (权益, ‘rights and interests’), shipin (食品, ‘food’), and so on all reflect the state’s concern for the people’s livelihood and welfare. White papers in different fields feature different subject terms and highfrequency words. Even in white papers on the same subject, following changes in social development and the focus of government attention, subject terms and high-frequency words have experienced significant changes, allowing us to clearly observe the government’s position and administrative focus. Analysis of word usage in 11 annual white papers on human rights is provided below. The papers use a total of 6654 unique Chinese words, and 342 words in common appear in the 11 papers, including 122 nouns. These nouns reflect the general characteristics of white papers on human rights. Examples include: Zhongguo (中国, ‘China’), quanguo (全国, ‘nation-wide’), guojia (国家, ‘nation’), renquan (人权, ‘human rights’), quanli (权利, ‘rights’), shaoshu minzu (少数民族, ‘minority ethnic group’), shehui (社会, ‘society’), renmin (人民, ‘people’), zhengfu (政府, ‘government’), wanren (万人, ‘all the people’), gongmin (公民, ‘citizen’), falü (法律, ‘law’), jingji (经济, ‘economy’), minzu (民族, ‘ethnic group’), ren (人, ‘people’), gongzuo (工作, ‘work’), diqu (地区, ‘region’), zhidu (制度, ‘institution’), nongcun (农村, ‘rural area’), and shenghuo (生活, ‘life’). Apart from the words in common, there are also terms unique to a given year, or certain words shared by a number of different years, which can reflect the focal points of government attention in the area of human rights in a particular year or a certain span of years. Table 3 lists the top 20 high-frequency nouns for each year. Table 3 shows that canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’), gongyue (公约, ‘convention’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), jiating (家庭, ‘family’), and other issues have long been the subjects of government attention: for instance, the term canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’) appears in 10 of the white papers on human rights, and is ranked 24th among all words. In the wake of progress on human rights in China, some issues have achieved resolution, and certain high-frequency words have shown a shift toward low-frequency words, while some have even disappeared altogether. For instance, wenmang (文盲, ‘illiteracy’) continuously

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Table 3: Unique and shared high-frequency nouns in the 11 white papers on human rights. Year

Title

Unique and shared high-frequency nouns (top )

 Human Rights in China (中国的人 权状况)

canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’), gongyue (公约, ‘convention’), lingyu (领域, ‘field’), jiating (家庭, ‘family’), wenmang (文盲, ‘illiteracy’), dahui (大会, ‘congress’), zuifan (罪犯, ‘criminal’), jianyu (监狱, ‘prison’), xianfa (宪法, ‘constitution’), shehui tuanti (社会团体, ‘social organization’), tiaoli (条例, ‘regulation’), fazhan zhong guojia (发展中国 家, ‘developing country’), susong fa (诉讼法, ‘procedural law’), zhiye (职业, ‘occupation’), minzhu dangpai (民主党派, ‘democratic party’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), jingcha (警察, ‘police’), daibiaotuan (代 表团, ‘delegation’), xingwei (行为, ‘conduct’), Zhonghua renmin gongheguo (中华人民共和国, ‘People’s Republic of China’)

 The Progress of Human Rights in China (中国人权 事业的进展)

lüshi (律师, ‘lawyer’), laonianren (老年人, ‘elderly’), nengli (能力, ‘ability’), xingshi (刑事, ‘criminal matters’), wenmang (文盲, ‘illiteracy’), cunmin (村民, ‘villager’), Zhongxi bu (中西部, ‘Midwest Region’), zhiye (职业, ‘occupation’), zuidi gongzi (最低工资, ‘minimum wage’), fuliyuan (福利院, ‘welfare institution’), xingfa (刑 法, ‘criminal law’), canji ertong (残疾儿童, ‘handicapped children’), guomin jingji (国民经济, ‘national economy’), ruxue lü (入学率, ‘enrollment rate’), gu’er (孤儿, ‘orphan’), guihua (规划, ‘plan’), weisheng (卫生, ‘health’), gong’an (公安, ‘public security’), sudu (速度, ‘pace’), zhixiashi (直辖市, ‘direct-controlled municipality’)

 The Progress of Human Rights in China in  ( 年中国人权 事业的进展)

nüxing (女性, ‘women’), gongyue (公约, ‘convention’), cunmin (村民, ‘villager’), ganbu (干部, ‘cadre’), lingyu (领域, ‘field’), siwang lü (死亡 率, ‘mortality rate’), wenmang (文盲, ‘illiteracy’), xiaoxue (小学, ‘primary school’), weisheng (卫生, ‘health’), lüshi (律师, ‘lawyer’), Meiguo (美国, ‘United States’), minzhu dangpai (民主党派, ‘democratic party’), ruxue lü (入学率, ‘enrollment rate’), fayuan (法院, ‘court’), gongzi (工资, ‘wages’), xingshi (刑事, ‘criminal matters’), xianfa (宪法, ‘constitution’), cunmin weiyuanhui (村民委员会, ‘villagers’ committee’), zhengzhi quanli (政治权利, ‘political rights’), zaiqu (灾区, ‘disaster area’)

 The Progress of Human Rights in China in  ( 年中国人权 事业的进展)

xin Zhongguo (新中国, ‘New China’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), weisheng (卫生, ‘health’), siwang lü (死亡率, ‘mortality rate’), daolu (道路, ‘path’), xianfa (宪法, ‘constitution’), minzhu dangpai (民主党 派, ‘democratic party’), wenmang (文盲, ‘illiteracy’), liangshi (粮食, ‘grain’), zongjiao xinyang (宗教信仰, ‘religious beliefs’), Zhonghua renmin gongheguo (中华人民共和国, ‘People’s Republic of China’), wenbao (温饱, ‘warm and well-fed’), xiaoxue (小学, ‘primary school’), ruxue lü (入学率, ‘enrollment rate’), wu dangpai renshi (无党派人士, ‘non-party person’), shehui zhuyi (社会主义, ‘socialism’), jishu renyuan (技术人员, ‘technical personnel’), nüxing (女性, ‘women’), guojia jiguan (国家机关, ‘national agency’), lüshi (律师, ‘lawyer’)

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Table 3 (continued ) Year

Title

Unique and shared high-frequency nouns (top )

  Years of Development of Human Rights in China (中国人权发展  年)

canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’), zuifan (罪犯, ‘criminal’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), xianfa (宪法, ‘constitution’), qunzhong (群众, ‘masses’), weisheng (卫生, ‘health’), xin Zhongguo (新中国, ‘New China’), shehui zhuyi (社会主义, ‘socialism’), gongyue (公约, ‘convention’), Zhonghua renmin gongheguo (中华人民共和国, ‘People’s Republic of China’), caichan (财产, ‘property’), fazhan zhong guojia (发展中国 家, ‘developing country’), diguo zhuyi (帝国 主义, ‘imperialism’), renmin fayuan (人民法院, ‘people’s court’), xingwei (行为, ‘conduct’), fuli (福利, ‘welfare’), zongjiao xinyang (宗 教信仰, ‘religious beliefs’), minzhu dangpai (民主党派, ‘democratic party’), geren (个人, ‘individual’), changsuo (场所, ‘place’)

 The Progress of Human Rights in China in  ( 年中国人权 事业的进展)

gongyue (公约, ‘convention’), zaixiao sheng (在校生, ‘enrolled student’), zhixiashi (直辖市, ‘direct-controlled municipality’), minzhu dangpai (民主党派, ‘democratic party’), lüshi (律师, ‘lawyer’), lingyu (领域, ‘field’), wu dangpai renshi (无党派人士, ‘non-party person’), yonghu (用户, ‘user’), ganbu (干部, ‘cadre’), weisheng (卫生, ‘health’), jishu renyuan (技术人员, ‘technical personnel’), susong (诉讼, ‘legal proceedings’), wenmang (文盲, ‘illiteracy’), cunmin (村民, ‘villager’), guomin jingji (国民经济, ‘national economy’), fayuan (法院, ‘court’), ruxue lü (入学率, ‘enrollment rate’), gongzi (工资, ‘wages’), xiaoxue (小学, ‘primary school’), tixi (体系, ‘system’)

 The Progress of Human Rights in China in  ( 年中国人权 事业的进展)

canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’), Aizibing (艾滋病, ‘AIDS’), xianfa (宪法, ‘constitution’), weisheng (卫生, ‘health’), renmin qunzhong (人民群众, ‘masses’), gongyue (公约, ‘convention’), yiqing (疫情, ‘epidemic’), nüxing (女性, ‘women’), huanzhe (患者, ‘patient’), ganbu (干部, ‘cadre’), tudi (土地, ‘land’), gonghui (工会, ‘labor union’), jianyu (监狱, ‘prison’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), gongzi (工资, ‘wages’), xinxi (信息, ‘information’), qunzhong (群众, ‘masses’), yongpin (用品, ‘goods’), xingshi (刑事, ‘criminal matters’), Zhonghua renmin gongheguo (中华人民共和国, ‘People’s Republic of China’)

 The Progress of Human Rights in China in  ( 年中国人权 事业的进展)

canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), qunzhong (群众, ‘masses’), zhongdian (重点, ‘focal point’), gonghui (工会, ‘labor union’), butie (补贴, ‘subsidy’), gongyue (公 约, ‘convention’), huanjing (环境, ‘environment’), xiangmu (项目, ‘program’), jiating (家庭, ‘family’), lüshi (律师, ‘lawyer’), Aizibing (艾滋病, ‘AIDS’), weisheng (卫生, ‘health’), ti’an (提案, ‘proposal’), lingyu (领域, ‘field’), yantaohui (研讨会, ‘seminar’), zhufang (住房, ‘housing’), gong’an jiguan (公安机关, ‘public security agency’), tuanti (团体, ‘organization’)

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Table 3 (continued ) Year

Title

Unique and shared high-frequency nouns (top )

 The Progress of Human Rights in China in  ( 年中国人权 事业的进展)

canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’), jiating (家庭, ‘family’), qunzhong (群众, ‘masses’), gongyue (公约, ‘convention’), hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’), guifan (规范, ‘standard’), jizhi (机 制, ‘mechanism’), Xinjiang (新疆, ‘Xinjiang’), gong’an jiguan (公安 机关, ‘public security agency’), weisheng (卫生, ‘health’), minsheng (民生, ‘people’s livelihood’), biaozhun (标准, ‘criteria’), buzhu (补 助, ‘subsidy’), lishihui (理事会, ‘board of directors’), wangzhan (网 站, ‘website’), lüshi (律师, ‘lawyer’), xinxi (信息, ‘information’), zhixiashi (直辖市, ‘direct-controlled municipality’), ganbu (干部, ‘cadre’), xinsheng (新生, ‘newborn’)

 The Progress of Human Rights in China in  ( 年中国人权 事业的进展)

canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’), huanjing (环境, ‘environment’), guihua (规划, ‘plan’), shengtai (生态, ‘ecology’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), zhufang (住房, ‘housing’), qunzhong (群 众, ‘masses’), jiating (家庭, ‘family’), xinxi (信息, ‘information’), shequ (社区, ‘community’), quyu (区域, ‘region’), wenhua yichan (文化遗产, ‘cultural heritage’), shehui zhuyi (社会主义, ‘socialism’), kanshou suo (看守所, ‘detention facility’), wangluo (网络, ‘network’), sixing (死刑, ‘death penalty’), yiliao weisheng (医疗卫 生, ‘healthcare and health’), siwang lü (死亡率, ‘mortality rate’), tushuguan (图书馆, ‘library’), ziyuan (资源, ‘resources’)

 The Progress of Human Rights in China in  ( 年中国人权 事业的进展)

canjiren (残疾人, ‘handicapped person’), huanjing (环境, ‘environment’) Xinjiang (新疆, ‘Xinjiang’), xinxi (信息, ‘information’), zongjiao (宗教, ‘religion’), shengtai (生态, ‘ecology’), zhang’ai (障 碍, ‘barrier’), wangzhan (网站, ‘website’), hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’), jiating (家庭, ‘family’), yanlun (言论, ‘discourse’), lidu (力度, ‘efforts’), Weiwu’er (维吾尔, ‘Uyghur’), shequ (社区, ‘community’), gongzhong (公众, ‘public’), xinwen (新闻, ‘news’), guihua (规划, ‘plan’), renshen (人身, ‘person’), buzhu (补助, ‘subsidy’), fanzui xianyi ren (犯罪嫌疑人, ‘criminal suspect’)

appeared in the first 4 white papers, but after 2000, it no longer appeared frequently, reflecting that the people’s right to education had been met. The term dianshiji (电视机, ‘television set’) also appeared with high concentration in the first few years, appearing for the last time in the 2000 report, demonstrating the rapid decline of the role of this important household electrical appliance and entertainment format in modern life. The emergence of new things and new issues is reflected in high-frequency words which emerge from nothing, or shift from low to high, such as Aizibing (艾滋病, ‘AIDS’), hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’), wangluo (网络, ‘network’), xinxi (信息, ‘information’), yidong dianhua (移动电话,

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‘mobile phone’), fanzui xianyi ren (犯罪嫌疑人, ‘criminal suspect’), and so on. Yidong dianhua (移动电话, ‘mobile phone’) first appeared in 2000, and thereafter appeared with high frequency in 2009, 2012, and 2013, demonstrating the increasing popularization of mobile communications in modern social life, and even its transformation into a pillar industry in the national economy.

2 Color papers Color papers involve the systematic and layered engagement in comprehensive, in-depth analysis of major issues in a given field from a political perspective, providing a descriptive report of the current situation, meticulously analyzing dynamically changing situations and the underlying reasons, and thereby proceeding to reach conclusions, make predictions regarding future trends of development, and propose recommendations. The majority are non-governmental.

2.1 Overview According to preliminary statistics, a total of 2152 color papers were published between 1986 and 2014. The annual publication details are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Annual volume of publication of color papers.

Between 1986 and 2000, a total of 65 color papers were released, averaging 4.3 papers per year; the period from 2001 to 2005 saw a substantial increase, with

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an average of 46.2 papers per year. In the few years from 2006 on, the annual average reached 206, rising as high as 339 in 2014. The publishers include over 160 organizations, and 25 organizations have published 10 or more papers; among these, Social Sciences Academic Press (社会科学文献出版社) has published 1405 papers, representing 65.14% of the total number of papers; Yunnan University Press (云南大学出版社) ranks second, with 42 papers published. Social Sciences Academic Press places great emphasis on research and publication of papers, convening national seminars, formulating a series of standards for papers, and vigorously promoting the overseas distribution of Chinese papers, as well as the establishment of a paper database. Color papers feature extensive coverage, encompassing nearly all aspects of social life; the concise statistics are as follows (Figure 2). 800 700

715 550

600

445

500 400

282

300 200

86

100

74

0 Economics

General development

Society

Culture and education

Politics, Resources military and the affairs, and environment diplomacy

Figure 2: Distribution of color papers by field.4

The field of economics included 715 color papers: this field had the highest distributed quantity, comprehensively encompassing the global economy and the Chinese economy, macroeconomics and regional economics, the industrial economy, finance and financial administration, processing and trade, and other subfields, as well as a variety of industrial sectors. An example is Blue Paper on Economics: Analysis and Prediction of Economic Trends in China (经济蓝皮书: 中 国经济形势分析与预测).

4 The categorization system was organized with reference to the knowledge categorization system of the China Paper Network (中国皮书网) (http://www.pishu.cn/).

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The field of general development refers to general studies on the development of a region, province or city; 550 papers were found in this category. Examples include: Regional Blue Paper (区域蓝皮书), Beijing Blue Paper (北京 蓝皮书), and Report on European Development (欧洲发展报告). The society field included 445 papers, addressing the state of society, social composition, demographics, employment, social security and healthcare, law, public security, and so on. An example is Blue Paper on Society: Analysis and Prediction of Social Trends in China (社会蓝皮书: 中国社会形势分析与预测). The field of culture and education included 282 papers, encompassing educational causes, scientific research and science popularization, cultural causes, news media, spoken and written language, literature and the arts, and so on. Examples include: Blue Paper on Education: Report on Educational Development in China (教育蓝皮书: 中国教育发展报告) and Blue Paper on Culture: Report on the Development of Cultural Industries in China (文化蓝皮书: 中国文化产业发展 报告). The field of politics, military affairs and diplomacy and the field of resources and the environment were relatively small, respectively featuring 86 papers and 74 papers. Examples include: Yellow Paper on the International Situation: Report on Global Politics and Security (国际形势黄皮书: 全球政治与安全报告) and Green Paper on the Environment: Report on Environmental Development in China (环境绿皮书: 中国环境发展报告). Color papers rely on the academic organizations, scientific research units or task groups of relevant departments, adopting the format of team compiling and cooperative writing. They reflect the transformation of theoretical research achievements in the social sciences into social applications. The China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) contains 1522 articles which cite the Blue Paper on Economics (经济蓝皮书) as reference literature, and 2624 articles which cite the Blue Paper on Society (社会蓝皮书) as reference literature (as of 2014).

2.2 Advisory and informational functions Color papers are not just purely academic reports, but also the products of the transformation of academic scholarship. On the one hand, color papers provide a basis for decision-making for relevant government departments, exercising the function of advisory services; on the other hand, color papers are also publications geared toward the book market, providing an informational function for general readers. Whether advisory or informational, they always provide detailed, accurate and comprehensive reference information.

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Su Xinchun (苏新春) and Liu Rui (刘锐)

2.3 Textual characteristics As rigorous academic reports, color papers clearly feature the language norms and style of academic works. The papers exhibit continuity: color papers are often part of a series or collection, and each series of papers features a consistent style. Color papers generally adopt the structure of “General – specific,” first summarizing the topic and the general situation within a particular time frame, and then engaging in specific discussion on different dimensions. Color papers for different fields and subjects are stylistically arranged in accordance with the characteristics of the given field or subject. In the example of the Blue Paper on Economics (经济蓝皮书), each paper in the series first provides a summary of the general situation during the time period addressed in the given paper and engages in analysis and predictions of national economic trends and development, before proceeding to specific discussions; the specific discussions generally include the 4 dimensions of policies, regions and provinces, industries, and special topics. A blue paper in the category of regional development will engage in separate discussions on economics, society, culture and other aspects within the regional scope: for instance, the Beijing Blue Paper (北京蓝皮书) series includes the Report on Economic Development in Beijing (北京经济发展报告), Report on Social Development in Beijing (北京社会发展报告), and Report on Cultural Development in Beijing (北京文化发展报告), as well as papers which take more specific issues as their discursive domain, such as Analytical Report on Social Psychology in Beijing (北京社会心态分析报告), Report on the Development of Lawyers in Beijing (北京律师发展报告), Report on the Development of Creative Cultural Industries in Beijing (北京文化创意产业发展报告), and so on. After many years of development, color papers have already formed a rigorous academic system, with hierarchical coverage of various fields, regions, industries and sectors, reflecting every aspect of national life. Color papers are generally composed of several reports systematically organized together, and each report is also a standalone treatise, with the textual structure of an academic paper. The reports are composed of a heading (subheading), author, abstract, key words, main text, reference literature, and appendices (English-language abstract). The typical structure of the main text is “Description of current state – problem analysis – predictions and outlook (considerations and recommendations).” In accordance with the characteristics of each field and discipline, some papers provide predictions and outlooks based on analysis and models (papers in the economics category largely take this approach), while other papers engage in theoretical consideration based on analysis of the current situation, and provide policy recommendations (as in the case of the Green Paper on Language Life in China [中国语言生活绿皮书]).

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On the level of language, color papers feature the distinctive characteristics of the style of academic reports. These specifically manifest as: (1) Declarative and imperative sentences are used most frequently, in straightforward statements of the objective situation, statistical data, and sample cases, without any literary embellishments, emphasizing precision and specialization, concretely expressed as the use of a high volume of technical terms, statistical figures, diagrams and tables. (2) A high volume of discipline-specific technical terms are used, such as wujia (物价, ‘commodity prices’), “GDP,” neixu (内需, ‘domestic demand’), gangxu (刚需, ‘inelastic demand’), shengyu laodongli (剩余劳动力, ‘surplus labor force’), jinsuo xiaoying (紧缩效应, ‘contractionary effect’), CASS zhishu (CASS 指数, ‘CASS index’), et cetera in papers in the economics category, shehui jiegou (社会结构, ‘social structure’), shehui xintai (社会心态, ‘social psychology’), yuqing fenxi (舆情分析, ‘sentiment analysis’), chengxiang yitihua (城乡一体化, ‘urban-rural integration’), et cetera in papers in the society category, as well as yuyan guihua (语言规划, ‘language planning’), yuyan chongtu (语言冲突, ‘language conflict’), Hanyu guoji chuanbo (汉语国际传播, ‘Chinese language globalization’), liuxing yu (流行语, ‘popular phrases’), yuyan shetuan (语言社团, ‘language community’), and so on in papers in the language category. (3) The use of statistical data as “explanation” is championed: apart from numbers, which are seen ubiquitously through the text, there are also a large number of diagrams and tables; in the example of Analysis and Predictions of Economic Trends in China in 2012 (2012 年中国经济形势分析与预测), the paper as a whole included a total of 32 articles and a total of 119 diagrams and tables, averaging 3.7 diagrams and tables per article. It is particularly worth noting the subtlety of the generalizing and predictive statements in papers: for instance, commonly-used phrases describing the overall economic situation include gaosu zengzhang (高速增长, ‘high-speed growth’), zhong gaosu zengzhang (中高速增长, ‘mid-to high-speed growth’), wenjian zengzhang (稳健增长, ‘steady growth’), pingwen kuaisu (平稳快速, ‘steady and rapid’), pingwen jiao kuai (平稳较快, ‘steady and relatively rapid’), disu zengzhang (低速增长, ‘low-speed growth’), zengzhang huanzhong quwen (增长缓中趋稳, ‘slow but steady growth’), quhuan (趋缓, ‘slowdown’), fanghuan (放缓, ‘slowing’), wenzhong lüe jiang (稳中略降, ‘slight decline amidst stability’), shuaitui (衰退, ‘recession’), dafu xiahua (大幅下滑, ‘substantial decline’), huanman fusu (缓慢复苏, ‘slow recovery’), fusu gonggu (复苏巩固, ‘consolidation of the recovery’), zhidie huisheng (止跌回升, ‘rebound’), qiwen xianghao (企 稳向好, ‘steady improvement’), dafu huinuan (大幅回暖, ‘substantial warming’), and so on; the semantic differences between these terms are quite refined, reflecting the complexity of the underlying situational changes behind economic data.

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2.4 Word usage Word usage in color papers clearly exhibits the lexical characteristics of the given field, in that papers in different fields use specialized terminology corresponding to different disciplines and domains. For instance: High-frequency words unique to the field of culture included: yishu pin (艺术品, ‘work of art’), yingshi (影视, ‘film and television’), yanyi (演艺, ‘performing arts’), chuangyi (创意, ‘creativity’), banquan (版权, ‘copyright’), piaofang (票房, ‘box office’), chubanye (出版业, ‘publishing industry’), shuzihua shiting (数字化视 听, ‘digitalized audiovisual’), and yinyue (音乐, ‘music’); high-frequency words unique to the field of society included: nanxing (男性, ‘men’), chuzhong (初中, ‘junior secondary school’), juweihui (居委会, ‘residents’ committee’), shequ fuwu (社 区服务, ‘community services’), ruxue (入学, ‘enrollment’), benke (本科, ‘undergraduate’), zhai jidi (宅基地, ‘homestead’), yuanxiao (院校, ‘schools and universities’), laodong hetong (劳动合同, ‘labor contract’), dagong (打工, ‘odd-job work’), and so on; high-frequency words unique to the field of the environment included: liuyu (流域, ‘watershed’), Poyang hu (鄱阳湖, ‘Poyang Lake’), Changbai shan (长白 山, ‘Paektu Mountain’), shihua (石化, ‘petrochemical’), ziran baohu qu (自然保 护区, ‘nature preserve’), Huai he (淮河, ‘Huai River’), wuranwu (污染物, ‘pollutant’), wuran yuan (污染源, ‘pollution source’), shuizhi (水质, ‘water quality’), huanbao ju (环保局, ‘bureau of environmental protection’), and so on; high-frequency words unique to the field of economics included: guomin shouru (国民收入, ‘national income’), xiaofei shui (消费税, ‘consumption tax’), diefu (跌幅, ‘decline’), chu (储, ‘reserves’), shuizhong (税种, ‘tax category’), wujia zhishu (物价指数, ‘price index’), tequ zhengfu (特区政府 Special Administrative Region government), shangpin shichang (商品市场, ‘commodity market’), zengzhi shui (增值税, ‘valueadded tax’), fuzhai (负债, ‘debt’); and high-frequency words unique to the field of politics include: nanmin (难民, ‘refugee’), wuzhuang (武装, ‘arms’), kongbu zhuyi (恐怖主义, ‘terrorism’), Afuhan (阿富汗, ‘Afghanistan’), Anlihui (安理会, ‘Security Council’), lingtu (领土, ‘territory’), Jinghe zuzhi (经合组织, ‘Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’), leng zhan (冷战, ‘Cold War’), Beiyue (北 约, ‘NATO’), gongji (攻击, ‘strike’). The characteristics of color papers in terms of textual format and language usage demonstrate their unique traits and value as informative texts, but also result in certain limitations. The comprehensive and detailed materials, reliable data, sound theories, and rigorous analysis set a high reading threshold for readers, and it is necessary to have a certain background in specialized knowledge in order to derive the requisite information from papers. The pursuit of a rigorous and comprehensive style of academic discourse in color papers also sacrifices linguistic simplicity to a certain extent. The majority of color papers

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feature excessively dense scholarliness in their language, and do not do enough to achieve their advisory and informational functions.

3 Considerations and recommendations Over the last few years, papers have seen rapid development, and the writing and issuance of papers has drawn a high degree of attention from government and social administration departments at all levels, as well as a variety of industries and regions; however, there are still certain problems worth consideration.

3.1 Boosting the utilization of papers Papers have already become an important category of public reading matter: they use real, specific, comprehensive and accurate data to reflect every level of social life, and play an important cognitive role in our authentic and detailed understanding of every aspect of contemporary social life, as well as understanding of the policies, approaches and measures of administrators and builders in our society; as such, they deserve to be fully utilized by modern social organizations and individuals.

3.2 Improving the readability of language in papers Papers have assumed increasingly important functions, and researchers, writers and publishers must grant a high degree of attention to writing papers, making more efforts with respect to their composition and arrangement, the use of styles, wording and phrasing, the presentation of data, and so on, so as to improve the expressiveness of their language, and make them more popularized and readable.

References State Council Information Office (国务院新闻办公室). 2011. The Peaceful Development of China (中国的和平发展). Website of the State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China: http://www.scio.gov.cn/zfbps/ndhf/2011/Document/1000032/1000032.htm.

Chen Xiaoran (陈晓冉), Zhou Yaqiong (周亚琼), and Ding Shuxian (丁淑贤)

19 Report on language phenomena on the Chinese Internet In 2014, China celebrated its 20th anniversary of fully functional access to the international Internet. Over the last 20 years, from tapping at the keyboard and clicking with the mouse, to swiping with a fingertip, the virtual world and the real world have run parallel to one another, transforming the mode of existence of human civilization. Since 2003, the Chinese Internet has experienced explosive growth, with increasing diversification of web applications, and a continuously climbing number of netizens. As of December 2014, the scale of Chinese netizens had reached 649 million, and the number of mobile phone netizens had furthermore reached 557 million (China Internet Network Information Center 2015). As an accompaniment to the continuous development of the Internet, the online projection of social interactions and public opinion has become increasingly apparent: in particular, the formalization of the public discursive ecology by new media technology has allowed the Internet to gradually become a mainstream media platform. The high volume of Internet slang which emerges each year has furthermore become a clear projection of the popular mood in a given time period, while simultaneously influencing traditional media and publications, and even becoming the jargon of social interactions in public life. The shifting flow of Internet slang is witness to the transformation of Chinese society, recording the changes in temperature in public sentiment in China, influencing the value orientation of society, and even impacting ethnic culture and language systems to a certain extent.

1 The netizen psychology underlying slang terms Based on statistical results for the number of mentions on Sina Weibo, as well as its own Chinese-Language Periodical System, the People.com Media Opinion Monitoring Office selected the top 25 Internet slang terms to conduct an analysis of online language phenomena in China in 2014; for details, see Table 1.

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Table 1: Ranking of Internet slang terms in 2014.1 Ranking Slang term

Search results in Chinese-language periodicals (use in titles)

Number of mentions on Weibo



,,



mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’)



doubi (逗比, ‘dopey’)



,,



wo ye shi zui le (我也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too too’)



,,



qie xing qie zhenxi (且行且珍惜, ‘cherish life’)



,,



zhang zishi (涨姿势, ‘gaining knowledge’)



,,



xinsai (心塞, ‘heart blockage’)



,,



nuannan (暖男, ‘warm guy’)



,,



mai mai mai (买买买, ‘buy buy buy’)



,,



ye shi man pin de (也是蛮拼的, ‘working so hard’)



,,



bige (逼格, ‘big’)



,,



huamian tai mei wo bu gan kan (画面太 美我不敢看, ‘the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look’)



,,



xiao xianrou (小鲜肉, ‘little fresh meat’)



,,



name wenti lai le (那么问题来了, ‘then there’s a problem’)



,,



no zuo no die (‘asking for trouble’)



,,



nao dong da kai (脑洞大开, ‘mind-blowing’)



,,



you qian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’)



,,

1 Sources of data: Sina Weibo (新浪微博), Chinese-Language Periodical System of the People. com Media Opinion Monitoring Office (人民网舆情监测室中文报刊系统). Time period for data: January 1 – December 31, 2014.

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Table 1 (continued) Ranking Slang term

Search results in Chinese-language periodicals (use in titles)

Number of mentions on Weibo



shijian dou qu na le (时间都去哪了, ‘where did the time go’)



,,



baozheng bu dasi ni (保证不打死你, ‘I promise not to beat you to death’)



,,



wo dushu shao ni bie pian wo (我读书 少你别骗我, ‘I don’t have much education, so don’t try to fool me’)



,,



Xi dada (习大大, ‘Daddy Xi’)



,,



shang tiantai (上天台, ‘going to the rooftop’)



,,



shenme chou shenme yuan (什么仇什 么怨, ‘what hatred, what enmity’)



,,



ni jiali ren zhidao ma? (你家里人知道 吗, ‘Does your family know?’)



,,



wajue ji jishu najia qiang (挖掘机技术 哪家强, ‘who has the best excavator technology’)



,,



APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’)



,,

1.1 Highly creative vocabulary, semantics still linked to psychology Emerging Internet slang varies by the year, but a link to social psychology still lies at its core. Although public topics do not represent a very high proportion of Internet slang, netizens’ interest in national public issues is reflected. For instance, with respect to environmental issues, 2014 saw the birth of APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’). In discussing the derisive term APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’) with the public, Xi Jinping (习近平) conveyed the government’s resolve for environmental governance to netizens, causing the formerly mocking expression to experience a transformation and gain institutional recognition, while simultaneously strengthening netizens’ sense of participation in public affairs.

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Terms and expressions for affective topics still represent the majority of Internet slang, as people need new words for application to dynamic affective topics. Terms from xiao qingxin (小清新, ‘fresh’) and nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’) to xiao xianrou (小鲜肉, ‘little fresh meat’) and nuannan (暖男, ‘warm guy’), and from lei jue bu ai (累觉不爱, ‘tired, feeling no love’) to qie xing qie zhenxi (且行且 珍惜, ‘cherish life’) all fall under this category. Internet slang not only exhibits the impotent feeling of mockery, but also the beautiful feeling of hope. Phrases which can express attitudes toward current affairs and mockery of one’s companions in online exchanges, such as shenme chou shenme yuan (什么仇什么怨, ‘what hatred, what enmity’), wo ye shi zui le (我也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too’), ye shi man pin de (也是蛮拼的, ‘working so hard’), like their predecessors Yuanfang, ni zenme kan (元芳, 你怎么看, ‘Yuanfang, what do you think’), tangzhe ye zhongqiang (躺着也中枪, ‘get shot even when lying down’), and ni xingfu ma (你幸福 吗, ‘are you happy’), have become fashionable in the online and offline worlds. It is clear that both the grander contemporary narrative and the microcosmic experiences of life are deconstructed and restructured by drawing on the wisdom of netizens, becoming inexhaustible wellsprings for the use of Internet slang, and displaying bidirectional linkage with social psychology.

1.2 Slang terms quickly come and go in “wave-style consumption” From the circumstances of the dissemination of many different Internet slang terms, we can see that superposition of the trend curves for their dissemination can form a clear wave shape. To borrow the concept of pailang shi xiaofei (排浪 式消费, ‘wave-style consumption’)2 in economics, the dissemination, ascendance, decline and fading of Internet slang can be viewed as the public consumption of an online linguistic product. The phenomenon of pailang shi xiaofei (排浪式消费, ‘wave-style consumption’) of Internet slang primarily occurs for three reasons. First, Internet slang terms are largely based on trending incidents online, and are characterized by baozha shi (爆炸式, ‘explosive’) dissemination; at the same time, they are subject to the dissemination cycles of trending incidents, thus the hotting up and fading of shenme chou shenme yuan (什么仇什么怨, ‘what hatred, what enmity’), wajue

2 Pailang shi xiaofei (排浪式消费, ‘wave-style consumption’): by the time that the individual can afford to buy a new consumer good, the majority of people have also reached the phase of affordability, thus swiftly giving rise to a wave of consumption.

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ji jishu najia qiang (挖掘机技术哪家强, ‘who has the best excavator technology’), and other slang terms occurs at a rapid pace. Secondly, trending incidents are constantly emerging online, causing new Internet slang terms to divert and dilute the use of existing slang terms. Finally, if the semantic meaning of an Internet slang term does not exhibit universality for application in different contexts, as in the case of qie xing qie zhenxi (且行且珍惜, ‘cherish life’), baozheng bu dasi ni (保证不打死你, ‘I promise not to beat you to death’), and so on, then it is more difficult for netizens to apply them in day-to-day online expression over a long period of time.

1.3 Internet expression trends toward convergence, and online resonance transcends offline social class An analysis of age, gender, and other attributes among 25 groups of Internet slang users found that the use of Internet slang does not exhibit clear demographic characteristics. Middle-class users in first-tier cities can take selfies in the sun with their friends at upmarket restaurants, and pair them with the description mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’); while a young migrant laborer in a third-tier city can similarly revel in the expression mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’) in a photo with a cartoon character on a street corner. The upper class, middle class, and lower class, senior secondary students, college students, and overseas returnees all display a clear trend of convergence. The mentality of pursuing fads, appreciating new trends, and eagerly taking the lead on popular fashions, as well as feelings of anxiety in real society, have caused white-collar people struggling to buy property and rural migrant workers toiling at their jobs to develop resonance through their life experiences of ye shi man pin de (也是蛮拼的, ‘working so hard’) and xinsai (心塞, ‘heart blockage’). It is clear that Internet slang is playing an increasingly prominent role in terms of the discursive focus and emotional expression in the lives of individuals. As a manifestation of the commonality of mass psychology, in comparison with offline differences in social class, Internet slang can more easily attain universal acceptance.

1.4 Retreat of the “angry youth mentality,” highlighting of the “grassroots mentality” Professor Lian Si (廉思), who proposed the concept of the yizu (蚁族, ‘ant tribe’), argues that, “A contemporary youth faces the most complex period in Chinese

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history: an array of ideologies, from populism and liberalism to Neo-Confucianism and the New Left, all surround him and exercise an effect” (Lian & Yuan 2014). In the wake of the ideological impacts ushered in by the Internet, difficulties have emerged in the formation of a stable value system. This has given rise to feelings of helplessness in real life while being powerless to change things, thus people have relied on self-deprecation to gain momentary relief. An examination of Internet slang in 2014 found that online language such as shi Zhongguoren jiu ding (是中国人就顶, ‘bump if you’re Chinese’) and bu zhuan bu shi Zhongguoren (不转不是中国人, ‘if you don’t repost, you’re not Chinese’) is currently on the decline, while you qian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’) and other Internet phrases are more an expression of self-mockery, ridicule or dissatisfaction among netizens (of course, there is no lack of genuinely xuanfu [炫富, ‘ostentatious’] behavior). Chou fu (仇富, ‘hating the rich’) has shifted to shuan fu (涮富, ‘duping the rich’), while the seemingly absolutist phrase youqian (有钱, ‘rich’) is given equal weight alongside the more playful complaint renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’); the nuhuo (怒火, ‘flames of fury’) of the angry youth seem to have abated, while light and humorous tucao (吐槽, ‘roasting’) is on the rise. Under the present circumstances of the mounting barriers for grander narratives to become part of the online discursive system, the fenqing xintai (愤青心态, ‘angry youth mentality’) has gradually retreated, while more of a spotlight has been placed on the caogen xintai (草根心态, ‘grass roots mentality’).

2 Linguistic norms and cultural sedimentation on the Internet 2.1 Rich Chinese-language expression, recording changes in society Over the course of development of the Internet, the flourishing rise of social networks has ushered in a wealth of Internet slang: although it is impossible to verify which slang terms were the first to emerge, their original purpose was always to express an accurate and special significance through the limited transmission of information. Looking back on history, prior to the birth of the Internet, slang terms were already widespread. In the early Republican period, De xiansheng (德 先生, ‘Mr. Democracy’) and Sai xiansheng (赛先生, ‘Mr. Science’) were all the rage; after the founding of new China, san fan wu fan (三反五反, ‘the three oppositions and the five oppositions’), diaogansheng (调干生, ‘transferred cadre student’), and tie guniang (铁姑娘, ‘iron girl’) encapsulated the historical events of

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the era; since the Opening and Reforms, hama jing (蛤蟆镜, ‘sunglasses’), dagongzai (打工仔, ‘hireling’), nongmingong (农民工, ‘rural migrant worker’), xiaozi (小资, ‘petit bourgeoisie’), and other terms have recorded the striking transformation of society. These once-popular terms are vehicles for historical information and the enormous changes which have taken place in Chinese society, culture, ideology, and other fields. The emergence and development of the Internet has allowed each netizen to hold a certain right to speak. The binary separation of official language and commentary in the streets has given way to evident linguistic hedging on the Internet: social expression no longer manifests as a unitary state, but rather displays the characteristic of plural coexistence. The discursive equality, decentralization, and deconstruction of authority ushered in by the Internet are the primary reasons for the constant stream of emerging Internet slang. In the wake of changes to society, language must undergo constant development and innovation, and Internet slang is no exception. When existing words in the Chinese language are inadequate for expressing some novel thing or attitude, an Internet slang term emerges as the times demand. The character jiong (囧, ‘sad’) originally signified brightness and light, but on the Internet, it has been assigned the meanings of gloominess, helplessness, and sorrow. During the era of The Bamboo Annals (竹书纪年), a single Chinese character could often bear profound connotations: although the Internet slang of today appears to have a simple morphology, it should not be viewed as superficial. The constant enrichment of language in the Internet Information Age has been nourished to a great extent by the absorption of Internet slang. From the perspective of social development, Internet slang is confirmation of the pluralization of society and culture during a given period. Internet slang has even more historical value when examined from the perspective of sociology and psychology to analyze the social situation and public opinion in a certain period. This is despite the fact that netizens’ use of slang terms does not involve a careful investigation of their original connotations, but rather a desire for expression stimulated by a particular context, regarding the terms as a method of expression. For instance, you qian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’) was originally coined to mock the irrational behavior displayed by an elderly individual in Ningbo on encountering telecommunications fraud, but it also featured elements of playful complaining and self-deprecation, which undoubtedly resonated with the life circumstances of individuals in contemporary society. Compared with the ethnic divisions and the mentality of hating the rich which have emerged on the foundation of flames of fury on the Internet, you qian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’) was perhaps a response by the public and individuals to laugh off the circumstances of reality.

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Internet slang is not merely a byway of culture: the comprehensive influence of the Internet on social life has already allowed Internet slang to become part of the process of social and cultural propagation, which cannot be overlooked – this is an indisputable fact. The enrichment of expression in the Chinese language by Internet slang and its service as a record of changes in society should be accepted, acknowledged, and respected.

2.2 Dismantling Chinese word formations and detracting from the cultural ambience The Internet and reality serve as two aspects of society: their fundamental language requirement is the health of our civilization, but as in real life, the phenomena of crudeness, vulgarity and coarseness are also present in online language: people hope that Internet slang can enrich the soil of Internet culture, rather than proliferating without taboos to pollute the land of Internet culture. Norms in the use of language are established by convention in the course of the development of human societies, and language norms have clear associations with settings, functions, user status, and so on. Given the enormous influence of online language on real culture, absorbing its best elements while discarding the dregs is an appropriate and pertinent approach. It is not difficult to see that vulgar words and expressions are essentially an extension of language in real life, largely consisting of homophones or transformations of uncivilized language. Examples include ni ma (尼玛, ‘sun / your mother’), qunian mai le ge biao (去年买了个表, ‘bought a watch last year / f – your mother’), and so on. Some netizens believe that this form of expression is comparatively tactful, or even implies good taste, but it is clear that the actual significance of such phrases is crude, and furthermore represents the careless vulgarization of terms like nima (尼玛, ‘sun’), which signifies the “sun” in the Tibetan language (nyima). Of course, filtration and elimination naturally occur through turnover and changes to online language, and it is not necessary to engage in detailed official regulation in this respect: observational reports and cultural critiques by private individuals and professional organizations have greater effect as a warning for the public, thus facilitating self-discipline among netizens, with greater flexibility of governance. If grassroots culture on the Internet were left completely to its own devices, it would detract from the heights of our culture and the character of our civilization. In addition, the high volume of words and expressions coined online not only shows the intelligence of netizens, but also exhibits a certain phenomenon of dismantling the rigor of the Chinese language. For instance, four-character

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neologisms like ren jian bu zhe (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’) (life is already so difficult, some things shouldn’t be exposed) are similar in form to chengyu (成语, ‘idioms’), yet are quite different from chengyu in terms of their connotations, which is something that ordinary netizens may not be able to understand. Another type of online word formation cannot be described as anything other than poor taste exhibited by a subculture or even counterculture. For instance, the word zhuangbi (装逼, ‘fake it’) has not only produced the hybrid term zhuangbility (‘ability to fake it’), combining Chinese pinyin and English, but has also given rise to the so-called style of “faking it” – bige (逼格, ‘big’). The line “bigger than bigger” (more than big) which the Apple Company used in advertisements for the iPhone 6 in 2014 was parodied in the phrase bi bige geng bige (比逼格更逼格, ‘even bigger than bigger’). The author Yu Hua (余华) has criticized some writers for focusing on descriptions of the neifenmi (内分泌, ‘endocrine’) rather than neixin (内心, ‘heart’): the dividing line between popular and low-brow in literature similarly applies to Internet slang. Purely pursuing the entertainment aspect and attracting eyeballs, and the unconstrained use of phrases like diaobao le (碉堡了, ‘blockhouse / f – until exploding’), danteng (蛋疼, ‘ball ache’), wo suibian qilai bu shi ren (我随便起来不是人, ‘once I unleash myself, I’m wild’) is not only vulgar, frivolous, and harmful to the rigor and subtleties of the Chinese language, in the contemporary language environment of the general rejection of pornographic sketch comedy, it constitutes a new form of language harassment. It should be noted that the Internet should not reject intelligent clowning and wisecracking, nor should it be cut off from the expression of dissatisfaction with social reality and venting through slang, but crudeness, vulgarization, and counterculture should be subjected to strict cultural criticism. Even if such online language phenomena are rooted in social reality, how can they attain legitimacy through low-brow vulgarity? Furthermore, once a vicious cycle of mutual hijacking forms between such Internet slang terms and social reality, it goes without saying that spiritual culture will not move in the direction of refined elegance, but rather toward coarse withering.

2.3 Internet slang and Chinese language norms The existence and development of Internet slang vividly reflects the social reality of the Internet Age: certain words and expressions have passed through cultural filtration and sedimentation to achieve universal acceptance by the media and the public, while humorous or insightful Internet slang terms are constantly enriching contemporary Chinese-language culture; however, the phenomena of

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vulgarity, coarseness and even counterculture within Internet slang also serve to dismantle the Chinese language and detract from the cultural ambience on the Internet. From the perspective of use by netizens, the negative feelings and irritable mentality displayed by Internet slang is not unpardonable, as the improvement of the public’s intellectual qualities and cultural accomplishments cannot happen overnight; given the discursive equality of the Internet Age, netizens furthermore cannot be expected to exhibit chukou chengzhang (出口成章, ‘the eloquence of a master’). Thus, there are no irreconcilable conflicts between Internet slang and the norms of the Chinese language. With respect to how to discard the dregs and preserve the essence of Internet slang, and improve cultural taste, the column “Reporters’ Notes” (记者观察) in the People’s Daily (人民 日报) proposed on April 11, 2014, that, in the standardized use of language, “The media is the model, civil servants are the leaders, the service industry is the window, and schools are the foundation.” The media is an important avenue by which Internet slang makes its way into the further reaches of social spaces, and it is an established international convention that the use of language in the media should be standardized: that the use of Internet slang is fully able to draw lessons from conventional norms has been clearly proven through the earlier systematization and standardization of variant word forms. During the 1980s, when the term aizibing (艾滋病, ‘AIDS’) began emerging in periodicals, the variants aizi (艾滋) and aizi (爱滋) were used interchangeably for a time; in order to avoid the connotations of zi (滋, ‘growing’) disease through ai (爱, ‘love’), the Ministry of Health standardized the name as aizibing (艾滋病, ‘AIDS’). An analysis of word frequency in the People’s Daily (人民日报) in 2014 found that aizibing (艾滋病, ‘AIDS’) appeared 257 times, while aizibing (爱滋病, ‘AIDS’) appeared 0 times. Similarly, the essential core of the use of Internet slang still centers on the accurate expression of meaning and clear connotations: the terms geili (给力, ‘awesome’) and ye shi man pin de (也是蛮拼 的, ‘working so hard’) have both been published in the People’s Daily, demonstrating recognition of the value and vitality of Internet slang. With respect to the diversity and individualization of Internet slang, more education and guidance should be provided. In recent years, university presidents have inserted Internet slang into their addresses at university commencement ceremonies to express a good rapport; although this has been somewhat controversial in education circles, this has not prevented the venues from bursting out in thunderous applause. With respect to the controversy over whether or not Internet slang should be accepted in college entrance examination essays, it is likely that supporters would be able to identify with the use of geili (给力,

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‘awesome’), but they would not necessarily be able to understand or accept the appearance of jiangzi (酱紫, ‘burgundy red / like this’; originally a typo for zhe yangzi [这样子, ‘like this’]) or diaobao le (碉堡了, ‘blockhouse / f – until exploding’). It is thus clear that, within education and teaching, Internet slang should be approached with a “prudent and not hasty, tolerant but strict” attitude. The development of the times is such that we cannot disregard the existence of Internet slang, but neither wholesale acceptance without standardization nor wholesale rejection without differentiation are advisable. The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary (现代汉语词典), which serves as the benchmark for language standards in China, has experienced constant revisions and absorption of new words and phrases since it was first published in 1978. The 6th edition in 2012 included zhai (宅, ‘homebody’), shanzhai (山寨, ‘knockoff’), caogen (草根, ‘grassroots’), fensi (粉丝, ‘fans’), shanhun (闪婚, ‘lightning wedding’), and other popular Internet phrases; at the same time, it rejected shengnan (剩男, ‘leftover men’), shengnü (剩女, ‘leftover women’), and other expressions with discriminatory overtones. Although the current understanding of linguistic purity within linguistics circles has transcended the People’s Daily (人民日报) editorial of June 6, 1951, the belles-lettres traditions of the Chinese language have still been passed down from generation to generation. Mr. Pang Pu (庞朴) once admiringly observed that, “Each character in the Chinese language has soul.” It is therefore clear that inheriting the traditions of Chinese belles-lettres and maintaining national language standards are still the foundation on which the nation stands, and should be upheld in the course of modernization and globalization. A string of controversies has arisen in recent years with respect to Internet slang and the normativeness of language. The endless stream of emerging slang expresses the self-identity of online communities. At the same time, Internet slang has produced an outgrowth of wave-style consumption in relation to trending social incidents. Only a minority of slang terms pass through semantic sedimentation to ultimately become part of the common language, while the majority struggle to persist, let alone truly having an impact on Chinese-language culture. Therefore, we need not regard Internet slang as a great scourge that will ruin the coherence of Chinese writing: in the macroscopic sense, there is no need for excessive intervention, as society and history will naturally carry out fair and effective screening. However, the aspect of microscopic applications cannot be brushed aside: applied standards for the media, moderation in the field of education, and prudence in the publishing industry are unquestionably key in preventing certain Internet slang terms from polluting both the virtual spaces and the real world, and thus upholding linguistic norms and cultural health.

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References China Internet Network Information Center (中国互联网信息中心). 2015. CNNIC releases the 35th ‘Statistical Report on Internet Development in China’ (CNNIC 发布第 35 次《中国互联 网络发展状况统计报告》). http://cnnic.cn/gywm/xwzx/rdxw/2015/201502/t20150203_ 51631.htm. Lian, Si (廉思) & Yuan, Xunhui (袁训会). 2014. Seeking knowledge: Lian Si discusses the existential difficulties of China’s lower-class youths and the way forward (问学: 廉思谈中 国底层青年的生存困境和出路). Consensus Network (共识网), http://www.21ccom.net/ar ticles/china/gqmq/20141113116139.html.

Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Wang Hui (王慧), and Luo Qingping (罗清平)

20 State of development of the Confucius Institutes In the decade since the cooperation agreement for the first Confucius Institute was signed in 2004 until 2014, the Confucius Institutes have grown and expanded out of nothing, gradually evolving into important platforms for Sinoforeign cultural exchanges, and becoming bridges to promote understanding and friendship between the peoples of nations around the world. China has already established 475 Confucius Institutes and 851 Confucius Classrooms in 126 countries and regions around the world, with a cumulative total of 3.45 million registered students (Liu 2014).

1 Celebration of ten years On September 27, 2014, the inaugural ceremony for the first global “Confucius Institute Day” (孔子学院日) was held in Beijing to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the Confucius Institutes. Vice Premier Liu Yandong (刘延东) of the State Council read letters of congratulations from Xi Jinping (习近平) and Li Keqiang (李克强) and delivered a speech at the inaugural ceremony, expressing warm congratulations and sincere respects to the teachers and students at Confucius Institutes around the world (Zhao 2014). Xi Jinping noted that, “The Confucius Institutes belong to China, and also belong to the world.” On that day, nearly 1200 Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms in 123 countries and regions around the world simultaneously held a variety of Chinese language and cultural experiences and activities at a total of more than 3000 venues; the Confucius Institute Headquarters and Confucius Institutes in various locations also held a diverse series of celebratory activities, including calligraphy competitions, logo photography competitions, poetry competitions, and so on; in addition, the Headquarters also sent more than 30 teams to visit 154 Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms in 40 countries to put on literature and art performance tours, cultural exhibition tours, and expert lecture tours (2004–2014 Confucius Institute 10th Anniversary Special Topic Website 2014).

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-020

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Over the last 10 years, the number of Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms rose quickly during the first four years, and entered a period of steady growth beginning in 2008. For the concrete data and distribution, see Tables 1 and 2. Table 1: Number of Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms worldwide (2004–2014).1 Year

Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms Number (entities)

Respective country or region

Growth rate (%) Number (locations) Growth rate (%)











































































































As of year-end 2014, a total of 100,000 full- and part-time teachers, volunteers, and administrative personnel have successively taken part in the work of the Confucius Institutes, training local teachers in over 100 countries for 200,000 person-times, and recruiting 25,000 individuals to come to China to pursue degrees and advanced studies; 5052 overseas students with “Confucius Institute Scholarships” (孔子学院奖学金) from more than 100 countries have successively come to China to pursue Master’s degrees in international Chinese-language education, and more than 3500 have already graduated, with the majority of the students returning to their countries after graduation to engage in Chinese-language education work.

1 See the annual reports of the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban for 2006–2014 (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, http://www.hanban.edu.cn).

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Table 2: Distribution of Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms worldwide (2014).2 Confucius Institutes Country or region (locations)

Confucius Classrooms

Confucius Institutes Country or region (entities) (location)

Confucius Classroms (entities)

Asia









Africa









Europe









Americas









Oceania

















Total

Source of Data: On the Confucius Institutes / Classrooms (关于孔子学院/课堂), Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, http://www.hanban.edu.cn/confuciousinstitutes/ node_10961.htm.

A total of 3169 products have been developed by the Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban), including copyrighted teaching materials, reading matter, reference books, and so on, in forms encompassing paper, audiovisual, CD-ROMs, and so on. Among these, side-by-side editions in 45 languages are available for 9 core textbooks and reference books; 221 Confucius Institutes in 73 countries have developed 648 sets and 868 volumes of local teaching materials suited to the local teaching syllabus and examination standards. The number of testing sites for the Chinese Proficiency Test (Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi, HSK) has already reached 875 worldwide, distributed across 114 countries and regions. HSK certificates have become a necessary prerequisite to apply for scholarships to study abroad in China, as well as an important method for school teaching evaluations; in addition, government departments and transnational enterprises in an increasing number of countries regard them as an important basis for employee recruitment, salary raises, and promotions. A variety of cultural exchange activities have been held at nearly 100,000 venues, drawing an audience of 50 million people; 140,000 teachers, students, university presidents and so on from more than 120 countries have been invited to visit China; over 500,000 primary, secondary and university students from

2 See the annual reports of the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban for 2006–2014 (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, http://www.hanban.edu.cn).

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more than 100 countries have participated in “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) competitions; and special activities for Chinese medicine, martial arts, cooking, occupational skills training, and so on have been proactively held.

2 Administrative characteristics Under the premise of adhering to a unified charter, system, and so on, the Confucius Institutes have striven to integrate their advantages with the concrete environment of the country or region in which they are located, with each following a distinctive path.

2.1 Establishment of the “Chinese-foreign enterprise-school cooperation” model In contrast with the previous “Chinese-foreign university cooperation” model, in 2014, a number of Chinese-foreign enterprises began providing funding support for the construction of Confucius Institutes at relevant universities, establishing the “Chinese-foreign enterprise-school cooperation” model, and implementing the principle of “commitment to government support and private operation” for the administration of Confucius Institutes. In March 2014, the Confucius Institute Headquarters respectively signed the Cooperation Agreement on the Confucius Institute at Agostinho Neto University, Angola (安哥拉内图大学 孔子学院合作协议) and the Strategic Cooperation Agreement for the International Promotion of the Chinese Language (国际汉语推广战略合作协议) with Agostinho Neto University and CITIC Construction Co., Ltd. The Confucius Institute at Agostinho Neto University is the first Confucius Institute in the country of Angola, as well as the first Confucius Institute to be established with the participation of a local Chinese-funded enterprise (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website 2014a). In September, Xu Lin (许琳), the Chief Executive of the Confucius Institute Headquarters and Director of the Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) stated at the “Forum on the Participation of Chinese-Funded Organization in the Construction of Confucius Institutes” (中资 机构参与孔子学院建设座谈会) that more Chinese-funded enterprises are welcomed to participate in the construction of Confucius Institutes (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website 2014b).

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2.2 Establishment of special Confucius Institutes and Classrooms As of 2014, the Confucius Institute of Creative Technologies established at De Montfort University in the United Kingdom will no longer be limited to the dissemination of Chinese language and Chinese culture, but will simultaneously utilize creative technologies to achieve breakthroughs with respect to scholarship, culture, and other areas, providing students with individualized futures (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website 2014c); the Confucius Institute at the University of Novi Sad in Serbia, which is the 2nd institute to be established in the country, adopted the distinguishing feature of the dissemination of tea culture for the first time (Wang Hui 2014); and the world’s first scientific and technical Confucius Institute was established in Belarus (Chen & Zhong 2014). In May 2014, the Confucius Classroom at Ravenswood School for Girls was established as a subsidiary of the Confucius Institute at the University of New South Wales in Australia: this was the first Confucius Classroom established by that institute at a non-public school in the Sydney region (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website 2014d). The Confucius Institute at the University of Dodoma in Tanzania has established a Chinese language major at the university, while simultaneously offering Chinese language elective courses at the University of Dodoma as well as the Muslim University of Morogoro. In addition, this Confucius Institute is also collaborating with the Ministry of Education of Tanzania on plans to make the Chinese language an elective course at secondary schools in the country as well as a subject on the college entrance exam by 2015 (Bi 2014).

3 Personnel training In 2014, the Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms worldwide had 29,000 Chinese and foreign, full- and part-time teachers (of whom local teachers represented 70% in each country), meeting the requirements for the public to study Chinese in each country (Chen 2014).

3.1 Institute director training In July 2014, 40 foreign Confucius Institute directors from 21 countries around the world gathered at Xiamen University to take part in a ten-day advanced study

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program. During the advanced study program, the students discussed the plans for mid- to long-term development of the Confucius Institutes as well as new measures for improving the quality of educational administration at Confucius Institutes, shared in exchanges on their administrative experiences, explored the problems currently faced in the administration of Confucius Institutes, and sought approaches for their resolution. In August, an advanced study program for foreign Confucius Institute directors sponsored by the Confucius Institute Headquarters was held at East China Normal University in Shanghai, and more than 32 foreign Confucius Institute directors from 24 countries and regions participated (Xinhuanet 2014a).

3.2 Teacher training In July 2014, an “Advanced Workshop on Culture and the Sustainable Development of International Chinese-Language Education” (文化与国际汉语教 育可持续发展高级讲习班) sponsored by the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) and the International Society for Chinese Language Teaching and hosted by Chinese Language & Culture College of Beijing Normal University was held at Beijing Normal University. Xu Jialu (许嘉璐), Gu Bin (顾彬) and other well-known Chinese and foreign experts in the fields of Chinese-language education, Sinology, and the science of culture were invited to give special lectures at the workshop, with the aim of improving teachers’ competence in Chinese-foreign cultural comparison and the dissemination of Chinese culture; approximately 300 teachers and graduate students from 87 domestic institutions of higher education majoring in international Chinese-language education took part (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website 2014e). In November, the Central and Eastern Europe Chinese Language Teacher Training Center was established at the Confucius Institute at Eötvös Loránd University in Hungary, becoming the first regional organization established by the Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) overseas with the primary objective of training local Chinese-language teachers.

4 Educational resources In 2014, the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) dedicated efforts to the development of multilingual,

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multimedia Chinese-language educational resources, in forms encompassing paper, audiovisual, CD-ROMs, and so on.

4.1 Online and digital educational resources The latest list of online and digital Chinese-language educational resources recommended by the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) includes 15 online resources, such as the “(HaFala) Situational Online Animated Chinese Language Learning System” ([HaFala]情景式 在线动漫汉语学习系统), “Live China – iPanda” (直播中国 —— 熊猫频道), and “(MyEChinese) HSK Online Exercise / Mock Test System” ([MyEChinese] 新 HSK 模 考备考系统); as well as 18 digital APP products, including “Festivals at the Tip of the Tongue” (舌尖上的节日), “Traditional Chinese Art” (中国传统艺术), and “Hello Talk Global Language Learning Platform” (Hello Talk 全球语言学习平台) (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website 2014f). Among these, two online resources are highly representative. The first is the “Confucius Institute Digital Library” (孔子学院数字图书馆) established by the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban). This digital library provides a variety of e-books, pictures, periodicals, films and television, and other resources, and has implemented integrated retrieval, integrated navigation, online reading, and download services. The second is the web application platform “Guidelines for CLT Materials Development” (国际汉语教材编写 指南). This is a large-scale, practical web application platform created by several domestic and overseas scholars and experts organized by the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban), introducing the research methods of the scientific field of “categorical standardization,” and relying on the technologies of big data and digital processing.

4.2 International Curriculum for Chinese Language Education (国际汉语教学通用课程大纲) (Revised Edition) The International Curriculum for Chinese Language Education (国际汉语教学通用 课程大纲) (Revised Edition) was formally published in 2014 (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website 2014g). The curriculum provides classification, categorization and descriptions of course objectives, language skills, language knowledge, strategies, and cultural competence, et cetera; in addition, the structure of the course objectives is tied to the Chinese Proficiency Test (HSK) by level, allowing teaching, the compiling of teaching materials, skill evaluation, and

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other work in Chinese language classrooms to have a fairly clear and integrated basis for reference. The curriculum also provides a large amount of practical reference materials, including Initials, Finals and Tones in Chinese Pinyin (汉语拼音 声母、韵母与声调), A Six-Level Table of Common Chinese Characters (六级常用 汉语字表), List of Suggestions for Chinese-Language Education Topics and Content (汉语教学话题及内容建议表), and so on.

4.3 Local teaching materials In 2014, the Learner’s Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese (当代汉语学习词典) (Chinese-Italian Edition) compiled by the Confucius Institute at the University of Bologna was formally published and distributed in Italy by the Bologna University Press. It was collectively compiled by Chinese and foreign Chinese-language teachers at the institute with abundant teaching experience (Bao 2014).

5 Chinese-language examinations In August 2014, Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) held a Working Conference on Overseas Test Sites for Chinese-Language Examinations; 166 Confucius Institute directors, test site administrators, and so on from 52 countries and 147 test sites attended the conference. At the conference, the attendees engaged in exchanges on expanding the market for Chinese-language examinations and promoting the development of Confucius Institutes as well as efforts for the international popularization of the Chinese language; in addition, commendations were awarded to a group of outstanding test sites. In December 2014, the Confucius Institute at Phuket, Thailand, smoothly oversaw the 2014 Chinese Proficiency Test (HSK), with a total of 1539 examinees participating in the test. The Confucius Institute at Phuket has always upheld the concept of “promoting teaching through examinations, promoting learning through examinations, and integrating examinations and teaching” in the promotion of the HSK, and in the southern Thailand region, the number of those who have participated in the examination among primary, secondary and college students, as well as members of the public from all walks of life, is climbing year over year (Zhang Miaomiao 2014). The Confucius Institute at College West Flanders is currently the only Confucius Institute in Belgium offering the HSK: in June 2014, it successfully held its first HSK, in which a total of

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21 examinees registered to participate in the Level 1 through Level 4 examinations (Xiao 2014). When the test site of the Confucius Institute at the University of Turin in Italy and its various subordinate HSK test sites held the HSK in the same month, the number of people participating in the examination reached 380, among whom the number of Level 1 and 2 examinees set new records for the number of examination participants in the same period (Wang Qianru 2014). In October, the National Institute of Linguistics at the Teaching Station of the Confucius Institute at Tajik National University offered a special lecture course on the HSK for freshman students at the university, and a total of 63 students participated. This was the first special lecture course on the HSK held by the National Institute of Linguistics in Tajikistan (Yin 2014). In November, the Confucius Institute at Khon Kaen University in Thailand held the HSK for primary and secondary students for the first time in 2014, distributed across 10 test sites in 4 different provinces; more than 1800 examinees participated, setting a historical high for the number of participants in a single Chinese language examination at the Confucius Institute for that school (Zhang Yifan 2014). In December, the Confucius Classroom at Phuket Wittayalai School held an online HSK examination for the first time, with participation by more than 80 high school students (Li & Cai 2014).

6 Academic conferences In 2014, the 9th Confucius Institute Conference, the 4th World Conference on Sinology, and other academic seminars and conferences related to Chinese language globalization were held.

6.1 The 9th Confucius Institute Conference In December 2014, the 9th Confucius Institute Conference was held in Xiamen. The theme of the conference was “Welcoming another 10 years for the Confucius Institutes.” Liu Yandong (刘延东), the Vice Premier of the State Council and Chairwoman of the Council of the Confucius Institute Headquarters, laid out four hopes with respect to the future development of the Confucius Institutes: First, the hope that the Confucius Institutes would accelerate the promotion of localization, to spur integrated development; second, the hope that the Confucius Institutes would continuously strengthen improvements in quality, to spur essential development; third, the hope that the Confucius Institutes would expand the

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function of interpersonal exchanges, to spur diversified development; and fourth, the hope that the Confucius Institutes would establish innovative models for educational administration, to spur sustainable development. More than 2,000 representatives were invited to attend the conference, including the presidents of host universities for Confucius Institutes and Confucius Institute director from 126 countries and regions, as well as cooperating Chinese schools (organizations), the education departments (committees) of relevant provinces (districts, cities), overseas embassies and consulates, the representatives of Chinese-funded enterprises participating in the construction of Confucius Institutes, foreign diplomatic envoys to China, and so on. During the conference, 7 university president forums and 7 institute director forums were held alongside an exhibition on international Chineselanguage teaching materials, a 10th-anniversary retrospective exhibition on the accomplishments of the Confucius Institutes, an exhibition of congratulatory letters and photographs from the world’s first “Confucius Institute Day” (孔子学 院日), consultations on the projects of the Confucius Institutes and Headquarters, and other activities.

6.2 The 4th World Conference on Sinology In September 2014, the 4th “World Conference on Sinology” (世界汉学大会) was held in Beijing, with the theme of “Four hundred years of Eastern learning and Western learning.” Over 200 expert scholars from 38 countries and regions attended the conference, at which the number of overseas scholars and the span of expertise represented by the attendees both eclipsed previous conferences. The conference established the Forum for Young PhD Students in Sinology, and over 60 overseas scholars in the “Confucius China Studies Program” (孔子 新汉学计划) participated in exchanges at the conference.

6.3 Other seminars In July 2014, the International Seminar on “Culture and the Sustainable Development of International Chinese-Language Education” (文化与国际汉语教育可持续发展) and 9th Conference of the Executive Council of the International Society for Chinese Language Teaching was convened under the sponsorship of the International Society for Chinese Language Teaching and the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban), with 35 representatives from several countries in attendance. The conference engaged in study and discussion revolving around the Confucius Institutes and cross-cultural exchanges, cross-cultural

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competence and teacher development, cultural curricula and Chinese-language teaching in a multicultural context. In the same month, the 20th Annual Conference of the Chinese Language Teachers’ Federation of Australia (CLTFA) was held in Melbourne: nearly 300 Chinese language teachers from each state in Australia attended the conference, and engaged in discussions revolving around classroom teaching and management, exploration and discovery of educational resources, language teaching theory, and other topics. In October, the Confucius Institute at Carleton University in Canada held its 2nd Forum on China Studies. In December, the 2nd “Seminar on the Sino-French International Chinese Program” (中法中文国际班研讨会) was held in Montpellier, France: the conference was attended by 180 representatives from various school districts across France, including educational inspectors for Chinese language and mathematics, primary and secondary school principals, teachers in the International Chinese Program, administrators of schools for the International French Program established by China, and so on.

7 Cultural exchanges In 2014, the 7th “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) and other competitions were held, along with activities celebrating the Lunar New Year.

7.1 The 7th “Chinese Bridge” Competition In October 2014, the 7th “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) Chinese Proficiency Competition for Foreign Secondary School Students was held in Kunming. The competition was jointly sponsored by the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) and the Yunnan Provincial Government: 390 teachers and students from 92 overseas contest regions in 76 countries came to China to participate in the competition, representing the highest number of participating countries and the most participating competitors in the history of the “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) Chinese Proficiency Competition for Foreign Secondary School Students (Xinhuanet 2014b).

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7.2 Other competitions In February 2014, the Confucius Institute at University College Dublin in Ireland and the Irish Go Association jointly sponsored the 3rd “Confucius Cup” (孔子杯) Go Tournament. In March, the Confucius Institute in Tashkent in the Republic of Uzbekistan held a Chinese-language writing competition on the subject “Me and the Confucius Institute” (我与孔子学院). In May, a competition was held at the Confucius Institute at Portland State University in the United States: the subjects for the competition included brush and pen calligraphy, Chinese-language essays, Chinese-language speeches, a talent show, photography, and microcinema. In September, the “Confucius Institute Cup” Teaching Competition for the Master of Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages jointly sponsored by the Confucius Institute Headquarters and the National Steering Committee for Graduate Student Education in the Degree of Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages was held at Beijing Language and Culture University.

7.3 Lunar New Year celebration activities In January 2014, the “Terracotta Warriors Lantern Exhibition” (兵马俑灯展) jointly created by the Confucius Institute for Scotland and the University of Edinburgh was held in the elegant Old College Quad of the University of Edinburgh (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website 2014h). A parade of Chineselanguage teachers from the Confucius Institute at the University of Valencia in Spain and overseas Chinese students performing Chinese folk dances and exhibiting ethnic minority costumes took the stage on the streets of Spain for the first time, surrounded by a crowd of tens of thousands of spectators. The Institute also released Chinese-Western calendars including the terms of the Chinese lunar calendar, a variety of promotional souvenirs, as well as sweets, toys and so on, delighting the children (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website 2014i). In February, the 2014 “Oriental Monsoon” (风从东方来) Spring Festival Tour activity for the Year of the Horse was organized by the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) and jointly sponsored by the Confucius Institute at the University of Memphis in the United States and Hangzhou Normal University in China (Wang & Yao 2014). Minister-Counselor Yang Xinyu (杨新育) of the Office of Education at the Embassy of China in Canada opined that, “The difficulties and challenges encountered in the course of development of the Confucius Institutes have also spurred each Confucius Institute to consider how to constantly innovate in the

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future with respect to accelerating the promotion of localization, improving quality, expanding the function of interpersonal exchanges, and other areas, enabling the Confucius Institutes to continue to have healthy development” (Xu 2015).

References 2004–2014 Confucius Institute 10th Anniversary Special Topic Website (2004–2014 孔子学院 10 周年专题网站). 2014. 2004–2014 Confucius Institute Day (2004–2014 孔子学院日). http://ciday.chinese.cn/online_activities. Bao, Yinhui (包银辉). 2014. Confucius Institute at the University of Bologna publishes Italy’s first Learner’s Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese (博洛尼亚孔子学院出版意大利首部‹ 当代汉语学习词典›). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/ 国家汉办网站), http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2014-05/14/content_536154.htm, May 14, 2014. Bi, Shuxia (毕淑霞). 2014. Confucius Institute at the University of Dodoma in Tanzania honored with ‘China-Tajikistan Friendship Envoy Award’ (坦桑尼亚多多马大学孔子学院荣 膺“ 中坦友好使者奖”). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总 部/国家汉办网站), http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2014-11/17/content_561781.htm, Nov. 17, 2014. Chen, Junfeng (陈俊锋) & Zhong, Zhong (钟忠). 2014. World’s first scientific and technical Confucius Institute established in Belarus (世界首所科技型孔子学院在白俄罗斯成立). Xinhuanet (新华网), http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2014-10/22/c_127126329.htm? aduin=75025995&adsession=1413957772&adtag=client.qq.5365_0&adpubno=26405, Oct. 22, 2014. Chen, Zhili (陈至立). 2014. Successful practices in the overseas popularization of the Chinese language and Sino-foreign cultural exchanges –written at the time of the 10th anniversary of the founding of the Confucius Institutes (对外汉语推广和中外文化交流的成功实践—— 写在孔子学院创建 10 周年之际). People’s Daily (人民日报), Dec. 19, 2014, p. 12. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2014a. Confucius Institute Headquarters signs cooperation agreement with Agostinho Neto University and CITIC Construction (孔子学院总部与安哥拉内图大学、中信建设签署合作协 议). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2014-03/11/content_527649.htm, Mar. 11, 2014. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2014b. Forum on the Participation of Chinese-Funded Organization in the Construction of Confucius Institutes convened (中资机构参与孔子学院建设座谈会召开). http://www.han ban.edu.cn/article/2014-09/27/content_554243.htm, Sept. 27, 2014. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2014c. Confucius Institute of Creative Technologies at De Montfort University holds unveiling ceremony (德蒙福特大学创意技术孔子学院举行揭牌仪式). http://www.hanban. edu.cn/article/2014-04/11/content_532018.htm, Apr. 11, 2014. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2014d. Unveiling ceremony held for establishment of Confucius Classroom at Ravenswood School for Girls as a subsidiary of the Confucius Institute at the University of New South Wales

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(新南威尔士大学孔子学院下设育文武女校孔子课堂举行揭牌仪式). http://www.hanban. edu.cn/article/2014-05/21/content_537424.htm, May 21, 2014. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2014e. “Advanced Workshop on Culture and the Sustainable Development of International Chinese-Language Education” offered in Beijing (“文化与国际汉语教育可持续发展高级讲 习班” 在京开班). http://www.hanban.org/article/2014-07/18/content_545149.htm, Jul. 18, 2014. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2014f. Latest recommendations for online and digital Chinese-language educational resources (最新网络及数字汉语教学资源推介»). Educational Resources Newsletter (教材资源通讯), 2014, no. 12, http://www.cltguides.com/external/newsletter/2014-12.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2014g. International Curriculum for Chinese Language Education (Revised Edition) (国际汉语教学 通用课程大纲 [修订版]). Beijing Language and Culture University Press (北京语言大学出 版社), 2014. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2014h. Magnificent Terracotta Warriors Lantern Exhibition illuminates the night sky in Edinburgh (绚丽的兵马俑灯展点亮爱丁堡夜空). http://www.hanban.org/article/2014-02/11/content_ 523986.htm, Feb. 11, 2014. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2014i. Confucius Institute at University of Valencia holds folk custom street performance celebrating the Lunar New Year (瓦伦西亚大学孔子学院举办庆新春街头民俗表演). http://www.hanban.org/article/2014-02/10/content_523883.htm, Feb. 10, 2014. Li, Nan (李楠) & Cai, Yinggui (蔡英桂). 2014. Confucius Classroom at Phuket Wittayalai School holds online HSK examination for the first time (普吉中学孔子课堂举办首次 HSK 网络考试). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站), http:// www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2014-12/07/content_565252.htm, Dec. 7, 2014. Liu, Yandong (刘延东). 2014. Marching toward a new decade for the Confucius Institutes – Keynote address at the opening ceremony for the 9th Confucius Institute Conference (迈向 孔子学院的新 10 年——在第九届孔子学院大会开幕式上的主旨演讲). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, http://conference.chinesecio.com/?q=node/150, Dec. 8, 2014. Wang, Hui (汪慧). 2014. Confucius Institute at the University of Novi Sad in Serbia is unveiled (塞尔维亚诺维萨德大学孔子学院揭牌). Xinhua News Agency (新华社), http://news.xinhua net.com/world/2014-05/28/c_1110896226.htm, May 28, 2014. Wang, Qianru (王倩茹). 2014. Confucius Institute at University of Turin, Italy, holds paper examination and online examination for HSK (意大利都灵大学孔院举办 HSK 笔考与网考). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站), http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2014-06/25/content_542359.htm, Jun 25. 2014. Wang, Zefeng (王泽凤) & Yao, Yu (姚钰). 2014. “Oriental Monsoon”– Confucius Institute at University of Memphis holds Spring Festival literature and art performance for 2014 Year of the Horse (“风从东方来”——孟菲斯大学孔子学院举办 2014 马年春节文艺表演). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站), http://www.hanban.org/article/2014-02/12/content_524293.htm, Feb. 12, 2014. Xiao, Yuchun (肖余春). 2014. Confucius Institute at College West Flanders successfully holds first HSK examination (西弗兰德大学孔子学院成功举办首次 HSK 考试). Confucius

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Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站), http://www.han ban.edu.cn/article/2014-06/16/content_541154.htm, Jun. 16, 2014. Xinhuanet (新华网). 2014a. Advanced study program in China offered for Foreign Confucius Institute directors (孔子学院外方院长在华研修班开班). http://news.xinhuanet.com/cul ture/2014-08/20/c_126893345.htm, Aug. 20, 2014. Xinhuanet (新华网). 2014b. Curtain falls on the 7th “Chinese Bridge” Chinese Proficiency Competition for Foreign Secondary School Students, German team wins championship (第七届“汉语桥”世界中学生中文比赛落幕 德国队获总冠军). http://news.xinhuanet.com/ overseas/2014-11/02/c_1113074623.htm, Nov. 2, 2014. Xu, Chang’an (徐长安). 2015. Minister-Counselor at the Embassy in Canada: It cannot be denied due to individual problems that the Confucius Institutes are accelerating their development (驻加使馆公参: 不能因个别问题否定孔子学院在加发展). People.cn (人民 网), http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0121/c70731-26419912.html, Jan. 21, 2015. Yin, Xiaoli (尹小丽). 2014. Teaching Station of Confucius Institute at Tajik National University offers special lecture course on HSK examination (塔吉克斯坦民族大学孔子学院教学点开 展 HSK 考试专题讲座). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总 部/国家汉办网站), http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2014-10/20/content_557742.htm, Oct. 20, 2014. Zhang, Miaomiao (张淼淼). 2014. Confucius Institute at Phuket oversees 2014 HSK with participants in examination again exceeding 1,000 (泰普吉孔院 2014 年度 HSK 收官考试人数再次逾千). Chinanews.com (中国新闻网), http://finance.chinanews.com/ gj/2014/12-07/6852704.shtml, Dec. 7, 2014. Zhang, Yifan (张一凡). 2014. Confucius Institute at Khon Kaen University, Thailand, holds YCT examination for the first time in 2014 (泰国孔敬大学孔子学院举行 2014 年首次 YCT 考试). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站), http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2014-11/17/content_561775.htm, Nov. 17, 2014. Zhao, Enuo (赵婀娜). 2014. Xi Jinping sends letter of congratulation for the 10th anniversary of the founding of the Confucius Institutes and the world’s first “Confucius Institute Day” (习近平致信祝贺全球孔子学院建立十周年暨首个全球“孔子学院日”). People’s Daily (人民日报), Sept. 28, 2014, p. 01.

Yang Wanbing (杨万兵)

21 State of development of overseas Chinese education In 2014, efforts for overseas Chinese education achieved significant progress under the guidance of the overall strategies and objectives of the national efforts for overseas Chinese affairs.

1 High level of national interest in overseas Chinese education On March 17, the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference convened a biweekly session focusing on discussion of the issue of promoting the development of overseas Chinese education: Yu Zhengsheng (俞正声), the Chairman of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, presided over the meeting and gave a speech, and CPPCC Vice-Chairmen Du Qinglin (杜青林) and Zhang Qingli (张庆黎) attended seminars, while CPPCC Vice-Chairmen Wan Gang (万钢) and He Houhua (何厚铧) and Vice-Chairwoman Li Haifeng (李海峰) delivered speeches at the seminars. Qiu Yuanping (李海峰), the director of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, introduced the state of efforts for overseas Chinese education. Relevant responsible comrades from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Education, and the All-China Federation of Returned Overseas Chinese attended the conference, and engaged in exchanges with the conference members and expert scholars. The attendees held that overseas Chinese education is an important undertaking to systematically forward ethnic language learning and the perpetuation of Chinese culture aimed at the overseas Chinese diaspora, particularly overseas Chinese youth communities, which has profound and far-reaching significance with respect to strengthening the cohesion of the Chinese people, promoting Sino-foreign cultural exchanges, enhancing friendly relations, maintaining the ethnonational characteristics of overseas Chinese people, improving the country’s soft power, and so on. The conference members stated their opinions and proposed recommendations revolving around strengthening leadership, establishing and perfecting working mechanisms for supporting overseas Chinese education, engaging in special design and planning based on the characteristics and patterns of overseas Chinese education,

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compiling teaching materials, training qualified teachers, properly managing international schools, and so on. On December 7–8, 2014, the curtains were raised in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing for the 3rd World overseas Chinese education Conference, sponsored by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council and the China Overseas Exchange Association. State Council member Yang Jiechi (杨洁篪) welcomed more than 500 attending representatives from overseas Chinese education circles in 50 countries and regions to the golden hall. Director Qiu Yuanping (裘援平) of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council gave a keynote presentation at the opening ceremony under the title Developing overseas Chinese education, Invigorating Chinese-Language Schools (发展华文教育 振兴 华文学校), which summarized the experiences and inspirations of the historical development of overseas Chinese education, and introduced new advances in the efforts for overseas Chinese education, the new trends and situations which are currently faced, as well as the principal measures of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council to support the development of overseas Chinese education. Qiu noted that, over the next 3 years, closely revolving around the objective of promoting the zhuanxing shengji (转型升级, ‘transformation and upgrading’) of overseas Chinese education, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council will make efforts to establish liang da jizhi (两大机制, ‘two big mechanisms’) beneficial to the development of overseas Chinese education, namely: establishing mechanisms for exchanges and cooperation with the governments of the countries of residence for overseas Chinese people, to create a good policy environment for the development of overseas Chinese education; and establishing mechanisms for planning and coordination of domestic resources for overseas Chinese education, to provide more support for the development of overseas Chinese education. All efforts shall be made to build liu da tixi (六大体系, ‘six big systems’) supporting the development of overseas Chinese education, encompassing teaching, teaching materials, training, assistance, support, practical experience, et cetera, so as to comprehensively promote the level of development of overseas Chinese education (Chinanews. com 2014a). Departments for overseas Chinese affairs at all levels in China will mobilize all forces, adopt all possible measures, and integrate all available resources to promotion the transformation and upgrading of overseas Chinese education, with leapfrog development. Governments and relevant competent departments at all levels are also directing increasing attention toward overseas Chinese education. On April 1, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of Guangdong Province and the Provincial Department of Education signed the Memorandum on the Joint Establishment of the Guangdong Overseas Chinese educational Training College (共建广东省华文

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教育培训学院备忘录), drawing on the advantages of the Guangdong Overseas Chinese Vocational School with respect to overseas Chinese education and vocational education, fully utilizing Guangdong’s resources as an important province for overseas Chinese affairs, exercising the advantages of a window to the outside world, and building a platform for international exchanges. On August 14, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of Fujian Province announced the third group of overseas Chinese education bases; since February 12, 2009, Fujian has constructed a total of 52 overseas Chinese education bases provincewide (those at Xiamen University and Huaqiao University were established by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council). Qinzhou College and Beihai Overseas Chinese Secondary School in Guangxi registered for the establishment of overseas Chinese education bases. A overseas Chinese education base was registered at the Wenzhou High School of Arts as part of the 5th group in Wenzhou City, Zhejiang. Since 2002, Wenzhou has established a total of 19 overseas Chinese education bases, including 3 overseas Chinese education bases under the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, 5 provincial-level overseas Chinese education bases, and 11 municipal-level overseas Chinese education bases.

2 Devoted support for overseas Chinese education in various sectors of society 2014 marked the 10th anniversary of the founding of the overseas Chinese education Foundation of China, which is a national fundraising organization dedicated to overseas Chinese education services. Over the last ten years, with the assistance of various sectors of society both domestically and overseas, the Foundation has provided financial support for more than 5,000 overseas Chinese students and teachers to attend school in China. It also successively established a series of programs for overseas Chinese education, including the Chinese language and culture Teacher Training Project, the Chinese Cultural Inheritance Project for Overseas Youths, et cetera; furthermore, the Foundation formed a training grant system to provide academic qualifications for Chinese language and culture teachers ranging from associate and undergraduate degrees to graduate degrees; a scholarship system for overseas Chinese youths ranging from (vocational) secondary school and associate programs to undergraduate programs; as well as trademarked activities such as China Cultural Trips (Abroad) for Overseas Chinese Youths, online distance education, and so

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on, benefiting overseas Chinese education organizations and overseas Chinese youths in many countries and regions around the world. In 2014, the overseas Chinese education Foundation of China continued to provide financial support to overseas youths. On January 14, 21 overseas Chinese students from Indonesia, Thailand, Mongolia, Japan and other countries who were attending associate programs were awarded “Radiance” (金辉) scholarship by the overseas Chinese education Foundation of China. On February 15, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council donated RMB ¥100,000 in educational development funds for secondary schools in Brunei. On May 22, the overseas Chinese education Foundation of China granted ¥700,000 in scholarships and financial aid to overseas Chinese junior secondary school students at the Chinese language and culture school of Kunming; 205 overseas Chinese students from Thailand, Myanmar, and Laos received the scholarships. On November 21, the awards ceremony for the “Agile Scholarship” (雅居乐奖学金) established by the overseas Chinese education Foundation of China was held at the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University: 173 undergraduate students majoring in overseas Chinese education were awarded this special honor. On December 21, Hainan Province established a grant fund for overseas Chinese education for the first time: the first round of funding was used to provide financial support to Chinese language and culture schools in Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar and Brunei in updating their computer equipment, renovating campus facilities, and purchasing desks, chairs and extracurricular Chineselanguage reading materials; at the same time, support was provided to overseas communities to offer Chinese language and education training programs, and financial aid was provided to overseas youths in impoverished regions to return to China to participate in summer camp activities (Chinaqw.com 2014a).

3 New breakthroughs achieved in various efforts 3.1 Teacher and administrator training In 2014, several new “Overseas Chinese language teacher training programs” (华文教师培训班) were offered in various locations domestically and overseas, striving to make international Chinese-language teacher education more regularized, standardized, and professionalized. From July 19 to August 5, more than 150 Chinese language and culture teachers from 28 countries in Europe and North America participated in the Teacher Study Course for overseas Chinese education sponsored by the College of Chinese Language and Culture

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at Jinan University. On August 16, 31 teachers from 19 Chinese schools in 7 countries commenced a 15-day Eurasian overseas Chinese education training program in Guilin, Guangxi. On August 23, 20 school principals and Chinese language and culture teachers from 6 overseas Chinese schools successfully completed the course for the Wenzhou Overseas Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Training Program. On November 25, 15 Chinese language and culture teachers from 5 countries commenced a 10-day training program in Ningxia sponsored by the overseas Chinese education Foundation of China. In order to better train and encourage outstanding overseas Chinese language and culture teachers, the government and other sectors have also expanded efforts to give commendations to outstanding Chinese language and culture teachers. On December 7, at the 3rd World overseas Chinese education Conference, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council commended 1646 outstanding overseas Chinese language and culture teachers and 120 individuals with a passion for overseas Chinese education; in addition, plaques were awarded to 38 model overseas schools for overseas Chinese education, of which 18 overseas Chinese schools were recognized in the 4th group of “Model Overseas Schools for Chinese Education” (海外华文教育示范学校) (Chinaqw.com 2014b). On July 7–11, more than 150 Chinese school board members and prominent figures in overseas Chinese education circles from 32 countries on five continents around the world gathered at Jinan University to take part in the event “Overseas Chinese Education: Chinese School Board Members / Prominent Figures Visit China” (华文教育·华校校董/杰出人士华夏行) for 2014. During the event, the school board members and prominent figures discussed the development of overseas Chinese education, heard special reports on domestic and overseas efforts for overseas Chinese education as well as new concepts, experienced the charms of Lingnan culture, and toured the new sights in Guangzhou following the Asian Games.

3.2 Chinese language and culture teacher certification Since the Preparation of Grading Standards for Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Certificates (华文教师证书等级标准研制) produced by Jinan University passed the expert review organized by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council in December 2013, survey studies and training have already been carried out in Indonesia, Thailand, Italy, Myanmar, and other countries, cumulatively training a total of approximately 1500 people. The training content primarily consists of course offerings for international Chinese-language

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teaching, teaching materials and methods, educational administration, teaching techniques, modern educational technology, cultural knowledge, and so on. The construction of the Chinese language and culture teacher certificate examination database was formally initiated on January 27 and approved on April 11, and an appraisal conference was convened for the Chinese language and culture teacher certificate examination database.

3.3 Compiling “localized, country-specific” teaching materials for Chinese language and culture In 2013, Jinan University was commissioned by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council to compile the textbook Chinese Language and Culture (华文) (Junior Secondary School Edition) for Chinese schools in Cambodia; trial use at Chinese schools in Cambodia began in early 2014, and an expert steering committee was formed on January 21. This set of teaching materials has already passed the expert review, and will soon be published. In 2014, Jinan University also initiated efforts to compile the textbook Chinese Language (中文) for Australian secondary schools, and the field surveys have already been completed. The goal for this textbook is to compile a set of localized Chinese-language teaching materials for the senior grades at Australian secondary schools meeting the requirements of Chinese-language education for overseas Chinese in Australia, with the characteristics of the new generation of 21st-century teaching materials. The textbook project has been approved by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, and the compiling has been formally initiated.

3.4 Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test In 2012, the College of Chinese Language and Culture / Center for Research on overseas Chinese education at Jinan University initiated a research and development project for the “Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test” (华文水平测试); on October 11, 2014, it signed the project cooperation agreement for the Study of Vocabulary in Primary and Secondary School Teaching Materials (中小学教 材词汇研究) with the National Language Monitoring and Resources Center for Education and Teaching Materials at Xiamen University; and on November 19, an expert assessment conference on the “Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test” (华文水平测试) was held. The development of this project could fill the gaps

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in the evaluation of Chinese language proficiency among overseas Chinese descendants, and has major significance with respect to guiding the orientation of overseas Chinese education, establishing standards for overseas overseas Chinese education, and guiding teaching content and methods (Chinaqw.com 2014c).

3.5 Winter and summer camps In 2014, approximately 4,000 overseas Chinese youths from a total of 32 countries and regions participated in a variety of winter and summer camps in China revolving around the themes of “The Maritime Silk Road and the Dream of One’s Native Place” (海丝情桑梓梦), the Chinese Proficiency Test (Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi, HSK), Zen martial arts culture, reaching the river source, and so on. The camp members personally experienced the unique charms of traditional Chinese culture through learning, sightseeing and practical activities, enhancing their understanding of modern China. These winter and summer camps allow overseas Chinese youths to profoundly experience the wideranging and powerful appeal of Chinese culture, spurring them to pursue the lifeblood and cultural roots of the Chinese nation.

3.6 Chinese Culture Camps Since the introduction of “Chinese Culture Camps” (中华文化大乐园) by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council and the China Overseas Exchange Association in 2011, more than 600 Chinese enrichment teachers have traveled to over 30 countries and more than 40 cities on six continents, drawing nearly twenty thousand camp members. In 2014, the “Chinese Culture Camp” (中 华文化大乐园) activities were further expanded. The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council and various provincial and municipal offices for overseas Chinese affairs organized “Chinese Culture Camps” (中华文化大乐园) in Fiji, Italy, Ecuador, the United States, Cambodia, Australia, and other countries, with approximately 2,800 participating camp members. The “Chinese Culture Camps” (中华文化大乐园) spread Chinese culture around the world through the form of zou qinqi (走亲戚, ‘visiting relatives’), with remarkable results: these activities are broadly supported and draw widespread attention, allowing overseas Chinese youths at large to open a window to understanding Chinese culture.

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3.7 3rd Chinese Cultural Competition for Overseas Chinese Youths On December 22, the finals for the Speech Section of the 3rd Chinese Cultural Competition for Overseas Chinese Youths, sponsored by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council and hosted by Huaqiao University, was held in Xiamen: overseas Chinese youths from 16 countries, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, the Philippines, France, and the United States, participated in the competition. The Mongolian Team won the championship in the general finals, while the Australian Team and Brazilian Team respectively took second and third place. This activity has elicited a strong response domestically and overseas since 2012, and has had good effects as an example for innovating models for the global popularization of overseas Chinese education and stimulating overseas Chinese youths in various countries to learn about Chinese culture (Chinaqw.com 2014d).

4 Construction of the discipline and academic research At Jinan University, overseas Chinese education has already developed into a complete talent training system from the undergraduate to doctoral levels. In 2014, the full-time scholarship program for overseas Chinese education at Jinan University saw a total of 173 undergraduate graduates, with 106 graduates for the undergraduate distance learning program in overseas Chinese education; part-time Master’s students with an orientation toward overseas Chinese education continued to be recruited in Singapore, and a new part-time Master’s student program was established in Batam, Indonesia. Two overseas Chinese doctoral students were recruited for the full-time program with an orientation toward overseas Chinese education. In 2014, the full-time scholarship program for overseas Chinese education at Huaqiao University had 51 graduates from the undergraduate program. With respect to academic research and exchanges, more initiative has been shown for research on overseas Chinese education on the Mainland and in Taiwan, and cross-straits academic exchanges have seen pleasing results. The Center for Research on overseas Chinese education at Jinan University funded the publication of the Introduction to the Vocabulary of Chinese Language and Culture (汉语文化词汇概论) (Wang 2014), and obtained approval for one project each under the National Social Science Fund and the Social Science Plan of the

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Ministry of Education, as well as 2 provincial social science projects. On June 5, The Yearbook of Chinese Education in the World (2013) (世界华文教育年鉴 [2013]), compiled through research on overseas Chinese education at Huaqiao University, was published and distributed by the Social Sciences Academic Press (社会科学文献出版社). This work records and reflects important developments in each area of the field of global overseas Chinese education in 2012; the principal contents include survey reviews, a chronicle of major events, information on overseas Chinese education, academic trends, introductions to selected works, the state of overseas Chinese education, important reference literature, and so on (Chinanews.com 2014b). On May 12, the “Chinese Language and Culture Education Forum” (华文教 育论坛), which was jointly sponsored by the International College of Chinese Language & Culture and Liberal Arts College at Hunan Normal University, was grandly held in the Zhishan Lecture Hall. This “Chinese Language and Culture Education Forum” (华文教育论坛) engaged in profound exchanges with respect to the differences between national learning and Sinology, the objectives and content of cultural education within international Chineselanguage education, how to better integrate teaching as a second language and ontological research, and other issues, achieving the forum’s goal of sharing research achievements and reflecting on scholarship in overseas Chinese education circles. On August 22–26, the “4th Cross-Straits Forum for Chinese Language and Culture Teachers” (第四届两岸华文教师论坛), jointly sponsored by Taiwan World Chinese Language and Literature Association and Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College, was held at Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College, attracting attendance by more than 120 overseas Chinese education professionals from overseas and on either side of the Straits. Ren Qiliang (任启亮), the Deputy Director of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, the advisor Jen Hong (任弘) and Secretary-General Tung Peng-cheng (董鹏程) of the World Chinese Language Association, as well as Professor Li Yuming (李宇明) of Beijing Language and Culture University, Professor Lu Jianming (陆俭明) of Peking University, and so on gave speeches or delivered reports at the forum. The theme of this forum was “Theory and practice of overseas Chinese education” (华文教学的理论和实践), with the aim of providing a platform for exchanges allowing Chinese language and culture teachers from both sides of the Straits to share their teaching experiences, explore problems in teaching, and publish the results of research on teaching. The forum engaged in group discussion of theory and methods in overseas Chinese education, compiling of teaching materials, the Heritage

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Chinese Proficiency Test, overseas Chinese education policies, and other topics, reaching unanimous agreement through cross-straits cooperation in the field of overseas Chinese education. In December 2014, the Wenzhou Municipal Overseas Chinese Affairs Office held the 1st Seminar on the Theory of overseas Chinese education. More than 50 relevant experts and scholars from education circles in Wenzhou as well as overseas Chinese education workers from the Wenzhou overseas Chinese education bases and the overseas Chinese affairs system engaged in exploration and exchanges from different perspectives and in different research fields, centering on overseas overseas Chinese education, producing a series of academic achievements which led to the publication of Wenzhou’s first conference proceedings on overseas Chinese education (Chinaqw.com 2014e). The Shanghai Center for Research on overseas Chinese education convened the 2014 Research Project Review Conference, providing approvals and descriptions of special topics for the general research project Studies on the construction of a distance training curriculum system for overseas Chinese language and culture teachers (构建海外华文师资远程培训课程系统的研究) as well as secondary projects. A certain degree of success was also achieved in academic cooperation on overseas Chinese education. On January 22, the signing ceremony for a cooperative agreement on Chinese-language education between the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University and Dharasom School in Thailand was held at Jinan University. This agreement included cooperation between the two parties for the preparation of Chinese-language teaching materials and teaching aid materials suitable for local students in Thailand, as well as the construction of a Chinese-language education resource bank; cooperation between the two parties to hold academic seminars on Chinese-language education, as well as winter and summer camps; and engagement in bilateral exchanges, visits, and various cultural exchanges activities for teachers and students. On August 19, Jinan University established a full-time Chinese-Spanish bilingual school at a school in Argentina, engaged in negotiations on training talents for an undergraduate major in Chinese-Spanish public translation and other matters, and signed relevant cooperative agreements.

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5 Recommendations by leaders of overseas Chinese communities and overseas Chinese education workers 5.1 Place an emphasis on national education for overseas Chinese In recent years, a growing number of the new generation of people of Chinese descent are residing overseas, yet they still have the status of Chinese citizens, and belong to the new generation of overseas Chinese. However, national education for expatriates has not kept pace with the development of the times. The state should provide a series of national education services to expatriates, to guarantee their rights and interests as Chinese citizens; at the same time, this is also an effective means of fostering Chinese citizens familiar with the society and culture of their resident countries. The state is called upon to place a high degree of emphasis on overseas expatriate education through the construction of expatriate schools, offering a course series for national education, and other means, improving the survivability and national character of overseas Chinese people.

5.2 Establish cooperative systems and operating models for domestic and overseas resources for overseas Chinese education At present, there is a relative abundance of domestic organizations and resources for providing services related to overseas Chinese education, and overseas overseas Chinese education organizations have a strong demand for domestic resources. It is recommended that competent national departments for overseas Chinese affairs take the lead in clarifying the domestic assets in terms of overseas Chinese education resources as well as the state of demand in overseas overseas Chinese education, building working platforms for sharing and coordination of domestic and overseas resources for overseas Chinese education, establishing a multilevel, multicategory, multidimensional international cooperative system for overseas Chinese education resources encompassing different overseas Chinese education organizations and different Chinese language and culture resources at home and abroad, perfecting a top-down design, and implementing the rational allocation of domestic and overseas resources for overseas Chinese education, to achieve maximized resource efficiency.

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5.3 Make efforts to develop multicategory, multimodal Chinese language and culture teaching materials Overseas Chinese communities exhibit diversity in terms of their proficiency in Chinese language and culture, the ecology of overseas Chinese education, and other areas: in different countries and regions, or even in different parts of the same country, significant differences are present in overseas Chinese education. It is recommended that directed Chinese language and culture teaching materials be developed, including country-specific, regionalized, and targeted teaching materials, as well as teaching materials in paper media, electronic teaching materials, television teaching materials, extracurricular reading materials, and so on, to meet the needs of overseas Chinese learners at different levels and in different categories.

References Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2014a. Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council to create ‘two mechanisms’ and ‘six systems’ to promote the development of overseas Chinese education (国侨办将打造“两机制”“六体系”推动华文教育发展). http://www.chi nanews.com/hr/2014/12-07/6852515.shtml, Dec. 7, 2014. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2014b. China’s first ‘Yearbook of Chinese Education in the World’ is published and distributed (中国首部《世界华文教育年鉴》出版发行). http:// huaren.haiwainet.cn/BIG5/n/2014/0605/c232657-20708026.html, Jun. 5, 2014. Chinaqw.com (中国侨网). 2014a. Hainan Province is first to establish grant fund for overseas Chinese education to support overseas Chinese schools (海南省首设华文教育专项资金助 学海外华校). www.gqb.gov.cn/news/2014/1222/34678.shtml, Dec. 21, 2014. Chinaqw.com (中国侨网). 2014b. 18 Chinese schools honored in 4th group of ‘Model Overseas Schools for overseas Chinese education’ (18 所华校获授第四批“海外华文教育示范学校”). http://www.chinaqw.com/hwjy/2014/12-30/31920.shtml, Dec. 30, 2014. Chinaqw.com (中国侨网). 2014c. College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University holds expert assessment conference on Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test (暨南大学华文 学院举行华文水平测试专家论证会). http://www.chinaqw.com/hwjy/2014/11-22/27050. shtml, Nov. 22, 2014. Chinaqw.com (中国侨网). 2014d. Finals begin for the 3rd Chinese Cultural Competition for Overseas Chinese Youths (第三届海外华裔青少年中华文化大赛总决赛开赛). http://www. chinaqw.com/hwjy/2014/12-25/31344.shtml, Dec. 25, 2014. Chinaqw.com (中国侨网). 2014e. Wenzhou’s first conference proceedings on overseas Chinese education is published, displaying theoretical research achievements (温州首部 华文教育论文集问世 展理论研究成果). http://www.gqb.gov.cn/news/2015/0119/34855. shtm, Jan. 19, 2015. Wang, Yanjun (王衍军). 2014. Introduction to the Vocabulary of Chinese Language and Culture (汉语文化词汇概论). Tsinghua University Press (清华大学出版社).

Part IV Hot topics

Feng Xuefeng (冯 学锋) and Jiang Lu (姜 露)

22 Galvanizing reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination According to monitoring conducted by the “Chinese-Language Periodical Monitoring System” (中文报刊监测系统) of the People.cn Yuqing Channel (舆情 频道) on the state of attention by relevant media outlets regarding gaokao gaige fang’an (高考改革方案, ‘college entrance examination reform plan’) throughout 2014, this year saw 10,350 items of content involving the national gaokao gaige fang’an (高考改革方案, ‘college entrance examination reform plan’), with the number of published pieces reaching 7,400. How to further deepen reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination became a galvanizing topic in 2014.

1 Review of events In January 2013, the Recommendations on Deepening Comprehensive Reforms in the Field of Education in 2013 (关于 2013 年深化教育领域综合改革的意见) of the Ministry of Education, referred to as yi hao wenjian (1 号文件, ‘Document No. 1’), was disseminated online. The document began by clearly stating that the method of implementation of multiple examinations held throughout the year for the subject of English on the college entrance examination will be researched and proposed. A host of rumors on waiyu jiangfen (外语降分, ‘lowering the score for foreign languages’) and tuichu gaokao (退出高考, ‘withdrawal from the college entrance examination’) subsequently sprang up on all sides. According to the observations by the People.cn Public Opinion Monitoring Office, beginning on May 8, 2014, the post “Senior secondary and college entrance examination reform plans arrive: English officially withdrawn” (中高考改 革方案落地: 英语正式退出) began spreading rampantly online. More than 400 online news articles on related topics appeared on the same day, while relevant Weibo posts exceeded 90,000 (People.cn 2014). On May 10, the Beijing Municipal Education Commission responded with a statement that this post represented false information. The press spokesperson Xu Mei (续梅) of the Ministry of Education also repudiated this account, stating that the Ministry of Education was currently dedicating all efforts to studying, formulating and perfecting the https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-022

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college entrance examination reform plan. On May 17, the relevant report “Director Gu Mingyuan of the Chinese Society of Education states that college entrance examination reform plan will be implemented in 2017, English to be withdrawn from unified examination” (中国教育学会会长顾明远称高考改革方案 2017 年实施, 英语将退出统考) caused the topic Yingyu tuichu gaokao (英语退出 高考, ‘English withdrawn from college entrance examination’) to again become the focus of public attention. Rumors with respect to the withdrawal of foreign languages from the college entrance examination also attracted attention from overseas media outlets. On May 20, the Wall Street Journal published the article “Is English Necessary? China Debates Whether College Exams Should Bother,” remarking: “But are Chinese students sick of learning English, or are they just tired of having their language skills tested? By Monday afternoon, about 55% of nearly 89,000 Weibo users said in a poll on the social media platform that they supported the idea of removing English from the official exam . . . . The debate about whether to exclude English from the gaokao exams is another sign that English may be losing its charm in China.” In October 2013, Beijing issued the 2014–2016 College Entrance Examination and Higher Education Admissions Reform Framework Plan (2014 – 2016 年高考 高招改革框架方案) (Draft for Comments), drawing widespread attention from the public. In the first half of 2014, several provinces and cities successively introduced reform plans. For instance, Jiangsu Province proposed yinian liang kao (一年两考, ‘two examinations per year’) for foreign languages and their inclusion in the college entrance examination score in the form of a grade; Shandong Province proposed the abolishment of the English listening comprehension examination; while Anhui Province and Hainan Province proposed yinian duokao (一年多考, ‘multiple examinations per year’) for English, and so on, causing the issue of reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination to once again become the focus of public discourse. In February 2014, media outlets reported on the “Shanghai college entrance examination reform plan” on the topic of “exposing the Shanghai version of the college entrance examination reform plans,” declaring that “English is to be withdrawn, and only language arts and mathematics will be tested” (Sohu Learning 2014a), attracting attention in public discourse. Thereafter, the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission refuted the rumors on its official Weibo, stating that this content was “incomplete and inaccurate” (Xinmin.cn 2014). In March, the “online rumor that Zhejiang has introduced a 2017 college entrance examination reform plan” was officially refuted (Youth Times 2014). In June, an expert who participated in the formulation of the “General Plan for College Entrance Examination Reforms” (高考改革总体方案) leaked the

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rumor that, “The General Plan for College Entrance Examination Reforms of the Ministry of Education is essentially already finalized, and Shanghai and Zhejiang will take the lead as pilot areas” (China Business Journal 2014). In September, following the issuance of the Implementation Recommendations of the State Council on Deepening Reforms to the Examination and Admissions System (国务院关于深化 考试招生制度改革的实施意见), Shanghai and Zhejiang were officially designated as pilot provinces for the college entrance examination reforms, and their reform plans drew redoubled attention. On September 4, 2014, the State Council officially released the Implementation Recommendations of the State Council on Deepening Reforms to the Examination and Admissions System (国务院关于深化考试招生制度改革的实施意见) (Guo fa [2014] No. 35), unveiling the reforms to the college entrance examination: “An examinee’s overall score shall be composed of the scores for the 3 subjects of language arts, mathematics, and foreign language on the unified College Entrance Examination as well as the scores for the 3 subjects on the Senior Secondary Academic Proficiency Test”. The subjects of language arts, mathematics, and foreign language on the unified College Entrance Examination shall remain unchanged, their point value is unchanged, and they will not be divided into two examination sittings for the subjects of humanities and science versus foreign languages. The rumor of the “withdrawal of foreign languages from the college entrance examination” thus vanished like a puff of smoke. Soon afterward, as the first pilot provinces, Shanghai and Zhejiang successively introduced the Shanghai Implementation Plan for Deepening General Reforms to Examinations and Admissions at Institutions of Higher Education (上 海市深化高等学校考试招生综合改革实施方案) and the Zhejiang Province Pilot Plan for Deepening General Reforms to the Examination and Admissions System for Institutions of Higher Education (浙江省深化高校考试招生制度综合改革试点 方案), as well as accompanying detailed regulations for the implementation of reforms. Prior to the announcement of the official plan for college entrance examination reforms, a stream of rumors on lowering the score for foreign languages, withdrawal from the college entrance examination, and socialized examinations had assailed the education market. A number of educational organizations indicated that this move was bullish news, and socialized English educational organizations flourished. A leader at the Shanghai educational training organization “Haifeng Education” (海风教育) stated that enthusiasm for English among parents, examinees and tutoring organizations was rising rather than declining: students were giving even more attention to tutoring lessons in the subject of English, and tutoring lessons were being scheduled relatively far in advance (Wen Hui Bao 2014). The principal of the Yangzhou Mali English School very

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confidently stated that the English reforms will not diminish the enthusiasm for studying English, and English will not be pulled down from its shentan (神坛, ‘sacred altar’) because of this development (Yangzhou Times 2014). In addition, several educational organizations stated that “the more diversified the format of reforms, the more opportunities will be created for tutoring organizations” (Wen Hui Bao 2014). However, certain regions still saw a significant cooldown in summer English training, including Wuhan, Hubei (Changjiang Daily 2014), and Ningyang, Shandong (Taishan Evening News 2014). In June, the Shanghai Morning Post (新闻晨报) released a large-scale survey: If there were reforms to English on the college entrance examination, would you still register your child to participate in an English training program over the summer vacation? The results showed that, “Nearly half of parents had originally planned to register their child for an English training program, for the purpose of practicing speaking. Among those surveyed, kindergarten and primary school parents represented the majority, and 56% of parents chose to register their child for an English training program, while only 17% of students would choose to register for an English training and test program. 22% of parents sought to improve test scores, and 21% of parents were registering their child for a summer camp, to allow their child to play happily while also learning English in a relaxed environment” (Shanghai Morning Post 2014).

2 Topics of heated debate 2.1 Is it necessary to reform foreign languages on the college entrance examination? The results of an online survey of 3514 individuals conducted by the China Youth Daily Social Survey Center through minyi.net.cn (民意中国网) and wenjuan.com (问卷网) show that 74.7% of the interviewees agree that it is necessary to reform the current format for English on the college entrance examination, and 65.6% of interviewees support the socialization of English on the college entrance examination (China Youth Daily 2014a). Zhang Yangyang (张阳阳), a second-year senior secondary student at a certain prestigious secondary school in Yinchuan City, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, claimed that his score in English was pretty good, but he could not really use it, as the teachers just blindly adopted the approach of a mountain of test questions; he believed that it was necessary to reform English on the college

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entrance examination, with an emphasis on testing practical English. However, certain xueba (学霸, ‘scholar-tyrants’) will “strongly oppose reforms to English on the college entrance examination” (China Education Online 2014a). Wang Ruijun (王瑞军), a senior English teacher at Handan 4th Secondary School in Hebei Province, approved of reforms, arguing that English education currently places undue emphasis on imparting knowledge to students and training them in test-taking skills, while ignoring the cultivation of linguistic performance skills, causing many students to have high scores but low ability. Zhang (张), a teacher at a secondary school in Futian District, stated that, “Students start coming into contact with English in kindergarten: calculated on this basis, 3rd-year senior secondary students in Shenzhen have already been studying English for 15 years prior to the college entrance examinations. However, for some students, their English skills are still confined to test scores, commonly referred to as ‘mute’ English” (ifeng.com 2014). The teacher also remarked that this kind of low-performing English education has largely arisen in response to teaching to the test. Liang Tingfu (梁挺福), a volunteer application submissions advisor for the college entrance examination, argued that, “Reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination are imperative: English represents an excessive share of education in studies for subjects at all levels, and the state has placed undue emphasis on English studies, consuming a large amount of educational resources. To a certain extent, English education wastes the state’s educational resources. At present, our country’s English education largely consists of teaching to the test and ‘mute English’” (China Education Online 2013a). In a special interview, Ren Lei (任蕾), the Executive Editor of China Education Online, stated that, “Multiple tests for English per year is an inevitable trend” (China Education Online 2013b). Wu Fuping (吴付平), the Editor-in-Chief of the College Entrance Examination Channel of China Education Online, argued that, “The current English testing system hinders the promotion of specialized talents” (China Education Online 2013c). Wang Tingting (王婷婷), an English teaching researcher at the Educational Training Center at Beijing Normal University, stated that, “Reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination will help free English from being a test-oriented subject, gradually reverting to a language tool, and reverting to the cultivation of language skills” (China Education Online 2013d). Yu Minhong (俞敏洪) of New Oriental approved of reforms to the college entrance examination, stating that, “For the general body of students in the college entrance examination, reforms to English testing are glad tidings” (Qianjiang Evening News 2014).

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2.2 How should foreign languages on the college entrance examination be reformed? In October 2013, the city of Beijing publicly released a draft of its senior secondary and college entrance examination reform framework plan for comments: a number of major media outlets successively published articles, while relevant departments organized a series of seminars, relevant organizations specially held summit forums (Yangcheng Evening News 2014), and so on, dedicated to discussing the issue of reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination. The results of the online survey of 3514 4individuals conducted by the China Youth Daily Social Survey Center through minyi.net.cn (民意中国网) and wenjuan. com (问卷网) show that the reform approach most favored by the interviewees was to “reduce the point value of English on the college entrance examination” (44.3%), followed by “multiple examinations per year, and selection of the best score” (35.5%), “no change to the examination method, but an emphasis on the practicality of English” (29.3%), “increased testing of speaking” (28.4%), “increased point value for reading and writing” (18.4%), “reduction or abolishment of multiple-choice questions for vocabulary, grammar, et cetera” (18.2%), “reduction or abolishment of listening comprehension” (13.6%), and so on (China Youth Daily 2014a). The experts highlighted the red lines for reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination: “Cannot, avoid, should.” Cannot: The article “Reforms to English on the college entrance examination cannot proceed behind closed doors” (高考英语改革不能闭门造车) published in Workers’ Daily (工人日报) noted that, with respect to how to reform foreign languages, it could not merely consist of organizing experts and scholars to discuss plans behind closed doors; instead, it should focus on public opinion, broadly listening to suggestions from all sides, to transparently, democratically and scientifically determine the reform plan for English on the college entrance examination (Workers’ Daily 2014). Avoid: Reforms to English on the college entrance examination must avoid yi dao qie (一刀切, ‘one size fits all’): instead, it could be handed over to recruiting universities to make autonomous decisions on the basis of their educational objectives and the requirements of various majors, adopting a “standard-based” exam registration model, in which students’ English proficiency simply must attain the requirements of a certain grade or score (Chinese Social Sciences Today 2014). Should: Reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination should “move away from being difficult and being test-oriented,” allowing English studies to recover their delight, and return to language itself; English testing

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should also be in line with international conventions, drawing on the questionsetting logic of the TOEFL and IELTS, testing examinees on whether they have the skills to enter a Western language environment and use Western thinking (ifeng. com Shaanxi 2014a). Reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination should also allow English education to move back toward practical applications (Changchun Evening News 2014). Gong Yafu (龚亚夫), the Board Chair of the Special Committee on Foreign Language Education of the Chinese Society of Education, argued that the value of English education is not merely as a tool for teaching students: more importantly, it cultivates an individual’s ability to think, and promotes tolerance and an international perspective (Guangming Online 2014). Shire Song, the Director of Tobest International English Education, argued that reforms to English on the college entrance examination must set out from the fundamental evaluation system: our country’s current English testing model on the college entrance examination is dominated by multiple choice, and this form of evaluation system directly leads to the distortion of teaching models and study methods, yet the Western evaluation system possesses a particularly formidable exam question bank, which could more accurately reflect examinee’s applied English skills (ifeng.com Shaanxi 2014b).

2.3 Would two examinations per year for foreign languages add pressure or reduce the burden? In the first half of 2014, public surveys were launched with respect to the implementation of “multiple examinations per year and socialized examinations” for foreign languages, in response to the rumors that several provinces were preparing preliminary reform plans. For instance: With respect to the new plan for college entrance examination reforms in Hebei Province, parents supported “multiple examinations per year” for English (Chengde Evening News 2014); Through random interviews with several dozen third-year primary school students, a reporter in Kunming found that the students with relatively good scores in English were extremely receptive to the reform of two examinations per year in English, and felt that the extra opportunity might allow them to shua (刷, ‘set’) a better score, while students with average scores felt that the pressure would be redoubled (Yunnan.cn 2014); a questionnaire survey conducted by a reporter for Southern Metropolis Daily (南方都市报) indicated that, among the 123 individuals, more than six tenths of interviewees expressed approval of multiple examinations per year (Southern Metropolis Daily 2014); while Anhui Province pushed forward reforms for “multiple examinations per year for foreign languages” (Anhui Business News 2014).

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The reform plans were officially announced on September 19: two examinations per year would be implemented for foreign languages, and only two examination opportunities would be provided. Would “two examinations per year” add pressure or decrease the burden? Would it be possible to maintain consistency in terms of the difficulty of the examinations? Would this impact the fairness of the examinations? Arguments for support: (1) The reforms represent a breakthrough with respect to the traditional college entrance examination system in which yi kao ding zhongshen (一考定终身, ‘one test determines your whole life’). The “implementation of two examinations per year in English” allows students to have two opportunities throughout their entire senior secondary school stage to get a higher score in English on the college entrance examination, which can distribute both the academic pressure and the mental pressure, giving students multiple opportunities to face the challenge (Sohu Learning 2014b). The netizen @ “Ai jianghua de xiaoniao” (爱讲话的小鸟, ‘Talk-loving birdie’) on ifeng.com was happy about the added opportunity for the English examination: “It seems like I’ll have more confidence on the college entrance examination” (China Youth Daily 2014b). (2) The reforms increase the practicality of studying English as a subject. Bu Taoran (部陶然), a teacher at the Gifted Secondary School of Beijing New Oriental School, stated that the shift to two examinations per year for the English examination would help ease the exam pressure on students, while also helping to increase the practicality of studying English as a subject (Sina Education 2014). (3) Energy can be reserved for other subjects. The firstyear senior secondary student Wu Jiayi (吴佳怡) said, “If you can get an ideal score on the test in your first year at senior secondary school, you can use the rest of the time on other subjects” (China Education Online 2014b). Arguments for opposition: (1) The reforms add to the examination pressure for students. Li Hui (李辉), an instructor for English on the college entrance examination for Koolearn Online, argued that the results ushered in by the shifts in this policy will be that: children will face two tracks for English studies in the senior secondary school phase, with the first being the “textbook track” following in day-to-day school instruction, and the second being the “test-oriented track” of devoting efforts to the sprint for the college entrance examination, beginning in the first year at senior secondary school. Since the state will allow students to begin taking part in the college entrance examination as early as their first year in senior secondary school, the majority of students will certainly be willing to start putting forth efforts to shua fen (刷分, ‘set a score’) in their first year, adding to the examination pressure (Koolearn Online 2014). Some netizens have also expressed concern that the academic burden will become heavier: the netizen @ “Jiangli” (江离, ‘Leaving the river’) on People.cn said, “Since you

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can take the examination twice in one year, you absolutely won’t be satisfied with taking the examination once – the majority of students will still try to set a better score, and moreover, the total score for English hasn’t been lowered, and it’s unclear whether this will place more emphasis or less emphasis on it.” As a father, @ “Li xian de jian” (离弦的箭, ‘Arrow from the bowstring’) worried that two examinations per year in English would leave behind only mathematics and language arts on the college entrance examination, which could give rise to a situation where “those who get math will rule the world” (China Youth Daily 2014b). (2) The situation that one examination determines one’s whole life has not been effectively transformed. Hua Aizhen (华爱珍), a teacher at Furen High School, stated that the original intentions of the reforms are to jian fu (减负, ‘reduce the burden’), but the approach of having “two examinations per year” and selecting the best grade to include in the total score will still spur students to sike (死磕, ‘risk death’) for their score, and the opportunities for such “risk-taking” will furthermore be increased by one (Jiangnan Evening News 2014). Lu Jianfei (陆建非), the Party Committee Secretary at Shanghai Normal University and the Director of the Shanghai Research Association for Intercultural Communication, argued that the one-time pressure would turn into continuous reiteration (Oriental Outlook Weekly 2014). (3) The reforms are inconsistent with the patterns of language studies. Professor Cao Wen (曹文) of Beijing Foreign Studies University argued that language studies must be of long-term duration, with repeated study and use: if a student gets an outstanding grade in their first year at senior secondary school, and then suspends his or her English studies in the second and third year, then this two-year hiatus in studies could cause the student’s English proficiency to return to the starting point (Guangming Education 2014). (4) The fairness of the examination remains to be seen. Professor Wen Qiufang (文秋芳) of Beijing Foreign Studies University argued that, with two examinations per year, achieving absolute uniformity in terms of the degree of difficulty of the two examinations papers would be quite challenging, which is detrimental to ensuring the fairness of the examinations (Suzhou Daily 2014).

3 Considerations Reforms to foreign languages on the college entrance examination are not a simple matter of admissions testing: this issue affects national language competence as well as citizens’ general language competence, and should be incorporated into the national language strategies, with a top-down design.

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As foreign language skills are part of national language competence, full consideration should also be given to training talented linguists in different languages. At present, China’s foreign language education still consists of largescale English education, and the variety of foreign languages which primary and secondary schools can offer is limited to English, Russian, Japanese, German, and Spanish. China has 300 million foreign language learners, but 99% are English learners. In contrast, primary and secondary schools in Japan offer a total of 23 foreign languages, including English, Chinese, French, German, Spanish, Korean, Russian, Italian, Portuguese, and so on, though English is the most popular. We should set out from the practical circumstances in China to formulate an overall plan for language education suited to our country’s national situation. Foreign language teaching should put forth more efforts with respect to improving practicality and language skills. In addition, we cannot merely reform foreign languages on the college entrance examination, but must also correspondingly reform foreign language teaching at universities.

References Anhui Business News (安徽商报). 2014. Provincial Department of Education: reforms for ‘multiple examinations per year’ to be pushed forward next year (省教育厅: 明年推动“英 语一年多考”改革). Aug. 23, 2014. Changchun Evening News (长春晚报). 2014. Reforms to English on college entrance examination: let English education return to practical applications (高考英语改革 让英语 教育回归应用化). Mar. 5, 2014. Changjiang Daily (长江日报). 2014. This year’s summer vacation is shifting with the “winds” of the examination – language arts replaces English as the most popular subject in tutoring (今年暑假跟着考试“风向” 转 —— 语文取代英语成培优最热科目). Jul. 23, 2014. Chengde Evening News (承德晚报). 2014. Focus on college entrance examination reforms: new plan to be implemented in Hebei college entrance examination in 2018, multiple examinations per year implemented for foreign languages, no subject division between humanities and science; varied response from parents and tutoring organizations (聚焦 高考改革: 2018 年河北高考实施新方案 外语实行一年多考, 文理不分科 家长、 培训机构 反应不一). Mar. 11, 2014. China Business Journal (中国经营报). 2014. General college entrance examination reform plan is preliminarily settled; Shanghai and Zhejiang may take the lead on pilot programs (高考 改革总体方案初定 上海浙江或先行试点). Jun. 16, 2014. China Education Online (中国教育在线). 2013a. Liang Tingfu: English should not consume too much educational resources (梁挺福: 英语不该占用太多的教育资源). http://gaokao.eol. cn/kuai_xun_3075/20131010/t20131010_1026542.shtml, Oct. 10, 2013. China Education Online (中国教育在线). 2013b. Ren Lei: Multiple examinations per year for English herald the direction of reforms to the college entrance examination (任蕾: 英语一

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年多考昭示高考改革方向). http://gaokao.eol.cn/kuai_xun_3075/20131010/t20131010_ 1026541.shtml, Oct. 10, 2013. China Education Online (中国教育在线). 2013c. Wu Fuping: Status of English is too high, hindering the promotion of specialized talents (吴付平: 英语地位过高 有碍专业人才的选拔). http://gaokao.eol.cn/kuai_xun_3075/20131010/t20131010_1026545.shtml, Oct. 10, 2013. China Education Online (中国教育在线). 2013d. Wang Tingting: Assessment method following reforms to English cannot merely consist of changes in form (王婷婷: 英语改革后的考核 方式不能只是形式上的变化). http://gaokao.eol.cn/kuai_xun_3075/20131010/ t20131010_1026535.shtml, Oct. 10, 2013. China Education Online (中国教育在线). 2014a. Reforms to English on the college entrance examination strongly opposed by ‘scholar-tyrants’ (高考英语改革遭“学霸”强烈反对). http://gaokao.eol.cn/kuai_xun_3075/20140107/t20140107_1061914.shtml, Jan. 7, 2014. China Education Online (中国教育在线). 2014b. Will the reforms to English on the college entrance examination ultimately reduce the burden or add pressure (英语高考改革 究竟 是减负还是加压?). http://edu.qq.com/a/20140924/017598.htm, Sept. 24, 2014. China Youth Daily (中国青年报). 2014a. Socialization of English on the college entrance examination: 65.6% of interviewees support, 15% oppose (高考英语社会化: 65.6% 受访 者支持 15% 反对). Jun. 12, 2014. China Youth Daily (中国青年报). 2014b. Netizens are paying attention to non-separation of humanities and science on the college entrance examination, senior secondary schools are expected to offer career planning courses (网友关注高考不分文理 期待高中开设职业 规划课程). Oct. 9, 2014. Chinese Social Sciences Today (中国社会科学报). 2014. Reforms to English on the college entrance examination must avoid being ‘one size fits all’ (高考英语改革要避免“一刀切”). Jan. 24, 2014. Guangming Education (光明教育). 2014. Professor Cao Wen of Beijing Foreign Studies University: changes to the format of English on the college entrance examination cannot resolve ‘mute English’ (北外教授曹文: 英语高考形式变化难解“哑巴英语”). http://edu. gmw.cn/2014-05/20/content_11367362.htm, May 20, 2014. Guangming Online (光明网). 2014. Gong Yafu: First clarify the value of English education, then discuss reforms to the college entrance examination (龚亚夫: 先明确英语教育价值, 再讨 论高考改革). http://edu.gmw.cn/2014-05/27/content_11435746.htm, May 27, 2014. ifeng.com (凤凰网). 2014. Focus on reforms to the college entrance examination: Socialized English tutoring organizations will prosper even more (关注高考改革: 社会化英语培训机 构将更火爆). http://edu.ifeng.com/news/detail_2014_06/05/36669236_0.shtml, May 23, 2014. ifeng.com Shaanxi (凤凰网陕西). 2014a. Let English studies return to language itself; reforms to college entrance examination should be in line with international conventions (让英语 学习回归语言本位 高考改革应接轨国际). http://sn.ifeng.com/jiaoyu/gaokao/detail_ 2014_03/05/1936146_0.shtml, Mar. 5, 2014. ifeng.com Shaanxi (凤凰网陕西). 2014b. Shire Song: reforms to English on the college entrance examination must set out from the fundamental evaluation system (Shire Song: 高考英语改革要从根本测评体系上进行). http://sn.ifeng.com/jiaoyu/gaokao/detail_ 2014_03/20/2013139_0.shtml, Mar. 20, 2014. Jiangnan Evening News (江南晚报). 2014. 2017 reforms to English on the college entrance examination in Jiangsu incite heated debate: will ‘two examinations per year’ ‘reduce the

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burden’ or ‘add pressure’? (2017 年江苏高考英语改革引热议 “一年两考”是“减负”还是“加 压”?). May 26, 2014. Koolearn Online (新东方在线). 2014. English studies in senior secondary school from the perspective of English reforms on the college entrance examination and real exam questions in 2014 (从高考英语改革及 2014 真题看高中英语学习). http://gaokao.xdf.cn/ 201407/10111549.html, Jul. 16, 2014. Oriental Outlook Weekly (瞭望东方周刊). 2014. English leaves the ‘sacred altar,’ can language arts ‘proclaim itself king’ (英语走下“神坛” 语文能否“称王”). No. 21. People.cn (人民网). 2014. Interpretation of current public opinion: reforms to English on college entrance examination move ahead amidst doubts (今日舆情解读: 高考英语改革在 质疑中前行). http://yuqing.people.com.cn/n/2014/0520/c209043-25039117.html, May 20, 2014. Qianjiang Evening News (钱江晚报). 2014. Yu Minhong discusses reforms to English on the college entrance examination: This is glad tidings, confident in reforms (俞敏洪谈高考英 语改革: 是一种福音 对改革有信心). Jun. 9, 2014. Shanghai Morning Post (新闻晨报). 2014. The crisis over the withdrawal of English from the college entrance examination, continued: 5 tenths of people to have tutoring in speaking drills over summer vacation (英语退出高考风波续: 暑期培训 5 成人练口语). Jul. 3, 2014. Sina Education (新浪教育). 2014. Interpretation by a famous teacher: the impact of two examinations per year in English on students (名师解读: 英语一年两考对学生的影响). http://edu.sina.com.cn/gaokao/2014-09-05/1721432913.shtml, Sept. 5, 2014. Sohu Learning (搜狐教育). 2014a. Shanghai college entrance examination reforms to be implemented as early as 2017; English to be withdrawn, testing only language arts and mathematics (上海高考改革最早 2017 年实施 英语退出只考语数). http://learning.sohu. com/20140213/n394933112.shtml?qq-pf-to=pcqq.c2c, Feb. 13, 2014. Sohu Learning (搜狐教育). 2014b. Critique of college entrance examination reforms: with two examinations per year in English, setting a score becomes a necessity (评高考改革: 英语 一年两考 刷分成必然). http://learning.sohu.com/20140905/n404098136.shtml, Sept. 5, 2014. Southern Metropolis Daily (南方都市报). 2014. Reforms to English on the college entrance examination: over six tenths of interviewees approve of multiple examinations per year (高考英语改革 逾六成受访者赞成一年多考).Jun. 4, 2014. Suzhou Daily (苏州日报). 2014. Representatives at World Language Conference discuss reforms to foreign languages: English on the college entrance examination not suited to two examinations per year (世语会代表说外语改革 高考英语不宜一年两考). Jun. 7, 2014. Taishan Evening News (泰山晚报). 2014. Reforms to English on the college entrance examination become a topic of heated debate; little impact on English tutoring programs (高考英语改革成热议话题, 英语辅导班小受影响). Apr. 4, 2014. Wen Hui Bao (文汇报). 2014. Reforms to English on the college entrance examination, springtime for tutoring programs? (高考英语改革, 补课班的春天?). Aug. 12, 2014. Workers’ Daily (工人日报). 2014. Reforms to English on the college entrance examination cannot proceed behind closed doors (高考英语改革不能闭门造车). May 23, 2014. Xinmin.cn (新民网). 2014. Shanghai Education Commission responds: The ‘Shanghai college entrance examination reform plan’ is false (上海教委回应: “沪版高考改革方案” 不实). http://shanghai.xinmin.cn/msrx/2014/02/13/23497579.html, Feb. 13, 2014. Yangcheng Evening News (羊城晚报). 2014. Sun Yat-Sen University – Cambridge A-level Open Day and National Forum on English Reforms on Senior Secondary and College

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Entrance Examinations (中山大学剑桥 A-level 开放日暨国家中高考英语改革论坛). May 29, 2014. Yangzhou Times (扬州时报). 2014. Reforms to English on the college entrance examination are imminent, yet the training market is heating up (高考英语改革在即 培训市场反升温). Feb. 25, 2014. Youth Times (青年时报). 2014. Rumors trending online regarding the announcement of Zhejiang college entrance examination plan, and comprehensive reforms to come; Provincial Education Examinations Authority: this news is inaccurate (网上热传浙江高考 方案公布, 将有四方面改革 省教育考试院: 此消息失实). Mar. 21, 2014. Yunnan.cn (云南网). 2014. College entrance examination reforms: two examinations per year in English, pressure redoubled for some senior secondary school students in Kunming (高考改革: 英语一年考两次 昆明部分高中生压力翻倍). http://yn.yunnan.cn/html/201409/05/content_3355569.htm, Sept. 5, 2014.

Hou Min (侯 敏), Zhou Hongzhao (周 红照), Liu Peng (刘 鹏), and Cheng Nanchang (程 南昌)

23 Internet language norms incite heated debate 2014 marked the 20th year since China formally gained access to the Internet. Having derived nourishment from the traditional Chinese language, the Internet language fostered in the online environment has become the most dynamic part of the Chinese language system, but has also been accompanied by conflict, drawing attention from all sectors of society, and becoming a topic of passionate debate in the media. The Language and Public Opinion Monitoring System developed by the National Broadcast Media Language Resources Monitoring & Research Center of Communication University of China (CUClpoms) discovered a total of 1103 news reports related to Internet language in 2014: the primary issue which they addressed was “Internet language norms,” with 613 pieces. The four peaks in Figure 1 roughly correspond to the four most hotly debated topics, which were, in chronological order: whether Internet language should be part of textbooks; whether dictionaries should reject Internet neologisms; whether it is necessary to boycott vulgar Internet language; and whether radio and television programs should prohibit the use of Internet language.

1 Should the use of Internet language be prohibited in radio and television programs? On November 27, 2014, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television issued the Notice on the Normative Use of the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language in Radio and Television Programs and Advertising (关于 广播电视节目和广告中规范使用国家通用语言文字的通知). The Notice stipulated that advertising practices such as adapting jin shan jin mei (尽善尽美, ‘the acme of perfection’) to jin shan jin mei (晋善晋美, ‘Shanxi, a land of splendors’) or adapting ke bu rong huan (刻不容缓, ‘haste brooks no delay’) to ke bu rong huan (咳不容缓, ‘coughing brooks no delay’) were not in compliance with the basic requirements of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字 法), Regulations for Administration of Radio and Television (广播电视管理条例), and other laws and regulations. All categories of radio and television programs https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-023

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and advertising are to employ the characters, words, phrases, idioms and so forth of the standard spoken and written Chinese language strictly in accordance with the normative writing style and standard connotations, and it is not permitted to arbitrarily replace characters, alter the structure, or distort the connotations, nor is it permitted to arbitrarily insert Internet language or foreign languages into idioms, or to use or introduce newly coined terms based on Internet language in imitation of the idiom format, such as shi dong ran ju (十动然拒, ‘very moving, but rejected’) and ren jian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’). This led to a spate of public debate over whether the Notice was actually defending language norms, or suppressing linguistic innovation. Opponents said: We cannot take a rigid and conservative approach suppressing the innovative use and development of language. Ke bu rong huan (咳不容缓, ‘coughing brooks no delay’) represents the flexible use of language. Professor Wang Xiaoyu (王晓玉) of the School of Communications at East China Normal University argued that it is indeed necessary to uphold the purity of language, but we cannot deny the evolution of language. She noted that: “Advertising is considered to be an art, and the use of certain homophonous words in advertising language should be permitted.” It is evident from the characters in ke bu rong huan (咳不容缓, ‘coughing brooks no delay’) that the phrase seeks to express that coughing must not be underestimated, and must be cured straight

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away. Everyone knows that this is not an idiom, and it merely represents a borrowed usage, rather than a transformation. The use of ke bu rong huan (咳不容缓, ‘coughing brooks no delay’) by someone selling cough medicine will not cause people to change ke bu rong huan (刻不容缓, ‘haste brooks no delay’) to ke bu rong huan (咳不容缓, ‘coughing brooks no delay’) in the future (People.cn 2014a). Guo Yuanpeng (郭元鹏) also argued that, “This is merely a flexible usage of an idiom”; “We request that the Administration of Publication, Radio, Film and Television does not perform a thorough decapacitation in the process of standardizing the use of spoken and written language in programs,” “and further request that ‘words be spared from the knife’” (Guo Yuanpeng 2014). In response to the ban on the use of Internet expressions such as shi dong ran ju (十动然拒, ‘very moving, but rejected’), the netizen “Qiaoqiao Dream” (悄悄 Dream) argued that this represents “the smothering of Internet culture,” and posed the question, “Why can’t words be innovated?” (People.cn 2014a). The netizen “Jianguo hui song” (坚果灰松) also commented, “Taking pains to suppress certain naturally forming things is a form of cultural coercion and control” (People.cn 2014a). Associate Professor Tang Yuanqing (唐远清) of the Television and News School at Communication University of China argued that one cannot take the approach of yi dao qie (一刀切, ‘one size fits all’) with respect to popular Internet terms, because “there are truly no suitable words within the orthodox language system which can stand in for the meaning expressed by many popular Internet terms” (Tang 2014). Mao Xusong (毛旭松) also remarked that, “The Internet is an important discursive platform for the public to express opinions, and many news events become focal points for society precisely due to passionate debate online,” thus Internet language represents “the people’s voice and the popular will in their most original ecology” (Mao 2014). The netizen “@Guduo xiaoxiao” (@骨朵肖肖) commented, “It is understandable that the older generation does not comprehend Internet language, but we cannot impede the development of the times. By the time we are old, one would expect that these Internet terms will all be ‘old sayings.’ If this had been the approach in antiquity, there would be no idioms in the modern era!” (China.com 2014). Language systems can be self-purifying. The decision of whether Internet language stays or goes should be handed over to the public as the users, rather than being anxious to reach a final conclusion through administrative measures. Zhu Xingguang (朱星光) remarked in an article that, in the days when the British colonies spanned the entire globe, if a purification movement had been launched to maintain the “purity” and norms of the English language, with a peremptory ban on a host of American, Indian and Australian terms which were not “standard” or which those at the “Radio and Television Administration of Great

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Britain” could not understand, would English have developed into a world language? If the “Radio and Television Administration of the Nationalist government” had taken a hostile approach in the period of advocacy for vernacular Chinese, issuing missives prohibiting vernacular terms, then would we still be using zhi hu zhe ye (之乎者也, ‘archaic jargon’) today? (Zhu Xingguang 2014). The netizen “Yi qian ling chan” (一千龄蝉) also commented that terms like ren jian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’) rarely appear nowadays, proving that they were cultural byproducts of their era. Culture is capable of selfpurification, and the purifiers are those who take part in the given culture: they decide what should stay, and what should be eliminated (China.com 2014). The netizen Zhang Yusheng (张玉胜) directly expressed doubts in an article that “such forcible calls for suspension by administrators could truly achieve the normative effect of a strict ban” (Zhang Yusheng 2014). Supporters said: The ban is good! A millennium of culture has been mixed into an indistinguishable hodgepodge! Many netizens expressed support for the Notice, arguing that the practice of using ke bu rong huan (咳不容缓, ‘coughing brooks no delay’) and other distorted idioms was harmful and disruptive to idioms, while terms like ren jian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’) would sow chaos in the functioning of the Chinese language system, “severely polluting the purity and grace of the mother tongue” (Zhou Yifan 2014). The netizen “Honghu fei bu guo hanhai” (鸿 鹄飞不过瀚海) commented: “The ban is good! A millennium of culture has been mixed into an indistinguishable hodgepodge!” The netizen “Hao xiao de hao hei” (浩笑的好嗨) argued that one should be aware that television programs have a guiding effect on the minds of ordinary people and children, and distorting idioms will have an extremely bad influence on society, students and even Chinese culture. The netizen “Xi Li xiaoxi YoHoO” (Xi 李晓曦 YoHoO) said, “Many children do not have a very good grasp of their mother tongue nowadays: with exposure to brainwashing by such Internet slang terms from a young age, the use of classical terms will be increasingly weakened. Parody terms truly ought to be properly managed” (China.com 2014). Miao Xiaowu (苗笑武), an instructor at the School of Literature at Sichuan Normal University, noted that such Internet slang terms are extemporaneous terms coined and propagated online by a subset of people, and are a type of kuaican wenhua (快餐文化, ‘fast food culture’). They are characterized by arbitrariness and randomness, with their entertainment function being more pronounced than their practical function, and there is no value in promoting them (Tian 2014). “Regardless of how popular or catchy Internet terms are, they are merely one form of the popular vocabulary or colloquial speech, and it is difficult for them to ascend to the refined halls of the brilliant Chinese culture” (Fang 2014).

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In response to the concerns among some netizens that the ban will impact linguistic innovation, Huang Anjing (黄安靖), the editor-in-chief of Verbalism (咬文嚼字) stated that the “banned” elements would be those parts which do not conform to the patterns of language structure, and certainly not all Internet language would be “struck down with one blow.” The purpose of intervening with respect to things that are incompatible with the rules is to promote the healthier development of language, thus it will not impact “innovation,” but, on the contrary, will be beneficial to “innovation” (People.cn 2014b). With respect to the self-purifying mechanisms of language, Ren Suihu (任遂虎) of the College of Literature at Northwest Normal University noted that, “Internet language indeed has self-purifying mechanisms, as well as a process of social choice and identification. During this process, we must engage in analysis, judgment and guidance – this is utterly indispensable” (Zhang Wei 2014). Some netizens approved of the Notice, but believed that it was inappropriate to take a “one-size-fits-all” approach with respect to all Internet language or all radio and television programs. It is undeniable that dregs such as ni mei (你妹, ‘your sister’), sha B (傻 B, ‘stupid motherf – er’), and ni ma (尼玛, ‘sun / your mother’) are present in Internet language, but there are also many examples of the cream of the crop, such as zhainan (宅男, ‘nerd’), mazu (蚁族, ‘ant tribe’), and dianzan (点赞, ‘like’), therefore, obliterating all Internet language with one blanket ban would be inappropriate. Requiring all programs to ban the use of Internet language would be too extreme, given that radio and television programs are meant to be rich and colorful: as a novel and fashionable element, there is no reason why Internet language should not appear in arts and entertainment programs.

2 Should Internet language be part of textbooks? In late March 2014, the Legislative Affairs Office of the Henan Provincial Government issued the Measures for Implementation of the ‘Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language’ in Henan Province (河南省实施《中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法》办法), to be implemented beginning on April 1, 2014. The Measures stipulated that, “The official documents of state agencies and textbooks shall not use Internet terms not conforming to the lexicon and grammatical norms of the modern Chinese language,” with the aim of scientific, standardized guidance for the use of Internet language by young people. However, on the eve of their implementation,

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the regulations gave rise to heated debate on all sides, with mixed appraisals in public discourse. The Voice of China (中国之声) on China National Radio conducted a survey of netizens on Weibo and WeChat with respect to this topic, finding that four tenths of netizens supported a ban on the appearance of Internet slang in official government documents and textbooks, while four tenths of netizens believed that these novelties should be positively accepted, and another two tenths of netizens held a neutral attitude (China National Radio Online 2014). Supporters said: It is difficult for Internet language to ascend to the level of refinement, and it will lead students astray. The Guangzhou netizen “F,” an enrolled college student, argued that, “The upsurge in Internet terms is another distortion of our traditional culture, and truly cannot ascend to the level of refinement.” The netizen “Aqiang” (阿强) stated that the use of Internet terms “will be damaging to the solemnity and rigorousness of documents,” while the netizen “Damo huyang” (大漠胡杨) argued that “Internet terms cannot accurately convey written meaning, and are detrimental to the perpetuation of the Chinese language” (People.cn 2014a). Xu Sai’er (徐赛儿), a language arts teacher in Ningbo, warned that Internet jargon cannot become the general atmosphere: the casual and ubiquitous use of Internet language and symbols will cause people to forget the purity and refinement of the Chinese language (Cheng 2014). Language arts teachers from Hangzhou Qingtai Experimental School and Caihe No. 1 Primary School also disapproved of the use of Internet slang in student essays, on the grounds that: There are far more negative words than positive in Internet slang, which has a highly eroding impact on traditional culture, and steers the language in student essays away from the norms. Ms. Wu (吴), the parent of a student, directly argued that wangluo chengyu (网络成语, ‘Internet idioms’) have caused her son Xiaoliang (小亮), currently attending his second year at senior secondary school, to be “led astray” (Sun Xuexin 2014). While correcting student essays, faced with entire pages full of Internet terms, one language arts teacher found that his blood pressure was elevated and his breathing was labored; he could not help but cry out, “Children, are we still able to speak properly?” (Children’s Resource Network 2014). Opponents said: If Internet terms can be included in foreign dictionaries, why is it unacceptable for them to enter textbooks? The netizen “Niunai” (牛奶) stated that Internet terms represent the characteristics of this era, and are a product of the culture in this era. If they cannot be used, how will future generations study the history of our era? The netizen “Jincheng” (金城) argued that the most important function of language is communication, and since Internet language was able to become popular, it must have unique charms for this era, therefore it can be used as long as it is not

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vulgar. Novel things should be accepted, and if loanwords can be accepted, then why is Internet slang unacceptable? Wang Junrong (王军荣) also argued that if textbooks absorb a few lively Internet terms, it will allow students to experience the flavors of the era, and will in fact attract more of students’ attention (Wang Junrong 2014). The netizen “Shijin” (什锦) more bluntly pointed out that dama (大妈, ‘dama’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) and other terms have all entered foreign vocabularies, so why can they not be part of our own textbooks? Others have argued that Internet terms should not all be “struck down with one blow.” As the communicative power and influence of Internet language grow, there will be good and bad elements, along with distinctions between what should and should not be used. The majority of “Internet terms are not destined to persistently endure on the Internet: as time passes, some may disappear, while others may become part of people’s everyday language” (Hui 2014).

3 Should dictionaries reject Internet neologisms? On August 26, 2014, the third edition of the Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese (现代汉语规范词典) was released, drawing a flurry of public attention. The focus of attention for the media and the public was primarily centered on the inclusion and definition of Internet neologisms in the dictionary. Internet terms like zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’), tucao (吐槽, ‘roasting’), paizhuan (拍砖, ‘throw brickbats’), Weixin (微信, ‘WeChat’), et cetera were included, while diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair / basement dweller’), bai fu mei (白富美, ‘white, rich, and beautiful’), shenma (神马, ‘mythical horse / what’), shengnü (剩女, ‘leftover women’), beiju (杯具, ‘cup / tragedy’), and tongxie (童鞋, ‘kid shoes / classmate’), which likewise originated online, were turned away at the door. Some netizens argued that these terms had encountered unequal treatment, and decried the unfairness. In response, Li Xingjian (李行健), the dictionary’s editor-in-chief and a member of the Advisory Committee of the State Language Commission, provided the standards for the inclusion of entries in the dictionary: the first was to examine whether these words were being used in circulation and had stabilized, and the second was to examine whether they could become part of public life, while also possessing a certain degree of taste and style. Some neologisms with unstable usage were not included in this round. Furthermore, with respect to polysyllabic Internet phrases such as xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’), et cetera, he remarked that: “It is projected that the ‘lifespan’ of the use of these terms will not be very long, and furthermore, they do not fall under the scope of national usage, but merely have a relatively

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high frequency of use by netizens, therefore these also were not entered in the new edition of the Dictionary” (Xinhuanet 2014). Opponents said: Including tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) and paizhuan (拍砖, ‘throw brickbats’) but not diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair / basement dweller’) and bai fu mei (白富美, ‘white, rich, and beautiful’) is discrimination. Sun Zhong (孙仲) posted a commentary on China Youth Online (中国青年 网), declaring that since Weixin (微信, ‘WeChat’), shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’), tucao (吐槽, ‘roasting’), and other terms could be included in a reference book like the Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese (现代汉语规范词典), then words like diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair / basement dweller’), bai fu mei (白富美, ‘white, rich, and beautiful’), shengnan (剩男, ‘leftover men’), and shengnü (剩女, ‘leftover women’), including chaonü (超女, ‘Super Girl’) and kuainan (快男, ‘Super Boy’), should also be included; to do otherwise would be an omission or even discrimination. While the words themselves did perhaps display differences, with some being of refined taste and others being of low taste, given its nature as a reference book, the Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese (现代汉语规范词典) should not set a double standard for inclusion. He also argued that, “Necessity is the reason for existence. Since people are unable to part with neologisms like diaosi and bai fu mei, it is necessary to understand their meaning and usage, therefore they should be included in reference books like the Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese” (Sun Zhong 2014). The netizen Xiaoge-Xu (小哥-旭) also remarked, “A vocabulary word is a thing that objectively exists, and must not be held hostage by morality; if it exists, it should be included.” Supporters said: Dictionaries should have standards for the inclusion of words, and must be circumspect. Supporters argued that rejecting bai fu mei (白富美, ‘white, rich, and beautiful’) and xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’) while including tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) in the new edition of the Standard Dictionary “precisely reflects the rigorous and prudent judgment of the revisers” (Hou 2014). Yang Lan (杨兰) wrote an article declaring that, “Dictionaries are effective vehicles for furthering the comprehensive promotion and popularization of national language standards and norms, and as a natural person bears social responsibility, they too play a leading and guiding role with respect to mainstream values in society, and bear even greater educational significance with respect to the student population; the inclusion of any new word or new phrase must be carefully considered.” “If dictionaries ‘swallow any and all’ Internet slang terms of relatively low taste and style, it is to be feared that this would present harmful entertainment and negative guidance to society, particularly the student population” (Yang 2014). Wu Zonghai (吴宗海), a retired associate professor at

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Jiangsu University, also argued that language standards are a product of historical development up to a certain era, and the patterns of the development of language itself must be respected. If Internet slang is included under dictionary standards too early, it will conversely affect the self-elimination and development of language (jsw.com 2014). In addition, the new definition of tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) as “having money but no culture” has also perturbed many netizens. The netizen “Wo de mingzi jiao Xiaoqin” (我的名字叫小芹) expressed serious doubts as to whether the definition of tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) was accurate. Other netizens mockingly remarked that, in the future, people would be angry with anyone who called them tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’). The netizen “Zhengxi” (正夕) suggested, “I think that in their everyday lives, people only say tuhao as a kind of teasing behavior, and it is not necessarily linked to cultural standards. By interpreting it like this in the dictionary, it will become a derogatory term, which I think is not very good. I think that it would be acceptable to define it as, ‘a person from a wealthy family who spends money ostentatiously’” (Zhou Heping 2014).

4 Is it necessary to boycott vulgar Internet language? On August 21 and September 8, 2014, Du Hongchao (杜红超), the director of the China New Media Communication Association, successively posted on Wechat (see Figure 2) and Weibo, calling for a boycott of cao ni ma (草泥马, ‘grass dirt horse / f – your mother’), bige (逼格, ‘big’), diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair / basement dweller’), and other vulgar Internet language. The official Weibo account of the People’s Daily (人民日报), along with Guangming Daily (光明日报), Yangcheng Evening News (羊城晚报), and many other media outlets successively offered reports and commentary on these events. The escalation from a prior case involving a boycott of diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair / basement dweller’) to a boycott of all vulgar Internet language drew applause and approval from some, who felt that this should have happened even sooner; while other argued that this was an over-the-top move, making a mountain out of a molehill. Opponents said: Vulgar language is a type of subculture, an expression of self-care, and there is no need to make a fuss. Some opponents argued that vulgar language is a normal phenomenon in human language and culture. Even if they did not have these emerging vulgar Internet terms, people would still use ta ma de (他妈的, ‘damn it’) and other guoma (国骂, ‘national curse words’). Vulgarity is a type of subculture: regardless

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Figure 2: Appeal by Du Hongchao on WeChat for boycott of vulgar Internet language. Text: “Du Hongchao: From sb to cao ni ma [草泥马, ‘grass dirt horse / f – your mother’], from kubi [苦逼, ‘hopeless dissatisfaction’] to bige [逼格, ‘big’], from diaosi [屌丝, ‘dick hair / basement dweller’] to diao zhatian [屌炸天, ‘dick exploding sky-high’], do those who invent and disseminate this type of new Internet language to show off their individuality dare to use them much in front of the women in their own families? To respect others, and respect ourselves, let’s all stop using such vulgar and worse than vulgar words on WeChat, alright? Everyone repost to send out the call, alright? August 21, 12:45 (Delete).” Source: ChinaNews.com, Internet celebrity calls for boycott of vulgar Internet terms, halting use of ni mei and danteng (网络红人呼吁抵制粗鄙网络词语 停用“你妹”“蛋疼”), http://www. gd.chinanews.com/dg/zw/2014/2014-09-09/137/2820.shtml.

of how refined the mainstream culture is, vulgar culture will surely exist, and with vulgar culture comes vulgar language and vulgar slang (Zhu Xunyao 2014). Although using obscene language is uncivilized, it is the right of ordinary people: you can dislike it, but you have to respect people’s right to speak this way – this is the only civilized attitude one can take in approaching Internet culture. The netizen “Damo Yu” (大漠鱼) offered the analysis that words like diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair / basement dweller’) are how the people living in society’s lower classes “mock their own low status and state of life, which leaves much to be desired”; they “are an expression of smoothing over rough patches and self-care.” These individuals, who bear many heavy burdens in life, mock themselves as diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair / basement dweller’) to soothe the resentment they feel – should they be deprived of this little privilege too? (Damo Yu 2014). Chen Qinghua (陈清华) also argued that lower-class people have very little in the way of power resources, thus “crude language has become their way of protesting and venting their anger” (Mai 2014). He Long (何龙), the chief commentator for Yangcheng Evening News (羊城 晚报), argued that vulgar Internet terms already represented a moderated approach to “vulgarity”: ni mei (你妹, ‘your sister’) omits the preceding verb, while the step down from mother to younger sister in the rank of the curse’s object also signifies respect for the elder generation; danteng (蛋疼, ‘ball ache’) distorts the character dan (蛋, ‘egg’) to refer to male reproductive organs; diaobao (碉堡,

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‘blockhouse / f – until exploding’) uses a homophone in place of a vulgar term . . . . All of these examples avoid undisguised vulgar expressions, and should be regarded as “evolved vulgarity”; since the Chinese language has always featured euphemisms of every shade and description, we need not make too much of a fuss (He 2014). Supporters said: Speaking is a privilege, and there has to be a bottom line; filthy speech is linguistic violence. The netizen “Xi’an Shiping” (西安时评) published a commentary approving of the boycott and declaring that many Internet terms today really lack a bottom line! Following an analysis of the distinctions between wanci (婉词, ‘euphemisms’) and cukou (粗口, ‘profanity’), the netizen Wang Fuqiang (王付强) pointed out that words like ni mei (你妹, ‘your sister’) “can only make people think of pornography and violence.” “From the moment of its ‘birth,’ it appeared to be in a pathological state, and despite ‘switching sock puppets,’ it still hasn’t been well-received.” “If we allow ‘vulgar expressions’ to multiply and spread, it will lead to a rampage of linguistic violence in online society, and will inevitably accumulate more and more perversity, ultimately spilling back into real society, and seriously impacting the construction of public morality” (Wang Fuqiang 2014). The Internet is characterized as a public space, and netizens have the right to speak online, but they must abide by national laws and regulations, and pay attention to public morality; it cannot be that there is no bottom line. With respect to the function of “vulgar expressions” in letting off steam, Wang Fuqiang (王付强) argued that, “There one must beg to differ even further. What kind of grievances absolutely require that one rely on cursing at people online so that it may be relieved? If a person cannot even find someone to pour his heart out to in real life, should he not profoundly reassess how far his life philosophy and values have deviated from the correct path? In important events we rely on the law, in small events we rely on friends and family, and all events must ultimately be able to achieve thorough resolution in real society, unless his position and appeals themselves do not have a leg to stand on, and he knows that once he speaks, it will not be accepted.” As for “culture,” Su Jinzhi (苏金智), a research fellow at the Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education, clearly stated that, “The flood of vulgar language and ‘venting’ on the public platform of the Internet is incompatible with our country’s excellent traditional culture”; “Using vulgar Internet language is harmful to people’s pure and beautiful souls, and injurious to the aesthetics of national language” (Su 2014). Dezhou mobile reporter Zhang Qianqian (张倩倩) observed that Internet terms are not only limited to the online world: vulgar Internet slang like ni mei

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(你妹, ‘your sister’), danteng (蛋疼, ‘ball ache’) and so on became pet phrases for many people some time ago, including many minors. At noon on September 9, 2014, on Dezhou Bus Route 107, Zhang Qianqian was quite shocked to encounter several primary school students with mouths full of dirty language such as wo lei ge qu (我勒个去, ‘holy shit’) and ni mei de (你妹的, ‘your sister’), and inquired where they had learned it: these vulgar Internet terms were extremely popular among them, and had even become the pet phrases of many people. “As most I just say ni ma [尼玛, ‘sun / your mother’] or wo lei ge qu [我勒个去, ‘holy shit’], it doesn’t have any other meaning, it’s just fun,” 11-year-old Li Bei (李贝) said. In the opinion of Li Bei’s mother Wang Yan (王燕), these Internet terms are obviously classified as obscenities. “Such a young child simply does not know what it means, but just learns it by following along; I’ve told him many times, but it can’t be changed.” Her son’s “lack of understanding” made Wang Yan feel quite helpless (Zhang Qianqian 2014).

5 Reflections and recommendations It is a joy to behold the intellectual sparks constantly rising from the bubbling debate on Internet language, which has continued for more than a year, revealing the continuous strengthening of language consciousness among netizens. However, the following few issues are cause for concern, demonstrating that the popularization of language knowledge among the public has thus far been inadequate. Language workers must have a voice in these respects, and efforts must also be put forth with regard to our education.

5.1 The “one size fits all” approach is unsuitable for language issues The government can achieve some results in terms of language issues, and people are able to control the trends of the development of language. However, while language is controllable, there is more than meets the eye on the question of how it is to be controlled. First, language has its own patterns of development, and it is necessary to pursue control on the premise of respecting and adhering to language patterns; second, it is necessary to pay attention to the methods and approaches for control. As a tool of communication, language is the bond which holds together social existence, as well as the result of the accumulation of history, thus it inevitably comprises a complex system. It is therefore unsuitable to

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adopt uncompromising and rigid policies with respect to language issues, nor can this complex issue be simplified, adopting a one-size-fits-all approach. For the public, it is best to adopt flexible policies, for guidance and mediation; in key industries which play an intermediary or guiding role, such as public media, textbook publishing, and so on, on the foundation of respecting the patterns of development of language, somewhat stricter rules and standards can be formulated, but they must be specific and operable, otherwise they will be no more than scraps of paper.

5.2 The vulgarization of Internet language must be governed Language is a person’s second face, as well as a nation’s banner, and must have healthy development. A person with a mouthful of obscenities may have a strong physique, but his spirit is ultimately unhealthy; and if a nation’s public settings are filled with obscene language, regardless of how advanced its economic is, it certainly will not stand at the heights of civilization among the forest of the world’s nations. Therefore, whether on behalf of individuals, the nation, or the healthy development of language, the trend of vulgarization of Internet language certainly must be governed. What is classified as vulgar Internet language? Vulgar Internet language includes two categories: 1. Obscenities, also referred to as profanities. These consist of word usage which causes the target of speech or nearby listeners to feel humiliated or offended, such as ni mei (你妹, ‘your sister’), danteng (蛋疼, ‘ball ache’), and ni ma (尼玛, ‘sun / your mother’). 2. Vulgar expressions. Here, vulgar refers to a low style of word formation, rather than a bad meaning contained in an expression. For instance, the terms xiaosan (小三, ‘other woman’) and ernai (二奶, ‘mistress’) refer to people who are looked down upon by society, but there is nothing wrong with the words themselves. However, diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair / basement dweller’) and bige (逼格, ‘big’) are different: in terms of their lexical meaning, these two words do not refer to anything bad, but the materials used in their formation represent vulgar diction, thus the words are of a vulgar style, and are in poor taste. It is worth noting that the series of words in this category which emerged in 2014, such as doubi (逗比/逗逼, ‘dopey’), dou B wu (逗B舞, ‘dopey dance’), sibi (撕逼, ‘catfight’), et cetera, were not only used online, but also appeared in newspapers, radio and television: doubi (逗比/逗逼, ‘dopey’) surprisingly appears in the National Language Monitoring Corpus 1117 times, a frequency greater even than the red-hot Weixin hongbao (微信红包, ‘WeChat red envelope’) (932 times); bige (逼格, ‘big’) was also used 242 times in 160 texts. People may say that, through their use, these words have already been transformed, and people

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are no longer aware of their original meaning. If this were true, it would be even more alarming, and the result would be, as Deputy Director Cheng Rong (程荣) of the Dictionary Editorial Office of the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences remarked, to “erode the several thousand-year-old foundations of the Chinese language” (Zhang 2015), leading to the decay of the Chinese civilizations which has been passed down for thousands of years. In addition, ren jian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’), xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’), tongxie (童鞋, ‘kid shoes / classmate’) and the like cannot be regarded as vulgar, but their formation is not very standard, or else they merely consist of puns, which are constrained by the setting in which they are used. Words like shanzhai (山寨, ‘knockoff’), geili (给力, ‘awesome’), miaosha (秒杀, ‘instant kill’), dianzan (点赞, ‘like’) are very good Internet neologisms, and generally speaking, their use should not be limited, wherever appropriate. As for whether their vitality can last, only time can tell. In order to fundamentally dispel the trend toward the vulgarization of Internet language, the key lies in governing the sociocultural environment in which it exists. If “zero tolerance” of obscenities were achieved in real society, perhaps a clean Internet environment would not be too far off for us.

5.3 The issue of language purity must be correctly approached Language is a tool which people use for communication, and it must serve all groups in society as a whole: as society develops and groups change, if these are not pure, then language certainly will not be pure; it must continuously develop and change to adapt to the needs of society. “‘Language purism’ with the aim of language purity is (in my opinion) a strategy used by disadvantaged groups to protect themselves and maintain the group identity by closing themselves off. Although such social phenomena have arisen from time to time, there have been no precedents for successfully upholding language ‘purity’” (Guo 2013). In this respect, we must be particularly wary of approaches which raise the banner of upholding “language purity,” taking advantage of people’s simple nationalistic sentiment to confuse public opinion and disrupt public order.

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References Cheng, Liangtian (成良田). 2014. Students using Internet language put language arts teachers in a tizzy (学生用网络语言搞晕语文老师). Ningbo Evening News (宁波晚报), Oct. 10, 2014. China.com (中国网). 2014. Distorted and disorderly use of idioms is banned, views and comments vary among netizens (篡改乱用成语被禁 网友观点褒贬不一). http://www. china.com.cn/guoqing/2014-12/02/content_34205553.htm. China National Radio Online (中国广播网). 2014. Henan bans inclusion of Internet slang in textbooks, survey: four tenths of netizens approve (河南禁将网络热词写入教科书调查:四 成网友赞同). http://china.cnr.cn/xwwgf/201403/t20140326_515163853.shtml. Children’s Resource Network (儿童资源网). 2014. Cry of a language arts teacher: Children, are we still able to speak properly? (一位语文老师的呐喊: 孩子, 咱还能好好说话吗?). http:// www.tom61.com/yuerdaquan/yuerzhihuijingxuan/2014-11-21/54467.html. Damo Yu (大漠 鱼). 2014. What is the deeper meaning behind the “diaosi threat theory”? (“ 屌 丝威胁论”背后的未尽之意是什么?). Blog China (博客中国), http://wzan00001.blogchina. com/2102119.html. Fang, Tong (方童). 2014. How to standardize Internet terms to allow for a ‘measured cadence’ (网络用语如何规范才能“扬抑有度”). Leshan Daily (乐山日报), Dec. 14, 2014, 2nd Edition. Guo, Xi (郭熙), et al. 2013. Study on promoting the “Sinicization” of alphabetic words (推进字 母词“汉语化”研究). The Concise Language Situation in China (2013) (中国语言生活要况 [2013]), Commercial Press (商务印书馆), 2013. Guo, Yuanpeng (郭元鹏). 2014. A request that ‘words be spared from the knife’ in the standard spoken and written language (规范语言文字还请“刀下留词”). People.cn (人民网), http:// opinion.people.com.cn/n/2014/1130/c159301-26118923.html. He, Long (何龙). 2014. No need to make a fuss about “vulgar expressions” on the Internet (对 网络“粗鄙词语”不必大惊小怪). Yangcheng Evening News (羊城晚报), Sept. 9, 2014, 2nd Edition. Hou, Kun (侯坤). 2014. Incorporation of slang terms into dictionaries shows cultural inclusiveness (流行语入词典展现文化包容性). Hainan Daily (海南日报), Sept. 18, 2014. Hui, Mingsheng (惠铭生). 2014. Xinhuanet commentary: How to understand the ‘ban on use of Internet terms in official documents and textbooks (新华网评: 如何理解“公文教科书禁用 网络词汇”). Xinhuanet (新华网), http://news.xinhuanet.com/comments/2014-03/26/c_ 119939294.html, Mar. 26, 2014. jsw.com (金山网). 2014. What do you think of the ‘extremely trendy’ new edition of the dictionary (“潮味十足”的新版词典, 你怎么看?). http://www.jsw.com.cn/zjnews/2014-08/ 27/content_3128777.htm. Mai, Cao (麦嘈). 2014. Should “vulgar Internet terms” be boycotted (该不该抵制“网络粗鄙 词”). Southern Metropolis Daily (南方都市报), Sept. 8, 2014, A2. Mao, Xusong (毛旭松). 2014. How could we do without Internet slang? (怎能少了网络热词?). Shenzhen Economic Daily (深圳商报), Dec. 18, 2014, C2. People.cn (人民网). 2014a. State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television bans Internet terms in radio and television, opinions vary among experts and netizens (广电总局禁网络 词语上广播电视 专家网友看法不一). http://media.people.com.cn/n/2014/1128/c4060626109229.html.

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People.cn (人民网). 2014b. Experts: ‘Ban on Internet terms’ on radio and television does not ‘strike all down with one blow’ (专家: 广播电视 “ 禁用网词” 不是 “ 一棍子打死”). http://edu.people.com.cn/n/2014/1129/c1053-26117781.html. Su, Jinzhi (苏金智). 2014. Do not drape the vulgarization of Internet terms with the cloak of “innovation” (莫给网络用语粗鄙化披上“创新”外衣). Guangming Online (光明网), http://www.gmw.cn/content/2014-09/16/content_13254844.htm. Sun, Xuexin (孙学新). 2014. Post-80s and post-90s love to use Internet language, parents worry children will be ‘deviant’ (80 后、 90 后爱用网络语言 家长担心孩子“跑偏”). Nanguo Metropolis Daily (南国都市报), Jan. 6, 2014. Sun, Zhong (孙仲). 2014. Words are words, and dictionaries are dictionaries (词归词, 典归典). China Youth Online (中国青年网), http://pinglun.youth.cn/wztt/201408/t20140829_ 5687053.htm. Tang, Yuanqing (唐远清). 2014. Use must be standardized, and words cannot be misused (使用要规范, 不能滥用字词). Western China Metropolitan Daily (华西都市报), Dec. 13, 2014, A9. Tian, Jing (田静). 2014. Ban on Internet terms on radio and television stirs up controversy (网络用语禁上广播电视惹争议). People’s Daily Overseas Edition (人民日报海外版), Dec. 8, 2014, 6th Edition. Wang, Fuqiang (王付强). Linguistic violence cannot be allowed to rampage in online society (网络社会里不能放纵语言暴力横行). Dahe.cn (大河网), http://opinion.dahe.cn/ 2014/09-11/103462532.html. Wang, Junrong (王军荣). 2014. Official agency documents and textbooks should also accept Internet language with vitality (机关公文和教科书也应接纳有生命力的网络语言). iqilu. com (齐鲁网), http://pinglun.iqilu.com/yuanchuang/2014/0326/1925187.shtml, Mar. 26, 2014. Xinhuanet (新华网). 2014. Tucao and other neologisms included in new edition of Chinese Dictionary (吐槽等新词收入新版汉语词典). http://news.xinhuanet.com/2014-08/28/c_ 126926784.htm. Yang, Lan (杨兰). 2014. No need to criticize new dictionary for rejecting “diaosi” and selecting “tuhao” (新词典弃“屌丝”选“土豪”, 无须苛责). cjn.cn (长江网), http://news.cjn.cn/cjsp/ rd/201408/t2529699.htm. Zhang, Qianqian (张倩倩). 2014. Many Internet terms have become people’s pet phrases; reject obscenities and restore the pure land of language (不少网络用语成人们口头禅 拒 绝脏话还语言一片净土). Dezhou News Network (德州新闻网), http://www.dezhoudaily. com/news/dezhou/folder1389/2014/09/2014-09-12719487.html. Zhang, Wei (张薇). 2014. Is Internet language the emergence of new meaning or a crisis of the Chinese language (网络语言是新意迭出还是汉语危机). Guangming Daily (光明日报), Dec. 30, 2014. Zhang, Xiaoli (张晓丽). 2015. A dialogue with Cheng Rong – Allowing an inundation of neologisms will erode the several thousand-year-old foundations of the Chinese language (对话程荣 —— 任由新词泛滥会伤了汉语的数千年根基). Liaoning Daily (辽宁日报), Jan. 10, 2015. Zhang, Yusheng (张玉胜). 2014. Internet language norms should be dredged but not stifled (网络语言规范宜疏不宜堵). Southeast Express (东南快报), Nov. 28, 2014. Zhou, Heping (周和平). 2014. New definition of neologism “tuhao” added to 3rd edition of the Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese incites heated debate (第三版《现代汉语规范词 典》增补新词“土豪” 新解引热议). Changsha Evening News (长沙晚报), Aug. 29, 2014.

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Zhou, Yifan (周一凡). 2014. Standard language achieves ‘melody as a vehicle for morality’ (规范语言造就 “曲以载道”). China Social Sciences Net (中国社会科学网), http://indi. cssn.cn/yyx/yyx_gsjj/201412/t20141202_1426007.shtml. Zhu, Xingguang (朱星光). 2014. Language is self-purifying, and active neutering is unnecessary (语言自有净化, 不必主动阉割). China.com (中国网), http://opinion.china. com.cn/opinion_46_116546.html. Zhu, Xunyao (朱迅垚). 2014. A rational look at the sub-culture of “vulgarity” (理性看待作为亚 文化的“粗鄙”). Nanfang Daily (南方日报), Sept. 10, 2014, 2nd Edition.

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24 English slang with “Chinese intonation” In 2014, “no zuo no die” (if you don’t go out looking for trouble, it won’t find you) and a group of other Chinese reci (热词, ‘slang terms’) and reyu (热语, ‘slang expressions’) (Internet slang) were incorporated into the American online slang dictionary Urban Dictionary as slang terms of Chinese origin; these English slang terms with Hanyu qiang (汉语腔, ‘Chinese intonation’) attracted widespread attention from major media outlets around the world.

1 Incorporation of terms of Chinese origin into the American online slang dictionary 1.1 Reyu (热语, ‘slang expressions’) of Chinese origin in the American online slang dictionary Bu zuosi jiu bu hui si (不作死就不会死, ‘if you don’t go out looking for trouble, it won’t find you’) originates from a Northeast China dialect, in which zuosi (作死, ‘look for trouble’) signifies zhaosi (找死, ‘court death’); bu zuosi jiu bu hui si (不作 死就不会死, ‘if you don’t go out looking for trouble, it won’t find you’) is a colloquial formulation of zi zuo nie, bu ke huo (自作孽,不可活, ‘one cannot survive calamities of one’s own making’). In the American online slang dictionary Urban Dictionary, the entry for “no zuo no die” is defined thusly: “This phrase is of Chinglish origin. Means if you don’t do stupid things, they won’t come back and bite you in the ass. (But if you do, they most certainly will.) Zuo /zwo/ is a Chinese character meaning ‘ act silly or daring (for attention).’” The gist is that: This phrase originates from Chinglish, and signifies that, if you do not do foolish things, the foolish things will not come back to harm you (but if you do, they absolutely will return). Zuo is a Chinese character meaning “court death (intentionally).” Apart from “no zuo no die” (if you don’t go out looking for trouble, it won’t find you), the other reyu (热语, ‘slang expressions’) of Chinese origin incorporated into the dictionary included “you can you up” (if you can do it, get up and do it then), “no can no BB” (if you can’t do it, then don’t criticize it), and “people mountain people sea,” from renshan renhai (人山人海, ‘mountains and oceans of people’), et cetera. The American online slang dictionary Urban Dictionary was founded in 1999 by a student at California Polytechnic State University majoring in computer https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-024

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science, and is an online dictionary which provides definitions of English slang terms. As of the present, the website already features more than 7.72 million definitions, all of which are compiled and submitted by volunteers after registering with the website, with content encompassing definitions for slang, popular terms, sub-culture terms, as well as related phenomena, including many popular slang expressions, sayings, et cetera in contemporary Western culture. Registered users on the website can vote on recently uploaded entries, and the entry and its definition only appear on the website. Once the votes for it outnumber the votes against it. For words appearing on the website, any visitor can evaluate the entries by means of an “Up” (zan [赞, ‘approve’]) or “Down” (dan [弹, ‘bomb’]). According to the website search results, “no zuo no die” was created on January 15, 2014, and as of the present, it has received a total of more than 5500 likes, making it quite popular.

1.2 Reci (热词, ‘slang terms’) of Chinese origin in the American online slang dictionary The American online slang dictionary Urban Dictionary includes many popular slang terms and sayings not found in conventional dictionaries; apart from reyu (热语, ‘slang expressions’) of Chinese origin like “no zuo no die,” an impressive number of reci (热词, ‘slang terms’) of Chinese origin also appear in the American online slang dictionary, such as: (1) antizen: ant (mayi [蚂蚁, ‘ant’]) + citizen (gongmin [公民, ‘citizen’]) = yimin (蚁民, ‘antizen’). (2) chengguan: chengguan (城管, ‘urban management’). (3) departyment: department (bumen [部门, ‘department’]) + Party (zhengfu [政 府, ‘government’]) = zhengfu youguan bumen (政府有关部门, ‘relevant government departments’). (4) erbility: erbi (二逼, ‘stupid’) (Chinese pinyin erbi + noun suffix -lity). (5) gelivable: geili (给力, ‘awesome’) (Chinese pinyin geli + adjective suffix -vable). (6) niubility: niubi (牛逼, ‘capable’) (Chinese pinyin niubi + noun suffix -lity). (7) sexretary: sex (xing [性, ‘sex’]) + secretary (mishu [秘书, ‘secretary’]) = nü mishu (女秘书, ‘female secretary’). (8) shability: shabi (傻逼, ‘idiotic’) (Chinese pinyin shabi + noun suffix -lity). (9) shenbility: shenbi (神逼, ‘god-like’) (Chinese pinyin shenbi + noun suffix -lity). (10) shitizen: shit (pi [屁, ‘buttocks’]) + citizen (gongmin [公民, ‘citizen’]) = pimin (屁民, ‘shitizen’). (11) smilence: smile (xiao [笑, ‘smile’]) + silence (chenmo [沉默, ‘silence’]) = xiao er buy u (笑而不语, ‘smiling in silence’).

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(12) suihide: suicide (zisha [自杀, ‘suicide’]) + hide (duo [躲, ‘hide’]) = death by duo maomao (躲猫猫, ‘hide-and-seek’). (13) taikonaut: taikong (太空, ‘space’) + astronaut (yuhang ren [宇航员, ‘astronaut’]) = Zhongguo yuhang ren (中国宇航员, ‘Chinese astronaut’). (14) togayther: together (yiqi [一起, ‘together’]) + gay (tongxinglian zhe [同性恋者, ‘homosexual’]) = zhong cheng juanshu (终成眷属, ‘love finds a way to come together’). (15) tuhao: tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’). (16) zhuangbility: zhuangbi (装逼, ‘faking it’) (Chinese pinyin zhuangbi + noun suffix -lity). (17) Z-turn: zheteng (折腾, ‘toss and turn’). The throng of words of Chinese origin which have become part of English slang in a short period of time are the product of the Internet era: as extralinguistic cultural exchanges between different countries and regions improve the speed and frequency of language contact, mutual influence and permeation between languages have become the norm. It is worth noting that some unrefined and vulgar expressions, such as zhuangbility (zhuangbi [装逼, ‘faking it’]) and so on, have also been swept out the national gate, making a grand entry in the United States’ Urban Dictionary.

2 Words of Chinese origin active in Englishlanguage online media Apart from the above reyu reci (热语热词, ‘slang expressions and slang terms’) of Chinese origin which have already become part of the American online slang dictionary Urban Dictionary, a number of other words of Chinese origin have also played a dynamic role as slang in English-language online media, though for now, they have not yet received their zige renzheng (资格认证, ‘certification of qualifications’).

2.1 Reyu (热语, ‘slang expressions’) of Chinese origin active in English-language media (1) American Chinese not enough: Mei Zhong bu zu (美中不足, ‘good, but not perfect’).

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(2) As far as you go to die: you duoyuan, si duoyuan (有多远,死多远, ‘get away from me’). (3) Dragon born dragon, chicken born chicken, mouse’s son can make hole! Long sheng long, feng sheng feng, laoshu de erzi hui datong (龙生龙, 凤生凤, 老鼠的儿子会打洞, ‘dragons are born of dragons, phoenixes are born of phoenixes, and the mouse’s son can dig holes’). (4) Good good study, day day up: haohao xuexi, tiantian xiangshang (好好学 习,天天向上, ‘study hard and make progress every day’). (5) heart flower angry open: xinhua nufang (心花怒放, ‘blooming with joy’). (6) How are you? How old are you? Zenme shi ni, zenme lao shi ni? (怎么是你, 怎么老是你? ‘Why it is you? Why it is always you?’). (7) If you want money, I have no. If you want life, I have one! Yao qian meiyou, yao ming yi tiao (要钱没有,要命一条, ‘If you want money, I don’t have any; if you want a life, I have one’). (8) I give you face you don’t wanna face, you lose your face, I turn my face: gei ni lian ni bu yao lian, ni diu lian, wo fan lian (给你脸你不要脸, 你丢脸, 我翻脸, ‘I gave you face, but you did not want face; you lost face, and I turned away my face’). (9) Know is know, noknow is noknow: zhizhi wei zhizhi, buzhi wei buzhi (知之 为知之, 不知为不知, ‘if you know it, you know it, and if you don’t know it, you don’t know it’). (10) watch sister: biaomei (表妹, ‘younger female cousin’). (11) We two who and who? Zan lia shei gen shei a? (咱俩谁跟谁啊?, ‘Who are the two of us?’). (12) You give me stop! Ni gei wo zhanzhu (你给我站住!, ‘You stop for me!’). (13) You have two down son: ni you liangxiazi (你有两下子, ‘you know your stuff’). (14) You me you me: bici bici (彼此彼此, ‘it’s mutual’).

2.2 Reci (热词, ‘slang terms’) of Chinese origin active in English-language media (1) divoice: divorce (lihun [离婚, ‘divorce’]) + voice (fayan [发言, ‘make a statement’]) = lihun xuanyan (离婚宣言, ‘declaration of divorce’); “voice” and “vorce” have similar pronunciation. (2) don’train: don’t (buyao [不要, ‘do not’]) + train (huoche [火车, ‘train’]) = dongche (动车, ‘bullet train’). (3) emotionormal: emotion (qingxu [情绪, ‘emotion’]) + normal (zhengchang [正常, ‘normal’]) = qingxu wending (情绪稳定, ‘stable emotions’).

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(4) vegeteal: vegetable (shucai [蔬菜, ‘vegetable’]) + steal (tou [偷, ‘steal’]) = toucai (偷菜, ‘stealing vegetables’). (5) chinsumer: Chinese (Zhongguo de [中国的, ‘Chinese’]) + consumer (xiaofeizhe [消费者, ‘consumer’]) = a Chinese person who shops like crazy overseas. (6) faceblock: face (lian [脸, ‘face’]) + block (zuse [阻塞, ‘block’]) = blocked Facebook (suggesting that Facebook and other social media tools are blocked by the authorities in China and can’t be used normally; “block” and “book” have similar pronunciation). (7) faketography: fake (jiade [假的, ‘fake’]) + photography (sheyingshu [摄影术, ‘photography’]) = Zhenglong paihu (正龙拍虎, ‘Zhenglong’s tiger photographs / deliberate misrepresentation’). This is a reference to the 2007 incident in Shaanxi involving faked photographs of the South China tiger. (8) foulsball: fouls (angzang de [肮脏的, ‘filthy’], wuhui de [污秽的, ‘foul’]) + ball (qiu [球, ‘ball’]) = heiqiu (黑球, ‘black ball’) (referring to the astonishing scandals arising from the storm of crackdowns on organized crime in Chinese soccer [football]); “fouls” and “foot” have similar pronunciation. (9) freedman: freedom (ziyou [自由, ‘freedom’]) + damn (kewu de [可恶的, ‘abominable’]) = Chinese-style freedom; “-dom” and “damn” have similar pronunciation. (10) harmany: harm (shanghai [伤害, ‘harm’]) + many (hen duo [很多, ‘many’]) = “harmony,” hexie (河蟹/和谐, ‘river crabs / harmony’); “many” and “-mony” have similar pronunciation. (11) livelihard: livelihood (shenghuo [生活, ‘life’]) + hard (jiannan de [艰难的, ‘hard’]) = kuhuo (苦活, ‘hard life’); “hard” and “-hood” have similar pronunciation. (12) propoorty: property (fang dichan [房地产, ‘property’]) + poor (pinqiong de [贫穷的, ‘poor’]) = a property market that leads to poverty; “poor” and the syllable “-per” in “property” have similar pronunciation. (13) stuck market: stuck (unable to move, jammed) + market (shichang [市场, ‘market’]) = stock (gupiao [股票, ‘stock’]) + market (shichang [市场, ‘market’]) = a stuck stock market (gushi [股市, ‘stock market’]); “stuck” and “stock” have similar pronunciation. (14) stupig: stupid (ben de [笨的, ‘stupid’]) + pig (zhu [猪, ‘pig’]) = benzhu (笨猪, ‘stupid pig’); “pig” and the latter syllable “-pid” in “stupid” have similar pronunciation. (15) togayther: together (yiqi [一起, ‘together’]) + gay (tongxinglian [同性恋, ‘homosexuality’]) = zhong cheng juanshu (终成眷属, ‘love finds a way to come together’) (refers to tolerance toward homosexuality in the new generation); “gay” and the syllable “-ge-” in “together” have similar pronunciation.

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(16) corpspend: corpse (shiti [尸体, ‘corpse’]) + spend (huafei [花费, ‘spend’]) = fees for recovering the bodies of drowned persons. (17) tragedead: tragedy + dead = beiju (杯具 / 悲剧, ‘cup / tragedy’). (18) circusee: circus (a round circus tent, corresponding to the character wei [围, ‘surround’] in Chinese) + kan (看, ‘see’) = weiguan (围观, ‘surround and watch’). (19) conferensleeping: conference (huiyi [会议, ‘conference]) + sleep (shuimian [睡眠, ‘sleep’]) = sleeping during a meeting (a reference to Chinese officials sleeping during meetings). Due to their unique construction, and vivid, humorous significance, these words of Chinese origin often play a dynamic role in English-language online media, and sometimes even make an impressive appearance in headlines, to draw the eye. This type of words of Chinese origin generally take the approach of ling fanyi (零翻译, ‘zero translation’) or yingyi (硬译, ‘forced translation’), and the nature of their vitality awaits further observation.

3 The senior words of Chinese origin in English slang In fact, words of Chinese origin making their way into English slang dictionaries is nothing new: a review shows that a small number of lao zige (老资格, ‘veteran’) Chinese words became part of English slang dictionaries early on, such as the familiar “long time no see” (changjiu bu jian le [长久不见了, ‘long time no see’]), “lose face” (diu lian [丢脸, ‘lose face’]), and so on. In examining the relationships between these words and phrases, some belong to different domains of use or semantic fields, with each establishing their own foothold; while others belong to the same semantic category, forming a series.

3.1 Self-contained words of Chinese origin English is among the most open languages, and it has absorbed a host of words and expressions from the Chinese language: among these, many Chinese loanwords have already made their way into authoritative English dictionaries, while simultaneously being incorporated into English slang dictionaries, becoming lao zige (老资格, ‘veterans’) of English slang:

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(1) ding how: dinghao (顶好, ‘tip-top’), very good. (2) gow: [1] Opium; [2] anesthesia; [3] marijuana; [4] the effects produced after using anesthesia; [5] use of drawings or photographs of beautiful women in flirtatious poses on book covers, packaging and so on to attract customers’ attention. (3) gowed-up, gowed up: Under the influence of anesthesia, excited. (4) gowster: Marijuana user. (5) kowtow: ketou (磕头, ‘knock the head’), koutou (叩头, ‘kowtow’) (6) long time no see: changjiu bu jian le (长久不见了, ‘long time no see’). (7) lose face: diu lian (丢脸, ‘lose face’). (8) no can do: wo zuo bu dao (我做不到, ‘I can’t do it’); or being unwilling to do something. (9) paper tiger: zhi laohu (纸老虎, ‘paper tiger’) (signifying one who is strong in appearance or weak in reality). (10) peke: xiao shizi gou (小狮子狗, ‘Pekingese dog’) (11) pong: [1] Chinese people or the descendants of Chinese people; [2] smell, stink. (12) red tape: A tedious and dilatory work style, tedious day-to-day affairs. (13) rice-belly: A Chinese person or a person with Chinese heritage. (14) save face: guquan mianzi (顾全面子, ‘save face’). (15) Shangri La: xiangge lila (香格里拉, ‘Shangri La’), a utopia or heaven on earth. (16) yen: [1] yin (瘾, ‘addiction / passion’); [2] habit. (17) yen-hok: yanqianzi (烟签子, ‘opium needle’) (for the preparation of opium pipes). (18) yen-shee: [1] Opium; [2] heroin. (19) yen-yen: Intense drug addiction or craving. (20) Lah: birushuo (比如说, ‘for instance’), ni zhidao (你知道, ‘you know’) (this word originates from a Chinese dialect, but the people who used this form of expression were certainly either Singaporean or Malaysian). (21) chin chin: ni hao (你好, ‘hello’); zaijian (再见, ‘goodbye’). (22) cumshaw: xiaofei (小费, ‘tip’); shangjin (赏金, ‘monetary reward’); liwu (礼物, ‘present’); lipin (礼品, ‘gift’). (23) joss: foxiang (佛像, ‘Buddha image’); shenxiang (神像, ‘sacred image’); ouxiang (偶像, ‘idol’). (24) chop-chop: [1] “A little faster,” swiftly and properly completing something in a satisfying manner; [2] food or eating, or anything related to the two. (25) chow: [1] food; eat a meal; [2] chi (吃, ‘eat’). (26) chow-chow: [1] ground meat; [2] pickles. (27) chow down: Have a meal, eat.

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(28) chow hall: A place for eating meals, dining hall. (29) chow chow shop: Chinese grocery store. (30) chow time: Time for serving a meal. (31) morning chow: zaocan (早餐, ‘breakfast’). (32) shanghai: [1] Use a narcotic to anesthetize someone and then force them onto your ship to serve as a sailor; [2] forcibly detain; [3] kidnap; [4] slingshot. These words of Chinese origin which have become part of English slang together reflect one aspect of language life in southern Chinese language life in that era, that is, the phenomenon of pidgin English. Like a mirror of history, they show the features of the politics and culture of contemporary Chinese society, as well as its economic development.

3.2 Words of Chinese origin forming series For this category of words, the terms embodying “tea culture” are fairly representative. (1) Cha: cha (茶, ‘tea’). (2) Char: cha (茶, ‘tea’) (a transliteration of the Chinese word) (3) all the tea in China: Signifying enormous, inestimable riches. (4) tea and sympathy: Comfort and sympathy for the unfortunate. (5) tea: [1] Marijuana; [2] marijuana cigarette; [3] stimulating drugs. (6) tea party: A gathering of drug users to smoke marijuana and take drugs. (7) tea pad: A place for drug users to smoke marijuana and take drugs; a prostitute’s den. (8) tea room: A gay gathering place. (9) tea-stick: Marijuana cigarette. (10) teaed up: On marijuana; in a stupor. (11) cup of tea: Something one is fond of; one’s heart’s desire. When tea was first introduced to England in the early 17th century, it was as precious than gold, thus the expression “all the tea in China” had the significance of “enormous riches.” Tea serves as both a beverage and as medicine; it has many functions, which people are constantly discovering and utilizing. Expressions like “tea and sympathy,” which juxtaposes tea with sympathy and comfort, can give a general picture.

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3.3 Culturally sensitive words of Chinese origin in English slang (1) chinaman: [1] A seaman working in the laundry room on board a ship; [2] guardian, backer; [3] a Chinese person. (2) chink: [1] Money; [2] a Chinese person. (3) chinee: [1] Free tickets to some sort of entertainment performance, complimentary tickets to a sports event; [2] Chinese devil. (4) celestial: Chinese person. (5) Chinaman’s chance: A tenuous change; hopeless. (6) Chinese fire drill: Extreme chaos, a bewildering event. (7) Chinese slavery: Chinese coolie laborers. (8) Chinese puzzle: Something which is extremely complex and difficult to understand. (9) Chinese Red: Heroin. (10) Chinese white: High-quality heroin. (11) Chinese restaurant syndrome: Dizziness, rapid heart rate, and other symptoms caused by ingesting a large amount of weijing [味精, ‘flavor enhancer’] containing monosodium glutamate. (12) Chinese burn: Pain and reddening of the skin caused by twisting one’s arm; scorching heat. (13) bull in a China shop: A clumsy person who frequently causes accidents; a person who moves or speaks without consideration. The above English slang terms containing the word Zhongguo (中国, ‘Chinese’) have largely derogatory meanings. This is a reflection of outdated images of old China in the minds of foreigners. When the word “Chinese” is added to a preexisting, common phrase such as “fire drill” (xiaofang yanxi [消防演习, ‘fire drill’]), forming the phrase “Chinese fire drill,” then it is transformed to signify “extreme chaos, a bewildering event.” In November 2006, during a segment on obesity in China, the well-known American radio show host Don Imus asked his guests whether they had seen a “fat Chinaman” before; one broadcaster reminded Imus that he ought to use the term “Chinese person,” but he brushed it aside and continued to repeat the term “Chinaman,” drawing strong protests from the Chinese-American community.

Part V Words and passages

Liu Lan (刘 兰)

25 Characters and words of 2014 as mementos of history On December 19, 2014, the “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点) jointly sponsored by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, and People.cn was revealed: fa (法, ‘law’), fanfu (反腐, ‘anti-corruption’), shi (失, ‘lose’) and Ma hang (马航, ‘Malaysia Airlines’) were respectively selected as the domestic character, domestic word, international character, and international word of the year.

1 Online voting The “2014 Characters and Words of the Year” (2014 年度字词) voting activities expanded the channels for including popular words and characters online, conforming more closely to the language environment of new media. People.cn participated as a sponsor for the first time, exercising the powerful influence of mainstream groups; Sina Weibo and the CCTV News Public WeChat also served as co-organizers, expanding the coverage of public opinion in the Chinese Language Inventory; and the New Media Index and Big Data Platform of Tsinghua University tracked, monitored and managed the relevant data throughout the process, enhancing the objectivity of big data in the “Internet +” era. The data shows that this year’s online voting activities collected a total of over 7,000 entries for characters and words nominated by netizens; the WeChat topic posted by CCTV News received more than 10,000 replies in two hours, and the WeChat page was cumulatively viewed 69,648 times; of the four relevant Weibo nominations, one thread was reposted as many as 14,000 times, and received more than 8,300 likes by netizens; the Weibo topic “2014 Chinese Language Inventory” (2014 汉语盘点) was viewed 66.279 million times, and the number of netizen comments reached 17,000. The crossword module developed by a special team organized by Sina Weibo for this event was able to improve users’ interaction with the topic, enhancing the dissemination of the topic. Within a short twenty-odd days, and the number of views for topics related to the “Chinese Language Inventory” ( 汉语盘点) on Sina Weibo reached 230 million, while the number of netizen comments reached 38,000.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-025

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Domestic characters (top 10): fa (法, ‘law’); lian (廉, ‘honest’), zan (赞, ‘like’), wang (网, ‘network’), zui (醉, ‘drunk’), mai (霾, ‘smog’), meng (萌, ‘cute’), pin (拼, ‘strive’), zhang (涨, ‘inflation’), zhi (治, ‘rule’) Domestic words (top 10): Xi dada (习大大, ‘Daddy Xi’), fanfu (反腐, ‘anticorruption’), Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘Chinese dream’), xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’), dianshang (电商, ‘e-commerce’), APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’), yifa zhiguo (依法治国, ‘rule of law’), nuannan (暖男, ‘warm guy’), mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’), wumai (雾霾, ‘smog’) International characters (top 10): die (跌, ‘fall’), shi (失, ‘lose’), zhui (坠, ‘drop’), he (和, ‘peace’), da (打, ‘strike’), xin (新, ‘new’), luan (乱, ‘chaos’), kong (恐, ‘fear’), ping (平, ‘peace’), nàn (难, ‘disaster’) International words (top 10): Ma hang (马航, ‘Malaysia Airlines’), Pujing (普京, ‘Putin’), Aibola (埃博拉, ‘Ebola’), Zhongguo gaotie (中国高铁, ‘China high-speed rail’), bingtong tiaozhan (冰桶挑战, ‘ice bucket challenge’), Yisilan guo (伊斯兰国, ‘Islamic State [ISIS]’), yanse geming (颜色革命, ‘color revolution’), Wukelan chongtu (乌克兰冲突, ‘Ukraine conflict’), Feigesen (弗格森, ‘Ferguson’), chugui (出柜, ‘coming out’) From the above, it is clear that the 2014 “Annual Characters and Words” (年度字词) benefited from the affinity of the Internet and digital platforms to fully absorb widespread public participation, connecting language culture with the far-ranging and profound public opinion climate, while also making contributions to guiding netizens in self-aware cataloguing and rational reflection on the past year.

2 Interpretations of the characters and words 2.1 Domestic character: fa (法, ‘law’) In the more than thirty years since the Reforms, this was the first time that a plenary session of the Central Committee of the governing party took the rule of law as its main topic. In order to comprehensively deepen the reforms, there are many pressing socioeconomic issues that must be resolved, but the rule of law has been placed at the top of the agenda, to ensure that each of the reform efforts “move forward on the path of the rule of law,” while the fight against corruption “shuts power inside an institutional cage.” The objective of the new wave of reforms is to lock in “the national governance system and modernization of the capacity for governance,” in which the rule of law is the most important and central aspect.

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2.2 Domestic word: fanfu (反腐, ‘anti-corruption’) Under the steady drumbeat of anti-corruption in 2014, striking both the tigers and the flies, the website of the Department of Supervision of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection has become the greatest source of positive energy on the Internet. From the Zhou Yongkang (周永康) case and the Xu Caihou (徐才厚) case to grassroots-level officials in violation of the “Eight-Point Regulation” (八项规定), from governance of luoguan (裸官, ‘naked officials’)1 to pursuit of fugitives overseas, “with no restricted zones above in striking down tigers, and no blind corners below in swatting down flies,” the scale and strength of the anti-corruption efforts have presented an unprecedentedly strong posture, significantly reducing the reserves of corruption, and greatly raising the people’s confidence in the government and the system.

2.3 International character: shi (失, ‘lose’) The character shi (失, ‘lose’) has many meanings, all of which can be encapsulated as bude (不得, ‘to have not’). In 2014, the character shi (失, ‘lose’) appeared frequently in reference to Malaysia Airlines shilian (失联, ‘losing contact’), the Emirates shilian (失联, ‘losing contact’), Kim Jong-un shizong (失踪, ‘going missing’), beauty queens shizong (失踪, ‘going missing’), Ukraine shikong (失控, ‘losing control’), the Middle East shishou (失手, ‘losing its grip’), Obama shixin (失信, ‘breaking promises’) . . . and a host of other similar cases. Natural disasters are certainly to be feared, but human calamities are even more abhorrent. If only there were a little more peace in the world, and a little less fighting – only then would it be possible to shi zhi dong yu, shou zhi sang yu (失之东隅, 收之桑榆, ‘lose at sunrise, but gain at sunset’).

2.4 International word: Ma hang (马航, ‘Malaysia Airlines’) This little-known airline company drew our full attention in 2014 when two of its passenger planes were involved in shishi (失事, ‘accidents’) in one year, the causes of which remain a mystery. In the first incident, MH370 shilian (失联, ‘lost contact’), and up to the present, its whereabouts are still unknown, to the

1 Translator’s note: luoguan (裸官, ‘naked officials’) refer to officials whose spouses and children reside abroad.

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sorrow of its compatriots; in the second incident, MH17 crashed in an attack, the perpetrators of which could not be determined, resulting in grief and indignation around the world. The two air disasters suffered by Malaysia Airlines were both rather fishy, and the inside story in each case is convoluted, with too many disputed details, but the lives lost should be forever held in reverence.

3 Glimpses of foreign lands 3.1 Japan: the character zei (税, ‘tax’) reflects the state of the world and public sentiment On December 12, 2014, the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation announced that the kanji which could best reflect the state of the world and public sentiment in 2014 was zei (税, ‘tax’). According to the explanation by the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation, a total of 167,613 votes were cast in 2014, of which the character zei (税, ‘tax’) received 8,679; zei (税, ‘tax’) was followed in order by netsu (熱, ‘heat’), uso (嘘, ‘falsehood, lie’), wazawai (災, ‘disaster’), yuki (雪, ‘snow’), naku (泣, ‘to cry’), fun (噴, ‘erupt’), zō (増, ‘increase’), gi (偽, ‘fake’), and yō (妖, ‘supernatural’).

3.2 Singapore: the character luan (乱, ‘chaos’) appeals for social order On December 15, 2014, Reference News (联合早报) of Singapore released the results of voting for the Chinese character of the year in the newspaper’s activity “Describe the year in one character” (字述一年), and the Chinese character chosen by the most readers was luan (乱, ‘chaos’). The sponsor proposed 10 Chinese characters with relatively strong connections to hot news events over the last year for readers to choose from, and received a total of over 73,000 responses: among these, nearly four tenths of readers felt that the character luan (乱, ‘chaos’) represented the past year. Nàn (难, ‘disaster’) and kong (恐, ‘fear’) were close behind the character luan (乱, ‘chaos’) in the tally of votes.

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3.3 Malaysia: the character hang (航, ‘airline’) bears tragic overtones Malaysia’s Chinese character of the year was announced on December 19, 2014: the character hang (航, ‘airline’) was selected with 17.7% of the vote, reflecting the focus on the two accidents that year involving Malaysia Airlines passenger planes among the citizens of Malaysia. The voting activity was jointly sponsored by the Federation of Chinese Associations Malaysia and Han Culture Centre Malaysia, and more than 10,000 people participated in the voting. The character hang (航, ‘airline’) was closely followed in the tally of votes by, in order, nàn (难, ‘disaster’), shui (税, ‘tax’), zhang (涨, ‘inflation’), ma (马, ‘Malaysia’), chou (愁, ‘worry’), ku (苦, ‘suffering’), tan (贪, ‘corruption’), mi (迷, ‘lost’), and shi (失, ‘lose’).

4 Taiwan: the character hei (黑, ‘black, dark’) reflects a gloomy state of mind On December 3, 2014, the results of the “Vote for Taiwan’s Representative Character in 2014” (台湾 2014 代表字大选), jointly sponsored by United Daily News (联合报) of Taiwan and the Far Eastern Y.Z. Hsu Science and Technology Memorial Foundation, were announced: After 21 days of voting by telephone, with a total of 62,607 votes cast, the character hei (黑, ‘black’) was selected from among 60 candidate characters with 12,489 votes, claiming nearly one fifth of the votes, reflecting a both gloomy and restless public mood; the character hei (黑, ‘black’) was closely followed in the tally of votes by, in order, sou (馊, ‘spoiled’), you (油, ‘oil’), nu (怒, ‘anger’), shi (食, ‘food’), jia (假, ‘fake’), wei (伪, ‘false’), hun (混, ‘mixed up’), yuan (怨, ‘complaint’), and beng (崩, ‘collapse’), all of which are related to negative events.

5 Cross-Strait: the character zhuan (转, ‘turn’) looks forward to positive interactions On December 18, 2014, the results of the “2014 Vote for the Cross-Strait Chinese Character of the Year” (2014 海峡两岸年度汉字评选) were presented, and the public on both sides of the strait selected the character zhuan (转, ‘turn’) to encapsulate the political and economic situation this year, as well as expectations for the future. The context for the selection of the character zhuan (转, ‘turn’)

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was the politically precarious and ever-shifting situation on the island in 2014, facing the question of whether to shift toward the left or toward the right, whether to make an about-face or forge ahead, which was no longer a question from the perspective of public sentiment. However, as to whether cross-strait relations could steadily move forward and smoothly achieve greater depth, greater patience and care was required from both sides of the strait. Apart from being able to discuss the vision and the framework for cross-strait relations, it is even more necessary to draw on wisdom to resolve problems and conflicts. The people look forward to shifts in various factors, making a turn for the better, and adding more kinetic energy, to make a zhuan (转, ‘turn’) toward good fortune in 2015.

Hou Min (侯 敏), Liang Linlin (梁 琳琳), Zou Yu (邹 煜), and Teng Yonglin (滕 永林)

26 Hot topics in society among the neologisms of 2014 Annual neologisms are a collective reflection of language change in a given year, as well as a recorder and microscope for social change in that year. On the foundation of 1.17 million texts and 1.2 billion character instances in the National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus, through layered screening, we selected a total of 424 neologisms.1 These neologisms are a faithful record of the new things, new concepts, and new situations which emerged in China in 2014, as well as the quiet changes to the popular mentality and ideas which took place during this year.

1 Interpretation of the “Top Ten Neologisms” (十大新词语) On December 19, 2014, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, and other organizations jointly announced the “Top Ten Neologisms in Chinese Media in 2014” (2014 年度中国媒体十大新词语): Xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’), Hu Gang tong (沪港通, ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect’), zhan Zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’), yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’), bingtong tiaozhan (冰桶挑战, ‘ice bucket challenge’), APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’), shengai (深改, ‘deepening reforms’), xiaoguan jufu (小官巨腐, ‘little official, giant corruption’), Weixin hongbao (微信红包, ‘WeChat red envelope’), and kang Ai (抗埃, ‘fight against Ebola’). These top ten neologisms had a relatively high frequency of use among the 424 entries, and in them, we can see the major events of social life in China in 2014, as well as the hot topics of interest for the media and the public.

1 For details, see the CD-ROM enclosed with the Chinese version of Language Situation in China: 2014, List of neologisms in the media in 2014 (2014 年度媒体新词语表). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-026

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1.1 Xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’): demonstrating that Chinese development has entered a new phase Xin (新, ‘new’) means different from before; and chang (常, ‘normal’) signifies relatively stable. Using xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’) to define the current characteristics of the Chinese economy, and elevating it to the height of strategy, indicates that the central government has a well-considered plan with respect to China’s current economic situation, as well as a clear understanding and thorough grasp of the changing patterns of the economic growth phase, which will determine the selection of macroscopic policies for the next step, and have a major impact on the orientation of the transformation and upgrading of industries and enterprises. The economy’s new normal is necessarily accompanied by a new normal in politics, and the core characteristics of the new normal in politics are rule of law and strict party governance, achieving the modernization of national governance.

1.2 Hu Gang tong (沪港通, ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect’): a greenhouse for cultivating the internationalization of the mainland stock market The Hu Gang tong (沪港通, ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect’) connects the Shanghai and Hong Kong stock markets: the southbound Hong Kong Stock Connect provides new investment choices for the wallets which have gradually been built up by the general public on the mainland, while the northbound Shanghai Stock Connect provides the many enterprises with Class A shares on the Shanghai Stock Exchange with direct access to international financial capital. The seemingly small-scale interaction between the transactions on the two stock markets in reality establishes a hothouse for the mainland stock market with China outbound characteristics, forming a link between the Chinese capital markets and the world, and further deepening the bold efforts for progress on the reform of central enterprises and state-owned enterprises.

1.3 Testing the wisdom of Hong Kong and the Chinese government in zhan Zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’) Zhan Zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’) is an abbreviation for zhanling Zhonghuan (占领中环, ‘Occupy Central District’). The unlawful occupation of Central which began in September 2014 and continued for many months not only blocked the

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political and commercial center of Hong Kong, but also splintered and tore apart Hong Kong society, further disrupting Hong Kong’s core values as a society under rule of law. Founded upon democracy and the rule of law, zhan Zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’) tested Hong Kong’s bottom line as a society under rule of law, while also testing the political wisdom of the central government, and furthermore testing how the public should legitimately express their appeals in the course of democratization. Ultimately, popular sentiment and the law will rule over everything!

1.4 Opening a window for the mutual benefit of China and the countries along the line through yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) People often say that our vision determines the boundaries, while thinking determines the way forward. Yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) spans history to connect the Western Regions where Zhang Qian (张骞) served as envoy and the Western world visited by Zheng He (郑和). From the perspective of economic development, the sweeping entrance of yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) certainly has not been a process of advancing triumphantly and unconcernedly to make perfection still more perfect, but rather has been a great booster as China’s economy has laboriously climbed the slope, transforming crises into opportunities amidst the new normal; at the same time, it has also opened a new window of opportunity for mutual benefit and mutual victory to meet the shared needs of each country along the line.

1.5 Bingtong tiaozhan (冰桶挑战, ‘ice bucket challenge’): a worldwide charity gala The bingtong tiaozhan (冰桶挑战, ‘ice bucket challenge’), which began in midsummer 2014, was in truth a worldwide charity gala. We need not quibble over whether it was really charity or celebrity grandstanding, and there is also no need to question the motivations of the challengers. We believe that, in relation to the original intentions of collecting donations, as the bingtong (冰桶, ‘ice bucket’) spread like a virus from one person to the next, the unpronounceable jirou weisuoxing cesuo yinghuazheng (肌肉萎缩性侧索硬化症, ‘amyotrophic lateral sclerosis’) gradually became familiar to the public, and this special group of jiandong ren (渐冻人, ‘progressively frozen people’) also came into the field of vision of the mainstream media. The bingtong tiaozhan (冰桶挑战, ‘ice bucket

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challenge’) took a unique approach, allowing a once-unknown disease to gain an opportunity for science popularization, and even prompting changes to treatment ideas and the healthcare system; such results undoubtedly have even greater charitable significance.

1.6 APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’): when can you become forever blue? When the smog becomes the kind of pain you can breathe, APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’) undoubtedly tells people that blue skies can arrive without need for the north wind to fiercely blow, and without need for scouring by torrential rain. As for how to keep the marathon-style smog from lingering any longer, and make the ephemeral APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’) a permanent resident, apart from transforming the government’s unconventional measures into a normalized system, it is also necessary to transform purely governmental actions into collective action by all of society, forming a universal movement with conscious participation by every member of the general public.

1.7 The astounding xiaoguan jufu (小官巨腐, ‘little official, giant corruption’) Xiaoguan jufu (小官巨腐, ‘little official, giant corruption’) directly affects the everyday lives of lower-class people due to being xiao (小, ‘little’), but also harms the personal interests of thousands upon thousands of households due to being ju (巨, ‘giant’). 120 million yuan in cash, 37 kilograms of gold, 68 real estate properties – the little cangying (苍蝇, ‘flies’) surprisingly have such an appetite, that even the meng hu (猛虎, ‘ferocious tigers’) are dumbfounded! During the great campaign against corruption, scene after scene of good fun in striking down the tigers has naturally lifted everyone’s spirits, but while shutting the tigers inside an institutional cage, how to prevent the more covert flies from boring their way through the institutional mesh will, to a certain extent, determine the success or failure of the anti-corruption drive. As we applaud the anti-corruption for having “no restricted zones above,” we also expect the anti-corruption to achieve “no blind corners below.”

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1.8 Promoting Internet finance through the Weixin hongbao (微信红包, ‘WeChat red envelope’) At a time when shopping, hailing taxis, paying fees, and topping up credit on mobile phones have already become a new way of life, mobile payment access points are naturally in great demand. Weixin hongbao (微信红包, ‘WeChat red envelopes’) locked in more than ten million mobile payment users for WeChat overnight, seizing a preemptive opportunity for mobile payment, and promoting the rise and innovation of Internet finance. It’s just that, when everyone uses WeChat to send text messages and red envelopes for New Year’s greetings, personally saying the words gongxi facai (恭喜发财, ‘May you be happy and prosperous’) and delivering New Year’s blessings face to face seem even more precious.

1.9 Directly breaking the ice and taking risks in shen gai (深改, ‘deepening reforms’) 2014 has been named the shen gai yuannian (深改元年, ‘founding year of deepening reforms’). This year, China’s development no longer merely lingered in the phase of “feeling one’s way across the river stone by stone,” but rather “dared to destroy, dared to stand tall, dared to create, and dared to try”; apart from continuing to optimize dingceng sheji (顶层设计, ‘top-down design’), the central government squarely faced the interests of gaige shenshui qu (改革深水 区, ‘deep-water reform zones’) to engage in restructuring, promoting a series of bold and resolute pobing (破冰, ‘ice-breaking’) measures which are wenti wei daoxiang (问题为导向, ‘problem-oriented’), giving people a perception not only of the audacity of the reforms in shexian kenying (涉险啃硬, ‘taking risks and tackling the hard stuff’), but also of a temperature which is aligned with the popular will and which warms the people’s hearts; this poli (魄力, ‘audacity’) and wendu (温度, ‘temperature’) have injected greater motivating power and positive energy into Chinese society.

1.10 The kang Ai (抗埃, ‘fight against Ebola’) with the joint participation of all humanity Ebola, which is among the most severe viruses threatening humanity, erupted in West Africa in February 2014. West Africa is in fact quite remote from us, but any scenario involving the unbridled propagation of a biological virus not only

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harms a particular individual, a particular country or a certain region, but also presents a challenge to the entire human world. During the campaign to kang Ai (抗埃, ‘fight against Ebola’) in 2014, medical workers from various countries, including China, risked everything, even their own precious lives, eliciting from us the sincere words, “Thank you, angels in white! Thank you, the bravest of us all!”

2 Overview of hot topics in society If language is a mirror of society, then neologisms are a kaleidoscope of contemporary social life. Through the array of neologisms, we can more clearly perceive the richly colorful trends in society in 2014.

2.1 Leaders guiding the wave In the great tide of language use, there are always a few wave riders leading and promoting the emergence and development of neologisms. Since the Internet became a platform for ordinary Chinese people to pursue democracy and express public opinion, a number of wise netizens have taken on this role of language pioneers. Duo maomao (躲猫猫, ‘hide-and-seek’), shanzhai (山寨, ‘knockoff’), leiren (雷人, ‘shocking’), geili (给力, ‘awesome’), fensi (粉丝, ‘fans’), nuannan (暖男, ‘warm guy’), nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) – which of these neologisms were not created by netizens? Which of them were not disseminated with the aid of the Internet? However, in comparison with the past, the year 2014 was somewhat different, and lingdao yin chao (领袖引潮, ‘leaders guiding the wave’) became a new characteristic. See how the words xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’), Yatai meng (亚太梦, ‘Asia-Pacific dream’), zhua chang (抓常, ‘have a constant grasp’), yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’), and jinzhuan meng (金砖梦, ‘BRICS dream’) were all proposed by Xi Jinping (习近平), immediately becoming household words, and even echoing around the world; and although APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’), man pin de (蛮拼的, ‘making all efforts’), and dian zan (点赞, ‘like’) were not coined by Xi Jinping (习近平), after being used by Xi, they immediately raced across the land north and south, and their frequency of use rapidly soared. The dache lun (搭车论, ‘hitchhiking theory’) presented in the speech Inviting Everyone to Board the Train of Chinese Development (欢迎大家搭乘中国发展的列车) which Xi Jinping (习近平) delivered

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in Mongolia on August 22 also reflects his higher state of being and great breadth of mind as the head of a great nation. Hints of this characteristic of lingdao yin chao (领袖引潮, ‘leaders guiding the wave’) had in fact already appeared in the previous two years: Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘Chinese dream’) in 2012, laohu cangying yiqi da (老虎苍蝇一起 打, ‘striking both the tigers and the flies’) in 2013, and so on all became popular phrases among the media and the general public after being proposed by Xi Jinping (习近平). Spoken language often begins in the heart and concludes in emotion. The ability to achieve lingdao yin chao (领袖引潮, ‘leaders guiding the wave’) is obviously related to Daddy Xi’s easily understood, heartfelt, and down-to-earth language style, as well as his foresightful, responsible, and dutybound personal charm, representing the people’s approval of his standpoints and ideas, deeds and actions since he came into power.

2.2 Rule of law During the “Chinese Language Inventory 2014” (汉语盘点 2014), yifa zhiguo (依 法治国, ‘rule of law’) was listed at the forefront of the “Top Ten Neologisms in Chinese Media” (中国媒体十大新词语). Rule of law is the basic plan for the party to lead the people and govern the state, it is a necessary choice for China to march toward a prosperous, strong, democratic and civilized modernized socialist country, and it is also a fundamental requirement in achieving the modernization of the national governance system and capacity for governance. In the year 2014, neologisms embodying the spirit of yifa zhiguo (依法治国, ‘rule of law’) were ubiquitous in every field. In the field of administration, hired cadres were required to participate in a fa kao (法考, ‘law test’), and those who did not understand legal knowledge could not be appointed to the position; the “Training Ban Order” (禁读令) issued by the CCP Organization Department triggered a wave of leading cadres withdrawing from training programs; and grassroots-level party organizations were called upon to truly go zuihou yi gongli (最后一公里, ‘the last kilometer’) and take zuihou yi bu lu (最后一步路, ‘the last step’) in handling affairs for the people, with reference to the requirements of the “Three Stricts and Three Honests” (三严三实). In the field of anti-corruption, the “Five-Star Ban” (五星禁令) was issued with respect to official entertainment, to xian xing (限星, ‘limit the stars’) for meeting venues; civil servants had the “Order Limiting Cash Gifts” (限礼金令), while weddings for the children of party members and cadres had the “Order Limiting Tables” (限桌令) and the “Order Limiting Guests” (限客令), to the point

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that some people commented that there was now feng jie bi ling (逢节必令, ‘an order for every occasion’) in the efforts against corruption. In the economic field, central enterprises, which are regarded as gongheguo zhangzi (共和国长子, ‘the elder sons of the republic’), were called upon to make decisions in accordance with the law, compete in accordance with the law, and develop in accordance with the law, establishing “central enterprises under rule of law, and sunshine central enterprises”; as China’s largest e-commerce giant, in order to guarantee consumers’ rights and strike a blow against fake merchandise, Taobao is currently striding forward from shiming renzheng (实名 认证, ‘real name authentication’) to shi ren renzheng (实人认证, ‘real person authentication’). In the cultural field, the “Poor Conduct Order” (劣迹令) to block artists with poor conduct, the “Foreign Restriction Order” (限外令) to strengthen management of foreign films and television online, and the “Noise Reduction Order” (降噪令) aimed at noisy disturbances involving dancing in public squares all asserted governance over cultural and living environment to a certain extent. In the field of education, for the sake of educational equity and reducing the burden on students, the Ministry of Education issued the “Reduced Admissions Order” (减招令) with respect to the matriculation of students with special aptitudes from primary school to junior secondary school; while the “Six Red Regulations” (红六条) aimed at primary and secondary school teachers and the “Seven Red Regulations” (红七条) aimed at instructors at institutions of higher education both formed the shi de hongxian (师德红线, ‘red line for teachers’ morality’) which teachers must not approach. In the judicial field, the hearing procedural provisions for jian jia zan (减假 暂, ‘reduced sentences, parole and temporary probation’) were officially implemented, while hearings for such cases at the People’s Court must be disclosed to the public within 5 days after filing the case; an injustice was righted in the “Huugjilt Case” (呼格案); the respondent in the “Nianbin Case” (念斌案) was declared not guilty; redress was arranged in the “Uncle and Nephew Rape Case” (叔侄强奸案) after it was found to be misjudged, and the relevant persons were investigated for liability; ultimately, judicial progress in our country was furthered, from justice in individual cases to institutional justice. In the field of food, five departments including the National Health and Family Planning Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine issued the “Aluminum Ban Order” (禁铝令), and public security departments are to add a new type of police officer: shi yao jingcha (食药 警察, ‘Food and Drug Police’), creating another line of defense for the safety of the people’s dinner tables.

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In the field of online social networking, the Cyberspace Administration of China presented the “Ten WeChat Regulations” (微信十条); in addition, to uphold the spirit of the Constitution and build China under rule of law, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress established China’s first “National Constitution Day” (国家宪法日) and “National Memorial Day” (国家公祭日).

2.3 The storm of anti-corruption The theme of anti-corruption in 2013 rang out even louder in 2014, which became a peak year for anti-corruption in China, raising eyebrows around the world, and also giving rise to a host of related neologisms. In the wake of 2013’s fang fu (房腐, ‘housing corruption’) and zheng fu (证腐, ‘securities corruption’), che fu (车腐, ‘vehicle corruption’) and zhi fu (智腐, ‘intellectual property corruption’) also emerged, along with ya zeng (雅赠, ‘genteel gifting’), an fubai (暗腐 败, ‘secret corruption’), dai fubai (呆腐败, ‘stupid corruption’), qinyuan fubai (亲缘腐败, ‘family ties corruption’), yancao fubai (烟草腐败, ‘tobacco corruption’), renqing tanfu (人情贪腐, ‘social corruption’), bengta shi fubai (崩塌式腐 败, ‘imploding corruption’), and other corrupt acts of every shade and description floated to the water’s surface one by one in 2014. In the fight to dahu mieying (打虎灭蝇, ‘strike down tigers and eradicate flies’), a total of 42 cadres at the sub-provincial department level or above were investigated and prosecuted in 2014 (CCP Central Commission for Discipline Inspection & P.R.C. Ministry of Supervision website 2014), including da laohu (大老虎, ‘big tigers’) at the national level, jun laohu (军老虎, ‘military tigers’) in the Liberation Army system, retired lao laohu (老老虎, ‘old tigers’), xiashan hu (下山虎, ‘downhill tigers’) who had retreated to a secondary position, young shangshan hu (上山虎, ‘uphill tigers’) from the post-60s, as well as zijia hu (自家虎, ‘in-house tigers’) who were personnel within the discipline inspection system, fully demonstrating the determination and iron resolve of the Party Central Committee in rooting out corruption without any restricted zones. At the same time, incidents of xiaoguan jufu (小官巨腐, ‘little official, giant corruption’) also frequently emerged: hu ying (虎蝇, ‘tiger fly’) refers to an official whose rank is that of an ying (蝇, ‘fly’), but whose corruption is like that of a hu (虎, ‘tiger’) – one cadre at the sub-county office level astonishingly engaged in corruption to the tune of over 100 million! These facts surrounding ju ying (巨蝇, ‘giant flies’) and ying tan (蝇 贪, ‘fly corruption’) tell us that we absolutely cannot zong ying weihai (纵蝇为 害, ‘allow flies to do harm’) any longer. In 2014, China’s anti-corruption drive was extended overseas, in the “Fox Hunt 2014” (猎狐 2014) campaign to recover stolen money and pursue fugitives overseas, and within half a year, several

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hundred suspects in economic crimes who had fled abroad had been successfully captured. Cadre positions called for ling luoguan (零裸官, ‘zero naked officials,’) and a large group of luoguan (裸官, ‘naked officials’) were subjected to a purge, while the back doors in the appointment system for corrupt officials were blocked up. Duanya shi jiangji (断崖式降级, ‘precipitous demotion’) blocked the punished officials from opportunities to emerge from retirement, while shuang yisong (双移送, ‘double escorts’) were implemented for the responsible personnel: those who committed crimes in violation of the law were escorted to judicial offices, while those in breach of discipline were escorted to discipline inspection offices. In addition, the shouli zui (收礼罪, ‘crime of accepting gifts’) for those who receive cash gifts has the potential to be criminalized, and if it is passed, it will inevitably further promote the construction of rule of law in society.

2.4 The baobao juntuan (宝宝军团, ‘treasure corps’) In June 2013, the fund management service Yu’e Bao (余额宝) came roaring into the world, absorbing more than ten billion in cash in one month, with more than four million clients, and may deservedly be said to be a tremendous success. Spurred on by Yu’e Bao and its baofen (宝粉, ‘treasure fans’), the curtains were flung wide open for Internet finance in 2014, and various types of online money management baobao (宝宝, ‘treasures’) swarmed out, forming the spectacular baobao juntuan (宝宝军团, ‘treasure corps’): there was Jiecheng Bao (捷诚宝), which integrated receipt, payment and sales into one, with a rebate function; Lingqian Bao (零钱宝), with services for increasing the value of spare change, while allowing users to spend and transfer funds at any time; Tianjin Bao (添金宝), with automatic purchases and buybacks, while also allowing for withdrawals at ATMs or spending with a swipe card; Weiqian Bao (微钱宝), which supports monetary fund products for WeChat end clients, as well as Xinjin Bao (薪金宝) and the “Xinjin Pot” (薪金煲), which achieved gains on monetary funds while simultaneously providing access to payment functions. Some products also featured clear sector characteristics, such as Cunjin Bao (存金宝), which provided gold purchasing, sales and investment services; Dingche Bao (订车宝), which offered cash rewards for placing a down payment on a car; Fang Baobao (房宝宝), which allowed investors to earn a profit on increases in the value of real estate; Gengdi Bao (耕地宝), which customized private farms over the Internet to earn profits; Huafei Bao (话费宝), which allowed a profit to be earned on prepaid calling funds; Liuliang Bao (流 量宝), which exchanged flow tokens for doing tasks; Wei Xiao Bao (微销宝), which drew on WeChat’s home sales marketing platform; Yongjin Bao (佣金宝),

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which provided Internet securities services; as well as Lüyou Bao (旅游宝), Huoqian Bao (活钱宝), Dinghuo Bao (定活宝), Pufa Bao (浦发宝), Ctrip Bao (携 程宝), and so on. A few financial products without the character bao (宝, ‘treasure’) also formed the special forces of the baobao juntuan (宝宝军团, ‘treasure corps’), such as Huabei (花呗), which provided consumer credit for online purchases oriented toward individual consumers; Ling Yong Tong (零佣通), which provided financial services but does not charge transaction fees; Yi Qian Bao (壹钱包), which provided mobile payment services; Shuiwu Dai (税务贷), which could provide loans on the basis of an enterprise’s proof of tax payment and tax payment credit record; Zhu Qing Dai (助青贷), which provided small loans to help entrepreneurial young people resolve financing bottlenecks; as well as Kuai Yi Tong (快溢通), Yi Pin Dai (逸品贷), Le Hui Cun (乐惠存), Sou Yi Dai (搜易贷), Dai Sheng Jin (贷生金), and so on, in an extremely lively feast for the eyes. However, before reaching year-end 2014, the majority of the baobao (宝宝, ‘treasures’) had experienced a downslide in yields, and we must wait and see where the Internet finance market will go in the future, and how long of a lifespan these neologisms will have.

2.5 Qipa baoxian (奇葩保险, ‘weird insurance’) In the wake of the different varieties of unusual insurance in 2013, including shangyue xian (赏月险, ‘moon-watching insurance’), tuoguang xian (脱光险, ‘nudity insurance’), xiong haizi xian (熊孩子险, ‘mischievous child insurance’), and laoren shuaidao xian (老人摔倒险, ‘elderly fall insurance’), the array of insurance products was once again “innovated” in 2014, in eye-popping fashion. The insurance companies focused on 4 areas: Spring Festival transportation, the World Cup, Valentine’s Day, and the weather. The categories related to Spring Festival transportation included chunyun xian (春运险, ‘Spring Festival transportation’), chihuo xian (吃货险, ‘chowhound insurance’), and bianpao xian (鞭炮险, ‘firecracker insurance’); those related to the World Cup in Brazil included he gao xian (喝高险, ‘excessive drinking insurance’), weichang xian (肠胃险, ‘belly insurance’), yemaozi xian (夜猫子险, ‘night owl insurance’), zuqiu liumang xian (足球流氓险, ‘football hooligan insurance’), and Shijie bei yihan xian (世界杯遗憾险, ‘World Cup regret insurance’). The types of insurance offered with respect to Valentine’s Day included aiqing xian (爱情险, ‘love insurance’) and yiwai huaiyun xian (意外怀孕险, ‘unexpected pregnancy insurance’), while those focusing on the weather included wumai xian (雾霾险, ‘smog insurance’) and gaowen xian (高温险, ‘high temperature insurance’). In addition, there was also maifang jiangjia xian (买房降价险, ‘insurance for price

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drop in home purchase’), shouji suiping xian (手机碎屏险, ‘cracked mobile phone screen insurance’), xue Lei Feng xian (学雷锋险, ‘learning from Lei Feng insurance’), and yaohao xian (摇号险, ‘license plate lottery insurance’). Naturally, these types of qipa xian (奇葩险, ‘weird insurance’) are not unique to China: the Netherlands reportedly has lümaozi xian (绿帽子险, ‘cuckold insurance’), and if a husband discovers that his wife has hongxing chuqiang (红杏出墙, ‘committed adultery’) after taking out the insurance policy, he can obtain 500 Euros in compensation; the United States also has waixing ren bangjia xian (外星人绑架险, ‘alien abduction insurance’), and if the insured party suffers abduction by aliens in an unidentified flying object, he or she can obtain 10 million USD in compensation (Shenzhen News Online 2014); the premiums are only 9.95 USD, and it is likely that the insurance company believes this to be a sale which will only earn profits and will never see payouts. However, not all of the new forms of insurance in 2014 were so strange, such as the naifen xian (奶粉险, ‘powdered milk insurance’) and shi qiang xian (食强险, ‘food safety enforcement insurance’) offered by businesses. If a recall and de-shelving are ordered for powdered milk which the consumer has purchased at a store, then he or she can receive an insurance payout of 2,000 yuan per can of powdered milk; shi qiang xian (食强险, ‘food safety enforcement insurance’) is insurance for enforcement of food safety accountability aimed at the food and drug industries. These two types of insurance can both compel relevant enterprises to perfect their mechanisms, arguably achieving a multilateral win for society, enterprises and consumers.

2.6 The many faces of the scholar Education is a lifelong undertaking, and everyone has experience in learning, while one’s academic achievements are naturally divided into different ranks. Those with outstanding achievements can be labeled xueba (学霸, ‘scholartyrants’), while those whose grades are lagging may refer to themselves as xuezha (学渣, ‘bottom-of-the-barrel scholars’). However, in 2014, the classifications became more systematic, while the labels became more refined: above the xueba (学霸, ‘scholar-tyrants’), there are also the xueshen (学神, ‘scholar-gods ’), who are naturally bright, with above-average appearance, are highly effective in their studies, and have extremely strong capabilities – they are the idols worshipped by their classmates. Those who don’t seem to work very hard, but can always get a high score when it comes time for the test are called xuegao (学糕, ‘cake scholars’): like cutting into a cake, their surface is fragile, but their interior is incomparably solid. Similar to them, the ones who sleep in class, and goof around after class, but still get very good academic grades are called xuepi

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(学痞, ‘rascal scholars’). Someone who excels in a certain subject and has a supernatural talent is naturally a xuegui (学鬼, ‘supernatural scholar’); someone who studies obsessively to the point of mania is called a xuemo (学魔, ‘scholardemon’); while undistinguished students with average academic grades can only be the xuemin (学民, ‘scholar masses’). There are two other categories deserving of sympathy: those who study quite assiduously but get very poor grades are called xuecan (学残, ‘defective scholars’), because their learning abilities are seemingly impaired; those who study day and night while in poor physical health and cannot withstand the burden are called xueruo (学弱, ‘weak scholars’); those who are very strong on the surface but collapse at the first blow are xuesu (学酥, ‘crispy scholars’), and worse still than the xuezha (学渣, ‘bottom-ofthe-barrel scholars’) are the xuemo (学沫, ‘froth scholars’) and xueshui (学水, ‘watery scholars’); and each time the end of term approaches, many students claim that they have developed xue’ai (学癌, ‘learning cancer’). In fact, each individual has their own aptitudes and interests, and if it ever becomes possible to truly yin ren shijiao (因人施教, ‘teach to the individual’), where each student is able to become a xueshen (学神, ‘scholar-god’) in their own minds, while the rest of these words all disappear, then our education will truly be a success.

2.7 The era of deliberate cuteness Following the introduction of meng (萌, ‘cute’) (in Japanese: moe [萌え, ‘cute’]) from Japanese anime in 2009, China has also slowly entered the era of mai meng (卖萌, ‘deliberate cuteness’), and people’s values have also experienced corresponding changes: the kan lian shehui (看脸社会, ‘appearance-oriented society’) is clear proof, and the yan zhi (颜值, ‘looks score’) has even become an important basis in job recruitment. Unlike the terms from the last two years, such as meng nühai (萌女孩, ‘cute girl’), meng ba (萌爸, ‘cute papa’), meng wa (萌娃, ‘cute baby’), meng xiang (萌相, ‘cute look’), meng jun (萌军, ‘cute soldier’), and meng meizi (萌妹子, ‘cute little sister’), which were primarily applied to a third party, 2014’s mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’) more like deliberately showing off one’s cuteness, and the extent of showing off cuteness can be evaluated using an index, thus one has the meng zhi (萌值, ‘cute score’). In addition, it is necessary not only to be meng (萌, ‘cute’) but also jian (贱, ‘cheap’): regardless of whether one is meng jian (萌贱, ‘cute and cheap’) or jian meng (贱萌, ‘cheap and cute’), neither has a derogatory meaning, and both express the significance of “adorable and charming.” The importance of meng (萌, ‘cute’) to contemporary people is such that it is stimulating the GDP, giving rise to the meng jingji (萌经济, ‘cute economy’). There is no denying that meng (萌, ‘cute’) has already become a

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lubricant for regulating interpersonal relationships in modern society. On a more refined level, meng (萌, ‘cute’) and yan (颜, ‘looks’) are not at all alike: meng (萌, ‘cute’) embodies more of one’s internal, acquired aspects, reflecting one’s inner naivete as external adorability, while yan (颜, ‘looks’) are external and inborn, consisting of the appearance granted by one’s parents. If our society can give more value to the meng zhi (萌值, ‘cute score’) and downgrade the yan zhi (颜值, ‘looks score’), perhaps it will be both fairer and more beautiful. The year 2014 is now history, slowly drifting further away, but the neologisms which record the footprint of the year 2014 are available for later generations to examine at any time.

References CCP Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (中共中央纪律检查委员会) & P.R.C. Ministry of Supervision website (中华人民共和国监察部官网). 2014. People’s Daily: The Commission for Discipline Inspection has been very busy and very hardworking in the year 2014 (人民日报: 2014 这一年 纪委很忙很辛苦). http://www.ccdi.gov.cn/yw/ 201412/t20141230_49373.html. Shenzhen News Online (深圳新闻网). 2014. Take a look at weird insurance in different countries (看看各国的奇葩保险). http://www.sznews.com/rollnews/barb/2013-09/06/ content_922807578.html.

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘), Zhang Ken (张肯), and Guo Jingxuan (郭璟璇)

27 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2014 The “Top Ten Popular Phrases in Chinese Media in 2014” (2014 年度中国媒体十 大流行语) are a record of the information which drew the most attention and prompted the most dissemination in the media in that year; this information reflects the surging fluctuations in the international situation, current domestic politics drawing the gaze of the masses, and popular figures leading the topics of discussion, while also delineating the day-to-day needs of the people’s livelihoods. Through these popular phrases, we can read and understand China and the world in media discourses. These top ten popular phrases were obtained on the basis of the National Language Monitoring Corpus, using language information processing technology, in conjunction with cataloguing by hand in the final stage. The corpus is sourced from 18 domestic newspapers, 26 radio and television channels, as well as two portal websites, with approximately 1.2 billion character instances.

1 The amber of time – top ten popular phrases On December 19, 2014, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, and other organizations jointly announced the “Top Ten Popular Phrases in Chinese Media in 2014” (2014 年度中国媒体十大流行语): Yifa zhiguo (依法治国, ‘rule of law’), shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), Beijing APEC (北京 APEC, ‘APEC Beijing’), Aibola (埃博拉, ‘Ebola’), yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’), Baxi shijie bei (巴西世界杯, ‘Brazil World Cup’), Hu Gang tong (沪港通, ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect’), zhan Zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’), Guojia gongji ri (国家公祭日, ‘National Memorial Day’), Chang’e wu hao (嫦娥五号, ‘Chang’e 5’) The media uses language to write about China and the world, and the top ten popular phrases in the general category extracted from this language are like pieces of precious amber, encapsulating the impressions of the era. Through careful observation and attentive consideration, we can feel China’s pulse and the heartbeat of the world.

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1.1 Yifa zhiguo (依法治国, ‘rule of law’) In October 2014, the 4th Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, which was the focus of all eyes, was convened in Beijing: for the first time, yifa zhiguo (依法治国, ‘rule of law’) was adopted as a theme of the conference, and the Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Regarding Certain Significant Issues in Comprehensively Promoting the Rule of Law (中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定) was deliberated upon and passed, highlighting the determination and efforts of the Chinese Communist Party in comprehensively promoting the rule of law. The national media has engaged in an ongoing debate revolving around the rule of law, expressing the pursuit of and expectations for the rule of law in China at present. There is no doubt that yifa zhiguo (依法治国, ‘rule of law’) became one of the most important trending political issues domestically this year. (see Figure 1) Yifa zhiguo (

, ‘rule of law’)

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 1: State of use of yifa zhiguo (依法治国, ‘rule of law’) in 2013–2014.

1.2 Shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) This phrase is an abbreviation of shiqu lianxi (失去联系, ‘lose connection’) or shiqu lianluo (失去联络, ‘lose contact’), which originated from the Malaysia Airlines airplane accident. Before dawn on March 8, 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370 bound for Beijing from Kuala Lumpur lost contact with the ground after takeoff, and multilateral search-and-rescue efforts by the international community were ultimately fruitless. In the wake of this accident, the word shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) was widely applied by the media to various incidents of disappearance. Around the start of the fall school term in August, a succession of several cases involving the disappearance and murder of female college students arose in our country, and the media also frequently used the word shilian (失联,

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‘lose contact’) in its reporting. Shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) became a highfrequency word used by the media this year. (see Figure 2) Shilian(

, ‘lose contact’)

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 2: State of use of shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) in 2013–2014.

1.3 Beijing APEC (北京 APEC, ‘APEC Beijing’) The 2014 APEC conference marked its return to China after an interval of 13 years, following its successful convening in Shanghai in 2001, and the theme of the conference was jointly building Asia-Pacific partnerships oriented toward the future. Leaders from each of the APEC economies, leading lights in industry and business in the Asia-Pacific region, and prestigious scholars were invited to this summit meeting, and a total of approximately 1500 people gathered in Beijing, to infuse new intellectual dynamism into the economic growth of the Asia-Pacific region. The rate of use of Beijing APEC (北京 APEC, ‘APEC Beijing’) in the media reached its peak in November, while APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’) and other popular terms derived from it were among the most closely followed topics in politics, social life and other fields at the end of the year. (see Figure 3)

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Beijing APEC (

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

APEC, ‘APEC Beijing’)

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 3: State of use of Beijing APEC (北京 APEC, ‘APEC Beijing’) in 2013–2014.

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1.4 Aibola (埃博拉, ‘Ebola’) The noun referenced most often by the worldwide media in the public health sector in 2014 was none other than Aibola (埃博拉, ‘Ebola’). This rare infectious disease – Ebola hemorrhagic fever – reemerged in West Africa in February of this year, and by mid-year, the epidemic had moved “out of Africa,” appearing sporadically in Europe, the United States, India, and other places; it was not until the end of the year that the epidemic situation was mitigated through the joint efforts of the affected countries and the international community. The fight against the Ebola epidemic, “the most severe in history,” pervaded nearly the whole of 2014. (see Figure 4) Aibola ( 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2013 Apr.

Jul.

,‘Ebola’)

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 4: State of use of Aibola (埃博拉, ‘Ebola’) in 2013–2014.

1.5 Yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) Yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) is an abbreviation of the “Silk Road Economic Belt” (丝绸之路经济带) and “21st-Century Maritime Silk Road” (21 世 纪海上丝绸之路) strategies. During the period of the Two Sessions in 2014, Premier Li Keqiang (李克强) clearly proposed in the Report on the Work of the Government (政府工作报告) that close attention be paid to planning and constructing the yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’). At the APEC conference in Beijing, yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) drew widespread attention and discussion as a trending topic. The rate of use of yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) in the media also reached a peak after the APEC conference. By putting forth concrete efforts to jointly construct the yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’), the concept of joint development upheld by China is finally about to be understood by more people, and the inclusive Chinese civilization, which is like to the sea containing a hundred rivers, will also draw more acclaim in the course of its rejuvenation. (see Figure 5)

27 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2014

Yidai yilu(

335

,‘One Belt, One Road’)

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 5: State of use of yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) in 2013–2014.

1.6 Baxi shijiebei (巴西世界杯, ‘Brazil World Cup’) The FIFA Brazil World Cup took place on 12 soccer fields in 12 cities in Brazil between June 12 and July 13, 2014; 32 teams from all over the world participated in the competition, playing 64 matches. Ultimately, the German team defeated the Argentinian team during the finals, winning the championship, and becoming the first European soccer team in history to win a World Cup held in a country in the Americas. As the most spectacular sports extravaganza in 2014, there is no doubt that Baxi shijiebei (巴西世界杯, ‘Brazil World Cup’) became a popular phrase in 2014. (see Figure 6) Baxi shijie bei (

,‘Brazil World Cup’)

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Jan. 2013 Apr.

Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 6: State of use of Baxi shijie bei (巴西世界杯, ‘Brazil World Cup’) in 2013–2014.

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1.7 Hu Gang tong (沪港通, ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect’) The pilot program for interconnection mechanisms between transactions on the Shanghai and Hong Kong stock exchanges jointly launched by the Shanghai Stock Exchange, Hong Kong Stock Exchange, China Securities Depository and Clearing Corporation Limited, and Hong Kong Securities Clearing Company, Ltd., is abbreviated as Hu Gang tong (沪港通, ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect’). The Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect was opened on November 17, 2014, and immediately became the main focus of attention in the media in the economic sector. The Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect regionally connected Shanghai and Hong Kong, while also connecting China and the world in terms of capital markets. The comparatively closed Chinese capital market is thus past and gone, and the image of a confident and lively capital market oriented toward the international markets is becoming clearer. (see Figure 7)

Hu Gang tong ( , ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect’) 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr. Jul. Oct.

Figure 7: State of use of Hu Gang tong (沪港通, ‘Shanghai-Hong Kong Stock Connect’) in 2013–2014.

1.8 Zhan Zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’) Zhan Zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’) is an abbreviation of the unlawful occupation of Central District. Beginning on September 28, 2014, the participants adopted the approach of occupying vital arteries of traffic in Central, the financial district of Hong Kong, to express their political appeals. The Occupy Central movement disregarded the Basic Law and disrupted the order of everyday life for the people of Hong Kong, resulting in enormous economic losses, and leading to ruptures and

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divisions in society; it finally concluded on December 15 when the Hong Kong police cleared the Causeway Bay occupation zone and the Legislative Council demonstration zone. The rate of use of the term zhan Zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’) in the media continuously rose from the end of September until declining in December following the clearing of the protests and the conclusion of the movement, and it gradually faded as a focal point of public opinion. (see Figure 8)

Zhan Zhong (

,‘Occupy Central’)

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Jan. 2013 Apr.

Jul. Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 8: State of use of zhan Zhong (占中, ‘Occupy Central’) in 2013–2014.

1.9 Guojia gongji ri (国家公祭日, ‘National Memorial Day’) On February 27, 2014, the decision to establish December 13 as the “National Memorial Day for Nanjing Massacre Victims” (南京大屠杀死难者国家公祭日) was adopted by vote at the 7th Meeting of the 12th National People’s Congress. The establishment of National Memorial Day is a move which cherishes the memory of the past, and furthermore soothes popular feeling and conforms to the popular will, while simultaneously conveying to the world the attitude of the Chinese people regarding human rights and civilization, and expressing to the world our love of peace, as well as our determination and duty to defend peace. On December 13, 2014, China welcomed the first National Memorial Day, for which the domestic media provided extensive and solemn coverage. (see Figure 9)

1.10 Chang’e wu hao (嫦娥五号, ‘Chang’e 5’) On October 24, 2014, the reentry flight test vehicle reputed to be a tanlu jianbing (探路尖兵, ‘trailblazer’) for the Chang’e 5 was successfully launched from the

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Guojia gongji ri (

,‘National Memorial Day’)

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul. Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 9: State of use of Guojia gongji ri (国家公祭日, ‘National Memorial Day’) in 2013–2014.

Xichang Satellite Launch Center, and after a journey of eight days between the Earth and the Moon, it smoothly returned to Earth on November 1, proclaiming the complete success of the first reentry flight test in our country’s Lunar Exploration Program, and accumulating valuable experience for the official launch of the Chang’e 5. (see Figure 10) Chang’e wu hao (

,‘Chang’e 5’)

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul. Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 10: State of use of Chang’e wu hao (嫦娥五号, ‘Chang’e 5’) in 2013–2014.

2 Sector navigation charts: popular phrases in categories The “Annual Popular Phrases in the Media” (年度媒体流行语) automatically extracted from the large-scale corpus include more than one hundred entries every year, which are divided into different sectors including politics, economics,

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science and technology, entertainment, social life, and so on based on their content, thus better facilitating the understanding, analysis and dissemination of popular phrases. Each category of popular phrases is like an accurate and concise navigation chart, guiding us to read and understand China and the world in the media setting out from different sectors.

2.1 Top ten popular phrases in the domestic current politics category Shibajie si zhongquanhui (十八届四中全会, ‘4th Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee’), hexin jiazhiguan (核心价值观, ‘core values,’), xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’), san zhang qingdan (三张清单, ‘three lists’), xunshi zu (巡视组, ‘Inspection Group’), Guojia xianfa ri (国家宪法日, ‘National Constitution Day’), luoma (落马, ‘sacked’), Jing Jin Ji yitihua (京津冀一体化, ‘Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei integration’), zhui tao zhui zang (追逃追赃, ‘pursuit of fugitives and recovery of stolen money’), shen gai (深改, ‘deepening reforms’) In 2014, the Central Leading Group for Inspection Work undertook a profound responsibility to the people to dahu paiying (打虎拍蝇, ‘strike both tigers and flies’), sacking corrupt officials one after another; the central government took a bold stand in presenting a series of audacious and resolute icebreaking measures, launching the era of deepening reforms; General Secretary Xi Jinping (习近平) proposed the xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’), providing a perspective on China’s future choices with regard to macroscopic policy, reflecting the common aspirations of the people, signifying a clean and righteous breeze, and representing a larger trend of development; Premier Li Keqiang (李克强) offered the san zhang qingdan (三张清单, ‘three lists’), allowing the law to do all which is not prohibited, do nothing which is not authorized, and do everything which is obligated; on National Constitution Day, the entire country profoundly engaged in legal education, molding the common constitutional will of the entire nation; the pursuit of fugitives and recovery of stolen money tightly surrounded those in violation of the law and in breach of discipline, while Beijing-TianjinHebei integration entered a phase of substantive acceleration . . . . This year, we happily welcomed the 4th Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee, and this year, we continued to practice core socialist values . . . .

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2.2 Top ten popular phrases in the international current politics category Yatai zimao qu (亚太自贸区, ‘Asia-Pacific Free Trade Zone’), Yisilan guo (伊斯兰国, ‘Islamic State [ISIS]’), Riben jiejin jiti ziwei quan ( 日本解禁集体自卫权, ‘Japan lifts prohibition against the right of collective self-defense’), Sugelan gongtou (苏格兰 公投, ‘Scottish referendum’), Wukelan jushi (乌克兰局势, ‘Ukraine situation’), Suiyue hao (岁月号, ‘MV Sewol’), Ma hang (马航, ‘Malaysia Airlines’), Modi shangren (莫迪上任, ‘Modi takes office’), Yazhou anquan guan (亚洲安全观, ‘Asian security concept’), Hamasi (哈马斯, ‘Hamas’) In 2014, the proposal of the Asian security concept clarified China’s understanding of the new world order to the world; the launch of the Asia-Pacific Free Trade Zone infused new vitality into the economic growth of the AsiaPacific; Japan’s lifting of the prohibition against the right of collective selfdefense moved further down the path of flouting the constitution and denying history; the Islamic State (ISIS) rapidly expanded, while Hamas and Israel opposed one another with equal harshness, leaving the path to peace and stability in the Middle East as long and obstacle-ridden as ever; the MV Sewol sank to the bottom of the sea, while the Malaysia Airlines flight disappeared over the horizon; the dust settled on the Scottish referendum, and the gezi qun (格子裙, ‘kilts’) decided to remain at the Queen’s side; Modi took office, and China-India relations may be able to turn over a new leaf; the Ukraine situation was in upheaval – what path will Crimea take in the end . . . .

2.3 Top ten popular phrases in the economics category Hulian hutong (互联互通, ‘interconnection’), Ma Yun (马云, ‘Ma Yun / Jack Ma’), wei qi (微企, ‘micro-enterprise’), zhongchou (众筹, ‘crowd-funding’), dingxiang jiangzhun (定向降准, ‘targeted cuts’), hunhe suoyouzhi gaige (混合所有制 改革, ‘mixed-ownership reforms’), kuajing dianshang (跨境电商, ‘cross-border e-commerce’), Ya Tou Hang (亚投行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’), xinchou gaige (薪酬改革, ‘salary reforms’), yidong Hulianwang shidai (移动互联 网时代, ‘mobile Internet era’) In 2014, the first World Internet Conference was held in Wuzhen, and ubiquitous networks swept over us, heralding the start of the mobile Internet era; prompted by the great tides of this era, crowd-funding disrupted the conventional financing models, and micro-enterprises gradually became part of public

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life; Alibaba was listed on the market, Jack Ma reached the top of the list of rich and powerful people in China, and this founder of the Chinese e-commerce empire currently faces the opportunity and challenge of cross-border e-commerce; focusing on the domestic side, the central bank continued to engage in targeted cuts, promoting economic restructuring; mixed-ownership reforms strengthened the competitiveness of enterprises; salary reforms for civil servants distributed wages more equitably; and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank was established with an eye to the broader Asian region, adding more impetus to the course of Asian interconnection . . . .

2.4 Top ten popular phrases in the science and technology category Shijie Hulianwang dahui (世界互联网大会, ‘World Internet Conference’), zairu fanhui (再入返回, ‘reentry’), chongdian zhuang (充电桩, ‘charging station’), yidong zhifu (移动支付, ‘mobile payment’), Luosaita hao (罗塞塔号, ‘Rosetta’), Yuegong yi hao (月宫一号, ‘Yuegong-1’), Liehu zuo (猎户座, ‘Orion’), C919 daxing keji (C919 大型客机, ‘C919 airliner’), kechuandai shebei (可穿戴设备, ‘wearable device’), gongye 4.0 (工业 4.0, ‘industry 4.0’) In 2014, Luosaita hao (罗塞塔号, ‘Rosetta’) of the European Space Agency entered a comet’s orbit after a long flight, becoming the first manmade probe to land on a comet; NASA’s Orion spacecraft safely returned, opening the door for humanity to enter the Huoxing shidai (火星时代, ‘Mars age’); our country’s Yuegong-1 test was a success, and the first victory was won in reentry testing, taking one more step toward the myth of Chang’e visiting the moon becoming a reality; leading figures in the circles of the world wide web gathered in Wuzhen, China, to attend the first World Internet Conference, and jointly discuss general plans for development; drawing on the cyber revolution, industry 4.0 took aim at a new industrial revolution; wearable devices became a trend, creating a technological style for fashion; mobile payment had a bumper year, putting it jinzai zhangwo (尽在掌握, ‘within reach’) in our lives; local protections were eliminated in the construction of charging stations, again triggering a fever of attention for new energy vehicles; constant news of victory poured in regarding the development work for the C919 airliner, and in a not-too-distant future, China’s own airliner will soar through the sky . . . .

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2.5 Top ten popular phrases in the culture and education category Wenyi gongzuo zuotanhui (文艺工作座谈会, ‘Symposium on Literary and Art Work’), Zhonghua youxiu chuantong wenhua (中华优秀传统文化, ‘excellent Chinese traditional culture’), yihe yilu (一河一路, ‘one river, one road’), Jiao Yulu jingshen (焦裕禄精神, ‘Jiao Yulu spirit’), gaokao xinzheng (高考新政, ‘new policies on the college entrance examination’), lieshi jinian ri (烈士纪念日, ‘Martyrs’ Day’), duo dao shaonian (夺刀少年, ‘knife-wrestling youth’), Qingdao shiyuan hui (青岛世园会, ‘Qingdao International Horticultural Exposition’), Hong qi tiao (红七条, ‘Seven Red Regulations’), jiujin ruxue (就近入学, ‘enrollment at the nearest school’) In 2014, the new policies on the college entrance examination, which had been subject to heated debate for many years, were finally released – the humanities and sciences would no longer be grouped into separate fields, and the situation of yi kao ding zhongshen (一考定终身, ‘one test determines your whole life’) is also gone, never to return; the knife-wrestling youth boldly stepped forward to confront a thug, establishing a moral benchmark for the post-90s; the policy of enrollment at the nearest school resolved the difficulties faced by millions of parents and students in relation to school admissions; the issuance of the Seven Red Regulations (红七条) provided new norms for building virtue among instructors at institutions of higher education; the Symposium on Literary and Art Work was launched with a bang, profoundly noting the heavy burden borne by literary and art work in this era; the excellent Chinese traditional culture is an important fountainhead for cultivating core socialist values, and allowing our unforgettable culture to be the nation’s lifeblood and soul; the establishment of Martyrs’ Day spurred the spiritual motivation of the sons and daughters of China to achieve the great rejuvenation of the Chinese people; the spirit of Jiao Yulu was cultivated, illuminating a new image of party members and cadres for the new era; the application for World Heritage Site status for yihe yilu (一河一路, ‘one river, one road’) was successful, becoming a new starting point for our country to perpetuate its civilization and protect ancient culture; the Qingdao International Horticultural Exposition was successfully held, allowing life to become a part of nature . . . .

2.6 Top ten popular phrases in the sports and entertainment category Suoqi dong Aohui (索契冬奥会, ‘Sochi Winter Olympics’), Renchuan yayunhui (仁川亚运会, ‘Incheon Asian Games’), Nanjing Qing’aohui (南京青奥会, ‘Nanjing

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Youth Olympic Games’), Li Na (李娜, ‘Li Na’), Laizi xingxing de ni (来自星星的你, ‘My Love from the Star’), Lanxiang ti (蓝翔体, ‘Lanxiang style’), nuannan (暖男, ‘warm guy’), renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’), yeshi zui le (也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too’), mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’) In 2014, the Sochi Winter Olympics, Nanjing Youth Olympic Games, and Incheon Asian Games were held in succession, and the Chinese team demonstrated China’s resolve to stride toward being a strong sports country to the entire world through their impressive scores; Asia’s top Grand Slam women’s singles champion Li Na formally announced her retirement, having used her strength to write a Chinese legend in tennis circles; at the beginning of the year, the show My Love from the Star (来自星星的你) created a viewing sensation; at the end of the year, the Blue Fly style swept across the Internet, and wajue ji jishu na jia qiang (挖掘机技术哪家强, ‘who has the best excavator technology’) was jokingly referred to by netizens as the shiji zhi wen (世纪之问, ‘question of the century’); this year, there was a feeling called mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’), as well as a kind of helplessness called yeshi zui le (也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too’), along with a kind of wastefulness called renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’), and the warm fragrance ushered in by the nuannan (暖男, ‘warm guy’) . . . .

2.7 Top ten popular phrases in the social life category APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’), Dengge re (登革热, ‘Dengue fever’), qu nar (去哪儿, ‘where did it go’), bao kong (暴恐, ‘violent terrorism’), bingtong tiaozhan (冰桶挑战, ‘ice bucket challenge’), Taifeng Weimaxun (台风威马逊, ‘Typhoon Rammasun’), Ludian dizhen (鲁甸地震, ‘Ludian earthquake’), dianzan (点赞, ‘like’), xiao pingguo (小苹果, ‘Little Apple’), Weixin hongbao (微信 红包, ‘WeChat red envelope’) In 2014, the song Little Apple (小苹果) swept across the country from north to south, while WeChat red envelopes became fashionable among the young crowd; the powerful Typhoon Rammasun landed, while the Ludian earthquake and Dengue fever in Guangzhou were galvanizing, and violent terrorism challenged the collective bottom line of human civilization; where did the time go – where are we going, dad – where did the Malaysia Airlines flight go – although qu nar (去哪儿, ‘where did it go’) is just three little characters, its different flavors were worth experiencing; under the scorching summer sun, the ice bucket challenge had a butterfly effect in stimulating charitable creativity, and we couldn’t help but like every person who harbored such love and concern; under the chilly winter sun, PEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’) not only demonstrated the government’s

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resolve to control smog, but also kindled the public’s expectations for a beautiful environment . . . .

2.8 Top ten popular phrases in the people’s livelihood subject category Zhimai (治霾, ‘smog control’), dandu er hai (单独二孩, ‘selective two-child policy’), budongchan dengji (不动产登记, ‘real estate registration’), juzhu zheng (居住证, ‘residence permit’), zui qiang jinyan ling (最强禁烟令, ‘toughest smoking ban’), shejian shang de anquan (舌尖上的安全, ‘safety at the tip of your tongue’), jingwang xingdong (净网行动, ‘clean Internet campaign’), zui mei jiating (最美家庭, ‘most beautiful family’), fupin ri (扶贫日, ‘Poverty Relief Day’), gongzhong hao (公众号, ‘public account’) In 2014, the clean Internet campaign was powerfully launched, declaring war on pornography and drugs on the Internet, and making the Internet green again; a bugle call was sounded for smog control, with ecological leadership to treat both the symptoms and the root cause, to eliminate xinfei zhi huan (心肺之患, ‘cardiopulmonary disease’) among the people; the Ministry of Agriculture adopted the strictest oversight to defend safety at the tip of your tongue; the Office of the Central Committee and the Office of the State Council issued the toughest smoking ban, using the law for tobacco control, and improving the public’s consciousness of a healthy civilization; the Ministry of Land and Resources released the regulations on real estate registration, giving fangjie (房姐, ‘house sisters’) and fangshu (房叔, ‘house uncles’) nowhere to hide; a wide array of public accounts drew delighted discussion among the people, releasing the thriving vitality of new media; the selective two-child policy, residence permits and other new policies benefited the people’s livelihoods; the establishment of Poverty Relief Day concentrated the social forces for poverty relief; across the ocean of a hundred years, the people’s livelihoods are never-ending – efforts were made to promote social construction focusing on the people’s livelihoods, and China will ultimately give rise to more and more beautiful families . . . . Popular phrases are a microcosm of society, a mark of the times, and a mirror of life. The popular phrases of 2014 truly record the phenomena of the world and the many forms of life from the media’s perspective, objectively reflecting the focal points and trending topics in domestic and foreign politics, economics, culture, education, science and technology, and various other fields, and sketching an outline of human affairs, public sentiment, and social life within the media’s range of vision. Here, you can read and understand China and the world in media discourses.

He Tingting (何 婷婷)

28 The grassroots diversity of Internet slang in 2014 Online slang often originates at the grassroots level, and spreads by means of the Internet, expressing people’s attitudes toward life in a humorous form. We extracted the high-frequency Internet slang of 2014 from an online corpus of tens of thousands of texts and hundreds of millions of character instances within the National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus, reflecting the online trends and grassroots psychology of this year.

1 Interpretation of the “Top Ten Internet Slang Terms” On December 19, 2014, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, and other organizations jointly announced the “Top Ten Internet Slang Terms of 2014” (2014 年度十大网络用语): Wo yeshi zui le (我也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too’), you qian jiu shi renxing (有钱 就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’), man pin de (蛮拼的, ‘making all efforts’), wajue ji jishu najia qiang (挖掘机技术哪家强, ‘who has the best excavator technology’), baozheng bu dasi ni (保证不打死你, ‘I promise not to beat you to death’), mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’), shijian dou qu nar le (时间都去哪儿了, ‘where did the time go’), wo dushu shao ni bie pian wo (我读书少你别骗我, ‘I don’t have much education, so don’t try to fool me’), huamian tai mei wo bu gan kan (画面太 美我不敢看, ‘the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look’), qie xing qie zhenxi (且 行且珍惜, ‘cherish life’) These ten oft-heard and familiar Internet slang terms represent the distinctive characteristics of online language use by netizens in the year 2014, while also roughly delineating the points of interest for online public opinion.

1.1 Wo yeshi zui le (我也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too’) This phrase first originated from the narration in a computer game, and later emerged in Weibo comments: as of June, it began rapidly spreading across Weibo, and then diffused across the Internet (Figure 1). It is a kind of unserious https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-028

Normalized usage (·10–6)

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Wo yeshi zui le ( 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

,‘I was drunk

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 1: State of use of wo yeshi zui le (我也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too’) in 2013–2014.

expression of feelings of helplessness, gloominess and wordlessness, which generally expresses being unable to reason or communicate with someone or something, as well as being powerless to point out the flaws; in some circumstances, it also expresses slight dissatisfaction. The common combination wo ye shi zuile, ye shi bu duo shuo (我也是醉了, 也是不多说, ‘I was drunk too, and didn’t have much to say’) is on the path of developing into a fixed phrase.

1.2 You qian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’)

Normalized usage (·10–6)

This phrase originated from a netizen‘s mocking take on an incident of fraud, and later gained in popularity on all the major online platforms, with rapidly soaring usage (Figure 2). The original significance was to ridicule the modus operandi of the rich, but now it is more often used in teasing between friends. The renxingti (任性体, ‘headstrong style’) grew popular in its wake, encompassing phrases like chengji hao jiu shi renxing (成绩好就是任性, ‘good grades and headstrong’), zhang You qian jiu shi renxing ( ‘rich and headstrong’) 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul. Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

,

Jul. Oct.

Figure 2: State of use of you qian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’) in 2013–2014.

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de shuai jiu shi renxing (长得帅就是任性, ‘handsome and headstrong’), nianqing jiu shi renxing (年轻就是任性, ‘young and headstrong’), et cetera. There are three main factors behind the swift explosion of phrases in the category of you qian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’): first, the structure is short and easy to articulate, similar to the common saying you qian jiu shi daye (有钱就是大 爷, ‘rich and arrogant’); second, it was boosted through dissemination by the media; and third, it found a suitable social environment.

1.3 Man pin de (蛮拼的, ‘making all efforts’)

Normalized usage (·10–6)

In the literal interpretation, this phrase signifies making a great effort. It attracted attention after being referenced several times by the singer Gary Chaw (曹格) in the program Where Are We Going, Dad 2 (爸爸去哪儿 2), and its usage gradually begin climbing as of July, reaching the high point for the year around September (Figure 3). Initially, it was primarily used to express the speakers’ mockery, derision or even disdain for a certain event or task, and later primarily took on the level of significance of nuli (努力, ‘making great efforts’). In his New Year’s address, Xi Jinping (习近平) used the highly popularized Internet slang term man pin de (蛮拼的, ‘making all efforts’) to express the basic work attitude among cadres over the next year, evoking a grounded style and vivid imagery, in a manner both trendy and apropos, while also causing this term to become a part of social language life. Man pin de (

, ‘making all efforts’)

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 3: State of use of man pin de (蛮拼的, ‘making all efforts’) in 2013–2014.

1.4 Wajue ji jishu najia qiang (挖掘机技术哪家强, ‘who has the best excavator technology’) This phrase originated from a commercial featuring the famous actor Tang Guoqiang (唐国强) on behalf of Shandong Lanxiang (蓝翔) Vocational School.

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He Tingting (何婷婷)

Normalized usage (·10–6)

Since a host of negative news stories emerged regarding Lanxiang Vocational School in September 2014 and thereafter, netizens’ wit gushed forth, generally taking the form of first telling a serious story, and then inserting wajue (挖掘, ‘excavate’), wa kang (挖坑, ‘dig a hole’), mai le (埋了, ‘buried’) and other related terms at the story’s conclusion, immediately followed by asking the question wajue ji jishu najia qiang (挖掘机技术哪家强, ‘who has the best excavator technology’). This later evolved into name wenti lai le (那么问题来了, ‘then there’s a problem’), broadening the settings for use of this phrase. The usage of this phrase reached the high point for the year in October, but thereafter presented a gradual declining trend, and it could be described as having a swift rise in popularity but a lack of stamina (Figure 4).

30 25

Wajue ji jishu najia qiang ( ‘who has the best excavator technology’)

,

20 15 10 5 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr. Jul. Oct.

Figure 4: State of use of wajue ji jishu najia qiang (挖掘机技术哪家强, ‘who has the best excavator technology’) in 2013–2014.

1.5 Baozheng bu dasi ni (保证不打死你, ‘I promise not to beat you to death’) Baobao ni guolai, baba baozheng bu dasi ni (宝宝你过来, 爸爸保证不打死你, ‘come here, baby, daddy promises not to beat you to death’) was the pet phrase of Francis Ng (吴镇宇) in Where Are We Going, Dad 2 (爸爸去哪儿 2). Due to its excessively severe tone, it was parodied by netizens as ni guolai wo baozheng bu dasi ni (你过来我保证不打死你, ‘come here, I promise not to beat you to death’), signifying that if you dare to come over, I will beat you to within an inch of your life. The primary usage of this phrase was for netizens to tack it on at the end when ridiculing someone who had swindled them, as an expression of resentment against that person. In the wake of the popularity of this television program, the phrase’s usage leapt to its zenith for the year in August (Figure 5), and thereafter remained at a high level of usage for a relatively long period of time before declining at the end of the year.

Normalized usage (·10–6)

28 The grassroots diversity of Internet slang in 2014

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

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Baozheng bu dasi ni ( , ‘I promise not to beat you to death’)

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 5: State of use of baozheng bu dasi ni (保证不打死你, ‘I promise not to beat you to death’) in 2013–2014.

1.6 Mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’)

Normalized usage (·10–6)

This phrase evolved under the influence of Japanese moe (萌え, ‘cute’) culture. It is generally used to humorously describe one’s own cutified image. The phrase was first used in a group on Douban, in the netizen comment, “Today I went out without taking medicine, and I feel cute all over.” The proper formulation for mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’) would be mengmeng de (萌萌的, ‘too cute’): herein, the character da (哒, [particle]) is often used as the final modal particle in deliberately cute phrases, such as hao da (好哒, ‘all right’), shi da (是哒, ‘yes’), et cetera. This phrase experienced consistently high usage in the latter half of 2014, with an extremely long-lasting streak of popularity (Figure 6).

Mengmeng da (

,‘too cute’)

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr. Jul. Oct.

Figure 6: State of use of mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’) in 2013–2014.

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He Tingting (何婷婷)

1.7 Shijian dou qu nar le (时间都去哪儿了, ‘where did the time go’)

Normalized usage (·10–7)

The song Where Did the Time Go (时间都去哪儿了) was swiftly relayed among the people after being featured on the CCTV Spring Festival Gala for the Year of the Horse, and shijian dou qu nar le (时间都去哪儿了, ‘where did the time go’) also heated up as a popular phrase. On February 7, 2014, Xi Jinping (习近平) made reference to the song during a special interview with a Russian television channel, triggering a national discussion centering on the topic shijian dou qu nar le (时间都去哪儿了, ‘where did the time go’), propelling a sustained hot period of usage for this phrase. This popular phrase generally expresses people’s wonderment and powerlessness against the passage of time, and such feelings are particularly salient at the end of the year, thus leading to a peak in usage (Figure 7).

12

Shijian dou qu nar le ( ‘where did the time go’)

,

10 8 6 4 2 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr. Jul. Oct.

Figure 7: State of use of shijian dou qu nar le (时间都去哪儿了, ‘where did the time go’) in 2013–2014.

1.8 Wo dushu shao ni bie pian wo (我读书少你别骗我, ‘I don’t have much education, so don’t try to fool me’) This is a line delivered by Bruce Lee (李小龙) in the role of Chen Zhen (陈真) in the film Fist of Fury (精武门). In 2012, Ma Boyong (马伯庸) purposely selected the phrase as the title of his new book, and also repeatedly used it in the book’s dialogue. In late 2013, Episode 1 of the hit miniseries Yes Boss (报告老板), entitled “The Temp Worker Chen Zhen” (临时工陈真) quoted this line by Chen Zhen in Fist of Fury, directly resulting in a swift rise in popularity for this phrase in early 2014 (Figure 8). The phrase was initially used to express the helplessness and confusion of having learned the truth and being unable to accept it, and was

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Normalized usage (·10–7)

Wo dushu shao ni bie pian wo ( , ‘I don’t have much education, so don’t try to fool me’) 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 8: State of use of wo dushu shao ni bie pian wo (我读书少你别骗我, ‘I don’t have much education, so don’t try to fool me’) in 2013–2014.

later widely used in mocking online interactions, expressing that one should not take advantage of honest people.

1.9 Huamian tai mei wo bu gan kan (画面太美我不敢看, ‘the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look’) This phrase originates from the lyrics of the song Prague Square (布拉格广场) by Jolin Tsai (蔡依林): “In a Prague square at dusk, I throw a wish in the wishing well / A flock of pigeons with their backs to the setting sun, the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look . . . .” The phrase was later used by netizens to express mockery of surprising images: for instance, a shocking photograph could be described as huamian tai mei wo bu gan kan (画面太美我不敢看, ‘the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look’), expressing a visual or mental impact caused by seeing said photograph. The high volume of strange and shocking information which emerges on the Internet means that the scope for use of this phrase is quite broad, thus it maintained a rather high level of usage for a relatively long period of time (Figure 9).

1.10 Qie xing qie zhenxi (且行且珍惜, ‘cherish life’) In the first half of 2014, Weibo simmered over the involvement of Wen Zhang (文章) in an affair, and Wen’s wife Ma Yili (马伊琍) responded on Weibo, “Although love is easy, marriage is hard, so cherish life.” The phrase qie xing qie zhenxi (且行且珍惜, ‘cherish life’) touched a nerve among netizens, and it

Normalized usage (·10–7)

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He Tingting (何婷婷)

Huamian tai mei wo bu gan kan ( ‘the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look’)

,

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr. Jul. Oct.

Figure 9: State of use of huamian tai mei wo bu gan kan (画面太美我不敢看, ‘the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look’) in 2013–2014.

Normalized usage (·10–6)

was in vogue for a period of time, with its usage swiftly climbing on the Internet (Figure 10). Qie xing qie zhenxi (且行且珍惜, ‘cherish life’) signifies that you should not forget the time you spent together, and no matter how far you go, the months or years that you spent together should always be cherished. Netizens later imitated Ma Yili’s syntax in formulating a host of phrases, and various versions of Ma Yili ti (马伊琍体, ‘Ma Yili style’) emerged in a ubiquitous flood, such as: “Although going to class is easy, tests are hard, so cherish life,” “Although eating is easy, losing weight is hard, so cherish life,” and so on.

Qie xing qie zhenxi (

, ‘cherish life’)

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul.

Oct. Jan. 2014 Apr.

Jul. Oct.

Figure 10: State of use of qie xing qie zhenxi (且行且珍惜, ‘cherish life’) in 2013–2014.

2 The grassroots diversity of Internet slang On the surface, Internet slang displays the creativity of netizens’ use of language, but the deeper layer of significance which it reflects far transcends language itself. Through analysis of the reasons for the formation of Internet slang, we can

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vividly reveal the concerns and interests of ordinary people in social life, thus presenting grassroots diversity in a clear and simple form.

2.1 Current politics and the people’s livelihood Xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’), Xi dada (习大大, ‘Uncle Xi’), Peng mama (彭麻麻, ‘Aunt Peng’), APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’) The terms in this category are largely related to current events and contemporary politics. The widespread use of the term xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’) originated from a speech by Xi dada (习大大, ‘Uncle Xi’), the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, while touring Henan in May 2014: Setting out from the characteristics of the current phase of economic development, we must adapt to the new normal, and maintain a normal mentality in terms of strategy. The appellation Peng mama (彭麻麻, ‘Aunt Peng’), which corresponds to Xi dada (习大大, ‘Uncle Xi’), has a particularly warm sound, and also aligns closely with the image of Peng mama (彭麻麻, ‘Aunt Peng’), thus it has been widely adopted by netizens. During the APEC conference in Beijing in November 2014, the implementation of driving restrictions on the roads, shutdowns of polluting factories, and other measures in Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei allowed Beijing to achieve excellent air quality, leading to blue skies for a short period of time. In the passionate discussions online, these precious blue skies were referred to as APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’), and there were hopes that such beautiful scenes could linger a little longer. Jianpan xia (键盘侠, ‘keyboard warrior’), shijian dou qu nar le (时间都去哪 儿了, ‘where did the time go’) The reason why the jianpan xia (键盘侠, ‘keyboard warrior’) has tuoying er chu (脱颖而出, ‘come to the fore’) is because, in reality, too many bystanders yong er bu wei (勇而不为, ‘act tough but do nothing’): the jianpan xia (键盘侠, ‘keyboard warrior’) incisively satirizes them, using a form of cold humor to express a protest against indifference and self-interest. “Where did the time go, growing old before fully experiencing youth . . . .” The song Where Did the Time Go (时间都去哪儿了) conveys the simple emotion of all mortals: everyone must face the passage of time, thus anyone who hears the song, whether an adult or a child, will sigh with emotion. It was precisely this down-to-earth theme that gave rise to widespread exclamations on the passage of time, transcending the boundaries of age, gender, status, and even national borders.

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He Tingting (何婷婷)

2.2 Showy cuteness and ridicule Fa kaixin (伐开心, ‘discontented’), xin sai (心塞, ‘heart blockage’), mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’), wo xuan ni, ni zao ma (我宣你, 你造吗, ‘I like you, did you know’), bu neng yukuai de wanshua le ( 不能愉快地玩耍了, ‘can’t play happily anymore’) The terms in this category represent today’s most popular expressions of deliberate cuteness. Fa kaixin (伐开心, ‘discontented’) expresses when someone goes online in a bad mood, feeling a real xin sai (心塞, ‘heart blockage’), with a gloomy desire to vent their grievances, seemingly pitching a fit in front of their loved ones to seek comfort, pity and hugs; this has already quietly spread, giving rise to the new favorites of dai meng (呆萌, ‘stupid cute’) and maifu (卖腐, ‘bromance’), which make the speaker appear mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’). The Taiwan accent, which has recently become fairly popular, reportedly has a success rate of as high as 90% when used in the expression of deliberate cuteness. In the phrase wo xuan ni, ni zao ma (我宣你, 你造吗, ‘I like you, did you know’), the character xuan (宣) means xihuan (喜欢, ‘like’) in Taiwanese, while the character zao (造) means zhidao (知道, ‘know’), thus wo xuan ni, ni zao ma has the significance of “I like you, did you know.” If you cannot even understand these, then can we still play happily anymore? Mai mai mai (买买买, ‘buy buy buy’), you qian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’), he suannai bu tian gai (喝酸奶不舔盖, ‘drink yogurt without licking the lid’), badao zongcai ai shang wo (霸道总裁爱上我, ‘overbearing CEO falls in love with me’), huamian tai mei wo bu gan kan (画面太美我不敢看, ‘the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look’), doubi (逗比, ‘dopey’), wo yeshi zui le (我也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too’), bige (逼格, ‘big’), lan’ai (懒癌, ‘lazy cancer’), zhi nan ai (直男癌, ‘straight man cancer’) This category of terms is generally used in ridiculing what one sees and hears. Mai mai mai (买买买, ‘buy buy buy’) originated from a mock dialogue created by netizens between the guomin laogong (国民老公, ‘people’s husband’) Wang Sicong (王思聪) and his father Wang Jianlin (王健林): “Wang Sicong: Dad, this one . . . . Wang Jianlin: Buy buy buy!” The tyrants who he suannai bu tian gai (喝酸奶不舔盖, ‘drink yogurt without licking the lid’) were once hated, but it was found to be more worthwhile to mock them to cheer oneself up a bit, while also benefiting one’s physical health. Later, the ten-year statement from Alibaba showed that the three most touching words between lovers are no longer wo ai ni (我爱你, ‘I love you’) but mai mai mai (买买买, ‘buy buy buy’), thus we have you qian jiu shi renxing (有钱就是任性, ‘rich and headstrong’)! No matter how the times change, the best plan for resolving the problems of having no house or car and handling your wife’s mother is still mai mai mai (买买买, ‘buy

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buy buy’), thus the hope today is still that badao zongcai ai shang wo (霸道总裁 爱上我, ‘overbearing CEO falls in love with me’). Huamian tai mei wo bu gan kan (画面太美我不敢看, ‘the image is so beautiful that I daren’t look’) was extended by netizens to describe strange and novel things; and if one encounters someone doubi (逗比, ‘dopey’) doing something strange, then netizens can of course use wo yeshi zui le (我也是醉了, ‘I was drunk too’) to express their inability to ridicule them. Whenever you happen to suffer an outbreak of lan ai (懒癌, ‘lazy cancer’) just when you were determined to take care of business, you’ll have to first drink a glass of water, eat a snack, browse Taobao or refresh Weibo. Men who come down with zhi nan ai (直男癌, ‘straight man cancer’) always live within their own worldview, values and aesthetic standards, seeming quite bige (逼格, ‘big’), but actually revealing harsh criticism and suppression of others as well as various other bad impressions through their words and deeds, with a hint of the characteristics of male chauvinism. Yi bai kuai dou bu gei wo (一百块都不给我, ‘won’t even give me a hundred bucks’), wo xianglian liang qian duo (我项链两千多, ‘my necklace is over 2000’), wo gen ni shenme chou shenme yuan (我跟你什么仇什么怨, ‘what hatred, what enmity is there between us’) As the end of the year approached, three heavyweight contenders for the year’s most popular online video emerged, each of which was hilarious. In November 2014, two gay men were involved in a quarrel on the street, and the man in the red cap accused the man in the black clothes of having engaged in relations without providing compensation: “He played with me, and won’t even give me a hundred bucks.” Thereafter, a video entitled “Harbin tough girl performs Chinese kung fu in front of ATM” (哈尔滨女汉子取款机前上演中国功夫) went viral on Weibo: a woman waiting to withdraw money got into a fight with another woman who had been using the ATM as a makeup table for an extended period of time, using Chinese kung fu, and the woman putting on makeup twice shouted wo xianglian liang qian duo (我项链两千多, ‘my necklace is over 2000’). On a public bus in Suzhou, a man eating melon seeds was grabbed by the neck and shoved by another man wearing Western clothing, and the melon seed guy then repeated the phrase wo gen ni shenme chou shenme yuan (我跟你什么仇什么 怨, ‘what hatred, what enmity is there between us’) several dozen times, while blocking the man from exiting the bus. Finally, the man in Western clothing brought up his fists, and the whole world went quiet. This reflects the frequent emergence of unusual psychological events in society, while the social problems to which they are connected should indeed draw our profound consideration.

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He Tingting (何婷婷)

2.3 Film, Television, Arts and Entertainment Man pin de (蛮拼的, ‘making all efforts’), baozheng bu dasi ni (保证不打死你, ‘I promise not to beat you to death’), siao (搞 [笑], ‘smile’), zuo ge anjing de mei nanzi (做个安静的美男子, ‘quietly being a good man’), xiangxiang hai youdian xiao jidong ne (想想还有点小激动呢, ‘I think there’s been a little bit of excitement’), beir shuang (倍儿爽, ‘perfectly cool’), wo dushu shao ni bie pian wo (我读 书少你别骗我, ‘I don’t have much education, so don’t try to fool me’), bu zuosi jiu bu hui si (不作死就不会死, if you don’t go out looking for trouble, it won’t find you’), benpao ba xiongdi (奔跑吧兄弟, ‘Hurry Up, Brother’) The terms in this category are largely associated with film and television arts and entertainment programs. Man pin de (蛮拼的, ‘making all efforts’) first emerged on the hit series White Campus Belle in White and Long Legs (白衣校花与 大长腿) on iQiyi, and was later repeatedly used by Gary Chaw (曹格) on the wellknown parent-child program Where Are We Going, Dad 2 (爸爸去哪儿 2), shining a spotlight on man pin de (蛮拼的, ‘making all efforts’). In the same program, the phrases baobao ni guolai, baba baozheng bu dasi ni (宝宝你过来, 爸爸保证不打 死你, ‘come here, baby, daddy promises not to beat you to death’) used by Francis Ng (吴镇宇) and baba siao (爸爸搞 [笑], ‘daddy smile’) in the words of Huang Duoduo (黄多多) were both rapidly disseminated due to their humorous tone. Zuoge anjing de mei nanzi (做个安静的美男子, ‘quietly being a good man’) stems from the first episode of Season 2 of Surprise (万万没想到), which was the pet phrase hanging in the mouth of Monk Tang played by Jiaoshou Yi Xiaoxing (叫兽易小星), and later became a term of endearment between crosstalk sketch artists. Another line, xiangxiang hai youdian xiao jidong ne (想想还有点小激动呢, ‘I think there’s been a little bit of excitement’), was also found to be hilarious, and was widely disseminated for being beir shuang (倍儿爽, ‘perfectly cool’). Bu zuosi jiu bu hui si (不作死就不会死, if you don’t go out looking for trouble, it won’t find you’) originated from a line in the anime series Mobile Suit Gundam (机 动战士高达): “If you do not resist, you will not die – why do you not understand?” This was later perpetuated and popularized by netizens, and furthermore condensed into the phrase bu zuo bu si (不作不死, ‘no zuo no die’). The celebrity reality show Hurry Up, Brother (奔跑吧兄弟) conveyed the positive energy of actively striving upward in a happy atmosphere, and many situations in the program “pulled the viewers’ gaze from entertainment to the contemplation of life.” Each of the examples in this wide array seized their moment to introduce scene after scene of linguistic revelry for Chinese netizens, while also portraying for us the grassroots diversity of all living things today.

Zheng Ping (郑萍) and Wang Lei (汪磊)

29 The powerful impact of shilian At 2:40 AM on March 8, 2014 (local time in Malaysia), Malaysia Airlines stated that a Boeing 777–200ER aircraft carrying 239 passengers had lost contact with the control center (see Figure 1). The flight number for this aircraft was MH370, and MH370 hangban (MH370 航班, ‘Flight MH370’) thus ascended to the top of the list for the “Monthly Top Ten Trending Words” (月度十大热词) on Baike.com. At the same time, another word swiftly took hold of the media, with a powerful visual and auditory impact on the expectant people, which was – shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’).

1 Loss of contact with shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) 1.1 Did the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) originate with Malaysia Airlines? Shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) is an abbreviation of the phrase shiqu lianxi (失去 联系, ‘lose contact’). During the period in 2014 when shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) frequently appeared in all media outlets, many people naturally believed that it was a neologism arising from the disappearance of MH370. But do the facts bear this out? In reality, as early as March 29, 2011, a netizen on “Baidu Knows” (百度知道) had posed the question: “What does shilian [失联, ‘lose contact’] mean?” The answer by an enthusiastic netizen was presented in a spirit of high amusement: It is when two sweethearts must maintain contact on a daily basis, calling if they cannot see each other, so as not to lose contact (Baidu Knows 2011). On June 8, 2013, one year prior to the Malaysia Airlines flight losing contact, the netizen “dengle22” created an entry for the word shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) on Baidu Baike (百度百科), containing only a trifling four words: “Abbreviation of shiqu lianxi [失 去联系, ‘lose contact’]”; on the same day, another netizen added seven more words: “A common phrase in the Taiwan region” (Baidu Baike 2013). Thereafter, on September 8, 2013, the netizen “Meqing / miao” (メ 轻/描) also created an entry for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) on Haosou Encyclopedia (好搜百科): “An abbreviation of shiqu lianxi [失去联系, ‘lose contact’], shiqu lianluo [失去联络, ‘lose the connection’]. Originally a common phrase in the Taiwan region” (Haosou Encyclopedia 2013). https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-029

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Furthermore, just one day prior to the disappearance of the Malaysia Airlines flight, on March 7, 2014, the netizen “Lao nanren” (老男人) created yet another entry for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) on Sogou Baike (搜狗百科), totaling 12 words: “An abbreviation of shiqu lianxi [失去联系, ‘lose contact’]. A common phrase in the Taiwan region” (Sogou Baike 2014). It is plain to see that the later two entries are nearly identical to the entry on Baidu Baike. Each of the above three encyclopedias supplemented their entries for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) following the Malaysia Airlines accident, and it was no coincidence that each one referred to the flight’s disappearance: It is because of the Malaysia Airlines incident that this word became a neologism in mainland China.

Figure 1: Diagram of the loss of contact with the Malaysia Airlines flight [Image title: Diagram of the loss of contact with Malaysia Airlines passenger flight to Beijing].1

By means of the brief review above, the answer to whether shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) was a neologism originating with the Malaysia Airlines accident in

1 This image stems from a Baidu image search for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) (http://image. baidu.com/i?tn=baiduimage&ct=201326592&lm=-1&cl=2&word=%CA%A7%C1%AA&fr =ala&ori_query=%E5%A4%B1%E8%81%94&ala=0&alatpl=sp&pos=0).

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2014 is self-evident. The simplest reason why people generally believe shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) to be a neologism is that it had previously been rarely seen or used. So in roughly what time period did the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) emerge and begin to see use?

1.2 Searching for the lost shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) A search of the 6th edition of the Contemporary Chinese Dictionary (现代汉语词典), revised in 2012, and the 3rd edition of the Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese (现代汉语规范词典), revised in June 2014, does not reveal any entries for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) in the main text. However, the latter does list an entry for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) under “Supplement (II): Entry on Complex Tones” (补编(二) 复音条目): “To lose contact or connection ▷ feiji ~ [飞机~, ‘to lose contact with an aircraft’]” (Li 2014). Judging from the date, this entry likely has a certain association with the Malaysia Airlines incident. We used the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (中国知网) to conduct a search of the state of use of shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) in texts, respectively completing “full text” and “title” (headline) retrieval for all texts and newspapers, with no restrictions by year. The results are as Figure 2 and 3:

Figure 2: Screenshot of the results of full-text retrieval of shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) on China National Knowledge Infrastructure.2

The false positives caused by character recognition, cross-word segmentation, and other phenomena were manually eliminated, and the results showed that: the earliest available records for the word shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) with

2 Results of full-text retrieval of shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) on China National Knowledge Infrastructure, http://epub.cnki.net/kns/brief/default_result.aspx.

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Zheng Ping (郑萍) and Wang Lei (汪磊)

Figure 3: Screenshot of the results of title retrieval of shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) on China National Knowledge Infrastructure.3

essentially the same meaning as today appeared in full text in 1985, and emerged somewhat later in a headline (title), in 2010.3 In March 1985, an article entitled “Recovery of dead letter becomes a charming tale” (死信复苏成佳话) recounted the story of a letter mailed from the state of Florida in the United States to Anyang County, Henan Province, which was received by the mailman Wang Fusheng (王福生). The article contained the following passage: “Loving mother China, the good masses, and dear brother Fusheng, you visited thousands of households, searching on my behalf for the younger brother with whom I had shilian (失联, ‘lost contact’) 39 years ago, which is truly quite touching. Civilized China can recover a dead letter; the descendants of Emperors Yan and Huang are all born of the same parents” (Wang & Zhao 1985). In this report of less than 600 characters, the word shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) appears twice, and its significance is obviously to lose contact or lose a connection (see Figure 4). The first instance of the word shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) appearing in a headline occurs in a news report dated October 25, 2010, with the title “Family of lost tourist to arrive in Taiwan tomorrow at the earliest” (失联游客家属最快 明日抵台). The full text is a little over 600 characters, and the phrases shiqu lianxi (失去联系, ‘lose contact’) and shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) are both used, appearing a total of 3 times, as in the following passage: “Taiwan Chuangyi Travel Agency stated on the 24th that the identifying information had been

3 Results of title retrieval of shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) on China National Knowledge Infrastructure, http://epub.cnki.net/kns/brief/default_result.aspx.

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Figure 4: Screenshot of article in Outlook Weekly (瞭望周刊), 1985 No. 14.

gathered for the family members of the Mainland tourist who shiqu lianxi (失去 联系, ‘lost contact’), and it is rushing to process the documents for entry to Taiwan; over 40 family members of the shilian (失联, ‘lost’) Mainland tourist and relevant working personnel are expected to arrive in Taiwan on the 26th and 27th” (Ren & Guo 2010). Not uncoincidentally, the content of these articles has many ties to life on the island of Taiwan. The above retrieval results on the China National Knowledge Infrastructure show that, in the period of nearly thirty years between 1985 and 2014, the number of texts in which the word shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) appeared each year presented a gradually rising trend. However, apart from referring to loss of contact between people, the term shilian (失联) was also used to describe disassociation or disruption between things or systems, as in, “Cerebral radiograph displays cohemispheric cerebellar shilian [失联, disassociation]” (Zhang & Fan 2005), “A two-state, non-monotonic shilian [失联, disassociated] system” (Zhou 1995), and “The discourse of Xunzi thought on shilian [失联, disassociation]” (Liu Youming 2006). It also had the meaning of loss of affiliation or links between people and goods, or people and groups or organizations, as in the passages, “The brand seems to have shilian [失联, ‘lost its link’] with consumers” (Editorial Board of Commonwealth Magazine 2007), “shilian [失联, ‘de-affiliated’] Party and Youth League members and progressive forces” (Liu Min 1990), and so on.

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Zheng Ping (郑萍) and Wang Lei (汪磊)

2 The powerful impact of shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) 2.1 The explosive dissemination of shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) From observations of the above retrieval results on the China National Knowledge Infrastructure, the number of articles in which the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) appeared steeply rose from 43 in 2013 to nearly 2500 texts in 2014, an increase of over 50-fold (see Figure 2); the number of articles in which the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) appeared in the title abruptly increased from 3 texts in 2013 to 518, an increase of over 170-fold (see Figure 5). This explosive dissemination and popularization of the term is inarguably linked to the Mahang shijian (马航事件, ‘Malaysia Airlines accident’): beginning on March 8, 2014, the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) flooded every media outlet, and its frequency of use exhibited a sharp uptick. With respect to this point, we can also draw on the retrieval results on the Baidu Index (百度指数) as supporting evidence. The Baidu Index is a data sharing platform based on the behavioral data of the massive numbers of netizens on Baidu: herein, the “Search Index” (搜索指数) uses the number of netizen searches on Baidu as the data foundation and key words as the statistical objects to scientifically analyze and compute the weighted sum of the search frequency for various key words in Baidu webpage searches; meanwhile, the “Media Index” (媒体指数) is the number of news stories from various major Internet media reports included on the Baidu News channel through key word association, adopting statistical criteria for news headlines containing key words.4 Both Indexes can reflect the state of use of a given term in a certain period of time. The start date for retrieval on the Baidu Index was 2011, and we respectively conducted a cross-year retrieval from January 1, 2011, to December 31, 2014, as well as a retrieval for the current year, from January 1, 2014, to December 31, 2014. The overall trend curve shows that, between January 1 and March 7, 2014, the Search Index for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) was zero, but a sharp increase was seen in both the Search Index and the Media Index on March 8, 2014: herein, the Search Index rose steeply to 10,652, reaching the peak index value of 35,972 for the full year on March 10, 2014; and between March 9 and March 15, 2014, the

4 See the Baidu Index product description at http://index.baidu.com/Helper/?tpl=help& word=%CA%A7%C1%AA.

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Figure 5: Annual index retrieval results for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’).5

weekly average value was 24,037, similarly marking the peak value for the entire year (see Figure 5). In terms of the “News Headline” (新闻头条) retrieval results, at Point A (see the circle in Figure 6), the news headline for March 8, 2014, was “Exclusive:

Figure 6: Retrieval results for annual news headline search index for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’).6

5 Sourced from the Baidu Index, synthesized on the basis of the annual retrieval results for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) in 2014, http://index.baidu.com/?tpl=trend&type=0&area= 0&time=20140101%7C20141231&word=%CA%A7%C1%AA. 6 Sourced from the Baidu Index, synthesized on the basis of the annual retrieval results for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) in 2014, http://index.baidu.com/?tpl=trend&type=0&area= 0&time=20140101%7C20141231&word=%CA%A7%C1%AA.

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Direct look at incident of Malaysia Airlines passenger flight shilian [失联, ‘losing contact’]” (独家：直击马航客机失联事件), marking the use of the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), which steadily climbed thereafter. In the year 2014, the Search Index and Media Index for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) had two other small peaks, on July 24, 2014, and December 28, 2014: the respective news headlines on those dates were “Foreign media: Air Algerie shilian (失联, ‘loses contact’), approximately 110 passengers on board flight” (外媒: 阿尔及利 亚航空失联 航班上约载 110 名乘客) and “AirAsia: Already launching search operation for incident of passenger plane shilian [失联, ‘losing contact’]” (亚洲航 空: 已就客机失联事件展开搜救行动) (see Figure 6). The term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) appears in both texts, seemingly indicating that shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) has become the exclusive term for reports on aviation accidents.

2.2 Generalization and lexicalization of shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) If shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) was still a transient “word” with a low and unstable frequency of use prior to March 8, 2014, then the disappearance of the Malaysia Airlines flight finally made it familiar to the world. In the earliest reports on the Malaysia Airlines accident, some used the terms zhuihui (坠毁, ‘crash’) or jiechi (刼持, ‘hijacking’), while others used the terms baozha (爆炸, ‘explosion’) or shizong (失踪, ‘missing’): each of these many formulations evoked the apprehensions, anxieties, worries, sorrow, suffering, fear and responsibility of parties on all sides, but the results of the massive search by air and naval forces from various countries indicated that there was no conclusive evidence that could support any one of the above interpretations. At this time, the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), which related the facts without addressing the cause, and described the status without adverting to a conclusion, seemed to be more “objective” and “neutral,” while also allowing people to hold on to hope, since merely having “lost contact” could naturally be temporary, thus the term was more acceptable to all sides. Shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) thus came into common use, becoming a trending word worthy of the name. A number of incidents of popular interest in social life involving “loss of contact,” “loss of connection” or “disappearance” can all be encapsulated using the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), such as individuals of different backgrounds shizong (失踪, ‘going missing’), the geli (隔离, ‘separation’) or waitao (外逃, ‘fleeing abroad’) of corrupt individuals of every class and description, the shouya (收押, ‘detention’) of criminal suspects, bosses paolu (跑路, ‘absconding’) or xiaoshi

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(消失, ‘disappearing’), and so on. Shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) rapidly completed the process of generalization, from specialization to common use, and from a singular designation to polysemous designations, leaping to the fore as a newcomer, and superseding the terms shizong (失踪, ‘missing’) and xiaoshi (消失, ‘disappearance’), which were close to its meaning (see Figure 7).

Figure 7: Average value of the three terms shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), shizong (失踪, ‘missing’) and xiaoshi (消失, ‘disappearance’) in the search index by year.7

From the year-by-year retrieval results, we found that, in the period from 2011 to 2013, the Search Index for the word shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) was zero, while shizong (失踪, ‘missing’) increased year over year, and xiaoshi (消失, ‘disappearance’) remained relatively stable; however, in 2014, although shizong (失踪, ‘missing’) and xiaoshi (消失, ‘disappearance’) also experienced growth of approximately 20%, shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) soared from 0 to 1303 (see Table 1). During the course of this geyser-like use, shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) also achieved a magnificent transformation into a phrasal word: During the course of use, out of the needs of the principle of linguistic economy, people extracted the core morphemes shi (失, ‘lose’) and lian (联, ‘contact’)

7 Retrieval for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), shizong (失踪, ‘missing’) and xiaoshi (消失, ‘disappearance’) by year on the Baidu Index, http://index.baidu.com/?tpl=trend&type=0&area= 0&time=20140101%7C20141231&word=%CA%A7%C1%AA%2C%CA%A7%D7%D9%2C%CF% FB%CA%A7.

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Table 1: Average value of the three terms shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), shizong (失踪, ‘missing’) and xiaoshi (消失, ‘disappearance’) in the cross-year search index.8 















shizong (失踪, ‘missing’)









xiaoshi (消失, ‘disappearance’)









Key Word shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’)

shared by the two verb-object phrases shiqu lianxi (失去联系, ‘lose contact’) and shiqu lianluo (失去联络, ‘lose the connection’), forming the abbreviation shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), which had a clear significance and furthermore similarly formed a verb-object structure, thus shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) experienced a process of parallelism with shiqu lianxi (失去联系, ‘lose contact’) and shiqu lianluo (失去联络, ‘lose the connection’). The Malaysia Airlines accident finally activated it fully, and within a short period of time marked by a high frequency of use, its status as a ci (词, ‘word’) was accepted in the contemporary Chinese language, and it finally stabilized and completed the process of lexicalization, for which its inclusion in the Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese (现代汉语规范 词典) offers clear proof. If the Malaysia Airlines accident was the direct impetus for the shift of the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) from qian (潜, ‘dormancy’) to xian (显, ‘manifestation’) and its acceptance by the world, then the contemporary Information Age was a deciding factor in the widespread acceptance of the term shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’) and its application to various domains of social life: Within the practical environment of ubiquitous mobile Internet and a device in every person’s hand, the preexisting terms shizong (失踪, ‘missing’), xiaoshi (消失, ‘disappearance’), zonji quanwu (踪迹全无, ‘without a trace’), and so on generally all first manifest as the inability to promptly make contact with the other party, and shilian (失联, ‘losing contact’) is merely one indicator prior to receiving the final news, as in the case of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370!

8 Retrieval for shilian (失联, ‘lose contact’), shizong (失踪, ‘missing’) and xiaoshi (消失, ‘disappearance’) by year on the Baidu Index, http://index.baidu.com/?tpl=trend&type=0&area= 0&time=20140101%7C20141231&word=%CA%A7%C1%AA%2C%CA%A7%D7%D9%2C%CF% FB%CA%A7.

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References Baidu Knows (百度知道). 2011. What does shilian [失联, ‘lose contact’] mean (失联是什么意思), http://zhidao.baidu.com/question/244895785.html. Baidu Baike (百度百科) . 2013. Historical versions of ‘shilian’ [失联, ‘lose contact’] (“失联”历 史版本), http://baike.baidu.com/history/43810292. Editorial Board of Commonwealth Magazine (《天下杂志》编辑部). 2007. Contact points for sales 2.0 and creativity in manufacturing (行销 2.0 制造创意接触点). Commonwealth Magazine (天下杂志), Overall No. 370. Haosou Encyclopedia (好搜百科) (360 Encyclopedia / 360 百科). 2013. Historical versions of ‘shilian’ [失联, ‘lose contact’] (“失联”历史版本), http://baike.haosou.com/doc/history/ id/1891499. Li, Xingjian (李行健) (ed.). 2014. Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese (现代汉语规范词典), Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press and Language & Culture Press, Jun. 2014: 1794. Liu, Min (刘敏). 1990. The national salvation societies of Fuzhou intellectual circles during the War of Resistance (抗战中的福州文化界救亡协会). Theoretical Studies Monthly (理论学习 月刊), No. 2. Liu, Youming (刘又铭). 2006. Xunzi’s philosophical paradigm and its transformation in later periods (荀子的哲学典范及其在后代的变迁转移). Journal of Chinese Studies (汉学研究集刊), No. 3. Ren, Qinqin (任沁沁) & Guo, Likun (郭丽琨). 2010. Family of lost tourist to arrive in Taiwan tomorrow at the earliest (失联游客家属最快明日抵台). Xinhua Daily Telegraph (新华每日 电讯), Oct. 25, 2010. Sogou Baike (搜狗百科). 2014. Historical versions of ‘shilian’ [失联, ‘lose contact’] (“失联”历 史版本), http://baike.sogou.com/h66889574.htm?sp=Sprev♠l85524832. Wang, Yonglan (王永兰) & Zhao, Jinlu (赵金炉). 1985. Recovery of dead letter becomes a charming tale (死信复苏成佳话). Outlook Weekly (瞭望周刊), No. 14. Zhang, Xingchu (张幸初) & Fan, Yuming (樊裕明). 2005. Cerebral radiograph displays cohemispheric cerebellar shilian [失联, disassociation] (脑造影呈现同侧小脑失联). Journal of Nuclear Medicine (核子医学杂志), No. 3. Zhou, Suming(周苏明) . 1995. Study of the reliability of a two-state, non-monotonic shilian [失联, disassociated] system (两状态非单调失联系统可靠度研究). Electronic Product Reliability and Environmental Testing (电子产品可靠性与环境试验), No. 4.

Sheng Lin (盛 林)

30 Words that have experienced “expressional” changes in recent years As society changes and develops, words also experience certain changes. Some are presented as changes in mood and tone, while some are presented as changes in rational significance, and still others are a combination of the two. Here, changes in biaoqing (表情, ‘expression’) refer to changes related to a word’s mood or tone, as in the case of jiaoshou (教授, ‘professor’), gandie (干爹, ‘foster father’), Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’), wenqing (文青, ‘literary youth / hipster’), tongzhi (同志, ‘comrade’), xiaojie (小姐, ‘miss’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’), and so on. Below, the reasons behind changes to the emotional tone of a word are primarily analyzed from five perspectives.

1 In association with influential news events 1.1 (Zhongguo) dama ([中国]大妈, ‘[Chinese] dama’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’), and gandie (干爹, ‘foster father’) For a long period of time, dama (大妈, ‘aunt / dama’) was a kinship term, and was also used in the North China region as an honorific for middle-aged and elderly women. In April 2013, Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’) became famous overnight when a frenzy for buying gold resulted in fluctuations in the global price of gold, and The Wall Street Journal even specially coined the English word “dama” to refer to Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’). Thereafter, it became even more of a household word due to the international rush to purchase real estate and incidents of dancing in public squares. Today, dama (大妈, ‘dama’) is more of a mocking title, referring to rich and idle middle-aged and elderly women who are fond of money management and fitness, and containing a derogatory significance, to a greater or lesser extent. Tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) is familiar to Chinese people: the term is associated with the slogan “Strike down the local tyrants, and distribute the farmland” (打土豪, 分田地) from the era of land reforms and revolution. It refers to evildoers who rely on wealth and power to exert dominance over their home village, and is often combined with lieshen (劣绅, ‘evil gentry’) to form the term tuhao lieshen (土豪劣绅, ‘local tyrants and evil gentry’), figures who were guilty of the most heinous crimes in the countryside. In that era, tuhao (土豪, ‘local https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-030

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tyrant’) was a derogatory term, embodying a mood and tone of hatred and antagonism. The sense of tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) which has emerged online in recent years often refers to rich people who throw their weight around, are fond of flaunting their wealth, and lack taste. It is generally used in mockery, and carries a sense of disdain, but at times it also expresses a slight degree of envy for their wealth and power, thus giving rise to the phrase tuhao, women zuo pengyou ba (土豪, 我们做朋友吧, ‘local tyrant, let’s be friends’), elevating its mood and tone to some extent. The term is sometimes written in simplified form as the single character hao (壕). (Zhongguo) dama ([中国]大妈, ‘[Chinese] dama’) and tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) not only joined the list of Internet slang in 2013, but even attracted the esteemed attention of the lofty Oxford English Dictionary. Gandie (干爹, ‘foster father’) was originally also a common kinship term, referring to “an honorary father with no blood ties,” also called yifu (义父, ‘adoptive father’). However, following a series of sex scandals between female celebrities and their foster fathers, particularly the shocking Guo Meimei (郭美美) incident, the term gandie (干爹, ‘foster father’) experienced a transformation, and is now often used to refer to wealthy and powerful individuals who become the patrons of other figures (usually young and beautiful women) through transactions involving money (power) and sex, with extremely pejorative connotations.

1.2 Jiaoshou (教授, ‘professor’), gongzhi (公知, ‘public intellectual’), and zhuanjia (专家, ‘expert’) The term jiaoshou (教授, ‘professor’) originally represented the highest rank of instructor titles at institutions of higher education, as a highly respectful honorific, and the group to which it referred were elite figures in society of preeminent learning, and an abundant sense of justice and responsibility. However, due to the emergence of a small number of morally corrupt individuals among the ranks of university instructors in recent years, people began referring to such individuals as jiaoshou (教兽, ‘professor beast’), referring to instructors of corrupted virtue who are no better than animals; the term is also written as jiaoshou (叫兽, ‘barking beast’), with an unquestionably derogatory significance. The terms jiaoshou (教兽, ‘professor beast’) and jiaoshou (叫兽, ‘barking beast’) have greatly detracted from the respectful tone of the word jiaoshou (教授, ‘professor’). Gongzhi (公知, ‘public intellectual’) is an abbreviation of the phrase gonggong zhishi fenzi (公共知识分子, ‘public intellectual’), which refers to scholars with a specialized academic background who actively participate in the discussion of

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public affairs to guide public opinion. This was initially a commendatory term, referring to outstanding intellectuals with a critical mind and a sense of social responsibility. Later, following the harmful social impact arising from the involvement of public intellectuals in certain public incidents, gongzhi (公知, ‘public intellectual’) gradually began to take on a derogatory meaning, referring to sanctimonious individuals of little competence who ubiquitously and chaotically comment on public affairs; the term is generally applied to Internet celebrities. The term zhuanjia (专家, ‘expert’) originally referred to an individual of relatively advanced attainments in a certain area, and was an honorific. Today, like jiaoshou (教授, ‘professor’) and gongzhi (公知, ‘public intellectual’), the mood and tone of the word zhuanjia (专家, ‘expert’) have gradually changed, and in certain contexts (such as in Internet language), it can be used as a pejorative, referring to individuals who exploit their status to intimidate others and throw their weight around while actually being of low competence, or who deliberately dupe others on behalf of the interests of a certain organization. This is a satirical usage, generally written as zhuanjia (砖家, ‘brick expert’). In jokes nowadays, the terms jiaoshou (教授, ‘professor’), gongzhi (公知, ‘public intellectual’) and zhuanjia (专家, ‘expert’) can all serve as insults, thus giving rise to lines like, “If you’re a professor, then your whole family is all professors.” It can be said that these words have experienced slow erosion over the last few years.

1.3 -men (-门, ‘-gate’) Men (门, ‘gate’) was originally a neutral word referring to an object, but since the political scandal of the Shuimen shijian (水门事件, ‘Watergate incident’) involving former United States President Nixon, the usage of men (门, ‘gate’) began to experience changes. People imitated the formulation of Shuimen (水门, ‘Watergate’) in coining a series of words such as Yilang men (伊朗门, ‘Iran-gate’), qingbao men (情报门, ‘intelligence-gate’), nüeqiu men (虐囚门, ‘prisoner abusegate’), lalian men (拉链门, ‘zippergate’), dianhua men (电话门, ‘telephone-gate’), yanzhao men (艳照门, ‘sexy photo-gate’), and so on. Terms formulated by applying the quasi-suffix men (门, ‘gate’) are used to express any1 incident which can attract widespread public attention and interest (scandal or news), and men (门, ‘gate’) clearly has a derogatory significance.

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1.4 Renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’) Renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’) originally signified “indulging one’s temper, without constraint,” representing a type of disposition or behavior which were not particularly welcome, as a pejorative term, though the derogatory meaning was not very pronounced. However, in recent years, the use of the word renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’) has experienced a transformation in Internet language, and its expressional tone has diverged in two widely different directions, with one emphasizing the derogatory aspect, and the other shifting toward a commendatory sense. For instance, two celebrated remarks during the Two Sessions of 2015 represented the two usages: In youquan bu neng renxing (有权不能任性, ‘Those with power cannot be headstrong’), renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’) refers to engaging in foolish and unscrupulous conduct, with a relatively pronounced derogatory significance; in fanfu jiushi yao renxing (反腐就是要任性, ‘In anti-corruption, one must be headstrong’), renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’) signifies adhering to the original plan to the end, and bears a positive significance. By means of the intensive reporting on news from the Two Sessions, these two new usages were swiftly popularized.

2 In association with emerging special social groups 2.1 Di san zhe (第三者, ‘third party’) / xiaosan (小三, ‘little three’), lao’er (老二, ‘number two’) / xiao’er (zi) (小二[子], ‘little two’) Di san zhe (第三者, ‘third party’) originally referred in general to a third party apart from the two concerned parties involved in a particular matter, and was a neutral word. It later began to be used to specifically refer to “a party who intrudes in another family, engaging in sexual relations with either the husband or wife”; this is a dishonorable role, and the word di sanzhe (第三者, ‘third party’) naturally now has a fairly pronounced derogatory significance. When di sanzhe (第三者, ‘third party’) is mentioned nowadays, people will first tend to think of the latter usage. Xiaosan (小三, ‘little three’) was originally a term of endearment for the third child in the family, but now it is largely used in colloquial speech as an abbreviated usage of di sanzhe (第三者, ‘third party’), and is entirely pejorative. The two terms lao’er (老二, ‘number two’) and xiao’er (zi) (小二[子], ‘little two’) originally both generally referred to persons or things ranked in second

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place, and xiao’er (zi) (小二[子], ‘little two’) also had relatively pronounced affectionate overtones. Now they both have new usages: lao’er (老二, ‘number two’) is used to refer to the ernai (二奶, ‘mistress’) (as juxtaposed with the wife, laoda [老大, ‘boss’]); xiao’er (zi) (小二[子], ‘little two’) is used to refer to illegitimate children (as compared to the children born in wedlock, as the former are often of a younger age than the children of the marriage). The expressional tone of the new usages for these two terms is relatively complex, containing a mocking, ambivalent and pejorative significance.

2.2 Xiaomi (小秘, ‘little secretary’) (xiaomi [小蜜, ‘little honey’]), xiaojie (小姐, ‘miss / prostitute’) Xiaomi (小秘, ‘little secretary’) (xiaomi [小蜜, ‘little honey’]) originally referred to a young secretary, and was a neutral term. Due to the fact that some young and pretty female secretaries engage in dubious sexual relationships with their male superiors, the term now often refers to a young woman acting as companion to a male superior and engaging in a questionable sexual relationship with a superior, with a derogatory significance. Xiaojie (小姐, ‘miss / prostitute’) was originally an honorific for a young woman, but later came to specifically refer to a young woman engaged in sexual services. Through the effect of association, even when used as an honorific, this term can easily lead to misunderstandings, giving rise to unpleasantness, thus people avoid using the title xiaojie (小姐, ‘miss’) in public settings as far as possible, particularly in places of entertainment, hotels and restaurants where misunderstandings can easily arise; use of xiaojie (小姐, ‘miss’) as an honorific is reserved only for extremely formal social occasions.

2.3 Qingren (情人, ‘lover’), hongyan (红颜, ‘beautiful woman’) / lanyan (蓝颜, ‘male confidant’) It can be said that qingren (情人, ‘lover’) has experienced many twists and turns with respect to changes in its expressional tone. Initially, qingren (情人, ‘lover’) generally referred to any people in love, as in the phrase qingren yanli chu xishi (情人眼里出西施, ‘beauty is in a lover’s eye’), with a commendatory significance. In the 1980s and 90s, following the tide of hunyin jiefang (婚姻解放, ‘marital liberation’) and xing jiefang (性解放, ‘sexual liberation’), a host of extramarital affairs began appearing in society, and qingren (情人, ‘lover’) was used to specifically refer to the party outside the marital relationship engaging in a sexual

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affair. This usage can be seen in the phrase dixia qingren (地下情人, ‘secret lover’), which carries a derogatory significance. However, in recent years, in the wake of the popularization of Qingrenjie (情人节, ‘Valentine’s Day’) and a more profound understanding of the Western Valentine’s Day, the word qingren (情人, ‘lover’) is once again experiencing a changing trend, reverting to the significance of all men and women in love, wherein qingren (情人, ‘lover’) signifies qinglü (情侣, ‘sweetheart’). In the long history of the Chinese civilization, originally only the word hongyan (红颜, ‘beautiful woman’) existed, referring to a beautiful woman, but often carrying a derogatory significance, as in the phrases hongyan boming (红颜薄命, ‘beautiful women suffer an unhappy fate’) and hongyan huoshui (红颜祸水, ‘beauty is the root of calamity’). In recent years, lanyan (蓝颜, ‘male confidant’) was coined in imitation of hongyan (红颜, ‘beautiful woman’), and in parallel with hongyan zhiji (红颜知己, ‘female soulmate’), the phrase lanyan zhiji (蓝颜知己, ‘male soulmate’) emerged. The latter is generally used to refer to a woman’s close male friend, and can be either commendatory or derogatory, varying depending on the specific circumstances and different users.

2.4 Ji (鸡, ‘chicken’) / ya (鸭, ‘duck’) We are quite familiar with ji (鸡, ‘chicken’) and ya (鸭, ‘duck’), which are neutral words referring to two types of domestic poultry. Later, due to homophony, ji (鸡, ‘chicken’) became a substitute term for ji(nü) (妓[女], ‘prostitute’), while the word ya (鸭, ‘duck’), which is associated with ji (鸡, ‘chicken’), was used as a substitute term for nanji (男妓, ‘male prostitute’). These usages of ji (鸡, ‘chicken’) and ya (鸭, ‘duck’) are entirely pejorative.

3 In association with emerging social phenomena 3.1 Lüse (绿色, ‘green’) and shanzhai (山寨, ‘knockoff’) Lüse (绿色, ‘green’) and shanzhai (山寨, ‘knockoff’) were both formerly characterized as neutral words. Lüse (绿色, ‘green’) originally referred to a color, but in the era of valuing environmental protection, lüse (绿色, ‘green’), which represents life and peace, has become a synonym for ecofriendly, and it is often used as an adjectival modifier, as in the phrases lüse geming (绿色革命, ‘green revolution’), lüse

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chanpin (绿色产品, ‘green product’), lüse sheji (绿色设计, ‘green design’), lüse jishu (绿色技术, ‘green technology’), lüse chanye (绿色产业, ‘green industry’), lüse xiaofei (绿色消费, ‘green consumption’), and so on; lüse (绿色, ‘green’) is unquestionably a commendatory term. Shanzhai (山寨, ‘mountain stronghold / knockoff’) originally referred to a mountain camp occupied by old-time forest bandits, and later came to refer to mountain villages. However, as pirating and counterfeiting have grown prevalent over the last few years, shanzhai (山寨, ‘knockoff’) has taken on the new meanings of “counterfeit, inauthentic, fake, grassroots,” and so on, with a clear derogatory significance. It is often used as an adjectival modifier, as in the phrases shanzhai gongchang (山寨工厂, ‘knockoff factory’), shanzhai huo (山寨 货, ‘knockoff goods’), shanzhai ji (山寨机, ‘knockoff devices’), shanzhai chunwan (山寨春晚, ‘grassroots Spring Festival Gala’), shanzhai niaochao (山寨鸟巢, ‘knockoff Bird’s Nest’), shanzhai mingpai (山寨名牌, ‘knockoff brand’), shanzhai baobao (山寨包包, ‘knockoff bags’), and so on. The new usages of shanzhai (山寨, ‘knockoff’) first originated due to the small IT industry workshops in Guangdong, which swiftly pirated and copied mobile phones, video game players, and other devices en masse: their products were referred to as shanzhai ji (山寨机, ‘knockoff devices’), and shanzhai (山寨, ‘knockoff’) later came to be applied in various areas.

3.2 Chao (炒, ‘fry’), zhai (宅, ‘home’), niu (牛, ‘cow / cool’) Chao (炒, ‘fry’) is a cooking method, and a neutral word. This later gave rise to the significance of chaozuo (炒作, ‘hype, speculate’), which refers on the one hand to “repetitive, exaggerated promotion of people or things to achieve a certain objective,” as in chao mingxing (炒歌星, ‘hype a singer’), chao xinwen (炒新 闻, ‘hype the news’), or hyping up a certain event; and on the other hand, it refers to “frequent buying and selling to turn a profit,” as in chao gupiao (炒股 票, ‘speculate on stocks’), chao fangzi (炒房子, ‘speculate on houses’), and chao dipi (炒地皮, ‘speculate on land for building’). Since both of these behaviors arise from a certain kind of private interest, chao (炒, ‘fry’) therefore carries a derogatory meaning, particularly in its first significance. Zhai (宅, ‘home’) refers to a house; it is a noun, and a neutral word. Nowadays, it has taken on the character of an adjective arising from new usages in Internet terminology, as in zhainan (宅男, ‘nerd’), zhainü (宅女, ‘girl nerd’), and ta hen zhai (他很宅, ‘he’s a real homebody’), referring to “an individual who likes to stay at home when not working, and does not like outdoor activities or social interaction.” It can also be used as a verb, as in zhai zai jiali

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(宅在家里, ‘stay at home’). It has a slightly derogatory meaning, and carries a sense of self-deprecation when applied to oneself. Niu (牛, ‘cow’) is a familiar type of livestock, a noun and a neutral word. The existence of the niushi (牛市, ‘bull market’) on the stock market gave rise to the usage of niu (牛, ‘cow / cool’) as an adjective, as in hen niu (很牛, ‘really cool’) or tai niu le (太牛了, ‘too cool’); this is a highly commendatory term with the significance of qiang (强, ‘awesome’), which is often used in colloquial speech.

3.3 Xiu (秀, ‘excellent / show’) and hei (黑, ‘black / hack’) Xiu (秀, ‘excellent / show’) originated as a transliteration of the English word “show,” with the significance of “performance, exhibition”; it was initially a neutral word, as in shizhuang xiu (时装秀, ‘fashion show’), zhenren xiu (真人秀, ‘reality show’), and so on. However, it later took on the significance of “flaunting,” as in xiu en’ai (秀恩爱, ‘show off love’), ai xiu (爱秀, ‘love show’), which have a derogatory meaning. Hei (黑, ‘black’) was originally the most common color, but since the arrival of the heike (黑客, ‘hacker’), hei (黑, ‘black / hack’) can be used as a verb, referring on the one hand to “using illegal means to intrude into or attack another person’s computer system,” as in hei le zhege wangzhan (黑了这个网站, ‘hacked this website’); and referring on the other hand to “using speech to slander another person’s reputation,” as in ta tebie xihuan hei bieren (他特别喜欢黑别人, ‘he really likes to smear other people’). Both of these meanings are derogatory.

4 In association with changes to social values 4.1 Tongzhi (同志, ‘comrade’) and shifu (师傅, ‘master’) For a very long period of time, tongzhi (同志, ‘comrade’) and shifu (师傅, ‘master’) were both honorific titles. Tongzhi (同志, ‘comrade’) originally referred to “an individual with shared ideals struggling for the cause, particularly an individual in the same political party.” It was a lofty title, and people were thrilled to be able to be called tongzhi (同志, ‘comrade’) during the period of the great revolution. After the founding of New China, tongzhi (同志, ‘comrade’) became a common address between individuals, as in Zhang tongzhi (张同志, ‘Comrade Zhang’), xiao Li

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tongzhi (小李同志, ‘little Comrade Li’), and so on. In the last few years, in the wake of changes to social life, this title with its strong political overtones is generally no longer used as a common address between individuals. In recent years, tongzhi (同志, ‘comrade’) has been used to refer to gay people; because identification with gay people in Chinese society is not high at present, this meaning of tongzhi (同志, ‘comrade’) is derogatory. This has consequently had more or less of an impact on the use of tongzhi (同志, ‘comrade’) as a common address between individuals, and it has become a title which people avoid as much as possible. Shifu (师傅, ‘master’) previously referred to a person who passed down their skills, and was often seen in industrial and commercial circles. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, working people held a dominant position, and shifu (师傅, ‘master’) became an honorific, socialized term widely applied in every field. However, nowadays, the social classes in China have experienced a significance transformation, and shifu (师傅, ‘master’) is now limited to an address for manual laborers, and is no longer well-received as an honorific for non-manual workers.

4.2 Xiaozi (小资, ‘petty bourgeoisie’) and wenqing (文青, ‘literary youth / hipster’) Xiaozi (小资, ‘petty bourgeoisie’) is an abbreviation of xiao zichan jieji (小资产 阶级, ‘petty bourgeoisie’). In the 1950s to 70s, the xiaozi (小资, ‘petty bourgeoisie’) were an enemy class, xiaozi qingdiao (小资情调, ‘petty bourgeoisie taste’) was a lifestyle subjected to reforms, and the word xiaozi (小资, ‘petty bourgeoisie’) had very strong derogatory overtones. However, in the 1990s, people began placing an emphasis on quality of life, and xiaozi qingdiao (小资情调, ‘petty bourgeoisie taste’) became a lifestyle esteemed by the burgeoning middle class, while xiaozi (小资, ‘petty bourgeoisie’) was transformed into a commendatory term. Wenqing (文青, ‘literary youth / hipster’) is an abbreviation of wenxue qingnian (文学青年, ‘literary youth’), referring to young people with a passion for literature and art. In the 1980s and 90s, the literary youth referred to a group of idealistic, ambitious and talented young people, and was a commendatory term. However, in the wake of the great tides of the market economy and the Internet economy, the literary youth or “hipsters” have been marginalized, becoming “impractical, sentimental, studiously aloof and even affectedly unconventional individuals”; the label wenqing (文青, ‘literary youth / hipster’) carries a certain derogatory meaning, with a more pronounced mocking and satirical significance.

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In recent years, wenqing (文青, ‘literary youth / hipster’) once again refers to wenyi qingnian (文艺青年, ‘literary and artistic youth’), often juxtaposed with putong qingnian (普通青年, ‘ordinary youth’) and erbi qingnian (二逼青年, ‘foolish youth’) for purposes of behavioral comparison, exercising the powers of mockery and ridicule to the utmost. In addition, the behavioral characteristics ku (酷, ‘cool’), chao (潮, ‘trendy’), dai (呆, ‘stupid’), meng (萌, ‘cute’), and so on have developed into a form of social affirmation in the wake of changing social fashions, and these words have all experienced an elevation in mood and tone, making them at times commendatory and at times derogatory.

5 In association with new sociolinguistic styles In recent years, under the influence of Internet language, the sociolinguistic style has increasingly tended toward randomness and humor, manifesting as deliberately and ubiquitously stringing together words – using commendatory words in a derogatory sense, using derogatory words in a commendatory sense, using words in the wrong register, and so on. In the course of time, this has formed habits, giving rise to changes in the expressional tone of words.

5.1 Derogatory use of commendatory words Qipa (奇葩, ‘strange’) originally referred to unusual and beautiful flowers, and was a commendatory word. However, nowadays, it is often used to refer to “strange and unbearable people or things”: for instance, qipa nanyou (奇葩男 友, ‘strange boyfriend’) and qipa zaoyu (奇葩遭遇, ‘strange encounter’) have become genuinely derogatory terms.

5.2 Commendatory use of derogatory words The terms zhuzhu (猪猪, ‘piggie’) and ben (笨, ‘stupid’) were originally insults, but nowadays, they have become terms of endearment used by couples. When referring to people, huo (货, ‘idiot’) originally expressed a derogatory significance, as in chunhuo (蠢货, ‘dunce’) and shahuo (傻货, ‘fool’). Chihuo (吃货, ‘chowhound’) was initially also derogatory, but in the process of its popularization in recent years, its significance has changed: it not only refers to “a person

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who loves to eat,” but simultaneously signifies “a person who understands eating, and has engaged in the study of eating,” encompassing a certain positive significance and an affectionate attitude. Ba (霸, ‘tyrant’) was originally a derogatory word, while di (帝, ‘emperor’) was a neutral word. However, new usages have emerged in recent years: ba (霸, ‘tyrant’) and di (帝, ‘emperor’) now both refer to an outstanding person in a certain area, with a commendatory significance, while also carrying a sense of ridicule, as in mianba (面霸, ‘interview tyrant’), xueba (学霸, ‘scholar-tyrant’), kaoba (考霸, ‘exam tyrant’), and maiba (麦霸, ‘microphone tyrant’), as well as biaoqing di (表情帝, ‘expression emperor’), shuxue di (数学帝, ‘math emperor’), zhenxiang di (真相帝, ‘emperor of facts’), and jieshi di (解释帝, ‘emperor of explanations’). There is a certain distinction between ba (霸, ‘tyrant’) and di (帝, ‘emperor’), in that monosyllabic formulations generally appear before ba (霸, ‘tyrant’), and disyllabic formulations generally appear before di (帝, ‘emperor’).

5.3 Use in the wrong register Use in the wrong register refers to using a word which was originally applicable in Register A in Register B, often exhibiting a sense of ridicule or lightheartedness. Qin (亲, ‘dear’) was originally used as a term of endearment between sweethearts; it was initially appropriated for use between shops and customers on the Taobao website, and later extended further for application in various settings, even appearing in informal wording by certain government departments, reflecting a relaxed and casual language attitude. Ge (哥, ‘elder brother’) and jie (姐, ‘elder sister’) were originally kinship terms, but these terms are often seen in the criminal underworld, with a street-wise air. Compound words formed from ge (哥, ‘elder brother’) and jie (姐, ‘elder sister’) have also appeared in recent years, largely referring to Internet celebrities with certain characteristics, and carrying a mocking significance, such as xili ge (犀利哥, ‘Brother Sharp’), yanjuan ge (烟卷哥, ‘Cigarette Brother’), ditan ge (低碳哥, ‘Low-Carbon Brother’), dayi ge (大衣哥, ‘Coat Brother’), ditie ge (地铁哥, ‘Subway Brother’), fengjie (凤姐, ‘Sister Feng’), and caomao jie (草帽姐, ‘Straw Hat Sister’). Similarly, there are also compound words based on jiejie (姐姐, ‘elder sister’) and meimei (妹妹, ‘younger sister’), such as furong jiejie (芙蓉姐姐, ‘Sister Furong’) and naicha meimei (奶茶妹妹, ‘Sister Milk Tea’), et cetera. The above analysis demonstrates that, among the recent changes to the biaoqing (表情, ‘expression’) of words, xiangxia (向下, ‘downward’) changes represent the majority, while xiangshang (向上, ‘upward’) changes are relatively

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rare: that is, shifts from a commendatory meaning to a derogatory or neutral meaning or from a neutral meaning to a derogatory meaning are relatively common, while changes in the reverse are fairly infrequent; among the words that have experienced “expressional” changes, appellative nouns (including certain quasi-affixes in nominal form) are in the majority, while verbs and adjectives are less common. The “expressional” changes to words are closely associated with social changes, particularly changes in social values: certain influential social events have an impact on people’s value judgments with respect to a certain group or thing, thus influencing the expressional tone of related words.

Part VI Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan

Tin Siu Lam (田小琳), Chun Ka Lai (秦嘉丽), and Lam Oi Ni (林爱妮)

31 Language education in Hong Kong primary and secondary schools Chinese language education in Hong Kong primary and secondary schools is divided into a total of four learning stages: the first stage consists of Years 1–3 in primary school, the second stage consists of Years 4–6 in primary school, the third stage consists of Years 1–3 in secondary school, and the fourth stage consists of Years 4–6 in secondary school. The orientation of Chinese language education is as follows: “The primary tasks of language education are to improve students’ ability to apply language, allowing students to master standard written language, and to fluently and properly speak Cantonese and Putonghua, while simultaneously experiencing the beauty of spoken and written language, cultivating an interest in language studies, developing advanced thinking abilities and good quality of thinking, and attaining aesthetic and moral cultivation and cultural influence, for the purpose of beautification of personal character and the promotion of holistic development. ”1

1 Learning categories in language education Recommended Key Learning Points for Chinese Language in Primary Education (Provisional) (小学中国语文建议学习重点[试用]) (2008) (Curriculum Development Council 2008), Recommended Key Learning Points for Chinese Language in Secondary Education (Provisional) (中学中国语文建议学习重点[试用]) (2007) (Curriculum Development Council 2007), and other documents of the Hong Kong Education Bureau note that the recommended learning content for Chinese language education primarily includes the nine learning categories of “reading, writing, listening, speaking, literature, Chinese culture, moral and affective development, thinking, and independent language learning. ” Chinese language education in Hong Kong regards these nine aspects of learning as the principal tasks. In curriculum design and the

1 Description of the orientation of the field of Chinese language arts education and studies in curriculum development. See the website of the Hong Kong Education Bureau at http://www. edb. gov. hk/cd/chi. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-031

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compiling of teaching materials, in conjunction with rudimentary knowledge in language studies, reading, writing, listening and speaking play a dominant role, while literature, Chinese culture, moral and affective development, thinking, independent language learning, and other learning categories permeate reading, writing, listening and speaking. Descriptions of several aspects are provided below.

1.1 Rudimentary knowledge in language studies “Rudimentary knowledge in language studies” refers to enabling students to master the fundamental knowledge of language learning for each learning stage, with respect to characters, words, sentences, punctuation marks, diction, texts, common reference books, and other categories of knowledge. The Recommended Key Learning Points for Chinese Language in Secondary Education (Provisional) (中学中国语文建议学习重点[试用]) (2007) (Curriculum Development Council 2007), Recommended Key Learning Points for Chinese Language in Primary Education (Provisional) (小学中国语文建议学习重点[试用]) (2008) (Curriculum Development Council 2008), and other documents of the Hong Kong Education Bureau all note that the key learning content in Chinese language education in Hong Kong primarily includes the two principal sections of “rudimentary knowledge in language studies” as well as “reading, writing, listening and speaking,” thus demonstrating its importance.

1.1.1 Characters and words Students must master a basic number of characters and words during the primary school stage, and then continuously accumulate, apply and enrich their vocabulary through reading and writing, to promote learning. The study of words and characters primarily involves the three aspects of the form, pronunciation and meaning of Chinese characters, words, and sentences. With respect to the study of character strokes, character stroke order, and character form, Hong Kong instructors and publishers generally use Lexical Items with English Explanations for Fundamental Chinese Learning in Hong Kong Schools (中英对照香港学校中文学习 基础字词), issued in 2009 by the Chinese Language Education Section of the Curriculum Development Council of the Education Bureau, the Chinese character courseware Path to Mastery of Chinese Characters (点画流形), and the List of Graphemes of Commonly-used Chinese Characters (常用字字形表) (2007 Revised Edition) (Chinese Language Education Section 2007), issued in 2012, as their primary reference materials.

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Lexical Items with English Explanations for Fundamental Chinese Learning in Hong Kong Schools (中英对照香港学校中文学习基础字词), issued in 2009, lists a total of 3171 characters and 9706 words; in order to facilitate use by instructors and parents, the character tables and word tables are divided by learning stage and listed by the number of strokes, including a total of 2169 characters and 4914 words for the first learning stage (Years 1–3 in primary school), and a total of 1002 characters and 4792 words for the second learning stage (Years 4–6 in primary school). Lexical Items with English Explanations for Fundamental Chinese Learning in Hong Kong Schools (中英对照香港学校中文学习基础字词) also includes six supplemental tables for four-character expressions, polysyllabic idioms, classical expressions, proper nouns and technical terms, transliterations of foreign words, and characters used in personal names and place names, providing the simplified and traditional character forms, as well as the Cantonese and Putonghua pronunciation information. In order to support the development of international Chinese language learning, and attend to the needs of local non-Chinese-speaking students who are relatively fluent in English, simple English explanations are included for the characters and words, providing transitional assistance and references for non-Chinese-speaking students in the initial stages of learning the Chinese language, to aid them in learning basic characters and words. As for its technique for addressing variant character forms, the book’s section on layout styles notes “variant characters with completely identical pronunciation, meaning and usage such as xian [線 / 綫、 线 / 线, ‘line’], and lists the character forms side by side. ” Instructors, parents and students can use the electronic version of the book via the website. One need only type in a search for a single character online, and the website can display the radicals, total number of strokes, Cantonese and Putonghua pronunciation and phoneticization, and traditional and simplified character forms for the given character in real time, paired with the words, fourcharacter expressions, and polysyllabic idioms in which the character appears in the first and second learning stages. To facilitate users’ mastery of the character stroke order and understanding of the beauty of Chinese characters, the website also provides grid lines and real-time animations. With respect to learning words, apart from recognizing different parts of speech, the first learning stage primarily teaches students to understand antonyms, synonyms, near synonyms, and polysemes, as well as lexical differences between spoken and written language. The second learning stage primarily teaches students to understand word collocation as well as the commendatory and derogatory connotations of words. The third and fourth learning stages primarily teach students to “understand the emotional connotations of words” and “understand the characteristics of classical Chinese vocabulary. ”

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1.1.2 Punctuation marks The first learning stage primarily teaches students the common usages of the period, comma, question mark, exclamation mark, enumeration comma, ellipsis, guillemets, and proper name mark, as well as recognizing the use of the colon and quotation marks in quoting speech. The second learning stage primarily teaches students to master the use of the colon, brackets, semicolon, and dash. Apart from consolidating the 13 common punctuation markets studied in the first and second learning stages, the third and fourth learning stages also instruct students in the use of the emphasis mark, hyphen, and interpunct.

1.1.3 Diction With respect to diction, the first and second learning stages primarily teach students to recognize the effects of diction in expression. The third and fourth learning stages instruct students in recognizing the effects of diction in expression and understanding common rhetorical devices.

1.1.4 Texts The first and second learning stages primarily teach students to understand the characteristics of different writing styles (such as narration, description, lyricism, exposition, and discussion), as well as the functions and scope of application of practical writing styles (such as letters, notes, diaries, weekly journals, notices, reports, manuals, advertisements, posters, flyers, slogans, and bulletins). The third and fourth learning stages primarily teach students to understand the functions and characteristics of practical writing styles, the characteristics of poetry, prose, fiction, drama, and other literary genres, and masterpieces by famous Chinese and foreign authors of classical and modern times. With respect to the selection of materials, primary education chiefly focuses on a selection of classical poetry and prose, generally referring to the work Accumulation and Fascination: Selected Poetry and Prose Materials for Oral Reading in Primary Education (Revised) (积累与感兴: 小学古诗文诵读材料选编[修订]), published in 2010. This work is divided into two volumes, each containing 100 classical poems and 50 classical prose pieces. The supporting materials for the secondary school Chinese language curriculum include the four sets of study reference materials Reference Texts for Chinese Language Studies (For Provisional Use in Junior Secondary Stage) (中国语文学习参考篇章[初中阶段试用]) (up to September 2001), Reference

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Texts for Chinese Language Studies (For Provisional Use in Senior Secondary Stage) (中国语文学习参考篇章[高中阶段试用]) (revised December 2012), Learning and Appreciation: Selected Poetry and Prose Materials for Oral Reading in Secondary Education (积学与涵泳 – 中学古诗文诵读材料选编) (May 2013), and Original Texts and Reference Materials for the Study of Designated Classical Texts (指定文言经典学 习材料原文及参考资料) (May 2014). Among these, Reference Texts for Chinese Language Studies (For Provisional Use in Junior Secondary Stage) (中国语文学习参考 篇章[初中阶段试用]) contains an anthology of 600 texts, Reference Texts for Chinese Language Studies (For Provisional Use in Senior Secondary Stage) (中国语文学习参考 篇章[高中阶段试用]) contains an anthology of 300 texts, Learning and Appreciation: Selected Poetry and Prose Materials for Oral Reading in Secondary Education (积学与 涵泳 – 中学古诗文诵读材料选编) contains an anthology of 150 classical poetry and prose pieces, and Original Texts and Reference Materials for the Study of Designated Classical Texts (指定文言经典学习材料原文及参考资料) contains a total of 10 mustread classical essays, and 3 examples each of Tang poetry and ci lyric poetry. Publishers and schools can use these to compile teaching materials.

1.1.5 Common reference books The first and second learning stages teach students to master the use of common retrieval methods, and to understand common character and word dictionaries, children’s encyclopedias, and so on. Apart from teaching students to understand common character and word dictionaries, the third and fourth learning stages also teach students to understand encyclopedias.

1.2 Reading This category primarily cultivates students’ oral reading and independent study skills, increasing students’ linguistic knowledge with respect to the subject of Chinese language as well as their understanding of Chinese culture, and fostering an interest in reading as well as a good reading attitude and habits. In the fourth learning stage, students are trained to read different types of materials, including narration, description, lyricism, explanation and discussion, et cetera. With respect to the subject matter, the first and second learning stages primarily revolve around the five areas of life, popular science, history, culture and art, while the third and fourth learning stages also include society, politics, economics, medicine and health, and other topics in addition to the above five areas. The types of sources are diversified: the first and second learning stages

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primarily read different types of materials from various sources (such as class texts, children’s books, newspapers, magazines, and the Internet), including nursery rhymes, poetry, stories, fairy tales, fables, prose, fiction, practical texts (such as letters, notes, diaries, weekly journals, notices, reports, manuals, advertisements, posters, flyers, slogans, and bulletins), and so on; the third and fourth learning stages primarily select materials from fine classical and modern works, translated works, popular science texts, practical texts, newspapers, magazines, and audiovisual information (such as television programs, films, plays, media supplements, and so on). Training in reading skills primarily cultivates students’ skills in character recognition, comprehension, analysis and summarization, evaluation, exploration and innovation, appreciation and master of audiovisual information. With respect to character recognition, the four learnings stages all require students to recognize common characters and identify the character form, pronunciation, and meaning. In terms of comprehension, this comprises teaching students to master the comprehension of words, sentences, paragraphs, chapters and books. With respect to analysis and summarization, these consist of teaching students to master the skills of content analysis and summarization, analysis of organizational structure, and analysis of the purpose of writing. In terms of evaluation, this primarily teaches students to master the skill of evaluation of content, such as the nature and behavior of literary characters. Training in reading skills also includes teaching students to appreciate the exquisite language (including meter and rhythm) and vivid imagery of literary works through the beautiful writings of different literary masters. The Education Bureau provides over 1000 poems and essays to schools and publishers for reference and use.

1.3 Writing In each of the four learning stages, students are trained in different types of literary styles and writing, including narration, description, lyricism, exposition and discussion. The writing categories are diversified: the first and second learning stages primarily include poetry, fairy tales, stories, congratulatory cards, invitation cards, letters, notes, diaries, weekly journals, and reports, et cetera; while the third and fourth learning stages primarily encompass general writing, literary creation (prose, poetry, fiction, drama), practical writing (letters, announcements, notices, circulars, regulations, manuals, speeches, meeting minutes, press releases, reports, proposals, topic introductions, commentaries, publicity texts, e-bulletins, and so on).

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Training in writing skills primarily focuses on the two aspects of character writing and writing skills. Training in handwriting is primarily concentrated in the first and second learning stages, teaching students to handwrite common characters as well as writing methods using hard implements and brushes. In addition, the first learning stage also includes the cultivation of proper writing posture and good handwriting habits in students, such as standard, upright and neat handwriting. The second learning stage also encompasses good handwriting habits, such as orderly handwriting, tidy line formation, and neat text. Training in writing skills in every learning stage teaches students to determine the writing content in accordance with the subject matter of writing, and to master writing techniques for narration, description, lyricism, exposition, discussion, practical writing, and other genres.

1.4 Listening This category primarily involves listening to spoken language of different types, categories and subjects, to cultivate students’ listening skills, and allow students to develop an interest in listening and a good listening attitude. In each of the four learning stages, students are trained to listen to different types of spoken language, including narration, description, lyricism, exposition, discussion, and so on. With respect to the subject matter, the first and second learning stages primarily revolve around the five areas of life, popular science, history, culture and art, while the third and fourth learning stages also include society, politics, economics, medicine and health, and other topics in addition to the above five areas. The types of sources are diversified: the first and second learning stages primarily include oral instructions, stories, school broadcasts, reports, news reports, speeches, dialogues, interviews, debates, plays, and other materials; the third and fourth learning stages primarily focus on dialogues, reports, speeches, interviews, discussions, debates, audiovisual information, and other materials. In terms of studying, students are trained in semantic comprehension, analysis and summarization, evaluation, exploration and innovation, mastery of audiovisual information, and other skills, primarily through listening to spoken language on different subjects and of different categories. For instance, with respect to semantic comprehension, students are primarily trained on how to understand the main information in spoken language, the emotions which the speaker wishes to convey, the different viewpoints of the speaker, and other skills; in the third and fourth learning stages, students are also trained to understand the speaker’s position and intent, the deeper layer of significance

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which the spoken language seeks to convey, and other skills. Analysis and summarization train students in the skills of comprehension and comparison of different viewpoints; in the third and fourth learning stages, students are also trained in the skill of summarization of the speaker’s viewpoints and argument. In terms of evaluation, this primarily trains students in the evaluation of content and techniques of expression in different categories of spoken language, and other skills.

1.5 Speaking This category primarily cultivates students’ speaking skills, interest in speaking, and a good speaking attitude and habits. In each of the four learning stages, students are trained in the skills of narration, description, lyricism, exposition, discussion, and so on. In terms of the categories, the first and second learning stages primarily include retelling, narration (observations, stories, impressions), reports, conversation, discussion, debate, interviews, and persuasion, et cetera; the third and fourth learning stages primarily include telling stories, reports, speeches, dialogues, interviews, discussion, debate, persuasion, and so on. In terms of speaking strategies, students are primarily taught to connect with their life experiences and existing knowledge to compose spoken language, as well as to adopt appropriate approaches to speaking in response to different objectives, such as thinking before speaking, thinking while speaking, using situational language, using observations and imagination, and other techniques. Training in speaking skills primarily encompasses the three areas of determining the objective, content and presentation; organizational structure; and spoken expression. Through training in different learning stages, students are taught to determine the content of speech in response to the objective, audience and setting, and to present the content which they wish to convey with clear articulation and a resonant tone.

2 Educational materials for language In order to ensure the quality of textbooks, the Education Bureau has established rigorous procedures for review. Publishers are not necessarily required to submit textbooks to the Education Bureau for review, but if publishers wish for their textbooks to be included in the Education Bureau’s “Recommended Textbook List” (适用书目表), they must be submitted for review.

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According to the “Recommended Textbook List for the 2014/15 School Year” (2014/15 学年适用书目表) issued by the Education Bureau, there are a total of 9 principal publishers in Hong Kong submitting textbooks for review by the Education Bureau and providing educational materials for Chinese language to primary and secondary schools in Hong Kong: a total of 6 publishers provided 24 sets of educational materials for junior and senior primary education, amounting to 301 books; and a total of 6 publishers provided 18 sets of educational materials for junior and senior secondary education, amounting to 134 books. The educational materials include textbooks, exercise books, electronic files for textbook exercises, worksheets, teaching briefs, audio recording files (in Cantonese and Putonghua), assessment tasks, test question banks, e-books for use by instructors, and so on. For details on the educational materials and books issued by each publisher, see Table 1. Apart from educational materials issued by the above publishers, schools can also independently design their own educational materials. In recent years, electronic textbooks have also emerged. According to the “Recommended Textbook List for the 2014/15 School Year” (2014/15 学年适用书目表) issued by the Education Bureau, there are already 2 publishers which have passed textbook review by the Education Bureau providing electronic educational materials for Chinese language to Hong Kong primary schools, as well as a total of 2 publishers providing 9 sets of educational materials for junior and senior secondary education. The “Recommended Textbook List for Electronic Textbooks for the 2014/ 15 School Year” (2014/15 学年电子教科书适用书目表) has not yet announced the titles of electronic textbooks for junior and senior secondary education which have passed review. In terms of the design of educational materials, the materials are divided into different modules, and each module features a theme, such as: description and lyricism (aesthetics of poetry), narration and description of people, idioms, and so on. Each module generally includes one to three texts for intensive reading, allowing students to master the knowledge associated with each module by studying relevant texts. Apart from textbooks, an array of supplementary educational materials is generally included, such as exercise books, independent study texts, online resources, and so on. Educational materials for Chinese language in senior secondary education are divided into two sections, compulsory and elective. The compulsory section represents approximately 2/3 or 5/6 of the class hours for the entire subject, including content for the nine learning categories of reading, writing, listening, speaking, literature, Chinese culture, moral and affective development, thinking, and independent language learning. When publishers are designing educational materials for the compulsory section, the approach is generally similar to the third learning stage:

Keys Press

Publisher (Second Learning Stage)

(First Learning Stage)

(Third Learning Stage)

Junior Secondary

(Fourth Learning Stage)

Senior Secondary

Revised Keys Chinese Language (新编启思中国语文) ( Edition) Revised Keys Chinese Language (新编启思中国语文) ( Edition) Revised Keys Chinese Language (新编启思中国语文) ( Edition) Revised Keys Chinese Language (新编启思中国语文) ( Edition)

Keys Chinese Language (新编 启思中国语文) ( Edition)

Keys Chinese Language (新编 启思中国语文) ( Edition)

–

Keys Language Frontiers (启思语 Keys Language Frontiers (启思语 Life and Chinese Language Keys New Chinese Language 文新天地) ( Edition) 文新天地) ( Edition) (生活中国语文) ( Edition) for Senior Secondary Education (启思新高中中国语 文) ( Edition)

Keys Language Frontiers (启思语 Keys Language Frontiers (启思语 Life and Chinese Language Keys New Chinese Language 文新天地) ( Edition) 文新天地) ( Edition) (生活中国语文) ( Edition) for Senior Secondary Education (启思新高中中国语 文) ( Edition)

Senior Primary

Junior Primary

Learning Stage

Table 1: Educational book titles issued by various publishers in Hong Kong.

392 Tin Siu Lam (田小琳) et al.,

New · Language (新 · 语文) ( Edition)

New · Language (新 · 语文) ( Edition)

New Asia Publishing House

–

–

–

New Asia Chinese Language (新 亚洲中国语文) ( Edition)

New Asia Chinese Language (新 亚洲中国语文) ( Edition) –

–

–

I Love Learning Language (我爱 学语文) ( Edition)

I Love Learning Language (我爱 学语文) ( Edition)

–

Happy Learning Language (快乐 学语文) ( Edition)

Happy Learning Language (快乐 学语文) ( Edition)

–

(continued )

Modern Chinese Language for Senior Secondary Education (现代高中中国语文) ( Edition) –

Chinese Language for Junior Secondary Education (初中中 国语文) ( Edition)

st-Century Modern Chinese Language (二十一世纪现代中国 语文) ( Edition)

st-Century Modern Chinese Language (二十一世纪现代中国 语文) ( Edition)

New Integrated Chinese Language for Senior Secondary Education (新高中 综合中国语文) ( Edition)

Modern Chinese Language (现代 Modern Chinese Language (现代 – 中国语文) ( Edition) 中国语文) ( Edition)

Introductory Integrated Chinese Language (基础综合 中国语文) ( Edition)

Learning Chinese Language (学好中国语文) ( Edition)

Learning Chinese Language (学好中国语文) ( Edition)

Interactive Chinese Language for Junior Secondary Education (初中互动中国语 文) ( Edition)

Longman Chinese Language: Supplemental Independent Study Texts (朗文中国语文附自 习篇章) ( Edition)

Longman Chinese Language: Supplemental Independent Study Texts (朗文中国语文附自 习篇章) ( Edition)

New Asia Publishing House Ltd.

Educational Publishing House Ltd.

Modern Educational Research Society, Ltd.

Pearson Hong Kong

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Senior Primary (Second Learning Stage) –

–

–

Junior Primary

(First Learning Stage)

–

–

–

Ling Kee Publishing Co. Ltd.

Hong Kong Educational Publishing Company

The Commercial Press (HK) Ltd.

Publisher

Learning Stage

Table 1 (continued )

Chinese Language for Junior Secondary Education (初中中 国语文) ( Edition)

–

–

New Concept Chinese Language (新理念中国语文) ( Edition) New Horizons Chinese Language for Junior Secondary Education (新视野 初中中国语文) ( Edition)

New Revised Chinese Language for Senior Secondary Education (新高中 中国语文新编) ( Edition)

New Century Chinese Language (新世纪中国语文) ( Edition)

(Fourth Learning Stage)

Senior Secondary

Revised Chinese Language for Junior Secondary Education (初中中国语文新编) ( Edition)

New Century Chinese Language (新世纪中国语文) ( Edition)

(Third Learning Stage)

Junior Secondary

394 Tin Siu Lam (田小琳) et al.,

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educational materials are arranged as modules, and a theme is established for each module; the theme includes texts for intensive reading corresponding to the given subject. Some educational materials include three texts, divided into the guided reading text, intensive reading text, and independent study text, while content from the other eight learning categories (writing, listening, speaking, literature, Chinese culture, moral and affective development, thinking, and independent language learning) permeates instruction on the texts and module exercises. For the elective section, the Education Bureau recommends ten elective modules, including “Classic Books and Adapted Works of Film and Television” (名著及改编影视作品), “Drama Workshop” (戏剧工作坊), “Fiction and Culture” (小说与文化), “Exploration of Special Topics in Culture” (文化专题探讨), “News and Reporting” (新闻与报道), “Multimedia and Practical Writing” (多媒体与应用写作), “Selected Reading of Translated Works” (翻译作品选读), “Selected Reading of Popular Science Works” (科普作品选读), “Conveying Meaning in Putonghua and its Applications” (普通话 传意和应用), and “Putonghua and the Performing Arts” (普通话与表演艺术). Schools can select two to four modules from the above ten elective modules, of which one module can be independently formulated by the school.

3 Assessment in language education 3.1 In-school assessment Primary and secondary schools generally hold two examinations each school year, one in the first term and one in the second term; some schools also schedule a test for each term, for a total of two per year. With respect to the examination format, junior secondary schools divide it into four examination papers focusing on listening skills, reading skills, writing skills, and speaking skills. Senior secondary schools instead adopt the format of an advanced diploma examination, divided into five examination papers for reading skills, writing skills, speaking skills, listening skills, and integrated skills.

3.2 Territory-wide System Assessment In 2001, the Education Bureau authorized the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (Examinations Authority) to develop and implement fundamental skill assessments for Chinese language, English language, and mathematics. Schools can adjust their respective education plans and improve their teaching

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strategies on the basis of the assessment data. The Hong Kong government can also provide appropriate support to schools and students on the basis of relevant information, thus promoting improvement in learning and teaching. Territorywide System Assessment for Chinese language focuses on examinations for students’ language skills, respectively held in Year 3 in primary education and Year 3 in secondary education; the assessments are divided into four examination papers on writing, listening, audiovisual information, and reading.

3.3 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination The first Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination was held in 2012; the Examinations Authority adopted the method of Standards-referenced Reporting (水平参照汇报) for assessment. Each subject references a set of specific, fixed grading standards to report an examinee’s performance. An examinee’s performance is expressed using five levels (Level 1–5), with Level 5 representing the highest. The examinees with outstanding results in the top 10% of Level 5 can obtain Level 5**, and the next 30% can obtain Level 5*. Those with performance lower than the standards for Level 1 are marked as “Unclassified” (不予评级). The Chinese language assessment for the Diploma of Secondary Education Examination is divided into two parts, the school-based assessment (校本评核) and the public examination (公开考试). The school-based assessment is characterized as a progressive assessment, representing 20% of the mark for the subject as a whole; while the public examination is characterized as an integrated assessment, representing 80% of the mark for the subject as a whole. The school-based assessment uses diverse formats: apart from paper-and-pen tests, schools can also adopt question-and-answer, open-book tests, topic research, essays, integrated assessment activities, records of the course of learning, and other assessment formats based on the school’s situation. Schools must submit a reading activity mark and two elective module marks to the Examinations Authority for each student, to serve as the school-based assessment grade. For 2012–2015, the public examination for the Chinese language subject was divided into five examination papers, Paper 1: Reading Skills (卷一阅读 能力), Paper 2: Writing Skills (卷二写作能力), Paper 3: Listening Skills (卷三 聆听能力), Paper 4: Speaking Skills (卷四说话能力), and Paper 5: Integrated Skills (卷五综合能力). Among these, Paper 1: Reading Skills (卷一阅读能力) represented 20% of the mark for the subject as a whole: the assessment was conducted as a written examination, and the examination time was 1 hour and 15 minutes. Paper 2: Writing Skills (卷二写作能力) represented 20% of

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the mark for the subject as a whole: the assessment was conducted as a written examination, and the examination time was 1 hour and 30 minutes. Paper 3: Listening Skills (卷三聆听能力) represented 10% of the mark for the subject as a whole: the assessment was conducted as a written examination, and the examination time was 45 minutes. Paper 4: Speaking Skills (卷四说 话能力) represented 14% of the mark for the subject as a whole: the assessment was conducted as an oral examination, and the examination time was 25 minutes. Paper 5: Integrated Skills (卷五综合能力) represented 16% of the mark for the subject as a whole: the assessment was conducted as a written examination, and the examination time was 1 hour and 15 minutes. In 2016, the assessment format for the public examination for Chinese language will shift from the previous five examination papers for the assessment of reading skills, writing skills, speaking skills, listening skills, and integrated skills, to four examination papers for the assessment of reading skills, writing skills, speaking skills, and listening skills. The revisions to the assessment primarily combine the assessments in Paper 3: Listening Skills (卷三聆听能力) and Paper 5: Integrated Skills (卷五综合能力) into one examination – Paper 3: Listening and Integrated Skills (卷三聆听和综合能力). With respect to the grading proportions, the public examination will still represent 80% of the mark for the subject as a whole, but the proportions for each paper will be modified to some extent: the proportion for Paper 1: Reading Skills (卷一阅读能力) will shift from 20% to 24%; the proportion for Paper 2: Writing Skills (卷二写作能 力) will shift from 20% to 24%; due to the merging of the test papers, the proportion for Paper 3: Listening and Integrated Skills (卷三聆听和综合能力) will shift from the previous 10% and 16% to 18%; while the proportion for Paper 4: Speaking Skills (卷四说话能力) will remain unchanged. In terms of the examination times, the assessment for Paper 3: Listening and Integrated Skills (卷三 聆听和综合能力) will take approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes, while the examination times for the remaining papers will be unchanged. For details on the revisions to the Assessment Framework (评核大纲) for the school-based assessment and public examination in 2016, see Table 2; the revised sections are indicated in bold text and outlined.

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Table 2: State of revisions to Assessment Framework (评核大纲) for 2016 school-based assessment and public examination. Section

Content

Proportion Assessment Format

Examination Time

Public Paper : Reading Skills (卷一 examination 阅读能力)

% Written examination

 hr. and  min.

Paper : Writing Skills (卷二 写作能力)

% Written examination

 hr. and  min.

Paper : Listening and Integrated Skills (卷三聆听 和综合能力)

% Written examination

App.  hr. and  min.

Paper : Speaking Skills (卷 四说话能力)

% Oral communication

 min.

SchoolCompulsory Section: based Reading activity (阅读活动) Assessment Elective Section (two modules): Daily learning performance (日常学习表现) Final module performance (单元终结表现)

%  mark for reading activity %  mark is submitted for each module; a total of  marks are submitted for the elective section

Source: Hong Kong Education Bureau (香港教育局) & Curriculum Development Council (课程发 展议会). 2014. Chinese Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary Year 4 to Secondary Year 6) (中国语文课程及评估指引[中四至中六]).

References Chinese Language Education Section, Curriculum Development Council, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Education Bureau (香港特别行政区政府教育局课程发展处中国语 文教育组). 2007. List of Graphemes of Commonly-used Chinese Characters (常用字字形表). Hong Kong Education Bureau. Curriculum Development Council (课程发展议会). 2007. Recommended Key Learning Points for Chinese Language in Secondary Education (Provisional) (中学中国语文建议学习重点[试用]). Curriculum Development Council (课程发展议会). 2008. Recommended Key Learning Points for Chinese Language in Primary Education (Provisional) (小学中国语文建议学习重点[试用]).

Tong Choi Lan (汤 翠兰)

32 The media of instruction at institutions of higher education in Macau Macau has 10 institutions of higher education, including: 4 public institutions, which respectively comprise the University of Macau, Macao Polytechnic Institute, the Macao Institute for Tourism Studies, and the Macau Academy of Public Security Forces; and 6 private institutions, which respectively comprise City University of Macau, the University of Saint Joseph, Kiang Wu Nursing College of Macau, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau Institute of Management, and Macau Millennium College. For the 2013–2014 school year, the various institutions of higher education had a total of 1941 teaching personnel, with 29,521 students registered in higher education courses, and offered a total of 278 course categories. In comparison with the 2012–2013 school year (1916 teaching personnel, 27,776 students registered for higher education courses, and 272 course categories offered) and the 2011–2012 school year (1840 teaching personnel, 26,217 students registered for higher education courses, and 266 course categories offered), this represented an appreciable year-over-year increase in terms of teaching personnel, students, as well as course categories. The media of instruction used at each institution of higher education were tied to the institutions’ orientation and educational objectives, and were also influenced by different majors, instructors, and student status.

1 Educational objectives and school orientation The selection of the media of instruction at institutions of higher education in Macau is tied to educational principles and the subjects receiving instruction. Generally speaking, the media of instruction at institutions of higher education in Macau primarily include English and Chinese; for Chinese, there is an inclination toward Cantonese, which is in common use locally, while some institutions also use Portuguese, which is similarly classified as an official language. In addition, to address the needs of specific majors such as Japanese Studies, French, and so on, the target language is used. The orientation of institutions of higher education influences the media of instruction which they adopt. Among the public institutions, the orientation of the University of Macau is to serve as a globally oriented, comprehensive university: apart from certain specific sections and departments, most use English as the language of instruction. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-032

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Among the private institutions, as a constituent of the Portuguese Catholic universities, the University of Saint Joseph, formerly known as the Macau InterUniversity Institute, has an orientation founded upon Macau: the school has likewise taken English as the language of instruction, while adopting the objective that all students of the university shall be proficient in Putonghua and Portuguese. The majority of the other institutions have the objective of fostering local talents: their primary language of instruction is Chinese, with Cantonese predominating at some institutions and Putonghua predominating at others.

2 Majors Major sections and departments also influence the relevant media of instruction. English predominates in communication in the contemporary business world, thus majors related to business primarily take English as the medium of instruction. Although Macao Polytechnic Institute takes Chinese as its primary medium of instruction, courses related to business largely use English as the medium of instruction, or else an English class and Chinese class are simultaneously offered. Although the Macau Institute of Management similarly takes Chinese as its medium of instruction, its textbooks are primarily written in English, and the actual media of instruction consist of Chinese in the dominant role and English in a supporting role. In addition, computer courses also chiefly take English as the medium of instruction: although Chinese predominates at Macau University of Science and Technology, English still plays a supporting role. Furthermore, since the official languages of Macau are Portuguese and Chinese, and the laws and regulations of Macau are chiefly written in Portuguese, at both public and private institutions, Portuguese therefore predominates as the medium of instruction for courses related to public administration and law; these may also be divided into a Portuguese class and a Chinese class. Apart from the above scenarios, for courses related to language, such as in the Department of Chinese, Department of English, Department of Portuguese, Department of Japanese, Chinese-Portuguese translation courses, Chinese-English translation courses, and so on, the medium of instruction chiefly consists of the language corresponding to the respective section or department.

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3 Instructors Prior to the return of Macau, the instructors at institutions of higher education in Macau were chiefly composed of local individuals. In the 1999–2000 school year, there were a total of 835 instructors at institutions of higher education: apart from 11 instructors at the Macau Academy of Public Security Forces and other schools for whom the hiring method was not indicated, the remaining 824 individuals included a total of 559 local instructors, representing 67.84%, and a total of 265 instructors hired from abroad, representing 32.16%. Following the return of Macau, a series of new institutions of higher education were established (including Macau University of Science and Technology in 2000 and Macau Millennium College in 2002), and the various institutions of higher education successively offered new courses in response to social development. In particular, after the Macau Inter-University Institute was renamed as the University of Saint Joseph in 2009 and the Asia International Open University (Macau) was renamed as City University of Macau in 2010, both institutions added Bachelor’s degree courses for an array of majors, and the number and proportion of foreign instructors at institutions of higher education increased year after year. The figure stood at 318 in the 2000–2001 school year, representing 33.87% of the total number of instructors; this increased to 489 in the 2001–2002 school year, accounting for 42.45% of the total number of instructors; in the 2004–2005 school year, the number of foreign instructors rose to 803, exceeding half of the total number of instructors for the first time, at 52.79%. The situation wherein the number of foreign instructors exceeded half of the total number of instructors persisted until the 2010–2011 school year, when the percentage fell to 44.84%, with a total of 825 individuals; and in the 2012–2013 school year, foreign instructors numbered 657 individuals, representing 34.29% of the total of 1916 instructors. Part of the reason behind the rise and decline in the number of foreign instructors is that instructors formerly of foreign status had obtained status as residents of Macau, becoming local instructors. The foreign instructors respectively originate from mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, as well as Portugal, Europe, and other regions, North America, Asia, and other places; among them, instructors of Chinese descent represent the majority, thus increasing the proportion for Chinese as a primary or supporting medium of instruction.

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4 Students Prior to the return of Macau, the number of students enrolled at institutions of higher education was less than 10,000, standing at 8,476 individuals in the 1999–2000 school year: this included 5,091 public students, representing 60.06%, and 3,385 private students, representing 39.94%. Macau University of Science and Technology and Macau Millenium College were successively established in 2000 and 2002, and the University of Saint Joseph began expanding student admissions in 2008–2009. During the same period, the public institutions of higher education revised their recruitment strategies, gradually expanding recruitment beginning in the 2000–2001 school year, chiefly focusing on mainland China, as well as other neighboring regions. The cap for the percentage of foreign students at the University of Macau is 50%, while 15% is set as the cap for the Macao Polytechnic Institute and the Macao Institute for Tourism Studies, which primarily teach local students. Due to the two factors described above, the number of students at institutions of higher education in Macau rose from 12,749 individuals in the 2000–2001 school year to 27,776 in the 2012–2013 school year, an increase of 117.86% in the span of 12 years. Furthermore, the number of foreign students, chiefly composed of mainland Chinese students, rose from 5,682 individuals to 9,327, an increase of 64%. Under the status quo, in which mainland China students already represent 33.58% of the total number of students at institutions of higher education in Macau, the use of Putonghua has increased year after year, while the use of Cantonese has gradually declined. From the combined perspective of the four aspects of educational objectives, majors, students, and instructors, institutions or majors which primarily take local Macau residents as their recruitment targets, such as the Macau Academy of Public Security Forces, Macau Millennium College, and Macao Institute of Management, as well as the social work courses at Macao Polytechnic Institute, chiefly adopt Chinese as the medium of instruction. In addition, the instructors for such majors are primarily of local origin, or else stem from a neighboring port city of similar circumstances – Hong Kong, thus Cantonese has become the primarily medium of instruction. For majors in which mainland China or other Chinese-speaking regions occupy a leading position (such as music, psychology, and translation, et cetera), regardless of the percentage of mainland China students in the class, since the language commonly used by the majority of instructors is Putonghua, when giving instruction in Chinese, Putonghua predominates over Cantonese. With respect to language majors, in the example of the Department of Chinese at the University of Macau, among the 21 instructors, the preferred language of 12 individuals is Putonghua, and the preferred language of

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the other 9 individuals is Cantonese; in addition, half of the students come from mainland China, thus giving rise to a situation in which the primary medium of instruction is Putonghua, rather than Cantonese. Since the University of Saint Joseph and City University of Macau have added courses for several majors, the percentage of courses taking English or Portuguese as the medium of instruction has also experienced a rising trend. Furthermore, City University of Macau plans to offer language and culture courses in French or German, resulting in the expansion of minority languages serving as the medium of instruction at institutions of higher education in Macau from only Japanese initially to include French and German, and causing the media of instruction at institutions of higher education in Macau to become more diverse.

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

33 The state of language life in Taiwan (2014) In 2014, language life in Taiwan had many aspects that were worthy of attention, chiefly manifesting in the launch of Book Day activities, Mother Language Day activities in commemoration of dialects, restructuring of the high school social studies curriculum, the problem of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’), voting for the representative character of the year, and so on.

1 Holding Book Day and other activities 1.1 Reading, free books, and book fairs On April 19, in order to celebrate 2014 “4.23 World Book Day” (4.23 世界读书日), the Cultural Affairs Bureau of Taichung City held Taiwan’s first “Reading Banquet” (阅读办桌) book club on the Calligraphy Greenway: over a thousand people brought their favorite works of literature to the event, and were seated around tables to share what they have gained from reading. Jason Hu (胡志强), the mayor of Taichung, beat a gong at the event to open the banquet, and mark the start of this grand book club. In addition, arrangements were made for 50 yuedu zong pushi (阅读总铺师, ‘reading master chefs’) to march in carrying plates piled high with books, breaking new ground with respect to “elegant tablesetting for reading,” delivering books to each table. Jason Hu (胡志强) stated that reading is nourishment for the mind, and is equally as important as having three meals a day. Taichung City has held Book Day activities for 17 years running, promoting the reading movement, in the hope that the people can regard reading as equal to eating meals, finding time to read three times a day, for the sake of greater social progress and a higher quality of life. The Cultural Affairs Bureau also made arrangements for an orchestral performance, a performance by the ceremonial guard, and other activities. The district libraries, publishers and reading groups also designed interactive games, setting up booths at the event to draw public participation, and transforming quiet reading into an animated, lively and exciting activity. On April 22, 2014, the Tainan Municipal Library held the activity “Sowing Literary Seeds” (种下书香种子) at Xinhua Elementary School in Xinhua District. 446 students from 25 elementary schools in the greater Xinhua District were https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-033

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gifted free books, to encourage children to read more extracurricular reading materials. As early as September 2013, to enable the students participating in this activity to choose the books they like to read, a group of enthusiastic volunteer mothers began holding the activity “Hometown Seed-Sowing for Must-Read Books” (非读 BOOK 种子偏乡洒) at 16 elementary schools in the greater Xinhua District: 8 picture book reading activities were held at each of the schools, allowing the seeds of reading to take root in each student’s heart through guided reading, in the hope that the students can all become literary seeds who “love reading, are able to read, and understand reading.” The activity “Sowing Literary Seeds” (种下书香种子) has been held in Tainan City since 2008, gifting free books to a total of 2389 first-grade students at over 100 elementary schools in the greater Tainan region, planting over two thousand seedlings of hope for reading. On April 23, Chiayi City held an exhibition on achievements in the promotion of reading education at elementary and high schools in the city, and the responsible leader in Chiayi presented commendations to schools with extraordinary achievements in the promotion of reading education in 2014, as well as the “reading navigators” and “young reading experts” at each school. The leader emphasized that building spaces for high-quality reading, stimulating students’ interest, and cultivating the habit of reading so as to expand horizons, open the mind, and improve future competitiveness, are objectives pursued by all educators. At the scene of the event, “reading navigators” and “young reading experts” who were awarded commendations shared their own experiences of reading.

1.2 The second Taiwan Reading Festival Using reading festivals, reading days or book days to remind society to take note of the importance of reading has become a common approach around the world. The Taiwan Reading Festival was held for the first time in 2013, and its second instance took place in 2014. The Reading Festival integrates forces from various sectors of society to hold a series of activities and reading carnivals. Through these activities, the Taiwan authorities hope to cultivate the habits of “buying books, reading books, and giving books” among the public. On December 1, in conjunction with a weekly event at Taiwan Library, the National Library of Public Information held a Reading Festival event, inviting everyone to take part in national reading by means of an outdoor reading banquet, a book swap, as well as dianshu (点书, ‘book order’) and jieren (借人, ‘people borrowing’) services. For the dianshu (点书, ‘book order’) services, the

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library provided books, and students from Taichung Home Economics and Commercial Vocational School acted as the servers: imitating the food service process at a real café, the servers took book orders and made deliveries, creating a greater sense of presence for reading through dedicated table-side services. For the jieren (借人, ‘people borrowing’) services, dedicated personnel came to the tables to tell stories, engage in APP teaching, or engage in tabletop games, for face-to-face, real-time bidirectional interaction, increasing the sense of novelty for reading, and piquing the interest of the participants. On December 7, the charity bazaar “Spreading Compassion Through Literature” (书香传爱心) for the Taiwan Reading Festival was held during the Reading Carnival at Taiwan Library Square. The items at the charity bazaar included a paddle signed by the famed Taiwanese table tennis champion Chuang Chih-Yuan (庄智渊), decorative objects treasured by the celebrated Taiwanese entertainer Lin Chi-ling (林志 玲), and so on. On the day of, members of the public who made purchases amounting to NT$1200 or more were presented with an exquisite book as a gift. In addition, the Carnival began at 9 AM on the same day, assembling reading booths set up by more than fifty organizations, including schools at all levels, various local libraries, publishers, authors, and so on, providing lively and fascinating interactive programs, including the awards ceremony for the Award to Outstanding Figures for Contributions to the Library, Literature from Afar – Outdoor Book Wall, the E-Book Experience Zone, Reading Parade, Happy Crossover, Leyou Chibi Cartoon Zone, Latte Art, Reading Team Room, Adventures in the Literary Forest, Stamp Collection Raffle Prize, and other content, displaying the abundant energy for reading in Taiwan.

2 Mother Language Day activities 2.1 Holding a poster design competition for “Taiwan Mother Language Day” (台湾母语日) On July 7, the Taiwan Ministry of Education issued an announcement stating that, in order to encourage students to learn and use different indigenous languages, enhance understanding, respect and inclusiveness among different ethnic groups, and popularize indigenous languages, the decision had been made to hold a “Poster Design Competition for Taiwan Mother Language Day” (台湾母语日海报设计比赛活动). The design event revolved around the perpetuation of language culture, respect for diverse values, establishment of deep roots in education, and pursuit of emotional identification through “Taiwan

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Mother Language Day” (台湾母语日). Between July 14 and September 30, the competitors divided into student teams, public teams, and teacher teams.1 On November 10, the Taiwan Ministry of Education announced the results of the “Poster Design Competition for Taiwan Mother Language Day” (台湾母语日海 报设计比赛活动): A total of 424 entries were received for the event, and following the preliminary review, secondary review, and other procedures, a total of 28 outstanding entries received awards. The pieces displayed rich and diverse creativity, revealing substantial improvement in the public’s understanding of and esteem for “Taiwan Mother Language Day” (台湾母语日). On November 26, the Ministry of Education held the awards ceremony for the “Poster Design Competition for Taiwan Mother Language Day” (台湾母语日海报设计比赛活动), to publicly recognize the 28 award-winners (see Figure 1).2

Figure 1: Award-winner in the “Poster Design Competition for Taiwan Mother Language Day” (台湾母语日海报设计比赛活动). Source: Website of the Taiwan Ministry of Education, November 26, 2014

1 See the relevant website of the Taiwan Ministry of Education: http://www.edu.tw/news1/de tail.aspx?Node=1088&Page=24092&Index=1&WID=6635a4e8-f0de-4957-aa3e-c3b15c6e6ead. 2 See the relevant website of the Taiwan Ministry of Education: http://www.edu.tw/news/de tail.aspx?Node=1089&Page=25552&Index=5&wid=c5ad5187-55e-f4811-8219-e946fe04f725.

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2.2 Presenting the “Award for Commendation of Outstanding Contributions to the Promotion of Indigenous Languages” (表扬推展本土语言杰出贡献奖) On February 21, in response to the spirit of “International Mother Language Day” (世界母语日) for the preservation of linguistic diversity and promotion of the perpetuation of mother languages, the Taiwan Ministry of Education held an awards ceremony for the “Award for Commendation of Outstanding Contributions to the Promotion of Indigenous Languages” (表扬推展本土语言杰出贡献奖), presenting awards to 10 recipients (individuals and organizations). Public nominations for the award were collected in September and October 2013, and 116 recommendations were put forward in all sectors. The 10 recipients respectively stemmed from the arts, education, religion, enterprises, and various other fields. The “Award for Commendation of Outstanding Contributions to the Promotion of Indigenous Languages” (表扬推展本土语言杰出贡献奖) has been presented by the Taiwan Ministry of Education since 2008, and as of the present, a total of 101 individuals and 22 organizations have received the award.

3 Restructuring of the high school social studies curriculum 3.1 Restructuring procedure In order to smoothly promote twelve-year compulsory education, the Taiwan Ministry of Education previously completed fine-tuning of the curriculum for the high school subjects of natural science and mathematics in 2012, and in 2013, it began reviewing the curriculum for the high school subjects of Chinese and social studies. After 6 joint conferences, 4 sub-committee meetings, 2 advisory conferences, and 3 public hearings, a Curriculum Council was finally convened on January 27, 2014, and the Taiwan education authorities voted to pass curriculum restructuring for the high school subjects of Chinese and social studies, for implementation beginning with first-year high school students in the 2015 school year. The social studies curriculum here included the three subjects of history, geography, and civics.

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3.2 Core content of restructuring The Taiwan education authorities emphasized that the purpose of fine-tuning the curriculum was to strengthen Taiwan’s agency and neutrally present history, in conformity with Taiwan’s relevant laws and regulations. For instance, it was decided to change Zhongguo (中国, ‘China’) to Zhongguo dalu (中国大陆, ‘mainland China’), Riben tongzhi shiqi (日本统治时期, ‘the period of Japanese rule’) to Riben zhimin tongzhi shiqi (日本殖民统治时期, ‘the period of Japanese colonial rule’), and Riben diguo da dongya gongrong quan de gouxiang (日本帝 国大东亚共荣圈的构想, ‘the Japanese Empire’s plan of the Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere’) to Riben diguo da dongya gongrong quan de qinlüe gouxiang (日本帝国大东亚共荣圈的侵略构想, ‘the Japanese Empire’s plan of aggression of the Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere’). The two characters beipo (被迫, ‘forced’) were added in the description of comfort women. A relevant leader of the Taiwan Ministry of Education stated that the separation between the sections for Taiwan shi (台湾史, ‘Taiwanese history’) and Chinese history in the current high school history textbooks was too stark, resulting in a lack of coherence; furthermore, much of the content on Taiwanese history was inconsistent with relevant Taiwanese laws, thus leading to this decision for restructuring. The leader also stated that the textbooks were overly eulogistic with respect to the period of Japanese colonial rule over Taiwan, making it appear that the foundations for the construction of modern Taiwan had been entirely laid down by the Japanese. The fine-tuned history curriculum no longer beautifies Japanese colonial rule, instead placing an emphasis on Taiwan’s agency. The Taiwan Association of University Professors and other localist Taiwanese organizations, as well as the Democratic Progressive Party and other groups in the pan-Green coalition all continued to express protests and opposition with respect to the fine-tuning of the curriculum.

4 Regarding the problem of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) 4.1 What is yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’)? Yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) is a figurative phrase borrowing from a medical concept, which refers to the emergence of meaningless tautologies and redundant characters in oral or written expression. These tautologies and

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redundant characters ceaselessly reproduce and proliferate like cancer cells, congesting the mouths of many people as well as articles in the press and media. For instance, xiajia (下架, ‘take [sth.] off the shelf’) is formulated as jinxing yige xiajia de dongzuo (进行一个下架的动作, ‘carrying out the action of taking [sth.] off the shelf’); liaojie (了解, ‘understand’) is stated as zuo yige liaojie de bufen (做一个了解的部分, ‘doing the part of understanding,’); chuli (处理, ‘handle’) is expressed as zuo yige chuli (做一个处理, ‘doing the handling’), and so on. The unsuitable proliferation of this kind of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) has already spread to the media and the mouths of the public, frequently emerging in a spectrum stretching upward to leaders at all levels, press spokespersons, and class instructors, and downward to the general public.

4.2 Exploration of contributing factors for yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) Yu Kwang-chung (余光中) and other scholars believe that the increasing spread of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’), which complicates the simple and replaces adroitness with awkwardness, is closely associated with the eyi Xihua (恶意西化, ‘malicious Westernization’) of the Chinese language: everyone is absorbed in studying English and reading translated novels, and classical Chinese works with concise diction are no longer read, with the result that English is not learned well, and Chinese is learned badly. In the last few years, television, the Internet, and other media have also added fuel to the fire, causing the use of abnormal Chinese to perversely become fashionable (United Daily News 2014). Some believe that fragmented reading resulting in a weakened ability to think is another factor contributing to yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’). Chen Chia-Ying (陈嘉英), a teacher in the subject of Chinese at Taipei Jingmei Girls High School, bluntly stated that, in the age of the Internet, many people spend hours every day browsing piecemeal information on their mobile phones: their brains are filled with Internet language, they are unable to think or discourse, and they speak and write poorly, all of which is associated with a weakened power of thinking. Therefore, it is necessary to be vigilant at all times against one’s own use of benhua (笨话, ‘clumsy speech’) (United Daily News 2014).

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4.3 Countermeasures Cheng Kuo-Wei (郑国威), the editor-in-chief of the Taiwanese popular science news website PanSci (泛科学), suggested that the United Daily News (联 合报) could invite linguists to explore the origins of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) from a scientific perspective, without imposing excessive jiuzheng (纠正, ‘correction’). This would likely lead to the discovery of more interesting phenomena, and could also give rise to broader discussion. He also called for the establishment of a yuyan ai zhuanqu (语言癌专区, ‘language cancer zone’) on the websites of relevant organizations, allowing the public to post in these zones when they read or hear tautologies such as zuo le yige XX de dongzuo (做了一个× × 的动作, ‘did the action of XX’) written or spoken by other people; at the same time, rating activities could regularly be held to select the individual or organization with the most severe yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) (Hou 2014). The discussion of the problem of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) also attracted the attention of the Taiwan education authorities. A relevant leader of the Ministry of Education stated that, when formulating the curriculum in the field of language arts in the future, improving language expression skills would be listed as an important element. This is not only the case in the Chinese language curriculum: mathematics, natural sciences, social studies, and other subjects should also place emphasis on expression, providing students with more opportunities for discussion and public speaking. During junior high school education, students would be required to identify the redundant words in phrases like luxu zhankai yige jiuyuan de dongzuo (陆续展开一个救援的动作, ‘successively engaging in an action of rescue’), and in basic skills testing and the Comprehensive Assessment Program for Junior High School Students, questions involving the identification of faulty wording and pleonasm would be introduced at the appropriate time (Zhang 2014).

5 Voting for the representative character of the year 5.1 Initiation of voting On November 1, the “Vote for Taiwan’s Representative Character of 2014” (台 湾 2014 代表字大选) was launched, and notable figures and experts recommended a total of 60 candidates for the representative character. Under the

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influence of the shi an fengbao (食安风暴, ‘food safety crisis,’), many notable figures nominated characters like sou (馊, ‘spoiled’), hei (黑, ‘black’), hun (混, ‘mixed up’), nu (怒, ‘anger’), and so on, reflecting the current state of society. However, it is said that fortune and misfortune come hand in hand: the nominated characters also included no lack of characters with positive energy, such as liang (良, ‘good’), shan (善, ‘kind’), zhen (真, ‘true’), cheng (诚, ‘sincere’). The famous chef “A-chi-shih (阿基師)” Cheng Yen-chi (郑衍基) nominated kui (愧, ‘ashamed’) as the representative character of the year: he said that, due to Taiwan’s food safety situation, even culinary professionals like himself felt powerless and helpless, and for that he felt very ashamed. Chen Chien-jen 陈建仁, the vice president of Taiwan’s Academia Sinica, nominated the character pan (盼, ‘looking forward’): he argued that, despite the student movement, Fourth Nuclear Power Plant, a gas explosion, spoiled oil, and other incidents which had occurred over the past year, amidst excitement and sorrow, Taiwan was still looking forward to the arrival of a beautiful new year. You Mei-Yue (游美月), the editor-in-chief of United Daily News (联 合报), nominated cheng (诚, ‘sincere’), with the hope that society could return to a value system based on cheng (诚, ‘sincerity’), and that the authorities and enterprises would exercise their competitiveness on the foundation of cheng (诚, ‘sincerity’). You Mei-Yue noted that characters such as hei (黑, ‘black’), nu (怒, ‘anger’), hun (混, ‘mixed up’) and so on may represent everyone’s state of mind, but she hoped that the public would not become bogged down in disputes, and encouraged them to let go of their grievances in voting for the representative character, while helping Taiwan find new strength at the same time. Between November 1–11, the United Daily News (联合报) public opinion forum announced the sixty nominated characters in batches, and voting was opened to the public on the 12th.

5.2 Results of voting On December 3, the “Vote for Taiwan’s Representative Character of 2014” (台湾 2014 代表字大选) was revealed, and hei (黑, ‘black’) was selected as the representative character of 2014, with 12,489 votes (see Figure 2). The characters in 2nd through 10th place were, in order: sou (馊, ‘spoiled’), you (油, ‘oil’), nu (怒, ‘anger’), shi (食, ‘food’), jia (假, ‘fake’), wei (伪, ‘false’), hun (混, ‘mixed up’), yuan (怨, ‘complaint’), and beng (崩, ‘collapse’).

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Guilin Yu (余桂林)

Figure 2: Taiwan’s representative character of 2014, hei (黑, ‘black’). Source: Taiwan UDN News, Dec. 4, 2014

In 2014, under the influence of the food safety crisis, jia (假, ‘fake’) was selected as Taiwan’s representative character of the year, and hei (黑, ‘black’) came in second place; no one expected that the food safety problem would boil over into 2014, as the heixin you (黑心油, ‘black-hearted oil’) incident shook the island’s food and beverage industry, leading the character hei (黑, ‘black’) to become the representative character of the year. Furthermore, a new record was set: the top ten characters with the highest vote tallies were all negative characters, and the positive character cheng (诚, ‘sincere’) did not emerge until 11th place. In 2014, the top three characters were all related to food safety, while the fourth-place character nu (怒, ‘anger’) was associated with the Sunflower Student Movement (太阳花学运). The author Kuo Chiung-Sen (郭琼森) stated that, with respect to the students’ occupation of legislative offices to protest the Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement, high housing prices, and twelve-year compulsory education, the Taiwanese people were “justified in their anger.” You Mei-Yue (游美月), the editor-in-chief of United Daily News (联合报), stated that dawn comes after dark: the world has darkness as well as light, and if Taiwan is able to perceive black and white, distinguish between right and

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wrong, and find its direction due to these incidents, then there is some hope for the future. The activity of the “Vote for Taiwan’s Representative Character” (台湾代表 字大选) entered its seventh year this year. Luan (乱, ‘chaos’) was selected in 2008; pan (盼, ‘looking forward’) was selected in 2009; dan (淡, ‘dull’) was selected in 2010; zan (赞, ‘like’) was selected in 2011; you (忧, ‘worry’) was selected in 2012; and jia (假, ‘fake’) was selected in 2013. Each of these characters reflected social intentions and public opinion in the given year.

References Hou, Li’an (侯利安). 2014. Editor-in-chief of PanSci website: recommending a record for the diagnosis of ‘language cancer’ (科普网站总编辑: 推“语言癌”诊断纪录). United Daily News (联合报), Dec. 21, 2014. United Daily News (联合报). 2014. ‘Carrying out the action of XX,’ do you have language cancer? (“进行一个× × 的动作” 你得语言癌了吗?). Dec. 19, 2014. Zhang, Jinhong (张锦弘). 2014. United Daily News’ special topic on ‘language cancer’ gets a response, Ministry of Education offers a prescription (联合报“语言癌”专题获回响 教部开 药方). United Daily News (联合报), Dec. 20, 2014.

Appendices

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

I Language-related content in the official documents of other national ministries and commissions 1 Ministry of Education 1.1 National Plan for Research on Minority Education (2014–2020) (全国民族教育科研规划 [2014–2020]) (jiao min ting [2014] No. 7, Nov. 2, 2014) Research on education in Tibet, Xinjiang, and the Tibetan areas of the four provinces Centering on improving the quality of education, oriented toward serving employment, founded upon promoting ethnic unity, focusing on furthering bilingual education and vocational education, and approaching through deepening reforms and restructuring, vigorous efforts shall be made to improve research on minority education in service of the state’s strategic decision-making capabilities, to promote the scientific and healthy development of education in Tibet, Xinjiang, and the Tibetan areas of the four provinces. The principal issues for research in this field include: Research on the issue of improving the focused nature and efficacy of education for ethnic unity under the new circumstances; research on the influence of the social environment and religion on education; research on resisting and preventing the infiltration of religious extremist ideologies among youths; research on the issue of religious common knowledge entering schools; research on the issue of broadly implementing education publicizing the system of law at all categories of schools, at all levels; research on the establishment of a bilingual teaching faculty system; research on mechanisms for the replenishment of rural bilingual teachers; research on improving the bilingual skills, education and teaching skills, and information technology skills of bi-

Note: “Other national ministries and commissions” refers to the ministries and commissions of the State Council apart from the State Language Commission and the State Ethnic Affairs Commission. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-034

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lingual teachers; research on improving the quality of training for bilingual teachers; research on the issue of the structural understaffing of bilingual teachers; research on the management of bilingual boarding schools; research on the establishment of a bilingual teaching quality system; research on the establishment of a database for bilingual teaching materials and resources; research on accelerating the establishment of educational informatization; research on the issue of restructuring of disciplines and majors for vocational education; research on reforms to personnel training models at vocational colleges and schools; survey research on the state of demand for talents at all levels and in all categories for the development of regional industries; research on bilingual teaching models in Tibet and the Tibetan areas of the four provinces; research on improving the quality of education in the subjects of mathematics, physics and chemistry at primary and secondary schools in Tibet and the Tibetan areas of the four provinces; research on the issue of discipline and major restructuring and course offerings at institutions of higher education and minority colleges in Tibet and the Tibetan areas of the four provinces; survey research on the majors pursued by students at institutions of institutions of higher education in Tibet and the Tibetan areas of the four provinces and their state of employment; survey research on the state of educational administration in the Inland Tibetan Program; research on the issue of the engagement of provinces and cities in the partner assistance program in interaction, exchange and intermingling activities with students of various minority groups in Xinjiang; research on the implementation of separate policies for bilingual teachers in southern Xinjiang . . . . Research on bilingual education theory and practices Bilingual education is an important part of our country’s minority education, as well as an important avenue for improving the quality of education and teaching for minority groups. The principal issues for research in this field include: Research on the fundamental theories of bilingual education; research on practical models for bilingual education; research on a quality monitoring system for bilingual education; research on the linkage of bilingual education in the preschool and compulsory education stages; research on the development of teaching materials and the establishment of resources for bilingual curricula; researching on the preparation and training of bilingual teachers; research on the patterns of bilingual education and teaching; research on the patterns of bilingual student learning; comparative research on domestic and international theory and practical models for bilingual education, et cetera. The principal tasks and objectives in this field of research are to continuously establish and perfect policies, theoretical

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systems, and practical models for bilingual education, and improve the quality and benefits of bilingual education.

Recent key research tasks on minority education (1) Research on bilingual education linkage and quality assurance systems The content includes: Research on the characteristics, patterns and methods of bilingual education and teaching; research on the linkage of bilingual education in preschool, primary school, junior secondary school, and various other stages of education; analysis and research on the factors influencing the quality of bilingual education; research on quality monitoring and assurance systems for bilingual education, et cetera. (2) Research on bilingual education policies and practices The content includes: Research on reforms to bilingual education for different languages; research on the establishment of a corps of qualified bilingual teachers; research on support mechanisms for spending on bilingual education; research on the establishment and development of bilingual educational resources; research on the application of modern information technology in bilingual education; assessment of bilingual education policies and international comparative research, et cetera. .... (11) Research on reforms to bilingual teacher preparation and training at normal schools in minority regions The content includes: Research on administrative orientation and reforms to normal schools in minority regions; research on the objectives of bilingual teacher preparation and training at normal schools in minority regions and the establishment of a curriculum system; research on models and mechanisms for bilingual teacher preparation and training at normal schools in minority regions, et cetera. (12) Research on reforms and practices for the establishment of the “bilingual dual-position” teacher workforce The content includes: Research on the current situation and issues in the establishment of the “bilingual dual-position” teacher workforce; research on the objectives and principal content of the establishment of the “bilingual dualposition” teacher workforce; research on system design and safeguard mechanisms for the establishment of the “bilingual dual-position” teacher workforce, et cetera.

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1.2 Notice of the Office of the Ministry of Education on the Issuance of the ‘Key Criteria for Education Informatization Work in 2014’ (教育部办公厅关于 印 发《2014年 教 育 信 息 化 工 作 要 点》的通知) (jiao ji ting [2014] No. 1, Mar. 12, 2014) 1

Organizing the development and application of bilingual digital educational resources for minorities Plans for the establishment of digital educational resources for minority regions shall be studied and formulated, focusing on the principal minority languages of the Xinjiang Region, and centering on editions of educational materials for the compulsory education stage with a high volume of usage and broad coverage, with priority development of bilingual digital educational resources for Mathematics (数学) suitable for use in the compulsory education stage in minority regions in Xinjiang and trial application. Minority education shall be strengthened. Preparations shall be made to convene the 6th National Working Conference on Minority Education, and issue the Decision on the Acceleration of Promotion of the Development of Minority Education (关于加快推进民族教育发展的决定). Educational restructuring in minority regions shall be promoted. Arrangements shall be made for comprehensive reform trials and pilot work in the field of minority education. Ethnic unity education in schools shall be extensively developed, educational materials for ethnic unity education shall continue to be revised, and guidelines for ethnic unity education in schools shall be formulated. The replenishment, preparation and training of bilingual teachers shall be strengthened. Efforts for the establishment of bilingual resources and work for the translation, editing, review and publication of educational materials in the spoken and written languages of minority groups shall be expanded. Plans for the preparation of minority talent and programs for the preparation of senior minority talent in the interior provinces shall be studied and formulated. The working mechanisms for education, preparation, management and services for students in minority programs in the interior provinces shall be perfected. The development of education science in Xinjiang, Tibet, and the Tibetan regions of the four provinces shall be promoted.

1 Source: website of the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共 和国教育部网站), http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/s7062/201403/ 165870.html.

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1.3 Recommendations of the Ministry of Education Regarding the Performance of Work Related to Schools for the Children of Foreign National Personnel (教育部关于做好外 籍人员子女学校有关工作的意见) (Education – Foreign School Administration [2015] No. 2, Dec. 23, 2014) 2

The principal subjects for admission to schools for the children of foreign national personnel comprise the accompanying (foreign national) children of foreign national personnel with lawful residency in an administrative district of the respective province, autonomous region, or direct-controlled municipality. Preschool education and general primary and secondary school education can be implemented, adopting foreign education and teaching models. Schools for the children of foreign national personnel may only use one name, and the foreign-language translated name shall be consistent with the Chinese name. The names of schools for the children of foreign national personnel shall reflect the nature, level and types of general education for different country origins, and shall not be labeled with words such as “China,” “Chinese,” “National,” “World,” “Global,” et cetera; the name of the respective province or city shall be added at the beginning of the name, and at the same time, “School for the Children of Foreign National Personnel” must be used as a subtitle to the name of the school.

2 State Ethnic Affairs Commission Measures of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission for the Administration of Bilingual Personnel Training Bases (Provisional) (国家民委双语人才培训基地管 理办法[试行]) (min wei fa [2014] No. 249, Dec. 17, 2013) Chapter 1: General Principles Article 1: These measures have been formulated to strengthen and standardize the construction and administration of the bilingual personnel training bases of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission (hereafter abbreviated as bases), in accordance with relevant regulations, and with reference to the practical working circumstances.

2 Source: website of the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共 和国教育部网站), http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe/_861/ 201503/xxgk_184507.html.

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Article 2: The guiding concepts in the construction and administration of the bases are: To take Deng Xiaoping theory, the important ideas of the “Three Represents,” and the scientific outlook on development as the guides, closely revolving around the theme of ethnic work to “Unite and strive to achieve common prosperity and development,” to comprehensively implement the ethnic language policies, laws and regulations of the Party and the state, solidly promote the institutionalization and normalization of ethnic language personnel training work, and fully safeguard the rights of citizens of all ethnicities to use and develop their ethnic spoken and written languages in accordance with the law, so as to make contributions to the promotion of the great development and great prosperity of socialist culture. Article 3: The principal tasks of the bases shall be: To cultivate personnel for the translation of minority languages on the grassroots level, to cultivate and train bilingual personnel for minority regions as well as relevant partygovernment agencies, the armed forces, the Armed Police Force, and other departments and units, and to train qualified bilingual teachers in minority languages and Chinese for minority regions, in accordance with the objectives of “steadfast ideology and politics, and competent bilingual skills.” Article 4: On the basis of the working requirements, the State Ethnic Affairs Commission shall select eligible educational institutions, or accept applications from relevant educational institutions, for the establishment of bilingual personnel training bases. Article 5: The bilingual personnel training bases of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission shall be uniformly designated as “Bilingual Personnel Training Base of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission (Supporting Unit).” Article 6: The bilingual personnel training bases of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission shall implement the administrative model of “unified administration and regular evaluations.” Article 7: The State Ethnic Affairs Commission shall support the bases in pursuing bilingual personnel training, researching topics on minority languages, and other work. Article 8: The base host institutions must include the necessary expenses for the construction, operation and administration of the base into the school’s annual fiscal budget; in principle, the budget allocated each year shall be no less than 1 million yuan. Chapter 2: Administrative Obligations Article 9: The Department of Education Science and Technology of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission shall specifically be responsible for base construction

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as well as organizational leadership and coordination of bilingual personnel preparation and training work, supervision and inspections, and other work. Article 10: The base host institutions shall establish an Office for Administration of the Bilingual Personnel Training Base of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, which shall specifically be responsible for the base’s day-to-day administrative work, as well as determining the director and liaison for the Office for Base Administration, with 1 staff member per position, and the roster shall be submitted to the Department of Education Science and Technology of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission for filing. The liaisons shall be responsible for communication and coordination work between the Department of Education Science and Technology of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission and the bilingual personnel training bases. Article 11: The educational institutions must report the work pursued in the name of the base to the Department of Education Science and Technology of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission for review and approval. The Office for Base Administration shall submit an annual work summary and the work plan for the following year to the Department of Education Science and Technology of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission each year prior to November 30. The plan can only be organized and implemented upon approval. Chapter 3: Standards for Base Construction Article 12: Teaching standards: (1) The resources of the given school shall be fully utilized in pursuing multiple models for engagement in training, combining long- and short-term programs, combining academic education with non-academic education, combining conventional programs with winter and summer vacation programs, and combining intensive training with online educational training. (2) On the basis of the training counterparties and professional characteristics, highly targeted training outlines and teaching plans shall be formulated, and the course offerings shall be optimized, so as to effectively improve the students’ applied bilingual skills. (3) Trends in teaching shall be promptly mastered, student seminars shall be regularly convened, and discussions of the quality of teaching shall be organized among the course instructors, to survey, understand and analyze problems, improve preparation and training work, and cause the teaching to adhere more closely to the students, and produce more substantial results. (4) The scope of teaching at the bases shall gradually be expanded, developing from majors such as language teaching and translation toward law, management studies, medicine, military-civilian dual-personnel

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training, and other practical disciplines and fields, to improve the level of social utility of the bases’ personnel training. (5) Modern multimedia technology and other teaching methods shall be fully utilized, with an emphasis on exercising the role of television distance education systems, computer network information systems, as well as wired and wireless radio education systems. (6) A regular training follow-up visit system shall be established to fully hear out the opinions and recommendations of the students as well as the students’ respective units, so as to improve the training work following summarization. Article 13: Teacher standards: (1) Full-time qualified teachers in the field of minority languages shall undertake the teaching tasks at the bases; the teachers’ teaching work at the basis shall be incorporated into the teachers’ annual workload, or else they shall be provided compensation in the form of remuneration for class hours. If necessary, suitable core and specialized personnel for bilingual teaching may be recruited from the public. (2) Teachers shall be assigned duties by the Office of Base Administration in coordination with the relevant departments of the educational institutions, and course instructors must meet the following standards: political compliance, proficiency in both a minority language and Chinese, abundant teaching experience, a strong sense of responsibility, and a professional title at the intermediate level or higher. (3) The base instructors must proactively engage in scientific research activities on bilingual teaching, focusing on the practical circumstances of teaching. Article 14: Standards for educational materials: (1) Clear value orientation. The selection of educational materials shall set out from the practical circumstances of the students, focusing on the professional characteristics of the students, so as to maximally stimulate the students’ enthusiasm for learning, while taking into account the inherent connections between knowledge in language and nonlanguage disciplines, and emphasizing comprehensiveness, interactivity, and sustainability. (2) Diversification of categories. Strong efforts shall be made to develop educational materials in multiple formats, including textual educational materials, cassette tapes, videocassettes, CDs, computer multimedia educational courseware, computer resource databases, network resources, et cetera.

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(3) Content localization. The cultural resources and academic resources of minority regions shall be fully mined, and the high-quality resources and distinctive characteristics accumulated in minority regions and at schools through long-term bilingual teaching shall be utilized to develop, design and select bilingual educational materials. Chapter 4: Operation and Administration Article 15: The base host institutions must strengthen efforts for the construction and administration of the bases, convening at least 1 meeting of the President’s Office per year, to hear reports on the base work, and study and resolve relevant problems. Article 16: The base host institutions must closely conform to the practical circumstances in formulating and introducing measures for the administration of base funding and other regulatory systems, which shall be reported to the Department of Education Science and Technology of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission for filing. Article 17: The Office of Base Administration shall specifically be responsible for day-to-day operating and administrative work, with the principal tasks including research and formulation of the base’s construction objectives and annual mission, as well as planning, organization, coordination and undertaking of day-to-day administration of the bases, personnel training, preparation of educational materials, pedagogical research, and other work. Article 18: In accordance with the requirements of teaching and research, the bases shall assign outstanding course instructors to develop compliant educational materials, fully utilizing the resources of the given school to develop diversified training models. Article 19: The bases must place emphasis on the establishment of an academic style, creating a good atmosphere for teaching and working. Chapter 5: Assessments and Evaluations Article 20: Standards for functional evaluations: (1) Function of educational training for workers on leave. Supporting measures and facilities for education, teaching and life services shall be provided to undertake to-scale short-term educational training tasks for workers on leave for 2000 person-times per year. (2) Function of scientific research on education and teaching. The capacity to independently engage in research on bilingual teaching shall be provided. A full- and part-time team for research on bilingual teaching shall be provided.

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(3) Function of distance education and training. Multiple forms of distance education methods shall be provided, such as network education, correspondence education, television education, et cetera, and the capacity for distance education shall be provided for students in remote minority regions inconducive to centralized course instruction. (4) Function of general education and training. The conditions for engagement in general academic education and teaching shall be provided, with the capacity for engagement in academic education in the Chinese language, minority languages, modern education technologies, and other majors, while also having the capacity to cooperate with other majors and colleges on academic education for bilingual personnel in relevant majors. Article 21: Standards for student completion (including graduation): (1) Listening skills: Able to aurally understand discourse on day-to-day work, studies and life in both languages. (2) Speaking skills: Able to meet the requirements for day-to-day life, social interactions, and a certain range of work exchanges; able to use both languages to engage in relatively fluent communication and exchanges. (3) Reading skills: Able to read periodicals and documents in the Chineselanguage or minority-language writing systems, as well as other textual materials related to day-to-day work and life. (4) Writing skills: Mastery of day-to-day phraseology in both languages; mastery of commonly-used words within the scope of social interactions and certain work requirements; able to independently use both languages to write common written texts. (5) Translation skills: Able to translate discourses for day-to-day work, studies and life. Able to translate day-today work documents, et cetera. Article 22: Comprehensive evaluation standards: (1) The State Ethnic Affairs Commission shall engage in dynamic monitoring of the state of base construction, operation and administration, conducting one intensive evaluation every three years, and the results of the evaluations shall serve as the basis for retaining or revoking the base. (2) The minimum standards for retaining a base shall be: Essentially perfected conditions, comparatively complete systems, relatively standardized administration, essentially normal operation, and fairly significant achievements. The State Ethnic Affairs Commission may revoke bases which fail to attain these standards.

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(3) New applications for bases shall be granted review and approval after passing the evaluation organized by the State Ethnic Affairs Commission. Chapter 6: Supplementary Articles Article 23: The base host institutions shall formulate rules for implementation and properly execute them in accordance with these Measures. Article 24: The Department of Education Science and Technology of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission is responsible for the interpretation of these Measures. Article 25: These Measures shall go into effect as of January 1, 2014.

3 Ministry of Civil Affairs Proposal for Implementation of the Second National Survey of Toponyms (第二次 全国地名普查实施方案) (guo di ming pu cha zu fa [2014] No. 1, Apr. 11, 2014) This proposal has been formulated in accordance with the spirit of the Notice of the State Council on Undertaking the Second National Survey of Toponyms (国务院关于开展第二次全国地名普查的通知) (Guo fa [2014] No. 3), in order to properly complete the work for the Second National Survey of Toponyms. I. Objectives and Tasks The basic circumstances of toponyms shall be thoroughly investigated, naming of geographic entities which do not have a toponym but serve in the function of a toponym shall be carried out, standardizing treatment of nonstandard toponyms shall be carried out, standard toponym identifiers shall be instituted, national toponym and districting databases (such as the National Toponym Database) at all levels shall be established and perfected, the construction of toponym informatization services shall be strengthened, and the fundamental role of toponyms in promoting coordinated socioeconomic development, facilitating the production and lives of the masses, strengthening the construction of national defense, upholding national sovereignty and territorial integrity, and other areas shall be exercised. (1) Surveying the basic circumstances of toponyms. To include information on the names, locations, and relevant attributes of 11 overarching categories of toponyms, including administrative districts, non-administrative districts, community self-governance organizations, residential areas, transportation facilities, water resources, electric power, and communications

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facilities, memorials, tourist locations, buildings, units, inland waterways, landforms, et cetera. (2) Standardization of the names of geographic entities. In accordance with the relevant national laws and regulations on toponym management, naming of geographic entities which do not have a toponym but serve in the function of a toponym shall be carried out; standardizing treatment of non-standard toponyms shall be carried out, to effectively resolve problems which exist in relation to toponyms, such as multiple names for one place and duplication of toponyms, as well as disregard for tradition in the designation of toponyms, deliberate idolization of the West, false inflation of prestige, names inconsistent with reality, inaccurate translation of toponyms, use of non-standard characters, unhealthy connotations, et cetera. (3) Institution of toponym identifiers. Toponym identifiers shall be instituted on the basis of practical requirements, and in accordance with relevant national standards. (4) Development and application of survey results. The results of the toponym survey shall be utilized to compile toponym maps, records, dictionaries, treatises, and other publications, to establish and perfect national toponym and districting databases at all levels, to undertake toponym informatization services, and to develop and prepare products for toponym informatization services. (5) The Toponym Survey Archives shall be established, to achieve digitalized management of the toponym survey records. II. Scope of Survey All national land territories apart from the Second National Toponym Survey Pilot Region (not including the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Macau Special Administrative Region, and Taiwan Province).

4 Ministry of Transport Regulations for Administration of Taxi Operation Services (出租汽车经营服务管 理规定) (Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of China, Order No. 16, Sept. 30, 2014)3

3 Source: central government portal website (中央政府门户网站), http://www.gov.cn/gong bao/content/2015/content_2799021.htm.

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Taxi drivers shall provide services in accordance with the national standards for taxi services, and shall abide by the following regulations: being neatly dressed, with civilized language, taking the initiative to give salutations, and reminding passengers to buckle their safety belts. If taxi drivers violate these regulations, under any one of the following situations, the agency for road and transport administration at the county level and above shall order that corrections be made, and issue a warning or a fine of more than 50 yuan and less than 200 yuan: failure to use civilized language in accordance with regulations; vehicle appearance not in compliance with requirements.

5 Ministry of Culture Notice of the Ministry of Culture on the Issuance of the ‘Measures for Assessment of National Key Art Museums’ (Revised Draft) and Other Documents (文化部关于 印发《全国重点美术馆评估办法》 [ 修订稿] 等文件的通知) (yi fa [2014] No. 33, Sept. 15, 2014) Key exhibition projects and foreign-related exhibition projects shall provide guidance commentary services in two or more than two languages to the public, and the commentary shall be scientific, accurate, vivid, and elegant; commentary services geared toward special visitor groups shall be provided; and modernized self-service audio commentary equipment for two or more than two languages shall be provided. A dedicated website shall be provided, and the webpage design shall be elegant, with rich content, and a vivid and lively format, supporting two or more than two languages, with timely updating of webpages; multiple forms of interactive or participatory cultural and educational services facilities shall be established within the museum, with distinctive and high-quality services.

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6 State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television 6.1 Notice on the Normative Use of the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language in Radio and Television Programs and Advertising (关于广播电视节目和广告中规 范使用国家通用语言文字的通知) In recent years, in accordance with the requirements of the Notice on the Promotion and Popularization of Putonghua as the Standard Language in Radio and Television Programs (关于规范广播电视节目用语推广普及普通话的通知) (guang fa [2013] No. 96), radio and television organizations at all levels have made careful arrangements to rectify the phenomenon of non-standard language in radio and television, achieving significant results, and have succeeding in containing phenomena such as deliberate imitation of pronunciations with regional characteristics, arbitrary use of loanwords and Internet language, et cetera. However, listeners and viewers have recently reported that problems with non-standard spoken and written language are still present in certain radio and television programs and advertising, such as casual distortion, arbitrary use of idioms, changing jin shan jin mei (尽善尽美, ‘the acme of perfection’) to jin shan jin mei (晋善晋美, ‘Shanxi, a land of splendors’), changing ke bu rong huan (刻不容缓, ‘haste brooks no delay’) to ke bu rong huan (咳不容缓, ‘coughing brooks no delay’), et cetera. These approaches are not in conformity with the fundamental requirements of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字法), Regulations for Administration of Radio and Television (广播电视管理条例), and other laws and regulations, are in contravention of the spirit of perpetuating and cultivating the excellent Chinese traditional culture, have a misleading effect on the public, particularly minors, and must be resolutely corrected. Notice is hereby given regarding relevant work as follows: I. The weighty significance of normative use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language shall be fully recognized. The promotion, popularization and normative use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language in radio and television is a strategic need in perpetuating the excellent traditional culture and enhancing the country’s cultural soft power; it is a concrete measure for establishing cultural consciousness, cultural confidence, and cultural self-improvement, and ensuring cultural security; it is also a fundamental requirement for listeners and viewers at large to listen to and watch good radio and television programs. As mass media,

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radio and television are charged with the duties of guidance and setting an example: they must take the lead in the normative use of the standard spoken and written language, and serve as an example for all of society. II. High value shall be placed on the necessity of the standard use of idioms. Idioms are a major characteristic of Chinese linguistic culture, bearing profound humanistic connotations, and containing abundant historical resources, aesthetic resources, intellectual resources, and moral resources; they are a precious national cultural heritage, embodying the continuation and development of the genes of Chinese culture in modern civilization, and they are an important vehicle for allowing the excellent traditional Chinese culture to be “living.” Radio and television must promote and perpetuate idioms and other unique forms of expression in the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and fully develop their cultural spirit and linguistic charm; they cannot bring about cultural sequestering and linguistic chaos due to reckless and arbitrary adaptations and usages. III. The use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language shall be strictly standardized. Various categories of radio and television programs and advertising shall use the characters, words, phrases, idioms, et cetera of the standard spoken and written Chinese language strictly in accordance with the standard writing style and standard meaning, and are prohibited from arbitrarily replacing characters, changing the structure, or distorting the connotations; prohibited from arbitrarily inserting Internet language or foreign-language terms into idiom, and prohibited from using or introducing phrases created on the basis of Internet language in imitation of the idiom format, such as shi dong ran ju (十动然拒, ‘very moving, but rejected’) and ren jian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’), et cetera. IV. Efforts for review, management, investigation and remediation shall be strengthened. Departments for the administration of radio and television at all levels must increase oversight efforts: existing phenomena of nonstandard, inaccurate use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, particularly the problem of the arbitrary adaptation and use of idioms, absolutely must be promptly discovered and swiftly corrected, and broadcasting organizations and relevant responsible personnel who deliberately violate the regulations must be dealt with severely. Radio and television broadcasting organizations at all levels must carefully engage in self-inspection and self-correction, focusing on the investigation of captions, images, dubbing, et cetera for radio and television programs and advertising, and strengthening reminders and guidance for hosts, guests of honor, and other personnel participating in programs on the normative use of the standard spoken and

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Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

written language; broadcasting of content with non-standard use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language is prohibited, with no exceptions. The Oversight Center of the State Administration will conduct a comprehensive investigation of each integrated satellite television channel in the near future, and problems with grave violations shall be dealt with severely. Each provincial-level listening and viewing center shall also conduct a comprehensive investigation of the programs on each channel and frequency within its jurisdiction, and shall resolutely halt broadcasting and penalize programs with non-standard use of the standard spoken and written language.

6.2 Guiding Recommendations on Promoting the Digitalized Transformation and Upgrading of the News Publishing Industry (关于推动新闻出版业数字化转型升级的指导意见) (xin guang chu fa [2014] No. 52, Apr. 24, 2014) 4

Enterprises shall be supported in undertaking the application of the national standards for Multimedia Printed Reading Matter (MPR) (多媒体印刷读物 [MPR]). Emphasis shall be placed on support for educational, children’s and minority language publishing units, et cetera, promoting the digitalized transformation and upgrading of enterprises from a single-product format to a multimedia, composite publishing product format, and from providing products to content services. This shall include: The development of enterprise-level applied standards; the deployment of corresponding software systems; the completion of topic planning and resource-gathering, and the development of educational materials and tutoring products, as well as reading products for children and in minority written languages; engagement in ground-floor technological compatibility research and applications; establishment of an MPR publishing resource database; as well as innovation of the product sales system, and construction of a three-dimensional sales system from brick-andmortar stores to e-commerce. The exploration of models for the transformation and upgrading of specialized publishing shall be supported. Emphasis shall be placed on support for separate or joint engagement in exploration of models for specialized digital content resources and knowledge services by certain specialized publishing

4 Source: central government portal website (中央政府门户网站), http://www.gov.cn/xin wen/2014-04/30/content_2669106.htm.

I Language-related content in the official documents

435

enterprises on the basis of the service sector. This shall include: Engagement in the application of key technologies for knowledge mining, semantic analysis, and other key knowledge service sectors, the development of knowledge service standards based on specialized content, the establishment of knowledge resource databases based on specialized publishing content, and the construction of knowledge service platforms for knowledge resource databases.

7 China Food and Drug Administration 7.1 Procedural Regulations on Food and Drug Administrative Penalties (食品药品行政处罚程序规定) (China Food and Drug Administration Order No. 3, Mar. 14, 2014) Chinese translations which have been translated by an organization with certification in translation or otherwise accurately translated shall be provided for spoken and written language contained in overseas evidence.

7.2 Regulations for the Administration of Medical Device Manuals and Labels (医疗器械说明书和标签管理规定) (China Food and Drug Administration Order No. 6, Jul. 2014, 2014) 5

The textual content of medical device manuals and labels shall use the Chinese written language, and the use of the Chinese written language shall be in compliance with the standards for the standard spoken and written Chinese language. Medical device manuals and labels can add other languages, but the Chinese-language formulation shall prevail. Medical device manuals and labels are prohibited from having the following content: Where containing zuigao jishu (最高技术, ‘most high-tech’), zui kexue (最科 学, ‘most scientific’), zui xianjin (最先进, ‘most advanced’), zuijia (最佳, ‘best’), and other absolutist language and expressions;

5 Source: central government portal website (中央政府门户网站), http://www.gov.cn/gong bao/content/2014/content_2765482.htm.

436

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

Where containing baoxian gongsi baoxian (保险公司保险, ‘insured by insurance company’), wuxiao tuikuan (无效退款, ‘refund if ineffective’), and other promissory language.

8 China Securities Regulatory Commission Standards for the Content and Format of Information Disclosure by Companies Offering Securities to the Public, No. 35 – Prospectus for Securities Offered to the Public by Listed Companies in the Entrepreneurial Sector (公开发行证券的公司信 息披露内容与格式准则第35 号 – – 创业板上市公司公开发行证券募集说明书) (China Securities Regulatory Commission Announcement [2014] No. 30, Jun. 11, 2014) The preparation of a prospectus shall adhere to the following requirements: Easily comprehensible, factually descriptive language shall be used, and tables or other relatively intuitive methods shall be adopted to disclose the company and its products, financial situation, and other details. The issuer may prepare a foreign-language translation of the prospectus, but it shall ensure the uniformity of the Chinese and foreign-language versions, and if a dispute should arise regarding the understanding of the Chinese and foreign-language versions, the Chinese-language version shall prevail. The prospectus table of contents shall indicate the heading and corresponding page number for each chapter and section. The issuer shall provide explanations of terms which may constitute a barrier to comprehension by investors and which have special meanings. The prospectus explanations shall be typeset and printed on the page following the table of contents.

II Recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms (batches 1–3) Batch 1: List of recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms

No. Acronym for foreignlanguage term

Full foreignlanguage term

Chinese translation



AIDS

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

Aizibing (艾滋病, ‘AIDS’)



E-mail

electronic mail

dianzi youjian (电子邮件, ‘e- dianyou (电邮, ‘e-mail’) mail’)



GDP

gross domestic product

guonei shengchan zongzhi (国内生产总值, ‘gross domestic product’)



IQ

intelligence quotient

zhishang (智商, ‘intelligence quotient’)



IT

information technology

xinxi jishu (信息技术, ‘information technology’)



OECD

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

jingji hezuo yu fazhan zuzhi (经济合作与发展组织, ‘Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’)

jinghe zuzhi (经合组织, ‘Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’)



OPEC

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

shiyou shuchuguo zuzhi (石 油输出国组织, ‘Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries’)

oupeike (欧佩克, ‘OPEC’)



PM .

particulate matter

xikeliwu (细颗粒物, ‘particulate matter’)



WHO

World Health Organization

shijie weisheng zuzhi (世界 卫生组织, ‘World Health Organization’)

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-035

Alternative translation

shiwei zuzhi (世卫组织, ‘World Health Organization’)

438

II Recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms (batches 1–3)

(continued )

No. Acronym for foreignlanguage term

Full foreignlanguage term

Chinese translation



World Trade Organization

shijie maoyi zuzhi (世界贸易 shimao zuzhi (世贸组织, 组织, ‘World Trade ‘World Trade Organization’) Organization’)

WTO

Alternative translation

Batch 2: List of recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms

No. Acronym for foreignlanguage term

Full foreignlanguage term

Chinese translation

Alternative translation



UN

United Nations

Lianheguo (联合国, ‘United Nations’)



UNGA

United Nations General Assembly

Lianheguo dahui (联合国大 lianda (联大, ‘United 会, ‘United Nations General Nations General Assembly’) Assembly’)



UN United Nations Secretariat Secretariat

Lianheguo mishuchu (联合 国秘书处, ‘United Nations Secretariat’)



UNICJ

United Nations International Court of Justice

Lianheguo guoji fayuan (联合国国际法院, ‘United Nations International Court of Justice’)

guoji fayuan (国际法院, ‘International Court of Justice’)



UNCTAD

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

Lianheguo maoyi he fazhan huiyi (联合国贸易和发展会 议, ‘United Nations Conference on Trade and Development’)

Lianheguo mao fa huiyi (联合国贸发会议, ‘United Nations Conference on Trade and Development’)

II Recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms (batches 1–3)

439

(continued )

No. Acronym for foreignlanguage term

Full foreignlanguage term

Chinese translation

Alternative translation



IAEA

International Atomic Energy Agency

guoji yuanzi neng jigou (国际原子能机构, ‘International Atomic Energy Agency’)



OPCW

Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons

jinzhi huaxue wuqi zuzhi (禁止化学武器组织, ‘Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons’)

jin hua wu zuzhi (禁化武 组织, ‘Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons’)



ICAO

International Civil Aviation Organization

guoji minyong hangkong zuzhi (国际民用航空组织, ‘International Civil Aviation Organization’)

guoji minhang zuzhi (国际民航组织, ‘International Civil Aviation Organization’)



ILO

International Labor Organization

guoji laogong zuzhi (国际 劳工组织, ‘International Labor Organization’)



IMO

International Maritime Organization

guoji haishi zuzhi (国际海 事组织, ‘International Maritime Organization’)



ITU

International Telecommunication Union

guoji dianxin lianmeng (国 guoji dianlian (国际电联, 际电信联盟, ‘International ‘International Telecommunication Union’) Telecommunication Union’)



UNWTO

United Nations World Tourism Organization

shijie lüyou zuzhi (世界旅游 组织, ‘World Tourism Organization’)



UPU

Universal Postal Union

wanguo youzheng lianmeng (万国邮政联盟, ‘Universal Postal Union’)



WIPO

World Intellectual Property Organization

shijie zhishi chanquan zuzhi (世界知识产权组织, ‘World Intellectual Property Organization’)

wanguo youlian (万国邮 联, ‘Universal Postal Union’)

440

II Recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms (batches 1–3)

(continued )

No. Acronym for foreignlanguage term

Full foreignlanguage term

Chinese translation



IFC

International Finance Corporation

guoji jinrong gongsi (国际 金融公司, ‘International Finance lCorporation’)



UNGEGN

United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names

Lianheguo diming zhuanjia zu (联合国地名专家组, ‘United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names’)

Alternative translation

Batch 3: List of recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms

No. Acronym for foreignlanguage term

Full foreign-language term

Chinese translation



Committee on NonGovernmental Organizations

Lianheguo fei zhengfu zuzhi weiyuanhui (联合 国非政府组织委员会, ‘United Nations Committee on NonGovernmental Organizations’)

Department of Field Support

Lianheguo waiqin zhizhu bu (联合国外勤支助部, ‘United Nations Department of Field Support’)



DFS

Alternative translation

Lianheguo waiqin bu (联合国外勤部, ‘United Nations Department of Field Support’)

II Recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms (batches 1–3)

441

(continued )

No. Acronym for foreignlanguage term

Full foreign-language term

Chinese translation

Alternative translation



DM

Department of Management

Lianheguo guanli shiwu bu (联合国管理事务部, ‘United Nations Department of Management’)

Lianheguo guanli bu (联合国管理部, ‘United Nations Department of Management’)



DPKO

Department of Peacekeeping Operations

Lianheguo weichi heping xingdong bu (联合国维 持和平行动部, ‘United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations’)

Lianheguo weihe bu (联合国维和部, ‘United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations’)



DPA

Department of Political Affairs

Lianheguo zhengzhi shiwu bu (联合国政治事 务部, ‘United Nations Department of Political Affairs’)

Lianheguo zhengzhi bu (联合国政治部, ‘United Nations Department of Political Affairs’)



EOSG

Executive Office of the Secretary-General

Lianheguo mishuzhang bangongting (联合国秘 书长办公厅, ‘Executive Office of the United Nations SecretaryGeneral’)



IBRD

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

guoji fuxing kaifa yinhang (国际复兴开发 银行, ‘International Bank for Reconstruction and Development’)



IDA

International Development Association

guoji kaifa xiehui (国际 开发协会, ‘International Development Association’)

442

II Recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms (batches 1–3)

(continued )

No. Acronym for foreignlanguage term

Full foreign-language term

Chinese translation

Alternative translation



International Law Commission of United Nations

Lianheguo guoji fa weiyuanhui (联合国国际 法委员会, ‘International Law Commission of United Nations’)



Military Staff Committee

Anlihui junshi canmoutuan (安理会军 事参谋团, ‘Military Staff Committee of the Security Council’)

Anlihui juncan tuan (安理会军参团’Military Staff Committee of the Security Council’)



OCHA

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

Lianheguo rendaozhuyi shiwu xietiao ting (联合 国人道主义事务协调厅, ‘Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs’)

Lianheguo rendao xietiao ting (联合国人道 协调厅, ‘Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs’)



OIOS

Office of Internal Oversight Services

Lianheguo neibu jiandu shiwu ting (联合国内部 监督事务厅, ‘United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services’)

Lianheguo jiandu ting (联合国监督厅, ‘United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services’)



OLA

Office of Legal Affairs

Lianheguo falü shiwu ting (联合国法律事务厅, ‘United Nations Office of Legal Affairs’)

Lianheguo falü ting (联合国法律厅, ‘United Nations Office of Legal Affairs’)

Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization

quanmian jinzhi he shiyan tiaoyue zuzhi choubei weiyuanhui (全 面禁止核试验条约组织 筹备委员会, ‘Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive NuclearTest-Ban Treaty Organization’)

jin heshi zuzhi chou weihui (禁核试组织筹委 会, ‘Preparatory Commission for the Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization’)



II Recommended Chinese translations of foreign-language terms (batches 1–3)

443

(continued )

No. Acronym for foreignlanguage term

Full foreign-language term



UNON

United Nations Office at Lianheguo Neiluobi Nairobi banshichu (联合国内罗 毕办事处, ‘United Nations Office at Nairobi’)



UNOV

United Nations Office at Lianheguo Neiluobi Vienna banshichu (联合国维也 纳办事处, ‘United Nations Office at Vienna’)



UNOPS

United Nations Office for Project Services

Lianheguo xiangmu shiwu ting (联合国项目 事务厅, ‘United Nations Office for Project Services’)



UNSSC

United Nations System Staff College

Lianheguo xitong zhiyuan xueyuan (联合国 系统职员学院, ‘United Nations System Staff College’)



UNU

United Nations University

Lianheguo daxue (联合 国大学, ‘United Nations University’)



World Bank

Shijie yinhang (世界银 行, ‘World Bank’)



World Bank Group

Shijie yinhang jituan (世 shihang jituan (世行集 界银行集团, ‘World Bank 团, ‘World Bank Group’) Group’)

World Meteorological Organization

Shijie qixiang zuzhi (世 界气象组织, ‘Shijie qixiang zuzhi’)



WMO

Chinese translation

Alternative translation

Lianheguo xiangmu ting (联合国项目厅, ‘United Nations Office for Project Services’)

III The first batch of terms for the “Project for the Translation and Communication of Key Concepts in Chinese Culture and Thought” (中华思想文化术语传播工程) Chinese term

Pinyin

English translation

诚

cheng

‘sincerity’

道

dao

Dao (‘way’)

德

de

De (‘virtue’)

理

li

Li (‘reason’)

气

qi

Qi (‘vital force’)

情

qing

Qing (‘sentiment’)

趣

qu

Qu (‘interest’)

仁

ren

Ren (‘benevolence’)

天

tian

Tian (‘Heaven’)

王

wang

‘king’

物

wu

‘thing’ or ‘matter’

心

xin

‘heart’ / ‘mind’

性

xing

Xing (‘nature’)

虚

xu

Xu (‘emptiness’)

义

yi

‘righteousness’

本末

benmo

Ben-Mo (‘the fundamental and the incidental’)

霸道

badao

‘despotic way’

般若

bore / boruo

Bore / Boruo (‘wisdom’)

大同

datong

‘universal harmony’

法治

fazhi

‘rule by law’

封建

fengjian

‘feudal system’

格调

gediao

‘form and melody’

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-036

446

III Project for the Translation and Communication of Key Concepts

(continued ) Chinese term

Pinyin

English translation

华夏

huaxia

Huaxia (‘China’)

教化

jiaohua

‘shaping the mind through education’

九州

Jiuzhou

Nine Zhou (‘nine regions’)

良史

liangshi

‘good historian’ / ‘good history’

良知

liangzhi

Liangzhi (‘conscience’)

情景

qingjing

‘sentiment and scenery’

人治

renzhi

‘rule by man’

日新

rixin

‘constant renewal’

镕裁

rongcai

‘refining and deleting’

神思

shensi

‘imaginative contemplation’

太极

taiji

Taiji (‘the Supreme Ultimate’)

体性

tixing

‘style and temperament’

体用

tiyong

‘Ti and Yong’ (‘substance and utility’)

天下

tianxia

Tianxia (‘all under Heaven’)

王道

wangdao

‘kingly way’ (‘benevolent governance’)

文明

wenming

Wenming (‘civilization’)

文气

wenqi

Wenqi (‘force of writing’)

无为

wuwei

‘non-action’

五行

wuxing

Wuxing (‘five elements’)

兴象

xingxiang

Xingxiang (‘inspiring imagery’)

玄览

xuanlan

Xuanlan (‘peaceful contemplation’)

雅俗

yasu

‘highbrow and lowbrow’

养气

yangqi

‘cultivating Qi’

III Project for the Translation and Communication of Key Concepts

447

(continued ) Chinese term

Pinyin

English translation

意象

yixiang

‘imagery’

阴阳

yinyang

Yin and Yang

有无

youwu

You and Wu (‘being and non-being’)

缘起

yuanqi

‘dependent origination’

知音

zhiyin

‘resonance and empathy’

直寻

zhixun

‘direct quest’

中国

Zhongguo

Zhongguo (‘China’)

中华

Zhonghua

Zhonghua (‘China’)

中庸

zhongyong

Zhongyong (‘golden mean’)

滋味

ziwei

‘nuanced flavor’

自然

ziran

‘naturalness’

宗法

zongfa

‘feudal clan system’

风雅颂

feng ya song

‘ballad, court hymn, and euology’

赋比兴

fu bi xing

‘narrative, analogy, and association’

诗言志

shi yan zhi

‘Poetry expresses aspirations.’

诗缘情

shi yuan qing

‘Poetry springs from emotions.’

发愤著书

fa fen zhushu

‘Indignation spurs one to write great works.’

怀远以德

huai yuan yi de

‘embrace distant states by means of virtue’

利用厚生

liyong housheng

‘make full use of resources to enrich the people’

民为邦本

min wei bang ben

‘people being the foundation of the state’

人文化成

renwen huacheng

Ren Wen Hua Cheng (‘achievement of civilization through education in the humanities’)

顺天应人

shuntian yingren

‘follow the mandate of Heaven and comply with the wishes of the people’

448

III Project for the Translation and Communication of Key Concepts

(continued ) Chinese term

Pinyin

English translation

为政以德

wei zheng yi de

‘governance based on virtue’

文以载道

wen yi zai dao

‘literature is the vehicle of ideas’

协和万邦

xiehe wanbang

‘coexistence of all in harmony’

兴观群怨

xing guan qun yuan

‘stimulation, contemplation, sociability, and criticism’

修齐治平

xiu qi zhi ping

‘self-cultivation, family regulation, state governance, bring peace to all under Heaven’

有教无类

youjiao wulei

‘education for all without discrimination’

紫之夺朱

zi zhi duo zhu

‘purple prevailing over red’ (‘evil prevailing over righteousness’)

自然英旨

ziran yingzhi

‘charm of spontaneity’

有德者必有言

youdezhe bi you yan ‘Virtuous people are sure to produce fine writing.’

不学« 诗», 无以 言

bu xue ‘Shi,’ wu yi yan

‘If you do not study The Book of Songs, you will not be eloquent.’

乐而不淫, 哀而 不伤

le er bu yin, ai er bu shang

‘express enjoyment without indulgence and express grief without excessive distress’

厉与西施, 道通 为一

Li yu Xishi, dao tong wei yi

‘A scabby person and the Beautiful Lady Xishi are the same in the eyes of Dao.’

声一无听, 物一 无文

sheng yi wu ting, wu ‘A single note does not compose a melodious tune, yi wu wen nor does a single color make a beautiful pattern.’

象外之象, 景外 之景

xiang wai zhi xiang, jing wai zhi jing

‘the image beyond an image, the scene beyond a scene’

信言不美, 美言 不信

xin yan bu mei, mei yan bu xin

‘Sincere words may not be pleasant to the ear; flowery rhetoric may not be sincere.’

Bai Juan (白娟)

IV Chronology of major events in language life 2014 On January 3–10, Professor Joseph Lo Bianco of the University of Melbourne in Australia was the first expert invited to China to participate in academic exchange activities for the “China Exchange Program for International Senior Language Experts of the State Language Commission” (国家语委语言文字国际高 端专家来华交流项目), symbolizing the formal implementation of the program. On January 7, the 3rd annual conference of the Putonghua Pronunciation Committee (普通话审音委员会) was convened in Beijing. On January 20, the first working conference of the “Program for the Development of Technical Standards and Platforms for the China Language Resource Audio Database” (中国语言资源有声数据库技术规范与平台研发项目) was convened in Beijing. On January 22, the Ministry of Education and State Language Commission held a video conference on national language informatization work in Beijing, to implement the objectives and tasks of the Outline of National Mid- to LongTerm Plans for Language Reform and Development (2012–2020) (国家中长期语 言文字事业改革和发展规划纲要[2012–2020年]) with regard to “further promoting the level of language informatization.” On February 12, the Measures for the Implementation of the ‘Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language’ in Henan Province (河南省实施‹ 中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法› 办法) were passed at the 22nd Executive Meeting of the Henan Provincial Government, going into effect as of April 1, 2014. On February 14, the Office of the Jilin Provincial Language Commission opened the WeChat public platform “Spoken and Written Language in Jilin Province” (吉林省语言文字), representing the first WeChat service platform opened by provincial-level language work agency nationwide. On February 26–27, the Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China and the Department of Culture of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council jointly convened the “2014 National Working Conference on Chinese Language and Culture Education” (2014 年全国华文教育工作会议). On February 28, the State Language Commission held the 2014 National Working Conference on Spoken and Written Language in Beijing.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-037

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Bai Juan (白娟)

In March, the De Gruyter publishing house of Germany and China’s Commercial Press jointly published the second volume of The Language Situation in China. On March 7, the “Zizai – Chinese Font Design Forum and 7th ‘Founder Prize’ Chinese Font Design Competition Awards Ceremony” (字在 – – 中文字体设计论坛 暨第七届“方正奖” 中文字体设计大赛颁奖仪式) jointly sponsored by the Center for Chinese Font Design and Research of the State Language Commission and Beijing Founder Electronics Co., Ltd., was held in Beijing. On March 10, the State Language Commission issued Certain Recommendations for Further Accomplishment of Language Informatization Work (关于进 一步做好语言文字信息化工作的若干意见). On March 25, the ribbon-cutting ceremony for the China Korean Language Informatization Base of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission was held at Yanbian University. On April 1, New Weekly (新周刊) of Xinrui Media published the 2013 annual report card for Chinese television, and the massive Chinese character and culture program Chinese Character Dictation Contest (中国汉字听写大会) jointly sponsored by China Central Television and the State Language Commission and creatively produced by Shili Communication was honored with the “Award for the Year’s Best Humanities Program” (年度最佳人文节目奖). On April 2, a symposium for the “Project for the Translation and Communication of Key Concepts in Chinese Culture and Thought” (中华思想文化术语传播 工程) was convened at the Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. On April 4, the activity “Calligraphy Masters Enter School Campuses” (书法 名家进校园) was held at Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College. On April 11, the People’s Daily (人民日报) published “The Misuse of Loanwords is Unacceptable!” (外来语滥用, 不行!), assailing the phenomenon of intermingling Chinese and English. Between April 18 and July 6, the first Chinese Idiom Contest (中国成语大会) program jointly sponsored by the State Language Commission and China Central Television was broadcast on the general channel and science education channel of China Central Television. On April 19, the activity series “2014 Literary China” (2014 书香中国) and th 4 Beijing Reading Festival Inaugural Ceremony were launched in Beijing. On April 22, Beijing Founder Electronics Co., Ltd., formally launched the “Original Font Support Program for Design Institutes” (设计院校正版字体支持 计划), to popularize awareness for protection of intellectual property rights for character libraries beginning with institutions of higher education, and boost the cultivation of talent in the character library industry.

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On April 23, a series of national reading activities, including the “Jiangsu Reading Festival” (江苏读书节), “Literary Hubei” (书香荆楚), “Literary Fujian” (书香八闽), “Literary Lingnan” (书香岭南), “Hunan Reading Month” (三湘读书 月), “South China Book Festival” (南国书香节), “Tianshan Reading Festival” (天山读书节), “Literary Chongqing” (书香重庆), “Three Qins Book Month” (三秦 书月), “Literary Bagui” (书香八桂), “Literary Longjiang” (书香龙江), “Shenzhen Reading Month” (深圳读书月), and “Suzhou Reading Festival” (苏州阅读节), were launched in various places around the time of “World Book Day” (世界读书日). On April 23, the “2014 Principals’ Reading Forum and China Education Newspaper Announcement Ceremony for the Top Ten Figures for Promotion of Reading in 2013” (2014 校长读书论坛暨中国教育报 2013 年度推动读书十大人物 揭晓仪式) was held at the Commercial Press under the joint sponsorship of China Education Newspaper (中国教育报), the Commercial Press, and the Special Committee on Secondary School Language Arts Education of the Chinese Society of Education. On April 25, the People’s Daily (人民日报) published “Why Has ‘Zero Translation’ Been Widely Adopted” (“零翻译”何以大行其道), assailing the phenomenon of intermingling Chinese and English. On April 28, the 2nd Meeting of the 3rd National Working Commission on the Standardization of the Tibetan Language was convened at the China Tibetology Research Center. On May 17–18, the first “Language and the Future” (语言与未来) Young Scholars Workshop sponsored by the Research Center for Foreign Language Strategies and Faculty Development at Shanghai International Studies University was held at Shanghai International Studies University, focusing on the theme of “Ethnography and Language and Cultural Studies” (民族志与语言文化研究). On May 29, the keynote activity “Language Services and Globalization Forum” (语言服务与全球化论坛) (Language – Key to Global Success) of the 3rd China International Fair for Trade in Services was successfully held at the China National Convention Center. On the morning of May 24, the opening ceremony for the 5th Qingdao Writing Festival was held in Qingdao. On May 29, the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission issued the 2013 annual report on the state of language life in China. On June 5–6, the International Conference on Language jointly sponsored by the Chinese government and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization was convened in Beijing, and the Suzhou Conclusions (苏州共识) were formed at the conference.

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On June 9–13, the State Ethnic Affairs Commission and Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security jointly held the 7th National Core Advanced Study Program on Ethnic Language Translation Work and Services in Beijing. On June 12–13, the 8th Cross-Strait Symposium on Modern Chinese Language (海峡两岸现代汉语问题学术研讨会) was convened in Taipei; the theme of the symposium was “Language and Life in the Four Cross-Strait Regions” (两岸四地 语言与生活). On June 25, Grading Standards and Test Outline for the Putonghua Proficiency Test in the Tourism Industry (Draft) (旅游行业普通话水平测试等级标 准及测试大纲[草案]), Grading Standards and Test Outline for the Putonghua Declamation Proficiency Test (Draft) (普通话朗诵水平测试等级标准及测试大纲 [草案]), Grading Standards and Test Outline for the Putonghua Public Speaking Proficiency Test (Draft) (普通话演讲水平测试等级标准及测试大纲[草案]), and Punctuation Rules for Insertion of English in Chinese Texts (Draft) (夹用英文的中 文文本的标点符号用法[草案]) were issued in the format of the Green Paper on the Language Situation in China (中国语言生活绿皮书), Series A. On July 4, the Expert Consultative Conference on “Standards for Senior Foreign-Language Talents” established by the Dynamic National Human Resources Database for Foreign Languages was held at Beijing Foreign Studies University. On July 6, the curtains were raised in Hunan on the 13th “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) Chinese Contest for Global College Students. On July 8, the prelude to the 2014 Cross-Strait Chinese Character Calligraphy and Art Exchange Summer Camp for College Students was opened at Shaoxing University in Zhejiang Province. This summer camp was jointly sponsored by the Mainland Editorial Board for Cross-Strait Collaborative Compiling of Chinese Language Reference Books and the General Association of Chinese Culture of Taiwan. On July 11, the Measures for the Implementation of the ‘Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language’ in Qinghai Province (青海省实施《中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法》办法) were passed at the 22nd Executive Meeting of the Qinghai Provincial Government, going into effect as of September 1, 2014. Between July 13 and October, the second Chinese Character Dictation Contest (中国汉字听写大会) program jointly sponsored by the State Language Commission and China Central Television was broadcast on the general channel and science education channel of China Central Television, and the viewpoints on “warming icebound Chinese characters” incited controversy. On July 15, the Guidelines for the Use of English in Public-Service Areas, Part 1: General Rules (公共服务领域英文译写规范 第 1 部分: 通则) were formally implemented: these guidelines concern the four languages of English,

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Russian, Japanese and Korean, encompassing transportation, tourism, culture and entertainment, medical treatment and health, postal services, telecommunications, and other sectors, with content including guidelines and examples for the use of foreign languages in public-service sectors. On July 15, the “Advanced Workshop on Culture and the Sustainable Development of International Chinese-Language Education” (文化与国际汉语教 育可持续发展高级讲习班) sponsored by the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International and hosted by the Chinese Language & Culture College of Beijing Normal University was held at Beijing Normal University. On July 16–18, “Reading for China’s Future: 2014 Reading Forum” (为中国未 来而读 —— 2014 阅读论坛), which was academically supported by the Special Committee on Secondary School Language Arts Education of the Chinese Society of Education, sponsored by the Commercial Press, and jointly hosted by the Affiliate Secondary School, No. 2 Affiliate Secondary School, and No. 3 Affiliate Secondary School of Qinghai Normal University, was convened in Xining, Qinghai. On July 18–21, the 11th International Conference on Chinese as a Second Language (ICCSL-11) was successfully convened in Yinchuan, Ningxia. This conference was jointly sponsored by the Center for Studies of Chinese at Beijing Language and Culture University and the School of International Education at Ningxia University, with the theme of “Studies of ‘Chinese as a Second Language’ Education from the Perspective of Method and Theory” (后方法理论视野下的对外 汉语教学研究). On July 18, the three Chinese-language domain names .zhongguo (.中国, ‘.china’), .gongsi (.公司, ‘.com’), and .wangluo (.网络, ‘.net’) were opened, once again triggering a heated debate regarding Chinese-language domain names. On July 21, the curtains were raised on the 12th International Linguistics Olympiad in Beijing: 39 delegations and 164 competitors from 28 countries and regions, including the United States, Russia, Japan, and so on assembled at Beijing Language and Culture University to participate in the finals. This was the first time that the competition was held in China. On July 21–25, the State Language Commission held the first Advanced Study Program for Outstanding Young and Middle-Aged Scholars for the Study of Applied Linguistics at Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College, and 65 outstanding young and middle-aged scholars from all over the country took part. On July 29, the Survey Work Review Conference for the Beijing Database of the China Language Resource Audio Database was held at Beijing Language

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and Culture University. This was the second provincial-level language resource audio database to complete the construction work, after the Jiangsu Database. On August 22–26, the “4th Cross-Strait Forum on Chinese Language and Culture Faculty” jointly sponsored by the World Chinese Language Association of Taiwan and Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College was held at Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College. On August 26, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press and the Association for Newspapers and Periodicals of Chinese Linguistics jointly convened the “2014 Summit Forum Language Standardization and Language Curriculum Reforms and Press Conference on the 3rd Edition of the Standard Dictionary of Modern Chinese [现代汉语规范词典].” On August 26, the removal of ancient poetry from first-grade language arts educational materials for Shanghai primary school students incited a passionate debate. On August 27, the 10th Forum on Cross-Strait Efforts for Collaborative Compiling of Chinese Language Reference Books was held in Beijing. Expert scholars from both sides of the straits engaged in in-depth deliberations on the compiling of a Compendium Dictionary of the Chinese Language (中华语文大词典), the establishment and perfection of the website “Chinese Linguipedia” (中华语文知识 库), the establishment and sharing of cross-strait corpora, the publication of crossstrait language reports, and other topics at the conference. On August 28, the 2nd Meeting of the 1st Expert Advisory Committee on Ethnic Language Work of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission was convened in Beijing. On September 4, the Midwest Regional Deliberative Conference on the Measures for the Implementation of the ‘Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language’ 《国家通用语言文字法》实施办法) ( was convened in Chengdu, Sichuan. On September 4, the State Council officially introduced the Recommendations of the State Council on the Implementation of Deepening Reforms to the Examination and Admissions System (国务院关于深化考试招生制度改革的实施 意见) (Guo fa [2014] No. 35), proposing measures for reforms to language arts and foreign languages on the college entrance examination. On September 5–7, the 4th “World Conference on Sinology” was held in Beijing, on the theme of “Four Hundred Years of Eastern and Western Learning” (东学西学 · 四百年). Over 200 experts and scholars from 38 countries and regions attended the conference, and both the number of overseas scholars and breadth of expertise among the scholars in attendance far surpassed the previous conference.

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On September 9, General Secretary Xi Jinping (习近平) stated during a tour of Beijing Normal University that he disapproved of the removal of ancient and classical poetry from textbooks. On September 12, a Sectional Expert Consultative Seminar for the Expert Committee of the Interministerial Joint Conference on Guidelines for the Chinese Translation of Foreign Languages was held in Beijing, to study and discuss the third batch of Chinese translations for foreign-language terms (proposed draft). On September 15, the Provisions of Shanghai Municipality on the Use of Foreign Languages in Public Places (上海市公共场所外国文字使用规定) were passed at the 61st Executive Meeting of the Shanghai Municipal Government, going into effect as of January 1, 2015. On September 15, the opening activities for the 17th National Publicity Week for the Promotion of Putonghua were held in Xiamen City. On September 15–21, activities for the 17th National Publicity Week for the Promotion of Putonghua were held in various places, with the theme of “Speaking Putonghua Well Fulfills Our Dreams” (说好普通话, 梦圆你我他). On September 16–17, the 2nd China-France Symposium on Language Policies and Planning jointly sponsored by the Chinese Ministry of Education, State Language Commission, and Embassy of China in France, alongside the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Culture, was successfully held in Paris, France. On September 18, the “Basic Booklist for Chinese Secondary School Students” (中国中学生基础阅读书目), which was formulated and completed by experts organized by the charitable research organization New Reading Research Institute in an alliance with Beijing National Day School, was officially announced in Beijing. On September 23, the Eastern Regional Deliberative Conference on the Measures for the Implementation of the ‘Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language’ 《国家通用语言文字法》实施办法) ( was convened in Shanghai. On September 24–25, the Construction Initiation and Training Conference for the Hubei Database of the China Language Resource Audio Database was convened in Shiyan City, symbolizing the formal initiation of the construction of a language resource audio database in Hubei Province. On September 26, the ribbon-cutting ceremony for the Bilingual Talent Training Base of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission was held at Yunnan Minzu University. On September 27–28, the 20th National Conference on Bilingual Education of the China Institute for Minority Bilingual Education was held at Yunnan Minzu University.

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On September 27, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the Confucius Institutes, the inaugural ceremony for the first global “Confucius Institute Day” (孔子学院日) was held in Beijing. On that day, nearly 1,200 Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms in 123 countries and regions around the world simultaneously held a variety of activities to experience Chinese language and culture at a total of more than 3,000 locations. On September 29, the Expert Committee of the Interministerial Joint Conference on Guidelines for the Chinese Translation of Foreign Languages deliberated on and passed “Batch 3: List of Recommended Chinese Translations of Foreign-Language Terms” (第三批推荐使用外语词中文译名表). On October 11–12, the first International Conference on Chinese Language Resources was held at Beijing Language and Culture University. This conference was jointly sponsored by Beijing Language and Culture University and Kanazawa University of Japan, and hosted by the Institute of Language Resources of the College of Linguistic Science at Beijing Language and Culture University, with the support of the Commercial Press. On October 13, the Commemorative Forum on the 30th Anniversary on the Founding of the Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education and the 30th Anniversary of the Launch of Putonghua Proficiency Testing Work was convened. On October 14, the 16th members’ conference of the Eight-Province Mongolian Language Work Coordination Group was convened in Harbin City, Heilongjiang Province. Between October 16 and November 2, the 7th “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) Chinese Contest for Global College Students jointly sponsored by the Confucius Institute Headquarters, Office of Chinese Language Council International, and Yunnan Provincial People’s Government was held in Beijing and Kunming; 391 teachers and students from 76 countries and 92 overseas preliminary contest regions came to China to participate in the finals. On October 17, Wuhan’s first lanpi shu (蓝皮书, ‘blue paper’) on bilingual signs in public places, Guidelines of Wuhan City on Bilingual Signs and English Translations in Public Places (武汉市公共场所双语标识英文译写指南) was presented. On October 21, the curtains were raised on the “4th Seminar for the Protection of Critically Endangered Language Legacies in Yunnan, China” at Yunnan Yuxi Normal University. On October 22–24, the Conference on “Language and Social Life” was convened in Zhuhai and Macau. The conference was sponsored by Macau Polytechnic Institute, and hosted by the Macau Center for Research on Language and Culture at Macau Polytechnic Institute.

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On October 24, with the theme of “One Family Across the Straits, Together Building a New Homeland” (两岸一家亲, 共建新家园), the 7th Cross-Strait Chinese Character Festival was concurrently held at the Haicang Taiwanese Investment Zone in Xiamen, Fujian, and in Taipei City. On October 29, the National Field Meeting on Ethnic Language Work was convened in Leishan County, Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou Province. On October 31, the “High-Level Forum on Language Strategies and National Security” was held at Beijing Foreign Studies University. This forum was jointly held by Beijing Foreign Studies University and the National Research Centre for Foreign Language Education. On October 31, the 2nd “Symposium on the Chinese Character Dictation Contest” was held in Beijing. On November 7–8, the “2014 International Conference on Computer-Assisted Language Learning” was convened at Beijing Jiaotong University. On November 14–15, the “2014 ‘Language and State’ Conference” jointly sponsored by the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education, and Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International was convened at Hanshan Normal University in Chaozhou, Guangdong. On November 18, the “Simplified and Traditional Chinese Character Smart Text Conversion System” (汉字简繁文本智能转换系统) was announced in Beijing. This announcement activity was sponsored by the Group for Coordination of Cross-Strait Language Exchanges and Cooperation. On November 21, Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education convened a forum for the formulation and study of guidelines for the translation of Russian, Japanese, and Korean in public-service sectors in Harbin City, Heilongjiang Province. On November 24–28, the National Core Training Program for Korean Translation sponsored by the State Ethnic Affairs Commission and jointly hosted by the Northeast Tri-Province Leading Group on Korean Language Cooperation and Minzu University of China was held in Beijing. On November 27, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television issued the Notice on the Standardized Use of the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language in Radio and Television Programs and Advertising (关于广播电视节目和广告中规范使用国家通用语言文字的通知); its ban on the use of Internet language on television incited another round of controversy among netizens.

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On November 28, the 16th Qiyue Recitation Art Festival, the finals for the 2nd National Recitation Meet for College Students, and the awards ceremony were held at Communication University of China. On December 3, a study conference on measures for the implementation of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Language (国家通用语言文字法) was convened in Beijing. On December 4, the 2nd Working Conference for the “Program for the Development of Technical Standards and Platforms for the China Language Resource Audio Database” (中国语言资源有声数据库技术规范与平台研发项目) was held in Beijing. On December 7, the curtains were raised on the 9th Confucius Institute Conference in Xiamen. On December 7, the curtains were raised on the 3rd World Chinese Language and Culture Education Conference sponsored by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council and the China Overseas Exchange Association in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing. On December 16–18, the Department of Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education held the 2014 Core Kindergarten Director Training Program on Language Work at the Applied Linguistics Training Base (Suzhou) of the State Language Commission; more than 90 kindergarten directors from various provinces (regions, cities) nationwide participated in the training. On December 17, a press conference was held on the Phase I achievements of the “Video Library of Chinese Classics” (中华经典资源库). The Phase I achievements focused on some of the titles recommended for recitation under the Language Arts Curriculum Standards as well as 100 classical poems and prose pieces reflecting local and ethnic characteristics as their primary content, producing nearly 3,000 minutes of video resources. On December 19, the unveiling ceremony for the “2014 Chinese Language Inventory” (2014汉语盘点) sponsored by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, and People.cn was held at the offices of the People’s Daily (人民日报). The top ten popular phrases, top ten neologisms, and top ten Internet slang terms were simultaneously announced. Fa (法, ‘law’), fan fu (反腐, ‘anti-corruption’), shi (失, ‘lose’) and Ma hang (马航, ‘Malaysia Airlines’) were respectively selected as the domestic character, domestic word, international character, and international word of the year, while zan (赞, ‘like’), APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’), nuan nan (暖男, ‘warm guy’), mengmeng da (萌萌哒, ‘too cute’), Aibola (埃博拉, ‘Ebola’), and other trending words were also found at the top of the list.

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On December 22, the finals for the Public Speaking Section of the 3rd Chinese Cultural Competition for Overseas Chinese Youths sponsored by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council and hosted by Huaqiao University were held in Xiamen. On December 24, the announcement ceremony for the first batch of terms from the “Project for Translation and Communication of Key Concepts in Chinese Culture and Thought” (中华思想文化术语传播工程) was held at Beijing Foreign Studies University. On December 24, the Interministerial Joint Conference on Guidelines for the Chinese Translation of Foreign Languages and the Translation and Communication of Key Concepts in Chinese Culture and Thought was held in Beijing.

Index assessment 78, 82–83, 101, 117, 258, 391, 395–398 banking 153, 156 character of the year 405, 414 Chinese language 4–5, 30–31, 55, 75, 82, 233, 281, 285, 374, 385, 395 Chinese language education 12, 30 Chinese sign language 167, 171–172, 182 Chinglish 9, 299 college entrance examination 269–271, 274, 276, 342 comprehension 388–389 corpora 36, 47–48 cultural exchanges 3, 11, 59, 81, 83, 87, 96, 237, 246, 253, 262, 301 derogatory 289, 307, 329, 369–380, 385 development 1, 7–8, 12, 17, 19–20, 24, 27–30, 34–35, 38, 47–48, 53–59, 61–65, 69–70, 73–76, 79, 81–82, 84–86, 89, 94–97, 102–103, 105–106, 129, 207, 209–210, 213, 217, 219–220, 223, 225, 230–233, 235, 242, 244–245, 247–248, 253–254, 256–258, 263, 270, 282–283, 285, 289, 292–293, 306, 318–319, 321–322, 334, 339, 341, 353, 383, 385, 391, 401 dialogue 66, 69, 86 diaspora 253 discursive function 210 entertainment 216, 233, 284–285, 288, 307, 323, 339, 342, 356, 373 ethnic language work 93 examination content 105, 107 examination format 105, 108, 111, 395 Hong Kong 5, 15–16, 18, 24, 319, 336, 401–402 humanism 64, 66

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110711790-038

information services 96, 146, 148–150, 152, 156–157 institutions of higher education 82, 370, 399 International Conference on Language 53, 73 Internet culture 232, 283, 290 Internet language norms 281 Internet slang 227–228, 234–235, 286, 352 Irina Bokova 61 language ability 1, 3–4, 5, 25, 28, 31, 5356–59, 62–64, 69–70, 73–79, 81–83, 86–87, 89–90, 131, 133, 136, 142 language art 115–117, 194, 268–269, 275, 286, 383, 412 language contact 301 language life 1, 3, 5, 8–9, 17, 19, 23–27, 29–30, 33–36, 48, 56–59, 79, 81, 84, 173, 200, 306, 347, 405 language monitoring 45, 48 language phenomena 47 language purity 294 language research 20, 29–30, 48, 173 language services 21, 145, 155, 157 language use 322 lexicalization 372, 374 linguistic diversity 90, 409 Macau 399, 401–402 medium of instruction 400–402 minority deaf persons 173 national education 263 national reading 7, 21, 93–97, 101–104, 406 netizen 225, 231, 274, 283–284, 286, 288–291, 311, 346, 349, 365–366, 370 new generation 33, 64, 129–141, 258, 263, 303 popular phrases 8, 47, 331 practical writing 115, 121, 125, 128, 389 primary school 383 public service announcement 193, 202, 205

462

Index

reading 74, 93, 96, 98–99, 101–104, 243, 383–384, 391, 405–407 rural migrant workers 31, 129, 131, 133, 135–137, 139, 141

Taiwan 24, 31, 260, 401, 410 television news 181 The Language Situation 16–17, 19 tone 210, 348, 369, 378

service awareness 146–147, 156 social progress 53–54, 73–74, 82, 86, 89, 210, 405 standard sign language 56, 159–160, 167, 171–173, 180, 182 standardization 55, 243 State Ethnic Affairs Commission 20, 96

UNESCO 53, 59, 61–63, 66–67, 70, 87, 89–90, 93, 95, 103 vulgarization 233 white paper 207, 209 word of the year 8, 311 World Book Day 93