The Language Situation in China: Volume 7 2016 9783110799750, 9783110799729

Citation preview

The Language Situation in China Volume 9

Language Policies and Practices in China

Edited by Li Wei (李嵬)

Volume 9

The Language Situation in China Volume 7. 2016

Editor-in-Chief: Li Yuming (李宇明) Associate Editors: Guo Xi (郭熙), Zhou Hongbo (周洪波), Zhou Qingsheng (周庆生) English Editor: Li Wei (李嵬) Editorial Assistants: Xu Xiaoying (许小颖), Dai Wenying (戴文颖) Translation Advisors: Fletcher Translations, Inc.

The Commercial Press

ISBN 978-3-11-079972-9 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-079975-0 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-079978-1 ISSN 2195-9838 Library of Congress Control Number: 2022941784 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2023 Walter de Gruyter GmbH., Berlin/Boston and the Commercial Press, Beijing, China Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

Contents Editorial Teams of the English Edition

IX

Part I: Special report Du Zhanyuan (杜占元) 1 Improving national language ability and serving the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society 3 Yao Xishuang (姚喜双) 2 Promoting the lawful supervision and evaluation of spoken and written language work 15 Zhang Ripei (张日培) 3 Scientific research work of the State Language Commission in the “12th Five-Year” period 23

Part II: Special focuses Tian Lixin (田立新) 4 Origin and significance of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China 39 Cao Zhiyun (曹志耘) 5 Orientation, objectives, and tasks of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China 51 Wang Lining (王莉宁) 6 Strategies and methods for implementation of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China 61

Part III: Language work Wang Xuerong (王学荣) 7 Work on spoken and written ethnic minority languages

73

VI

Contents

Part IV: Special fields Zeng Yan (曾彦) and Xu Xiaojun (徐晓军) 8 Survey of the state of rural language use in Hubei Province

85

Li Jia (李佳) 9 The situation of “dialect culture entering the classroom” in three coastal locations 99 Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵) and Chen Lixiang (陈丽湘) 10 Survey of language use in regions inhabited by the Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups 113 Fu Yonggang (付永钢) 11 Survey of language use among Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese college students at inland institutions of higher education 125 Liang Liwen (梁砾文), Shen Qi (沈骑), and Wang Haofeng (王浩锋) 12 Survey of foreign language ability in the field of civil aviation

135

Li Zongjiang (李宗江) and Yu Yongbo (于泳波) 13 Issues with standards for language use in military documents

149

Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Feng Haimin (冯海敏), and Wang Hui (王慧) 14 State of development of the Confucius Institutes (2015) 163 Yang Wanbing (杨万兵), Zhai Kenuo (翟可娜), and Long Hongning (龙洪柠) 15 The state of development of Chinese language and culture education (2015) 173 Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦) 16 Survey of the state of Chinese language education at institutions of higher education in four Central Asian countries 183

Contents

Zhou Hongbo (周洪波) 17 Publication of the third edition of Ciyuan (辞源)

VII

199

Meng Qingxin (孟庆欣) 18 An examination of literature and history textbooks in Manchukuo 209

Part V: Hot topics Wang Lei (汪磊) 19 “Two-Child Policy” triggers a frenzied linguistic carnival

225

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zhao Libo (赵立博) 20 A “hot reaction” to the abbreviation of school names

237

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zheng Tingting (郑婷婷) 21 Trending word lists for various sectors and industries

249

Part VI: Words and passages Liu Yueyan (刘玥妍) 22 Writing the annals of the characters and words of the year, 2015 Hou Min (侯敏), Liang Linlin (梁琳琳), Zou Yu (邹煜), and Teng Yonglin (滕永林) 23 Hot topics in society in the neologisms of 2015

273

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) and Zhang Ken (张肯) 24 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2015 Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷) 25 The grassroots variety of online slang in 2015

285

299

Hou Min (侯敏), Teng Yonglin (滕永林), and Cheng Nanchang (程南昌) 26 Comparative analysis of the use of alphabetic words in the media in 2015 and 2006 313

265

VIII

Contents

Zou Yu (邹煜) 27 The Internet+ in language life

323

Part VII: Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan Tian Xiaolin (田小琳), Qin Jiali (秦嘉丽), and Lin Aini (林爱妮) 28 The Chinese language arts curriculum in Hong Kong pre-primary education 337 Wang Mingyu (王铭宇) 29 The language associations of Macau

349

Yu Guilin (余桂林) 30 The state of language life in Taiwan (2015)

359

Appendices Bai Juan (白娟) 31 Chronicle of events in language life (2015)

371

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖) 32 Language-related content in the official documents of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, State Council and relevant ministries and commissions 385 Yi Jun (易军), Zhou Daojuan (周道娟), and Chen Min (陈敏) 33 Work on the standard spoken and written Chinese language Index

409

399

Editorial Teams of the English Edition Editor

Li Yuming (李宇明) Beijing Language and Culture University liyum@.net

English Editor

Li Wei (李嵬) University College London [email protected]

Associate Editors

Guo Xi (郭熙) Jinan University guoxi@.com Zhou Hongbo (周洪波) The Commercial Press [email protected] Zhou Qingsheng (周庆生) Chinese Academy of Social Sciences [email protected]

Editorial Assistants

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖) Beijing Normal University xuxiaoying@bnu.edu.cn Dai Wenying (戴文颖) The Commercial Press [email protected]

Translation

Fletcher Translations, Inc. Contact person: Carissa Fletcher cfletcher@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-203

Part I: Special report

Du Zhanyuan (杜占元)

1 Improving national language ability and serving the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society The 5th Plenum of the Party’s 18th Central Committee passed the Recommendations of the CCP Central Committee on the Formulation of the 13th Five-Year Plan for the Development of the National Economy and Society (中共中央关于制定国民 经济和社会发展第十三个五年规划的建议). The Recommendations set out from the big picture of Party and national strategies, clearly proposing the guiding idea, basic principles, objective requirements, basic concepts, and major moves of the “13th Five-Year” plan, and laying out the blueprint for national development over the next five years. The Plenum noted that our Party’s First Centenary struggle objective of comprehensively building a moderately prosperous society is to be achieved by 2020, and proposed six major development principles and five major development concepts, which have important guiding significance for the development of our cause for spoken and written language. The six major principles of development are, first, to uphold the central role of the people. The cause of spoken and written language is most concentratively reflected in the promotion, popularization and standardization of the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and only by comprehensively popularizing and improving proficiency in the standard spoken and written Chinese language can we substantively uphold and respect the central role of the people. The second is to uphold scientific development, and in language work, it is necessary to thoroughly respect the patterns of development of spoken and written language, to promote the development of the cause. The third is to uphold the deepening of reforms, to strengthen and improve language work on the foundation of respecting its patterns of development, and establish and perfect systems and mechanisms. The fourth is to uphold national governance under the rule of law, wherein language work must revolve around the implementation of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言 文字法), while strengthening governance under the rule of law, accelerating and promoting the modernization of spoken and written language governance Note: Extract from an address by Du Zhanyuan [杜占元], the Vice Minister for Education and Director of the State Language Commission, at the National Working Conference on Spoken and Written Language Supervision, November 3, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-001

4

Du Zhanyuan (杜占元)

systems and governance capacity, and incorporating language work into supervisory systems are important steps in that effort. The fifth is to uphold overall planning of the big pictures domestically and internationally, and here, it is necessary to strengthen the popularization and improvement of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, while also improving the international influence of the Chinese language and amplifying its international voice, thus it is necessary not only to energetically foster and disseminate the excellent traditional Chinese culture by using spoken and written language as a vehicle, but also to build a powerful nation of language and culture that is commensurate with our comprehensive national strength. The sixth is to uphold the Party’s leadership, and here, it is necessary to carefully implement the guidelines and policies of the Party and the state on spoken and written language, and, in accordance with the requirements of the spirit of the Party’s 18th National Congress, to energetically promote and standardize the use of the spoken and written Chinese language, and scientifically protect the spoken and written language of different ethnic groups. The five major development concepts are, first, to uphold innovative development, which calls for innovation to be placed in a central position within the big picture of the development of language work. Cultural innovation is an important aspect of innovative development, and cultural innovation must permeate the cause of language work. The second is to uphold coordinated development. Here, it is necessary to firmly grasp the overall arrangements of the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics, properly handle the relationships between different spoken and written languages, and promote the coordinated development of language work in urban and rural areas and industries, so that these efforts can enhance the nation’s hard power, while also contributing to the enhancement of the nation’s soft power. The third is upholding green development. In this respect, it is necessary to build a healthy and harmonious language ecology, upholding the central position of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, while allowing Chinese dialects, minority spoken and written languages, foreign languages, and traditional Chinese characters to play their own role and display their own capabilities. The fourth is to uphold open development, which calls upon us to open wide our horizons, and serve the big picture both domestically and internationally. The fifth is to uphold shared development, and here, it is necessary to enable all the masses, including disabled persons and other special groups, to enjoy the rights and interests of the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language. In the current stage, with respect to the front lines of language work, the primary task is to study and implement the spirit of the 5th Plenum of the Party’s 18th Central Committee, and research and formulate the “13th FiveYear” Plan for Development of the National Cause of Spoken and Written Language (国家语言文字事业 “十三五”发展规划). The “13th Five-Year” period will be a

1 Improving national language ability and serving the comprehensive construction

5

decisive stage in the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society, as well as a key five-year period for the implementation of the Outline of the Plan for Education (教育规划纲要) and the Outline of the Plan for Spoken and Written Language (语言文字规划纲要), and the improvement of spoken and written language ability among all ethnic groups. We must carefully summarize the accomplishments and experiences gained from the cause of spoken and written language, scientifically analyze the trends and problems currently faced by the cause of spoken and written language, and systematically frame the 13th Five-Year Plan for the development of the national cause of spoken and written language, centered on the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society, so as to build a powerful nation of language and culture commensurate with our comprehensive national strength.

1 Profoundly analyzing and accurately capturing the trends of development in the cause of spoken and written language Spoken and written language is an indispensable strategic resource in national construction and the rejuvenation of the nation, an important force in the promotion of historical development and social progress, and the key to open a country’s door to exchanges and mutual learning between human civilizations. The cause of spoken and written language is characterized as fundamental, global, social and national, and it is an important source of support for a nation’s comprehensive strength, which concerns national security and socioeconomic development, affects the perpetuation of historical culture and the elevation of national caliber, and has an important position and role in a country’s strategies for development. Strong nations must have strong languages, and strong languages boost strong nations. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, historical accomplishments have been achieved with respect to the cause of spoken and written language, laying a solid foundation for the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society. The simplification of Chinese characters has been comprehensively implemented, Putonghua has been robustly popularized, the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet (汉语拼音方案) was formulated and implemented, the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国 家通用语言文字法) was promulgated and put into effect, and efforts for the legal institutionalization, standardization, regularization and informatization of spoken

6

Du Zhanyuan (杜占元)

and written language have solidly moved forward, as we follow the path of the development of spoken and written language under socialism with Chinese characteristics. During the “12th Five-Year” period, and particularly since the Party’s 18th National Congress, the cause of spoken and written language in our country has achieved considerable development. The extent of the popularization of the standard spoken and written Chinese language has been further improved, and a preliminary system of laws and regulations on spoken and written language has been established, laying down a good foundation for promoting the modernization of governance systems and governance capacity in language work; the system of standards and norms for spoken and written language has been further improved, and the process of informatization has been continuously driven forward; trademark activities for the perpetuation of the excellent Chinese culture through spoken and written language have drawn widespread attention, the International Conference on Language was successfully convened, Chinese language globalization has seen flourishing development, and important progress was achieved in the protection and development of language resources, continuously enhancing the radiating effect, influence, and prominence of the cause of spoken and written language. However, we must also clearly note that the development of the national cause of spoken and written language still cannot completely adapt to the needs of national development. In minority regions and rural areas, the degree of popularization of the standard spoken and written Chinese language is still low; the innovation of spoken and written language information and its social applicability are still rather feeble; national language ability still does not entirely meet the needs for the development of the national economy, society and culture; and the systems and mechanisms for the management of language work still await further reforms and innovation, et cetera. At present and for some time in the future, the development of the cause of language work in our country faces many opportunities and challenges. The comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society, improvement of the national caliber, promotion of comprehensive personal development, and enhancement of the people’s welfare pose pressing requirements with respect to the popularization of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, particularly with respect to work for the promotion of Putonghua in minority regions and rural areas; comprehensively deepening reforms, comprehensive national governance under the rule of law, and promotion of the modernization of national governance systems and governance capacity endow the efforts for the legal institutionalization, standardization, regularization and informatization of the spoken and written language with new meaning as part of the new era; the surge of new technologies like cloud computing, “Internet+,” big data, intelligence, and so on present even

1 Improving national language ability and serving the comprehensive construction

7

higher requirements with respect to the informatization of spoken and written language and its social applications; great cultural development and prosperity, and the cultivation and practice of core socialist values open up new fields for the perpetuation, development and cultivation of the Chinese language and culture; expanding openness to the outside world, strengthening international cooperation, promoting peaceful development, and upholding national interests and security, particularly with respect to promoting the construction of “One Belt, One Road” (一带一路) and so on, present new topics and new tasks for the cause of spoken and written language to serve and safeguard the implementation of national strategies for development. During the “13th Five-Year” period, we must seize opportunities and welcome challenges, taking aim at the two spaces of human-machine interactions and interpersonal exchanges, grasping the big picture domestically and internationally, engaging in strategic consideration, systematic planning, and innovative operations to achieve the struggle objectives of the “Two Centenaries” (两个百年), and carefully formulating and properly implementing the “13th Five-Year” Plan for Development of the National Cause of Spoken and Written Language (国家语言文字事业 “十三五”发展规划).

2 Scientifically planning and establishing the objectives and tasks for the development of the cause of spoken and written language in the “13th Five-Year” period In order to consciously adapt to the new requirements for socioeconomic development, and accelerate the construction of a powerful nation of language and culture commensurate with our comprehensive national strength, during the “13th Five-Year” period, our overall approach will be: First, to implement “one main line.” The end of the “13th Five-Year” period coincides with the time set for the achievement of our Party’s First Centenary struggle objectives, and over the next five years, the cause of spoken and written language must follow the main line of improving national language ability and serving the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society. Second, to strengthen the “five orientations.” Focusing on the primary conflicts currently faced in the cause of spoken and written language, our work in the future will be more oriented toward focusing on national strategy, oriented toward tackling minority regions and rural areas, oriented toward promoting social applications, oriented toward

8

Du Zhanyuan (杜占元)

the transition to modern governance, and oriented toward expansion into the international sphere. In sum, during the “13th Five-Year” period, we must not only “supplement shortcomings,” but must also seek to be “high-grade, precise and advanced”; we must not only contribute efforts to the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society, but must also lay a foundation for the next “centenary objectives.”

2.1 Clarifying the primary objectives of the cause of spoken and written language in the “13th Five-Year” period The overall objectives can be generalized as “one popularization” and “two improvements,” that is, the basic popularization of the standard spoken and written Chinese language on a nationwide scale, the comprehensive improvement of the level of informatization of spoken and written language, and the comprehensive improvement of the capacity of the cause of spoken and written language to serve national needs, to achieve commensurateness between national language ability and comprehensive national strength.

2.2 Clarifying the work tasks of the cause of spoken and written language in the “13th Five-Year” period To achieve the above objectives, during the “13th Five-Year” period, we must focus on completing “five major tasks”: The first is to popularize the standard spoken and written Chinese language. We must continue energetically promoting and popularizing the standard spoken and written Chinese language, with an emphasis on accelerating the popularization of Putonghua in minority regions and rural areas, deepening school education for spoken and written language, furthering the standardization of spoken and written language, and perfecting the system for spoken and written language testing and evaluation. In minority regions and rural areas, the degree of popularization of the standard spoken and written Chinese language shall be significantly improved, the rate of popularization of Putonghua in schools, government agencies, radio, film, television and news publications, the public service sector, and other key fields shall basically attain the national average standard, minority primary and secondary school graduates shall basically grasp and use the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and minority graduates of institutions of higher education shall be able to fluently command and use the standard spoken and written Chinese language.

1 Improving national language ability and serving the comprehensive construction

9

The second is to promote the informatization of spoken and written language. The creation of language resources shall be strengthened, the innovative development of spoken and written language processing technology shall be promoted, and spoken and written language informatization platforms shall be established. Through five years of efforts, the national foundation for the informatization of spoken and written language shall essentially be established, important breakthroughs shall be achieved on the research and development of key technologies for the informatization of spoken and written language, and these shall be widely applied in the language industry and the field of national security; major progress shall be achieved in the protection, development and construction of language resources, and critically endangered languages shall be promptly recorded and preserved; the platforms for spoken and written language informatization work and the methods for informatization work shall be further perfected. The third is to build a governance system for language work. The construction of a legal system for spoken and written language shall be strengthened, standards and norms for spoken and written language shall be perfected, supervision shall be heightened in key industries and fields, and guidance for social language life shall be reinforced. After five years, a fairly perfected legal and regulatory system for spoken and written language shall have basically taken shape; the standards and norms for spoken and written language shall basically meet social needs; the capacity of relevant industries and departments for the administration of language work in accordance with the law shall be significantly enhanced, while conditions for the modernization of a spoken and written language governance system centered on management in accordance with the law shall basically take shape; the standardization of the social applications of spoken and written language shall be significantly strengthened; and social language life shall experience healthy and harmonious development. The fourth is to build a spoken and written language services and support system. We shall comprehensively serve national strategies, serve national security, serve social applications, and serve special needs. By the end of the “13th Five-Year” period, a language services system and safeguards system shall basically take shape, allowing language work to be better adapted to the needs of implementing major national strategies and defending national security, social services platforms for spoken and written language shall basically be established, and the various forms of language services shall basically meet the needs of society and the masses for language learning and use. The fifth is to cultivate and perpetuate Chinese language and culture. The perpetuation and development of language and culture shall be promoted, crossstrait exchanges and cooperation on language and culture shall be deepened, and the international dissemination of Chinese language and culture shall be

10

Du Zhanyuan (杜占元)

strengthened. During the “13th Five-Year” period, Chinese language and culture must be energetically cultivated and disseminated. The excellent traditional Chinese culture shall achieve better inheritance and development; cooperation and exchanges on spoken and written language shall be further expanded and deepened; the identification of overseas Chinese with Chinese language and culture shall be significantly enhanced; the scope of overseas Chinese language learning shall be significantly expanded, and the number of individuals shall be significantly increased; and the status of the Chinese language within international organizations and the international community shall be significantly elevated. To complete the work tasks for the “13th Five-Year” period, it is necessary to innovate the systems and mechanisms, promote team-building, strengthen publicity and education, bolster support for scientific resource, and guarantee funding and investment. Among these support measures, we must place the innovation of systems and mechanisms in a position of paramount importance, and continue to strengthen and perfect a management system “led by the government, coordinated by the Language Commission, supported by departments, and participated in by society.” This working conference on spoken and written language supervision must be treated as a golden opportunity to strengthen the construction of supervision and inspection mechanisms for language work, strengthen overall planning and coordination, and consolidate forces within industries, enterprises, and grassroots organizations related to spoken and written language, experts and volunteers in the areas of scientific research, education, management and application, and other relevant areas, to jointly complete language work, and comprehensively promote the innovative development of the cause of spoken and written language.

3 Strengthening supervision and safeguarding the smooth implementation of the “13th FiveYear” plan on spoken and written language Strengthening the supervision and inspection of language work, and establishing systems for the supervision and evaluation of language work represent an important move for implementing the requirements of comprehensive national governance under the rule of law and promoting the lawful administration of language work, an intrinsic requirement for promoting the modernization of governance systems and governance capacity for language work, a pressing need for perfecting systems and mechanisms for language work and improving

1 Improving national language ability and serving the comprehensive construction

11

the effectiveness of language work, and a powerful guarantee for implementing the “13th Five-Year” plan for the development of the cause of language work, and they have extremely important significance with respect to promoting the comprehensive development of the cause of spoken and written language, and better adapting to and serving the needs of national development. Local governments, departments for supervision and inspection in education, and departments for language work must thoroughly understand the important significance of strengthening supervision, inspections and evaluation of language work, and effectively strengthen their sense of responsibility, sense of urgency, and sense of calling. Local government must implement their responsibilities as the main agents, strengthening organizational leadership in language work, establishing and perfecting management systems and working mechanisms for language work, and implementing substantive safeguards for language work. Departments for supervision and inspection in education must strengthen policy guidance, effectively fulfill their functions for supervision and guidance, and undertake supervision and inspections of the work. Departments for language work must proactively cooperate to strengthen communication and coordination with departments for supervision and inspection in education, effectively fulfill their functions for overall planning and coordination, and encourage each department to take up its own responsibilities, and form pooled forces. Supervision and inspection will promote greater perfection of systems for language work, greater thoroughness in conditions and safeguards, and greater depth in publicity and education, and spur continuous improvement in the level of development of cause of spoken and written language, as well as continuous enhancement of the capacity to serve the needs of national development. During the “13th Five-Year” period, through our untiring efforts, a good working foundation shall be established for supervision and inspection of language work. Legislative work on spoken and written language shall be comprehensively completed at the provincial level nationwide, systems and mechanisms for the management of spoken and written language under the rule of law, law enforcement, and supervision shall gradually be established, and the evaluation of urban language work shall provide a rich accumulation of experiences for the supervision and evaluation of language work. Certain regions incorporated supervision and inspection content for language work into their practices for supervision and evaluation in education many years ago, and 16 provinces (regions, municipalities) have incorporated the standardization of spoken and written language into education and teaching supervision and inspections as part of their local laws and regulations on spoken and written language. In 2013, the Ministry of Education issued the Notice on Undertaking the Supervision and Evaluation of Spoken and Written Language Work at Primary and Secondary Schools (关于开展中小学校语言

12

Du Zhanyuan (杜占元)

文字工作督导评估的通知), which drew a positive response in all regions, and mechanisms for the supervision and evaluation of spoken and written language at schools were gradually established. At present, full coverage has been achieved in terms of the scope of supervision and inspection of language work, and to properly perform the work in the future, the following principles must be grasped: First, it is necessary to have clear guidance. Supervision and evaluation are effective methods for promoting the development of the cause of spoken and written language, and our ultimate objectives are to promote construction and reforms through evaluation, drive forward the local resolution of problems, and take practical measures to effectively undertake language work. Second, it is necessary to be based in development. Equal emphasis should be placed on supervision and guidance. In supervision and inspection, it is necessary not only to report on the basic circumstances, experiences and characteristics of local spoken and written language work, but also to provide a list of problems, and propose requirements for rectification and reform, so that the object of supervision understands its shortcomings, and is clear on the direction for efforts. Third, it is necessary to respect science. We must adhere to the patterns of development of spoken and written language, not only strengthening supervision, but also paying attention to guidance, not only enforcing rigid policy requirements, but also paying attention to the cultural characteristics of spoken and written language, so that supervision and evaluation are practical and realistic, objective and fair. Fourth, it is necessary to pay attention to the substantive results. We must set out from the practical reality, and place emphasis on supervising whether local governments and their relevant departments are meeting the standards in their duties, whether the desired results are seen in the implementation of the work, and whether substantive results are achieved in the development of the cause of spoken and written language. Supervision and inspections are indispensable, important steps in the big picture of language work. Without supervision and inspection, the work is not implemented, and without supervision and inspection, the development of the cause cannot be guaranteed. At present, supervision and evaluation have already been fully initiated for language work, and the formulation of the “13th Five-Year” plan for spoken and written language has intensified. Over the next five years, strengthening supervision and inspection, and perfecting systems and mechanisms will be key guarantees with respect to whether the “13th Five-Year” plan can achieve its anticipated objectives and effectively serve the future national development. We must certainly unify our thoughts behind the spirit of the 5th Plenum of the Party’s 18th Central Committee, clearly understand the trends, remain steadfast in our confidence, perfect the legal system, and

1 Improving national language ability and serving the comprehensive construction

13

strengthen supervision, not only achieving complete coverage, but also highlighting the key points, revolving around the national strategies for development, serving the needs of social development, reforming and innovating, and working hard to comprehensively improve the governance capacity and level of development of the national cause of spoken and written language, so as to make our rightful contributions to the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society!

Yao Xishuang (姚喜双)

2 Promoting the lawful supervision and evaluation of spoken and written language work On August 13, 2015, the Office of the State Council Education Supervision Committee issued the Interim Measures for Supervision and Evaluation of Spoken and Written Language Work (语言文字工作督导评估暂行办法), symbolizing the formal establishment of China’s system for the supervision and evaluation of language work. This provides institutionalized mechanisms to support the scientific development of the cause of spoken and written language, and it is an important sign that language work has moved onto the path of legal institutionalization, which has important significance for the course of development of the cause of spoken and written language.

1 Fully understanding the important significance of undertaking supervision of language work 1.1 Undertaking supervision of language work is urgently needed to promote the lawful administration of spoken and written language, and achieve the modernization of governance systems and governance capability for language work The establishment of systems for the supervision of language work is an important part of the comprehensive promotion of lawful governance and the construction of a socialist country under the rule of law, and it is an important measure for promoting the modernization of governance systems and governance capability for language work. The purpose of undertaking the supervision and evaluation of language work and strengthening superintendence of the implementation of laws, regulations and policies on spoken and written language is to urge local governments and relevant departments to conscientiously fulfill their obligations for language work, establish a rule-of-law mentality, and improve the standards of lawful management of language work. Through the supervision and evaluation of language work, a governance system for coordinated policy decisionhttps://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-002

16

Yao Xishuang (姚喜双)

making, execution, and supervision has taken shape, transforming the old state of affairs that was “heavy on policy decision-making, but light on implementation, and heavy on execution, but light on supervision.” This will allow departments for language work to fulfill, plan and coordinate their functions in accordance with the law, encourage all levels of government and departments in charge of industry to effectively discharge their statutory duties with respect to language work, achieving more refined institutionalization, more powerful situational guarantees, and more in-depth publicity and education for language work, and continuously improving the level of development of language work and its cause.

1.2 Undertaking supervision of language work is urgently needed to elevate government effectiveness and improve the capacity for spoken and written language services The heart of the cause of spoken and written language lies in resolving the question of how language work can serve the country’s needs. In terms of the work of language application and administration, it is necessary to transform functions, strengthen mechanisms, reinforce supervision, and highlight and optimize services, to ensure that each policy achieves the desired result. The supervision of language work promotes transformation through evaluation and is rooted in development, with equal emphasis on supervision and guidance. By setting out from the practical circumstances, we can encourage local governments and their relevant departments to fulfill their duties and adopt effectual measures to effectively undertake language work; we can stimulate the vitality of grassroots-level language work, and improve the capacity for the cause of spoken and written language to serve the country’s needs; we can fully mobilize the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of local governments and their relevant departments, and coordinate and plan the work of language work service centers and the development of the cause. By searching out problems, formulating measures, and supervising their execution, after-the-fact administration is transformed into “guidance in advance, supervision while in progress, and service after the fact,” pushing important policy decisions on language to be rooted in the local environment, and truly achieving a situation in which language work serves the country’s needs.

2 Promoting the lawful supervision and evaluation of language work

17

1.3 Undertaking the supervision of language work is a practical need in implementing the major language guidelines and policies of the party and the state Supervision work is an indispensable link in the development of any cause. Without supervision, there is no implementation; and without supervision, there is no maturation. Allowing supervision and evaluation to pervade the entire course of the work is beneficial in drawing a line from the “first mile” of policy decisions and the “last mile” of implementation, dismantling zhonggengzu (中梗阻, ‘obstruction by middle-ranking cadres’), and ensuring that the major language policy arrangements of the Party and the state take root and achieve substantive results. Over the next five years, the supervision and evaluation of language work will be steered through the comprehensive implementation of the “13th Five-Year” Plan for Development of the National Cause of Spoken and Written Language (国家语言文字事业“十三五”发展规划).

2 Comprehensively strengthening the supervision of language work and improving the capacity of the cause of spoken and written language to serve the country’s needs with the guidance of the five major development concepts The “13th Five-Year” period will be a decisive stage for victory in the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society, and a key five-year period for the implementation of the Outline of the Plan for Spoken and Written Language (语言文字规划纲要) and the “13th Five-Year” Plan for Development of the National Cause of Spoken and Written Language (国家语言文字事业“十三 五”发展规划), as well as the comprehensive improvement of national language ability and national language power, and we must consciously implement the five major concepts of innovative, coordinated, green, open, and shared development, strengthen the supervision and inspection of spoken and written language, and promote the scientific development of the cause of language.

18

Yao Xishuang (姚喜双)

2.1 Using institutional innovation to stimulate the vitality of the cause of language Supervision extends from the field of education into the field of language work, and with coverage ranging from local governments and schools of various levels and categories to departments for related industries and even the whole of society. The work itself consists of important measures to strengthen top-down design and deepen the construction of systems and mechanisms, and innovation to adapt to the needs of the times. It is necessary to further clarify the place of supervision, innovate supervisory methods, deepen the implications of supervision, and refine “three-in-one” supervisory systems integrating supervision of government, supervision of schools, and evaluation and monitoring, so as to spur on the vitality of the development of the cause of language through institutional innovation.

2.2 Using a unified indicator system to coordinate the development of the cause of language The lack of coordination and balance in the development of spoken and written language between urban and rural areas and across regions constrains the long-term development of the cause. Establishing systems for supervision and evaluation of language work and using a unified indicator system for supervision and inspections is beneficial to further strengthening coordinated development between urban and rural areas and across regions, promoting concurrent development in key spheres such as Party-government institutions, schools, the news media, public services, and so on, and forwarding concurrent advancement with respect to the construction of language systems, situational guarantees, publicity and education, development standards, and so on. On the foundation of having identical first- and second-tier indicators for supervision and evaluation, each locality can suit measures to the local conditions in formulating the third-tier indicators, so as to fully reflect the targeted and operable nature of supervision and evaluation.

2.3 Using evaluation to promote the construction of a green language ecology Through supervision in accordance with the law, the standardization of language will be strengthened while properly handling the relationship between

2 Promoting the lawful supervision and evaluation of language work

19

standards and development, monitoring and guidance will be strengthened for real and virtual spaces, particularly online language, and publicity and education will be strengthened, so as to improve society-wide language standards and build a healthy language ecology.

2.4 Using the concept of openness to build new platforms for the development of the cause The indicator system for supervision and evaluation shall be continuously refined in practice on the basis of the concept of openness. With an open attitude, advanced approaches and experiences from overseas shall be proactively absorbed for the lessons they offer, to spur profound engagement in supervision and evaluation. More refined criteria and systems will be used to build new platforms, to promote the popularization of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and cultivate and disseminate the excellent Chinese culture, allowing Chinese culture to go global.

2.5 Using the concept of sharing to improve the capacity for language services Guided by shared development, through omnidirectional supervision, the basic popularization of the standard spoken and written Chinese language shall be achieved, and the applied spoken and written language ability of citizens shall be further improved, allowing all the people to share in the right to learn and use the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and further improving the people’s ability to participate in political, economic and cultural life, so as to share the fruits of national socioeconomic development and reforms.

3 Conscientiously fulfilling duties to effectively strengthen the supervision of language work In order to comprehensively implement the spirit of the Party’s 18th National Congress and the 3rd, 4th and 5th plenums of the 18th Central Committee, profoundly enact the spirit of the series of important speeches by General Secretary Xi Jinping (习近平), apply the five major development concepts, and fully put into effect the Outline of the Plan for Spoken and Written Language (语言文字规

20

Yao Xishuang (姚喜双)

划纲要) as well as the soon-to-be released “13th Five-Year” Plan for Development of the National Cause of Spoken and Written Language (国家语言文字事业“十三 五”发展规划), we must effectively exercise the supporting role of supervision and evaluation of language work, and push for further progress in the areas of system-building, situational guarantees, publicity and education, and development standards with respect to the development of the cause of spoken and written language.

3.1 Improving understanding and strengthening responsibility We must start out from the vantage point of the big picture of national development, as well as the global picture, in fully understanding the importance of pursuing supervision and evaluation work, and effectively reinforcing our sense of calling, sense of responsibility, and sense of urgency. Government departments shall include language work on their agendas, and incorporate it into their plans for the development of social causes and education as well as government performance management objectives; they must also formulate mid- to long-term plans and annual action plans for the development of the cause of language, include the state of standardization of spoken and written language in urban and rural areas in the evaluative indicators for civilized cities and civilized villages and towns, strengthen supervision and monitoring of the social applications of spoken and written language, establish mechanisms for supervision, assessment, accountability and awards, and effectively guarantee that the agencies, personnel and funding for language work are in place. Departments for language work must proactively cooperate with supervisory departments to carry out the evaluation of pilot programs without delay, and provide specialized support, for the planned, measured furtherance of supervisory work; they must strengthen publicity and education on the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字法) and other laws and regulations, vigorously promote the popularization of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and integrate requirements for the standardization of spoken and written language into industry administration, urban and rural administration, and activities for establishing a spiritual civilization, creating a good environment for the standardization of spoken and written language; they must refine systems for education on the excellent traditional Chinese culture, broadly undertaking activities for recitation, writing and lectures on the Chinese classics, and building a potent atmosphere for the cultivation and perpetuation of Chinese language and culture; they must effectively fulfill their functions for planning and coordination,

2 Promoting the lawful supervision and evaluation of language work

21

encouraging relevant industries and departments to each shoulder their own responsibilities, closely cooperating, forming pooled forces, and striving to improve the level of standardization of spoken and written language within their own systems and their own department.

3.2 Systematic planning and refinement of mechanisms Departments for language work shall proactively take the initiative to communicate and coordinate with departments for education, supervision, and so on, offer rational proposals, coordinate between relevant departments to establish and strengthen supervisory mechanisms and supporting measures, and formulate and implement action plans and concrete standards for the given region without delay; they must refer to the practical local situation in incorporating the supervision and evaluation of language work into their general supervision, while eligible localities can also engage in special supervision; they must continuously explore the establishment of routine supervisory systems for language work, assessment systems for the development of the cause, and evaluation systems for the fulfillment of language work functions by local governments, gradually forming long-term mechanisms for supervision and evaluation; they must establish mechanisms for service-oriented evaluation, and continuously improve the level of development of the cause of spoken and written language through expert diagnosis, seeking out problems, and helping localities actively pursue rectification and reforms.

3.3 Scientific determination and conscientious implementation The supervision and evaluation of language work involve efforts of a highly comprehensive nature, requiring that affairs be handled strictly in accordance with the law, while upholding standards, transparency, impartiality, and the approval of the masses, proceeding in supervision and evaluation work in a scientific, rigorous and orderly fashion, ensuring that the content, methods, use of results, and problem resolution in supervision are all strictly established on legal foundations, transparently accepting supervision by the public, and ensuring the authoritativeness of supervision and evaluation. It is necessary to firmly grasp the orientation of using evaluation to promote construction and reforms, and adopt effectual measures so as to effectively undertake the work. It is necessary to be rooted in development, placing equal emphasis on supervision and guidance, to

22

Yao Xishuang (姚喜双)

reflect the basic circumstances, experiences and characteristics of local language work, point out existing problems, and impose requirements for rectification and reforms. It is necessary to respect science, adhere to the patterns of development of spoken and written language, seek truth from facts, and maintain objectivity and impartiality. It is necessary to focus on substantive results, directing local governments and their relevant departments to fulfill their duties, and comprehensively implement the various elements of their work. In follow-up work, it is necessary to promptly extract, publicize and promote experiences, to promptly make corrections when problems are discovered, and to continuously improve the validity and impact of determinations in supervision and evaluation. These efforts must stand up to supervision and evaluation at all levels, as well as mass supervision. Through supervision, we must ensure that policies and measures are uncompromisingly implemented, such that effective results are achieved with respect to all laws, regulations, policies and measures, while rectification and improvement are achieved with respect to the language work of evaluated localities and departments.

3.4 Building the team and solidifying the foundations The supervision of language work is highly policy-oriented and specialized, and requires that the scientific and authoritative nature of supervision be strengthened. In this respect, building a team is crucial. Departments for language work shall actively pursue in-depth studies to familiarize themselves with various laws, regulations and policies without delay, and integrate the relevant content on supervision and evaluation of language work into cadre training and regular rotation training. They must coordinate with supervisory departments to hold relevant training sessions, and encourage outstanding administrative personnel and expert scholars on their language work teams to fill out the ranks of educational inspectors, while outstanding talents at departments responsible for industry can also be recommended to join the teams for supervision and evaluation. The comrades participating in supervision and evaluation must augment their pre-duty studies, have an accurate, rigorous, and thorough grasp of the guidelines and policies on spoken and written language, and have knowledge on the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字 法) and other relevant laws and regulations, proficiency in policies and theories, relatively strong professional qualifications, and abundant work experience. Through participation in the supervision and evaluation of language work, we shall build a language work team with a rule-of-law mentality, well-versed knowledge of the work and services, and a highly innovative spirit.

Zhang Ripei (张日培)

3 Scientific research work of the State Language Commission in the “12th Five-Year” period Scientific research on spoken and written language is an important foundation for guaranteeing the reform and development of the national cause of language. During the “12th Five-Year” period, the State Language Commission pursued comprehensive coordination, scientific planning, standardized management, and solid progress focusing on national strategies, the development of the cause, and social applications, driving scientific research on spoken and written language to take a new step forward, furnishing substantial academic backing for the development of the national cause of language, and providing important support and services for the implementation of major national strategies.

1 Principal measures During the “12th Five-Year” period, the State Language Commission set out from planning and system-building, focusing on initiating task projects, establishing mechanisms, developing disciplines, training talented personnel, engaging in cooperative exchanges, and so on, to comprehensively promote scientific research on spoken and written language.

1.1 Planning and arrangements The Plan of the State Language Commission for Scientific Research in the “12th Five-Year” Period (国家语委“十二五”科研规划) was issued, clearly outlining the guiding ideas, principal objectives and supporting measures of the State Language Commission for scientific research during the “12th Five-Year” period, and proposing five key directions for research, including: Language strategies, language planning and language policies, the establishment of standards and norms for spoken and written language, language life and language management, language education and language ability, as well as the establishment of language resources and Chinese information processing.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-003

24

Zhang Ripei (张日培)

1.2 Initiation and management of task projects The number of task projects increased significantly, and their quality was effectively improved. A total of 440 scientific research projects were established, an increase of 62% compared with the prior period.1 Among these were nearly 30 major projects, and more than 60 key projects. The Measures of the State Language Commission for Scientific Research Project Management (国家语委科研项 目管理办法) were revised twice, in 2011 and 2015, further strengthening institutionalized management and process control, from the initiation of projects to the midterm inspection, and from the conclusion and appraisal of projects to the transformation of findings, effectively improving the quality of research for task projects. The academic impact was increasingly expanded. The influence of the scientific research and planning projects of the State Language Commission in academic circles gradually improved, and because of their highly distinct focus on the major practical question of the applications of language, they formed a complement to the projects of the National Social Science Fund and the National Natural Science Foundation, as well as the humanities and social sciences projects of the Ministry of Education. An increasing number of institutions of higher education and scientific research institutes incorporated the state of initiation and conclusion of scientific research and planning projects of the State Language Commission into their programs for the appraisal of scientific research and incentives.

1.3 Establishment of scientific research institutes The scale of scientific research institutes has continuously grown. Since 2004, the State Language Commission has cooperated with relevant units to jointly establish specialized scientific research institutes in the category of spoken and written language. During the “12th Five-Year” period, the scientific research institutes of the State Language Commission grew from 10 to 18 in 2015, chiefly involving four research orientations: First, monitoring, preservation, development and application of language resources; second, research on language norms; third, research on language policies and language planning; and fourth, research on language ability.

 The State Language Commission established a total of 272 scientific research and planning projects during the “11th Five-Year” period.

3 Scientific research work of the State Language Commission

25

Management has become more standardized. The scientific research institutes have implemented categorized management according to scientific research bases and scientific research centers, cultivating scientific research bases with higher founding standards on the foundation of strengthening the establishment of scientific research centers. Through voluntary applications and expert evaluations, two fundamental scientific research bases with more refined supporting conditions, more complete mechanisms for entity formation and operation, and more comprehensive functions and tasks involving scientific research, the establishment of disciplines, training for Master’s students and PhD candidates, international exchanges, and so on have been established among the 18 scientific research institutes. The Measures of the State Language Commission for the Management of Scientific Research Bases (Provisional) (国家语委科研基地管理办法 [试行]) and the Measures of the State Language Commission for the Management of Scientific Research Centers (Provisional) (国家语委科研中心管理办法[试行]) were successively formulated, further clarifying the application requirements, approval procedures, functions and tasks, and management systems for the scientific research institutes of the State Language Commission, and strengthening the standardized management of scientific research institutes. The establishment of think tanks was comprehensively initiated. The Plan for the Establishment of National Think Tanks on Spoken and Written Language (国家语言文字智库建设规划) was issued, and pilot work for the establishment of national think tanks on spoken and written language was undertaken in Shanghai and Wuhan with the support of three scientific research institutes, driving the various scientific research institutes to adopt an orientation toward consultation and research on policy-making, continuously strengthen content development, improve their comprehensive capabilities, better exercise their functions of advising the government, enlightening the people, and providing education, and actively expand in the direction of think tanks. Collaborative innovation was effectively driven forward. The Secretariat for Scientific Research Institutes of the State Language Commission was established, and the various scientific research institutes were encouraged to engage in institutionalized information exchanges and communications through the Secretariat, building a platform for information exchanges and the presentation of findings shared by all institutes, promoting the sharing of resources, guiding the development of complementary advantages, and driving collaborative innovation, thereby comprehensively improving the research standards and overall influence of the scientific research institutes of the State Language Commission.

26

Zhang Ripei (张日培)

1.4 Academic disciplines and team-building The establishment of applied secondary disciplines was promoted. Shanghai International Studies University, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing Language and Culture University, Jinan University, and other scientific research institutes were encouraged to establish secondary disciplines such as “Language strategy and language policy studies,” “Language policy and planning studies,” “Language planning studies,” “Language intelligence and technology,” and “Overseas spoken and written Chinese education” under the umbrella of the primary disciplines of “Foreign language and literature” or “Chinese language and literature,” respectively, and to recruit and train Master’s students and PhD candidates with relevant orientations, stepping up efforts to train specialized personnel. Academic exchange platforms were established. Guidance was provided for the establishment of our country’s first academic journal with an orientation toward research on language policies and planning, the Chinese Journal of Language Policy and Planning (语言战略研究). Relevant scientific research institutes of the State Language Commission were supported in successively establishing China Language Strategies (中国语言战略), the Journal of Language Policy and Language Planning (语言政策与规划研究), Language Policy & Language Education (语言政策与语言教育), the Journal of Language Planning (语言规划学研究), and other academic publications, providing powerful support for the establishment and development of related disciplines. The establishment of academic organizations was strengthened. The establishment of the Institute of Language Policy and Planning of the Chinese Linguistics Society was promoted, preparations were made for the establishment of the Chinese Society for Applied Linguistics, and national academic organizations in the category of spoken and written language under the supervision of the Ministry of Education (State Language Commission) were guided to unite and consolidate their forces in accordance with their respective charters, and profoundly engage in scientific research, injecting powerful dynamism into the development of academic disciplines. Team-building for talented personnel was strengthened. The “Expert Bank of the State Language Commission for Scientific Research Work” was instituted and continuously perfected, training programs were implemented for talented personnel in the area of applied research on spoken and written language, the “Program for Outstanding Young to Middle-Aged Scholars for Applied Research on Spoken and Written Language” and the “National Advanced Program for Young to Middle-Aged Scholars for Applied Research on Ethnic Spoken and Written Languages” were held, and the “Alliance of Young and Middle-Aged Scholars for

3 Scientific research work of the State Language Commission

27

Collaborative Innovation in Applied Research on Spoken and Written Language” was established, providing reserves of talented personnel for the development of academic disciplines. Academic activities were guided and supported. The “Yangzhou Forum: Language and National Security and Development” (扬州论坛: 语言与国家的安 全和发展) and other major academic activities were sponsored. Relevant institutions of higher education, scientific research institutes, academic organizations, and so on were guided and supported in holding various academic forums revolving around issues such as language education, language ability, language security, and language life, and academic seminars on applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, language policy and planning, and other discipline orientations were convened, building a lively academic atmosphere.

1.5 Cooperative exchanges Academic cooperation across the Taiwan Strait and in the Hong Kong and Macau regions was promoted. The Coordinating Group for Cross-Strait Exchanges and Cooperation on Spoken and Written Language was established. The 6th through 9th “Cross-Strait Symposium on Modern Chinese Language” (海峡两岸现代汉语 问题学术研讨会) were successively convened in Macau, Hong Kong, Taipei, and Yantai, and the “Cross-Strait Symposium on Spoken and Written Language Survey Research and Language Life” (两岸语言文字调查研究与语文生活研讨会) was held for the first time in Fuzhou. Research on the state of spoken and written language and language life in the Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan regions as well as overseas Chinese communities was pursued in depth, giving rise to important academic findings. International academic exchanges were held. With the support of mechanisms for exchanges on the humanities between China and France, the 1st and 2nd “Chinese-French Symposium on Language Policy and Planning” (中法语言 政策与规划研讨会) were successively held in Beijing and Paris. With the support of mechanisms for exchanges on the humanities between China and Germany, high-level forums on language, culture and policies were held between China and Germany, and the “Chinese-German Language and Culture Study Tour” (中德语言文化研习之旅) activity was held. In addition, with the support of the scientific research institutes of the State Language Commission, 29 international academic conferences were held, inviting foreign experts to speak in China more than 100 person-times, and traveling overseas for lectures or scholarly visits more than 50 person-times. The “China Exchange Program for International High-Level Experts on Spoken and Written Language” (语言文字国际

28

Zhang Ripei (张日培)

高端专家来华交流项目) was implemented, inviting first-class international experts to visit China to engage in exchanges and give lectures. Translation and introduction of our country’s scientific research findings were carried out. After the publication of the English-language editions of volumes one through three of The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况报告) in April 2013, the Korean-language editions were published in October 2015, engaging in successful exploration and pilot work with respect to efforts for “Chinese scholarship, international expression.”

2 Principal achievements During the “12th Five-Year” period, the State Language Commission achieved substantial findings in its scientific research work, playing an important role with respect to supporting the implementation of national strategies, ensuring the development of the cause of spoken and written language, serving social language life, supporting academic development, and so on.

2.1 Supporting the implementation of national strategies Research on language strategies was strengthened. “Studies on Language Strategies in National Security” (国家安全中的语言战略研究) and a series of other major scientific research projects were established, encouraging academic circles to study spoken and written language policies and planning from the macroscopic perspective of national strategies, and comprehensively explore the relationship between language and the state in terms of language and national security, language and national interests, language and the enhancement of national soft power, et cetera. In addition, a number of findings such as Language and the State (语言与国家) (monograph), Language Planning in China (中国语言 规划三论) (essay anthology), Language Ability in China Amidst Global Competition (全球竞争中的国家语言能力) (advisory report), as well as the “Series on Language Resources and Language Planning” (语言资源与语言规划丛书), “Series on Foreign Language Strategies” (外语战略丛书), and “Essay Series on Language Think Tanks” (语言智库论丛) took shape, drawing widespread praise from political and academic circles. Research on language ability was strengthened. A series of scientific research projects with the orientation of “Research on Language Education and Language Ability” (语言教育与语言能力研究) were established, ranging from

3 Scientific research work of the State Language Commission

29

fundamental theoretical questions such as the connotations and denotations of language ability for the state and citizens, to policy and planning issues such as language education planning and multilingual talent reserves, and further to practical operations issues such the establishment of a standards system for citizens’ language ability and reforms to language and literature courses, pursuing comprehensive, in-depth research in relevant areas. A series of symbolic achievements such as the “National Dynamic Database on Foreign-Language Talents” (国家外语人才动态数据库) took shape, laying an academic foundation for the realization of the “Suzhou Consensus” (苏州共识) of the International Conference on Language, and transmitting Chinese voices to the world. Research on language construction for “One Belt, One Road” was strengthened. A top-down design was completed, approval and support were obtained for the “Special Task Project for Research on Spoken and Written Languages for ‘One Belt, One Road’” (‘一带一路’语言文字专项课题研究), “Studies on Language Strategies for Core Regions for ‘One Belt, One Road’” (‘一带一路’ 核心区 语言战略研究), and other major scientific research projects, and a series of important findings such as Paving the Way for Language Required for ‘One Belt, One Road’ (‘一带一路’ 需要语言铺路) (advisory report) and Language Services and ‘One Belt, One Road’ (语言服务与’一带一路’) (essay anthology). The Action Plan for Research on Language Planning to Promote the Construction of ‘One Belt, One Road’ (推进’一带一路’建设语言规划研究行动方案) was formulated, providing planning for survey studies on national language conditions, training of talented personnel for language, assurance for language services, and so on in service of the construction of “One Belt, One Road.”

2.2 Ensuring the development of the cause of spoken and written language Academic support was provided for the popularization of Putonghua. A new session of the Putonghua Pronunciation Committee was formed, and the third round of Putonghua pronunciation work was initiated. Research projects on “Popularization of Putonghua in Minority Ethnic Regions” (少数民族地区普通话 普及), “The Putonghua Proficiency Test System” (普通话水平测试体系), “Standards for Neutral Tone Words and Retroflex Words in Putonghua” (普通话轻声词 儿化词规范), and other topics related to planning for the popularization of Putonghua, proficiency testing, and standards of use were initiated and pursued. The Outline of Grading Standards and Testing for Putonghua Read-Aloud Proficiency (普通话朗诵水平等级标准及测试大纲) and other green papers and soft standards were published.

30

Zhang Ripei (张日培)

Academic support was provided for the implementation of standardized Chinese characters. The Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规 范汉字表) was publicized and implemented, the Notice on the Implementation of the ‘Table of General Standard Chinese Characters’ (关于贯彻实施< 通用规范 汉字表> 的通知) was issued in conjunction with 11 other departments, including the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, training courses were held on special topics, and experts were organized to write publicity papers explaining the principled basis and practical significance of the table of characters. Studies were initiated and launched on topics such as Standardization of the Forms of Chinese Characters (汉字字形规范), Standardization of the Components of Chinese Characters (汉字 部件规范), Standardization of Stroke Order for General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字笔顺规范), and Chinese Character Recognition Theory (汉字 认知理论). Academic support was provided for the implementation of the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet (汉语拼音方案). The Commission participated in and guided the efforts to revise International Standard ISO 7098 Information and Documentation – Romanization of Chinese (文献工作——中文罗马字母拼写 法). A project was initiated and launched for the establishment of the “Chinese Pinyin Lexicon Database” ( 汉语拼音词汇数据库). The Standards for Chinese Pinyin Transliteration of Chinese Personal Names (中国人名汉语拼音拼写规则), Basic Standards for Chinese Pinyin Orthography (汉语拼音正词法基本规则), and other national standards were issued. Academic support was provided for the establishment of standards and norms for spoken and written language. The Measures of the State Language Commission for the Management of Standards and Norms for Spoken and Written Language (国家语委语言文字规范标准管理办法) were revised, further clarifying the regulatory requirements for each step in the development, finalization, approval, issuance, review, and implementation of standards and norms for spoken and written language. 17 norms and standards for spoken and written language were issued, including 1 major standard issued by the State Council, 5 national standards, 1 standard of the State Language Commission, and 10 green paper soft standards. Studies were initiated and launched on topics such as “Survey Study of the Establishment of Standards and Norms for Spoken and Written Language” (语言文字规范标准建设调研) and “Development of Standards and Norms for Spoken and Written Language Oriented Toward Language Arts Education” (面向语文教育的语言文字规范标准研制), and a series of important findings took shape, including Several Recommendations on Strengthening the Establishment of Standards and Norms for Spoken and Written Language (加强语言文字规范标准建设的若干建议) (advisory report). The Handbook of

3 Scientific research work of the State Language Commission

31

Standards and Norms for Spoken and Written Language (语言文字规范标准手 册), Handbook of Common Standards for Spoken and Written Language (常用语 言文字规范手册) and other popular reading materials were compiled and published, actively promoting the implementation of standards and norms for spoken and written language. Academic support was provided for the establishment of spoken and written language informatization. The National Video Conference on Spoken and Written Language Informatization Work was convened, and Several Recommendations on Further Performing Spoken and Written Language Informatization Work (关于进一步做好语言文字信息化工作的若干意见) was issued. The incorporation of the Regulations for Management of the Use of Spoken and Written Language in Information Technology Products (信息技术产品语言文字使用管理 规定) into mid- to long-term planning for the project initiation work of the Ministry of Education was advocated, and relevant legislation and survey studies were comprehensively initiated. The construction of the “Holographic Database of Standard Chinese Characters” (通用汉字全息数据库) and other spoken and written language informatization resources was launched, along with fundamental studies in service of the informatization of spoken and written language, including “Standards for the Evaluation of Chinese Character Input Methods” (汉字输入法评测标准), “International Encoding, Tracking, and Research on Chinese Characters in Computer Character Libraries” (计算机字库汉 字国际编码跟踪与研究), and “Study on Chinese Text Processing and Information Mining Based on Semantic Domain” (基于领域语义的中文文本处理与信息 挖掘研究). Academic backing was provided for monitoring services for the social applications of spoken and written language. The “Monitoring and Authentication System for Conformity with Standards and Norms for Spoken and Written Language” (语言文字规范标准符合性测查认证系统) was developed, and studies were launched on topics such as “Development of Smart Monitoring Systems for Standardization of the Use of Spoken and Written Language” (语言文字使 用规范化智能监测系统研发), “Surveys and Monitoring on the State of Use of Scientific and Technical Terminology” (科技术语使用状况调查与监测), and “Monitoring of the Use of Chinese Alphabetic Words” (汉语字母词使用监测), providing services for the standardized use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language across society. A series of national standards were developed for regulation of English, Russian, Japanese, and North and South Korean translation in the public services sector, providing services for standardization of the use of spoken and written foreign languages in the public services sector. The “Smart Text Conversion System for Simplified and Traditional Chinese Characters” (汉字简繁文本智能转换系统) was developed and

32

Zhang Ripei (张日培)

released, providing services for promoting cross-strait exchanges and cooperation on spoken and written language, and furthering peaceful cross-strait development. Efforts were initiated for the development of Braille and sign language standards, providing services for the use of spoken and written language by special groups. Academic support was provided for the international dissemination of the Chinese language and Chinese culture. The “Project for Dissemination of Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture” (中华思想文化术语传播工程) was implemented, compiling and translating concepts and terms reflecting core Chinese values, and the first batch of term translations was released, contributing efforts to the construction of the Chinese discursive system, and promoting the dissemination of Chinese culture. Studies were initiated and launched on topics such as “Studies on the Development of the Industry for International Dissemination of the Chinese Language Based on the Economics of Language in the Era of Big Data” (大数据时代基于语言经济学的汉语国际传播产业发展研究), “Comparison of the Chinese, Korean and Japanese Languages and Studies on International Chinese Language Education in the Koreas and Japan” 中韩日语言对 比及对韩日汉语国际教育研究), “Studies on the Innovation of Models for the Dissemination of the Spoken and Written Chinese Language in the Age of Information and the Enhancement of Soft Cultural Power” (信息时代汉语言文字传 播模式创新与文化软实力提升研究), “Survey of the State of Use of the Chinese Language Overseas” (海外华语使用情况调查), and “Connections and Interactions Between Research on the Chinese Language and Chinese Language and Culture Education” (华语研究与华文教育的对接与互动), providing support in the form of scientific research to promote international Chinese language education and overseas Chinese language and culture education.

2.3 Serving social language life A series of annual reports on The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况 报告) were published. Dynamic monitoring of the use of language and language problems was strengthened. With the support of relevant scientific research institutes, monitoring continued to be carried out with respect to the application of spoken and written language in print media, online media, broadcast media, and educational materials as well as the state of use of the Chinese language overseas, releasing survey studies and real data on language life to the public each year, and introducing international and domestic language life as well as the latest research findings. The 10th anniversary of The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况报告) was also celebrated, and at the ceremony,

3 Scientific research work of the State Language Commission

33

The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况报告) was described as being guided by the language resource outlook, adhering to the academic concepts of serving the needs of the nation, focusing on social applications, and paying attention to practical problems in language life, contributing Chinese wisdom to the study of language issues in the course of globalization. “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点) activities have been held for ten years running. Since 2010, the authoritative Chinese Character of the Year, Trending Word of the Year, and Popular Phrase of the Year have been published for six years running, eliciting a strong response from society, and drawing a high degree of attention in various circles. People’s Daily (人民日报), Guangming Daily (光明日报), Sina.com (新浪网), and other major domestic media outlets have consistently followed the reports, and CCTV’s Focus Report (焦点访谈) has produced and broadcast special programs on related topics, increasingly highlighting the guiding role that scientific research work plays with respect to social language life. Dynamic monitoring of the use of language and language problems was strengthened. Revolving around the orientation “Studies on Language Life and Language Management” (语言生活与语言管理研究), more than 130 task projects were established, comprehensively launching empirical survey studies on the state of use of spoken and written language in ethnic minority regions and other key regions, in radio and television and other key fields, and among rural migrant workers and other special groups. Major, key projects such as “The Status and Role of Native Languages and the Construction of Harmonious Language Policies” (母语的地位作用与和谐语言政策构建) were established, strengthening research on measures for addressing the construction of urban and rural linguistic environments, language planning in the course of urbanization, governance of social language life, handling the relationships between languages in a multilingual society, the resolution of language conflicts, and other major, practical language problems, serving scientific decision-making on national spoken and written language. A series of task projects in the categories of public opinion and language sentiment monitoring were established, including “Studies on Automatic Monitoring Technology for Public Opinion on Spoken and Written Language” (语言文字舆情自动监测技术研究), “Studies on the Construction of Language Service Platforms and Public Opinion on Certain Hot Topics Based on Public Opinion Databases on Language” (基于语言舆情 库的语言服务平台建设及若干热点舆情研究), and “Studies on Tibetan-Language Online Public Opinion Monitoring” (藏文网络舆情监测研究), actively exploring early warning and emergency response mechanisms for addressing language problems and contingencies.

34

Zhang Ripei (张日培)

2.4 Supporting academic development The construction of language resources was strengthened. A series of scientific research projects were established in the category of the conservation of language resources, including “Survey Study on the State of China’s Trans-Border Languages” (中国跨境语言现状调查研究), “Theory and Practice in the Scientific Conservation of Spoken and Written Languages” (语言文字科学保护的理论与实 践), and “Standards for the Conservation of Critically Endangered Languages” (濒危语言保护标准), comprehensively launching national studies on the conservation, development, and application of language resources. The construction of the China Language Resource Audio Database was promoted, database construction work in Jiangsu, Beijing, Shanghai and other places successively passed deliverables acceptance, and the project “Technological Planning and Platform Development for the China Language Resource Audio Database” obtained approval and support from the National Science and Technology Support Program. The “Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China” (中国语言资源保 护工程) was initiated, for the purpose of comprehensively launching surveys on China’s language resources, building integrated language resource platforms, and promoting the profound development and application of language resources. The construction of fundamental databases and corpora was strengthened. Construction was initiated for the Integrated Resource Library for International Language Policies, National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus, Teaching Materials Resource Library for Chinese as a Second Language, National Spoken and Written Language Sentiment Database, China Dynamic Language Sentiment Resource Library, Language Corpus for Writing by Students in the Compulsory Education Stage, Exam Question Library for the Chinese Oral Proficiency Test (HKC), Library of Policies, Regulations and Knowledge on Spoken and Written Minority Languages, Corpus of Bilingual Educational Materials in Ethnic Minority Regions, Chinese Sign Language Lexicon Corpus, and other fundamental databases and corpora. The key research project “Survey Studies on the State of Establishment and Use of Corpora in the Language Category in China” was established, to examine the current conditions, get a sense of the inside information, and promote sharing of resources. The 18 scientific research institutes were encouraged to establish fundamental data resource libraries based on the needs of their research, 70 of which are now complete or under construction. A variety of reports were also issued, including the Report on the Research and Development of Spoken and Written Language Policies in China (中国语言文字政策 研究发展报告) (Blue Paper on Spoken and Written Languages in China), providing materials and data to support in-depth engagement in scientific research work on spoken and written language.

3 Scientific research work of the State Language Commission

35

Basic research in service of the development of spoken and written language information technology was strengthened. Linkage was actively instituted for pressing needs in the development of smart language technology, and a series of research projects in the categories of terms, texts, and semantics were established, including “Studies on Modern Chinese Semantic Morphology Oriented Toward Information Processing” (面向信息处理的现代汉语语义构词 研究), “Studies on Affective Word Recognition Oriented Toward Chinese Information Processing” (面向中文信息处理的情感词语识别研究), “Studies on the Automatic Acquisition of Semantic Knowledge Based on Concept and Attribute Constraints and its Applications” (基于概念与属性约束的语义知识自动获取及 其应用研究), “Studies on Semantic Structural Analysis for Chinese Text Framework Oriented Toward Information Processing” (面向信息处理的汉语篇章框架 语义结构分析研究), “Studies on Automatic Extraction and Recognition in Term Alignment Libraries Oriented Toward the Greater China Region” (面向大中华地 区的词语对齐库自动抽取和识别研究), “Computational Studies on Word Pairing Diachrony Based on Semantic Analysis” (基于语义分析的词语搭配历时计算研 究), and “Study on the Construction of a Semantic Resource Library for Tibetan-Language Entities” (藏语实体语义资源库构建研究). A series of findings in the software category also took shape, including “A System for Quality Improvement in Comparable Corpora” (可比语料库质量提升系统), “A System for Translation of New Words Based on Comparable Corpora” (基于可比语料库的 新词翻译系统), and “Annotation of Language Treasures” (语宝标注), along with a collection of achievements in the patent category, including “A System for Full-Text Retrieval Based on Bilevel Semantic Analysis” (基于双层语义分析 的全文检索系统), “A Method for the Extraction of Knowledge and Information from Tibetan-Language Entities” (藏语实体知识信息抽取方法), and “A Method and Device for Recognition on Traditional Mongolian-Language Web Pages” (传统蒙古文网页识别方法和装置).

3 Concluding remarks During the “12th Five-Year” period, particularly since the Party’s 18th National Congress, the scientific research work of the State Language Commission has experienced five years of flourishing development, with the incentive of achieving the “Chinese dream” of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese people. Basic and applied research on spoken and written language, especially research on national language strategies, social language life, and so on, has yielded abundant findings and produced an important impact, positive trends have been

36

Zhang Ripei (张日培)

shown in the development of academic disciplines, the system for management and support for scientific research has been increasingly perfected, scientific research institutes and the talent pool have continuously grown more robust, and international exchanges and academic cooperation have continued to be deepened. The embryonic form of a system with Chinese characteristics for scientific research on spoken and written language that is “guided by the language resource outlook, following the idea of serving the needs of the state and society, taking the objectives of building harmonious language life and improving language ability for the state and for citizens, taking concern for language problems in real life as the orientation, regarding the establishment of scientific research projects and the construction of scientific research institutes as the starting point, employing big data as a resources and quantitative research as the primary research approach, with a series of annual language reports as the primary vehicle for findings” is beginning to come into view. Scientific research has already become the cornerstone for supporting the reform and development of the cause of spoken and written language, prompting the cause of language in our country to gradually shift from a management approach to a governance approach, to move forward from ontology-building to more profound application, to expand from a domestic focus to an international focus, and to ascend from departmental work to national strategies. The abundant findings which have been obtained through scientific research work during the “12th FiveYear” period have laid a good foundation for the development of the cause of spoken and written language over the next five years and even longer, encouraging us to continue moving forward. Looking forward to the future, the national cause of language faces the pressing demands that changing times and national development and innovation pose with respect to spoken and written language, while scientific research work on spoken and written language faces the call of duty for the development of the cause and future scientific and technological development. In the face of unprecedented historical opportunities, scientific research work on spoken and written language must further pursue emancipated thinking, brave exploration, tenacious progress, and pioneering innovation, making even greater contributions to the scientific development of the national cause of language, to the establishment of national language ability commensurate with our growth in national power, and achieving “a strong nation with strong language assistance”!

Part II: Special focuses

Tian Lixin (田立新)

4 Origin and significance of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China In May 2015, the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission issued the Notice of the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission on Initiation of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China (教 育部 国家语委关于启动中国语言资源保护工程的通知), announcing the decision to launch a major language and cultural project centered on surveying, preservation, presentation, development, and utilization of language resources on a nationwide scale. This project symbolized a broader, more intensive, and more scientific and effective approach to engaging in efforts for the protection of language resources in our country at a national level.

1 Origin 1.1 The importance of language resources and their precarious state Languages are an important cultural resource, representing the fundamental essence and a distinctive symbol of culture. They are an important part of nonmaterial cultural resources, and play an important rule with respect to passing down civilization and maintaining cultural diversity. China has approximately 130 languages in fifty major language families, including the Sino-Tibetan, Altay, Austronesian, South Asian, and Indo-European languages,1 with 10 major Chinese dialect regions, and innumerable dialects and topolects. It is among the countries with the most abundant language resources in the world today, and has unique advantages in terms of language strategies. However, as modernization and urbanization have progressed, of these 130 extant languages, 68 have ten thousand or fewer speakers, and 25 have one thousand or fewer speakers, while the Hezhe language, Manchu language, Sulung language,

 Some of the languages are characterized as “mixed languages,” including the Wutun language of Qinghai and the Tangwang language of Gansu; some of the language families are of indeterminate characterization, such as the Korean language family. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-004

40

Tian Lixin (田立新)

Xiandao language, Qabiao language, and other minority languages have less than one hundred speakers, and are in a critically endangered state. Among the Chinese dialects, the dialects found in the vast countryside and remote regions are at an absolute disadvantage, and some have already become critically endangered dialects, such as the dialect of the nine fisherfolk clans of Zhejiang, Macanese patois, and scattered island subdialects. The rapid erosion of language and cultural resources has become increasingly severe, and has also drawn widespread concern from various sectors of society. In recent years, People’s Congress and Political Consultative Conference representatives at different levels in China have put forward a number of proposals and recommendations regarding the issue of the protection of language resources. It is worth noting that several international organizations and groups have worked to gather and record corpora for Chinese dialects and minority languages via websites or online cooperative platforms, thereby posing a certain risk to national security. Under these circumstances, we must be fully aware of the gravity of this issue, and take a correct approach. The protection and development of language and cultural resources has now become a matter of universal concern to the United Nations as well as various countries and regions, and as a signatory country to the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (保护非物质文化遗产公约) and the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (保护和促进文化表现形式多样性公约), China should stand at the forefront of efforts for the scientific protection of language resources, making unique contributions to the perpetuation and development of the diversity of human languages and cultures.

1.2 The high degree of emphasis placed on efforts for the protection of language resources by the Party and government In light of the importance of language resources and their current state, in recent years, the Party and government have placed a high degree of emphasis on efforts for the protection of language resources. The Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party on Several Major Issues with Regard to Deepening Cultural and Institutional Reforms and Promoting the Great Development and Prosperity of Socialist Culture (中共中央关于深化文化体制改革 推 动社会主义文化大发展大繁荣若干重大问题的决定), which was passed at the 6th Plenum of the Party’s 17th Central Committee in October 2011, clearly noted that it is necessary to “robustly popularize and standardize the use of

4 Origin and significance of the Project for the Protection

41

the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and scientifically protect the spoken and written languages of all ethnic groups.” This was the first time that the Chinese Communist Party proposed specific requirements for the cause of spoken and written language through a decision by a plenary session of the Central Committee, and it highlighted the strategic position of the cause of spoken and written language as part of cultural construction. The Decision also proposed that it is necessary to “safeguard the essential elements of ethnic culture,” “properly handle the protection and perpetuation of intangible cultural heritage,” and “cultivate the excellent traditional Chinese culture.” A report by the Party’s 18th National Congress in November 2012 noted that it is necessary to “establish systems for the perpetuation of excellent traditional culture, and cultivate the excellent traditional Chinese culture; to popularize and standardize the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language; and to bring prosperity and development to the cause of ethnic minority cultures.” The report represented new requirements with respect to language work proposed by our Party from the vantage point of new strategic arrangements, in continuation of the requirements for language work formulated by the 6th Plenum of the 17th Central Committee. Interpreting the central message of these requirements – to “establish systems for the perpetuation of excellent traditional culture, and cultivate the excellent traditional Chinese culture,” this signifies that it is necessary to fully exercise the role of spoken and written language as a vehicle for culture, so as to make greater contributions to establishing systems for the perpetuation of excellent traditional culture, cultivating the excellent traditional Chinese culture, and promoting great cultural development and prosperity. The mandate to “bring prosperity and development to the cause of ethnic minority cultures” signifies that, while remaining committed to the popularization and standardization of the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, we must also take effective measures to strengthen the scientific protection of various ethnic spoken and written languages, which will benefit efforts to uphold national unification, ethnic unity, and social harmony, as well as efforts to maintain the richness and diversity of Chinese culture. National leaders have also issued important directives with respect to the issue of language resources and their protection on several occasions. Chairman Xi Jinping (习近平) noted at a meeting with German sinologists, representatives of Confucius Institute instructors, and Chinese language learners in Berlin in March 2014 that, “Against the backdrop of an era of global multipolarity, economic globalization, cultural diversification, and the democratization of international relations, communication between people is very important, while cooperation between countries is essential. One important tool for communication

42

Tian Lixin (田立新)

and exchanges is language, and it is chiefly through language that a country’s cultural charms and a people’s cohesion is expressed and conveyed. To master a language is to hold the key for connection to a country’s culture.” Vice Premier Liu Yandong (刘延东) noted in a speech at a forum commemorating the tenth anniversary of the issuance of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字法) in January 2011 (while serving as a member of the State Council) that, “With respect to dialects, particularly critically endangered dialects, modern technological methods such as the establishment of audio databases and so forth should also be used to carry out surveys, cataloguing, research, development and application.” She has issued several important directives regarding the protection of language resources, clearly stating that languages and dialects are the vehicles of traditional Chinese culture as well as witnesses to local history and culture, and are precious cultural treasures. The cataloguing of Chinese dialects and ethnic minority languages must be effectively pursued as an emergency project. Given the high degree of emphasis placed on this issue by the Party, the government, and national leaders, efforts for the protection of language resources have become an important task in the scientific development of the national cause of language in the new era. The Outline of National Mid- to Long-Term Plans for Language Reform and Development (2012–2020) (国家中长期语言文字 事业改革和发展规划纲要[2012–2020 年]) listed the “scientific preservation of various ethnic spoken and written languages” as a major task, while highlighting engagement in efforts for “surveys on national language conditions,” “scientific recording and preservation of various ethnic spoken and written languages,” “emergency treatment and protection of critically endangered ethnic minority languages,” and so on. The developments described above provided the policy basis for the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China.

1.3 Early efforts and results established a good foundation for the project’s implementation 1.3.1 Theoretical exploration of the protection of language resources Cao Zhiyun (曹志耘) (Cao 2009) notes that yuyan baohu (语言保护, ‘language protection’) and yuyan baocun (语言保存, ‘language preservation’) are two different concepts, representing two different approaches. Under the current circumstances in China, both language preservation and language protection are needed. Language protection requires that the government formulate

4 Origin and significance of the Project for the Protection

43

corresponding language policies, and that the public take specific actions, while the concrete work of language preservation is chiefly carried about by academic circles. With respect to how plans for the protection of language resources are to be scientifically determined, Li Yuming (李宇明) (Li 2012) notes that it is necessary to profoundly understand the state of development and use of each ethnic language, and formulate plans for language protection suited to the practical circumstances, on the basis of the actual conditions for different languages.

1.3.2 Practical exploration of the protection of language resources Survey studies on languages in China conducted over the last century or more have yielded substantial results. In 1956, the State Council issued the Directive on the Promotion of Putonghua (关于推广普通话的指示), and under unified national leadership, experts and scholars in national linguistics circles as well as teachers and students in the language and literature departments at normal schools had surveyed the dialects of a total of 1849 counties and cities and published more than 300 primers for the study of Putonghua in different regions over the course of 2 or 3 years. Since the 1980s, Dialect (方言), Minority Languages of China (民族 语文), and other journals have published frequent survey reports on languages and dialects, and the Language Atlas of China (中国语言地图集), Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects (汉语方言地图集), Phonetic Database of Modern Chinese Dialects (现代汉语方言音库), Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects (现代汉语 方言大词典), Basic Vocabulary of the Base Dialects of Putonghua (普通话基础方 言基本词汇集), as well as a number of series on dialects and ethnic languages have also been published. In 1999, the Ministry of Education and 10 other ministries and commissions jointly launched the “Survey on the State of Use of the Spoken and Written Chinese Language” (中国语言文字使用情况调查), which placed emphasis on gathering data in relation to language life and the use of language. In recent years, critically endangered languages and dialects and other phenomena have garnered concern in various sectors of society, the concepts of linguistic diversity and language protection have gradually drawn the attention of the government and the public, and domestic academic circles have launched a number of relevant research projects, obtaining a high volume of research findings. In the wake of the development of language information processing technology and multimedia technology, efforts for the protection of language resources have entered a new stage of development. On October 11, 2008, the “Inaugural Ceremony for the Pilot Program for Construction of the China

44

Tian Lixin (田立新)

Language Resource Audio Database” (中国语言资源有声数据库建设试点启动 仪式) was held in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, with the State Language Commission presiding. This symbolized the drawing back of the curtains on the largest language survey and language protection project in Chinese history, and the arrival of a brand-new era. The aims of the China Language Resource Audio Database are to survey Chinese dialects, ethnic minority languages, and Putonghua in China in accordance with a scientific, unified program, gather information on their actual state along with audio corpora, and carry out scientific cataloguing and processing as well as effective preservation. The content of the survey includes the current state of languages and dialects, common pronunciations, vocabulary, and grammatical phenomena, speech recordings of dialects, and the state of Putonghua in various regions. The survey materials use the conventional approach of listening and notation combined with the full adoption of advanced, integrated sound recording equipment and technology to carry out audio recordings, ultimately leading to the establishment of the China Language Resource Audio Database. In order to guarantee the scientific nature of the construction of the China Language Resource Audio Database, the State Language completed substantial preparatory work in the lead-up to the project. Beginning in 2007, a number of special meetings were convened to carry out preliminary verification regarding the construction of the audio database, and more than 20 technical standards and working standards for the formulation of research projects were issued, while between 2008 and 2010, pilot programs were successively carried out in five cities in Jiangsu Province. 2010 saw the official publication of an important standard for the construction of the audio databases the Survey Handbook for the China Language Resource Audio Database: Chinese Dialects (中国语言资源有声数据库调查手册· 汉语方言). Database construction was subsequently initiated in eight provinces, including Shanghai, Beijing, Guangxi, Liaoning, Fujian, Shandong, Hubei, and Hebei. As of the present, efforts for surveying and cataloguing local regional audio data have already been completed and have passed inspection in Jiangsu, Beijing and Shanghai, while the survey work in other provinces is currently proceeding in an orderly fashion. In order to promote the scientific development of the cause of language, upon scientific verification, the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission decided to launch the “Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China” (中国语言资源保护工程) (abbreviated below as the Language Protection Project). Implementation of the project began in 2015, and it is slated for completion in five years. The overall plan is to carry out surveys at approximately 1000 locations for Chinese dialects (including critically endangered dialects), 400 locations for minority ethnic languages (including critically endangered languages), and 100 locations for language and culture nationwide.

4 Origin and significance of the Project for the Protection

45

The Language Protection Project is a major national project in the category of language and culture led and implemented by the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission with the support of the national financial administration, representing further expansion and integration on the basis of the existing China Language Resource Audio Database, which will proceed in accordance with the approach of “unified national planning, joint implementation by localities and experts, and encouragement of public participation.” The initiation and implementation of the Language Protection Project reflects the high degree of emphasis that the Party and government have placed on efforts for the protection of language resources in our country.

2 Significance 2.1 Scientific and effective protection of language and cultural resources, laying the foundation for the perpetuation and cultivation of the excellent traditional Chinese culture Languages and dialects are the most important vehicles for culture and essential elements thereof, as well as a precondition for cultural diversity, representing a precious intangible cultural heritage and valuable, nonrenewable resources. As many Chinese dialects and ethnic minority languages move into a critically endangered state or even face extinction, using modern technological methods to fully survey and preserve genuine corpora for our country’s contemporary Chinese dialects, ethnic minority languages, and oral culture, promptly rescuing and preserving disadvantaged and endangered languages and dialects, and protecting China’s linguistic and cultural heritage through scientific planning is a critical and historic mission of momentous significance for the Chinese government and academic circles.

2.2 Comprehensively grasping the national language conditions, and scientifically formulating national language plans and language policies The national language conditions are a fundamental aspect of the state of the country. In order to scientifically formulate language plans and language policies suited to the national conditions, and build a harmonious language life, it is necessary to take a comprehensive, objective understanding of the national

46

Tian Lixin (田立新)

language conditions as the premise. Even now, our country has yet to complete a comprehensive, systematic survey of national language resources in accordance with a systematic, scientific plan, and thus has not yet established a language resource database based on a unified survey, nor has it established a platform for use in the collection, exhibition and protection of China’s language resources, which is quite out of step with China’s status as one of the world’s great nations in terms of language resources. However, in terms of the objectives it has established and the content for its implementation, the Language Protection Project differs from the language and dialect surveys and surveys on the state of use of spoken and written language that were seen in the past, as a language and culture project characterized by high standards and timeliness, with a unified national plan, guided by advanced concepts, and adopting modern techniques.

2.3 Maintaining social stability, ethnic unity, and national security, in service of the country’s neighboring strategies and the construction of “One Belt, One Road” At present, the state of language development and conservation is highly uneven among our country’s various ethnic groups. Our country’s neighboring security situation is relatively complex, and trans-border languages and border security are closely intertwined. The construction of “One Belt, One Road” involves the majority of the regions in our country as well as a host of other countries, with a highly complex landscape of languages, dialects and cultures that urgently awaits clarification. The Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau regions all commonly use Chinese dialects, and the number of people overseas who use Chinese dialects has risen to a population of more than ten million, dispersed around the globe. Chinese dialects can play an important role in strengthening the cohesion of the Chinese nation and maintaining relationships between Chinese people at home and abroad. Therefore, clarifying the national state of language in our country and properly protecting language and cultural resources will contribute to the scientific formulation and flexible adjustment of language policies as well as the construction of harmonious language life, and will play a unique role in international economics and trade dealings, human exchanges, and security cooperation.

4 Origin and significance of the Project for the Protection

47

2.4 Promoting the construction of spoken and written language informatization, and improving the level of national informatization Informatization and digitalization are now the irreversible direction of forward social development, and the necessary choice for the development of the knowledge economy. Through surveys of language resources in thousands of locations, open, ongoing collection of language data, the implementation of the Language Protection Project will lead to the construction of language and dialect database platforms with nationwide coverage and effectively growing resources, which can provide an enormous space for future data mining and humanities computing, thus improving the level of informatization of spoken and written language in our country, strengthening national language processing capabilities, enhancing our country’s voice in virtual spaces, and effectively safeguarding national information security.

2.5 Promoting the development of the language and cultural industry, and strengthening the capacity for social services The language and cultural industry involves language science and technology, language services, language and cultural creativity, and so on, and it is an emerging industry that meets our country’s requirements for industrial transformation and upgrading, but at present, it is still in the preliminary stages. Language resources are an important foundation for robustly developing the language and cultural industry. Carrying out related development and utilization on the foundation of an unprecedentedly abundant and diverse collection of language resources will make it possible to derive more and longer industrial chains, and produce a greater wealth of language and cultural products, offering vast prospects for the innovative development of our country’s language and cultural industry.

3 Concluding remarks The Language Protection Project is an important measure for scientifically protecting the spoken and written languages of each ethic group, and promoting the scientific development of the cause of language in our country, putting

48

Tian Lixin (田立新)

forth efforts in the present to reap benefits for generations to come. On analyzing the background for the initiation of the Language Protection Project, its objectives for implementation, and its trends and tasks, particular attention must be directed toward the following points.

3.1 Construction will involve a significant workload, with a pressing timeframe and major responsibilities In accordance with the arrangements in the project’s overall plan, 2015 is its starting year, with principal tasks including the formulation of a plan for implementation of the project, conceptualization of a top-down design, and the launch of pilot surveys, while simultaneously preparing for the construction of the Platform for the Protection of Language Resources of China. The period from 2016 to 2019 will be the main phase for implementation of the project, including the comprehensive launch of language resource surveys, collection, platform construction, and other work. Local language commissions and leaders at all levels will need to conscientiously shoulder the responsibilities of supervision and management.

3.2 The project is broad in scope, with a complex situation and high technical requirements The implementation of the project requires a unified approach encompassing every step, from the top-down design to concrete execution, and launching the work in accordance with the project’s relevant management regulations and technical specifications will require the articulation of responsibilities and a clear division of labor through rigorous, scientific management mechanisms and management measures, to ensure the progress and quality of the project’s implementation.

3.3 The project is highly social in nature, involving a wide range of subjects, with vast influence The process of implementing the Language Protection Project will require extensive attention and support from the public, and the participants will need to work in concert, fully exercising the spirit of proactive initiative and united cooperation, to steadily drive forward the implementation of the project. At the

4 Origin and significance of the Project for the Protection

49

same time, it will be necessary to give full attention to the role of the Internet, using the Internet as a channel to publicize the Language Protection Project, continuously strengthen the public’s concept of language protection, improve public awareness and participation, and expand the social influence of the Language Protection Project.

References Cao, Zhiyun (曹志耘). 2009. On language preservation (论语言保存). Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies (语言教学与研究), No. 1. Li, Yuming (李宇明). 2012. The scientific protection of various ethic spoken and written languages (科学保护各民族语言文字). Applied Linguistics (语言文字应用), No. 2.

Cao Zhiyun (曹志耘)

5 Orientation, objectives, and tasks of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China The “Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China” (中国语言资源 保护工程) is a major project that is being implemented in China currently and for some time in the future.

1 Orientation 1.1 Basis for orientation 1.1.1 Relevant policies and directives of the Party and government In October 2011, the report Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party on Several Major Issues with Regard to Deepening Cultural and Institutional Reforms and Promoting the Great Development and Prosperity of Socialist Culture (中共中央关于深化文化体制改革 推动社会主义文化大发展大繁荣若干重 大问题的决定) from the 6th Plenum of the Party’s 17th Central Committee, noted that it is necessary to “robustly popularize and standardize the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and scientifically protect the spoken and written languages of all ethnic groups.” This marked the first time that the requirement to “scientifically protect the spoken and written languages of all ethnic groups” was proposed, and juxtaposed with the fundamental language policy to “robustly popularize and standardize the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language.” At the same time, the report proposed the need to “safeguard the essential elements of ethnic culture,” “properly handle the protection and perpetuation of intangible cultural heritage,” and “cultivate the excellent traditional Chinese culture.” In November 2012, a report from the Party’s 18th National Congress particularly emphasized the need to “cultivate the excellent traditional Chinese culture” and “bring prosperity and development to the cause of ethnic minority cultures.” In early 2014, relevant leaders of the State Council issued important instructions regarding the work for the protection of Chinese dialects, noting that Chinese dialects are the vehicles of traditional Chinese culture and the witnesses to local history and culture, representing precious cultural https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-005

52

Cao Zhiyun (曹志耘)

wealth, calling for the study and review of these resources, which cannot be allowed to disappear, and indicating that such efforts are not in conflict with the popularization of Putonghua. The instructions also called for a timetable to be formulated for an emergency project to effectively catalogue Chinese dialects and ethnic minority languages, including the collection of dialect stories. In addition, it is necessary to take care to respond in a lawful manner to the efforts by a number of foreign agencies and organizations to collect data on our ethnic minority languages and Chinese dialects online. There is no doubt that “scientifically protect[ing] the spoken and written languages of all ethnic groups” is the guiding principle of the Language Protection Project, and is essentially to achieving a comprehensive, in-depth and accurate understanding of the project. With regard to spoken and written language, the term baohu (保护, ‘protection’) has both a narrow meaning and a broad meaning. In the narrow sense, yuyan baohu (语言保护, ‘language protection’) refers to preserving the vitality of languages and dialects by means of various effective policies, measures and methods, allowing them to continue surviving and developing, and in particular, preventing the decline of disadvantaged and critically endangered languages and dialects. In the broad sense, yuyan baohu (语言保护, ‘language protection’) encompasses not only protection but also preservation. Yuyan baocun (语言保存, ‘language preservation’) refers to recording the actual features of languages and dialects by means of comprehensive, detailed, scientific surveys, and engaging in longterm, effective preservation and exhibition.

1.1.2 The current state of languages resources in China and the requirements for protection At present, China’s language resources are characterized by two important facts: First, they are abundant; and second, they are critically endangered. Being abundant signifies that there is a multitude of different languages, with complex and highly disparate dialects, and rich cultural backgrounds. Being critically endangered signifies that, amidst the swift progress of modernization and industrialization, in the wake of the rapid development of various undertakings in our country, the ethnic minority languages and Chinese dialects in our country are currently experiencing changes at an unprecedented rate, and many languages and dialects are slipping toward endangerment or are facing extinction, while precious language and cultural resources are quickly eroded, presenting an extremely grim situation.

5 Orientation, objectives, and tasks of the Project

53

It is plain to see that the task of protecting our country’s language resources is quite formidable, and extremely pressing. At the same time, local governments and the general public have a high degree of interest in and high expectations regarding local languages, dialects and cultures.

1.2 Project orientation 1.2.1 A national project The Language Protection Project is slated to carry out a unified survey of the languages of all ethnic groups and local Chinese dialects nationwide, involving 56 ethnic groups and more than 2000 counties across the country. A task of such a vast scale and such difficulty and urgency could only be implemented and completed under the government’s leadership. Due to our country’s institutional characteristics, such as the establishment of the specialized State Language Commission, the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, and their local management departments, the government is entirely capable of undertaking this historical mission. In addition, language resources are an important component of cultural resources, an important premise for perpetuating excellent traditional culture and maintaining cultural diversity, and an important factor determining a country’s soft power and international influence. For an issue of such great importance, relying solely on scholars’ efforts and pursuing the matter as nothing more than a scientific research project would clearly be far from adequate. In the course of long-term research work, scholars will often develop their own personal research interests and habits, which may not entirely coincide with the vital needs of the state. Under the current circumstances, which are of a most pressing nature, it is necessary to rely on administrative forces for a unified approach and unified action, to achieve the objectives of implementing the government’s will and meeting the needs of society.

1.2.2 Social orientation The orientation of a national project signifies that the Language Protection Project is not an academic, ivory tower effort, but rather requires the mobilization of participation by every sector of society, while also serving society. However, the deeper motives for a social orientation stem from two aspects. First, there is the arduous and urgent nature of the survey and protection work, which compels us

54

Cao Zhiyun (曹志耘)

to open the project to society, and attract public participation. Experts are of course an important force in the surveys and projection, but the number of specialized personnel on a worldwide scale who are able and willing to engage in efforts for surveying and protection of language resources is no more than a drop in the bucket compared to the needs for protection, and training new personnel would not produce results quickly enough to turn the tide. At the same time, members of the public have a high degree of enthusiasm for the protection of their own mother tongues and cultures, and many people already have a certain degree of specialization and technical abilities (particularly in the technical respect, many people are in fact far more proficient than research personnel for language surveys), and are able to complete the work of surveying, collecting and processing certain language materials. If broad social forces can be mobilized to participate and share in the tasks of the Language Protection Project, then the problems of insufficient human resources, a shortage of funding, and an urgent schedule can be fundamentally resolved. Second, with respect to the concept of scientific research, in China today, linguistics is a branch of learning that is closely intertwined with social life, and linguistics workers should establish the concept of “academic as a social service,” consciously integrating their own research work into society, consciously reflecting on the resolution of social problems, and actively promoting social development and progress.

1.2.3 Scientific in nature The scientific nature of the Language Protection Project is chiefly reflected in three areas: The first is specialization, in that experts are responsible for planning and designing the project as a whole, while specialized teams and technical personnel are in charge of training, supervision, implementation, deliverables acceptance, and so on. The second is standardization: prior to the implementation of the project, the project’s plan for implementation, management methods, and technical standards must be confirmed on the basis of thorough certification, wherein the management measures encompass project initiation, midpoint inspections, conclusion of the project, training, pilot programs, precheck for deliverables acceptance, deliverables acceptance, and so on, while the technical standards include survey standards, corpora cataloguing standards, survey forms for various languages and dialects, resource coding standards, sound processing standards, and attribute tagging standards, as well as specialized videography software, validation software, tagging software, and so on. The third is being forward-thinking: The project’s content, methods and technical standards must be designed from a historical perspective while looking toward

5 Orientation, objectives, and tasks of the Project

55

the future, in order to satisfy the requirements of long-term preservation and use. This national, comprehensive survey and protection project is characterized as a “one-time emergency rescue,” and it would not be possible to conduct the surveys anew in a few years, due to the fact that many languages and dialects might no longer exist at that time. Since 2007, the State Language Commission and the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education have organized relevant experts to carry out the work of verification and the development of standards for China language surveys and the project for the construction of the China Language Resource Audio Database, successively completing a series of research tasks including Verification Report on China Language Surveys – Chinese Dialects (中 国语言普查论证报告———汉语方言), Pronunciation Survey Form and Survey Standards for Chinese Dialects (汉语方言语音调查表和调查规范), Vocabulary Survey Form and Survey Standards for Chinese Dialects (汉语方言词汇调查表和调 查规范), Grammar Survey Form and Survey Standards for Chinese Dialects (汉语 方言语法调查表和调查规范), Verification Report on China Language Surveys—Development of Local Putonghua Test Form (中国语言普查论证报告———地方普通 话测试表研制), Sound Recording and Phonetic Notation Standards (录音和记音规 范), Machine-Assisted Surveys and Validation Standards (机助调查和校验规范), Survey Data Cataloguing and Database Construction Standards (普查资料整理及 建库规范), and Character Usage Standards for Chinese Dialects (汉语方言用字规 范), and in 2010, the book Survey Handbook for the China Language Resource Audio Database: Chinese Dialects (中国语言资源有声数据库调查手册· 汉语方言) was compiled and published. In 2014, the project “Research and Development of Technical Standards and Platforms for Tripartite Project for the China Language Resource Audio Database” (三方工程中国语言资源有声数据库技术规范与平台 研发) of the National Science and Technology Support Program was approved for initiation. The aim of this project is to provide comprehensive, advanced technical support for the construction of the China Language Resource Audio Database, with research content chiefly including research on technical standards for audio databases, the development of technical tools, the development of platform technologies, and so on. In early 2014, experts were again organized to carry out comprehensive verification of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China. The verification work continued for one year, and work on the development of relevant standards is still ongoing. It is clear that the issue of the scientific nature of the Language Protection Project has consistently received a high degree of attention from relevant departments and experts, and has been provided with a good foundation.

56

Cao Zhiyun (曹志耘)

2 Objectives and tasks The objectives of the Language Protection Project are: Implementing the spirit of the Party Central Committee’s mandate to “scientifically protect the spoken and written languages of all ethnic groups” since the 6th Plenum of the 17th Central Committee, and taking aim at the grim circumstances of the rapid decline of Chinese dialects and ethnic minority languages in the context of modernization, to engage in coordinated planning and holistic promotion, utilizing modern technological methods to comprehensively survey the current state of language in our country, to collect and record actual corpora for Chinese dialects, ethnic minority languages, and oral culture, to carry out scientific cataloguing and processing, to establish a large-scale multimedia language resource database with sustainable growth, and to engage in research work for the protection of language resources, forming systematic, foundational findings, and thereby carrying out in-depth development and exhibition, comprehensively improving the level of protection and utilization of China’s language resources, and serving the perpetuation of the excellent traditional Chinese culture, the promotion of ethnic unity, and the safeguarding of national security. See Table 1 for the principal tasks of the Language Protection Project based on the orientation and objectives described above. Table 1: Breakdown of tasks of the Language Protection Project. China language resource surveys ( sites)

. Surveys of ethnic minority languages:  sites . Surveys of Chinese dialects:  sites . Surveys of critically endangered languages and dialects:  sites (ethnic languages , Chinese dialects ) . Language, dialect and cultural surveys:  sites (ethnic languages , Chinese dialects ) . Online collection and recording . Collection of sources (gathering existing resources)

5 Orientation, objectives, and tasks of the Project

57

Table 1 (continued)

Construction of China language resource platforms

. Construction of China language resource library . Construction of China language resource management system . Construction of China language resource collection, recording and exhibition system

Research on protection of China’s language resources

. Treatises on Critically Endangered Languages of China (中国濒危语言志) . Treatises on Critically Endangered Dialects of China (中国濒危方言志) . Cultural Repositories of the Languages and Dialects of China (中国语言方言文化典藏) . Atlas of Ethnic Minority Languages (少数民族 语言地图集) . Atlas of Chinese Dialects (汉语方言地图集) . Catalogue of the Linguistic Cultural Heritage of China (中国语言文化遗产名录)

Development and application of China’s language resources (follow-up research)

. China linguistic computation (applied research on big data) . Pronunciation technology for Chinese dialects and ethnic minority languages . Online translation of Chinese dialects and ethnic minority languages . Online learning for Chinese dialects and ethnic minority languages . Language identification system for use in criminal investigations for public security and in national security . Cultural products (apps, games, songs, tourism products, et cetera)

58

Cao Zhiyun (曹志耘)

The principal tasks in 2015 included surveys of Chinese dialects (42 sites), surveys of ethnic minority languages (60 sites), surveys of critically endangered Chinese dialects (11 sites), surveys of critically endangered ethnic minority languages (21 sites), and surveys of linguistic culture; the construction of platforms for the collection, recording and exhibition of China language resources, gathering of existing resources, top-down design, and other efforts also proceeded in an orderly fashion nationwide.

3 Concluding remarks From the above, it is clear that the Language Protection Project has a lofty orientation, major objectives, and heavy tasks, and if the tasks are to be completed on schedule while guaranteeing both quantity and quality, it will be necessary to engage in scientific planning as well as rational arrangements and implementation, while placing particular emphasis on highlighting the focal point, and strengthening its characteristics.

3.1 Holistic planning and stepwise implementation The Language Protection Project will be implemented in stepwise fashion in accordance with a 5-year plan. 2015 was the starting year, as well as the pilot year. The principal tasks were to formulate the project’s plan for implementation, management measures, and spending management measures; to carry out top-down design; to engage in preliminary research and pilot studies on projects for Chinese dialects, ethnic minority languages, critically endangered languages and dialects, and linguistic culture; and to engage in efforts for the construction of platforms for the protection of language resources of China, and present preliminary versions of the language resource exhibition system and online collection and recording system to the public. The period from 2016 to 2019 will be the main phase for implementation of the project. The principal tasks are to engage in extensive efforts for the survey of language resources on a nationwide scale, by means of the two methods of field surveys and online collection and recording; to carry out the computerization, standardized processing, and collection of existing language resources; and to gradually complete the largest-scale, most technologically advanced China Language Resource Big Data Museum and online collection and recording system.

5 Orientation, objectives, and tasks of the Project

59

On the foundation of surveys and database construction, efforts to compile research findings on the protection of China language resources will be carried out, including compiling and publication of the Treatises on the Languages of China (中国语言志), Treatises on the Dialects of China (中国方言志), Treatises on the Writing Systems of China (中国文字志), Cultural Repositories of the Dialects of China (中国方言文化典藏), Atlas of the Distribution of Languages in China by County (中国分县语言分布地图集), Atlas of Languages of China (中国语言地图 集), Atlas of Chinese Dialects (汉语方言地图集), Catalogue of the Linguistic Cultural Heritage of China (中国语言文化遗产名录), as well as language reports on the border regions, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese people, et cetera. This work will continue through 2019 and thereafter. Beginning in 2020, on the basis of completion of the project tasks, integrating relevant technical forces, businesses and social forces, robust efforts will be made to pursue the work of the development and application of the language resources of China.

3.2 Highlighting the focal point and strengthening characteristics The focal point of the Language Protection Project is “gathering language resources.” There are three pathways for implementation of the gathering of language resources under the Language Protection Project: The first is field surveys, the second is online collection and recording, and the third is the collection of sources. While comprehensively pursuing field surveys, the Language Protection Project will also give full attention to establishing the model of online collection and recording, and thoroughly emphasize the use of existing resources, advancing simultaneously along the three pathways, to ultimately converge in the great sea of language resources of China. In comparison with other relevant work and scientific research projects, the most fundamental characteristic of the Language Protection Project lies in its socialized concepts and work models. These concepts and models are reflected in every aspect of the design and implementation of the project, chiefly manifesting in the three areas of the participants in the protection of language resources, the content for protection, and the targets for services. In terms of the participants, each survey site requires that local native speakers take on the role of pronouncers and providers of corpora, while online collection and recording is open to the public nationwide, regardless of location, gender, age or occupation. In theory, people in every village nationwide could collect their own corpora and upload them to the database. Crowdsourcing transliteration

60

Cao Zhiyun (曹志耘)

work also requires participation by people of all professions to share the burden. In terms of the content for protection, apart from the languages themselves, this also includes oral culture, linguistic culture, and other areas, the “actual” features of which are preserved and exhibited through the use of audio, video, photographs, and other formats, with the expectation that the public will delight in listening to, watching or looking at them, and will easily accept them. In terms of the targets for services, apart from being used for academic research, the survey findings will more importantly be used for popularization and promotion, product development, cultural transmission, and other aspects, directly serving the public, and serving economic construction and cultural construction. Of course, this is also our weak point, requiring that we transform our thinking and actively engage in exploration.

Wang Lining (王莉宁)

6 Strategies and methods for implementation of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China The Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China (abbreviated below as the Language Protection Project) involves a broad scope, a high number of participating personnel, complex situations, and high technical requirements, requiring the formulation of a scientific, highly efficient, and feasible plan for implementation, to ensure that the project progresses smoothly.

1 Strategies for implementation 1.1 Establishing a scientific and highly efficient management system The Language Protection Project will be carried out through unified national planning and joint organization and implementation by experts and local areas while encouraging public participation, adopting a top-down hierarchical model of organization of management. The first level is the project, with involvement by the Department of Language Information Management, the Expert Advisory Committee for the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China, and the Research Center for the Protection of Language Resources of China. The Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission are the departments in charge of the Language Protection Project, while the Department of Language Information Management is responsible for management of the project and the formulation of relevant management measures; the Research Center for the Protection of Language Resources of China serves as the specialized agency responsible for researching and formulating the general plan, working standards, and technical standards for the project, guiding and managing the concrete implementation of the project. The second level consists of programs, and on this level, two models of management are simultaneously put into operation.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-006

62

Wang Lining (王莉宁)

1.1.1 Agency organizational model Programs in the category of surveys of Chinese dialects employ a system whereby the provincial-level department for the management of spoken and written language is responsible. Because the work of compiling the surveys features a high degree of specialization, operations and guidance work for specialized, technical aspects is carried out by organizing relevant local experts. Starting in 2016, programs in the category of surveys of ethnic minority languages have been organized and implemented under the responsibility of Minzu University of China. In this connection, Minzu University of China specially established the Center for Research on the Protection of Ethnic Minority Language Resources of China, which coordinates and mobilizes forces nationwide in the area of spoken and written ethnic minority languages, in strict accordance with the Project’s relevant management measures and technical standards, and under the guidance of the Center for the Protection of Language Resources of China, actively forwarding the effective implementation of the Project.

1.1.2 Program director responsibility system The expert model is oriented toward programs such as “Surveys of Critically Endangered Chinese Dialects” (濒危汉语方言调查) and “Linguistic Cultural Surveys” (语言文化调查), as well as “Construction of Platforms for the Collection and Exhibition of Language Resources of China” (中国语言资源采录展示平台 建设), “Compiling of Existing Resources” (已有资源汇聚), “Top-Down Design” (顶层设计), and so on. The position of program director is held by specialized personnel with abundant research experience in the field of the given program. The third level is tasks, consisting of task groups and leaders. Tasks are directly managed by the programs, which are fully responsible for the implementation and results of a given task. The three levels coordinate with one another on the basis of the management models described above, with a clear division of powers and responsibilities. The Project is oriented toward the programs, while the programs are oriented toward the tasks. The various management measures, standards, notices and so on that are issued on the level of the Project are all first transmitted to the programs, and are then forwarded by the programs to the tasks; in the course of execution, problems encountered in tasks are first submitted to the respective program, which will propose a solution on the basis of the management measures and relevant standards; problems that cannot be resolved by the program are compiled and reported by the provincial-level language commission,

6 Strategies and methods for implementation of the Project for the Protection

63

chief expert, or program director to the Project, and the Center for the Protection of Language Resources issues a decision.

1.2 Unified criteria, with standards taking precedence As authorized by the Department of Language Information Management, the Center for the Protection of Language Resources has formulated a series of working standards and technical standards, building a project management and oversight system to ensure that managing departments at each level have a basis for support in their concrete work.

1.2.1 Working standards These include the Standards of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China for Initiation of Special Missions (中国语言资源保护工程专项任务 立项规范), Training Standards of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China (中国语言资源保护工程培训规范), Standards of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China for Pilot Surveys (中国语言资源保 护工程试点调查规范), Standards of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China for Midpoint Inspections (中国语言资源保护工程中期检查规 范), and Standards of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China for Deliverables Acceptance and Conclusion of Special Missions (中国语言 资源保护工程专项任务验收结项规范). Among these, Training Standards of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China (中国语言资源保护工 程培训规范) and Standards of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China for Pilot Surveys (中国语言资源保护工程试点调查规范) only apply to programs in the survey category and their tasks, while the other standards apply to all programs and tasks. All working standards are finalized by the State Language Commission and the Department of Language Information Management before being compiled and printed as official documents, and issued to the department of education (education commission) of each province, autonomous region and direct-administered municipality, the Bureau of Education and Language Commission of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, the ethnic affairs commissions (ethnic language commissions) of relevant provinces and autonomous regions, as well as relevant institutions of higher education and scientific research institutes, becoming the criteria for execution of the project.

64

Wang Lining (王莉宁)

1.2.2 Technical standards These include the Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Chinese Dialects (中国语言资源调查手册· 汉语方言), Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Ethnic Languages (中国语言资源调查手册· 民族语言) (draft), Survey Handbook for Cultural Repositories of the Dialects of China (中国方言文化 典藏调查手册), Standards for Database Construction of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China (中国语言资源保护工程建库规范), Standards for Language Resource Processing of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China (中国语言资源保护工程语言资源加工规范), Standards for Online Collection and Recording of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China (中国语言资源保护工程在线采录规范), and Standards for Compiling Findings of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China (中国语言资源保护工程成果编写规范). Among these, the Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Chinese Dialects (中国语言资源调查手册· 汉语方言) and Survey Handbook for Dialect Culture and Cultural Repositories in China (中国方言文化典藏调查手册) (which were both part of the Green Paper on the Language Situation in China [中国语言生活绿皮书], Series A) were already published by the Commercial Press in 2015; Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Ethnic Languages (中国语言资源调查手册· 民族语言) is currently in draft form, and will be uniformly printed and distributed by the Center for the Protection of Language Resources.

1.3 Incentives and constraints All of the programs and tasks of the Language Protection Project are approved and initiated through the parallel two-track method of “authorization + competitive bidding.” For programs and tasks that already have a relatively good foundation and solid research strength, as well as survey sites with a higher degree of critical endangerment and urgent need to carry out emergency surveying and protection, the method of authorization is adopted for initiation, while the method of open competition is employed for other programs and tasks. Whether initiated through authorization or competitive bidding, all programs and tasks must be implemented in accordance with the unified standards, criteria and management measures. At the same time, in order to develop specialized teams, and increase enthusiasm among scientific research personnel for participation in the work, a notice of approval and certificate of completion are issued by the Office of the Leading Group for Scientific Research Planning of the State Language Commission for all programs and tasks of the Language Protection

6 Strategies and methods for implementation of the Project for the Protection

65

Project. Program groups or tasks groups with a good status of completion in the current year will be transitioned to the authorization method in the following year, and granted priority approval as encouragement. On the other hand, in order to strengthen supervision of programs and tasks, all programs and tasks that obtain approval must accept unified management by the project, and their research funding is disbursed in installments depending on the state of progress of their work. Programs and tasks with inadequate execution or which are unable to complete work assignments on schedule are investigated for liability for breach of contract where necessary, and further applications for approval submitted by the given program or task group will not be accepted.

2 Methods for implementation 2.1 Placing emphasis on the work of compiling existing language resources Since the early 20th century, through the efforts of several generations of linguists, substantial findings have been achieved with respect to language survey studies in our country, and incorporating this precious data into platforms for the protection of language resources of China and carrying out digitization and standardization of paper materials so as to further exercise their value for research and applications is one of the key points of the work of the Language Protection Project. This aspect requires cooperation between specialized linguistics personnel as well as specialized computer technology personnel, and it will be implemented through the formulation of rational and feasible language resource coding standards, data entry and processing standards, graphicalization standards, and digitalization standards, as well as modern technical measures such as optical character recognition (OCR) technology, non-relational database technology, and so on. The current targets for cultural repositories of textual sources chiefly consist of the corpora collected through centrally planned surveys over the past few decades, such as the survey materials from the completion of the “China Language Resource Audio Database” (中国语言资源有声数据库), Language Atlas of China (中国语言地图集), Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects (汉语方言地图集), Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects (现代汉语方言大词典), Lexicon of Putonghua Base Dialects (普通话基础方言词汇集), Phonetic Database of Modern Chinese Dialects (现代汉语方言音库), The Languages of China (中国的语言), “Study Series on Newly Discovered Languages of China” (中国新发现语言研究丛书), the

66

Wang Lining (王莉宁)

Beijing spoken corpora, and so on. Other corpora will be gradually added in following the formulation and refinement of standards and criteria and the maturation of relevant technology.

2.2 Simultaneous development of Chinese dialects, ethnic minority languages, and linguistic culture 2.2.1 Formulating standards and criteria for surveying and protection of ethnic minority languages The Language Protection Project explicitly requires the unified design of survey standards and survey forms from the perspective of the protection of language resources, resulting in the effective integration of the two teams for Chinese and ethnic languages for unified action, thus maximally mobilizing forces, and genuinely achieving the objective of protecting the language resources of all ethnic groups nationwide. Under the directive of the Department of Language Information Management, the Center for the Protection of Language Resources organized relevant experts to pursue the work of compiling the Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Ethnic Languages (中国语言资源调查手 册· 民族语言). Based on the state of distribution of languages in our country, this handbook for surveying of ethnic minority languages was divided into 8 volumes, including the Tibeto-Burman languages, Kam-Tai languages (also applicable to the Austroasiatic language family), Hmong–Mien languages, Turkic languages (also applicable to the Tajik language), Mongolic languages, Manchu-Tungusic languages, Russian language, and Korean language. For ease of use, each volume is separately printed, while the technical standards and number of survey entries are the same in each volume. This represents the first time that linguistics circles in our country have adopted unified standards and criteria to design technical standards and survey forms for ethnic minority languages, and at the same time, it is also the first time that ethnolinguistics circles have adopted unified standards and criteria to carry out surveying of languages in different language families, which has important, groundbreaking significance for filling in the gaps. The Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Ethnic Languages (中国语言资源调查手册· 民族语言) was already employed to carry out surveys at 82 ethnic minority language sites in 2015, and beginning in 2016, the Center for the Protection of Language Resources will carry out optimization and refinement

6 Strategies and methods for implementation of the Project for the Protection

67

on the basis of the state of use by survey teams, so as to advance the efforts for official publication to the earliest possible date.

2.2.2 Prioritizing the pursuit of emergency surveying and protection of critically endangered Chinese dialects and ethnic minority languages The Language Protection Project established programs for “Surveys of Critically Endangered Chinese Dialects” (濒危汉语方言调查) and “Surveys of Critically Endangered Ethnic Minority Languages” (濒危少数民族语言调查), and each program then established several dozen tasks, with the requirement that the personnel undertaking surveying and research under the tasks have a relatively good foundation in research on critically endangered Chinese dialects or ethnic minority languages. The surveying and research work under these tasks is divided into three areas: First, the survey is recorded in accordance with the Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Chinese Dialects (中国语言资源调查手册· 汉语方言) and the Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Ethnic Languages (中国语言资源调查手册· 民族语言), wherein the work must be identical with other survey sites, to ensure the uniformity and comparability of the materials; second, on the foundation of the survey recording work, as described above, 3000 to 5000 language entries are added for each survey site on the basis of the characteristics of the given language or dialect, and key surveys are carried out, to collect and preserve the voices that are now fading to the fullest extent; third, on the foundation of the complete survey results, based on the requirements of the standards of the Language Protection Project for compiling findings, a treatise on a critically endangered Chinese dialect or a critically endangered ethnic minority language is written.

2.2.3 Devoting attention to surveys on linguistic culture On the one hand, while carrying out surveys on Chinese dialects and ethnic minority languages, it is necessary to survey the local oral culture, with content including the three categories of folk songs, stories, and optional entries (wellwishing, taboo words, jargon, doggerel, proverbs, truncated witticisms, riddles, folk vocal art forms, plays, chants, ritual liturgies, and so on). During surveys, it is required that audiovisual materials with a total of 20 minutes in length be collected. On the other hand, programs for surveys on linguistic culture have been established, including the two sections of “Surveys on Chinese Dialect

68

Wang Lining (王莉宁)

Culture” (汉语方言文化调查) and “Surveys on Ethnic Minority Linguistic Culture” (少数民族语言文化调查). The survey work is based on the Survey Handbook for Cultural Repositories of the Dialects of China (中国方言文化典藏调查手 册), and is aimed at building architecture, quotidian utensils, clothing and personal adornment, food and drink, farmer and worker art forms, daily activities, marriage, birth and funeral ceremonies, festivals, and other phenomena of linguistic culture, as well as doggerel, folk sayings, proverbs, truncated witticisms, riddles, nursery rhymes, folk songs, folk vocal art forms, plays, stories, chants, well-wishing, taboos, and other forms of spoken and sung performance. Finally, once all survey materials have undergone standard cataloguing and transliteration, an atlas of linguistic culture must be compiled in accordance with the standards.

3 Utilizing omni-media technology to survey and collect language resources In the context of the present era, the Language Protection Project has proposed the concept of surveying and collection with “four-dimensional integration of audio, video, images and text,” so as to achieve the objective of the true-to-life collection and preservation of language resources. Programs for the surveying of Chinese dialects, surveying of ethnic minority languages, surveying of critically endangered Chinese dialects, and surveying of critically endangered ethnic minority languages chiefly carry out the surveying and collection of corpora through audio recording, video recording, and paper notes, and after completing record-keeping in the survey handbook, synchronous audio recording and video recording of pronunciation must be carried out for all survey entries (including individual characters, vocabulary, grammar, speech, oral culture, local Putonghua). Programs for the surveying of linguistic culture carry the same requirements with respect to audio recording of corpora and video recording of pronunciation, while also carrying out cultural video recording for certain important cultural activities (such as wedding ceremonies, funeral rites, the Spring Festival, the Lantern Festival, folk songs, folk vocal art forms, drama, and so on); photographing of all nominals or activities reflected in the survey entries for linguistic culture must be carried out in accordance with the standards. Based on current public needs, the Language Protection Project also preserves and exhibits language resources in the form of documentary films, feature films, and propaganda films, utilizing the formats of film and television.

6 Strategies and methods for implementation of the Project for the Protection

69

4 Pursuing long-term collection and preservation of language resources through the development of “online collection and recording” Zaixian cailu (在线采录, ‘online collection and recording’) allows the public to actively participate in the work of surveying and protection of language resources by drawing on the concept of crowdsourcing and fully utilizing Internet technology and resources, achieving the objective of long-term collection and preservation of language resources. It overcomes the limitations of time, space, manpower and funding, achieving the large-scale, sustainable growth of language resources, and opening up a vast space for the protection of language resources, and it has become one of the most important means for the protection of language resources in the future. Online collection and recording collects language resources from Internet users at large via many channels, including Web pages and mobile apps as well as WeChat, Weibo, and other open application platforms; the collection sites, languages, and targets are unlimited; the data formats include audio, video, photographs, and text, et cetera, coinciding with the concept of “four-dimensional integration of audio, video, images and text,” as described above. The content collected includes two categories, defined and undefined: Defined content refers to preset collection entries, such as survey entries that are missing from programs in the survey category under the Language Protection Project, entries lacking audio, video and images in existing resource collections, entries for oral culture that could not immediately be transliterated, and so on, all of which can be obtained through online collection and recording; themes of a cultural nature having a high degree of interest and drawing significant public attention may also be regularly proposed for carrying out defined content collection, such as “Pronouncing Toponyms” (说地名), “Singing Folk Songs” (唱民歌), “Recitation of Mid-Autumn Festival Dialect Poetry and Lyrics” (中秋诗词方言吟诵), “Nostalgia for Speech in Local Accents” (乡音话乡愁), “Family Traditions Passed Down in Native Languages” (母语传家风), and so on. Undefined content refers to entries freely uploaded by discretion of the user via the system’s front desk upload portal, so as to maximally exercise the enthusiasm of the public. Online collection and recording are intended to be integrated with the construction of digital museums for omni-media language resources. On the one hand, the corpora obtained through collection and recording must be given back to society by means of exhibition platforms, and on the other hand, an elegantly

70

Wang Lining (王莉宁)

designed, user-friendly exhibition platform can further improve users’ enthusiasm for participation in collection and recording, and may be combined with virtual reality technology for common development and mutual promotion. In summary, the innovative measures in the plan for implementation of the Language Protection Project will open up new frontiers in the development of the national cause of spoken and written language. The Language Protection Project closely unites the government, academic circles and the public, to jointly dedicate efforts to the great cause of the scientific protection of the spoken and written languages of all ethnic groups. The language resources collected through surveys in accordance with the standards and criteria of the Language Protection Project can all be incorporated into the platforms for the collection and exhibition of language resources of China by means of the working methods for existing resource collections, achieving the objective of the long-term collection and protection of language resources. The Language Protection Project places emphasis on exercising the role of modern, advanced technology in the surveying, collection, exhibition and development of language resources, promoting a high degree of integration between linguistic science, computer technology and Internet technology. The Language Project has also carried out a series of special training programs on working standards, technical criteria, the use of software and hardware, and so on, gradually cultivating a specialized team equipped with new ways of thinking and new technology, which will aid in improving the level of informatization of China’s work on spoken and written language.

Part III: Language work

Wang Xuerong (王学荣)

7 Work on spoken and written ethnic minority languages In China’s work on spoken and written ethnic minority languages in 2015, the working requirement to “scientifically protect the spoken and written languages of all ethnic groups” was profoundly implemented, efforts for the standardization and informatization of ethnic spoken and written languages were effectively strengthened, bilingual education was comprehensively promoted, and great efforts were made for the transmission of ethnic language culture, making positive contributions to the bigger picture of consolidation and development of “pluralistic unity and ethnic harmony” in ethnic affairs work.

1 Planning arrangements and the construction of systems The State Ethnic Affairs Commission organized the preparation of the Plan for Work on Spoken and Written Ethnic Minority Languages (2016–2020)( 少数民族语 言文字工作规划[2016–2020 年]), which clarified the guiding ideas, fundamental principles, objectives for development, principal tasks, key projects, and safeguard measures for work on spoken and written ethnic minority languages nationwide over the next five years. The State Ethnic Affairs Commission, State Language Commission, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Standardization Administration of China, and other departments jointly convened the National Promotional Conference for Deliberations on Spoken and Written Ethnic Language Work, to study approaches and responses in work on spoken and written ethnic languages in the new landscapes, and set forth the principal efforts for a period of time in the future. Each province and region has actively promoted the construction of systems for spoken and written ethnic language work: Jilin further perfected its working mechanisms, implementing a specialized guiding framework divided by language and area of operations at the Office for Korean Language Cooperation independently established by the Provincial Ethnic Affairs Commission; Inner Mongolia established an awards system, and convened the Fourth Ulanhu Spoken and Written Mongolian Language Awards Ceremony; Tibet robustly promoted the construction of a system for work on the spoken and written Tibetan language at the local municipal level, guiding and supervising https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-007

74

Wang Xuerong (王学荣)

each locality (city) to formulate and issue their respective Recommendations on Further Strengthening Work on the Spoken and Written Tibetan Language (关于进 一步加强藏语言文字工作的意见). Relevant provinces and regions have actively explored mechanisms for regional cooperation: Sichuan proposed the establishment of the “Sichuan-Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangzhou Joint Conference System for Work on the Spoken and Written Yi Language” (川滇黔桂彝语文工作联席会议制度), while Qinghai organized and convened the National Joint Conference on Working Mechanisms for the Spoken and Written Tibetan Language.

2 Efforts for the standardization and informatization of spoken and written ethnic minority languages The State Language Commission has comprehensively promoted efforts for the standardization and informatization of spoken and written ethnic minority languages. In Inner Mongolia, the National Survey Seminar on the Establishment of Standards and Criteria and Informatization of Spoken and Written Ethnic Minority Languages was convened, for in-depth discussion of the standards and criteria that urgently need to be approved and developed. The preparation of standards and criteria on spoken and written ethnic minority languages was completed and released in the format of “green paper soft standards,” including the Scheme for Transliteration of the Tibetan Language in the Roman Alphabet (藏文拉丁字母转写方案), Standards for the Use of Modern Tibetan-Language Word Segmentation in Information Processing (信息处理用现代藏语分词规范), and Standards for the Use of Modern Tibetan-Language Parts of Speech Tags in Information Processing (信息处理用现代藏语词类标记集规范), and important progress was achieved with respect to promoting the revision of the Standards for the Korean Language (朝鲜语规范集) and the preparation of the Handbook of Standards for the Social Lexicon in the Zhuang Script (壮文社会用字规范手册). “Research on Policies, Laws and Regulations on Spoken and Written Ethnic Minority Languages and the Construction of a Knowledge Base” (少数民族语言文字政策法规研究及知 识库构建) and other scientific research tasks were established, promoting research related to the informatization of spoken and written ethnic minority languages. Relevant provinces and regions were guided in solidly promoting efforts for informatization with reference to their own practical circumstances: Inner Mongolia implemented the “Project for Construction and Sharing of Digital Resources for the Spoken and Written Mongolian Language” (蒙古语言文字数字资源建设与共享工

7 Work on spoken and written ethnic minority languages

75

程); Jilin built the “Corpus of Primary and Secondary School Teaching Materials for the Korean Language in China” (中国朝鲜文中小学教材语料库), and concurrently completed the drafting of the 24-Dot Matrix Script Typeface for the KoreanLanguage Coded Character Set (Draft for Comments) (朝鲜文编码字符集24 点阵字 型白体[征求意见稿草案]) and Standard Phraseology in the Korean Language for Use in Information Interchanged Based on ISO2382 (Draft for Comments) (基于 ISO2382 信息交换用朝鲜文标准用语[征求意见稿草案]); Yunnan initiated construction of the Center for the Exhibition of Spoken and Written Ethnic Minority Language Resources, and simultaneously completed the scientific research project for “Research on Typefaces and Fonts, National Standards for Keyboard Layout, and Input Methods for the Non-Latin Scripts of Yunnan Minority Ethnic Groups” (云南少数民族非拉丁文字字体字型、 键盘布局国家标准与输入法研究); Tibet revised and refined 5 national standards for the informatization of the Tibetan language; Gansu completed digitalized imaging of an ancient edition of the Quran (古兰经) of the Dongxiang ethnic group; Qinghai promoted the construction of the Yunnan-Tibet Encyclopedic Database; in combination with the implementation of the “Project for Construction and Sharing of Information Resources for the Spoken and Written Uyghur and Kazakh Languages” (维吾尔、 哈萨克语 言文字信息资源建设与共享工程), Xinjiang refined the technical standards and criteria for the informatization of the Uyghur, Kazakh and Kyrgyz languages, and developed input software for the Uyghur, Kazakh and Kyrgyz languages, which was provided to the public for free use. The State Ethnic Affairs Commission has promoted efforts for the standardization of terminology in spoken and written ethnic languages as well as the compiling and revision of dictionaries. It compiled and edited the General Catalog and Summary of the Ancient Texts of Minority Ethnic Groups in China (中国少数民 族古籍总目提要), and encouraged Guangxi, Guizhou, and other provinces and regions to pursue the work of revising the Zhuang-Chinese Dictionary (壮汉词汇) (Second Edition) and compiling the Grand Miao-Chinese-English Dictionary (苗汉 英大词典), Grand Dong-Chinese-English Dictionary (侗汉英大词典), and Grand YiChinese-English Dictionary (彝汉英大词典). Further systematization and normalization of work for the standardization of traditional and general terminology in spoken and written ethnic languages was promoted: Inner Mongolia issued the Bulletin on Nouns and Terms in the Mongolian Language (蒙古语名词术语公报); Tibet finalized and published more than 900 entries for trending neologisms and terms in the Tibetan language, and compiled and distributed a collection of standard neologisms and terms that had been reviewed in 2014; Qinghai collected, translated and reviewed more than 300 entries for neologisms and terms in the Tibetan language, and issued the Bulletin on Neologisms and Terms in the Tibetan Language (藏语新词术语公报); Xinjiang compiled and published the Comparative

76

Wang Xuerong (王学荣)

Chinese-Uyghur and Chinese-Kazakh Handbook of Political Theory Terminology (汉维、 汉哈政治理论术语对照手册).

3 Construction of the legal system for spoken and written ethnic minority languages Laws and regulations have been further refined. The Rules for Implementation of the ‘Regulations on Spoken and Written Mongolian Language Work in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region’ (< 内蒙古自治区蒙古语言文字工作条例> 实 施细则). The work of revising the Administrative Measures for Bilingual Use of Mongolian and Chinese Scripts in Society and the Markets in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (内蒙古自治区社会市面蒙汉两种文字并用管理办法) was fully initiated. A draft for review was produced for the Regulations on Spoken and Written Ethnic Minority Language Work in Guangxi (广西少数民族语言文字 工作条例). The Regulations on Spoken and Written Ethnic Minority Languages in Guizhou Province (Draft) (贵州省少数民族语言文字条例[草案]) was submitted for review. The revision of the Regulations on Spoken and Written Language Work in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (新疆维吾尔自治区语言文字工 作条例) was completed, and they were implemented starting on December 1, 2015. The Haibei (海北) and Guoluo (果洛) Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures in Qinghai revised and issued the Administrative Measures for the Social Lexicon in the Tibetan Language (藏文社会用字管理办法). Liaoning published the Anthology of Policy Documents on Spoken and Written Ethnic Minority Languages (少数 民族语言文字政策文献选编). Efforts for administration in accordance with the law have continuously intensified. Inner Mongolia convened three national conferences for the review of Mongolian-language teaching materials, reviewing the state of language standards for 303 types of Mongolian-language teaching materials in 8 categories, while also engaging in a dedicated examination and rectification of the bilingual use of Mongolian and Chinese scripts on signs in the categories of place names, border signs, directional signs, traffic signs, scenic tourist spots, and so on. Tibet carried out a special investigation and review of “bilingual” studies among grassroots cadres for various localities (municipalities), the state of implementation of “Four Haves” requirements in departments for the spoken and written Tibetan language, as well as work for the examination and rectification of the social lexicon in the Tibetan language. Xinjiang reviewed and guided the pursuit of urban spoken and written language standardization work in Changji (昌吉), Kashgar (喀什), Karamay (克拉玛依), and other places.

7 Work on spoken and written ethnic minority languages

77

4 Bilingual education and bilingual harmony The State Ethnic Affairs Commission has pursued living protection of spoken and written ethnic languages and the construction of harmonious bilingual villages (communities), guiding people of different ethnic groups to study one another’s spoken and written languages, promoting linguistic harmony and ethnic unity, and pursuing pilot programs in a total of 7 areas nationwide, including 3 townships, 1 residential neighborhood, 1 community, and 2 villages. Each province and region has comprehensively implemented the Decision of the State Council on Accelerating the Development of Ethnic Education (国务院关于加快发展民族教 育的决定), vigorously promoting bilingual education, training and applications. With reference to their practical circumstances, and oriented toward practitioners in education, the judiciary, politics and law, foreign affairs, ethnic language translation and editing, radio and television, press and publication, and other key fields, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Sichuan, Yunnan, Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai and other provinces and regions have held bilingual skills training programs on multiple levels, through multiple channels and with multiple approaches, training a high number of bilingual talents. Guangxi unveiled the Plan for the Development of Zhuang-Han Bilingual Education (2016–2020) (壮汉双语教育发展计划 [2016–2020 年]). Guizhou launched a pilot program for the construction of a harmonious bilingual environment at the provincial level. Xinjiang introduced the Plan for Implementation of Key Training Work for Bilingual Talents (双语人才重点 培养工作实施方案), held the second Bilingual Skills Competition for College Students, and comprehensively strengthened bilingual learning and training for the grassroots-level population as well as farmers and herders.

5 Transmission of ethnic languages and culture Preservation of critically endangered languages. Liaoning established the “Spoken and Written Ethnic Minority Language Protection Project” base, held the second Training Program for Talents in the Manchu Language, established a major in Manchu history and culture in the School of History at Liaoning University, sponsored the first Academic Forum on Preservation of Manchu Language and Culture, and organized the Manchu Speaking and Reading Competition, comprehensively exploring effective pathways for the practical work of saving the Manchu language. Heilongjiang pursued a special study on the state of preservation of historical documents and materials in the Manchu script, as well as the state of development of learning, use and research with respect to the

78

Wang Xuerong (王学荣)

spoken and written Manchu language. Guangxi pursued an in-depth study on the current state of endangerment of the languages (dialects) of the various minority ethnic groups established in the region, collecting, cataloguing and preserving spoken and written ethnic languages and other forms of intangible cultural heritage. Gansu conducted a survey of the cultural resources of the Dongxiang (东乡) and Bonan (保安) ethnic groups. Transmission of spoken and written ethnic languages. Inner Mongolia has robustly promoted the Standard Mongolian Pronunciation Test, and has held 20 sessions of the Standard Mongolian Pronunciation Training Program, training and testing more than 2700 person-times; at the same time, it has sponsored contest activities for the Mongolian language “Skilled Orator” (才艺演说 家) series as well as the “Native Language Cup” (母语杯) calligraphy competition. Liaoning compiled and published the magazine Mongolian Language in Liaoning (辽宁蒙古语文). Guangxi has actively promoted a pilot program for a Zhuang language proficiency test. Guizhou unveiled the Administrative Regulations for Testing for Established Ethnic Minority Languages in Guizhou Province (Provisional) (贵州省世居少数民族语言测试管理规定[试行]), the Measures for Implementation of Oral Testing for Established Ethnic Minority Languages in Guizhou Province (贵州省世居少数民族语言口语测试实施办法) and the Standards for Oral Testing for Ethnic Minority Languages in Guizhou Province (贵州省 少数民族语言口语测试标准), and carried out the first round of testing for established ethnic minority languages. Promoting ethnic language translation work. The Zhuang Language Section of the China Ethnic Languages Translation Bureau completed the work of translating separate Zhuang-language editions of the national “Two Sessions” documents, the Standards of the Chinese Communist Party for Integrity and Self-Discipline (中国 共产党廉洁自律准则), Regulations of the Chinese Communist Party on Disciplinary Measures (中国共产党纪律处分条例), and other important documents throughout the year. Inner Mongolia included the revision of the Administrative Measures for Mongolian Language Translation Work in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (内蒙古自治区蒙古语文翻译工作管理办法) in its five-year legislative plan. Sichuan organized the translation and publication of 60,000 copies of the Handbook on Major Infectious Disease Prevention and Control in Sichuan Ethnic Regions (四川 民族地区重大传染病防治宣传手册) in Tibetan-Chinese, Yi-Chinese, and Chinese editions. Guizhou has promoted projects for Film Dubbing in Ethnic Minority Languages in the Southeastern Prefectures of Guizhou (黔东南州少数民族语电影译制), Translation of Educational Materials on Bimoism (毕摩教材翻译), and so on. Yunnan has translated and published Regulations on Spoken and Written Ethnic Minority Language Work in Yunnan Province (云南省少数民族语言文字工作条例), Regulations for the Promotion of Ethnic Minority Education in Yunnan Province (云

7 Work on spoken and written ethnic minority languages

79

南省少数民族教育促进条例), Preschool Teaching Plan for Bilingual Ethnic and Chinese-Language Education (民汉双语教育学前教案), and other materials in sideby-side Chinese and ethnic language editions. Tibet has systematically promoted efforts for Tibetan translations of 100,000 technical terms, while also launching a project for Tibetan translations of “100 Classic Works That Influenced World History” (影响世界历史的100 部名著). Qinghai has actively promoted a project for Tibetan translation of the Contemporary Chinese Dictionary (现代汉 语词典), and has also translated and finalized more than 300 traffic signs as well as more than 200 trademarks, advertisements, signboards, official seals, and so on in Tibetan and Mongolian script. Xinjiang has continued to publish and distribute the magazine Language and Translation (语言与翻译) in five written languages, including Uyghur, Chinese, Kazakh, Mongolian, and Kyrgyz, and has established a bilingual translation internship base to train talented translators; at the same time, it has compiled lexicons of Chinese terms and their translations in standard Uyghur and Kazakh script for 10 public service sectors, including transportation, tourism, culture, sports, education, finance, healthcare and sanitation, postal services and telecommunications, business services, and so on.

6 National surveys and scientific research on spoken and written ethnic minority languages Special surveys have been carried out on the state of bilingual studies of ethnic languages and Chinese by cadres in ethnic regions. In conjunction with the Central Organization Department, the United Front Work Department of the Central Committee, the Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, the State Ethnic Affairs Commission has formed the Five-Ministry Joint Survey Group, which has traveled to Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Guangxi, Sichuan, Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang and other places to conduct special surveys on the state of bilingual studies of ethnic languages and Chinese by cadres in ethnic regions. Questionnaire surveys, individual interviews, and spot testing on applied skills in the standard spoken and written Chinese language as well as applied skills in spoken and written ethnic languages were carried out at 62 grassroots-level units, including county-level administrative service window units for field investigations, county people’s courts, county people’s procuratorates, township and town Party committees and governments, public security police stations, residential communities, and so on. The surveyed languages chiefly comprised the standard spoken and written Chinese

80

Wang Xuerong (王学荣)

language as well as our country’s 7 principal ethnic minority languages, including Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Khazakh, Korean, and Yi. The surveys gathered a high volume of primary source materials, and the Survey Group promptly catalogued the survey findings and promoted a series of targeted policy recommendations. Surveys were conducted on the state of use of spoken and written ethnic languages. Inner Mongolia carried out a survey on the state of use of new standard words in the Orthographic Dictionary of the Mongolian Language (蒙古文正字法词典), and compiled and published the Anthology of Survey Reports on Ethnic Language Work in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (内蒙古自治区民族语文工作调研报告选编). Guangxi conducted a survey on the state of social applications of the Zhuang language as well as a survey on efforts for ethnic-language radio, film and television in all regions, and produced corresponding survey reports. Tibet carried out a study on the current state of the social lexicon at entry points and regions along the border. Xinjiang conducted a survey of the use of Putonghua among primary and secondary school teachers in ethnic regions, providing comprehensive clarification of the state of application of Putonghua among ethnic primary and secondary school teachers. A variety of academic consulting activities were held. The State Ethnic Affairs Commission convened the Third Conference of the 1st Expert Advisory Committee on Ethnic Language Work, and convened and guided the 21st National Academic Conference on Bilingual Education. Liaoning convened the Provincial Academic Conference of the Society for Mongolian Language and Literature and the Society for Korean Language and Literature. Jilin held the fifth awards ceremony for the Korean-Language Press, Publication and Culture Prize and the Conference on Korean-Language Press and Publication Theory. Guangxi convened the 7th Members Representative Conference and 2015 Academic Conference of the Autonomous Region Society for Ethnic Minority Language and Literature. Sichuan convened the Province-Wide Expert Forum on Spoken and Written Ethnic Language Work. Qinghai convened the 4th Members Representative Conference and 5th Academic Conference of the Qinghai Society for Research on the Mongolian Ethnic Group. The development of qualified personnel for scientific research was strengthened. The State Ethnic Affairs Commission and the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security jointly held the 8th National Advanced Study Program for Backbone Personnel in Ethnic Language Translation Work and Services, and 70 backbone personnel in ethnic language translation work and services participated in the study program. The State Language Commission and State Ethnic

7 Work on spoken and written ethnic minority languages

81

Affairs Commission jointly held the 1st National Advanced Study Program for Young and Middle-Aged Scholars in Applied Research on Ethnic Languages, and participants in the study program included more than 60 scholars from 12 ethnic groups, including the Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Korean, Yi, Zhuang, Manchu, Miao, Yao, Bai, Naxi, and Han ethnic groups.

Part IV: Special fields

Zeng Yan (曾彦) and Xu Xiaojun (徐晓军)

8 Survey of the state of rural language use in Hubei Province The rural population of Hubei Province is 27.736 million, accounting for 48.17% of the total population in the province (National Bureau of Statistics, 2012). In order to grasp the concrete state of rural language use, the Office of the Language Work Committee of Hubei Province formed a task group to conduct a survey on The State of Language Use in Rural Regions of Hubei Province (湖北省农 村地区语言文字使用状况).

1 Description of survey This survey selected six locations in Hubei Province, including Huangpi District, Wuhan City (武汉市黄陂区); Wenquan Town, Yingshan County (英山县温泉镇); Dalu Township, Tongshan County (通山县大路乡); Yangjiaguang Town, Gong’an County (公安县杨家厂镇); Xianrendu Town, Laohekou City (老河口市仙人渡镇); and Yuyangguan Town, Wufeng Tujia Autonomous County (五峰渔洋关镇). In accordance with the principles of random sampling, 1050 copies of the Survey Questionnaire on the State of Rural Language Use in Hubei Province (Questionnaire for Villagers) (湖北省农村语言文字使用状况调查问卷[村民卷]) were distributed, and a total of 971 were retrieved, with a retrieval rate of 92.5%; 160 copies of the Survey Questionnaire on the State of Language Use among Town and Township Cadres in Hubei Province (Questionnaire for Town and Township Cadres) (湖北省乡 镇干部语言文字使用状况调查问卷[乡镇干部卷]) were distributed, and a total of 155 were retrieved, with a retrieval rate of 96.9%; 150 copies of the Survey Questionnaire on the State of Language Use at Rural Primary and Secondary Schools in Hubei Province (Questionnaire for Teachers) (湖北省农村中小学语言文字使用状 况调查问卷[教师卷]) were distributed, and a total of 146 were retrieved, with a retrieval rate of 97.3%. For the distribution of all survey respondents by sex, age, occupation and level of education, Table 1. Concretely speaking, among the 971 villagers, 57.6% were male, and 42.4% were female; their ages ranged from 19 to 80, with an average age of 42; a majority had a junior secondary school education, accounting for 43.5%, while 1.5% had not attended school. Among the 146 primary and secondary school teachers, 54.8% were male, and 45.2% were female; the lowest age was 21, and the highest age was 57, with an average age of 37; with https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-008

Percentage (%)

Number of individuals

.





.

Female

Male

Sex

.



–

.



–

Age

.



–

Table 1: Sample composition for survey on the state of language use.

.



≥

.



Did not attend school

.



Primary school

.



Junior secondary school

.



Senior secondary school

Level of education

.



Junior college and higher

86 Zeng Yan (曾彦) and Xu Xiaojun (徐晓军)

8 Survey of the state of rural language use in Hubei Province

87

respect to educational attainment, the largest proportion had junior college or higher education, at 77.4%. Among the 155 town and township cadres, 74.2% were male, and 25.8% were female; the youngest town or township cadres were only 23 years of age, with 2 individuals, and the highest age was 60, with an average age of 39; the majority had a junior college education, at 52.9%. The questionnaire content chiefly included proficiency and skills in the use of Putonghua and standard Chinese characters. The Task Group also conducted interviews on the ground at rural primary and secondary schools and among rural residents, and held several forums with town and township cadres, rural teachers and Putonghua examiners to obtain primary source materials.

2 Survey results and analysis This survey chiefly examined the state of use of Putonghua and dialects and the state of use of standard Chinese characters among villagers, primary and secondary school principals and teachers, and town and township cadres, as well as their understanding of the standardization of spoken and written language.

2.1 State of use of Putonghua and dialects among villagers The survey results showed that 67.1% of the villagers had come into contact with Putonghua through school, with more than half of the villagers having first encountered Putonghua during the primary school stage, and 19.6% having first encountered Putonghua during the junior secondary school stage. For a majority of the villagers, the principal avenue for coming into contact was Putonghua was through school studies, with the time periods being concentrated in the primary school stage and junior secondary school stage. The villagers varied in their opinions on the ease or difficulty of learning Putonghua; for the specific data, see Figure 1. Those who believed that learning Putonghua was “Relatively easy” or “Very easy” respectively accounted for 24.8% and 8.2%, while a majority believed that studying Putonghua was not very easy. However, the interview results indicated that they did not develop a fearful mentality toward studying Putonghua. The villagers’ appraisals of the social influence and usefulness of Putonghua and dialects were as shown in Table 2. The villagers generally believed that Putonghua had more social influence and usefulness as compared to dialects. With respect to Putonghua, the number

88

Zeng Yan (曾彦) and Xu Xiaojun (徐晓军)

40

35.5 28.3

30

24.8

20 8.2 10 3.2 0 Very difficult

Fairly difficult

Normal

Fairly easy

Very easy

Figure 1: Opinions on the ease of learning Putonghua among villagers (Unit: %). Table 2: Appraisal of the social influence and usefulness of Putonghua and dialects by villagers. Survey content

Options

Percentage (%)

Appraisal of the social influence of Putonghua and dialects

Putonghua Dialect Have not compared

. . .

Appraisal of the usefulness of Putonghua and dialects

Putonghua Dialect Both useful Both useless Have not compared

. . . . .

of individuals who selected that it had higher social influence was 14 percentage points more than the number of individuals who selected that it had higher usefulness, indicating that some villagers had a relatively clear understanding of the social value of Putonghua; however, constrained by their environment, opportunities for expressing the practical value of Putonghua were limited. For the understanding among town and township cadres of the negative impact that not using Putonghua has on their work, see Figure 2. The survey data in response to the question “What negative influence do you believe it will have on your work if you do not speak Putonghua?” shows that the town and township cadres believed that not speaking Putonghua

8 Survey of the state of rural language use in Hubei Province

89

100

80

60

40

30.3 20.8 13.4

20

17.1

12.1 6.3

0 Receiving Affects communication visits from elsewhere

Receiving Assessments Subordinates Reputation superiors in Putonghua understand your as a leading work instructions cadre

Figure 2: Representation of town and township cadres’ beliefs on the negative influence of not speaking Putonghua on their work (Unit: %).

would have the greatest impact on everyday communication at 30.3%. This was followed by the impact on receiving visits from elsewhere, at 20.8%, while the impact on one’s reputation as a leading cadre was the least, at 6.3%, demonstrating awareness among town and township cadres regarding the status of Putonghua, namely, that Putonghua plays a far greater role in exchanges and communication as compared to meeting the standards in cadre assessments. The data in Table 3 shows that, prior to engaging in migrant labor, the villagers favored the local dialect more, and in communication and contact with family members, friends, teachers and fellow students, and fellow workers, the percentage for “Use all dialect” uniformly had the highest value. However, after engaging in migrant labor, the circumstances changed, and the frequency of use of dialect among the villagers began to continuously decline, while the frequency of use of Putonghua correspondingly increased, indicating that the villagers realized the necessity of using Putonghua, and developed language behavior to put it into practice. For the survey data on engaging in activities related to Putonghua at school, see Figure 3. Nearly 20% believed that they “rarely engaged” or “never engaged” in such activities. This demonstrates that engagement in activities related to Putonghua is by no means ideal, and it is necessary to add more activities related to Putonghua in language work in the future.

90

Zeng Yan (曾彦) and Xu Xiaojun (徐晓军)

Table 3: Comparison of the state of language use among villagers before and after engaging in migrant labor. Time period

Counterparty All Mostly in dialect dialect communication

Before engaging in migrant labor

Family members

.

.

.

.

.

.

Friends

.

.

.

.

.

.

Teachers and fellow students

.

.

.

.

.

.

Fellow workers

.

.

.

.

.

.

Hospital

.

.

.

.

.

.

Family members

.

.

.

.

.

.

Friends

.

.

.



.

.

Teachers and fellow students

.

.

.

.

.

.

Fellow workers

.

.

.

.

.

.

Hospital

.

.



.

.

.

After engaging in migrant labor

More All Not Putonghua Putonghua applicable

52.1

60

45

Both about equal

28.8

30

15.1

15

4

0 Often engage

Sometimes engage

Rarely engage

Never engage

Figure 3: State of engagement in activities related to Putonghua at school (Unit: %).

8 Survey of the state of rural language use in Hubei Province

91

2.2 State of use of written language among villagers The state of use of written language among the villagers was chiefly examined with respect to two areas, with the first being the villagers’ appraisals of the state of use of standard Chinese characters when they wrote, and the second being the villagers’ appraisals of the state of use of standard Chinese characters in their respective villages. Examination of the state of use of standard Chinese characters by the villagers chiefly set out from whether the villagers frequently used miswritten characters, characters from the Second Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (第二次 汉字简化方案, abbreviated as Second Simplification Scheme [二简]), and traditional characters. With respect to whether the villagers frequently wrote miswritten characters, among the 951 individuals who responded, 112 frequently experienced miswritten characters, accounting for 11.8%; 592 occasionally experienced miswritten characters, at 62.3%; 200 rarely experienced miswritten characters, at 21%; and 47 never experienced miswritten characters, at 4.9%. With respect to whether the villagers frequently used characters from the Second Simplification Scheme, among the 953 individuals who responded, 59 frequently used characters from the Second Simplification Scheme, accounting for 6.2%; 181 occasionally used characters from the Second Simplification Scheme, at 19%; 446 rarely used characters from the Second Simplification Scheme, at 46.8%; and 267 never used characters from the Second Simplification Scheme, at 28%. With respect to the state of affairs for traditional characters, among the 951 individuals who responded, 19 frequently used traditional characters, accounting for 2%; 141 occasionally used traditional characters, at 14.8%; 499 rarely used traditional characters, at 52.5%; and 292 never used traditional characters, at 30.7%. It can be seen that the villagers essentially used characters from the Second Simplification Scheme and traditional characters only rarely, but the percentage that used miswritten characters was relatively high, impacting the standard use of Chinese characters, and efforts in this area must be strengthened. For the specific distribution of data, see Figure 4. With respect to whether miswritten characters and traditional characters frequently appeared in various forms of written signs and advertising posters in their villagers, only 10.8% and 13.2% of villagers respectively believed that these “Never appear,” indicating that awareness of and the environment for the use of standard Chinese characters must be further improved. For details, see Figure 5.

92

Zeng Yan (曾彦) and Xu Xiaojun (徐晓军)

80

62.3

60

46.8

52.5

40

28 19 14.8

20

11.8

6.2

30.7

21 4.9

2

0 Frequently use

Occasionally use

Miswritten characters

Rarely use

Characters from the Second Simplification Scheme

Never use Traditional characters

Figure 4: Diagram of the state of use of standard Chinese characters among villagers (Unit: %).

60

50.4

50

35.6

41.9

43.2

40 30 20 10

10.8 13.2 3.2

1.7

0 Frequently appear

Occasionally appear Miswritten characters

Rarely appear

Never appear

Traditional characters

Figure 5: Diagram of the state of use of standard Chinese characters in villages (Unit: %).

2.3 Proficiency in Putonghua among school principals The school principals’ proficiency in Putonghua was evaluated by means of the teacher questionnaires. From Table 4, it can be seen that, of the 146 teachers, 2.1% believed that the school principal was “Completely unable to speak Putonghua,” 15.7% believed that the school principal were “Able to fluently and accurately use Putonghua,” and more than 80% of teachers believed that the school principal had nonstandard pronunciation or was unable to fluently use Putonghua. It is clear that the principals of rural primary and secondary schools possess

8 Survey of the state of rural language use in Hubei Province

93

Table 4: Proficiency in Putonghua among primary and secondary school principals. State of Putonghua skills

Frequency

Percentage (%)

      

. . . . . . 

Unable to speak Putonghua Not very fluent, fairly heavy accent Basically able to use it, but not very proficient Able to proficiently use it, but fairly heavy accent Able to proficiently use it, but some nonstandard pronunciation Able to fluently and accurately use it Total

the basic ability to speak Putonghua, but their proficiency and standardization still need further improvement. Figure 6 shows that, among the 146 teachers, 40% believed that the school principal spoke all Putonghua at “teaching and administrative staff meetings,” and 39.7% believed that the school principal spoke all Putonghua during “schoolwide meetings.” This indicates that principals at rural primary and secondary schools universally have a certain understanding of the importance of Putonghua, and a fair proportion of principals are able to speak Putonghua in a variety of settings, while some principals still need to improve their emphasis on Putonghua.

60

45

40.5

40 39.7 39.7 35.6

29 30 14.4

14.5 15

9 9.6

7.5

8.9

7.5 2.7

1.4 0 All dialect

More dialect

Teaching and administrative staff meetings

Roughly equal More Putonghua between the two

Schoolwide meetings

All Putonghua

Participating in various school activities

Figure 6: State of language use by school principals in work settings (Unit: %).

94

Zeng Yan (曾彦) and Xu Xiaojun (徐晓军)

2.4 Proficiency in spoken and written language among primary and secondary school teachers For the Putonghua proficiency test data for the 146 teachers, see Figure 7: 14.4% of teachers attained Grade 1 in Putonghua proficiency (including Grade 1, First Class, and Grade 1, Second Class), while more than 60% of teachers attained Grade 2 (including Grade 2, First Class, and Grade 2, Second Class). 80

60 47.2 36.3 40

20

12.3 2.1

2.1

0 Grade 1, First Class

Grade 1, Second Class

Grade 2, First Class

Grade 2, Second Class

Grade 3, First or Second Class

Figure 7: Putonghua proficiency test results for teachers (Unit: %).1

For the teachers’ subjective evaluations of their own Putonghua proficiency, see Table 5. There were no teachers who were completely unable to speak Putonghua, while 13.7% “Could fluently and accurately use Putonghua,” and those who were “Able to proficiently use it but have a fairly heavy accent and not very standard pronunciation” accounted for close to one third. It is clear that the teachers’ subjective evaluations of their own Putonghua were essentially consistent with the grades they obtained in the Putonghua proficiency tests, and that there is still a lot of room for improvement in the Putonghua skills of rural primary and secondary school teachers.1 For the rural primary and secondary school teachers’ evaluations of their use of standard Chinese characters, see Figure 8. 29.5% of teachers believed that their use of Chinese characters was “Highly standard,” 65.8% of teachers

 As a note, the data in this figure is based on data provided by the Putonghua Testing Center of Hubei Province (湖北省普通话测试中心), which was revised with reference to this survey.

95

8 Survey of the state of rural language use in Hubei Province

Table 5: State of Putonghua skills among primary and secondary school teachers. State of Putonghua skills Unable to speak Putonghua Not very fluent, fairly heavy accent Basically able to use it, but not very proficient Able to proficiently use it, but fairly heavy accent Able to proficiently use it, but some nonstandard pronunciation Able to fluently and accurately use it Total

Frequency

Percentage (%)

      

 . .  . . 

65.8

80 60 29.5 40

20

4.1

0.6

0 Highly standard

Fairly standard

Not very standard

Not at all standard

Figure 8: State of standard use of Chinese characters among primary and secondary school teachers (Unit: %).

believed that their use of Chinese characters was “Fairly standard,” and only a small number of teachers believed that their skills in the use of Chinese characters needed significant improvement.

2.5 Proficiency in spoken and written language among town and township cadres For the state of language use among town and township cadres in everyday life, see Figure 9. Among the 155 town and township cadres, the percentages of those who “Used more dialect” or “Used all dialect” when interacting with family members, relatives, friends and neighbors far exceeded Putonghua. This demonstrates that dialects are still everyday languages for town and township cadres.

96

Zeng Yan (曾彦) and Xu Xiaojun (徐晓军)

53.5

60

36.1

45 20.6

30 15

51.6 27.1 50.3

9.7

5.8 6.5 3.9

1.3 3.2 4.5

20.6

5.2

0 All Putonghua

More Putonghua

Interactions with family members

Roughly equal

Interactions with relatives and friends

More dialect

All dialect

Interactions with neighbors and fellow villagers

Figure 9: State of language use among town and township cadres in everyday life (Unit: %).

50

42.6

36.8

31

40 26.5 30 16.8 20

16.7

14.8

9 3.2

2.6

10 0 All Putonghua

More Putonghua Roughly equal

Receiving visits by locals

More dialect

All dialect

Receiving visits from elsewhere

Figure 10: State of language use by town and township cadres at work (Unit: %).

For the state of language use among town and township cadres at work, see Figure 10. When receiving visits by locals, those who used more dialect accounted for 31%, while 16.7% used all dialect; when receiving visits from elsewhere, 36.8% used all Putonghua, while 42.6% used more Putonghua. Putonghua is the working language of town and township cadres, and the use of Putonghua in the work of town and township cadres should be emphasized. For the state of use of Chinese characters among town and township cadres, see Figure 11. Very few of the town and township cadres believed that they “Frequently used” nonstandard Chinese

8 Survey of the state of rural language use in Hubei Province

66.3 63.8 67.6

80 55.9

60 25.3

40 20 0

97

12.3 1.3 0.6 0 1.3 Frequently use Miswritten characters

20.8

30.3 27.9 17.5

5.9 3.2

Occasionally use Characters from the Second Simplification Scheme

Rarely use Traditional characters

Never use Blend of Chinese and English

Figure 11: State of use of nonstandard Chinese characters among town and township cadres (Unit: %).

characters. More than 80% of the town and township cadres believed that they occasionally or rarely used miswritten characters.

3 Conclusions and recommendations The distributional trends for the state of rural spoken and written language at schools and administrative departments in the six districts (counties) of Hubei Province that we surveyed were consistent with the timeline for the promotion of Putonghua in our country, indicating that, as time passes, Putonghua will be progressively more popularized, and people will gradually come to identify with Putonghua. The percentage of villagers who were able to speak Putonghua reached 89.8%, but those with relatively good Putonghua skills only accounted for 37.5%, while the percentage of those with poor Putonghua skills still reached as high as 24.2%, and there is still a great deal of room for improvement in Putonghua proficiency. In addition, 89.8% of rural residents were able to speak Putonghua, while 87.6% of rural residents were able to speak a dialect, thus it can be inferred that the vast majority of rural residents have bilingual proficiency, and a bilingual landscape has gradually taken shape. At the same time, the use of standard Chinese characters in rural areas is not in a desirable state, with sporadic use of miswritten characters; and while primary and secondary school principals and teachers exhibit fairly strong awareness of standard spoken and written language, the level of actual application still awaits improvement. In view of this, it is recommended that relevant departments place a high degree of emphasis on rural

98

Zeng Yan (曾彦) and Xu Xiaojun (徐晓军)

language management work, and that qualified localities establish corresponding language offices. It is also recommended that the role of school principals and teachers as exemplars for the standard use of spoken and written language be fully exercised, strengthening the status of school campuses as battlegrounds for standard spoken and written language, thereby radiating outward to rural residents at large, and continuously improving the level of standardization of spoken and written language in rural areas.

Reference National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国国家统计局). 2012. Census Report on Local Populations: Report on Principal Data from a Sample Survey of 1% of the Population of Hubei Province in 2011 (地方人口普查公报· 2011 年湖北 省1% 人口抽样调查主要数据公报), Feb. 1, 2012.

Li Jia (李佳)

9 The situation of “dialect culture entering the classroom” in three coastal locations In recent years, the eastern coastal region of China has begun promoting activities for “dialects entering the classroom,” offering elective courses or special interest courses on dialect knowledge and dialect culture, and substantively achieving “dialect culture entering the classroom.” These activities have either been driven forward from the top down under the auspices of departments of education, or have unfurled from the bottom up centered on kindergartens and schools, with a variety of efforts exhibiting diverse features. Southern Fujian Province, southern Jiangsu Province, and the city of Shanghai are the regions in China where activities for “dialects entering the classroom” were implemented fairly early on, and below, we will chiefly examine the relevant policies and measures introduced by the departments for educational administration in these three regions, as well as their state of development.

1 Southern Fujian: Comprehensive promotion 1.1 Unveiling of policies The southern Fujian region was the first to implement activities for “dialects entering the classroom,” and its policy efforts have also had the broadest scope. As early as 2007, the Ministry of Culture approved the Report on the Application for Establishment of a National-Level ‘Conservation Area for the Southern Min Cultural Ecology’ and the Submission of the ‘Plan Outline for the Conservation Area for the Southern Min Cultural Ecology’ (关于申请设立国家级“闽南文化生态保护区”和报 送< 闽南文化生态保护区规划纲要> 的报告) by the Department of Culture of Fujian Province. The Outline clearly proposed specific requirements and formats for

Note: This paper is a partial result of the key project “Survey Studies on the State of Conservation of Dialect Culture in the Field of Education” (教育领域方言文化保护状况调查研究) (ZDI12531) of the “12th Five-Year” Scientific Research Plan of the State Language Commission for the year 2014. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-009

100

Li Jia (李佳)

the promotion of “Southern Min dialects entering the classroom” (Website of the Department of Education of Fujian Province, 2009): Encourage young people to speak the Southern Min language, hold recitals and oratorical contests for folk songs, nursery rhymes, and so on in Southern Min dialects, forming a linguistic environment beneficial to the conservation of Southern Min culture. Establish a discipline for Southern Min culture, with courses on local culture at universities as well as primary and secondary schools, forming an educational environment for the transmission and study of traditional culture. Implement the teaching of Southern Min nursery rhymes and forms of recreation at kindergartens; offer lessons on dialects, traditional art, and traditional crafts at primary schools; and offer cultural courses on Southern Min folk customs and local culture at junior and senior secondary schools.

As an implementation of the Outline, in 2008, the Quanzhou Municipal Bureau of Education issued the Opinions for Implementation to Launch Activities for “Southern Min Culture Entering Schools” (关于开展“闽南文化进校园”活动的实 施意见) (Quanzhou General Education [2008] No. 8) (Website of Quanzhou Municipal Bureau of Education, 2008), becoming the first in the southern Fujian region to implement activities for “dialects entering the classroom.” Thereafter, the Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education and Zhangzhou Municipal Bureau of Education respectively issued the Notice on Confirmation of the First Group of Pilot Schools for Southern Min Dialects and Culture Entering the Classroom (关于 确定首批闽南方言与文化进课堂试点校的通知) (Xiamen Basic Education [2009] No. 54) (Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education, 2009) and the Notice on Launching the First Round of Activities for Southern Min Culture Entering Schools in Zhangzhou City (关于开展漳州市首届闽南文化进校园活动的通知) (Zhangzhou Primary Education [2010] No. 20) (Website of Zhangzhou Municipal Bureau of Education, 2010) in 2009 and 2010, officially initiating pilot efforts for activities for “dialects entering the classroom.” In the example of Xiamen, the document “Xiamen Basic Education (2009) No. 54” (厦教基[2009]54 号) confirmed 8 kindergartens, 10 primary schools, and 13 secondary schools in districts on and off Xiamen Island as the first batch of “Pilot Schools for Southern Min Dialects and Culture Entering the Classroom,” and clearly proposed specific requirements with respect to classroom instruction in Southern Min dialects: The first group of pilot schools must fully mine their own advantageous resources, and create favorable conditions, to dynamically engage in activities for “Southern Min dialects and culture entering the classroom”; formulate activity plans to incorporate lesson content on Southern Min dialects and culture into the local curriculum, the school-based curriculum, and the general system of practical activities; offer educational classes on the Southern Min language and elective classes on Southern Min culture, guarantee the class

9 The situation of “dialect culture entering the classroom”

101

hours, and regularly hold classes; organize various activities inside and outside the classroom, and make efforts to allow students to master the Southern Min language, and learn to use the Southern Min language to engage in basic communication and exchanges. Non-pilot schools may also launch corresponding activities, and the bureaus of education for each district and their subordinate schools are asked to dynamically promote them.

In 2011, the Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education specifically incorporated “the promotion of Southern Min dialect and culture classes at primary and secondary schools” into the Plan Outline for Mid to Long-Term Educational Reforms and Development in Xiamen City (2010–2020) (厦门市中长期教育改革和发展规 划纲要[2010–2020]) (Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education, 2011), providing guarantees on a policy and institutional level, which was a rare sight among local education systems nationwide. In September 2015, the Xiamen Municipal Government formally announced the Measures for Establishment of the Xiamen City Conservation Area for the Cultural Ecology of Southern Fujian (厦门市闽南文化生态保护区建设办法) (Website of Xiamen Municipal People’s Government, 2015), which clearly stipulated that: Departments responsible for education shall launch activities for “Southern Min dialects and cultures entering schools,” and kindergartens, primary schools, and primary schools shall include Southern Min culture in their educational curricula . . . .

In June 2015, in conjunction with the Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Cultural Broadcasting, Radio, Press and Publication as well as Xiamen Media Group, the Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education issued the Opinions for Implementation on Launching Southern Min Language Proficiency Testing Work in Xiamen City (关于开展厦门市闽南话水平测试工作的实施意见) (Xiamen Language Education [2015] No. 2) (Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education, 2015a), provisionally establishing three grades for proficiency in the Southern Min language on the basis of the standards for the Putonghua Proficiency Test, where a score of 90 and above was Grade 1, a score of 75 and above was Grade 2, and a score of 60 and above was Grade 3. Specific recommendations were also provided to meet the standards in different industries: It is recommended that primary and secondary school teachers engaged in teaching Southern Min language classes should attain Grade 2 or Grade 1 proficiency . . . .and an employment system for holders of Southern Min language proficiency certificates shall gradually be implemented.

In accordance with the timeline requirements specified in the Opinions for Implementation (实施意见), a summer camp for teachers was held in August 2015 during the summer term to provide training and testing; in December, the Test

102

Li Jia (李佳)

Syllabus (测试大纲) and testing program were revised and announced to the public.

1.2 Implementation and promotion In 2013, the Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education and Xiamen Municipal Language Commission jointly formulated the Phase II Working Plan for Southern Min Dialects and Culture Entering Schools in Xiamen City (2013–2015) (厦门市闽南方 言与文化进校园第二阶段工作方案[2013–2015]) (Xiamen Language Education [2013] No. 5), which proposed the gradual expansion of the work to bring Southern Min dialects and culture into schools from the original group of 31 pilot schools to all primary and secondary schools, kindergartens, secondary vocational schools, and institutions of higher education citywide, in an effort to meet the objective of establishing 100 “Pilot Schools for Southern Min Dialects and Culture Entering Schools” during the “12th Five-Year” period. Specific tasks were laid out for this effort: Each district shall nominate at least 15 pilot schools, and efforts shall be made for all schools directly administered by the city to participate as pilot schools. On the basis of the students’ age characteristics, each school will launch various forms of exposure to and education on Southern Min dialects and culture, classroom lessons, literary and art performances, and other related activities and contests, actively developing the school-based curriculum on Southern Min dialects and culture. Southern Min dialects and culture shall be transmitted and preserved through multiple channels. Advocate for young people to not only speak Putonghua well, but also be able to speak the Southern Min language, perpetuating and cultivating Southern Min culture, and allowing Southern Min dialects and culture to be passed down from generation to generation, and never forgotten.

In February 2015, the Office of the Xiamen Municipal Language Commission issued the Notice on Evaluation and Inspection of Pilot Schools for Southern Min Dialects and Culture Entering Schools (关于开展闽南方言与文化进校园试点校评估 验收的通知) (Xiamen Language Office [2015] No. 2) (Website of Tong’an No. 1 High School of Fujian, 2015), including the Standards for Evaluation and Inspection of Distinguished Schools for Education on Southern Min Dialects and Culture Entering Schools in Xiamen City (Provisional) (厦门市闽南方言与文化进校园教育 特色校评估验收标准[试行]), which provided detailed regulations for grading on the basis of organizational leadership, organizational mechanisms, the construction of institutions, the establishment of curricula, teaching and research, teacher training, organized activities, school environment, special achievements, on-site inspection, and so on. The document also specified that

9 The situation of “dialect culture entering the classroom”

103

schools that received an evaluative score of 85 points and above would be granted the honorary title of “Distinguished School for Education on Southern Min Dialects and Culture Entering Schools in Xiamen City” (厦门市闽南方言与文化进校园教育 特色校), while schools that were not yet compliant with the standards would be granted the title of “Pilot School for Southern Min Dialects and Culture Entering Schools in Xiamen City” (厦门市闽南方言与文化进校园试点校), and could later reapply for evaluation and inspection as a distinguished school when the conditions were ripe. In December 2015, following public appraisal by relevant expert groups, the Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education and Xiamen Municipal Language Commission jointly issued the Notice on the Announcement of the Results of Public Appraisal of Distinguished Schools and Pilot Schools for Southern Min Dialects and Culture Entering Schools in Xiamen City (关于公布厦门市闽南方言与文化进 校园特色校和试点校评选结果的通知) (Xiamen Education and Language [2015] No. 11) (Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education, 2016), announcing that 71 pilot schools and 35 distinguished schools had passed evaluation and inspections, for a total of 106 schools, including 39 kindergartens, 45 primary schools, 21 secondary schools (3 of which were combined primary-secondary schools), and 1 secondary vocational school. Compared against the Basic Details of Schools of All Levels and Categories in Xiamen City (2014 to Early 2015) (厦门市各级各类学校基本情况[2014–2015 学年初]) (Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education, 2015b), the registered kindergartens, primary schools and secondary schools already accounted for 5.8% (out of 674 schools), 15.2% (out of 296 schools) and 23.3% (out of 90 schools) citywide.

2 Southern Jiangsu: A distinctive launch 2.1 Consideration for Putonghua, dialects and English The region of southern Jiangsu similarly strides in the front ranks nationwide in promoting “dialects entering the classroom,” and though its efforts are no match for the southern Fujian region, its model for development has unique characteristics. In the example of Suzhou, since 2009, the Suzhou Municipal Language Commission and Suzhou Municipal Bureau of Education have consecutively held seven “Putonghua, Suzhou Dialect, and English Speaking” contests, organically integrating the popularization of Putonghua, the transmission of the Suzhou dialect, and the study of foreign languages through in-school extracurricular

104

Li Jia (李佳)

activities. In the example of the seventh contest held in 2015, the Suzhou Municipal Language Commission and Suzhou Municipal Bureau of Education first jointly issued the document Suzhou Language Commission (2015) No. 4 to launch the contest (Suzhou Language Network, 2015), setting the contestants as registered full-time students with good oral proficiency in Putonghua, the Suzhou dialect, and English at primary and secondary schools citywide (including secondary vocational schools and technical schools), divided into four groups corresponding to primary schools, junior secondary schools, senior secondary schools, and secondary vocational and technical schools, as well as six contest areas, including the city proper, Zhangjiagang (张家港), Changshu (常熟), Taicang (太仓), Kunshan (昆山), and Wujiang (吴江). Three phases were completed for each contest area, including the initial round, semifinals, and finals: of these, the initial rounds were independently organized by the schools, the semifinals were organized and implemented by the office of the language commission for the respective county (city) or district, and language commission and department of educational administration for each contest area were responsible for implementing the finals. The theme of the contest was “Reciting the Chinese classics, and transmitting the culture of the Wu region,” and the format “took language as the primary aspect, while performance was secondary.” The specific content included classical Chinese poetry and prose from the textbooks, local Suzhou culture and social customs, and the experiences of different regions, et cetera. For the recitation of classical Chinese poetry or prose, contestants were required to use Putonghua, and the passage had to be a complete paragraph; the duration of the Suzhou dialect and English speaking performances had to be one minute or longer. The approval document formulated a careful schedule for the contest, requiring that each school complete the initial rounds in the period between September 1 and “Putonghua Awareness Week”; the semifinals were to be completed prior to the end of October, and the Municipal Bureau of Education and Municipal Language Commission were to organize the finals for the city proper contest area prior to the end of November. The Office of the Suzhou Municipal Language Commission also dispatched staff members to observe the situation of the semifinals and finals in each contest area, and ensure that organizational leadership and efforts were in place at all the schools in each area. The “Tri-Language” contest promoted the broad formation of a learning atmosphere for “studying Putonghua–oriented toward the whole country, studying the Suzhou dialect–rooted in Suzhou, and studying English–going global” at primary and secondary schools in Suzhou. Beginning with primary schools, Suzhou promotes the thorough integration of the promotion of Putonghua and the protection of dialects, while simultaneously placing

9 The situation of “dialect culture entering the classroom”

105

emphasis on the practical study and application of English, in an approach that offers valuable lessons (Subaonet. com, 2011).

2.2 Cross-departmental cooperation The Suzhou Municipal Bureau of Education and Suzhou Municipal Language Commission have also engaged in cross-departmental cooperation. In 2014, they began jointly promoting the Suzhou nursery rhymes contest “At Home in Suzhou: The Pleasant Wu Dialect Makes Dreams Come True in Suzhou” (家在苏州 吴侬软语圆梦苏州) alongside the Suzhou Broadcasting System, and the second round was successfully held in 2015. Unlike the “Tri-Language” contest, the participants in the nursery rhymes contest included children and adolescents aged 4–12 under the bureaus of education for each region and directly administered schools, which were limited to kindergartens and primary schools. The content focused on the pure local Wu dialect, and contestants were required to speak and sing a nursery rhyme for a duration not exceeding 3 minutes. Experts on the Wu dialect, senior teachers, the hosts of Wu dialect radio and television programs, and so on were also invited to serve as the contest’s evaluation committee, providing a comprehensive score on the basis of the contestant’s live performance, stage presence, dialect proficiency, and other aspects. In accordance with the requirements of the document Suzhou Broadcasting Office [2015] No. 44, the contest set 16 individual prizes and 6 group prizes, and prizewinners would be signed as junior hosts on the news broadcasting channel of the Suzhou Broadcasting System, and would also receive a certificate and a material award issued by the sponsor. In addition, the contest also issued “Outstanding Academic Advisor” prizes and material awards to the academic advisors for the prizewinners, and CD-ROMs of the contestants were also released by the Office of the Suzhou Municipal Language Commission at the opportune time for citywide promotion (Website of the Bureau of Education of Suzhou Industrial Park, 2015).

2.3 Public-private cooperation to establish qualified faculty Suzhou has placed great emphasis on unifying various forces to cultivate qualified teachers for “dialects entering the classroom” activities. In February 2012, the Suzhou Municipal Bureau of Education and the Suzhou Municipal Language Commission specially established institutions for dialect training and scientific research, the Suzhou Dialect Training Center and the Center for Dialect Teaching

106

Li Jia (李佳)

and Research at Suzhou Vocational University, with plans to train one thousand qualified teachers of the Suzhou dialect within five years, enhance teaching and research by professors of the Suzhou dialect, and provide public services for city residents to study the Suzhou dialect. The Suzhou Dialect Training Center held its first Suzhou dialect teacher training program in the year it was established, inviting 10 senior experts on the Suzhou dialect, including dialectologists and Suzhou dialect storytellers and singers, as well as 30 kindergarten and primary school teachers to participate in training. The Municipal Bureau of Education and the Municipal Language Commission issued certificates and recognized the teachers’ continuing education hours (Website of Suzhou Municipal People’s Government, 2012). Since 2013, the Suzhou Municipal Bureau of Education and Suzhou Municipal Language Commission have also actively mined private forces to recruit and train “Suzhou dialect tutors,” and people from all walks of life who were born and grew up in Suzhou Old Town, had a pure home language environment, had accurate pronunciation in the Suzhou dialect, were of an age not exceeding 65, with good physical health, and lived in the city proper could register to participate. The training content included the characteristics of pronunciation in the Suzhou dialect, comparison of the Suzhou dialect and Putonghua, the Wu dialect and Wu culture, the Suzhou dialect pinyin scheme, and so on. Upon the conclusion of training, the participants were assessed, and those who qualified were issued certificates (Suzhou Language Network, 2016). As of 2015, three sessions of the program had cumulatively been held, and “Suzhou dialect tutor” certificates had been issued to 164 city residents. Through these actions, activities for “dialects entering the classroom” in Suzhou City have proceeded in orderly fashion, forming a unique model for development that not only upholds the promotion of Putonghua but also perpetuates dialects, while simultaneously being oriented toward the world.

3 The Shanghai Region: Careful Progress In recent years, a number of people in Shanghai have requested via the “Two Sessions,” petition letters, the mayor’s inbox, and other channels that education in the Shanghai dialect be provided during the basic education stage. As such calls have grown louder, certain kindergartens, primary schools and secondary schools have spontaneously begun offering certain educational activities for the Shanghai dialect. According to the statistics of the Shanghai Municipal Language Commission, in 2013, a total of 268 primary and secondary schools citywide

9 The situation of “dialect culture entering the classroom”

107

offered various types of classes on the Shanghai dialect, with the rate reaching 25.4% (Zhang, 2014). Somewhat in contrast with Xiamen and Suzhou, Shanghai is a hub for the Chinese economy and international exchanges, taking on important national functions, so the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission and Language Commission have been fairly cautious in moving forward on the issue of “dialects entering the classroom.” Not only did the dialect issue go unmentioned in the Outline of Mid- to Long-Term Plans for Educational Reform and Development in Shanghai City (2010–2020) (上海市中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要 [2010–2020 年]), content on strengthening dialect education is still nowhere to be found in the documents officially issued by the Municipal Education Commission in recent years. Passages on the promotion of “dialects entering the classroom” in the field of basic education began appearing in the Criteria for Basic Education Work in Shanghai City (上海市基础教育工作要点) issued by the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission in 2013. In 2013, the comment was to “continue to undertake teaching for the course ‘Shanghai Indigenous Culture’ at primary and secondary schools and kindergartens” (Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 2013); in 2014, it was to “continue promoting pilot programs for kindergartens to undertake practical educational activities on the Shanghai dialect” (Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 2014a); and in 2015, it was to “launch a pilot program to undertake activities for the transmission of local language culture” (Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 2015a). These passages all consisted of general guidelines, and did not involve specific operational standards or procedures, and still less specific objectives and targets like those formulated by Xiamen and Suzhou. The Criteria for Language Work in Shanghai City (上海市语言文字工作要点) formulated by the Shanghai Municipal Language Commission in 2013 also began proposing specific requirements for holding activities for dialect transmission, and in 2014, content on “dialects entering the classroom” was officially included (Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 2014b): “Continue to promote a pilot program for undertaking practical educational activities on the Shanghai dialect at kindergartens. Summarize and publicize the experiences at the first group of pilot kindergartens, and gradually expand the scope of the pilot program.” On the foundation of the “kindergarten pilot program” in 2014, relevant content on primary and secondary school and university education was added in 2015 (Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 2015b): “Undertake activities for Shanghai language and culture entering schools. Fully rely on the Shanghai Three-Year Action Plan for the Integration of Culture

108

Li Jia (李佳)

and Education to undertake activities for Shanghai language and culture entering schools as a pilot program at certain primary and secondary schools in the two districts of Pudong and Xuhui; guide relevant institutions of higher education to offer courses for improvement in language proficiency with content on the Shanghai dialect for majors in broadcasting, marketing, and so on.” According to incomplete statistics, in 2015, district-wide exhibition activities on the Shanghai dialect or contests were held in at least three districts, including Xuhui (徐汇), Jing’an (静安) and Zhabei (闸北) (prior to their merge), as shown in the following table: Table 1: School dialect activities in the three districts of Xuhui, Jing’an and Zhabei. Administrative district

Dates

Name of contest or activity

Participants and features

Xuhui District (Shanghai Language Network, a)

October – “Shanghai Dialect Proficiency December Contest for Students” (学生沪 语能力大赛), with a series of contests including “Kindergarteners’ Nursery Rhymes in Shanghai Dialect” (幼儿沪语童谣), “Primary School Students Tell Stories in Dialect” (小学生方言讲故事), “Secondary School Students as Anchors in Shanghai Dialect” (中学生沪语主持人), “Writing New Nursery Rhymes in Shanghai Dialect” (新沪语童 谣创编), and so on.

Jing’an District (Shanghai Language Network, b)

October – “Shanghai Loves You” (上海爱 Kindergartens across the December 侬)–Kindergarteners Shanghai district participated in the first dialect nursery rhyme contest round of the competition, while more than  kindergarteners entered the finals, and  kindergartens entered the team program finals. The content of the contest included “Shanghai Dialect Nursery Rhyme Series” (沪语童谣串烧), “Telling MiniStories in Shanghai Dialect” (沪语小故事讲述), “Shanghai Dialect Folk Song Performance” (沪语歌谣表演), and so on.

The age brackets ranged from the middle class in kindergarten to the third year of senior secondary school, including not only students of Shanghai origin, but also “new Shanghai residents” and “foreign students.” The contest format consisted of presentations with two segments, self-selected passages and impromptu expression.

9 The situation of “dialect culture entering the classroom”

109

Table 1 (continued) Administrative district

Dates

Name of contest or activity

Participants and features

Zhabei District (Shanghai Language Network, c)

June

“Pleasant Words, Happy Children” (吴侬软语, 快乐童年)  Zhabei District Shanghai language and culture activity

This activity drew participation by more than  kindergarteners, teachers and parents. The children and adults performed Shanghai opera, scenes, nursery rhyme series, and “Shanghai dialect storytelling” using the Shanghai dialect separately or together.

It is as yet difficult to produce statistics on the various activities for “dialects entering the classroom” held by the kindergartens, primary schools and secondary schools under the jurisdiction of the different districts. One fairly salient example is the first activity for “Shanghai dialect experts entering schools” held by Xuhui District in October 2015, in which Wang Rugang (王汝刚), the Vice Chair of the Chinese Ballad Singers Association and the Chair of the Shanghai Ballad Singers Association, was invited to visit schools in the Tianlin neighborhood, to introduce the parents and students on the scene to knowledge on the Shanghai dialect and correct mistakes in the pronunciation of the Shanghai dialect (Shanghai Language Network, 2015d). On November 17 and 24, the district also respectively invited the famous performer Pan Qianwei (潘 前卫) of the Shanghai Farce Troupe (Shanghai Language Network, 2015e) and Qian Cheng (钱程), the Assistant Director of the Shanghai Farce Troupe (Shanghai Language Network, 2015f), to visit Tianlin (田林) No. 1 Primary School and Huishi (汇师) Primary School, to put on a lecture on the Shanghai dialect, and perform a Shanghai dialect skit and story-singing for the teachers and students. It is clear from the above that the city of Shanghai is currently making efforts to explore its own characteristics, working from the bottom up to summarize the experiences of “dialects entering the classroom,” and carefully move forward.

4 Relevant considerations Xiamen, Suzhou and Shanghai are the three regions in southeastern coastal China that have been fairly dynamic in pursuing activities for “dialects entering

110

Li Jia (李佳)

the classroom.” Although the three regions differ in terms of their level of effort and distinguishing features, the general trend has been to incorporate education in the local dialects into formal school teaching activities. As of the present, the view of language as a resource has deeply pervaded the public consciousness, and as important local cultural resources and cultural heritage, dialects should be properly protected. There is little cause to criticize basic education departments for undertaking certain responsibilities for the protection of dialects through the format of local education, but their efforts must certainly be appropriate. First, there must be an appropriate scope. Dialects have always been present in private settings at schools, but public settings and teaching activities at schools should strictly adhere to the relevant provisions of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字法) as well as the Measures for Implementation (实施办法) formulated by each province and city. Courses involving dialects should be strictly limited to elective courses and special interest courses, and dialects cannot be allowed to enter the classroom for required courses such as language arts, mathematics, history, social studies, and so on, and it would be even more inappropriate to incorporate dialects into the mechanisms for hiring and promotion in the form of contests, examinations, and so on. Second, the targets must be appropriate. The choice to take dialect courses should always belong to the students themselves and their parents, and such courses should not be compulsory. Whether they are the children of long-time city residents of local origin, or the children of new city residents or the floating population originating from elsewhere, all should independently make a decision regarding the issue of whether or not to study local dialects. In addition, the idea of “dialects entering the classroom” can have many interpretations, potentially referring not only to the use of dialects as an intermediary language to engage in teaching, but also to instruction in the dialects themselves, or to instruction in the knowledge and culture associated with a dialect. It is recommended that relevant policy documents use the formulation “dialect culture entering the classroom,” so as to avoid giving rise to misinterpretation. In summary, the promotion of dialect culture entering the classroom must take maintaining the dominant position of the standard spoken and written Chinese language as its premise, while remaining committed to love of native place and patriotism, and to the unification of individual families with the greater family of the nation. One must be sure not to unilaterally emphasize dialect rights, and magnify or exaggerate the differences between Putonghua and dialects. It is necessary to guide young people at large to derive positive energy from dialect culture, cultivating an expansive sentiment regarding home and the nation from

9 The situation of “dialect culture entering the classroom”

111

a young age, and actively shaping a new era of harmonious and mutually beneficial relationships between Putonghua and dialects at schools.

References Shanghai Language Network (上海语言文字网). 2015a. http://www.shyywz.com/main/Columns NewShow.aspx?id=2141. Shanghai Language Network (上海语言文字网). 2015b. http://www.shyywz.com/main/Columns NewShow.aspx?id=2132. Shanghai Language Network (上海语言文字网). 2015c. http://www.shyywz.com/main/Columns NewShow.aspx?id=2032. Shanghai Language Network (上海语言文字网). 2015d. http://www.shyywz.com/main/Columns NewShow.aspx?id=2105. Shanghai Language Network (上海语言文字网). 2015e. http://www.shyywz.com/main/Columns NewShow.aspx?id=2120. Shanghai Language Network (上海语言文字网). 2015f. http://www.shyywz.com/main/Columns NewShow.aspx?id=2126. Subaonet.com (苏州新闻网). 2011. “Tri-Language” contest shines a light on students’ firstrate language abilities (“三话”赛晒出学生语言真本领). Suzhou Daily (苏州日报). http://www.subaonet.com/html/livelihood/2011811/FF34G6BKK847K7K.html, Aug. 11, 2011. Suzhou Language Network (苏州语言文字网). 2015. http://yywz.szedu.com/szlanguage/show info/showinfo.aspx?infoid=dffa63df-b953-4c25-b3b8-7d126cfed24d&siteid=1&category Num=07. Suzhou Language Network (苏州语言文字网). 2016. http://www.yywz.suzhou.gov.cn/szlan guage/showinfo/showinfo.aspx?infoid=c81e3060-fd02-4917-8429-96d9e451c9d2&si teid=1&categoryNum=07. Website of the Bureau of Education of Suzhou Industrial Park (苏州工业园区教育局网站). 2015. http://sipedu.sipac.gov.cn/website/Item/66807.aspx. Website of the Department of Education of Fujian Province (福建省文化厅网站). 2009. http://www.fjwh.gov.cn/html/9/247/13545_2009991020.html. Website of Quanzhou Municipal Bureau of Education (泉州市教育局网站). 2008. http://www. qzeduc.n/contenta.spx?uni=842f6658-035b-4029-8020-6ab9ff579229. Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission (上海市教委网站). 2013. http://wwws.hmec.govc.n/web/xxgk/rows_content.php?article_code=304152013001. Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission (上海市教委网站). 2014a. http://wwws.hmec.govc.n/web/xxgk/rows_content.php?article_code=304162014003. Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission (上海市教委网站). 2014b. http://wwws.hmec.govc.n/web/xxgk/rows_content.php?article_code=304162014007. Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission (上海市教委网站). 2015a. http://wwws.hmec.govc.n/web/xxgk/rows_content.php?article_code=304172015006. Website of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission (上海市教委网站). 2015b. http://wwws.hmec.govc.n/web/xxgk/rows_content.php?article_code=304172015007.

112

Li Jia (李佳)

Website of Suzhou Municipal People’s Government (苏州市人民政府网站). 2012. Response to Proposal No. 043 of the Fifth Conference of the 12th Session of the Municipal Political Consultative Conference (对市政协十二届五次会议第043 号提案的答复). www.suzhou. gov.cn/asite/lh2012/zx-onepage1.asp?bh=043. Website of Tong’an No. 1 High School of Fujian (福建省同安第一中学网站). 2015. http://www. tayz.cn/list!newsDetail.do?newsId=2880. Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education (厦门市教育局网站). 2009. http://www. xmedu.govc.n/sso/GovInfo.do?action=showGovInfo&newsID=15161. Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education (厦门市教育局网站). 2011. http://www. xmedu.govc.n/sso/NewsList.do?action=showNews&newsID=22689. Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education (厦门市教育局网站). 2015a. http://www. xmedu.gov.cn/xxgk/yywzgz/201506/t20150624_1136275.htm. Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education (厦门市教育局网站). 2015b. http://www. xmedu.gov.cn/xxgk/tjxx/xndgjglxxjbqk/201510/t20151029_1218897.htm. Website of Xiamen Municipal Bureau of Education (厦门市教育局网站). 2016. http://www. xmedu.gov.cn/xxgk/yywzgz/201601/t20160104_1256919.htm. Website of Xiamen Municipal People’s Government (厦门市人民政府网站). 2015. http://www. xm.gov.cn/zwgk/flfg/zfgz/201510/t20151026_1215878.htm. Website of Zhangzhou Municipal Bureau of Education (漳州市教育局网站). 2010. http:// 59.60.156.138:81/content.aspx?id=695. Zhang, Ripei (张日培). 2014. Passionate discussions of the “Shanghai dialect” by the Shanghainese people (上海人热议“上海话”). The Language Situation in China (2014) (中国语言生活状况报告[2014]), Commercial Press (商务印书馆).

Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵) and Chen Lixiang (陈丽湘)

10 Survey of language use in regions inhabited by the Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups Regions inhabited by minority ethnic groups are the principal spaces for the transmission of ethnic languages and culture, and only by understanding the state of language use, placing emphasis on linguistic rights, creating awareness of language resources, and maintaining the linguistic eco-environment in such regions can the transmission and development of minority ethnic spoken and written languages be promoted. The Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups respectively live on China’s southern and northern frontiers, and both the Lahu and Mongolian languages are characterized as cross-border minority ethnic languages. This survey selected the Lahu ethnic group of Yunnan Province and the Mongolian ethnic group of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region as its subjects, to examine the state of use of native languages and the standard spoken and written Chinese language among the residents of these regions from the perspective of listening, speaking, reading and writing skills, as well as the domains of language use.

1 Overview of survey sites The “Survey Group on the State of Language Life in Regions Inhabited by Minority Ethnic Groups” (少数民族聚居区语言生活现状调研组) of the Minority Ethnic Languages Subdivision of the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center conducted surveys of the state of language use in Lancang Lahu Autonomous County, Yunnan Province (three stockaded villages) and New Barag Right Banner, Hulunbuir City, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (one sum1 and one town) in August 2013 and August 2014.

 Sum is a term in the Mongolian language referring to an administrative unit between a county and a village. In Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, generally speaking, towns are industrial areas, townships are agricultural areas, and sum are pastoral areas. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-010

114

Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵) and Chen Lixiang (陈丽湘)

1.1 Survey sites 1.1.1 Lancang Lahu Autonomous County, Yunnan Province Yunnan Province is the region in China with the highest number of ethnic groups, with small communities of different ethnic groups forming a larger region inhabited by intermingled ethnic groups. The Lahu ethnic group is one of twenty-five minority ethnic groups in Yunnan Province. Lancang Lahu Autonomous County is the largest Lahu community in the country, representing more than half of the Lahu population in China, and it is also the place where the Lahu language and culture have been best preserved. Apart from the Lahu, who are the principal ethnic group in the region, the county is also inhabited by the Wa, Hani, Yi, Dai, Blang, Hui, and other ethnic groups. The Lahu language is classified as a language in the Yi subfamily of the Sino-Tibetan language family, and is divided into the Lahu Na and Lahu Xi dialects, with minor differences between the dialects. In the region inhabited by the Lahu ethnic group, two alphabetic scripts are chiefly used, including the Missionary Script (old script) and the Yunnan Lahu Provisional Script (new script). The degree of popularization of the new script for the Lahu language is relatively low, and the scope of use is limited, while informatized spoken and written language applications are still nonexistent. The three stockaded villages selected in this survey were: Laodabao Group, Menggen Village, Jiujing Hani Township, located in a semi-mountainous area, which was recently opened up to tourism as a famous stockaded village; Banli Groups 1 and 4 of Banli Village, Donghui Township, located in a mountainous area, which is characterized as a stockaded village with a relatively conservative lifestyle and many residents of Christian faith; and Tangsheng Old Stockade, Tangsheng Village, Menglang Town, located in a dam area. Tangsheng Old Stockade is relatively close to the seat of the county government, and its resident families have universal access to cable television and mobile phones, while its economy is fairly developed.

1.1.2 New Barag Right Banner, Hulunbuir City, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region inhabited by the dominant Mongolian ethnic group alongside a blend of other ethnic groups, representing 68.7% of the total Mongolian population in China. New Barag Right Banner is a frontier minority ethnic region inhabited by 11 ethnic groups, including the dominant

10 Survey of language use in regions inhabited by the Lahu

115

Mongolian ethnic group, as well as the Han, Daur, Evenks, Oroqen, Hui, and Manchu, among others. The Mongolian language belongs to the Mongolic language group of the Altaic language family, and it is divided into the Inner Mongolia, Oirats, and Barga Buryats dialects. The Mongolian script used in the Mongolian language is a traditional script, and its scope of use covers eight provinces and regions in China, including Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Heilongjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, Liaoning, Beijing, and Ningxia, with a relatively high level of informatization for the spoken and written language. The town and sum selected in this survey were: Alatan’emole Town (abbreviated below as A. Town), which is the central town in New Barag Right Banner, located in the central region of the New Right Banner, with a high concentration of residents. It is also the principal local hub for tourism, and has frequent exchanges with the outside world, and frequent exposure to the Chinese language. Suge Dewula Sum (abbreviated below as Suge Sum) is a typical pastoral area where the traditional Mongolian way of life has been rather well-preserved, with a decentralized population.

1.2 Composition of samples Through in-home surveys, questionnaires and personal interviews, we recovered a total of 120 valid questionnaires from regions inhabited by the Lahu ethnic group, and 65 valid questionnaires from regions inhabited by the Mongolian ethnic group. The ethnic composition of the interviewees in regions inhabited by the Lahu ethnic group consisted entirely of the Lahu ethnic group, and the ethnic composition of the interviewees in regions inhabited by the Mongolian ethnic group consisted entirely of the Mongolian ethnic group. For the basic details of the interviewees, see Table 1 below. As shown in Table 1, the ratio of men and women in the sample survey was essentially even, and the age distribution was relatively homogeneous. In terms of the regional distribution, the distribution of the number of people surveyed at the 5 survey sites was fairly balanced. Since the Lahu ethnic group is a farming people, the resident population at the three related survey sites was fairly concentrated, while Suge Sum in Inner Mongolia was inhabited by a people with a typical nomadic lifestyle and a decentralized population, therefore, there was a certain degree of disparity in the number of valid questionnaires recovered in this survey. There are fairly significant differences in levels of educational attainment between the Mongolian ethnic group and Lahu ethnic group, with higher levels of educational attainment within the Mongolian ethnic group.

116

Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵) and Chen Lixiang (陈丽湘)

Table 1: Basic details of survey sites (Survey sample size N = 185). Lahu ethnic group Category

Sex

Region

Age

Mongolian ethnic group

Sample Percentage Category (%)

Sample

Percentage (%) Male



. Sex

Male



.

Female



.

Female



.

Laodabao Stockade



. Region

A. Town



.

Tangsheng Old Stockade



.

Suge Sum



.

Banli Village



. Age

< 



.

< 



.

–



.

–



.

–



.

–



.

≥ 



.

≥ 





.



Illiterate . Level of education . Primary school



.

Primary school



.

Junior secondary school



.

Junior secondary school



.

Senior secondary school



.

Beyond junior secondary school







.d

Level of Illiterate education

Beyond senior secondary school

10 Survey of language use in regions inhabited by the Lahu

117

2 Current state of use of spoken and written language in regions inhabited by the Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups 2.1 State of mastery of spoken and written language 2.1.1 Residents of the inhabited regions had balanced competence in the use of native languages, with fairly significant disparities in competence in the use of written language Lancang Lahu Autonomous County and New Barag Right Banner are both regions with a high concentration of ethnic minority inhabitants in which the indigenous ethnic group is dominant, holding a significant advantage relative to other ethnic groups in terms of their population, which is beneficial to the protection of native languages. The state of “proficient” use of spoken and written native languages among the residents of these two regions is as shown in Figure 1: 100% 100%

100% 100%

100% 72.31%

80% Percentage

63.07% 60%

Lahu Ethnic Group

40%

Mongolian Ethnic Group

20% 4.12% 0%

Listening

Speaking

Reading

3.31% Writing

Figure 1: State of “proficient” use of spoken and written native languages among the residents of regions inhabited by the Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups.

The surveyed regions inhabited by the Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups exhibited good intergenerational transmission of native languages, stable use, and balanced listening and speaking skills, but there were significant disparities with respect to proficiency in the use of written language. Mastery of the

118

Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵) and Chen Lixiang (陈丽湘)

indigenous written language was relatively good among the Mongolian people, and school education was the main pathway for studying the written Mongolian language. Among the Lahu people, the level of proficiency in the use of written language was generally quite low, and the main pathway for studying the old Lahu script was to read an edition of the New Testament written in the old script. None of the residents of the three surveyed Lahu stockaded villages were able to “proficiently” write the new Lahu script, while only a few villagers who had previously received anti-illiteracy education were able to recognize a small amount of the new text, with an extremely low rate of popularization of the new text in the surveyed region.

2.1.2 Residents of the inhabited regions had significant disparities in proficiency in the standard spoken and written Chinese language The standard spoken and written Chinese language is an extremely important interethnic language in the regions inhabited by both the Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups, but there were significant disparities in its mastery among the residents of these regions. Details on the “proficient” use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language among the Lahu and Mongolian peoples are as shown in Figure 2: 80.00%

75.38% 64.62%

63.07%

Percentage

60.00% 41.53% 40.00%

33.33% 25%

Mongolian Ethnic Group

19.17% 13.33%

20.00%

0.00%

Lahu Ethnic Group

Listening

Speaking

Reading

Writing

Figure 2: State of “proficient” use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language among the residents of regions inhabited by the Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups.

10 Survey of language use in regions inhabited by the Lahu

119

The main pathway for studying the standard spoken and written Chinese language in regions inhabited by minority ethnic groups is school education, and proficiency in the use of the standard Chinese language is in direct proportion to the level of education received. The pervasively low level of education among the Lahu respondents was an important reason for their generally low proficiency in the use of the standard Chinese language. In addition, the region was also an important factor affecting proficiency in the use of the standard Chinese language. Menglang Town and A. Town are government seats, with significant exposure to novel things and people of other ethnic groups, and their residents exhibited relatively high proficiency in the use of the standard Chinese language, while proficiency in the use of the standard Chinese language was significantly lower in other regions.

2.2 Spheres for use of spoken and written language The higher the level of use of spoken and written language, the greater its vitality, and the firmer its foundations.

2.2.1 Domains of spoken language use Joshua Fishman (1971) divided the domains of language use into five categories: The family domain, friendship domain, religion domain, education domain, and work domain.2 On this foundation, we added the mass media domain, and we examined the state of the application of language in each domain within the Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups, as shown in Table 2. Ethnic languages held an absolute advantage in intrafamily communication in the surveyed regions. The majority of the families among the Mongolian and Lahu peoples chiefly used their indigenous languages during exchanges “between the elder generation and younger generation” as well as “within the same generation,” and only occasionally used terms from the standard Chinese language when discussed certain special topics. The friends of residents of the surveyed regions largely belonged to the same ethnic group, so ethnic languages were also the principal language of communication in the friendship

 A domain of language use refers to a social setting composed of an activity space, activity participants, a topic, and other key elements. See Zhu, Wanjin (祝畹瑾), An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (社会语言学概论), Hunan Education Publishing House (湖南教育出版社), 1992.

120

Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵) and Chen Lixiang (陈丽湘)

Table 2: State of language use in each domain. Domain

Ethnic group Lahu ethnic group

Mongolian ethnic group

Family domain

Lahu language

Mongolian language

Friendship domain

Predominantly Lahu language; supplemented by standard Chinese language

Predominantly Mongolian language; supplemented by standard Chinese language

Religion domain

Lahu language

Mongolian language

Education domain

Predominantly standard Chinese language; supplemented by Lahu language

Standard Chinese language; Mongolian language

Work domain

Lahu language; standard Chinese language

Standard Chinese language; Mongolian language

Mass media domain

Standard Chinese language; occasional use of Lahu language

Standard Chinese language; Mongolian language

domain, and the standard Chinese language would only be used when engaging in exchanges with friends belonging to other ethnic groups. In religious settings as well as weddings, funerals, festival gatherings, and other traditional cultural settings, the indigenous ethnic languages were always predominant. In the education domain, members of the Mongolian ethnic group have access to Mongolian-language teaching materials, and bilingual teaching is offered as part of the curriculum, with parallel use of the standard Chinese language and the Mongolian language. For the Lahu ethnic group, the standard Chinese language is the primary medium of classroom teaching, while the Lahu language is generally used for supplemental education. In the work domain and particularly in the services domain in the surveyed regions, the Mongolian people largely engaged in bilingualism; though the Lahu people advocated bilingualism, because the majority of their work counterparties were members of the indigenous ethnic group, the Lahu language was predominant. In the mass media domain, the standard Chinese language holds an advantageous position in radio, television and film, while the Lahu language is limited to Lahu-language radio; but the Mongolian language has achieved fairly widespread use in radio, television and film. From the perspective of domains of language use, ethnic languages hold a predominant position in the private domains (family domain and friendship domain), but in the public domains, they only hold an important position in religion and other traditional cultural domains, while the domains for use of the

10 Survey of language use in regions inhabited by the Lahu

121

standard Chinese language are gradually expanding. Apart from the family domain and religion domain, in which it is rarely used, there is some use of the standard Chinese language in all other domains, particularly the mass media domain, in which it is playing an increasingly important role.

2.2.2 Domains of written language use The domains for use of written language are generally narrower compared to the domains for use of spoken language. The state of use of the Lahu script, Mongolian script, and Chinese script were chiefly examined on the basis of written language use in the education domain, culture domain, administration domain, legal system domain, media domain, and the service industry (see Table 3). Table 3: Domains of written language use. Domain

Script Lahu script

Mongolian script

Chinese script

Education

Small quantity of educational materials in Lahu script; previously used in anti-illiteracy education.

Educational materials in Mongolian script; bilingual educational materials; extracurricular reading materials; assigned topics; antiilliteracy education.

Anywhere ethnic scripts are used, the Chinese script also appears; more widely used.

Culture

Banners for large-scale activities; religious ceremonies.

Banners for large-scale activities; cultural and artistic performances; literary works; religious ceremonies, etc.

Apart from religious ceremonies, anywhere ethnic scripts are used, the Chinese script also appears; more widely used.

Important meetings; elections; government signs, official seals, official documents, posters, banners, and most documents; publicity materials, etc.

Anywhere ethnic scripts are used, the Chinese script also appears; more widely used.

Administration Large-scale meetings; elections; government signs, official seals, and some documents; rarely used in areas at the county level and below.

122

Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵) and Chen Lixiang (陈丽湘)

Table 3 (continued) Domain

Script Lahu script

Mongolian script

Chinese script

Legal system

Not used

Petition letters; legal proceedings; legal documents; various types of judicial activities.

Anywhere ethnic scripts are used, the Chinese script also appears; more widely used.

Media

Not used

Audio and video materials; newspapers and periodicals; webpages; television and film subtitles, etc.

Anywhere ethnic scripts are used, the Chinese script also appears; more widely used.

Service industry

Certain building signs; signs for larger hotels and government reception areas; instructional signs at certain tourist sites; occasionally used in signs for individual businesses.

Building signs; public facilities; road signs; instructional signs at tourist sites, service language; signs for individual businesses; post and telecommunications; train stations; product manuals; service window designations, etc.

Anywhere ethnic scripts are used, the Chinese script also appears; more widely used.

Table 3 shows that the Chinese script is quite widely used in the regions inhabited by the Lahu and Mongolian ethnic groups, and apart from not being used in a few traditional religious activities, anywhere else that ethnic scripts are used, the Chinese script essentially always appears. The scope of use for the Lahu script is limited: it is not used in the legal system and media domains, and its use in other domains is limited. The domains for use of the Mongolian script are second only to the Chinese script, and it sees fairly widespread use in all domains, including new media.

10 Survey of language use in regions inhabited by the Lahu

123

3 Points for consideration 3.1 Ethnic languages and the standard Chinese language each have their function, with a clear trend toward a “bilingual” landscape The relationships between languages in the regions inhabited by minority ethnic groups are harmonious, and the minority ethnic groups have a positive attitude toward the study of the standard Chinese language. Ethnic languages and the standard Chinese language each have their function in regions inhabited by minority ethnic groups, complementing one another for common development. The distributional pattern of large areas in which ethnic groups live intermingled and small areas inhabited by a single ethnic group is the principal factor in the emergence and development of bilingual phenomena in ethnic regions in China. From the perspective of national and regional policies on spoken and written ethnic languages as well as the feelings, intellectual attitudes, and behavioral tendencies of the residents of ethnic regions, bilingualism is a trend of development and an objective need for the linguistic landscape in such regions.

3.2 The use of ethnic scripts is unbalanced, and complete popularization of “written bilingualism” in ethnic regions is difficult Encouragement of spoken and written bilingualism is an extremely important ethnic language policy in China. As of the present, the possibility of implementing written bilingualism within the minority ethnic regions that use traditional and standard scripts (such as the surveyed regions inhabited by the Mongolian ethnic group) is relatively high, while certain ethnic regions with newly created scripts (such as the new Lahu script) still present a relatively high degree of difficulty with respect to popularization. Linguistic harmony is an important sign of social harmony: We should place emphasis on the use and development of minority ethnic languages, so that native languages and the standard Chinese language can coexist over the long term and complement one another, striving to achieve “full appreciation of the beauty of both sides, and harmonious development” for native languages and the standard Chinese language (Dai, 2011).

124

Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵) and Chen Lixiang (陈丽湘)

Reference Dai, Qingxia (戴庆厦). 2011. Full appreciation of the beauty of both sides, and harmonious development—the optimal model for resolving the issue of minority ethnic bilingualism (两全其美 和谐发展——解决少数民族双语问题的最佳模式). Journal of Minzu University of China (中央民族大学学报), no. 5.

Fu Yonggang (付永钢)

11 Survey of language use among Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese college students at inland institutions of higher education In recent years, the number of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese youths coming to inland colleges and universities to receive higher education has increasingly grown, and has already reached more than 30,000 as of the present. Due to historical and practical reasons, there are certain differences between Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and Mainland China in terms of politics, economics, education, social life, and many other areas. In terms of language, the majority of Hongkongers and Macanese speak Cantonese, while the language of education at inland institutions of higher education is Putonghua, and most Taiwanese students speak Guoyu (国语, ‘National Language’), which is also somewhat different from Putonghua. In order to understand the issue of communication between Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students and inland teachers and students, we conducted a relatively large-scale survey at five inland institutions of higher education that admit a fairly high number of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students, including Jinan University, Huaqiao University, and Sun Yat-sen University.

1 Overview of survey For this survey, a total of 2500 questionnaires were distributed, and 2145 valid questionnaires were recovered. For the sample composition, see Table 1. Among the surveyed course instructors, 93.5% of individuals had taught Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students for at least two semesters, and among the teaching assistants and administrative personnel, 82.3% of individuals

Note: This survey was supported by the 2012 project “Study of cross-cultural issues in the process of communication between Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students and Mainland teachers and students at inland institutions of higher education” (内地高校港澳台学生与大陆 师生交际过程中的跨文化问题研究) (Project Approval No.: 12YJA740015) for humanities and social sciences research of the Ministry of Education. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-011

126

Fu Yonggang (付永钢)

had engaged in supervision of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students for at least two semesters. The survey formats included questionnaires, interviews, follow-up surveys, case studies, participant and non-participant observation, and various other methods. Table 1: Basic details of survey subjects. Students ( individuals in total) Category

Sex

Teaching and administrative personnel ( individuals in total)

Number of Category individuals

Male

 Course instructors

Female



Major Humanities





Science and engineering



Business



Macau

 Education advisors and administrative personnel 

Taiwan



Inland



Origin Hong Kong

Number of individuals



The principal content of the survey questionnaires was as follows: Questionnaire 1, Survey of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese Students (港澳台 学生调查), examined the similarities and differences between the Hong Kong, Macanese, and Taiwanese students and inland teachers and students in terms of their cultural values, views on institutional factors, customs and habits, language and habits of language use, nonverbal behavior, and other areas. In Questionnaire 2, Survey of Inland Students (内地学生调查), the vast majority of the survey questions corresponded to the questions in Survey of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese Students (港澳台学生调查), but adjustments were made to a small number of questions as well as to the diction and expression based on the circumstances. Questionnaire 3, Survey of Course Instructors (任课教师调查) examined the state of communication between teachers and Hong Kong, Macanese and

11 Survey of language use among college students

127

Taiwanese students in the course of teaching as well as problems that frequently emerged during communication; certain questions also corresponded to the questions on the previous two questionnaires. For Questionnaire 4, Survey of Education Advisors and Administrative Personnel (教 辅行政人员调查), the survey subjects included advisors, class managers, personnel for educational administration, personnel for dormitory administration, and so on. The questionnaire examined the experiences of the personnel described above in the process of contact with and management of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students as well as common problems in communication; certain questions also corresponded to the questions in Questionnaires 1 and 2.

2 Circumstances of language and dialect use Four of the questions we posed in the two questionnaires Survey of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese Students (港澳台学生调查) (N = 849) and Survey of Inland Students (内地学生调查) (N = 798) were related to the circumstances of language and dialect use among the Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students, and the survey obtained the following data: The number of people who used Putonghua (including Taiwan’s Guoyu) on a daily basis as percentages of the total number of students from each region were: 12.4% of Hong Kong students; 9.1% of Macanese students; and 76.4% of Taiwanese students. Circumstances of daily use of Cantonese: 81.6% of Hong Kong students; 87.2% of Macanese students; and 17.9% of Taiwanese students. Circumstances of daily use of other Chinese dialects or English: 6% of Hong Kong students; 3.7% of Macanese students; and 5.6% of Taiwanese students. As for the inland students, apart from occasional use of Cantonese in communication outside the classroom among students from Guangdong, Guangxi, and other minority regions, the language of communication for studies, activities and life inside and outside the classroom among students from other inland regions was essentially always Putonghua. These data accurately reflect the circumstances of day-to-day language use among Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students: Hong Kong and Macanese students frequently use Cantonese, while the majority of Taiwanese students use Putonghua or Guoyu, and a small number of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students use other Chinese dialects or English. For Hong Kong and Macanese students, this forms a contrast with the language they use in the classroom at inland institutions of higher education–regardless of the students’ place of origin, the language used in the classroom is generally always Putonghua. Only certain classrooms at international colleges, foreign studies

128

Fu Yonggang (付永钢)

colleges, and other such institutions or the classrooms of foreign teachers use English or other foreign languages for instruction and communication. This in fact creates an opportunity for Hong Kong and Macanese students to study and practice Putonghua, but at the same time, it also poses certain difficulties in their communication with inland teachers and students, which is one of the reasons why many Hong Kong and Macanese students are reluctant to speak up in the classroom. In addition, the use of Cantonese outside the classroom among Hong Kong and Macanese students is in fact limited to other classmates who can speak Cantonese, whereas only Putonghua can be used in communication with the vast majority of classmates from other inland provinces and cities. We observed a phenomenon that arose from time to time, as follows: Whenever Hong Kong and Macanese students were conversing in Cantonese, nearby classmates who did not understand Cantonese would tolerate it for a short while, but as time went on, they would begin to display begrudging or even agitated expressions, and would sometimes bluntly ask the classmates speaking Cantonese to switch to Putonghua. Many Hong Kong and Macanese students believed upon arriving at school that they were unable to use Putonghua to “freely communicate,” and “could only listen,” and even after being at school for one or two years, no few Hong Kong and Macanese students still believed that they faced the exact same difficulties with respect to communication in Putonghua. The results of Survey of Course Instructors (任课教师调查) (N = 227) and Survey of Education Advisors and Administrative Personnel (教辅行政人员调查) (271) were essentially consistent with this finding: Only 9.7% of course instructors and 8.2% of education advisors and administrative personnel believed that the Hong Kong and Macanese students were able to fluently speak Putonghua. This may also be the reason why 20.3% of course instructors and 14.8% of education advisors and administrative personnel felt that they experienced certain language difficulties during communication with the Hong Kong and Macanese students.

3 Characteristics and problems of language use 3.1 Survey content and methods In order to examine the characteristics and problems of the use of Putonghua among Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students, we presented 28 related questions in Section 4, “Language Problems in Communication” (语言沟通中的 问题), in the two questionnaires Survey of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese

11 Survey of language use among college students

129

Students (港澳台学生调查) and Survey of Inland Students (内地学生调查), divided into five categories: (1) Modes of speech; (2) Topics; (3) Topic transitions and interjections; (4) Forms of address and appellations; (5) Speech acts. For ease of comparison, we used the SPSS software to carry out the Pearson chi-square test (X2) with respect to the answers provided for each question by the two categories of students.

3.2 Survey results and analysis From the results of the chi-square test, apart from the answers for two questions in Category 1, “Modes of Speech,” for which the level of significance measured in the chi-square test exceeded the standard value of 0.05 (with significant difference of 0.160 and 0.485, respectively), the significant difference tabulated for the other 26 questions was uniformly below the standard value of 0.05, thus there was significant difference between the two categories of students in the answers to these 26 questions, with the rate of difference reaching 92.9%, demonstrating that, on the whole, there were many differences between the Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students and the inland students in terms of language use and expression in the process of communication in Putonghua. A total of 11 questions were designed for the section on nonverbal communication, and the chi-square test results for the answers to 9 of these questions showed significant difference (Sig. < 0.05) between the two groups of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students and inland students, with a rate of difference reaching 81.8%, demonstrating that the Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students and inland students generally also exhibited fairly significant differences with respect to nonverbal communication behavior. The questions with significant difference included greeting gestures, forms of physical contact with teachers and classmates, concepts of time and space, nonverbal behavior, et cetera. The test results for certain questions are provided below with analysis.

3.2.1 Different power distances reflected by different modes of speech / communication A “mode of speech” refers to the mode used to express a certain idea or preference, and it can also be understood as the specific strategy used to implement a speech act or communication behavior. The Table 2 shows that, among the 11 questions in this section, the Pearson chi-squared test did not show significance difference between the answers to Question 5 (When you need to ask the

130

Fu Yonggang (付永钢)

Table 2: Results of Pearson chi-square test for answers to certain questions by Hong Kong, Macanese, Taiwanese and inland students (Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students = 849; inland students = 798). Question category

Question

Pearson df Progressive chi-square significance value (two-sided)

Modes of speech

. How do you approach the questions posed by the teacher in the classroom?

.



.

. If you had a question in the classroom, what would you do?

.



.

. If the teacher made a mistake in the classroom, what would you do?

.



.

. If you needed to ask the teacher for leave, what would you do?

.



.

. When you need to ask the teacher for advice on a certain problem, what approach do you lean toward taking?

.



.

. If you thought a classmate’s behavior is inappropriate, what would you do?

.



.

. If you were being criticized by the teacher or a classmate, what would you do?

.



.

. If you thought a classmate or the teacher deserved praise or compliments, what would you do?

.



.

. If you really didn’t get along with a certain classmate, what would you do?

.



.

. If a certain classmate’s behavior made you very angry, how would you express your feelings?

.



.

. If something unfortunate (such as failing an important test) happened to a classmate you knew well, what would you do?

.



.

11 Survey of language use among college students

131

Table 2 (continued) Question category

Question

Forms of address and appellations

. How do you wish for classmates to address you?

.



.

. How do you wish for the teacher to address you?

.



.

. How do you address classmates you know well?

.



.

. How do you generally address the teacher in private?

.



.

. What kind of gesture do you habitually use to beckon someone over?

.



.

. Would you find it acceptable if the teacher occasionally used their hands to pat you on the shoulder, arm or other places during class?

.



.

. While conversing with friends, how much distance do you maintain?

.



.

Nonverbal behavior

Pearson df Progressive chi-square significance value (two-sided)

(Note: Because the test results for all entries in the original form are shown, the expected cell count is never below 5 [that is, 0%], and the minimum expected count is always greater than 1, therefore the Pearson chi-squared test results shall prevail with respect to the statistical results for each option in the form.)

teacher for advice on a certain problem, what approach do you lean toward taking?) and Question 6 (If you thought a classmate’s behavior is inappropriate, what would you do?) by the two categories of students, Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese, and inland; however, the answers to the remaining 9 questions all had significant difference. Questions 1–3 respectively inquired as to how the student would approach questions posed by the teacher in the classroom, asking questions of the teacher, and discovering that the teacher made a mistake. For these three questions, the options selected by the highest proportion of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students were, in order: “After careful consideration, I would raise my hand to answer” (37.5); “I would signal by raising my hand, and ask after the teacher gave permission” (43.4%); and “I would signal by raising my hand, and point out the teacher’s mistake after the teacher gave permission” (45.9%). The options selected by the highest proportion of

132

Fu Yonggang (付永钢)

inland students were somewhat different, and these were, in order: “Seeing that everyone was silent, even if I had an idea, I would also remain silent” (42.2%); “I would communicate with the teacher after class” (41.7%); “I would communicate with the teacher after class and point out the teacher’s mistake” (40.5%). The differences shown between the answers from the two categories of students are concrete embodiments of different (psychological) power distance value systems for approaching the teacher-student relationship: The power distance for the Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students was relatively low, so they were more daring in answering questions, posing questions, and pointing out the teacher’s mistakes face-to-face, while the power distance for the inland students was relatively high, so they tended to avoid “direct confrontation” when faced with questions or mistakes by the teacher or when they had their own questions, instead choosing to say nothing or speak up after class.

3.2.2 Different communicative arbitrariness reflected by forms of address and appellations There were 4 questions related to forms of address and appellations, and the chisquared test results for the answers by the two groups of subjects exhibited significance differences for all 4 questions. This was saliently displayed in the following few areas: The proportion of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students who wished for their classmates or teachers to only address them with a “nickname or pet name” was 39.9% and 18.7%, respectively, and the proportion for inland students was 28.9% and 9.8%, respectively; 49.6% of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students and 40.3% of inland students regularly addressed classmates with whom they were acquainted with a “nickname or pet name”; and 32.4% of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students and 30.8% of inland students addressed their teachers in private using a “nickname or pet name.” It can be seen that the number of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students who were accustomed to addressing others and being addressed by others using a nickname or pet name was uniformly higher compared to the number of inland students, showing that the former tend to use a warmer and more casual way of speaking with respect to forms of address and appellations.

11 Survey of language use among college students

133

3.2.3 Westernization among the Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students as reflected by differences in nonverbal communication behavior Question 16 was aimed at surveying the frequency with which the two categories of students used hand gestures and body language to call people over to them. 17% of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students and 8.8% of inland students used a Western gesture (palm upward, making a hooking movement with the index finger); the percentage of people in the former category was two times that of the latter category, demonstrating that Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students use this type of Western hand gesture more often, which is perhaps related to being influenced by Western culture. 54.2% of Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students and 61.3% of inland students found it “completely and basically acceptable” “if the teacher occasionally used their hands to pat you on the shoulder, arm or other places during class”; the number of people in the former category who selected this option was lower than in the latter category, perhaps due to stronger self-consciousness and a relatively high degree of care regarding physical contact with others under the influence of Western culture. In response to the question on the physical distance maintained while conversing with friends, 18.1% of the Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students selected the option, “I wish to be a little more distant,” but only 4.9% of inland students did so, with a difference of 13.2 percentage points between the two categories. This demonstrates that the Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students preferred to remain at a greater distance while conversing with others, again reflecting the influence of Western culture on Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese youth.

4 Recommendations This survey found certain general characteristics with respect to the use of Putonghua by Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students during conversation: (1) Their proficiency in Putonghua varied, and a significant proportion were unable to use Putonghua to fluently communicate; (2) In comparison with the inland students, they exhibited significant differences in all five areas of the survey, including modes of speech, topics, topic transitions and interjections, forms of address and appellations, and speech acts; (3) Their modes of nonverbal expression were also somewhat different from the inland students. These differences affect communication and interactions between Hong Kong,

134

Fu Yonggang (付永钢)

Macanese and Taiwanese students and inland students to varying degrees, resulting in communication barriers in the classroom and social misunderstandings outside the classroom. In this connection, we propose the following recommendations: 1. When Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students arrive at a school, the school should determine their proficiency in Putonghua by some means, and help students with relatively low proficiency improve by means of a training program or general education elective course. 2. Teachers, education advisors and administrative personnel should consider the actual proficiency of certain Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students in Putonghua, provide patient tutoring targeting this subset of students, and apply suitable communicative strategies to achieve the goal of communication. 3. Students of all origins should recognize language issues during interactions, treat one another with understanding and respect, and strive to overcome communication difficulties.

Liang Liwen (梁砾文), Shen Qi (沈骑), and Wang Haofeng (王浩锋)

12 Survey of foreign language ability in the field of civil aviation Foreign language ability in civil aviation involves aircraft manufacturing, air transport, aviation maintenance, aviation training, and other industries, as well as airports, airline companies, air traffic control, and other operational sectors, and it is an organic component of the security management system (SMS) in civil aviation. In order to examine the current state of application and practical needs of foreign language ability in civil aviation, personnel in corresponding lines of work were selected as subjects to carry out a survey and analysis, with reference to the corresponding regulatory systems.

1 Description of survey The subjects of this survey included personnel in several key lines of work, as described below: (1) Airport commanders and aircraft maintenance and other maintenance personnel, who chiefly direct their attention toward technical hazards; (2) Ground services personnel and flight attendants, who chiefly direct their attention toward public security hazards; and (3) Pilots and air traffic controllers, who simultaneously direct their attention toward both categories of hazards. A total of 233 individuals were sampled, with specific details as shown in Table 1. Centering on safety and security in civil aviation, this paper adopted the combined method of literature review, interviews, and questionnaires to conduct a survey.

Note: This paper was supported by the major project “Survey of National Foreign Language Ability and Study of Strategies for Improvement of Citizens’ Foreign Language Ability” (国家外 语能力调查及公民外语能力提升策略研究) (Task No.: ZDJ125-2) of the Scientific Research Base of the State Language Commission as well as the project “Technical Survey of Unsafe Incidents in Civil Aviation” (Task No.: 162146903025) of the Safety Competence Fund of the Civil Aviation Administration of China. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-012

136

Liang Liwen (梁砾文), Shen Qi (沈骑), and Wang Haofeng (王浩锋)

Table 1: Basic details of survey subjects. Name of position Machine maintenance Ground services Pilots and air traffic controllers Flight attendants Total

Airline Airport Cargo transport Air traffic control Total company company center     

 

 







    

2 Relevant foreign language policies Foreign language policies in the field of civil aviation can be divided on the basis of the planning level into policies at the international level, national level, industry level, and enterprise level; on the basis of policy enforcement efforts, they can be divided into mandatory policies and recommended policies.

2.1 Foreign language requirements for pilots and air traffic controllers The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) stipulates that English is the working language used by pilots and air traffic controllers on international air routes. Relevant policies include the two major categories of standards for use of English and criteria for English ability, and these are mandatory foreign language policies. The standards for use of English formulated by the International Civil Aviation Organization include: Annex 10, “Aeronautical Telecommunications II” (航空电信II) of the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation (国 际民航公约), and the documents Radiotelephony Communications Handbook (无 线电通话手册) and Air Regulations and Air Traffic Services (空中规则和空中交通 服务) of the International Civil Aviation Organization. The criteria for English ability include Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements (国际民航组织语言熟练程度要求执行手册), and Promotion of Unified Global Test Criteria (促进全球统一化的测试标准), et cetera. In 2003, the Civil Aviation Administration of China made reference to the relevant appendices to the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation (国际民航公约) as well as flight service procedures in Air Traffic Control (空中交通管理) and other technical documents in issuing the Languages for Use in Air Radio Communications (空 中无线电通话用语). In addition, in conformity with the requirements of the

12 Survey of foreign language ability in the field of civil aviation

137

International Civil Aviation Organization, the Civil Aviation Administration of China also correspondingly revised the Regulations for Qualification and Approval of Civil Aircraft Pilots, Flight Instructors and Ground Teaching and Research (民用 航空器驾驶员、 飞行教员和地面教研合格审定规则), which stipulate that those whose pilot licenses have not been endorsed by the International Civil Aviation Organization for Level 4 English ability cannot serve as pilots for flight assignments on international air routes.1

2.2 Foreign language policy environment for flight attendants The Civil Aviation Administration of China holds an English test for the specialization in civil aviation cabin services, which serves as a reference for each airline company’s requirements with respect to their employees’ English ability. This is characterized as a recommended foreign language policy. The results from interviews show that, because the foreign language requirements for the College English Test Levels 4 and 6 are higher than the English test for specialization in civil aviation cabin services, many airline companies accept the Level 4 or 6 English certificate, and do not institute strict rules as to whether flight attendants hold the English certificate for civil aviation cabin services. During the recruitment phase, the requirements presented by Hainan Airlines for applicants are: “Standard pronunciation in foreign language, must be fairly fluent in foreign language speaking, essentially no barriers in everyday exchanges, and achieving a qualifying standard in verbal assessment” (Dahe Network, 2011). Tianjin Airlines divides flight attendant recruitment into recruitment of flight attendants in the social category and the foreign language category, and both categories of recruitment proceed simultaneously. Among these, the foreign language category is divided into the English and minority language recruitment categories, and those who have passed the College English Test Level 4 (inclusive) or, in the minority language category, have qualified in the Japanese-Language Proficiency Test at Level N3 (inclusive) or higher, the Russian Language Specialization Level 3 (inclusive) or higher, the Korean Language Level 4 (inclusive) or higher, or the highest domestic specialization for other languages may apply as flight attendants in the foreign language category (Yingjiesheng Recruitment Network, 2015). In the employee training phase, the China Southern Airlines passenger cabin system strongly recommends

 Source: China Research Institute of Civil Aviation Safety (China Academy of Civil Aviation Science and Technology).

138

Liang Liwen (梁砾文), Shen Qi (沈骑), and Wang Haofeng (王浩锋)

the “English Project” (英语工程), which “practices the approach of holistic advancement and implementation divided by position and grade.” Through the form of monthly English Project leadership group meetings, semiannual English workbook inspections, universal achievement of the standard of one hundred English sentences each year, pre-test training for the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), and so on, improvement of English in the passenger cabin is holistically advanced, forming a pool of talented English speakers, as a reserve of trained English-speaking personnel (Civil Aviation Administration of China, 2009).

2.3 Foreign language policy environment for machine maintenance The standards for use of foreign languages in machine maintenance are chiefly embodied in service manuals, which are written in English by international aircraft manufacturers in accordance with certain rules of composition. Service manuals are foreign-language handbooks on the specifications of each aircraft type, and they play a role in language corpus planning. The English requirements presented by China Eastern Airlines for machine maintenance applicants are: “Graduates of the current undergraduate class must hold the College English Test Level 4 (CET-4) or higher certificate, and graduates of an associate program must hold the Preliminary English Test Level 3 (PET-A) or higher certificate” (China Eastern Airlines Recruitment Network, n.d.). China Postal Airlines specifies that machine maintenance personnel must participate in an annual English test, and out of a full score of 100 points, general machine maintenance personnel must achieve 60 points or above, engineers must achieve 75 points or above, route clearance personnel must achieve 80 points or above, and regular inspection clearance personal must achieve 85 points or above.2 Zhuhai Helicopter Branch Company of China Southern Airlines Co., Ltd., also requires that machine maintenance personnel obtain a TOEIC certificate, and commissions EF Training Co. to provide employees with English training (Civil Aviation Press Releases, n.d.).

 Source: Interview with machine maintenance personnel at China Postal Airlines.

12 Survey of foreign language ability in the field of civil aviation

139

2.4 Foreign language policy environment for ground services personnel The foreign language requirements for ground services personnel are reflected in Quality of Civil Airport Services (民用机场服务质量) (Official Website of the Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China, 2005) and other recommended standards, which require that ground services personnel “are able to use Putonghua or a foreign language to communicate with clients, or to select a language in which they can effectively communicate with clients.” The foreign language requirements of the Ground Services Division of Air China Limited for reserve recruitment of positions for general services personnel are: Having good English listening and speaking skills, with preference for those who have a good grasp of Japanese, Korean, and other minority languages (Zhilian Xiaoyuan Recruitment Network, n.d.). Guangxi Airport requires that ground services personnel attain the standard of College English, Level 4, while applicants for ground services involving international cargo services are required to attain the standard of English Level 6 (Guangxi Airport Management Group, n.d.). Generally speaking, the field of civil aviation places emphasis on establishing foreign language standards for various key lines of work, and the assessment and training mechanisms for foreign language ability among employees exhibit the characteristics of being multi-tiered, specialized, flexible and diverse, combining mandatory and recommended elements. However, due to the lack of mechanisms for sharing of foreign language resources, foreign language talent pools, public opinion monitoring on foreign languages in civil aviation, and so on, the state does not have a clear grasp of potential foreign language resources in the field of civil aviation, there is no effective communication between civil aviation enterprises and different lines of work on the foreign language resources that are currently available, surveys and projections on foreign language needs across the board are lacking, foreign language policies within the field of civil aviation are in a decentralized state in which each goes their own way, and an organic system for intercommunication has not yet developed.

3 Applied foreign language ability 3.1 Foreign language categories All survey respondents indicated Chinese as their native language and English as a second language. 24 individuals had experience learning two or more foreign

140

Liang Liwen (梁砾文), Shen Qi (沈骑), and Wang Haofeng (王浩锋)

languages, representing only 10.3% of the valid survey subjects. Of these, the highest percentage was found among the ground services personnel (15.8%), followed in order by machine maintenance personnel (13.5%) and flight attendants (12.7%), while pilots and air traffic controllers had the lowest percentage, at only 5.2%. Only 2 machine maintenance personnel and 2 flight attendants had experience learning three languages, with a total of four individuals, representing 1.7% of the survey sample. No individuals had studied more than three foreign languages.

3.2 Foreign language proficiency The assessment of English proficiency was jointly determined by foreign language certificates held by the survey subjects and self-evaluations. The English language certificates held by the survey respondents included three categories: (1) Certificates in the category of general proficiency examinations, including College English Test (CET) Levels 4 and 6 certificates, Preliminary English Test (PETS) certificates, Test for English Majors (TEM) certificates, and so on; (2) English professional certificates in the commercial category, including Business English (BEC) certificates, Test of English for International Communication certificates, and BULATS Business English certificates; and (3) English proficiency certificates in the category of civil aviation specializations, including the language proficiency certificate of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for pilots and air traffic controllers, and the Intermediate Cabin Services certificate. For the specific details, see Table 2. The results of this survey show that the ICAO language requirements are mandatory foreign language policies: of the 96 pilots and air traffic controllers, 95 individuals held an ICAO Level 4 certificate, and 1 individual held an ICAO Level 5 certificate. Although the Intermediate Cabin Services English certificate is a recommended foreign language policy in civil aviation, all 55 of the surveyed flight attendants held this certificate, demonstrating that specialized foreign language certificates specific to the industry have relatively high public credibility and recognition. It is difficult for the general English proficiency certificates in other categories to provide an effective assessment of the survey subjects’ English proficiency. This also demonstrates the necessity of China’s initiation of the construction of the National Assessment System for Foreign Language Proficiency and formulation the China Standards of English (中国英语能力等级量表), replacing decentralized, fragmented English proficiency examinations for various stages with testing with unified standards.

12 Survey of foreign language ability in the field of civil aviation

Table 2: English proficiency certificates. Name of position

Certificate

Ground services

CET

 / 

.

CET

 / 

.

BEC Elementary

 / 

.

PETS

 / 

.

PETS

 / 

.

CET

 / 

.

CET

 / 

.

TEM

 / 

.

BEC Elementary

 / 

.

PETS

 / 

.

PETS

 / 

.

ICAO Level 

 / 

.

CET

 / 

.

CET

 / 

.

PETS

 / 

.

PETS

 / 

.

Machine maintenance

Pilots and air traffic controllers

Cabin services

Number of individuals / Percentage (%) total number of individuals

ICAO Level 

 / 



ICAO Level 

 / 



CET

 / 



CET

 / 



MET

 / 

.

BEC Elementary

 / 

.

PETS

 / 

.

Intermediate Cabin Services English certificate

 / 



141

142

Liang Liwen (梁砾文), Shen Qi (沈骑), and Wang Haofeng (王浩锋)

The results of self-evaluations on English language proficiency (Table 3) indicate that more than half of individuals in all four lines of work believed their own proficiency in the use of English was average, and apart from the ground services personnel (11.1%) and pilots and air traffic controllers (12.5%), less than 10% of individuals in the other two lines of work rated themselves as proficient, demonstrating that workers in the field of civil aviation general lack confidence in their own English proficiency. Table 3: Self-evaluations on English proficiency. Name of position

Ground services

Number of individuals / total number of individuals

Percentage

Cumulative percentage

Average

 / 

.

.

Good

 / 

.

.

 / 

.

.

Average

 / 

.

.

Good

 / 

.



 / 



.

Average

 / 

.

.

Good

 / 

.

.

Proficient

 / 

.

.

Average

 / 

.

.

Good

 / 



.

Proficient Machine maintenance

Proficient Pilots, air traffic controllers

Flight attendants

 / 

.

.

 / 

.

.

Good

 / 

.

.

Proficient

 / 

.

.

Proficient Total

Average

Only 24 of the survey respondents had language ability in a second and third language. Due to the lack of comparability between foreign language proficiency certificates for different languages, this was based on the respondents’ self-evaluations. The results of the self-evaluations were generally relatively low. Apart from 1 respondent who had studied French and 1 respondent who had studied Japanese who evaluated themselves as good, the remaining selfevaluations were all average.

12 Survey of foreign language ability in the field of civil aviation

143

The survey indicates that: Foreign language categories are undiversified; machine maintenance personnel and ground services personnel lack an industry-specific English certificate; comparability between general English certificates is lacking; self-evaluations of English proficiency among civil aviation personnel are universally low; and for foreign languages other than English, resources are sparse, and self-evaluations are universally low.

4 Practical demand for foreign languages The survey on demand for foreign languages in the field of civil aviation included surveys on demand for different languages and demand for foreign language skills.

4.1 Languages As shown in Table 4, all personnel in civil aviation have strong demand for continuing education in English, with an average score of 3.6 or higher, while the scores for pilots and air traffic controllers, machine maintenance personnel, and flight attendants all reached 4 or above. Table 4: Demand for learning English. Line of work Ground services Machine maintenance Pilots, air traffic controllers Flight attendants

Number of individuals

Average score

Standard deviation

   

. . . .

. . . .

Demand for languages other than English was as shown in Table 5. Workers in the services category had relatively high demand for learning foreign languages other than English, and among both ground services personnel and flight attendants, more than half of individuals expressed demand for learning multiple foreign languages. The results of targeted interviews indicate that the specific foreign languages are related to the air routes serviced by the personnel, including French, Japanese, Italian, German, Arabic, et cetera.

144

Liang Liwen (梁砾文), Shen Qi (沈骑), and Wang Haofeng (王浩锋)

Table 5: Demand for learning other foreign languages. Name of position

Demand

Number of individuals / total number of individuals

Percentage (%)

Ground services

Yes

 / 

.

No

 / 

.

 / 

.

Yes

 / 

.

No

 / 

.

Unknown Machine maintenance

Unknown Pilots and air traffic controllers

Flight attendants

 / 



Yes

 / 

.

No

 / 

.

Unknown

 / 

.

Yes

 / 

.

No

 / 

.

 / 

.

Unknown

4.2 Foreign language skills The survey results on demand for foreign language skills (Table 6) indicate that requirements for foreign language skills vary in the four lines of work. The demand for foreign language listening, speaking and reading skills is uniformly higher among pilots and air traffic controllers as compared to the other lines of work; the demand for listening and speaking skills in services work (ground services and cabin services) was higher than for reading and writing skills; among machine maintenance personnel, the demand for reading skills was the highest, followed by demand for listening skills. The results of targeted interviews show that personnel in civil aviation had relatively high demand for accurate standards on the use of language as well as the rapid and highly efficient extraction of information; they also had relatively high demand for skills in complex communicative environments, such as multi-tasking conditions, noisy environments, and dealing with accents.

12 Survey of foreign language ability in the field of civil aviation

145

Table 6: Demand for foreign language skills. Name of position Pilots and air traffic controllers Machine maintenance Flight attendants Ground Services

Listening

Speaking

Reading

Writing

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

4.3 Planning In the wake of the development of China’s civil aviation routes, the number of routes and flights has continually increased, and the functional demand for foreign languages which our country’s civil aviation and transport must face has grown increasingly complex. The bases for language planning for pilots and air traffic controllers are the China Radiotelephony Communications Handbook for Civil Aviation (中国民用航空无线电通话手册), Terminology for Air Traffic Radiotelephony Communications (空中交通无线电通话用语), as well as ICAO’s Radiotelephony Communications Handbook (无线电通话手册). These documents stipulate the standards for foreign language communications under general circumstances. Emergency response plans have also been formulated for each zone of controlled airspace on the basis of practical circumstances, focusing on extreme situations such as engine failure, failure of radiotelephony communications, hijacking of an aircraft, and so on (Tao & Zhang, 2009). However, refined, effective language communication resources, legally effective emergency response procedures, and related training on unexpected conflicts in the air, adverse weather events, cross-cultural communication in flight crews including pilots of foreign nationality, and other special circumstances frequently encountered in day-to-day work are lacking. In addition, as the strategy for popularization of civil aviation and transport has advanced, language communication problems faced in other lines of work have become more prominent. For instance, flight attendants and ground services personnel frequently face situations such as flight delays, defense of passengers’ rights, illegal interference in the operation of flights by travelers, damage to the aircraft, and so on, and the lack of robust language planning makes it difficult to effectively and quickly deal with such circumstances.3 To summarize the results of the survey on foreign language ability in civil aviation: The field of civil aviation places emphasis on the establishment of

 Source: China Research Institute of Civil Aviation Safety (China Academy of Civil Aviation Science and Technology).

146

Liang Liwen (梁砾文), Shen Qi (沈骑), and Wang Haofeng (王浩锋)

foreign language standards for key lines of work, and the mechanisms for assessment and training for foreign language ability among workers are fairly comprehensive; different sectors have placed emphasis on training in foreign language ability, and workers wish to continue studying foreign languages. However, due to the long-standing lack of dynamic surveying and evaluation of the practical demand for foreign languages and potential foreign language ability, foreign language planning at all levels is inevitably disconnected from reality, foreign language resources are undiversified, and workers lack confidence in their own foreign language proficiency; due to the lack of mechanisms for communication, coordination and sharing, an organic system for foreign language ability has not taken shape among different enterprises and sectors in the field of civil aviation, and in the face of increasingly complex safety and security threats in civil aviation, in ever-evolving forms, it is difficult to leverage systemic advantages to quickly and efficiently play their rightful role.

5 Recommendations The survey indicates that current problems include: Lack of diversity in foreign languages; an unrefined basis for standards for the evaluation of language ability; and the inability of the current regulatory system to meet growing demands. It is therefore necessary to complete a top-down design for foreign language ability in the field of civil aviation, and establish a coordinated system for foreign language planning in civil aviation based on China’s circumstances. This effort can set out from the following three areas: First, establish foreign language policies and mechanisms for precautionary purposes and, focusing on foreign language standards and rules of operation for special incidents in civil aviation, carry out foreign language planning conforming to the needs of air routes. Second, built a foreign language resource sharing platform for the purpose of communication, establish corpora for accidents and unsafe incidents in civil aviation, and carry out the construction of multilingual talent pools for foreign language resources in civil aviation. Third, implement mechanisms for training in foreign language services in civil aviation, and provide various categories of personnel with the conditions and opportunities for necessary training in foreign language services based on the needs of different lines of work and air routes.

12 Survey of foreign language ability in the field of civil aviation

147

References Civil Aviation Administration of China (中国民用航空局). 2009. http://www.caac.gov.cn/A3/ 200902/t20090209_22306.html. Civil Aviation Press Releases (民航新闻稿). n.d. http://www.cana.org.cn/news_viewj.sp?id= 54612. China Eastern Airlines Recruitment Network (东航招聘网). n.d. http://zhaopin.ceair.com/ ground/ground_posdetail.aspx? pid=Egb/G/PqC3g=. Dahe Network (大河网). 2011. http://www.dahe.cn/2011/08-04/100797216.html. Guangxi Airport Management Group (广西机场管理集团). n.d. http://www.airport.gx.cn/ news_web/renlzhyuan/zhaopinxinxview.aspx?ID=18&hit=60. Official Website of the Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China (中华人 民共和国中央人民政府官网). 2005. http://www.gov.cn/fwxx/sh/2005-12/27/content_ 138069.html. Tao, Wen (陶文) and Zhang, Haitian (张海天). 2009. Conflict resolution in communications in English on land and in the air (英语陆空通话下的冲突解脱). Air Traffic Management (空中 交通管理), no. 12, pp. 22–24. Yingjiesheng Recruitment Network (应届生招聘网). 2015. http://www.yingjiesheng.com/job002-139-713.html. Zhilian Xiaoyuan Recruitment Network (智联校园招聘网). n.d. http://xiaoyuan.zhaopin.com/ job/CC000128686J90000104000.

Li Zongjiang (李宗江) and Yu Yongbo (于泳波)

13 Issues with standards for language use in military documents “Military documents” is the generic term for papers and books with content on military affairs, chiefly including the following four categories: Military regulations, official military documents, speeches by military leadership, and military news; below, these are respectively abbreviated as “regulations,” “official documents,” “speeches,” and “news.” Through a survey of the state of language use in these four categories of military documents, we found that language use in military documents is essentially standardized, and this is chiefly reflected in the following few areas: First, issues with the general application of spoken and written language are fairly rare; second, there are mechanisms for error correction in the production of certain military documents; third, military news publishing units have been resolute in their attitudes toward the implementation of national laws and regulations on spoken and written language and news publishing, and have instituted fairly strict quality control for publications; fourth, the armed forces have a rather strong cultural atmosphere, which has placed emphasis on the work of promoting Putonghua, with striking results; fifth, military schools place emphasis on language arts education while at university and in on-the-job training, and frequently provide targeted training to young office cadres and secretarial personnel. In the survey, we also found certain issues that cannot be ignored. Below, we will provide a summary focusing on issues found in regulations and official documents, and, with reference to examples of errors found in speeches and news, we will analyze the reasons why issues arise, and note the negative impact that such issues have on building up the armed forces. For the sake of maintaining confidentiality and saving space, the sources for the sample sentences provided below will be omitted, and only the document category will be indicated. Apart from preserving the errors, necessary adjustments or deletions will also be made to the relevant content.

1 Military regulations We selected Interior Service Regulations (内务条令), Disciplinary Regulations (纪律条令) and Formation Regulations (队列条令) as the subjects of investigation. These three regulatory documents are also referred to as the “Common https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-013

150

Li Zongjiang (李宗江) and Yu Yongbo (于泳波)

Regulations” (共同条令), and their position among military regulations is equivalent to the position of the Constitution as the seminal law for our country’s legal system: they represent the criteria for all actions by our armed forces, and all other military regulations must refer to them, thus their language use is highly influential. The latest version was formally issued in June 2010. The principal issues with language use exhibited by this version of the three regulatory documents are illustrated by the following few points.

1.1 Unclear word referents For instance, Interior Service Regulations (内务条令) states: Junren xuanshi dahui de chengxu tongcheng shi (军人宣誓大会的程序通常是, ‘The procedure for the oath ceremony for military personnel generally consists of’): Xuanshi dahui kaishi (宣誓大会开始, ‘The oath ceremony begins’); Zouchang junge (奏唱军歌, ‘Performance and singing of the military anthem’).

Junge (军歌, ‘military anthem’) has both specific and general referents: here, it likely refers specifically to the March of the People’s Liberation Army (中国人民 解放军进行曲), but the general use of the term junge (军歌, ‘military anthem’) in relation to new soldiers could be understood as a military song.

1.2 Errors in the interpretation of lexical meaning For instance, Disciplinary Regulations (纪律条令) states: Zai bianfang, haidao huozhe gaoyuan deng jianku diqu, buwei kunnan, anxin gongzuo, chengji tuchu de, keyi ji sandeng gong. (在边防、 海岛或者高原等艰苦地区, 不畏困难, 安 心工作, 成绩突出的, 可以记三等功, ‘In hardship regions such as border defense, sea islands, and highland plateaus, those who concentrate on their work despite the difficulties, with outstanding performance, may be awarded Merit, Third Class’)

Bianfang signifies ‘border defense,’ and does not refer to a concept of place. Its juxtaposition with haidao huozhe gaoyuan (海岛或者高原, ‘sea islands or highland plateaus’) demonstrates that the author misunderstood the lexical meaning of bianfang (边防, ‘border defense’), and used the word improperly.

13 Issues with standards for language use in military documents

151

1.3 Improper word pairing For instance, Interior Service Regulations (内务条令) states: Zuzhi quan lü (tuan) yaopin, qixie de qingling, chubei, baoguan, genghuan he weihu baoyang. . . (组织全旅[团] 药品、 器械的请领、 储备、 保管、 更换和维护保养. . . . . . , ‘Organize the requisition, storage, safekeeping, replacement, maintenance and upkeep of medicines and equipment for the entire brigade [regiment]. . .’)

In this sentence, the grammatical modifiers and the heads are in a parallel construction, but this construction was not fully considered from beginning to end, resulting in an improper pairing between yaopin (药品, ‘medicines’) and weihu baoyang (维护保养, ‘maintenance and upkeep’).

1.4 Improper use of modal verbs Bixu (必须, ‘must’), yingdang (应当, ‘should’), and keyi (可以, ‘can’) are all modal verbs, but they differ in degree and magnitude. If placed a continuous scale ranging from the mandatory enforcement of a certain provision to nonenforcement, then the degree and magnitude of these three modal verbs would be as shown in the following diagram: Must

Enforced

Should

Can

Both Acceptable

Not Enforced

Bixu (必须, ‘must’) expresses that a provision has to be enforced, under any circumstances; yingdang (应当, ‘should’) leans toward the side of enforcement, expressing that a provision has to be enforced under general circumstances, but non-enforcement is permitted under special circumstances; keyi (可以, ‘can’) leans toward the side of non-enforcement, wherein enforcement is only permitted under special circumstances. For instance, the modal verbs in the following three sentences are not interchangeable: Junren bixu zhengzhi hege (军人必须政治合格, ‘Members of the military must be politically eligible) (under any circumstances) Junren yingdang junrong yanzheng (军人应当军容严整, ‘Members of the military should have a neat military bearing’) (Except under special circumstances, such as falling ill, being injured, or performing) Daxuesheng keyi canjun (大学生可以参军, ‘College students can enlist in the military’) (Under special circumstances)

152

Li Zongjiang (李宗江) and Yu Yongbo (于泳波)

However, improper usage can be seen in the regulations. For instance, Interior Service Regulations (内务条令) states: Cunfang zai cangku baoguan de zhuangbei, anzhou youguan guiding fenlei fangzhi, suan, jian, youdu, yiran, yibao pin bixu dandu cunfang, yange guanli zhidu he guiding, renzhen luoshi Anquan cuoshi. (存放在仓库保管的装备, 按照有关规定分类放置, 酸、 碱、 有毒、 易燃、 易爆品必须单独存放, 严格管理制度和规定, 认真落实安全措施, ‘Equipment placed in a warehouse for safekeeping is placed by category in accordance with the relevant regulations; acids, bases, and toxic, flammable, and explosive products must be stored separately, with strict management of systems and regulations, and careful implementation of safety measures’) Di sanbai yi shi tiao: Yeying guanli, yuanze shang zhixing ben tiaoling ge zhang de youguan guiding, tebie zhuyi xialie shixiang (第三百一十条 野营管理, 原则上执行本条令各章 的有关规定, 特别注意下列事项, ‘Article 310: In camp management, in principle, all relevant provisions of these Regulations shall be enforced, with particular attention to the following maters’): ... Zhayao, danyao, youliao, deng yiran, yibao wupin, yingdang fenbie cunzhi zai anquan difang. . . (炸药、 弹药、 油料等易燃、 易爆物品, 应当分别放置在安全地方. . . . . . , ‘Explosives, ammunition, oil, and other flammable, explosive substances should be separately placed in safe locations. . .’)

Both of the above provisions concern regulations for the safe storage of flammable, explosive and hazardous goods, but they use different modal verbs: The first passage uses bixu (必须, ‘must’), while the second uses yingdang (应当, ‘should’). Given the hazardous nature of these substances and the severe consequences that may arise from their improper storage, bixu (必须, ‘must’) should uniformly be used.

1.5 Nonstandard merging of juxtaposed elements Suan, jian, youdu, yiran, yibao pin bixu dandu cunfang. (酸、 碱、 有毒、 易燃、 易爆品 必须单独存放, ‘Acids, bases, and toxic, flammable and explosive products must be stored separately’) (Jinji jihe fang’an baokuo) Fang he, fang huaxue, fang shengwu yiji fang ranshao wuqi xiji de cuoshi. ([紧急集合方案包括] 防核、 防化学、 防生物以及防燃烧武器袭击的措施, ‘[Emergency muster plan includes] Measures for defense against nuclear, defense against chemical, defense against biological, and defense against incendiary weapon attacks’)

The underlined portion of the first passage is the result of merging the terms youdu pin (有毒品, ‘toxic products’), yiran pin (易燃品, ‘flammable products’) and yibao pin (易爆品, ‘explosive products’) However, this form of merging is unsuitable because pin (品, ‘product’) is a suffix which can only be used as part of a word. After the merging, this pin (品, ‘product’) word is overly long, and

13 Issues with standards for language use in military documents

153

furthermore, punctuation was also added within the word, in contravention of language norms. The second passage has the meaning of fang | . . . | wuqi xiji (防 | . . . | 武器袭击, ‘defense against attacks with | . . . | weapons’) but the identical term fang (防, ‘defense’) is not merged, with the result that fang [X] (防 [X], ‘defense against [X]’) becomes an adjectival modifier for each type of weapon, transforming the sentence’s meaning into fang | . . . wuqi | xiji (防 | . . . 武器 | 袭击, ‘defense against | . . . weapon | attacks), which is quite far from the meaning it was intended to express.

2 Official military documents In accordance with the Regulations on Official Document Processing for Organizations of the People’s Liberation Army (中国人民解放军机关公文处理条例), the official documents of military organizations are divided into three categories and twelve subcategories. The three categories include shangxingwen (上行文, ‘documents for submission to higher ranks’), xiaxingwen (下行文, ‘documents for issuance to lower ranks’), and pingxingwen (平行文, ‘documents for issuance to equal rank’), and the twelve subcategories include orders, general orders, decisions, directives, notices, briefs, reports, requests for instructions, official responses, letters, circulars, and meeting minutes. Although the category of official documents differs, in terms of their textual composition, they are chiefly composed of five major elements: Heading language, addressing language, auxiliary language (used to introduce the topic-comment language, and explain the reason, purpose, conditions, and so on for the topic-comment language), topic-comment language (used to state the items of the official document), and the closing language. The chief problems present in the first four elements are listed below.

2.1 Heading language A complete heading is generally composed of three elements, including the name of the issuing organization, the theme (subject) of the official document, and the name of the type of document. Headings in official military documents exhibit problems such as the heading being overly long or overly simplified, omission of the subject marker guanyu (关于, ‘regarding’), and so on. Three headings are shown below.

154

Li Zongjiang (李宗江) and Yu Yongbo (于泳波)

Guanyu zuohao di er pi jiaoyu shijian huodong jiceng dang zuzhi zhaokai zhuanti zuzhi shenghuo hui bing kaizhan minzhu pingyi dangyuan gongzuo de tongzhi (关于做好第二批 教育实践活动基层党组织召开专题组织生活会并开展民主评议党员工作的通知, ‘Notice regarding the proper completion of the second round of education and practice activities for grassroots-level Party organizations to convene organizational life meetings on special topics and carry out the work of democratic appraisal of Party members’) Kaizhan shouji shiyong baomi guanli zhuanxiang zhengzhi huodong dongyuan (开展手 机使用保密管理专项整治活动动员, ‘Carrying out special remediating activities and mobilization on the secure management of mobile phone use’) Yiqi zhineng shouji Weixin xiemi de qingkuang tongbao (一起智能手机微信泄密的情 况通报, ‘Brief on a scenario in which a smart phone WeChat leak arises’)

The first heading is 41 characters long, and seems verbose; the second heading has too few elements, and the type of document is unclear; and the third heading lacks the subject marker guanyu (关于, ‘regarding’).

2.2 Addressing language Addressing language refer to expressions used by the issuer of the document to self-address or to address the recipient of the document. Improper use of addressing language chiefly presents as a mismatch in power relations. For instance: Jutuantun zhengzhi bu (集团军政治部, ‘Political Department of the Field Army’) Jituanjun dangwei X jie X ci quanti (kuoda) huiyi jieshu yihou, shi dangwei renzhen zhua le huiyi jingshen de chuande xuexi, bing yi huiyi jingshen wei zhidao, henzhua ge xiang gongzuo luoshi, youli de cujin le budui de wending he quanmian jianshe. Xian jiang xuexi Guanche qingkuang baogao ruxia. . . . (集团军党委× 届× 次全体[扩大]会议结束以后, 师党 委认真抓了会议精神的传达学习, 并以会议精神为指导, 狠抓各项工作落实, 有力地促进了 部队的稳定和全面建设。 现将学习贯彻情况报告如下. . . . . . , ‘Upon the conclusion of the Xth plenary [expanded] meeting of the Xth session of the Field Army Party Committee, the Division Party Committee conscientiously took charge of communicating and studying the spirit of the meeting, and took the spirit of the meeting as its guide in the careful implementation of all items of work, powerfully promoting the stability and comprehensive construction of the armed forces. The state of studies and implementation is hereby reported as follows. . .’) Zhonggong X X xian wei zuzhi bu (中共× × 县委组织部, ‘Organization Department of the X X County Committee of the CCP’): Nibu 9 yue 18 ri laihan, women yu 9 yue 24 ri shouyue. . . (你部9 月18 日来函, 我们于 9 月24 日收阅. . . . . . , ‘The letter sent by your department on September 18 was received and read by us on September 24. . .’)

The first passage is an excerpt from a report, categorized as shangxingwen (上行 文, ‘documents for submission to higher ranks’) issued to a superior organization, however, the form of self-address in the text uses the addressing language

13 Issues with standards for language use in military documents

155

shi dangwei (师党委, ‘Division Party Committee’), representing greater power, where it should have used wo shi dangwei (我师党委, ‘our Division Party Committee’). The second passage is a response letter. Official letters are generally used between organizations that have no subordinate relationship, and which have no power relations. However, nibu (你部, ‘your department’) is a form of address used by a superior to an inferior, and the courteous address guibu (贵 部, ‘your esteemed department’) should be used here.

2.3 Auxiliary language Official military documents exhibit the problem of overly lengthy auxiliary language. For instance: Yi Xi zhuxi xilie zhongyao jianghua jingshen wei zhidao, yi dang zai xin xingshi xia de qiangjun mubiao we tongling, anzhao “jiaoyu shijian huodong” zongti bushu, benzhe “biaozhun genggao, zouzai qianlie,” “sange guanchuan shizhong, yige quebao,” “jujiao jiuzhi ‘sifeng’” deng yaoqiu. . .benzhe keguan gongzheng, zhuzhong shiji, qunzhong gongren, jiangqiu shixiao de yuanze, qieshi ba guagnda ganbu zai “jiaoyu shijian huodong” zhong de xianshi biaoxian zuowei hengliang ganbu zhengzhi pinzhi, decai sushi de zhongyao neirong, dui ganbu de, neng, qin, ji, ti jinxing quanmian kaohe, zhangwo dangqian ganbu duiwu jianshe xianzhuang, wei xuanren yongren ji houxu peiyang tigong yishou ziliao (以习主席系列重要讲话精神为指导, 以党在新形势下的强军目标为统领, 按照“教育 实践活动”总体部署, 本着“标准更高、 走在前列”“三个贯穿始终、 一个确保”“聚焦纠治‘ 四风’ ”等要求, . . . . . . 本着客观公正、 注重实绩、 群众公认、 讲求实效的原则, 切实把 广大干部在“教育实践活动”中的现实表现作为衡量干部政治品质、 德才素质的重要内容, 对干部德、 能、 勤、 绩、 体进行全面考核, 掌握当前干部队伍建设现状, 为选人用人及 后续培养提供一手资料, ‘Guided by the spirit of the series of important speeches by Chairman Xi, commanded by the Party’s objectives for a strong military under the new circumstances, in accordance with the general arrangements of the “education and practice activities,” on the basis of the requirements for “higher standards, striding at the forefront,” “three pervading all, and one guarantee,” “focusing on rectification of the ‘four styles,’” and other requirements. . .and on the basis of the principles of objective impartiality, an emphasis on tangible achievements, general recognition by the masses, and attention to actual results, effectively treat the actual performance of the cadres at large in “education and practice activities” as important content in the evaluation of cadres’ political character and moral qualities, carrying out comprehensive evaluation of cadres’ morality, ability, diligence, achievements, and physical fitness, grasping the current state of construction of the cadre ranks, and providing firsthand materials for selection of personnel, employment of personnel, and follow-up training’).

The bold text in this passage is the auxiliary language, composed of five auxiliary clauses totaling 110 characters, resulting a dilatory style of writing that drowns out the topic-comment language.

156

Li Zongjiang (李宗江) and Yu Yongbo (于泳波)

2.4 Topic-comment language The main problem with respect to topic-comment language is improper use of modal verbs. When a superior issues a document to a subordinate, modal verbs are often used, such as mingling (命令, ‘command’), zeling (责令, ‘order’), yaoqiu (要求, ‘require’), xiwang (希望, ‘wish’), wang (望, ‘hope’), and so on. These modal verbs differ by causative strength: those listed first represent high causative strength, while those listed toward the end are the opposite. If used incorrectly, they will affect execution by subordinates. For example: Xunlian zhong, xu you yi ming tuan zhuguan fuze dailing. Wang nibu kexue jihua, yanmi zuzhi, chuli hao junzheng junmin guanxi, fangzhi fasheng gelei shigu (训练中, 须由一名团 主官负责带队。 望你部科学计划, 严密组织, 处理好军政军民关系, 防止发生各类事故, ‘A regiment supervisor must be responsible for leading drills. It is hoped that your department will scientifically plan, strictly organize, and properly handle the relationships between the military and the government and between the military and civilians, to prevent the occurrence of accidents of every kind’).

In this passage, chuli hao junzheng junmin guanxi, fangzhi fasheng gelei shigu (处理好军政军民关系, 防止发生各类事故, ‘properly handle the relationships between the military and the government and between the military and civilians, to prevent the occurrence of accidents of every kind’) represents a serious matter. The use of wang (望, ‘hope’) here makes the causative strength too low, and the behavioral language yaoqiu (要求, ‘require’) with higher causative strength should be used to strengthen execution.

2.5 Other issues Official documents, including speeches and news, also present other examples of the lack of standardization in language use.

2.5.1 Bureaucratic jargon Guanhua (官话, ‘bureaucratic jargon’) is a type of functional language, referring to the kind of formal yet dissimulating language present in official circles. Bureaucratic jargon has many forms of expression, and one salient form is bureaucratic boasting. For instance: Qianduan dun lian zhu ban shi, dajia yizhi fanying, zhexie fangmian gaijin hen da, bianhua hen da, guanbing bijiao manyi (前段蹲连住班时, 大家一致反映, 这些方面改进很大,

13 Issues with standards for language use in military documents

157

变化很大, 官兵比较满意, ‘Previously while stationed with a company and assigned to a squad, everyone unanimously reported that there had been great improvements and great changes in these areas, and the officers and soldiers were fairly satisfied’) (Speech) Ruhe ba jinnia de zhuti jiaoyu gaohao gaoshi, wo zhongdian qiangdiao san dian: . . . luoshi de zeren zhong, jinnian shi guojia he jundui “shi’er wu” guihua de kaiju zhi nian, you shi Zhongguo gongchandang jiandang 90 zhounian, jiaoyu huodong nengfou luoshi, shiguan dang zhongyang, zhongyang junwei he Hu zhuxi zhongda juece bushu zai budui de guanche luoshi,, shiguan fenqu jianshe de kexue fazhan (如何把今年的主题教育搞好搞实, 我重点强 调三点: . . . . . . 落实的责任重, 今年是国家和军队“十二五”规划的开局之年, 又是中国共 产党建党90 周年, 教育活动能否落实, 事关党中央、 中央军委和胡主席重大决策部署在部 队的贯彻落实, 事关分区建设的科学发展, ‘As for how to handle education on this year’s theme well and genuinely, I will place key emphasis on three points: . . . . There is a heavy responsibility for implementation, as this year is the starting year for the “Twelfth Five-Year” plan of the state and the armed forces, and it is also the 90th anniversary of the founding of the Chinese Communist Party; whether educational activities can be implemented concerns the implementation of the major decisions and arrangements of the Party Central Committee, the Central Military Commission and Chairman Hu with respect to the troops, and also concerns the scientific development of the district’s construction’). (Speech)

The first passage includes the phrase yizhi fanying (一致反映, ‘unanimously reported’). This is an all-inclusive classifier, expressing that there were no exceptions, but in fact there is no real data to support it, and this is merely a bureaucratic formulation while offering remarks in praise of a group of people. The second passage is a speech by the leader of a military district, which links the unit’s themed educational activities to the “Twelfth Five-Year” plan of the state and the armed forces, as well as the ninetieth anniversary of the founding of the Party, stretching all the way up to the implementation of major decisions and arrangements by the Party Central Committee, the Central Military Commission and Chairman Hu with respect to the troops, in a typical example of xiaoguan jiang dahua (小官讲大话, ‘big talk by a low-ranking official’).

2.5.2 Stock phrases Stock phrases refer to popular, formulaic language, including courteous stock phrases, proceduralized stock phrases, and rigid stock phrases. The first two categories are reasonable in nature. Generally speaking, it is rigid stock phrases that have a negative effect, that is, the widely favored phrases that are endlessly replicated in speeches by different leaders or in speeches by a given individual on different occasions. For instance: When speaking about political work, a phrase that often appears is:

158

Li Zongjiang (李宗江) and Yu Yongbo (于泳波)

Xin xingshi xia sixiang zhengzhi gongzuo de zhenduixing he shixiaoxing youdai zengqiang, xingshi bugou linghuo duoyang. . . (新形势下思想政治工作的针对性和实效性有待增强, 形 式不够灵活多样. . . . . . , ‘Under the new circumstances, the targeted nature and efficacy of ideological and political work need to be strengthened, and its forms are not sufficiently flexible and diverse. . .’) When speaking about tasks at a meeting, a phrase that often appears is: Fenxi xingshi, zongjie gongzuo, jiaoliu jingyan, bushu renwu. . . (分析形势、 总结工 作、 交流经验、 部署任务. . . . . . , ‘Analyze the situation, summarize the work, exchange experiences, make arrangements for tasks. . .’) When criticizing a subordinate’s performance in a certain task, a phrase that often appears is: Renshi bu daowei, sixiang bu zhongshi, cuoshi bu deli. . . (认识不到位、 思想不重视、 措施不得力. . . . . . , ‘Improper understanding, negligent thinking, incompetent actions. . .’) A phrase that invariably appears when addressing a superior leader is: Zuo (zhongyao) zhishi (做[重要]指示, ‘Give [important] instructions’) After hearing a superior leader speak, a phrase that often appears is: Renzhen xuexi linghui, jianjue guanche zhixing. . . (认真学习领会, 坚决贯彻执行. . . . . . , ‘Carefully study and understand, and resolutely implement and execute. . .’) After an accident, one often hears: XX shouzhang gaodu zhongshi, gaodu guanzhu, qinlin xianchang zhihui. . . (×× 首长高 度重视, 高度关注, 亲临现场指挥. . . . . . , ‘XX Senior Officer is placing a high degree of emphasis, giving a high degree of attention, and personally attending on the scene to take command. . .’) When speaking about requirements for oneself, a phrase that often appears is: Daitou kanshu xuexi, daitou xiuyang pinge, daitou lianjie zilü, daitou shenru yixian. . . (带头看书学习, 带头修养品格, 带头廉洁自律, 带头深入一线. . . . . . , ‘Taking the lead in reading and studying, taking the lead in cultivating character, taking the lead in integrity and self-discipline, taking the lead in going deep into the front lines. . .’) When speaking about relationships with subordinates, one often hears: Yao guanzhu guanbing liyi, yao zhuzhong guanbing de quanmian fazhan, yao gaijin guanli fangshi. . . (要关注官兵利益, 要注重官兵的全面发展, 要改进管理方式. . . . . . , ‘It is necessary to pay attention to the interests of the officers and soldiers, it is necessary to give consideration to the comprehensive development of the officers and soldiers, and it is necessary to improve the methods for management. . .’)

2.5.3 Empty verbiage Empty verbiage refers to lots of words with little content, or words that have no connection to the relevant content. For instance: Weile guanche luoshi quanjun zhenggong huiyi jingshen, quebao “da de ying” “bu bianzhi,” qieshi fengfu guanbing shuangxiuri shenghuo, chuangzao yige shuanxin liuren de lianghao wenhua fenwei, tuan dangwei jueding, zai yuan tushushi de jichu shang, tianzhi yi pi shebei he tushu, kaiban shuangxiuri yucai xuexiao, gong xu jingfei 2.5 wan yuan, women qianffang baiji yi choucuo zijin 1.4 wan yuan, hai xu 1.1 wan yuan wufa luoshi,

13 Issues with standards for language use in military documents

159

qingqiu shangji bangzhu jiejue (为了贯彻落实全军政工会议精神, 确保“打得赢”“不变质”, 切实丰富官兵双休日生活, 创造一个拴心留人的良好文化氛围, 团党委决定, 在原图书室的 基础上, 添置一批设备和图书, 开办双休日育才学校, 共需经费2.5 万元, 我们千方百计已筹 措资金1.4 万元, 还需1.1 万元无法落实, 请求上级帮助解决, ‘In order to implement the spirit of the political work meetings of the entire military, ensure that we “play to win” with “no deterioration,” effectively enrich the lives of the officers and soldiers on weekends, and create a good cultural atmosphere that draws people in, the Regiment Party Committee has decided to additionally buy a batch of equipment and books on the foundation of the original reading room, and start a weekend training school, which will require a total of 25,000 yuan in funding; we have already raised 14,000 yuan in capital by various means, but cannot put in place the remaining 11,000 yuan that is needed, and request that the superior authorities provide assistance for a resolution’)

This passage is a request for funding directed toward the higher authorities, and it is merely a small matter of applying for 11,000 yuan in funding, yet it is accompanied by an endless stream of auxiliary language, which is clearly a form of empty verbiage.

2.5.4 Ostentatious language Ostentatious language refers to language that should not be used in the given context which is employed to toady to superiors. For instance: Junqu dangwei zhaokai changweihui, yanjiu bushu Yunnan Ludian kangzhen jiuhuo gongzuo, jianjue guanche Xi zhuxi zhongyao zhishi, quanli daying kangzhen jiuzai zhe chang yingzhan, XXX zhuchi huiyi XXX canjia. . . (军区党委召开常委会, 研究部署云南鲁甸抗震 救灾工作, 坚决贯彻习主席重要指示, 全力打赢抗震救灾这场硬战, × × × 主持会议× × × 参 加. . . . . . , ‘The Military District Party Committee convened a standing committee to study and make arrangements for earthquake disaster relief work in Ludian, Yunnan, resolutely implement the important instructions of Chairman Xi, and wholeheartedly win this hard battle for earthquake disaster relief, with XXX presiding over the meeting and XXX attending. . .) Zhe bujin gei dang, guojia he jundui de zhongyao jimi Anquan dailai le yanzhong weixie, sunhai le budui de shengyu, erqie jingdong le junqu shouzhang he difang dangzheng lingdao, yanzhong ganrao le shangji shouzhang, jiguan de zhengchang gongzuo. Shijian fasheng hou, junqu he silingbu shouzhang ji wei zhongshi, duoci zuole zhongyao zhishi. Junqu X silingyuan, X zhengwei, X fu silingyuan he junqu X canmouzhang zai Min jiancha gongzuo qijian, dou zixi liaojie he guowen wenjian chazhao qingkuang, bing zuo le zhongyao zhishi (这不仅给党、 国家和军队的重要机密安全 带来了严重威胁, 损害了部队的声誉, 而且惊动了军区首长和地方党政领导, 严重干扰了上 级首长、 机关的正常工作。 事件发生后, 军区和司令部首长极为重视, 多次做了重要指 示。 军区× 司令员、× 政委、 × 副司令员和军区× 参谋长在闽检查工作期间, 都仔细了解和 过问文件查找情况, 并做了重要指示, ‘This not only posed a severe threat to the security of important secrets of the Party, state, and the armed forces, and harmed the reputation of the troops, but furthermore alarmed the senior officers of the military district and the

160

Li Zongjiang (李宗江) and Yu Yongbo (于泳波)

local Party and government leaders, and severely disrupting the regular work of the superior officers and organizations. After the incident took place, the senior officers of the military district and headquarters took it quite seriously, and issued important instructions several times. Military District Commander X, Political Commissar X, Deputy Commander X and Military District Chief of Staff X all carefully looked into and made inquiries on the situation of the search for documents during the inspections work in Fujian, and gave important instructions’)

The first example is a news headline which lists the names of no fewer than 7 leaders, causing the headline to be excessively long. The second example is from an inspection report by a grassroots-level Party committee regarding an incident in which documents were lost. In such reports, what the superior leaders chiefly wish to hear is who is responsible for the incident, lessons learned, and measures for post facto resolution, not language praising or commiserating with the superior leaders.

2.5.5 Duplicative text Duplicative text refers to rigid writing patterns appearing in different documents, with a similar language format, homogenous syntax, repetitive diction. For instance, the following two news ledes are highly duplicative, almost turning the news into an exercise in filling in the blanks: 7 yue 11 ri, (A) Haijun. . .zhaokai di qi ci huiyi, (B) chuanda xuexi Xi zhuxi. . .zhongyao jianghua jingshen he jinqi zhongyao zhishi pishi, tingqu chabai wenti, kaizhan piping huanjie gongzuo jinzhan qingkuang huibao, weirao luoshi quanjun jiaoyu shijian huodong lingdao xiaozu di shi yi ci huiyi jingshen, yanjiu shenru tuijin jiaoyu shijian huodong de cuoshi banfa. (C) Lingdao xiaozu zuzhang haijun fu siling XXX, fu zhengwei XXX jianghua, lingdao xiaozu changwu fu zuzhang haizheng zhuren XXX zhuchi huiyi (7 月11 日, (A) 海军. . . . . . 召 开第七次会议, (B) 传达学习习主席. . . . . . . . . 重要讲话精神和近期重要指示批示, 听取查 摆问题、 开展批评环节工作进展情况汇报,围绕落实全军教育实践活动领导小组第十一次 会议精神, 研究深入推进教育实践活动的措施办法。 (C) 领导小组组长海军副司令× × × 、 副政委× × × 讲话, 领导小组常务副组长海政主任× × × 主持会议, ‘On July 11, (A) the Navy . . .convened its seventh meeting, (B) to transmit and study the spirit of the important speeches of Chairman Xi. . .and recent important instructions and memos, listen to investigations on the factors contributing to problems and summary reports on the circumstances of progress on engagement in work for criticism sessions, and, revolving around implementing the spirit of the 11th meeting of the Leadership Group for MilitaryWide Education and Practice Activities, to study measures and methods for the profound promotion of education and practice activities. (C) The head of the Leadership Group, Naval Deputy Commander XXX and Deputy Political Commissar XXX gave speeches, and Naval Political Chief XXX, the standing deputy head of the Leadership Group, presided over the meeting’).

13 Issues with standards for language use in military documents

161

5 yue 22 ri shangwu, (A) junqu. . .zhaokai dangwei changwei huiyi, (B) xuexi linghui Xi zhuxi. . .zhongyao jianghua he jinqi zhongyao zhishi, tingqu junqu budui kaizhan dang de qunzhong luxian jiaoyu shijian huodong qingkuang huibao, jiehe qian yi duan dao budui diaoyan zhidao he dao lianxi dian kaizhan gongzuo qingkuang, shenru fenxi jiaoyu shijian huodong xingshi, yanjiu tuijin jiaoyu shijian huodong de cuoshi. (C) Junqu dangwei shuji XXX zhuchi huiyi, dangwei fu shuji XXX, dangwei changwei XXX, XXX, XXX, XXX, XXX chuxi huiyi (5 月22 日上午, (A) 军区. . . . . . 召开党委常委会议, (B) 学习领会习主席. . . . . .重要讲话和近期重要批示, 听取军区部队开展党的群众路线教育 实践活动情况汇报, 结合前一段到部队调研指导和到联系点开展工作情况, 深入分析教育 实践活动形势, 研究推进教育实践活动的措施。 (C) 军区党委书记× × × 主持会议,党委副 书记× × ×, 党委常委× × × 、 × × × 、 × × × 、 × × × 、 × × × 出席会议, ‘On the morning of May 22, (A) the military district. . .convened a standing committee meeting of the Party committee, (B) to study and understand the important speeches of Chairman Xi. . .and recent important memos, listen to summary reports on the circumstances of engagement in the Party’s mass line education and practice activities by armed forces in the military district, and, with reference to the circumstances of earlier visits to the armed forces for survey studies and guidance and engagement in work at the contact points, to profoundly analyze the situation of education and practice activities, and study measures for the promotion of education and practice activities. (C) Military District Party Committee Secretary XXX presided over the meeting, and Deputy Party Committee Secretary XXX and Party Committee Standing Committee members XXX, XXX, XXX, XXX, and XXX attended the meeting’).

This phenomenon of duplicative text is commonly seen in speeches by military leaders in the category of awareness as well as speeches by leaders engaged in study and education activities for mobilization or summarization.

3 Reasons for the lack of standardization and its impact Above, we listed several of the chief problems with language use seen in military documents. There are a number of reasons for the presence of these phenomena.

3.1 Reasons The most direct and fundamental reason for the language problems seen in military documents is the presence of weak links in the areas of building up language abilities and working styles for the relevant personnel. With respect to building up language abilities, writers lack rigorous training with a specialization in linguistics, and have an inadequate capacity for written expression in Chinese. For instance, as mentioned above, both regulations and official documents exhibit

162

Li Zongjiang (李宗江) and Yu Yongbo (于泳波)

problems with the use of modal language, the use of addressing language, merging of juxtaposed elements, and so on. Issues concerning the degree and magnitude of modal verbs, power and same-rank relationships, relationships between words and phrases, and so on involve fairly profound knowledge of linguistics, and a lack of knowledge in this area will naturally lead to confusion regarding differences in usage with respect to wording or structure. With respect to building up working styles, some problems with language use do not arise because the writer was careless, or had inadequate language knowledge and ability, but rather due to intentional action by a writer influenced by certain poor practices. For instance, the bureaucratic jargon, stock phrases, empty verbiage, ostentatious language, and duplicative text analyzed above are all products of this factor.

3.2 Impact Military documents are an important medium for ensuring the regular progression and healthy development of military life, and problems with language use present in such documents have a certain harmful impact on the military’s image and the construction of the armed forces. On the one hand, because certain military documents must be studied and implemented by the troops, such as military regulations, leaders’ speeches, and even certain official military documents, if they present problems with unclear language expression or improper use of terms, it will directly impact the outcomes for studies and implementation. On the other hand, in the last few years, certain military leaders and organizations have exhibited problems with insincere, lax, and harmful working styles, and certain of the language problems listed above are a direct reflection of this state of affairs. Such working styles have a severe impact on healthy development in the construction of and reforms to the armed forces.

Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Feng Haimin (冯海敏), and Wang Hui (王慧)

14 State of development of the Confucius Institutes (2015) 2015 marked the start of a new decade for the Confucius Institutes, and through the combined efforts of China and foreign countries, fresh progress was achieved in the construction of Confucius Institutes: the total number of Confucius Institutes reached 500, and the number of Confucius Classrooms reached 1000, while the number of registered students surpassed 1.9 million, distributed across 134 countries and regions (see Table 1), and the number of Chinese and foreign, full and part-time teachers reached 40,000 (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015a). Table 1: Global distribution of Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms (2015). Confucius Institutes

Asia Africa Americas Europe Oceania Total

Confucius Classrooms

Number of Countries / Regions

Number of Confucius Institutes

Number of Countries / Regions

Number of Confucius Classrooms

     

     

     

     d

Source of Data: Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉 办网站). 2016. On the Confucius Institutes / Classrooms (关于孔子学院/课堂). Accessed on Jan. 7, 2016, http://www.hanban.edu.cn/confuciousinstitutes/node_10961.htm.

1 State of teaching The Confucius Institutes are dedicated to combining Chinese-language teaching with local culture, while also being devoted to the innovation with respect to curricula, teaching methods, et cetera, as well as the enrichment of teaching resources. Striving to continuously apply new approaches and methods injects new vitality into the development of the Confucius Institutes.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-014

164

Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Feng Haimin (冯海敏), and Wang Hui (王慧)

1.1 Creating curricula The Confucius Institutes have integrated the curricula for language and culture, pursuing continuous innovation. In March 2015, the core curriculum for the “Introductory Chinese Language Course” offered at the Confucius Institute at the University of Dubai passed evaluation by the Government Human Resources Training Project (MAAREF) of the Ministry of Human Resources of the United Arab Emirates, and became the first Chinese-language course in that training curriculum system (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015b). In May 2015, the Confucius Institute at Pfeiffer University in the United States combined Chinese characters, culture, and painting to develop and study a pilot curriculum on calligraphy and painting for young people (Wang, 2015). In June, the Confucius Institute at the University of Sheffield began offering a Chinese-language course on mathematics, chiefly consisting of instruction in Chinese, with supplemental English explanations, allowing students to develop their interest in mathematics while simultaneously studying Chinese (Liang, 2015). In the same month, the Chinese for tourism course offered by the Confucius Institute at the University of Brasília officially began, and Brasilia’s college students, administrative personnel, businesspeople, and people of other professions with an interest in Chinese registered to participate (Zhou & Fan, 2015). Since 2004, the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) have supported the “Chinese-Language Training Program for Officials of the United Nations” (联合国官员中文培训班), and as of July 2015, this program had successfully held 11 sessions, and had invited a total of 550 United Nations officials from more than 40 countries to participate (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015c).

1.2 Chinese testing As of February 2016, there were a total of 1099 testing sites for Chinese tests worldwide, including 398 testing sites in China, and 701 testing sites overseas.1 In 2015, the number of examinees participating in the various Chinese tests reached 6 million (Zhou, 2015).

 Source of Data: Chinese Testing Services website (汉语考试服务网), accessed on February 15, 2016, http://www.chinesetest.cn/goKdInfoOrPlan.do.

14 State of development of the Confucius Institutes (2015)

165

In September 2015, the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) and Chinese Testing International (Beijing) Co., Ltd., (abbreviated below as Chinese Testing International) held a working conference on testing, and released the Report on the Global Development of Chinese Testing (汉语考试全球发展报告). The report reviewed the course of development of Chinese tests since their establishment, their current state, and their paths for future development, revealing the fresh progress that has been achieved in the areas of the development of curricula and teaching materials, innovation of technology and services, and deepened integration of testing and teaching, et cetera. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) and Chinese Testing International have also published or will soon publish the HSK Standard Course (HSK 标准教程), YCT Standard Course (YCT 标准教程), Outline of the Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (汉语水平考试大 纲), and so on, laying the foundation for the preliminary formation of a curriculum system centered on Chinese testing standards (Chinese Testing Services website, 2015a). In July 2015, the Testing Office of the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) and the Marketing Department of Chinese Testing International visited National Defense University of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army, and organized a special session for the Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (Chinese Proficiency Test, known as the HSK) and the Hanyu Kouyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK Speaking Test, known as the HSKK) for officers of foreign nationality in the advanced study program on defense and strategy. The students in the study program included senior officers in foreign militaries from 48 countries, and the highest rank held among them was brigadier general (Peng, 2015). The Chinese Study Program for Diplomatic Envoys Stationed in China incorporated Chinese testing into its curriculum for the first time, and in August, 52 diplomats attending the tenth session of the ambassador program participated in the Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015d). The Russian Ministry of Education decided that, in 2017, Chinese would become one of the foreign language subjects on the Unified State Exam of the Russian Federation (Tan, 2016). Queensland, Australia, formally incorporated the Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi into its Certificate of Education system beginning in 2014. In June 2015, the Confucius Institute at the University of Queensland held a workshop on the Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi and educational resources, offering support to primary and secondary school Chinese teachers with respect to the educational and teaching materials needed to popularize this test and providing training forteaching skills. Officials from the Queensland Department

166

Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Feng Haimin (冯海敏), and Wang Hui (王慧)

of Education as well as more than 40 representatives of Chinese teachers from different primary and secondary schools in Queensland participated in the conference.

1.3 Educational resources Confucius Institute Online serves as an online educational platform providing specialized Chinese learning resources. Since its founding in 2008, it has rapidly developed: The cumulative number of students and users increased from 280,000 in 2014 to more than 500,000 in 2015, with 4039 teachers offering courses, approximately 250,000 online classroom sessions, and 87 cooperating organizations. 2 In August, Russia aired the Confucius Classroom Summer Pronunciation Program in the first attempt at distance education, and the students felt that this approach to Chinese learning, which combined in-person and online instruction, was more feasible and effective (Cheng, 2015). The online platform “Guidelines for CLT Materials Development” (国际汉语教材编写指南) can provide the most complete system of source materials, tools and evaluations for compiling teaching materials, greatly facilitating the development of local educational materials by Confucius Institutes in certain countries. As of 2015, the Confucius Institutes in different countries had produced more than 1200 books providing local educational materials (Zhou, 2015).

2 Teacher training and certification In 2015, the number of Chinese and foreign, part- and full-time teachers at the Confucius Institutes reached 40,000, and training programs held abroad by expert groups, the construction of domestic Chinese language bases, and the rebooting of the Chinese teacher certification system all contributed to improving the caliber of Chinese teachers, and promoting the sustainable development of the Confucius Institutes and overseas Chinese teaching.

 Compiled on the basis of information in the 2014 Annual Report on the Confucius Institutes (2014年孔子学院年度报告) and the website of Confucius Institute Online, accessed on January 8, 2016, http://www.chinesecio.com/.

14 State of development of the Confucius Institutes (2015)

167

2.1 Training In January 2015, the School of International Chinese Studies was founded at East China Normal University (Sun, 2015). In April, Beijing Language and Culture University established the country’s first Confucius Institute Teacher Training Center, dedicated to training high-caliber Chinese teachers, delivering outstanding seed teachers to satisfy the needs of different countries for Chinese language teaching around the world (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015e). In January, the first “Program for Overseas Visits by Expert Groups to Train Local Chinese Teachers” was formally launched through the joint efforts of the Confucius Institute at University College Dublin in Ireland and the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban). More than 50 expatriate Chinese teachers and local Chinese teachers from the Confucius Institute at University College Dublin, Chinese language schools in Ireland, and other educational institutions took part in the training (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015f). In 2015, the Chinese Director Training Program implemented training by region for the first time, which was respectively undertaken by Chongqing Normal University and Xiamen University (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015g). In August, the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) held the opening ceremony for the Chinese Confucius Institute Director Training Reinforcement Program in the current year at Beijing Language and Culture University (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015h). In addition, the Foreign Confucius Institute Director Study Program was also offered on schedule at Xiamen University in October, and a total of 36 foreign Confucius Institute directors from 27 countries on five continents attended (Li, 2015).

2.2 Certification 10 years after the qualifying tests for teachers of Chinese as a foreign language were put on hold, in October 2015, the “International Chinese Teacher Certificate” (国际汉语教师证书) examination of the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) was officially implemented. The Confucius Institute Headquarters and Chinese Testing International also issued two sets of educational materials, the Outline of the ‘International Chinese Teacher Certificate’ Examination (考试大纲) and Explanation of the Outline of the ‘International Chinese Teacher Certificate’ Examination (考试大纲解析), and

168

Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Feng Haimin (冯海敏), and Wang Hui (王慧)

determined the testing sites and training centers for certification (Chinese Testing Services website, 2015b).

3 Academic exchanges In December 2015, the 10th Confucius Institute Conference was held in Shanghai. This session of the Confucius Institute Conference took the theme of “Adapting to demand, and integrating development.” At the conference, the forum for institute directors chiefly discussed the examination for international Chinese teacher certificates as well as training for local Chinese teachers, the Chinese Studies Program, Chinese language testing, the development of online education, and other important issues; while the presidents’ forum explored the relationship between the Confucius Institutes and Chinese majors at universities, experiences and exchanges at model Confucius institutes, and other issues (People’s Daily Overseas Edition, 2015). As of the present, there are a total of 125 Confucius Institutes in countries along the line of “One Belt, One Road,” but the “Maritime Silk Road Confucius Institute” established in Thailand in 2015 is the only Confucius Institute given such a designation (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015i). The Confucius Institutes in some countries have promoted progress in the “One Belt, One Road” initiative through academic research and discussion. The Confucius Institute at Durban University of Technology in South Africa held a highlevel seminar on “One Belt, One Road and the Development of Africa,” engaging in in-depth exchanges and exploration of the construction by China and African countries in service of “One Belt, One Road” and other topics (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015j). Passionate discussions were seen at the 12th Academic Conference on “Chinese Studies in Uzbekistan and Silk Road Culture,” revolving around Uzbek trade dealings on the ancient Silk Road, Chinese language teaching, Chinese studies, and other topics (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015k). In March 2015, the Confucius Institute Metropolis Ruhr at the University of Duisburg-Essen in Germany held a high-level forum activity on the topic of “Changing hegemony – Will China bring an end to the United States’ position as global hegemon?”, engaging in discussion on China’s domestic and international situation, economic policies, and other aspects in recent years (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015l). The Joint Conference of the Confucius Institutes of North America and Oceania was held in the United States in June, with the theme of “Sustainable Development of the Confucius Institutes”

14 State of development of the Confucius Institutes (2015)

169

(Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015m). In December, the 2nd “High-Level Forum on International Education and Dissemination of Chinese Music and Workshop on Traditional Chinese Music” was held at the Central Conservatory of Music, with activities including themed lectures and on-site teaching and performances of classical Chinese musical compositions and forms of music (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015n).

4 Cultural exchanges Confucius Institutes around the world have fully mobilized their enthusiasm and creativity in holding a variety of cultural exchange activities, including Chinese Bridge, artistic performances, and lecture series. In 2015, the Confucius Institutes held the 14th “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) Chinese Proficiency Competition for World College Students, and 133 contestants from 125 competition areas in 97 countries across five continents participated in the competition. In addition, the 8th “Chinese Bridge” Proficiency Competition for World Secondary Students, summer camp activities, and the “Chinese Bridge” World Chinese Conference for Foreigners were also held, and for the first time, the large-scale interactive program “2015 ‘Chinese Bridge’: My First Close Contact with China” (2015 ‘汉语桥’我与中国第一次亲密接触’) was put on in cooperation with CCTV (Chinese Bridge website, 2015). The “Chinese Bridge – Competition on Knowledge of the China-Africa Friendship” (汉语桥——中非友谊知识竞赛) was also held at Beijing Language and Culture University. In February 2015, the Confucius Institute at Kazan Federal University in Russia held a lecture on university culture for children with the theme “Happy New Year, China” (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015o). Between March and April, students at the Confucius Institute at the IOE in the United Kingdom participated in week-long “Tour of Beijing Culture” study abroad programs at Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College (Yu, 2015). In July, the 2nd Beijing – Yunnan Confucius Institute “International Music Summer Camp” and the 1st “Confucius Chinese Studies Program” Youth Leader Program were held in Beijing and Yunnan, providing young people from overseas with valuable opportunities to experience the distinctive features of China’s diverse regional music in depth (Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website, 2015p).

170

Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Feng Haimin (冯海敏), and Wang Hui (王慧)

References Cheng, Mo (程谟). 2015. Russia airs Confucius Classroom Summer Pronunciation Program in first attempt at the approach of distance education (俄罗斯广播孔子课堂暑期语音班首次 尝试远程教学法). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国 家汉办网站). September 16, 2015, http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2015-09/16/con tent_615694.htm. Chinese Bridge website (汉语桥网站). 2015. Introduction to the program “2015 ‘Chinese Bridge’: My First Close Contact with China’ (节目 介绍). July 21, 2015, http://bridge.chinese.cn/hydh2015/site/newsdetail/id/571/page/1. Chinese Testing Services website (汉语考试服务网). 2015a. 2015 working conference on testing of the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) is held in Qingdao (孔子学院总部/国家汉办2015 年考试工作会议 在青岛举行). September 23, 2015, http://www.chinesetest.cn/gonewcontent.do?id= 12757842. Chinese Testing Services website (汉语考试服务网). 2015b. 2015 working conference of the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) on examinations is held in Qingdao (孔子学院总部/国家汉办2015 年考试工作会 议在青岛举行). September 23, 2015, http://www.chinesetest.cn/gonewcontent.do?id= 12757842. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015a. Telling China’s story well, and communicating Chinese voices well – the Confucius Institutes build “high-speed rail of the soul” connecting the people of China and the world (讲好中国故事,传播好中国声音———孔子学院筑建联通中国和世界人民的“心灵高 铁”). Dec. 22, 2015, http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2015-12/22/content_627909. htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015b. Core curriculum of Confucius Institute at the University of Dubai passes evaluation by MAAREF, Ministry of Human Resources, United Arab Emirates (迪拜大学孔子学院核心课 程通过阿联酋政府部人力资源部 MAAREF 评估). March 23, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/ article/2015-03/23/content_582737.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015c. 2015 “Chinese-Language Training Program for Officials of the United Nations” begins (2015“联合国官员中文培训班”开班). July 27, 2015, http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/ 2015-07/27/content_610865.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015d. 2015 Chinese testing work is completed at the Confucius Institute at Chulalongkorn University (朱拉隆功大学孔子学院2015 年汉语考试工作结束). December 23, 2015, http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2015-12/23/content_628096.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015e. Confucius Institute Teacher Training Center is unveiled at Beijing Language and Culture University (北京语言大学孔子学院教师培训中心揭牌). April 9, 2015, http://www.hanban. org/article/2015-04/09/content_586987.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015f. Confucius Institute at University College Dublin holds first “Program for Overseas Visits by Expert Groups to Train Local Chinese Teachers” (都柏林大学孔子学院举办首次“专家组

14 State of development of the Confucius Institutes (2015)

171

赴国外培训本土汉语教师项目”). January 23, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/201501/23/content_571520.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015g. Office of Chinese Language Council International offers course at Chongqing Normal University for 2015 pre-duty training for Chinese Confucius Institute directors). July 22, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/2015-07/22/content_610394.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015h. 2015 Chinese Confucius Institute Director Training Reinforcement Program offered at Beijing Language and Culture University (2015 年孔子学院中方院长培训强化班在北京语 言大学开班). August 11, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/2015-08/11/content_ 612165.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015i. World’s first ‘Maritime Silk Road Confucius Institute’ is established in Thailand (全球首家 “海上丝路孔子学院”在泰国成立). June 26, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/201506/26/content_607820.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015j. Confucius Institute at Durban University of Technology holds high-level seminar on ‘One Belt, One Road and the development of Africa’ (德班理工大学孔子学院举办“一带一路与 非洲发展” 高级别研讨会). November 23, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/2015-11/ 23/content_624905.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015k. Academic Conference on ‘Chinese Studies in Uzbekistan and Silk Road Culture’ held in Tashkent (“乌兹别克斯坦汉学暨丝绸之路文化” 学术研讨会在塔什干举行). December 2, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/2015-12/02/content_625931.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015l. ‘Rising China will not strive with the United States for supremacy’ – high-level forum activity held at the Confucius Institute Metropolis Ruhr in Germany (“崛起的中国不会与 美国争霸”———德国鲁尔都市孔子学院举办高端论坛活动). March 16, 2015, http://www. hanban.org/article/2015-03/16/content_581426.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015m. Joint Conference of the Confucius Institutes of North America and Oceania held in Honolulu (北美、 大洋洲孔子学院联席会议在檀香山举行). June 24, 2015, http://www. hanban.org/article/2015-06/24/content_608036.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015n. Chinese Conservatory of Music holds ‘High-Level Forum on International Education and Dissemination of Chinese Music and Workshop on Traditional Chinese Music’ (中央音乐 学院举办“中国音乐国际教育与传播高端论坛”). December 14, 2015, http://www.hanban. org/article/2015-12/14/content_626952.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015o. Confucius Institute at Kazan Federal University holds first cultural lecture to celebrate the Chinese New Year (喀大孔子学院首次举办文化讲座庆祝中国新年). February 17, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/2015-02/17/content_575851.htm. Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). 2015p. International music summer camp and Confucian Chinese Studies Program youth leader program are held (国际音乐夏令营暨孔子新汉学计划青年领袖项目举行). July 16, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/2015-07/16/content_609841.htm.

172

Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Feng Haimin (冯海敏), and Wang Hui (王慧)

Li, Linping (李林平). 2015. 2015 Foreign Confucius Institute Director Study Program (third session) is offered (2015 年孔子学院外方院长研修班[第三期]开班). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). October 13, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/2015-10/13/content_618453.htm. Liang, Xia (梁厦). 2015. Confucius Institute at the University of Sheffield offers Chineselanguage mathematics course (谢菲尔德大学孔子学院开设中文数学班). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站). June 4, 2015, http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2015-06/04/content_601793.htm. Peng, Feiyu (彭飞宇). 2015. Foreign officers at the School of Defense at National Defense University participate in the Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (国防大学防务学院外籍军官参加汉 语水平考试). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉 办网站). July 22, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/2015-07/22/content_610381.htm. People’s Daily Overseas Edition (人民日报 [海外版]). 2015. Our country has already established 500 Confucius Institutes (我国已建立500 所孔子学院). December 7, 2015, p. 001. Sun, Liping (孙丽萍). 2015. School of International Chinese Studies founded in Shanghai will deliver qualified teachers to the Confucius Institutes (上海成立国际汉语教师学院为孔子 学院输送师资). Xinhuanet (新华网). January 19, 2015, http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/ 2015-01/19/c_1114050086.htm. Tan, Jiaqi (谈佳琪). 2016. Russian Ministry of Education: Next year, Chinese will become a subject on the Unified State Exam (俄罗斯教育部: 明年汉语将成为全俄统一考试科目). China.com (中国网). January 28, 2016, http://news.china.com.cn/live/2016-01/28/con tent_35114841.htm. Wang, Yue (王). 2015. Combining calligraphy and painting – Confucius Institute at Pfeiffer University pursues new exploration for teaching Chinese characters (字画结合———费佛 尔大学孔子学院做出汉字教学新探索). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站), May 27, 2015, http://www.hanban.edu.cn/arti cle/2015-05/27/content_598712.htm. Yu, Xing (余星). 2015. Highdown School and Sixth Form Center of the United Kingdom hold ‘Tour of Beijing Culture’ (英国 Highdown Schooland Sixth Form Center 举行“北京文化之 旅”). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉办网站), April 8, 2015, http://www.hanban.org/article/2015-04/08/content_586504.htm. Zhou, Hong (周洪). 2015. Our country has established 500 Confucius Institutes, and the total number of students has reached 1.9 million). China National Radio Online (央广网), December 7, 2015, http://news.cnr.cn/native/city/20151207/t20151207_520709894. shtml. Zhou, Xueya (周雪雅) & Fan, Wenting (范文亭). 2015. Chinese for tourism course at Confucius Institute at the University of Brasília officially begins (巴西利亚大学孔子学院旅游汉语课 程正式开课). Confucius Institute Headquarters / Hanban website (孔子学院总部/国家汉 办网站), June 11, 2015, http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2015-06/11/content_603804. htm.

Yang Wanbing (杨万兵), Zhai Kenuo (翟可娜), and Long Hongning (龙洪柠)

15 The state of development of Chinese language and culture education (2015) In January 2015, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office held its director conference in Beijing, making arrangements for the years overseas Chinese affairs work, and placing emphasis on holistic planning and domestic and foreign arrangements for overseas Chinese affairs work, including actively participating in national development strategies, safeguarding the rights and interests of overseas compatriots, and devoting attention to overseas Chinese benefit projects. Functional departments in governments for all regions and at all levels have been able to strengthen their understanding of the holistic and systemic nature of Chinese language and culture education, with attention to a top-down design. In 2015, important progress was achieved with respect to promoting the transformation and upgrading of Chineseg language and culture education, and spurring the standardization, regularization and specialization of Chinese language and culture education, making it an important year for the “six big systems” of teaching, educational materials, training, aid, support and learning through experience.

1 The Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test In June 2015, the major project “Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test for Overseas Chinese Youths” (海外华裔青少年华文水平测试), which was pursued by Jinan University by commission of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office, was officially initiated. The outstanding features of the brand-new Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test (华文水平测试), which chiefly focused on overseas Chinese populations to fill a gap in the Chinese language testing sector, include its integration of the level of cognitive development, integration of proficiency in Chinese as a native language, and thorough consideration of the cognitive level and native language skills and proficiency of students of different ages through syllabi with different vocabulary and grammar levels, providing a more practical frame of reference for rational evaluation of the Chinese proficiency of overseas Chinese populations. At the same time, in the language evaluation, emphasis was placed on proficiency in Chinese characters and the study of Chinese culture, highlighting the cultural properties of zuyu (祖语, ‘ancestral language’), and https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-015

174

Yang Wanbing (杨万兵), Zhai Kenuo (翟可娜), and Long Hongning (龙洪柠)

rationally taking culture into account in language testing, with important significance for guiding the dissemination and transmission of language and culture through overseas Chinese language and culture education, and promoting the healthy development of overseas Chinese language and culture education. After several years of theoretical preparations and preliminary research, Jinan University formed the Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test Development Team in 2012, which was founded upon theoretical exploration and innovation. By inviting experts to give lectures, holding peer exchanges, and other approaches, the team actively absorbed the research findings in educational circles, ensuring the scientific and specialized nature of the project’s research and development. As of the present, the development of syllabi for Chinese characters, vocabulary, grammar, culture and topics on the Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test is essentially complete, and the team will soon move into the phase of developing test questions and building a test question bank, overseas pretesting, and feedback. The introduction of the Heritage Chinese Proficiency Test will bring and end to the history of teaching without testing in Chinese language and culture education, and provide scientific standards and bases for evaluating the proficiency of overseas Chinese youths in Chinese language and culture.

2 Professional skills certification for Chinese language and culture teachers On January 22, 2015, the “Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Certificate Test Question Bank Platform” (华文教师证书考试题库平台) smoothly passed review by the Expert Committee of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office, and between May 16 and 18, the Sponsored “Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Certificate” Training Program (“华文教师证书”承办单位培训班) was smoothly held at Jinan University, drawing representatives of relevant institutions of higher education from across the country to participate in the work of building the test question bank. At the same time, significant results were achieved in the work of Chinese language and culture teacher training, including the three elements of training, testing and certification, centered on “Professional skills certification for Chinese language and culture teachers.” 2015 saw an increase in the number of “Chinese language and culture teacher study programs,” aimed at promoting standardization, regularization and specialization in Chinese language and culture education. On April 13, 152 school board members and Chinese language and culture teachers from Myanmar, Laos and Thailand participated in the “Chinese Language and Culture Education: Principal /

15 The state of development of Chinese language and culture education (2015)

175

Teacher Study Program” (华文教育· 校长/教师研习班) held at Yunnan Normal University. On June 19, more than 170 Chinese language and culture teachers from 8 provinces of Indonesia participated in the “Indonesian Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Study Program” (印尼华文教师研习班) at Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College. In addition, relevant training was provided with respect to the “Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Certificate.” On April 7, 148 Chinese language and culture teachers from around the world participated in the “Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Certificate” training program held at the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University. Between May 16 and 18, classes were offered at Jinan University for the Sponsored “Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Certificate” Training Program, and 40 relevant leaders and core teachers from 16 institutions of higher education and Chinese language and culture schools nationwide participated in the training. Adhering to the principle of “bringing in and going global,” the relevant training programs for the “Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Certificate” (华文教师证书) have now crossed the border and moved out into the world. On October 17, a “Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Certificate” training program for Southern Thailand was held at Srinakorn Foundation School, and more than 60 Chinese language and culture teachers from Southern Thailand participated in the training program. On December 8, the “Chinese Language and Culture Teacher Certificate” training and assessment sponsored by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office was held at Scuola Zhonghua in Rome, and more than 30 Chinese language and culture teachers from 6 schools in southern Italy participated in the training and assessment. Brands have gradually been established for teacher training programs. At the commencement ceremony held by Huaqiao University for its 10th “Chinese Study Program for Foreign Government Officials” (外国政府官员中文学习班), 100 students from the countries of Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines were awarded certificates of completion. In the last 10 years, Huaqiao University has trained nearly 500 individuals with advanced Chinese language ability from the three aforementioned countries over the course of ten sessions. Teaching skills competitions for Chinese language and culture teachers have had a good impact. On July 21, 2015, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council and the China Overseas Exchange Association held the “Chinese Language and Culture Education: Lesson Plan Competition” (华文教育· 教 案比赛), focusing on overseas Chinese language and culture teachers as well as teachers stationed abroad, with the aim of encouraging and enhancing enthusiasm for teaching and practical exchanges among overseas Chinese language and culture teachers. This activity was warmly welcomed by Chinese language and culture teachers at large, and achieved the expected results.

176

Yang Wanbing (杨万兵), Zhai Kenuo (翟可娜), and Long Hongning (龙洪柠)

3 Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation In 2015, the Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China continued to provide financial aid for learning and activities for overseas Chinese students. On February 2, 24 outstanding overseas Chinese Master’s students in the major (degree) of Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages at Jinan University were awarded the “AGILE Scholarship.” On April 13, the Radiance Kunming Chinese School Camp sponsored by the Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China was held in Kunming, and a total of 286 overseas Chinese youths from 7 countries including Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and South Korea participated in the activities. On May 19, more than one hundred overseas Chinese students from Thailand, Laos, Indonesia, Vietnam and South Korea were awarded “Radiance” scholarships and financial aid stipends for educational attainment for overseas Chinese senior secondary school students, which were established by the Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China. On the morning of June 17, the opening ceremony for the “2015 Chinese Studies Playground–AGILE Huaqiao University Camp” was held in Xiamen. Representatives of the leaders of Indonesia, Thailand and the United States along with more than 70 overseas Chinese youths participated in this activity. On October 13, the grand presentation ceremony for the 2015 “AGILE Scholarship” for the full-time undergraduate program in Chinese language and culture education at Jinan University was held, and a total of 264 undergraduate students in the Department of Chinese Language and Culture Education were awarded scholarships. On December 24, the Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China disbursed funds to Guangxi Overseas Chinese School for use in issuing scholarships to 150 overseas Chinese senior secondary school students.

4 Preparation of educational materials for Chinese language and culture In 2015, Jinan University’s project The Chinese Language (中文) (Senior Secondary School Edition) was formally initiated, and smooth progress has been made in its preparation. This set of educational materials will fill the gap for Chinese language and culture educational materials at overseas Chinese schools at the senior secondary level, forming a complete series of primary school – junior

15 The state of development of Chinese language and culture education (2015)

177

secondary school – senior secondary school educational materials for The Chinese Language (中文). At the same time, Jinan University’s project Chinese Writing (华文写作) (Cambodia Primary and Junior Secondary School Edition) was also formally initiated, and preparation has been going smoothly. This is the first set of localized educational materials divided by skill, which will serve very well in satisfying the demand for Chinese writing education at primary and junior secondary schools in Cambodia. Functional departments in all regions have also achieved fresh results in presiding over the preparation of educational materials for Chinese language and culture. After presenting Wenzhou Nursery Rhymes (温州童谣) in 2013, the Wenzhou Municipal Foreign and Overseas Chinese Affairs Office followed up on November 9 with the formal publication of a second volume of local teaching materials for overseas Chinese youth, Intangible Cultural Heritage of Wenzhou (温州非遗), providing a window for overseas Chinese youth of Wenzhou origin to understand the culture of eastern Zhejiang. The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office project Teaching Syllabus for Weekend Chinese Schools (Primary School Stage) (周末制中文学校教学大纲[小学阶段]) undertaken by Huaqiao University was initiated and has progressed smoothly. It will provide standards of reference and a guide to teaching for relevant educational materials on Chinese language and culture, improving the level of standardization in the preparation of educational materials.

5 The establishment of disciplines and academic research In 2015, domestic and international academic research and exchanges on Chinese language and culture education became more frequent. On April 29, the 4th Forum for Collaborative Innovation in Chinese Language and Culture Education jointly held by the World Chinese Language Association of Taiwan and Huaqiao University was held in Taipei. At the conference, there were calls for cross-strait cooperation to explore new models and establish new mechanisms for collaboration on Chinese language and culture education under changing circumstances, cooperate in the construction of “One Belt, One Road,” and strengthen efforts for Chinese language and culture education in countries and regions along the belt, achieving new breakthroughs in Chinese language and culture education. On July 2, the 2nd Forum on World Chinese Language and Culture Education of the 2015 Conference on Overseas Chinese Pioneering and Developing in

178

Yang Wanbing (杨万兵), Zhai Kenuo (翟可娜), and Long Hongning (龙洪柠)

China was convened at Central China Normal University, and domestic and international experts and scholars from China, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and so on engaged in in-depth discussion revolving around the theme of “Transmission and Innovation of Chinese Wisdom–World Chinese Language and Culture Education in the Information Age.” The experts at the conference argued that pursuing Chinese language and culture education is an important means of disseminating Chinese culture and shaping China’s global image. On October 23, the 6th Symposium on the “Practical Teaching Resource Bank” (教学实态资源库) of Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College reached a consensus on the overall framework and process for its establishment, symbolizing important progress on this project. The “Practical Teaching Resource Bank” is currently chiefly composed of practical teaching videos, covering a total of 15 courses in the categories of language, specializations, and culture, with plans to add audio corpora and textual corpora for teaching in the future. As the first large-scale practical teaching resource bank in the sector of Chinese language and culture education, once completed, it will become an important teaching and academic resource bank for Chinese language and culture education. On November 7–8, the 2nd International Academic Conference on Chinese Language and Culture Education was held at the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University. 126 experts and scholars from more than 10 countries and regions around the world participated in the conference, and engaged in profound, comprehensive discussions from multiple perspectives on the theme of “Development of Chinese language and culture education.” Each of the experts and scholars used this academic platform to present their latest findings in research on Chinese language and culture education, encompassing the theory and application of Chinese language and culture education, new developments and new problems in Chinese language and culture education, and other topics, with a positive effect in promoting the development of the cause of Chinese language and culture education. On November 28, the 2014–2015 Closing Conference for Research Topics on Overseas Chinese Affairs of the Guangdong Theoretical Research Base of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council was held at the Academy of Overseas Chinese Studies at Jinan University. At the conference, each task group presented their research on protection of the rights and interests of overseas Chinese people, overseas Chinese language and culture education, the transmission and dissemination of Chinese culture by overseas Chinese people, and other areas, offering recommendations on relevant work for overseas Chinese affairs. December 2015 marked the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the undergraduate major in Chinese language and culture education. Jinan University held a successful “Summit on the Establishment of the Major in Chinese Language and

15 The state of development of Chinese language and culture education (2015)

179

Culture Education,” inviting representatives from overseas organizations for Chinese language and culture education as well as representatives of the leaders and graduates from domestic Chinese language and culture schools to attend the summit. The domestic and foreign representatives engaged in thorough exchanges on achievements, problems, and responses in the establishment of the major in Chinese language and culture education. Certain results were also achieved with respect to academic cooperation on Chinese language and culture education. On the morning of August 29, the Chinese School of Florence, Italy, and Wenzhou Overseas Chinese Secondary School held the “Youth in Action” Teacher-Student Exchange and Cooperation Seminar, and both parties agreed to collaborate on program exchange and cooperation models, Sino-foreign cooperative education, and so on. On September 7, the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University and University of the Frontier of Chile held Talks on Cooperation in Chinese Language and Culture Education, and both parties agreed to collaborate on Chinese language and culture education. On September 18, the China Overseas Exchange Association and the municipal government of Khon Kaen, Thailand, signed a memorandum of cooperation in Chinese language and culture education, and both parties will engage in friendly collaboration in the areas of Chinese and Thai-language teacher training, student exchanges, summer (winter) camps for overseas Chinese youth, and other areas. Personnel training for Chinese language and culture education at key institutions has also presented a rising trend. In 2015, Jinan University admitted a total of 286 undergraduate students on scholarship to its full-time program for Chinese language and culture education, and 93 students graduated; 164 students were admitted to its undergraduate distance correspondence program, and 58 graduated; 51 Master’s students were admitted to the overseas part-time program, while 10 Master’s students and 5 doctoral students were admitted to the major of Overseas Chinese Language and Culture Education, and 140 graduate students graduated. At Huaqiao University, a total of 236 undergraduate students were admitted on scholarship to its full-time program for Chinese language and culture education, and 61 graduated; 164 students were admitted to its undergraduate distance correspondence program, and 58 graduated; and 23 Master’s students were admitted to its overseas part-time program, and 7 graduated. On April 1, Huaqiao University published The Yearbook of Chinese Education in the World (2014) (世界华文教育年鉴[2014]).

180

Yang Wanbing (杨万兵), Zhai Kenuo (翟可娜), and Long Hongning (龙洪柠)

6 Summer (winter) camps and Chinese Culture Camps In 2015, approximately 4500 overseas Chinese youths from nearly 30 countries and regions participated in summer (winter) camps in China, including “Overseas Youth Military” (海外青少年军), “Perfect Jingchu” (完美荆楚), “Colorful Yunnan” (七彩云南), “Loving China: Chinese Bridge” (亲情中华· 汉语桥), “Shaolin Kung Fu” (少林功夫), “Awareness of Folk Culture” (民俗文化感知), “Communication Media and Cultural Experience” (传媒文化体验), and “Journey to Seek One’s Roots” (寻根之旅). With respect to the “Chinese Culture Camps” (中华文化 大乐园), an array of Chinese language and culture education base schools held “Chinese Culture Camp” activities in Chicago and Washington, D. C., in the United States; Melbourne, Australia; Phnom Penh, Cambodia; São Paulo, Brazil; and Suva, Fiji. Many theme camps were offered in Savannakhet, Laos, and other places, allowing more than 2200 camp-goers to study Chinese culture through touring, practical learning and other approaches, personally experience the charm of traditional Chinese culture, and improve their understanding of the Chinese people. Holding each type of summer (winter) camp and study abroad camp allows overseas Chinese youths to more profoundly experience the long history, range and depth of the traditional culture of the Chinese people, sparking resonance deep in the hearts of the overseas Chinese youth with Chinese national culture, and prompting them to seek their own heritage and national roots.

7 A few recommendations 7.1 Strengthen surveys and research on Chinese language and culture education in “One Belt, One Road” countries and regions Overseas Chinese society and Chinese language and culture education are an important force and an important part in promoting the construction of China’s “One Belt, One Road,” and strengthening surveys and research on local overseas Chinese people and language and culture education, fully activating the enthusiasm and initiative of overseas Chinese people with respect to language and cultural exchanges, and providing appropriate support for Chinese language and culture education will mobilize overseas Chinese communities to participate in the construction of “One Belt, One Road” and share in its achievements, getting twice the results with half the effort.

15 The state of development of Chinese language and culture education (2015)

181

7.2 Build platforms for the creation of digitalized Chinese language and culture educational materials As of the present, the Chinese language and culture educational materials that have already been compiled and published with an orientation toward particular countries and regions are able to satisfy the needs of overseas Chinese language and culture education to a certain extent. However, in the long term, it will be difficult for this model of point-to-point support for Chinese language and culture educational materials to meet the enormous demand overseas for Chinese language and culture educational materials. For this reason, colleagues in domestic and international Chinese education circles have proposed the establishment of platforms for the creation of digitalized Chinese language and culture educational materials, providing corresponding concepts, models, resources and source materials for the creation of Chinese language and culture educational materials, with an open invitation to Chinese language and culture teachers from around the world to provide localized source materials, requests for Chinese language and culture educational materials, and so on, adopting a model of point-to-interface integration with guidance and support for the creation of Chinese language and culture educational materials, and stimulating the energy of overseas Chinese language and culture teachers for compiling educational materials. At the same time, by integrating support for the creation of core and model educational materials, sustainable, leapfrog-style development of Chinese language and culture educational materials will be achieved.

7.3 Place emphasis on education in the standard spoken and written Chinese language for overseas Chinese Overseas Chinese children of school age holding Chinese passports should be included in China’s national education series, and receive education in the standard spoken and written Chinese language. This not only guarantees their right to receive national education, but also contributes to fostering a new generation of expatriates who are loyal to the homeland and proficient in their mother tongue as well as Chinese culture.

Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦)

16 Survey of the state of Chinese language education at institutions of higher education in four Central Asian countries The development of Chinese language education in the region of Central Asia already has 24 years of history. In recent years, China’s interactions with Central Asia have become increasingly frequent, and particularly since the proposal of the “One Belt, One Road” Initiative in 2013, Chinese language education in Central Asia has swiftly developed. This paper focuses on reporting the current state of Chinese language education at institutions of higher education in 4 countries of Central Asia.

1 Description of survey 1.1 Survey region and subjects The task group visited Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan to conduct field surveys of the Chinese language courses offered at all institutions of higher education within their borders. Due to various factors, in Kazakhstan, only the second-largest city of Almaty was surveyed. Because Almaty was formerly the capital of Kazakhstan, Chinese language courses have been available for a relatively long period of time, and it is fairly representative. Owing to time, funding and other reasons, specific data on the Chinese language courses offered at institutions of higher education within the borders of Uzbekistan could not be collected. The task group respectively conducted interviews of teachers and students at a total of 37 universities in the four countries above, and distributed questionnaires to teachers and students at a total of 34 institutions of higher education.

1.2 Survey methods Interviews: The approach of a semi-structured interview was adopted to conduct individual interviews and group interviews of Chinese language teachers https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-016

184

Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦)

of Chinese origin, Chinese language teachers of local origin, students majoring in the Chinese language, and students taking Chinese as an elective, for more than 300 person-times. The interviews chiefly examined the nature of Chinese language courses, the type of courses, the educational materials used, the number of teachers, and other specific circumstances. Questionnaire: The main content including the state of Chinese language teaching and the state of Chinese language learning. The survey subjects included Chinese language teachers of Chinese origin, Chinese language teachers of local origin, students majoring in the Chinese language, and students taking Chinese as an elective. A total of 715 questionnaires were distributed, and 621 valid questionnaires were retrieved, with a response rate of 86.85%.

2 Survey results 2.1 Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan began offering majors in the Chinese language in 1992. It has a relatively long history in this field, and it was the country with the most Chinese language courses offered at institutions of higher education in this survey. Nationwide, a total of 22 institutions of higher education offer Chinese language courses, of which 9 institutions have established a major in the Chinese language; 6 institutions have set the Chinese language as a required course for certain majors; and 14 institutions have set the Chinese language as an elective course. Among the 37 institutions in four countries that were surveyed, only in Kyrgyzstan were Chinese language courses listed as required courses for majors. The colleges and departments that set the Chinese language as a required course were chiefly concentrated in the business and trade, law, and international fields. Between 2010 and 2015, school and departments at a total of 13 institutions of higher education in Kyrgyzstan began offering new Chinese language courses. It is clear that the dissemination of the Chinese language in Kyrgyzstan presents a trend of rapid development. For the specific details, see Table 1.

185

16 Survey of the state of Chinese language education

Table 1: Overview of institutions of higher education offering Chinese language courses in Kyrgyzstan. No. Name of school Type Date of of establishing school Chinese language courses 

Kyrgyz National University

Public

Colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses

Major / required / elective

 School of Business Management at Kyrgyz-Chinese College

Major

 Integrated College of International Education

Required

 College of Economics and Finance

Required

 College of Continuing Education

Elective

 School of Business

Elective

 Pedagogical College

Elective

Number of teachers Chinese origin

Local origin







International University

Public

 College of Foreign Languages

Major







Kyrgyz State University of Arabaev

Public

 Department of Chinese

Major







Chui University

Public

 Department of Chinese

Required







Kyrgyz State University of Construction, Transportation and Architecture

Public

 College of Information

Elective





186

Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦)

Table 1 (continued) No. Name of school Type Date of of establishing school Chinese language courses

Colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses

Major / required / elective

Number of teachers Chinese origin

Local origin



Kyrgyz Academy of Agriculture

Public

 College of World Economics, College of Agriculture, College of Financial Administration and Credit

Elective







Bishkek Humanities University

Public

 Kyrgyz-Chinese College

Major







Diplomatic Academy of Kyrgyzstan

Public

 Department of Elective World Languages







Kyrgyz State Academy of Law

Public

 Department of Law







Naryn State University

Public

 Department of Major World Languages







Issyk-Kul State University

Public

 Department of Foreign Languages

Elective







Kyrgyz Economic University

Public

 Department of International Relations, Department of Tourism

Elective





College of International Relations

Department of Chinese Law

Elective

Elective

Required

187

16 Survey of the state of Chinese language education

Table 1 (continued) No. Name of school Type Date of of establishing school Chinese language courses 

Osh State University

Public

Colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses

Major / required / elective

 Department of Chinese

Major

 Department of International Relations

Elective

 Department of Medicine

Elective

 Department of History

Elective

Number of teachers Chinese origin

Local origin







Osh Normal College

Public

 Department of Chinese

Major







Osh Technological University

Public

 Department of International Relations

Elective





 Department of Translation

Elective

 Department of Computers

Elective

 Regional College

Elective





 College of Power Supply

Elective

 College of Foreign Languages

Elective

 Department of Economics, Department of Finance, Department of Management Studies

Elective









Jalal-Abad State University

University of Economy and Enterprise

Public

Public

188

Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦)

Table 1 (continued) No. Name of school Type Date of of establishing school Chinese language courses 

Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University

Private

Colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses

 Department of International Relations

Major / required / elective

Required

Department of World Economics, Department of Modern Economics

Elective

Department of Chinese

Required

Number of teachers Chinese origin

Local origin







Kyrgyz-Russian Academy of Education

Private

 Department of Required World Languages







Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University

Private

 Department of Chinese







Kyrgyz-Turkish Ala-Too University

Private

 Department of Chinese

Major







KyrgyzAmerican University

Private

 General elective course

Elective









Total

Department of International Relations

Major

Elective

2.2 Tajikistan In Tajikistan, a total of 9 institutions of higher education offered Chinese language courses, of which 6 institutions had established majors in Chinese, while 3 offered Chinese language courses as elective courses. These institutions had a total of 20

189

16 Survey of the state of Chinese language education

Chinese language teachers, all of whom had been assigned by the Confucius Institute at Tajik National University. It is clear that the Confucius Institute plays an essential and irreplaceable role in Chinese language education in Tajikistan. Between 2010 and 2015, 7 institutions of higher education in Tajikistan established new courses for the Chinese language, putting Chinese language education in that country on the path to swift development. For details, see Table 2. Table 2: Overview of institutions of higher education offering Chinese language courses in Tajikistan. No. Name of school

Type Date of of establishing school Chinese language courses

Colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses

Major / required / elective

Number of teachers Chinese Local origin origin



Russian-Tajik Public Slavonic University

 Department of Languages

Major







Tajik State Institute of Foreign Languages

Public

 Department of Eastern Languages

Major







Tajik National University

Public

 Department of Major Eurasian Languages







Tajik State Medical University

Public

 College of Foreign Languages

Elective







Pedagogical Institute of Panjakent

Private

 College of Foreign Languages

Required







Tajik State Pedagogical University

Public

 Department of English

Major







Khujand State University

Public

 Department of Languages

Req.





190

Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦)

Table 2 (continued) No. Name of school

Type Date of of establishing school Chinese language courses

Colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses

Major / required / elective

Number of teachers Chinese Local origin origin



Khujand School of Business

Public

 Center for Chinese Language and Culture

Elective







Tajik University of Law and Politics

Public

 Chinese Language Program

Elective









Total

2.3 Turkmenistan Turkmenistan has a total of 24 institutions of higher education, of which only 3 offer Chinese language courses. Two of the latter institutions offer majors in the Chinese language, while the third set Chinese language courses as elective courses. Chinese language courses were established at these three universities in Turkmenistan between 1994 and 2008, but in the seven years since that time, no other university has begun offering Chinese language courses, reflecting that Chinese language education in Turkmenistan has maintained the status quo since 2008. In Turkmenistan, there are 8 Chinese language teachers of local origin, and 4 Chinese language teachers of Chinese origin, with teachers of local origin taking on the bulk of Chinese language education. Turkmenistan is a fairly closed country, and its isolated nature has been an obstacle to entry for teachers of Chinese origin. The number of teachers is insufficient to support and promote the development of international Chinese language education. For details, see Table 3.

191

16 Survey of the state of Chinese language education

Table 3: Overview of institutions of higher education offering Chinese language courses in Turkmenistan. No. Name of school Type Date of of establishing school Chinese language courses

Colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses

Major / required / elective

Number of teachers Chinese Local origin origin



Magtymguly Turkmen State University

Public

 Department of Foreign Languages and Literature

Major







Azadi Turkmen National Institute of Foreign Languages

Public

 Department of Eastern Languages and Department of Literature

Major







Institute of International Relations of Turkmenistan

Public

 General elective course

Elective









Total

2.4 Kazakhstan A total of three institutions of higher education in Almaty, Kazakhstan, offer Chinese language courses, two of which have established majors in the Chinese language, and two of which offer Chinese language courses as elective courses. Al-Farabi Kazakh National University began offering a major in the Chinese language in 1991, and it was the first school in this survey to establish a major in the Chinese language. Since that time, the school has not added any Chinese language courses in any college or department. Comparatively speaking, the development of Chinese language education in Kazakhstan seems to be flagging slightly in terms of its endurance. These three institutions of higher education in Kazakhstan have 54 Chinese language teachers of local origin, and 3 teachers of Chinese origin. It is clear that local teachers are the principal force in local Chinese language education. For details, see Table 4.

192

Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦)

Table 4: Overview of institutions of higher education offering Chinese language courses in Kazakhstan. No. Name of school

Type Date of of establishing school Chinese language courses

Colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses

Major / required / elective

Number of teachers Chinese Local origin origin



Al-Farabi Public Kazakh National University

 Department of Eastern Studies

Major







Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University

Public

 Department of International Relations

Elective





 Center for Chinese Language Studies

Elective

Kazakh Ablai Khan University of International Relations and World Languages

Private

 Department of Eastern Studies

Major





 Department of International Relations

Elective







Total

3 Trends and characteristics 3.1 Overall trends Countries in Central Asia began offering Chinese language courses as early as 1991, and thereafter, additional offerings of such courses varied by year. At the highest, ten universities added Chinese language courses in a single year, but in some years, the number was zero. Beginning in 2008, the spread of the Chinese language in Central Asia entered a phase of rapid development. Figure 1 shows that the three peaks for establishment of Chinese language courses in Central Asia were in 2008 (five institutions of higher education), 2010 (10 institutions of higher education), and 2013 (7 institutions of higher education).

193

16 Survey of the state of Chinese language education

12 10

10 8

7

6

2

3

3

2

1

1

1 2004

3

2000

4 2

5

5 3

2

1

1

1 2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

1999

1995

1994

1992

1991

0

Figure 1: Establishment of Chinese language courses at Central Asian institutions of higher education from 1991–2015.

Alongside this period of rapid development for the spread of the Chinese language, concerns lingered. As additional Chinese language courses were hastily established, the new courses struggled to keep up with the pace of the rapid development in terms of class sizes, educational programs, creation of classes, deployment of qualified teachers, and so on. Some schools established Chinese language courses without any clear educational goals, resulting in unbalanced courses, difficulties allotting qualified teachers, and other problems, and these issues will impact and even impede the spread and development of the Chinese language in Central Asia in the future.

3.2 Characteristics of course offerings Among the 37 surveyed Central Asian institutions of higher education, 18 had established a major in the Chinese language. Each country differed with respect to the establishment of majors and courses for the Chinese language, with complex circumstances, but there was still a certain pattern. The 18 institutions which had established majors in the Chinese language offered 7 major categories and 28 subcategories of courses, including Chinese language skills, theory, translation, culture, Chinese enrichment, and education, among others (for details, see Figure 2). Other categories, including ancient Chinese, dialects, business Chinese, and so on are omitted from the chart due to limited space. The dissemination of the Chinese language has reached a certain breadth in Central Asia. Apart from establishing majors in the Chinese language, certain

194

Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦)

15

Language theory category

Translation category

2

2

2

4 Other

Poetry

Culture category

2

Pedagogy

1

Calligraphy

1

Teacher training courses

1

Chinese enrichment

3

Chinese geography

1 Chinese history

1 Translation

1

Chinese culture

5 2

Comparative translation

Rhetoric

Grammar

Linguistics

HSK courses

Writing courses

Listening comprehension courses

Language skills category

4

Philology

4

2

Semantics

4

Phonology

5

Lexicology

5

6

Chinese culture and folk customs

11

Reading courses

Speaking courses

Comprehensive courses

20 19 18 16 14 10 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Chinese Education enrichment category category

Figure 2: Statistical diagram of Chinese language majors and course offerings at Central Asian institutions of higher education.

universities have listed Chinese language courses as required courses and elective courses. Chinese language courses have already been incorporated into colleges and departments of information, computers, power supply, medicine, law and politics, and so on as elective courses at certain institutions of higher education in Central Asia. For the specific details, see Figure 3. Certain problems still exist in the establishment of Chinese language courses: (1) Too few specialized courses are offered. In terms of language skills courses, general courses (intensive reading courses) are chiefly offered, making it difficult for students to achieve comprehensive development of their language skills. (2) A mélange of many types of theory courses are offered, lacking in systematicity. (3) Too few schools offer courses on culture. Language is the medium of culture, and without understanding the culture that a given language carries, it is difficult to master that language.

3.3 Characteristics of educational materials Majors in the Chinese language at Central Asian institutions of higher education use a relatively high quantity and variety of educational materials, which exhibit the following characteristics.

195

16 Survey of the state of Chinese language education

6 5

5

5

5

4 3 1

1

1

2 1

2

1

1

1

1

General electives

1 Departments of medicine

1

Departments of management studies

Departments of history

1 Regional colleges

1

Colleges for power supply

1

Departments of computers

1

Departments of law

Colleges for agriculture

1

Departments of tourism

1

Colleges for information

1

2

2 1

Departments of international relations

2

2

1 Chinese language research centers

Colleges for language

Colleges for foreign languages

International relations

Departments of Chinese law

Colleges for economics and finance

Colleges for integrated international education

General electives

Centers for Chinese language and culture E

R E

E Kazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan

R

Turkmenistan

E

Departments of language

Colleges for education

Colleges for economics and finance

Colleges for language

Colleges for international relations

0

Tajikistan

Note: E=Electives, R=Required courses.

Figure 3: Statistical diagram of colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses at Central Asian institutions of higher education.

(1) Unevenness. Educational materials in the category of language skills are many and varied, but there are few materials on language theory and culture, with a limited variety. From Figure 4, it can be seen that there were 17 sets of educational materials in the category of language skills, 5 sets in the category of language theory, and only 1 set in the category of translation. On the one hand, this reflects that students at Central Asian institutions of higher education are chiefly enrolling in majors in the Chinese language so as to obtain language skills training. On the other hand, it is also clear that there are relatively few sets of educational materials in the categories of language theory, culture and translation commensurate with the proficiency of Central Asian students. (2) The variety and quantity of educational materials are not entirely consistent with the types of courses that have been established, and the rate of use of self-

196

Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦)

compiled materials is relatively high. The courses offered at institutions of higher education in the four Central Asian countries were concentrated in the three categories of general courses, theory courses, and translation courses. With respect to theory courses, a total of 15 institutions of higher education offered grammar courses, but only two institutions used educational materials on grammar. A total of 12 institutions of higher education offered translation courses, but only 1 institution used educational materials on translation. The majority of the educational materials for these courses were compiled by the teachers. Although these self-compiled materials were suited to the Chinese language proficiency of the students, they were lacking in terms of their systematic and scientific nature. (3) There was a shortage of educational materials for the Chinese language localized to Central Asia, particularly for educational materials in the categories of theory, culture and translation.

New Practical Chinese Reader ( ) Boya Chinese ( ) College Chinese ( ) Self-compiled Chinese Course ( ) HSK educational materials New Target Chinese ( ) Chinese Reading Course ( ) Spoken Chinese ( ) Short-Term Spoken Chinese ( ) Chinese Listening Course ( ) Path to Success ( ) Developing Chinese ( ) Intermediate Chinese Reading ( ) Short-Term Chinese Listening ( ) Experience Chinese Writing Course ( ) 301 Sentences in Chinese ( ) Contemporary Chinese ( ) Chinese Grammar Theory ( ) Rhetoric ( ) Vocabulary ( ) Pronunciation ( ) Translation category Translation ( ) Cross-Cultural Communication Theory ( ) Chinese History ( ) Chinese Culture ( ) Chinese History and Culture ( ) Overview of Chinese Culture ( ) Cultural Reader ( ) Other

14 13 12 10 8 8 6 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

Language skills category

Grammar and theory category

Culture category

Figure 4: Statistical diagram of educational materials used for majors in the Chinese language at Central Asian institutions of higher education.

16 Survey of the state of Chinese language education

197

3.4 Characteristics of the teaching faculty As of November 2015, there were 78 teachers of Chinese origin and 160 teachers of local origin in the colleges and departments offering Chinese language courses at Central Asian institutions of higher education. Local teachers accounted for 67%, representing the main force in Chinese language teaching. However, the local teachers were unevenly distributed, with the majority being concentrated at one or two institutions in a given country. The institution with the highest number was Kyrgyz National University, with as many as 42 teachers of local origin. Al-Farabi Kazakh National University had 20 teachers of local origin. Other institutions of higher education had as few as zero Chinese language teachers, or no more than 4 at the high end. The distribution of Chinese language teachers of Chinese origin was also uneven, and most were concentrated at a few institutions of higher education in the capital cities of each country. 20 institutions had only 1 teacher of Chinese origin or none at all, making it difficult to support the rapid development of international Chinese language education. Teachers assigned by Confucius Institutes played an enormous role in Chinese language education in these four Central Asian countries. The teachers of Chinese origin at institutions of higher education in Kyrgyzstan included 20 from Confucius Institutes who had been assigned or who had volunteered. All of the 20 teachers of Chinese origin in Tajikistan had been assigned by Confucius Institutes, or had volunteered. Of the total of 4 teachers of Chinese origin in Turkmenistan, all of them had been assigned by Confucius Institutes.

4 Recommendations 4.1 Strengthen research on the role of Confucius Institutes in the localization of international Chinese language education The Confucius Institutes play an important role in international Chinese language education in Central Asia, and research should be carried out on how to maintain and deepen the influence of the Confucius Institutes, to promote the preparation of localized educational materials and local teachers.

198

Li Yan (李琰) and Nie Xi (聂曦)

4.2 Increase efforts to assign Chinese language teachers and volunteers in Central Asia International Chinese language education in Central Asia is currently experiencing rapid development, and there is a significant shortage of teachers of Chinese origin, which calls for greater support from China.

4.3 Expand the preparation of theoretical and cultural educational materials suited to conditions in Central Asia High-caliber, advanced talents in the Chinese language need training in language theory, the culture of the destination country, translation theory, translation practices, and other skills. The current educational materials in the categories of theory and translation feature a limited variety and a high degree of difficulty, making it difficult for students to master them. Although there is a relatively wide variety of educational materials in the cultural category, these are inconsistent with the objectives of cultural courses offered at Central Asian institutions of higher education.

Zhou Hongbo (周洪波)

17 Publication of the third edition of Ciyuan (辞源) After eight years of revision, the third edition of Ciyuan (辞源), an encyclopedic new form of dictionary structured around words was released in paper, online and flash drive formats on the occasion of the hundredth anniversary of its first publication, and distributed simultaneously around the world. On December 24, 2015, the “Forum on the Hundredth Anniversary of the Publication of Ciyuan and the Publication of the Third Edition of Ciyuan,” sponsored by the Commercial Press, was ceremoniously held at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing, and Yan Juanqi (严隽琪), the Vice Chair of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, Du Zhanyuan (杜占元) the Vice Minister of the Ministry of Education and Chair of the State Language Commission, Wu Shangzhi (吴尚之), the Deputy Director of the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, Guo Yiqiang (郭义强), the Director of the Bureau of Publication of the CCP Publicity Department, Wang Tao (王涛), the Secretary of the Party Leadership Group, and other figures attended and gave speeches. Jiang Lansheng (江蓝生), a Member of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Yuan Xingpei (袁行霈), the Director of the Central Research Institute of Culture and History, He Jiuying (何九盈), Wang Ning (王宁) and Dong Kun (董琨), the editors-in-chief for the third edition of Ciyuan, and more than forty experts and scholars from across the country were also in attendance.

1 Overview of the dictionary’s creation 1.1 First edition of Ciyuan Ciyuan was compiled beginning in the late Qing Dynasty, and completed in 1915. In 1906, the Commercial Press established the “Character Dictionary Division” (字典部), and appointed Lu Erkui (陆尔奎) as its director. Work on the creation of Ciyuan began in 1908, with Lu Erkui (陆尔奎) as the chair, and principal editing personnel including Gao Fengqian (高凤谦), Fang Yi (方毅), Du Yaquan (杜亚泉), Sun Yuzhen (孙毓珍), Zhang Yuanji (张元济), Fu Yunsen (傅运森), Jiang Weiqiao (蒋维乔), Zhuang Yu (庄俞), Meng Sen (孟森), Gu Shi (顾实), Yin Weihe (殷惟和), Liu Binglin (刘秉麟), Xie Guan (谢观), and other figures, with more than fifty personnel participating from start to finish. In 1915, “the task was completed after eight years,” and the first edition was distributed https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-017

200

Zhou Hongbo (周洪波)

in October. “Since the date of publication of Ciyuan, there have been plans to set about” work on a sequel to Ciyuan. Lu Erkui (陆尔奎) and Gao Mengdan (高梦旦) “still took an interest in many affairs,” and through the efforts of editorial directors Fang Yi (方毅) and Fu Yunsen (傅运森) as well as nearly thirty members of the editing team, the sequel to Ciyuan was released in 1931. In 1939, the Commercial Press combined the original work and the sequel, publishing a one-volume edition of Ciyuan (Qiao, 2016). The first edition of Ciyuan included 11,204 individual characters and 87,790 compound words, for a total of 98,994 entries, with approximately 7 million characters. The collected entries focused on the most common, with an emphasis on practicality. The main text arranged the individual characters in order, with compound words included below the individual characters, marking the first publication of a modern dictionary editing format combining the two functions of a character dictionary and a word dictionary, as the mother of modern dictionaries in China. The publication of Ciyuan satisfied the contemporary need for the transmission of traditional culture and the study of new knowledge in all sectors of society, becoming an essential tabletop reference book for intellectuals in that era (Wang, 2015).

1.2 Second edition of Ciyuan The work of revising Ciyuan began in 1958. The Commercial Press established the “Ciyuan Group,” and Wu Zeyan (吴泽炎) served as the head of the group. Except for the ten-year period of the Cultural Revolution, the revision work continued without pause. In the summer of 1975, the revisions to Ciyuan were once again included under the National Dictionary Publishing Program. Starting in 1976, Wu Zeyan (吴泽炎), Liu Yeqiu (刘叶秋) and Huang Qiuyun (黄秋耘) assumed office as editors-in-chief for the revisions, respectively establishing revision offices in four provinces (regions), including Guangdong, Guangxi, Henan and Hunan, while closely cooperating with the Ciyuan Editorial Board of the Commercial Press. The first volume was published in 1979, and by year-end 1983, all four volumes of Ciyuan were complete, after twenty-four years of efforts, with more than four hundred people cumulatively participating in the revision work (Qiao, 2016). The second edition of Ciyuan included 12,890 individual characters and 84,134 compound words, for a total of 97,024 entries. The collected entries ended at the Opium War (1840), while common terms in ancient Chinese were broadly collected. Terms on natural science, the social sciences, and applied technology in Ciyuan were omitted, revising the comprehensive dictionary into a grand lexicon of ancient Chinese focusing on word entries and addressing literary allusions to poetry and prose, as well as history geography, cultural property,

17 Publication of the third edition of Ciyuan (辞源)

201

institutions, and so on, transforming it into a reference book for use in reading ancient books and an aid for those studying classical literature and history. In 1993, it received the Honorary Award for the first National Book Award.

1.3 Third edition of Ciyuan In 1999, the Commercial Press began looking into a new revision of Ciyuan. In 2006, Report on Initiating Further Revision of Ciyuan (启动《辞源》再修订的报 告) received approval by the China Publishing Group. In 2007, the “Ciyuan Revision Project Group” was formed, and a revised version of Ciyuan was laid out to correct its flaws. In 2010, it was granted funding by the National Publication Foundation. In 2011, He Jiuying (何九盈), Wang Ning (王宁), and Dong Kun (董琨) were engaged to serve as editors-in-chief, while 22 experts, including Wang Jiru (王继如) and Zhang Shuangdi (张双棣), served as the deputy editors. More than one hundred scholars were organized to carry out the revisions, and the Commercial Press assembled a 20-person team of editors and editorial assistants to dedicate their efforts to the cause. In October 2015, coordinated circulation of the paper and electronic formats of the third edition of Ciyuan began. The third edition of Ciyuan includes 14,210 characters and 92,646 compound words, for a total of 106,856 entries, with more than 1000 illustrations, amounting to approximately 12 million characters. The dictionary emerged at the perfect moment to promote China’s excellent traditional culture, and the revisers rode along with the tide of history, transforming Ciyuan from a compendium dictionary of ancient Chinese into a comprehensive dictionary including both common words in ancient Chinese as well as scientific and technical terms, turning it into a knowledge base for traditional Chinese culture using terms from ancient texts and their explanations as vehicles for information, and a bridge to traditional culture (He, Wang & Dong, 2015). The third edition of Ciyuan was listed as a key project under the National “12th Five-Year” Plan, and as a major funding project of the National Publication Foundation.

2 Characteristics of the revisions 2.1 Orientation of the revisions The third edition of Ciyuan was guided by the theory of linguistics, philology, and other disciplines, drew upon the rich experiences of more than thirty years

202

Zhou Hongbo (周洪波)

of compiling dictionaries, and absorbed the outstanding achievements of modern and contemporary scholars on the collation of ancient texts. Its efforts were chiefly focused in the following three areas: 1. Tackling problems at the source. Guided by the theory of modern spoken and written language, philology, and dictionaries, setting out from the knowledge corpora and the facts of language in ancient texts, the team sought out the origins of the forms, pronunciations, meanings, allusions, and verifications for the words, perfected the phonetic transcriptions, revised the definitions, and supplemented the documentary evidence, striving to achieve agreement between pronunciation and meaning, and between meaning and examples. 2. Strengthening encyclopedic entries. The encyclopedic entries on antiquity were supplemented, addressing many aspects of ancient society, culture and institutions, highlighting the dictionary‘s function as a repository for encyclopedic knowledge, further maintaining and strengthening the unique position of Ciyuan within the dictionary field, and revealing the historical origins of traditional Chinese culture, while facilitating its use as a reference by those researching ancient texts, literature and history. 3. Limited revisions. On the foundation of fully respecting the original definitions, obvious errors were revised and, on the basis of systemic needs, missing terms and glosses were appropriately supplemented, while controlling the scale for limited revisions. The laborious achievements of our predecessors were fully respected, changing what could be changed, and not changing what could not be changed.

2.2 Achievements of the revisions 1.

2.

Collation of character forms. Systematic collation was respectively carried out for the head characters, writing style, and wording for documentary evidence in Ciyuan. The dominant forms and standard models for the characters were determined, and redundant variant forms were deleted, forming a fairly standardized character system for printing ancient texts. The characters used in Ciyuan were the basis for the General Standard Character Forms for Printing Ancient Texts (古籍印刷通用字字形规范). Verification of phonetic transcriptions. A generally recognized phonological system was adopted to examine the pronunciation in early antiquity, pronunciation in middle antiquity, and modern pronunciation for the head characters in Ciyuan, allowing the phonetic transcriptions in Ciyuan to essentially achieve agreement between the pronunciation and meaning, and connection between past and present.

17 Publication of the third edition of Ciyuan (辞源)

203

3.

Supplementation of dictionary entries. Based on the principles of avoiding disorder and seeking precision, necessary supplementation of the head characters and words was completed. In this round of revisions, 1302 head characters and 8512 compound words were added, including 6500 new scientific and technical terms. 4. Improvement of definitions. The alignment between the documentary evidence and the definitions was carefully examined, further reflecting the role of documentary evidence in deepening and supplementing definitions. For allusive terms with Chinese-language characteristics, historical classification of the origins, meaning and presentation of the allusions was also completed. 5. Optimization of documentary evidence. Reference was made to reliable versions of textual sources to examine the original text and the source for documentary evidence, correct errors and imprecisions in the documentary evidence, and update and supplement the documentary evidence useful for examining the origins and development of characters and words. The modified documentary evidence and definitions encompassed 40,000 entries, with the rate of modification reaching 40%. 6. Communication system. The cross-referencing layout for characters, words, pronunciations, meanings, texts and events was refined, establishing communication between the relevant entries in Ciyuan to the fullest extent possible, overcoming the limitations of the fragmentation of dictionary information, and making it convenient for readers to obtain more detailed information. 7. Supplementation of illustrations. 618 illustrations corresponding to words describing cultural objects were added, providing intuitive supplementation of the definitions. 8. Refinement of the layout. On the foundation of the original text, the stylistic rules and layout of Ciyuan was refined, making this round of revisions more scientific.

3 Sharing experiences 3.1 Editor-in-chief accountability system In 2011, at the suggestion of General Manager Yu Dianli, the Commercial Press implemented the working mechanism of the “editor-in-chief accountability system” for the third edition of Ciyuan, under which the editors-in-chief would be completely responsible for the quality of the revisions. Thereafter, the editors-

204

Zhou Hongbo (周洪波)

in-chief instituted a top-down design for the third education, presenting a series of documents on the revisions, including Revision Plan for the Third Edition of Ciyuan 《辞源》 ( 第三版修订方案), Stylistic Rules for Revisions (修订体例), Several Comments on Revisions, Supplementation, and Deletions in the Third Edition of Ciyuan 《辞源》 ( 第三版修订、 增补、 删改的几点意见), Certain Principles for New Head Characters in the Third Edition of Ciyuan 《辞源》第三版新增字头的 ( 若干原则), Stylistic Rules for Handling Character Forms, Character Usage, and the Relationships Between Characters (字形、 字用与字际关系处理的体例), Twenty Matters for Attention in the Determination of Pronunciation in the Third Edition of Ciyuan 《辞源》 ( 第三版审音注意事项二十条), Detailed Stylistic Rules and Regulations for Revisions to Encyclopedic Entries in the Third Edition of Ciyuan 《辞源》第三版百科条目体例及修订细则), ( et cetera. The editors-inchief engaged 22 well-known experts from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Peking University, Beijing Normal University, Renmin University of China, Nanjing University, Wuhan University, Zhejiang University, and other institutions to serve as section chiefs, who then organized a revision team of more than 100 people, grouped by category, who took responsibility for their given tasks.

3.2 Developments over the course of the project The third edition treated common words as entries and scientific and technical terms as sections, and followed the guiding idea of “using entries as the guiding thread to integrate entries and sections and merge sections into entries, for unification as soon as possible,” pursuing revisions by class and by category, completing a draft before making press releases, and following the general course of implementing revisions, reviewing the manuscript, making edits, and adding the finishing touches. It was somewhat similar to an automobile production line, which begins with the fabrication of each part for the automobile, and finally assembles them all, with every link in the chain connected to the others. This greatly shortened the revision time, while also ensuring the quality of the revisions. It represented a breakthrough compared to the conventional model of integrating the reviewed manuscript, edits and press releases after the task of revising a large-scale dictionary is fully completed, and a bold innovation of the model for compiling and revising dictionaries.

17 Publication of the third edition of Ciyuan (辞源)

205

3.3 Synchronization of the paper and electronic formats The online and flash drive formats of the third edition of Ciyuan are identical to the content of the paper format. Their purpose is to provide head character retrieval, entry retrieval, and documentary evidence retrieval, providing multiple methods for retrieval of head characters, including Chinese pinyin, notation under the Four-Corner System, stroke count, radicals, and fanqie pronunciation, et cetera; offering fuzzy retrieval for entries, and providing retrieval of documentary evidence based on book names, personal names, place names, and other proper nouns. The retrieval results textually support word retrieval and retrieval from within the definitions, with support for combined simplified and traditional character retrieval. They provide note-taking, printing, cross-referencing with the paper format, and other auxiliary functions. Modernized methods were used to effectively build an archive of revisions to the third edition, providing the necessary preparations for further revisions in the future, while also offering a successful example of the organic integration of traditional Chinese culture and modern digital technology.

3.4 Team cooperation In the process of revisions, the editors-in-chief, section chiefs, revision personnel, and project groups worked in concert, and each department at the Press wholeheartedly cooperated, striving to practice “integration of editing, printing and release.” 61 meetings of the editors-in-chief and section chiefs were successively convened; more than 300,000 corpus entries for words and documentary evidence were pulled from the Ancient Books Corpus (古籍语料库), with more than 2.6 billion characters; the authors wrote 140,000 original draft texts and produced 15,000 proof sheets, while the authors, sections chiefs, editors-inchief, and Editorial Board reviewed 6 original manuscripts, and evaluated 6 rounds of proofs; the 50 specialized personnel completed 8 rounds of proofreading, checking more than 100 million characters. Prior to the formal publication, we broadly solicited comments from academic circles, inviting 108 experts and scholars from different fields to carry out a final review and quality check. The project groups compiled and released 20 issues of the Bulletin on Revision Work for Ciyuan 《辞源》 ( 修订工作简报) and 18 issues of the Newsletter on Revisions to Ciyuan 《辞源》 ( 修订通讯).

206

Zhou Hongbo (周洪波)

4 The spirit of Ciyuan 4.1 Taking on the responsibility of cherishing the homeland and transmitting culture The late 19th and early 20th centuries were a time of domestic turmoil and foreign encroachment for the Chinese nation, the moment when strengthening the state and preserving the race were most in peril, when traditional culture faced a live-or-die situation, and faced an enormous crisis of values and threats to its transmission. Powerful enemies were invading, Western learning was spreading in the East, and it was necessary to comprehensively study the advanced Western civilization and its scientific and cultural knowledge, to cultivate a new, modern indigenous civilization. In 1908, Lu Erkui (陆尔奎) cried out, “A country without a dictionary has no culture to speak of,” and out of nothing, he began compiling Ciyuan, devoting his efforts to building a bridge between traditional Chinese culture and modern scientific civilization. It was through the untiring efforts and brave undertakings of generation after generation of cultural sages and pioneers for their times that traditional Chinese culture was able to be transmitted, rejuvenated, and carried forward.1

4.2 An innovative spirit rooted in culture, with careful pioneering Culture is the essence of a people: one seeking to destroy a state must first exterminate its people, and one seeking to exterminate a people must first annihilate their culture; but to discard the false while retaining the true and cause traditional culture to shine with new life requires that we seek out new methods. Ciyuan has engaged in brilliant explorations with respect to compiling methods, stylistic rules of writing, content and subjects, and other areas, creating a brand-new landscape. It will have an important role as a model for the compiling of dictionaries and cultural innovation by future generations. The publication of Ciyuan symbolizes the beginning of our country’s modern literary dictionary publishing industry, symbolizes that our people have a new kind of dictionary integrating new knowledge and old learning, and symbolizes that,

 The following are excerpts from a speech by Yan Juanqi (严隽琪) while attending the Forum on the Hundredth Anniversary of the Publication of Ciyuan and the Publication of the Third Edition of Ciyuan (《 辞源》出版百年暨《 辞源》第三版出版座谈会)

17 Publication of the third edition of Ciyuan (辞源)

207

in this time of cultural transformation, China will no longer be subject to difficulties in cultural transmission and cultural popularization, and has entered a new era of advances in scholarship.

4.3 A spirit of patient and steady devotion Due to its profound difficulty and the significant amount of time consumed, compiling and revising a dictionary is bemoaned as the work of sages. It took 8 years to compile the first edition of Ciyuan, with more than 50 people participating from beginning to end, and Editor-in-Chief Lu Erkui (陆尔奎) nearly lost his sight because of it. The revision of the second edition spanned nearly 30 years, with innumerable participants, and the chair Wu Zeyan (吴泽炎) suffered a breakdown from overwork. The revision of the third edition took 8 years, with participation by more than 100 experts and scholars from institutions of higher education and scientific research institutes across the country. The editors-inchief and editors paid no need to their aging and did not shrink from hardship, making astonishing efforts that evoke extreme gratitude and admiration. On this occasion of the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Ciyuan and the publication of its third edition, a profound tribute is expressed to all the writers and editorial staff for the first, second and third editions.

References He, Jiuying (何九盈), Wang, Ning (王宁), & Dong, Kun (董琨). 2015.“Preface” to the third edition of Ciyuan《辞源》第三版“前言”). ( Ciyuan: A Bridge to Traditional Culture 《辞源》 ( : 通往传统文化的桥). Commercial Press (商务印书馆). Qiao, Yong (乔永). 2016. History of Ciyuan《辞源》 ( 史论). The Commercial Press International Co., Ltd. (商务印书馆国际有限公司). Wang, Ning (王宁). The modern significance of Ciyuan at one hundred years (百年《辞源》 的 现代意义). Guangming Daily (光明日报), December 22, 2015.

Meng Qingxin (孟庆欣)

18 An examination of literature and history textbooks in Manchukuo From the Mukden Incident of September 18, 1931, to victory in the War of Resistance against Japan, Japan used the puppet government of Manchukuo to impose colonial rule over Northeast China for a period of 14 years. During this time, Japan’s puppet ruler aggressively implemented colonial policies in the areas of politics, culture and education, and in particular, actively promoted education for assimilation and saturation by means of literature and history textbooks.

1 General overview Roughly speaking, the textbooks of Manchukuo were compiled in several phases. As recorded in the History of Manchukuo: Books for Use in Teaching (洲国史· 教科 用图书), written by the Society for Compiling and Publishing the History of Japanese Manchukuo and translated by the Jilin Group for Compiling the History of the Fourteen Years of Occupation of the Northeast, in April 1932, soon after the establishment of Manchukuo, the Three People’s Principles textbooks of the Nationalist government were abandoned and replaced with the Four Books and the Classic of Filial Piety (孝经) as temporary textbooks. Later, textbooks focusing on the key themes of the four specializations of Confucius’ disciples were compiled. In March 1934, after the imperial regime was formed, the Ministry of Culture and Education issued the Decision on National Textbooks (有关国定教科书的决定), and under the auspices of a strict application and review system, the use of 671 books was approved, while 156 books were prohibited; at the same time, various primary and secondary school textbooks were compiled, including 37 books in the first stage, 29 books in the second stage, and 15 books in the third stage. In May 1937, following the announcement that the “New Learning System” would be implemented, a total of 361 primary school, secondary school, and teacher training textbooks in 106 categories were compiled. Following the outbreak of the Pacific War, the textbooks Strength of the Nation (国势) and Fundamental Principles of the Nation (国本) were successively compiled. Thereafter, no further works were published before the fall of Manchukuo. In recent years, Japan has devoted particular attention to collecting and studying literature and history textbooks from the Manchukuo era, while placing https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-018

210

Meng Qingxin (孟庆欣)

great emphasis on the preservation and photolithographic publishing of textbooks from the period of the Japanese occupation of China. Since 2007, the Japanese Ministry of Education has created general projects with roughly 100 million yen in funding every three years. At the same time, it has also formed 1–3 individual projects with millions of yen in funding each year. Without exception, these projects have beautified colonial education, demonstrating the great efforts and attention directed toward providing historical experiences for the overseas development of modern-day Japan (Qi, 2015). In recent years, China has also begun to give attention to gathering and studying the literature and history textbooks of Manchukuo. According to statistics, as of the present, domestic collections now hold 202 textbooks from the early period of Manchukuo (8 books at Northeast Normal University, 4 books at Peking University, 82 books at Dalian Library, 4 books at Beijing library, and 104 books at the Shenyang Qifang Center for Educational Research and Consulting); and 381 books from the middle to later periods of Manchukuo (1 book at Beijing Library, 16 books at the Library of Northeast Normal University, 3 books at Dalian Library, 5 books at Shenyang September 18 Museum, and 356 books at the Shenyang Qifang Center for Educational Research and Consulting). In addition, more than 100 books are still held in scattered private collections (Qi, n. d.).

2 Characteristics of the content The principal characteristics of the content of literature and history textbooks from the era of Manchukuo are: Reckless division and misrepresentation of Chinese culture, as a basis for the propagation and saturation of Japanese culture, so as to carry out assimilation education.

2.1 Narrowing Confucian thought to loyalty, forbearance and order The literary education work of Manchukuo took wangdao ren’ai (王道仁爱, ‘the kingly way and humanity’) as its guiding principle, and the founding spirit of the state which served as its ideological basis was also grafted onto the branches of Confucianism. The many literature and history textbooks published in the name of the government of Manchukuo, including Self-Cultivation (修身), Japanese Language (日语), Manchu Language (满语), History (历史), and so on, all served

18 An examination of literature and history textbooks in Manchukuo

211

as vehicles for stultifying enslavement education revolving around the idea of the “spiritual oneness of Japan and Manchukuo.” Lesson Seven, “Confucius” (孔子), in Volume One of the National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民优级学校满语国民读本) said: Each word in the text of the Analects of Confucius is a gem, and in particular, the dual language of “The sovereign shall be a sovereign, the subject a subject, the father a father, and the son a son” is a well-established truism, and should be adhered to faithfully. Confucius was presumably saying that a sovereign cannot do other than to follow the path of the sovereign, a subject cannot do other than to follow the path of the subject, the father cannot do other than to follow the path of the father, and the son cannot do other than to follow the path of the son. Zhu’s annotations said, “This is the great classic of the way of humanity, and the foundation of government affairs.” Indeed, this is not falsely spoken. Today, Our Imperial Majesty is wise and benevolent, often thinking of the happiness of the thirty million citizens, following the path of the sovereign to the utmost extent. Can our generation of citizens, whether male or female, young or old, do other than to respectfully accept his brilliant edicts and follow the principles of a subject to their utmost extent?

Essential Selections from National Literature: The Kingly Way as the Harbinger of Peace for East Asia (国文选粹· 王道主义为东亚和平之先声), a supplementary text for the national subject of the Manchu language at advanced national schools, also said: The way of the king is the great way of the Sage Confucius. Its chief principles are loyalty and forbearance, both sound strategies for peace and prosperity, and ingenious plans for reconciliation.

The Japanese puppet state poured great efforts into the veneration and worship of Confucius. “History After the Founding: Veneration of Confucius, Learning and Art” (建国后史· 尊孔与学艺) in Textbook of National History (国史教科书) of the puppet Ministry of Education said: “The kingly way is the center of governance, and the Confucian school is the essence of education. The essence of the kingly way concerns loyalty and forbearance, and understanding of the way of loyalty and forbearance stems from Confucius. Thus Confucius is what ties together the Eastern ethical relationships and morality, and is likewise from whence our country’s government and education originate. Upon its founding, our country has thus taken the worship of Confucius as a great ceremony of the state.” The purpose of venerating and worshiping Confucius was: “The spirit of governance on the foundation of the kingly way is the implementation of cosmopolitanism, to take popular feeling within the ambit of morality and the code of propriety, with one morality from high to low, to vitalize the affairs of

212

Meng Qingxin (孟庆欣)

state” (Ministry of Education of the Manchukuo State Council, 1934a). The reason for making sacrifices to Confucius was so that the public would “believe in the words of the ancient sage Confucius, to maintain popular feeling, public order, and public peace” (Wang, 1934). “In recent years, due to the influence of a tide of evil, the mentality of ordinary people has turned toward deceitfulness . . . . and the performance of cheap tricks that diverge from the classics and betray the way, and so it is that popular feeling has been made to worsen, public order has been ever more deranged, and the state has been thrown into chaos . . . .” (Hu, 1934). Confucius was regarded by Manchukuo as a kunxiansheng (捆仙绳, ‘fairy rope’) for fettering the people’s thoughts, concealing ethnic conflict, maintaining social order, and compelling “ethnic harmony.”1

2.2 Falsifying the history of Northeast China, and emphasizing the unity of the five ethnic groups In school education and social education during the era of the Japanese puppet state, the ethnic groups dwelling in China’s three eastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning were not a part of the Chinese nation, nor were the provinces a part of the Chinese nation; rather, they were citizens of Manchukuo, which united the five ethnic groups Han, Manchu, Mongol, Japanese, and Korean. Lesson 22, “History Before Manchukuo” (满洲国前史), in Volume Eight of the National Manchu Language Reader for National Schools (国民学校满语国民 读本) wrote: Our country’s most ancient ethnic group is the so-called Sushen ethnic group. Three thousand years ago, they survived by hunting across Northern Manchuria . . . . At the time of the Boxer Rebellion, soldiers occupied Manchuria and moreover sought to invade Korea, and the survival of Manchuria and Korea as well as the rise or fall of the Qing state and Japan were directly tied to the flourishing or decline of the Eastern ethnic groups. Japan was therefore stirred to rise up and vanquish Russia, to deliver the East from peril . . . .

Lesson 16, “The Spirit of Ethnic Harmony” (民族协和之精神), in Volume One of the National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民优级 学校满语国民读本) said: “Our country’s principal indigenous ethnic groups are

 The kunxiansheng (捆仙绳, ‘fairy rope’) was a talisman of the immortal Juliusun in the classical Chinese novel The Investiture of the Gods (封神演义), the power of which depended on the user’s skill. It could bind the immortals of the various paths.

18 An examination of literature and history textbooks in Manchukuo

213

the Han, Manchu, Mongols, Japanese, Koreans, and so on . . . . The citizens of the so-called Manchu Empire refers to the various ethnic groups which submitted to the rule of the Manchu Empire.” Here, Japanese expatriates were already being misrepresented as an “indigenous ethnic group” in Northeast China. National History Textbook for Primary and Secondary Schools: History Before the Founding of the State: Summary (初级中学校国史教科书·建国前史· 概说): Since the Sushen, our country has long been centered on Paektu Mountain . . . . The Manchu were chief among our country’s indigenous ethnic groups, followed by the Mongol and Han ethnic groups. The Manchu were the ancient Sushen, and in their later history, they changed to various names, including the Yilou, Wuji, Tungusic, and Ruzhen. The Mongol and Han ethnic groups are the same now as in the past, without any changes . . . . Taking a longitudinal view of history, our country indeed has three thousand years of independent history. Viewed in terms of its territory, ethnic groups, politics, culture, and other respects, it need not be said that it has the standing and essential factors of a great empire. Thus our nation was founded upon these four vehicles, not only to undertake the unfinished work of the ancestors, but also to pursue grand ventures with the aid of a friendly nation.

Instances of the distortion of historical facts and brazen deception were ubiquitous in these history textbooks. National History Textbook for Primary and Secondary Schools: History Before the Founding of the State (初级中学校国史教科书· 建国前史) of the puppet Ministry of Education: In light of the inseparability of the Japanese and Manchu nations, Japan has moreover aided in the positive development of the Manchu authorities. On the one hand, it has built railroads, opened mines, and planted gardens, striving to promote natural resources; on the other hand, it has established schools, founded newspaper offices, written books, and encouraged study abroad, with wholehearted devotion to instilling culture. The Manchu people have thus gradually climbed out of the fire and floods and into their beds.

National History Textbook for Primary and Secondary Schools: History After the Founding of the State (初级中学校国史教科书· 建国后史) continued on to write: When Zhang Xueliang insulted the Japanese, Japan then appointed General Honjō as the Commander of the Kwantung Army to establish a defensive garrison in Manchuria, and though he harbored an attitude of dissatisfaction toward Zhang, he still maintained a dignified forbearance, in the hope of preserving peace in Manchuria. To his surprise, Zhang failed to understand the tacit implications of a friendly nation, and actively took provocative actions . . . . On September 18, one year prior to the common era, troops were dispatched as a friendly nation out of a sense of justice, first repelling the bandits of Beidaying, and then capturing Fengtian overnight. The warlord, with his evil legacy, fled

214

Meng Qingxin (孟庆欣)

in plain clothes, and the streets of Fengtian exhibited a state of chaos for a time. Fortunately, relying on the military and police of the friendly nation, no effort was spared for preservation, seizing the grain stored by the warlord and distributing it to the common people. Fengtian thus moved from peril to peace, and the common people all rejoiced; this was the Manchu Incident, also referred to as the September 18 Incident.

Apart from history textbooks, many textbooks for national language and literature and other subjects also wantonly falsified history, engaging in brazen deception. Lesson 11, “The Founding of Our Country” (我国建国), in Book Four of National Language and Literature Textbook for Primary and Secondary Schools (初 级中学校国文教科书): Through the day and night on September 18, one year prior to the common era of Great Harmony, a squadron from the Fengtian Army destroyed the South Manchuria Railway at Liutiaogou. The Japanese squadron on garrison duty leapt up to meet the enemy attack. Within a few days, the Fengtian Army had been successively defeated in various areas, and had fled within the passes.

Lesson 1, “Founding of the State” (建国), in Volume One of National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民优级学校满语国民读本): Zhang’s willful tyranny was swift and endless, and he even threatened the lives of the Japanese people in Manchuria. . . . Through the day and night of September 18 in the Sixth Year of the Showa Reign, Zhang’s troops destroyed a Manchuria railway line in the vicinity of Liutiaohu at Fengtian, and then launched a surprise attack against the Japanese squadron on garrison duty. The Japanese troops stationed in Manchuria felt that this matter was highly significant, so in the spirit of self-defense and the manifestation of morality and justice, they resolutely rose up with force, and immediately dispelled Zhang’s evil influence, which had filled the skies of Manchuria. Our peoples across Manchuria cheered in celebration, coinciding in the same action.

Lesson 6, “Founding of the State” (建国), and Lesson 22, “From Hsinking to Fengtian” (从新京到奉天), in Volume Five of National Manchu Language Reader for National Schools (国民学校满语国民读本), presented similar lies. Another example is Lesson 21, “The Japanese Language” (日本语), in Volume Five of National Manchu Language Reader for National Schools (国民学校满语国民读本): The founding of the state of Japan has a long history of more than two thousand six hundred years. The citizens of Japan have eternally devoted their allegiance to the imperial family in an unbroken line for generation upon generation, with utter loyalty and wholehearted dedication to the country, and have consequently gradually developed and taken a place as a first-class country in the world. A so-called first-class country does not merely refer to military strength and civilizational progress. There are many strong countries in the world,

18 An examination of literature and history textbooks in Manchukuo

215

which often invade weak countries. Only Japan cherishes morality and justice, and has never engaged in affairs which took advantage of its strength to bully the weak . . . . Our Manchuria has had a close relationship with Japan since antiquity. For instance, the Russo-Japanese War of some thirty years ago first arose due to the endless stream of Russian troops establishing garrisons in Manchuria, and furthermore seeking to set foot in Korea, and arrogate both Manchuria and Korea to themselves. At that time, Japan’s national strength was still relatively weak, and its culture was also inferior to what it is now. Even so, with one heart and mind, it gambled the fate of the nation, confronting Russia despite everything, and ultimately driving the Russian troops out of Manchuria . . . . Since the Manchuria Incident took place, the Japanese Army has spared no effort to oust the old regime, rescuing our population of thirty million, as well as righteously aiding in building the new country. However, at that time, bandits were still rampaging, and the people’s lives and property could not be secured. Fortunately, the Japanese troops launched punitive expeditions year after year, and only now are they lying low . . . . Our primary school students must bear responsibility for the development of the newly founded Manchukuo. It is therefore necessary to be closer to the Japanese people in the future, and to be dedicated to serving the country with one mind. Our urgent task now is to learn the Japanese language, so as to be able to freely converse with the Japanese people. Furthermore, to emulate the strengths of the Japanese people, receive instruction from the Japanese people, and frequently read works of literature and news in the Japanese language are all affairs of the utmost importance . . . The Japanese language and Manchu language have the same script, which is easy to understand, unlike the difficulty of learning another foreign script or language. Whenever we study the Japanese language at school, we must be particularly diligent, so that we can learn the Japanese language well a little sooner, to make more Japanese friends, and build mutual good will; only then can we together plan for the development of the country.

2.3 Distorting the indigenous way of kings, and replacing it with the Japanese way of the emperor The language policies of Manchukuo rested on the guogang (国纲, ‘governing principles’) centered on the wangdao (王道, ‘way of kings’), as well as the guoben (国本, ‘foundation of the state’) centered on the huangdao (皇道, ‘way of the emperor’). Wangdao (王道, ‘way of kings’) represented feudal morality and propriety. Imperial Edict on the Current Political Situation (时局诏书) stated, “Only our Manchu Empire has established the foundation of the state, with benevolence and love as the basis for governance, and loyalty and filial piety as the basis for education.” General Doctrines on School Education (学校教育总说) stated, “The founding of our Manchuria took the way of kings as its ultimate principle. Its educational policies should likewise be aimed toward what is right . . . . Furthermore, within the spirit of the way of kings, universal love is of foremost importance. We must be sure to thoroughly eradicate the concept

216

Meng Qingxin (孟庆欣)

of so-called race and anti-foreign thought, without leaving behind the slightest trace of ill-feeling, in the hope that the nation may cooperate internationally, and to cultivate the foundation for humanity to love one another” (Ministry of Education of the Manchukuo State Council, 1934b). In fact, the purpose of this doctrine was to instill docility and uncritical acceptance of the people’s enslavement by the Japanese, a foreign race, without any resistance or even any resentment. In the words of Declaration on Governance (执政宣言), “Today our state is founded, giving first place to morality, benevolence and love, and eliminating the view of race and international conflict; thus it may be seen that the paradise of the way of kings is a true fact.” Huangdao (皇道, ‘way of the emperor’) represented beliefs from the Shintō system of thought, known in Chinese as weishen zhidao (惟神之道, ‘the way of the kami from time immemorial’) or in ancient times as shendao (神道, ‘the way of the kami’). Imperial Edict on Establishing the Foundation of the State (国本奠定诏书) addressed the meaning of guogang (国纲, ‘governing principles’) and guoben (国本, ‘foundation of the state’), as well as how they were to be implemented: Since the founding of our state. . . there are none who have not relied upon the spiritual shelter of Amaterasu, and the blessing and protection of His Imperial Majesty of Japan . . . . It is hoped that the foundation of the state may be rooted in the way of the kami from time immemorial, while the governing principles set forth the teachings of loyalty and filial piety, with contentment arising from benevolence and love, transformation arising from harmony and peace, order throughout the land, and true protection and spiritual shelter . . . . Carry out the will of Amaterasu, and look up to her for the norms of human existence and the principles of life, practicing ceaselessly to be aware of them, embody them, and manifest them, being consistent in all ways, with the entire nation hastening in the same direction, such that they appear in politics, morality, industry, the economy, culture, and many other sectors, and the entirety of life is imbued with their practice. . . . All citizens of our Manchukuo must sincerely know the principal points of offering sacrifices to the primary spirit for the founding of the state, the origin of the establishment of the temple of the gods for the founding of the state, and the way of the kami from time immemorial for the founding of the state, so as to ensure that the foundation of the state is established in perpetuity, and firmly establish the farsightedness of the origins of its policies and education.

Lesson One and Lesson Two from Lessons for Citizens (国民训) likewise declared, “Citizens must study how the origins of the founding of the state arose from the way of the kami from time immemorial, with the utmost esteem for Amaterasu, and utter loyalty to His Imperial Majesty. Citizens must take loyalty, filial piety, benevolence and honor as the foundation, with harmony and peace between races, striving to achieve a virtuous nation.”

18 An examination of literature and history textbooks in Manchukuo

217

Wangdao (王道, ‘way of kings’) and huangdao (皇道, ‘way of the emperor’) thus served as the guiding ideologies through which Japan exerted ideological control over Northeast China in two different periods, respectively corresponding to the early stages and the more advanced stages, with the indigenous Chinese ideology serving as foreshadowing for the later arrival of the Japanese product. Japan’s puppet rulers were well aware of the great significance of imparting the wangdao (王道, ‘way of kings’) and its extension, huangdao (皇道, ‘way of the emperor’), a move which concerned the political and moral identity of the people of Manchukuo, as well as their values and system of faith characterized by “spiritual oneness.”

2.4 Implantation of Japanese culture and forced assimilation and saturation Manchukuo took all opportunities to promote leading figures in Japanese culture as well as the concept of loyalty to the emperor, for the purpose of pursuing assimilation and saturation. Book Four of the educational materials for primary school, entitled SelfCultivation (修身), included the following content: The opening chapter was “His Imperial Majesty” (皇帝陛下), which addressed the manifesto for the founding of the state, and the great expectations for its people. It was followed by the story of how Nakae Tōju (中江藤树), known as “the sage of Ōmi,” returned money that he had found; the story of the famous Japanese scholar Kaibara Ekken (贝原益 轩) and his generous treatment of others; the story of Ninomiya Kinjirō (二宫金 次郎), a model of virtue, who performed military service on his father’s behalf; the story of the Japanese merchant Takada Zenemon (高田善右卫门), who became rich by honest means; and the story of the Kamimura fleet, which rescued 600 Russian sailors who fell overboard during Russo-Japanese War, touching the world. The text also touched upon ethnic harmony, good will between Manchuria and Japan, abiding by the law and paying taxes, and finally ended with loyalty to the emperor and patriotism: “To speak as if it were a body, the emperor is like the head, and the subjects are the limbs, inseparable parts of one body. To speak as if it were a family, the emperor is like the parent, and the subjects are like the children, depending upon one another for life, and sharing their joys and sorrows. If one understands this principle, then one knows the closeness of the relationship between the subjects, the emperor and the state, and a mentality of loyalty to the emperor and patriotism will spontaneously arise.” “Noguchi Hideyo” (野口英世) in Volume One of the National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民优级学校满语国民读本) told the

218

Meng Qingxin (孟庆欣)

story in which the famous Japanese doctor Noguchi Hideyo presented a gift to his mother. “Hanawa Hokiichi” (塙保己一) in Book Five of National Language and Literature Textbook for Primary Schools (初级小学校国文教科书) told the story of a deaf Japanese scholar. “Nakae Tōju” (中江藤树) in Volume Eight of National Manchu Language Reader for National Schools (国民学校满语国民读本) told the story of how Nakae Tōju, “the sage of Ōmi,” returned money he had found to a groom in the same village. “General Nogi and His Wife” (乃木将军及其夫人) in Volume Two of the National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民 优级学校满语国民读本) related the utter loyalty to the Japanese emperor shown by Nogi, a Japanese general in the Russo-Japanese War, and his entire family. “Call of the Divine Wind” (神风号), “Praising the Divine Wind” (赞神风), and “Scenery of Japan” (日本之风物) comprised the content of Volume Three of the National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民优级学校 满语国民读本), while “The National Flag” (国旗), “Birthday of the Emperor” (万寿 节), “Founding Day” (建国节), “Birthday of the Emperor in Japan” (天长节), and other texts comprised the content of Volume Three of the National Japanese Language Reader for National Schools (国民学校日语国民读本). In some readers for studying the Japanese language, such as New Japanese Language Reader (新撰日 本语读本), written by Ōde Masātsu (大出正笃), apart from dialogues and common grammar mistakes, chapters like “Events in Japan” (日本事情) were also included, with a total of twenty texts “for the purpose of teaching about the customs, habits and scenery of Japan.” Calligraphy exercises included content such as, “Peaceful, loyal and brave, cooperating to move forward together; diligently serving, to promote unity”; “Being of the same language and same race, we have long had sincere good will and friendship, and with unanimity of heart and mind, today we see that we are firmly joined”; “Rising up with all our forces to reveal the spirit of morality, each race is jubilant in celebrating the commemorations of the founding of the state.” The texts also sought to strengthen Japan’s position as suzerain. The opening chapter in many textbooks included quotes from imperial edicts by Emperor Pu Yi (溥仪). Imperial Edict on Ascending to the Throne (即位诏书) said: “By virtue of the mandate received from Heaven, the Emperor decrees: Our state has been established, with the name Manchuria, and has now reached two years. It is the will of Heaven that it love the people, and rely upon the just loyalty of a friendly nation . . . . braving the suspicions of the masses, the Empire of Japan has not turned away; assailed by the censure of the masses, it has not taken its leave, but has acted to deliver the people, and together aid the drowning . . . .When we are of one mind and one heart with the Empire of Japan, we may hope to remain secure forever.” Imperial Edict Instructing the People on Returning to the Palace (回銮训民 诏书) said, “Since We ascended to the throne . . . the founding of our state unto

18 An examination of literature and history textbooks in Manchukuo

219

this year has always relied upon the just loyalty of a friendly nation which has striven to establish the imperial throne . . . . We are of one spirit with His Imperial Majesty of Japan, and you common people ought even more to observe this meaning, and be of one heart and mind with the friendly nation so as to establish the perpetual foundation of the two states . . . .” Imperial Edict on the Current Political Situation (时局诏书) said, “Seek only to benefit and cultivate the cause of virtue, and be of one mind with allies.” Lesson Four, “Development of Humankind” (人类之发展), in Volume Three of the National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民优级学 校满语国民读本): “In observing our ally Japan, with its surpassing strength, it alone has raised the flag of idealism, marching forward as the builder of a moral and just world. Our Manchu Empire is not only hastening under this banner, but is furthermore guided and supported by this friendly nation. We believe that in this moral and just state, it is not difficult to nourish goodness and perfect growth.” Lesson 10, “Unanimity in Feeling between Japan and Manchukuo” (日满一 德一心), in Volume One of the National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民优级学校满语国民读本) also recorded the scene of the Emperor of Manchukuo paying respects to Japan during a visit there. “On April 3, suitable sacrifices were made to Emperor Jimmu. This morning, His Imperial Majesty visited Imperial Battleship Hiei, and the Imperial Navy was dressed in formal attire . . . . With a dignified salute, he paid his respects to the eastern sky in the distance, indistinguishable from the sea.” Lesson 16, “The Spirit of Ethnic Harmony” (民族协和之精神), in Volume One of the National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民优级学校满语国民读本): “The mission of the citizens of our Manchu empire is to take the ideals of the citizens of the Empire of Japan as their ideals, in the hope of achieving a moral and just world.” Lesson 1, “Founding of the State” (建国), in Volume One of National Manchu Language Reader for Advanced National Schools (国民优级学校满语国民读本): “So it is that more than two thousand five hundred and ninety years have passed since the founding of the state of Japan, with the emperor above in an unbroken line for generation upon generation, and the loyally supportive citizens below, taking as their mission the achievement of the founding ideal of the so-called ‘unification of the eight corners of the world.’ Of the many common failings of East and West in the modern era, none is greater than the waxing of material culture and the waning of the concepts of morality and justice. Only Japan has taken up the objective of creating a moral and just world, and has unstintingly rendered aid for the promotion of morality and justice in many countries. But Zhang did not understand Japan’s mission of morality and justice, with the result that he incited the September 18 incident.”

220

Meng Qingxin (孟庆欣)

3 Warnings The literature and history textbooks of Manchukuo served as powerful tools for the Japanese invaders to brainwash the masses and instill Japanese culture and its value system. This offers us the following warnings:

3.1 Place emphasis on the educational function of textbooks For a child, textbooks inspire and guide thought, and are the earliest representatives and shapers of ideology. If the language in a textbook has a salutary educational influence, it will serve as the principal vehicle of intergenerational transmission, as well as the code for ethnic identification, and the most important bond for national cultural heritage. Therefore, we must place emphasis on the subtle role of textbooks with respect to education in national identity, ethnic identity, and cultural identity, and strengthen national consciousness, cultivating competent citizens for the future of the country.

3.2 Be vigilant against the use of textbooks to distort history Selective memory is often detrimental to the education of the next generation. In Ways of Forgetting, Ways of Remembering: Japan in the Modern World, John Dower described how secondary school textbooks in Japan contain very few descriptions of World War II, reflecting the “official attempts to downplay the ‘dark’ aspects of Japan’s modern history” (Dower, 2012). Even Asahi News (朝日 新闻) has noted that the history of Japanese aggression is now disappearing from history textbooks (Sun, 2013). In April 2015, the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology announced the results of its review of textbooks, and the descriptions in certain textbooks once again regressed in terms of their understanding of history. For instance, the textbooks referred to the Diaoyu Islands and Dokdo Islands, the sovereign rights over which are disputed by China and South Korea, as “the intrinsic territory of Japan,” while revising the description of the actions by the Japanese Army in the Nanjing Massacre from “slaughtered many prisoners of war and residents” to “affected prisoners of war and residents.” The distortion of history in the textbooks of Manchukuo and the dangerous reluctance of the authorities of modern Japan to squarely face up to history should prompt in us the highest degree of vigilance.

18 An examination of literature and history textbooks in Manchukuo

221

References Dower, John. 2012. Ways of Forgetting, Ways of Remembering: Japan in the Modern World. The New Press, 132. Hu, Mianshu (胡绵书). 1934. Why does Manchukuo view the matter of sacrifices to Confucius as highly important? (满洲国为什么把祭孔这件事看得很重?). Ministry of Education of the Manchukuo State Council (伪国务院文教部), Almanac of Literary Education in Manchukuo (满洲国文教年鉴), 1124. Qi, Hongshen (齐红深). n. d. Distribution and Modern Collections of Manchukuo textbooks (伪满教科书发行与当今的收藏). http://qihongsheng.blogchina.com/566367.html. Qi, Hongshen (齐红深). 2015. Perseverance: ironclad evidence exposing lies (执着不弃 铁证戳 穿谎言). China Education Newspaper (中国教育报), September 3, 2015. Ministry of Education of the Manchukuo State Council (伪国务院文教部). 1934a. Preface on the equinox sacrifices (丁祭序文). Almanac of Literary Education in Manchukuo (满洲国文 教年鉴), 1099. Ministry of Education of the Manchukuo State Council (伪国务院文教部). 1934b. Almanac of Literary Education in Manchukuo (满洲国文教年鉴), 551–552. Sun, Jianfeng (孙建锋). 2013. ‘Distortion’ of the world in foreign textbooks (国外教科书里的 “变形”世界). Renmin wenzhai (People’s Digest), no. 2. Wang, Mingxi (王明玺). 1934. Confuciuanism and Manchukuo (孔教与满洲国). Ministry of Education of the Manchukuo State Council (伪国务院文教部). Almanac of Literary Education in Manchukuo (满洲国文教年鉴), 1121.

Part V: Hot topics

Wang Lei (汪磊)

19 “Two-Child Policy” triggers a frenzied linguistic carnival On October 29, 2015, the 5th Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party concluded in Beijing after lasting four days, and that evening, the “Plenum Bulletin” (全会公报) was broadcast, which included, “upholding the fundamental national policy of family planning, perfecting the strategy for population development, comprehensively implementing the policy under which one couple may give birth to two children, and actively pursuing actions to address aging of the population.” This was immediately and universally summarized as the erhai zhengce (二孩政策, ‘two-child policy’), triggering a frenzied linguistic carnival with online and offline interaction.

1 A linguistic carnival triggered by the “two-child policy” In recent years, following changes in national conditions, China’s family planning policies have been appropriately readjusted, shifting from shuangdu erhai (双独二孩, ‘second child for two only-child parents’) to dandu erhai (单独二孩, ‘second child for one only-child parent’), and further to quanmian erhai (全面二 孩, ‘second child for all’), with progressive easing. In fact, related debates had emerged in the streets even earlier, giving rise to a number of online jokes, as shown in Figure 1: This Weibo was posted around noon on July 22, 2015, with the subtitle “Comprehensive easing for two births” (全面放开二胎), and it paired the blog content about an old woman who wants to have another child with her old man with two extremely apt images. The first was an image of Li Bin (李斌), then-director of the National Family Planning Commission, on television, while the other was a photograph of an old man happily patting his wife’s swelling belly. The blog article represented an excellent combination of text and imagery, being composed of text, emoticons and images, while also being highly in accord with the multimodal characteristics of online information at present. However, similar sketches did not achieve widespread dissemination. When the “two-child policy,” which generations of people had longed for amidst endless confusion finally became something more than street gossip, people experienced https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-019

226

Wang Lei (汪 磊)

A few words of ridicule Listeners Listening Broadcasting 24825 572 28520 Top referee for national martial arts, member of the Chinese Painter and Calligraphers’ Association [Comprehensive easing for two children] I heard there would be easing for two children, and it made my wife giddy, grinning so much that she couldn’t close her mouth, this was something long-awaited….The old man heard it and his mouth twisted in disgust, I’m an old man and you’re an old woman, how can you still say such things. The wife heard it and pouted, let’s have another baby….

July 22, 2015 11:18 Figure 1: Screenshot from Tencent Weibo (Tencent Weibo, 2015).

sudden joy, pulling out their mobile phones and truly transforming themselves into zi meiti (自媒体, ‘self-media’), to rapidly spread word of the country’s “twochild policy.” After that, there were more comedy sketches on the “two-child policy” than anyone could follow, and the speed and scope of their dissemination was less than what might have been expected.

1.1 Transformation and innovation of modes of expression In 1980, in an open letter to Party and Youth League members, the Party Central Committee called for “one couple to give birth to only one child”; two years later, the Party’s 12th National Congress set “family planning” as a fundamental national policy, and in December of that year, it was formally written into the Constitution. For people born after 1980 and their parents, the only child and family planning policies were extremely familiar, but now that they were suddenly confronted with the “two-child policy,” there was a certain degree of confusion, and for a time they did not know how to express it. At first, there was consequently nalaizhuyi (拿来主义, ‘borrowism’), or the remaking of existing texts: Sheng haishi bu sheng, zhe shi yige wenti (生还是不生, 这是一个问题, ‘To be born or not to be born, that is the question’).

This phrase is derived from a classic monologue in the well-known Shakespearean play Hamlet: “To be or not to be, that is the question,” translated into

19 “Two-Child Policy” triggers a frenzied linguistic carnival

227

Chinese as Shengcun haishi huimie, zhe shi yige wenti (生存还是毁灭, 这是一个 问题, ‘To live or to be destroyed, that is the question’). When this phrase emerged, it naturally ascended to the heights of consideration, but the “twochild policy” is ultimately a practical social problem, which involves confronting concrete people and events: A problem for the old men’s world: Your wife and mother have both fallen in the water, who do you save first? A problem for the new men’s world: Your wife and mother are both convalescing after childbirth, who do you wait upon? (11-03-2015, personal friend circle)

While old problems still linger unresolved, the new problems of the world were placed before the men of China, with quite the sense of heavy pressure. However, this did not clip the wings of the imagination of Chinese netizens: they sought to escape the real world as much as possible, and once again unleash the intelligence of Chinese netizens in the virtual world, particularly their verbal intelligence, so as to seek spiritual entertainment. Last night was the night when men were most tired since the founding of the state, and did everyone close up shop especially early? Time was tight, and their task was heavy: In the first half of the year, they were holding on to stocks for the state, with loss of capital; In the second half of the year, they are having babies for the state, with loss of libido. (10-30-2015, “Affairs of the Xiangyang Compounds” [向阳院里的事] Group)

This joke used the Chinese format of the antithetical couplet, ingeniously linking together the dismal stock market that had already been suffered through and the emerging two-child problem, while integrating the phrase wei guo jiepan (为国接盘, ‘holding on to stocks for the state’), which had been one of the top ten online slang terms in 2015, using the powers of mockery to the utmost. Next came an array of jokes that presented reasonable visualizations of a future two-child world, such that people couldn’t help but laugh. You definitely have to have two. Because once you get old and can’t move around. . .one child won’t get the idea. . .if there are two people, it’s not the same. . .they can consult one another. Elder child: Pull out the oxygen tube? Second child: Alright! (11-03-2015, personal friend circle) After comprehensive easing for two children. . . A certain student makes an error at school, and the teacher wants him to call in his parents; the student says his parents aren’t at home, would an uncle do? The teacher says alright. The next day, he carries a one-year-old baby uncle to school on his back. (10-30-2015, “Affairs of the Xiangyang Compounds” [向阳院里的事] Group)

228

Wang Lei (汪 磊)

These seem like absurd scenarios, but in reality, they reflect many aspects of present-day life, such as children attending school, school education, elder care for parents, and so on. The issue of two children directly affected the lives of married couples, and some jokes were told from the perspectives of the different sexes. Male thinking on the subject seemed to be inexhaustible: Last night was a sleepless night? Last night I consulted my wife on the matter of having a second child, and my wife said, whoever you want to have one with, go have one! Anyway I won’t give birth! My heavens! The national policy and family policy are simultaneously easing, who can bear it, the joy came on too suddenly (10-30-2015, “Chinese 811” [中文811] Group)

Others were told from the perspective of different ages, sketching out the mental activity of people of different ages in an apparently lighthearted, joking format. After all, as soon as the “two-child policy” was issued, it implicated the lives of several generations. I’m delighted to hear about two-child easing. The post-60s are most perplexed – they had been looking to retire and hug their grandson. Suddenly! They have to postpone their retirement! They can have a second child! Will they be hugging their grandson after all? Or will they be hugging their son? The post-70s say that have the will but not the way, and seek consolation; the post-80s have it the hardest, they have to support 4 old people and 2 babies, and where will they get another 10 million to buy another house; the post-90s say their mood is stable, unless they get a subsidy of 1 million, they absolutely won’t have a second child! (10-30-2015, “Affairs of the Xiangyang Compounds” [向阳院里的事] Group)

The more diligent netizens combined the various categories of online jokes, providing a portrait of the public mentality on the “two-child policy,” which was also quite impressive. A spiritual commentary on the universal two-child policy. (1) Ball game fans say: The 421 formation shifted to the 422 formation, and the players at midfield are lying prone in exhaustion. Four elders, two middle-aged people, and two little ones. (2) The action faction. No one sleeps tonight. Endure a little fatigue tonight to take action – this national policy must certainly be supported. Hurry, don’t miss this rare opportunity. The post-70s having been waiting for this news, and decide to implement a people-making plan tonight! (3) The hesitating faction. They’ve always been waiting, and are finally done waiting, but the wife will soon be 40! To give birth or not to give birth! (4) The greedy faction. If the state has this policy promising you can have two babies, I will consider and consider having another one. First, free expenses from kindergarten to college! Second, free lifelong treatment of major diseases! Third, a free share of

19 “Two-Child Policy” triggers a frenzied linguistic carnival

229

housing, which cannot be less than seventy square meters! Can these three conditions be satisfied? If you think I’m right, send a bouquet of flowers! (5) The care-laden faction. Having so many that you can’t support them! Having so many that you can’t support them! Having so many that you can’t support them! The same words are not repeated more than three times. (6) The distressed faction. Netizen: Now it’s opened up, but we post-70s don’t have so much energy anymore. If we have one, we can’t even raise it to adulthood, we’ll already be old. (7) The well-summarized version. The post-70s have the economic capacity to give birth, but their bodies can’t take it! The post-80s have ok bodies, but high economic pressure! The post-90s are in good condition, but don’t want to give birth! The post-00s aren’t even of age to give birth yet! The post-10s are still in kindergarten! Trying to keep the population young and vigorous is very difficult! (11-01-2015, “Language Life π” [语言生活π] Group)

1.2 Presenting colorful and unrestrained formats The online craze triggered by the two-child policy was expressed in rich and varied formats, incisively and vividly leveraging the multimodal characteristics and methods of online communication.

1.2.1 Textual format Regardless of how abundant the modes of online communication are, the textual format is still the most fundamental category, and spoken and written language holds a dominant place in online communication, which is still without compare. So, netizens in that period spread slogans on family planning everywhere across the country, making subtle changes to the “two-child policy,” which were posted in Weibo and WeChat groups as well as friend circles, exhibiting great timeliness, as well as great historicity. Someone took the trouble on behalf of the village committee to completely update the slogans: 1. Get pregnant, give birth, raise them up, and you can’t be struck down. 2. Upgrade the economy, and the population will follow. 3. Rewards for two children, fines for one child, DINKs who don’t give birth will all be arrested. 4. If you don’t give birth when you should, you’ll regret it for a lifetime. When you should be supported, you won’t be, and you’ll have no support when you’re old. 5. Having a boy and having a girl is all the same, but a son won’t have a girlfriend. 6. If one person refuses to have more children, the entire

230

Wang Lei (汪 磊)

village will be artificially inseminated. 7. If the village wants to get rich, have more children who can plant trees. (11-01-2015, “Language Life π” [语言生活π] Group)

There were also netizens who did not shrink from hardship, rewriting Spring (春) by Mr. Zhu Ziqing (朱自清) as Two Births (二胎). Despite being a parody, it displayed profound skill with language. Due to limited space, it is partially excerpted here: Longing, longing, and the policy arrived, the footsteps of two children approached. It was as if everyone hadn’t awoken, and they were reluctant to close their eyes. Their hearts began to beat, they grew voluble, and circles of friends were buzzing. The documents quietly issued forth on the news, delicately, greenly, in the air, on WeChat, they were painted on, one great piece after another covering everything. Reading, listening, they rolled about twice over, sighing mouthfuls of air, calling out greetings, giving forth words of complaint. People were buoyant, and their hearts itched; girls, young married women, old ladies, you don’t yield for me, I don’t yield for you, all are filled with energy rushing forward. If you wanted a girl, and then had a son, better have two. .... The policy is a just-born baby, new from head to toe. His mother has become a pregnant woman, laughing and walking with great care. Her father is like a robust young man, with arms, back and feet like iron, leading her mother to the pregnancy test! (11-01-2015, “College of Humanities Teaching and Administrative Staff” [人文学院教职工] Group)

This prose sketch was 737 characters long, and adhered quite closely to the original work Spring (春), presenting the various human landscapes that emerged after the introduction of the “two-child policy” in a joking manner on mobile phone and computer screens.

1.2.2 Image format This includes various forms of emojis, cartoons, pictures, photographs, and various other formats. Online, emojis are often paired with text, bringing more clarity to their orientation in meaning. Cartoons focus on human relationships, and are finished with a small amount of text, as in Figure 2:1

 If not otherwise indicated, these are all screenshots from friend circles; since there is no website or other citation information, individual citations unfortunately could not be provided.

19 “Two-Child Policy” triggers a frenzied linguistic carnival

231

Even mother-in-law is pregnant? Yeah! Have two children

Reminder, the two-child policy has in fact been eased, but the two-birth policy has not been eased, for instance, if the first birth is twins, then you still can’t have a second birth~

It’s too much! A cat choked by a fish scratches with its claws: But my mom said that raising me was enough, if she has another she’ll explode Full and empty: I just want to say, children posting on Weibo, your mom and dad should give you a little brother or sister!

Figure 2: Screenshots from friend circles.

Get pregnant, give birth, raise them up, and you can’t be struck down!

If the village wants to get rich, have more children who can plant trees

Class struggle as the guiding principle

Rewards for two children, fines for one child, DINKs who don’t give birth will all be arrested

If you don’t give birth when you should, you’ll regret it for a lifetime. When you should be supported, you won’t be, and you’ll have no support when you’re old.

Figure 3: Images combined with 1980s family planning slogans.

It is not difficult to see that the images above essentially all have similar content to the comedic sketches provided above, using visual means to more vividly communicate the mental, spiritual, and material changes ushered in by

232

Wang Lei (汪 磊)

the “two-child policy,” in a wonderful example of arriving at the same results by different paths. Another category of images borrowed from propaganda posters of the 1960s and 70s, combining them with slogans and riffs on family planning that began emerging in the 1980s (as shown in Figure 3), thereby evoking strong overtones of transgression and cross-referencing, with a more intuitive humorous effect.

Figure 4: Video screenshots.

1.2.3 Video format This format largely consisted of short videos or micro videos independently filmed and uploaded by netizens, while their content mainly revolved around changes to the life of the elder child after the birth of a second child. In the first of the upper two video screenshots in Figure 4, a small, plump child sits entirely naked, exerting itself to wash clothes with an adult’s guidance, with a charmingly naïve appearance; in the second, a young girl is in deep concentration, diligently sewing a shoe insole. In the first of the lower two video screenshots in Figure 4, an elder sister is watching over her younger sister, patting her sister’s face; in the second, a mother watches happily as the little elder brother sings to and soothes his younger brother (or sister), though the elder brother ultimately squashes the swaddled infant face-down on the bed.

19 “Two-Child Policy” triggers a frenzied linguistic carnival

233

These videos were not necessarily filmed specially in response to the “twochild policy,” but their distribution at that particular point in time, and particularly the “tragic” outcomes of the videos, further add to their boisterous humor.

2 Thoughts and recommendations Why the comprehensive two-child policy triggered this whirlwind of linguistic revelry and had such an impact on language life merits further consideration.

2.1 What gave rise to the “two-child” carnival? 2.1.1 Words are the voice of the mind For more than 30 years, the family planning policy had affected several generations of people of marriageable age, who are now commonly referred to as the post-50s, post-60s, post-70s, post-80s, and post-90s, et cetera. When the comprehensive two-child policy swept in, having a child or not having a child became a concrete problem; and as for whether you could have a child, if you dared to have a child, how to have a child, the entire range of human emotions was stirred into a melting pot and released via self-media on handheld devices.

2.1.2 The aid of the Internet The Internet combines text, images, sound, animation, videos, and many other forms of communication, and it has become an interactive platform integrating many functions, including the centralized transmission of massive amounts of information, entertainment, recreation, and so on. Pure text, a mixture of text and emoticons, the combination of text and images, and the complementary effect of audio and video have given shape to the unprecedented multimodal communicative characteristics of online information, while the immense selfmedia population, Weibo and WeChat form a powerful radiative effect.

234

Wang Lei (汪 磊)

2.2 Erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’), lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’), ertai (二胎, ‘two-birth’): How shall we say it? At 8:10 on the very evening of the online carnival, the netizen yanlis created the entry “Comprehensive Paired-Child Policy” (全面两孩政策) on Baidu Baike, which was merged with the entry for “Two-Child Policy” (二孩政策). Nevertheless, in the mouths of the general population, the words of netizens, and on various media outlets, lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’), erhai (二孩, ‘twochild’), and ertai (二胎, ‘two-birth’) were used interchangeably, and some reporters even posed questions using the term lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’), while officials responded with the term erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’).

2.2.1 Erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’) and lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’) Er (二, ‘two’) and liang (两, ‘pair’) both express the numeral 2, and in reality, there is little difference between them. Lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’) can be expressed as liangge haizi (两个孩子, ‘a pair of children’), but one cannot say di liangge haizi (第两个孩子, ‘the pair child’); for erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’), one can say di erge haizi (第二个孩子, ‘the second child’), but one cannot say erge haizi (二个孩子, ‘two children’). Why were both erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’) and lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’) used? Although both erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’) and lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’) were based on the previous family planning policy, erhai (二孩, ‘twochild’) was an extension of earlier policies, including dusheng zinu (独生子女, ‘only child’), shuangdu erhai (双独二孩, ‘second child for two only-child parents’), and dandu erhai (单独二孩, ‘second child for one only-child parent’), from the perspective that couples already had one child, and would be allowed to have another child, that is, their second child. This was based on a practical view. However, lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’) took the perspective of the number of children that a couple or a family had, and if they already had one child now, they could have a second, thus producing lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’). This perspective was not only practical, but also took a longer view.

2.2.2 Ertai (二胎, ‘two-birth’) versus erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’) and lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’) Ertai (二胎, ‘two-birth’) referred to a second birth. China’s family planning policy focuses on the number of children a couple or a family has, not the number

19 “Two-Child Policy” triggers a frenzied linguistic carnival

235

of births, and if a single birth resulted in twins or a multiple birth, the family planning quota for two children would already be met, and one could not have a second birth. So why did so many people still frequently use the term ertai (二胎, ‘two-birth’)? The reason may be that, for the vast majority of people, one child per birth is the norm, thus one could naturally have a second birth. Although the search results on Baidu show that erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’) has a far higher volume of use compared to lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’),2 it is still acceptable to abbreviate the decree for “comprehensively implementing the policy under which one couple may give birth to two children” as lianghai zhengce (两孩政策, ‘paired-child policy’) or lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’), while ertai (二胎, ‘two-birth’) cannot be carelessly used.

Reference Tencent Weibo (腾讯微博). 2015. A few words of ridicule (调侃几句). http://t.qq.com/p/t/ 512814025582313.

 In Baidu search results as of December 31, 2015, there were approximately 60,700,000 instances of erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’) and 17,300,000 instances of lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’), with the former being 3.5 times more frequent than the latter. At the same time, the Baidu Index (百度指数) only has an index for erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’), not for lianghai (两孩, ‘pair of children’). http://index.baidu.com/?tpl=trend&type=0&area=0&time=20150101% 7C20151231&word=%B6%FE%BA%A2.

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zhao Libo (赵立博)

20 A “hot reaction” to the abbreviation of school names In 2015, contention arose over the abbreviation of school names in China, with new waves surging up before the previous wave had calmed. Various types of media outlets continued to focus attention on it, giving rise to a re fanying (热反应, ‘hot reaction’) to the abbreviation of school names.

1 Contention over the abbreviation of school names In 2015, a number of institutions of higher education in China released “University Charters” (大学章程), and because some institutions shared an abbreviation, it gave rise to a zhengming re (争名热, ‘craze for claiming names’). Among these, the dispute over Nanda (南大, ‘Nanjing University / Nanchang University’) had the biggest impact.

1.1 The dispute over Nanda (南大, ‘Nanjing University / Nanchang University’) On June 30, 2015, Nanchang University formally released the Charter of Nanchang University (南昌大学章程) on the official homepage of the Nanchang University News website. Chapter 1, Article 1 of the Charter (章程) stated: “The name of the school is Nanchang University, with the English translation NANCHANG UNIVERSITY, and the abbreviation ‘Nanda,’ and the school’s Internet domain name is: ncu.edu.cn” (Nanchang University News website, 2015). This move immediately drew the attention of teachers and students at Nanjing University, and people posted messages online noting that the Charter of Nanjing University (南京大学章程) had long prior stated that the abbreviation for Nanjing University was Nanda (南大, ‘Nanjing University / Nanchang University’), so was Nanda (南大, ‘Nanjing University / Nanchang University’) in fact the abbreviation for Nanjing University, or for Nanchang University? On July 2, Nanjing University gave a response through the campus BBS “President’s Mailbox” (校长信箱): “The school has already expressed to the Ministry https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-020

238

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zhao Libo (赵立博)

of Education and the Jiangsu Provincial Department of Education the grave concern of our school as well as the teachers and students at large regarding this matter.” According to observations by the People.com.cn Public Opinion Observation Room, at approximately 22:00 on the evening of July 2, 2015, the WeChat public account “Hou Yinguo Laoshi” (侯印国老湿) pushed an essay with the title “The ‘Charter of Nanchang University’ states that the abbreviation is ‘Nanda,’ what do teachers and students at Nanjing University think” (南昌大学章程»明确简称‘ 南 大’, 南京大学师生怎么看). On July 3, the essay was widely disseminated on the WeCHat and Weibo platforms, and merely from a single push by “Hou Yinguo Laoshi” (侯印国老湿), the number of views had already climbed into the tens of thousands, while the number of comments was in the hundreds. The incident began to ferment in public opinion. On July 4, Nanjing Morning Post (南京晨报), Xinhua Daily (新华日报), and other news media outlets became involved in the reporting, causing the spread of the incident to be escalated from self-media platforms to dissemination via omnimedia, and public sentiment reached a high tide. The article published by Nanjing Morning Post (南京晨报), with the headline “Nanchang University is abbreviated as ‘Nanda,’ Nanjing University is anxious” (南昌大学简称‘ 南大’, 南京大学急了), caused the incident to rapidly climb to a fever pitch. ifeng.com, People.com.cn, Chinanews.com, and several other news websites all republished this report one after another, and a single broadcast by ifeng.com alone drew more than 50,000 people to participate in the discussion, and the news was followed nearly 20,000 times. On the Weibo platform, @People’sDaily (@人民日报), @XinhuaDaily (@新华日报), @FrontPageNews (@头条 新闻) and other official media Weibo accounts also sent a burst of push notifications for this article, similarly triggering sustained and heated debate among netizens. On July 5, the heat continued to rise in public opinion. First, a report by The Beijing News (新京报) with the headline “Ministry of Education Responds to the Crisis Over the Abbreviation ‘Nanda’: The Two Schools Will Negotiate a Resolution” (教育部回应‘ 南大’ 简称风波: 两校协商解决) launched another storm of republishing by media outlets. A series of commentaries also secured space in the newspapers, represented by articles such as “If you win the abbreviation in the dispute over ‘Nanda,’ then what?” (‘ 南大’ 之争赢了简称又如何), “School abbreviations are for convenience, why dab official paint on them?” (学校简称图便 利, 何必涂上官方色), “Universities fight over names, force out the ‘smallness’ concealed below their big buildings’” (高校抢名,榨出了大楼下面藏着的‘ 小’), and “A truly elite school would not fight over a name” (真正的名校, 不会纠结于 名称), and so on, further expanding the depth and breadth of the dissemination of the incident. On July 6, the fever of public sentiment had subsided somewhat. But various commentaries continued to flood forth, such as “Molding university

20 A “hot reaction” to the abbreviation of school names

239

identity – dispute over names is not unreasonable” (塑造大学认同 争名并不矫 情), “Snatching up students and snatching up abbreviations, what will the repercussions be as universities ‘tear each other apart’?” (抢生源抢简称, 高校‘ 互撕’ 折射出什么?), “The dispute over the name ‘Nanda’ is less important than the dispute over the essence of a university” (争‘ 南大’ 之名不如争大学之实), and so on. By July 7, the temperature of public opinion had been substantially reduced, and the situation was trending toward calm, as the dispute over the incident essentially drew to a close (People.com.cn, 2015).

1.2 The debate over X da (X 大, ‘X university’) The debate over the abbreviations for certain universities in China is one of long standing. In recent years, such situations have arisen in unending waves, like performers clamoring to succeed one another on the stage. In 2010, Shandong University and Shanxi University launched a great hubbub due to a problem over the trademark Shanda (山大, ‘Shandong University / Shanxi University’), which ultimately went to the courts before the matter was dropped. Not long before the debate over the abbreviation Nanda (南大, ‘Nanjing University / Nanchang University’), Sichuan Medical University (formerly Luzhou Medical School) and Huaxi Medical Center at Sichuan University also became embroiled in a not insignificant dispute over the name Chuanyi (川医, ‘Sichuan Medical’). On April 28, 2015, the Ministry of Education issued Letter of the Ministry of Education Regarding Approval for a Change of Name from Luzhou Medical School to Sichuan Medical University (教育部关于同意泸州医 学院更名为四川医科大学的函) (Jiao fa han [教发函] [2015] No. 66). The official name change from Luzhou Medical School to Sichuan Medical University was followed by a wave of announcements regarding the new school gate, new school emblem, new seal, and new official website. The name change incited opposition from alumni of the Huaxi Medical Center at Sichuan University in China and abroad, and nearly 900 alumni signed an open letter to the Minister of Education, calling for the decision to be rescinded. The letter included the passage, “The name change for Luzhou Medical School (abbreviated Luyi [泸医, ‘Luzhou Medical’]) to ‘Sichuan Medical University’ is a restructuring of key parts of the names of ‘Sichuan Medical School’ and ‘Huaxi Medical University’ [Note: Both were former names of Huaxi Medical Center at Sichuan University], and it is extremely similar to ‘Sichuan Medical School,’ such that the names are easily confused. Furthermore, in accordance with the customs for abbreviations in Chinese characters, ‘Sichuan Medical University’ will also

240

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zhao Libo (赵立博)

be abbreviated as ‘Chuanyi,’ which obviously misleads the public . . . . [The name change] has more drawbacks than benefits, for both parties . . . . For this reason, we strongly appeal to the relevant leaders to revise the designation of Luzhou Medical School as ‘Sichuan Medical University’” (Southern Weekly, 2015). On January 18, 2016, China Youth Online issued a report stating that, “After existing for more than half a year, the school name for ‘Sichuan Medical University’ located in Luzhou City, Sichuan Province, is changed once again . . . . The signs for the new school name ‘Southwest Medical University’ have already been put up” (China Youth Online, 2016). However, before the wave had subsided, another had arisen. The new school name was met with strong opposition by Southwest Medical School at the Third Military Medical University in Chongqing. On January 26, Southwest Medical School issued a statement via its official website, proposing that, “Our school will demand that ‘Luzhou Medical School’ of Sichuan Province immediately cease its improper name change behavior, and cease in continuing to encroach upon the interests of our school” (Southwest Medical School at the Third Military Medical University, official website, 2016). On January 27, China Youth Daily (中国青年报) examined the uproar over the name change for Luzhou Medical School under the headline “The dispute over ‘Chuanyi’ is never-ending” (“川 医”之争没完没了), and the article was republished by People.com.cn, Xinhuanet, and other websites, once again triggering passionate public debate. In addition, on each of the major online forums, posts by students at different institutions of higher education regarding disputes over the abbreviations for their own schools were a common sight, including the dispute between Nanjing University and Nanchang University over Nanda (南大, ‘Nanjing University / Nanchang University’); the dispute between Northeastern University and Southeast University over Dongda (东大, ‘Northeastern University / Southeast University’); the dispute between Hubei University and Hunan University over Huda (湖大, ‘Hubei University / Hunan University’); the dispute between Hebei University and Henan University over Heda (河大, ‘Hebei University / Henan University’); the dispute between Huazhong Agricultural University and South China Agricultural University over Huanong (华农, ‘Huazhong Agricultural University / South China Agricultural University’); the dispute between Central China Normal University, East China Normal University, and South China Normal University over Huashi (华师, ‘Central China Normal University / East China Normal University / South China Normal University’); the dispute between North University of China, Central South University, Sun Yat-sen University, and the Chinese University of Hong Kong over Zhongda (中大, ‘North University of China / Central South University / Sun Yat-sen University / Chinese University of Hong Kong’); and so on and so forth.

20 A “hot reaction” to the abbreviation of school names

241

On July 5, 2015, the official Weibo account of People’s Daily (人民日报) posted a list of “Which Chinese universities easily result in duplicate abbreviations”: (1) Changda (长大, ‘Chang’an University / Changchun University’); (2) Huanong (华农, ‘Huazhong Agricultural University / South China Agricultural University’); (3) Beigongda (北工大, ‘Beijing University of Technology / North China University of Technology’); (4) Huashi (华师, ‘Central China Normal University / East China Normal University / South China Normal University’); (5) Jiaoda (交大, ‘Shanghai Jiao Tong University / Xi’an Jiaotong University / Beijing Jiaotong University / Lanzhou Jiaotong University . . . ’); (6) Shanda (山大, ‘Shandong University / Shanxi University’); (7) Dongda (东大, ‘Northeastern University / Southeast University’); (8) Xida (西大, ‘Northwest University / Southwest University’); (9) Heda (河大, ‘Hebei University / Henan University’); (10) Nanda (南大, ‘Nanjing University / Nanchang University / Nankai University’); (11) Huagong (华工, ‘South China University of Technology / East China University of Technology); (12) Zhongda (中大, ‘Sun Yatsen University / Central South University / North University of China’); (13) Jiangda (江大, ‘Jiangsu University / Jiangnan University / Jianghan University’); (14) Huda (湖大, ‘Hubei University / Hunan University’); (15) Haida (海大, ‘Hainan University / Ocean University of China’); (16) Shida (石大, ‘China University of Petroleum / Shihezi University’); (17) Xishi (西师, ‘Northwest Normal University / China West Normal University’); (18) Guangda (广大, ‘Guangzhou University / Guangxi University’); (19) Shanshi (山师, ‘Shanxi Normal University / Shandong Normal University’); and (20) Xizheng (西政, ‘Southwest University of Political Science and Law / Northwest University of Political Science and Law’). The Weibo post also summarized the characteristics of school names giving rise to duplicate abbreviations: Universities with school names containing directions such as dong (东, ‘east’), nan (南, ‘south’), xi (西, ‘west’), bei (北, ‘north’), zhong (中, ‘central’); universities containing characters such as shan (山, ‘mountain’), he (河, ‘river’), hu (湖, ‘lake’), hai (海, ‘ocean’) and jiang (江, ‘river’); as well as institutions for teacher training, finance and economics, political science and law, science and engineering, and so on (People’s Daily Weibo, 2015). This post sparked strong reverberations.

2 Heated debate over abbreviations for school names July 2015 marked a high tide of passionate debate by media outlets and netizens regarding abbreviations for institutions of higher education. According to incomplete statistics, several dozen domestic media outlets produced reports,

242

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zhao Libo (赵立博)

while People.com.cn, Chinanews.com, ifeng.com, and many other news websites also successively reported on or reprinted news related to the debate.

2.1 Analysis of the causes The article “The dispute over Chuanyi reflects the predicament of universities in protecting abbreviations” (“川医”之争折射高校简称保护困境), published in China Intellectual Property News (中国知识产权报), noted that this incident “exposes the problems regarding whether university abbreviations can receive relevant legal protections, how they should be protected, and so on, and should draw close attention from domestic educational institutions” (China Intellectual Property News, 2015a). The commentary The dispute over the abbreviation Nanda is a conflict over interests (“南大”简称争议是利益争端) on Eastday.com pointed out that, “Nanchang University has existed for so many years, and Nanjing University has existed for so many years, and they have always been at peace with one another. Only with respect to the critical issue of student recruitment has conflict arisen. This dispute is in fact a conflict over interests” (Eastday.com, 2015). The article argued that paying attention to and commenting on this incident was equivalent to intangibly advertising on behalf of the two schools, and both schools would be beneficiaries. A commentary on Rednet, Nanda becomes a favorite – behind the dispute over names is in fact a struggle for interests (“南大”变成香饽饽, 争名背后实为夺 利) also explicitly noted that “The dispute over school names, put in plain language, is a dispute over interests . . . and the most direct advantage is in student recruitment . . . .” (Rednet, 2015a).

2.2 Commentary on the incidents In response to the disputes over abbreviations for institutions of higher education, experts and media outlets offered commentary from different perspectives. Herein, many people criticized the behavior of disputes over names between universities. The special commentator Zhang Ruixin (张瑞鑫) posted a commentary on China Youth Net arguing that this behavior reflected the intense impulsivity and utilitarian orientation of certain domestic universities, and a deficiency in the spirit of a university. He stated that Chinese universities should “set aside

20 A “hot reaction” to the abbreviation of school names

243

the disputes over the abbreviation of school names, and manage their own university spirit, which is the true path of a university!” (China Youth Net, 2015). The Hunan media figure Wang Dan (王聃) argued, “The greatness and renown of a university absolutely does not lie in the uniqueness of its name – on the contrary, it lies with the standards of educational administration at the university as well as the long-term brand effect. If it has gained recognition from society in these two respects, then the state of its abbreviation is no longer so important. From this perspective, the dispute over university abbreviations should not be described as a defense of interests, but rather as yet another exposure of the impulsivity of educational administration at universities to the world” (Changjiang Daily, 2015). Workers’ Daily (工人日报) published a commentary stating that, “The abbreviations for institutions of higher education which are before our eyes are nothing more than a dispute over ‘famous schools on the tip of the tongue’ – the dispute is about protecting one’s reputation while ‘resting in the cool shade beneath a big tree,’ and the dispute is about a discussion of resources in which ‘one of great repute stretches for their hand for aid,’ and what implications does it have for the humanistic dream of institutions of higher education in China?” “While on the path of deadministrativization and avoidance of a thousand schools having the same face, if Chinese institutions of higher education continue to waste their energy on a false reputation and empty profit, where will the survival and development of universities take refuge, and where will it find peace?” (Workers’ Daily, 2015). The columnist Gu Zexu (顾则徐) argued that, “The emergence of this debate is itself a kind of degeneration, and to resort to the law is furthermore a lack of shame.” “The legal name of an institution is unique, and abbreviations based on grammatical rules within the system of the Chinese language are chiefly characterized as a kind of habit or custom. A legal name can be disputed and must be disputed, while a dispute over an abbreviation is absurd, and for an immense comprehensive university with majors in philosophy, literature, history and so on to engage in such a dispute is a kind of degeneration” (Southern Metropolis Daily, 2015). The special commentator Zhuang Xiaoxie (庄小谐) for Hangzhou Daily (杭 州日报) published an article remarking, “Can institutions of higher education market themselves? In contemporary society with its continuously rising tolerance, this is indeed no mistake, but I am concerned that getting excessively bogged down in disputes over status and worldliness will cause more of those attending school to get the false impression that the ultimate objective of education is to seek profit, and I am concerned that it will provide more quiet,

244

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zhao Libo (赵立博)

nameless universities with a false lesson – that the shaping of a university’s value can be achieved via shortcuts” (Hangzhou Daily, 2015). Professor Lin Zhongxiang (林中祥) of Nanjing Forestry University hit the nail on the head, saying: “Are universities all so bored – what does it mean to have first-class academics?” (Science Net, 2015). However, some media outlets also argued that describing the “dispute over names” as “a deficiency in the spirit of a university” or “the degeneration of Chinese education” was overly harsh, and that the “dispute over abbreviations” also had positive significance. Changzhou Daily (常州日报) noted under the headline “The dispute over Nanda is not completely meaningless” (“南大”之争并非毫无意义) that, although institutions of higher education should be dedicated to the standard of educational administration and academic research, as an informal name for a school, school abbreviations have great significance, and the sharp criticism was going too far. “The dispute over abbreviations for institutions of higher education could result in enhancing awareness of a university’s name rights in various sectors of society. Behind a school’s name is the coalescing of a school’s intellectual property and human history, and an abbreviation can be regarded as a school’s ‘shop front’; protecting and standardizing abbreviations means respect for universities, and reverence for academics. Through the dispute over abbreviations, students’ feelings toward their alma mater can also be cultivated, deepening their understanding of its dignity, glory and dishonor” (Changzhou Daily, 2015). At the same time, the article also pointed out that the proliferation of diploma mill universities was also closely related to the names of institutions of higher education, and standardizing abbreviations for institutions of higher education would be an important measure for governing these diploma mill schools.

2.3 Seeking solutions The article “The dispute over the abbreviation Nanda needs a legal resolution” (“南大”简称争议须法律解决), published in Guangming Daily (光明日报), argued that, “Whether it’s the dispute over Nanda or the dispute over Chuanyi, both have once again warned that institutions of higher education must register their abbreviations as quickly as possible to protect their trademarks. Furthermore, our country is now making great efforts to promote the construction of a country with rule of law, and if disputes over the abbreviations for universities are encountered in the future, under a scenario in which the coordinating efforts of administrative departments were ineffective, ultimately, they could only be handled in accordance with the law” (Guangming Daily, 2015).

20 A “hot reaction” to the abbreviation of school names

245

Liu Guiming (刘桂明), the editor-in-chief of Democracy and Legal System (民主与法制), said, “In fact, the abbreviations for institutions of higher education involve relevant legal questions. In other words, this is a kind of legal protection, involving not only the issue of protecting the intellectual property of abbreviations for institutions of higher education, but also the issue of protecting a university’s right to its name” (The Beijing News, 2015). Wu Bin (吴斌) of the Beijing Municipal Higher Court argued that, “The abbreviation for an institution of higher education is the same as its full name, bearing the dual characteristics of property rights and personal rights, therefore, university abbreviations conforming to the relevant prerequisites should be incorporated into the scope of a university’s name rights, to be subject to legal protection” (Beijing Daily, 2015). The article “Right and wrong in the dispute over abbreviations for institutions of higher education should be judged by relying on the rules” (高校简称 之争应靠规则判明是非) in China Intellectual Property News (中国知识产权报) noted that, “The dispute over abbreviations for institutions of higher education reminds us that each university should have brand awareness. A university’s brand is also a university’s competitiveness, and a university’s name and abbreviation are both core elements of a university’s brand, which should not be duplicated by another school.” “If they have lofty aspirations, universities should pay even more attention to the development of the institution, including the uniqueness of the abbreviation for the school name, to create a brand effect belonging solely to them” (China Intellectual Property News, 2015b). Professor Mao Shoulong (毛寿龙) of the School of Public Administration and Policy at Renmin University of China offered the analysis that the “dual governance structure” of the “administrativization” of university management and “autonomous governance” was the fundamental reason giving rise to “disputes over abbreviations.” He argued that the resolution for this problem was ultimately to allow the deadministrativization of Chinese universities, moving toward multi-center autonomous governance (Oriental Morning Post, 2015). The article Prohibiting the use of university abbreviations in official documents (官方文件不得使用大学简称) on Rednet proposed that, “Regarding the dispute over the abbreviation Nanda, the solution is not difficult – the responsible education department may as well make a strict rule: Apart from privately, official documents are prohibited from using university abbreviations” (Rednet, 2015b).

246

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zhao Libo (赵立博)

3 Considerations and recommendations 3.1 Abbreviations are a global problem in online language life The disputes over abbreviations for school names were not isolated, random incidents, but rather an issue in online language life with global commonality emerging in the wake of the development and popularization of the Internet. The Internet thoroughly smashed the barriers to social interactions between people, including their region, industry, field, and so on, transforming the method and speed of exchanges of information. Conventional jiancheng (简称, ‘abbreviations’) all bear the characteristics of the region, industry or field, including Nanda (南大, ‘Nanjing University / Nanchang University’), Renda (人大, ‘Renmin University of China’), and so on. Recognizing the global and Internet-based nature of the abbreviation problem is extremely important, as studying and resolving the abbreviation problem requires a global vision, oriented toward the international Internet, to guide the healthy development of online language life.

3.2 Guiding actions according to circumstances, and studying specific measures for harmonious online language life Revolving around the issue of the abbreviation of school names, what netizens discussed the most were the language resources and intangible assets that permeated abbreviations, concerning intellectual property rights, and using legal means to resolve the relevant disputes seemingly became the consensus. These discussions amply reflected the changes in the national concept of language, as well as enhancement of the consciousness of yuyan ziyuan (语言资源, ‘language resources’) and legal concepts. We should guide our actions according to circumstances, popularizing linguistic knowledge at the opportune moment, to study and formulate specific measures for harmonious online language life, including jiancheng (简称, ‘abbreviations’).

References Beijing Daily (北京日报). 2015. Are abbreviations for institutions of higher education subject to legal protection? (高校简称受不受法律保护). July 22, 2015. Changjiang Daily (长江日报). 2015. The dispute over Nanda is a show of impulsivity (“南大”之 争是秀浮躁). July 6, 2015.

20 A “hot reaction” to the abbreviation of school names

247

Changzhou Daily (常州日报). 2015. The dispute over Nanda is not completely meaningless (“南大”之争并非毫无意义). July 16, 2015. China Intellectual Property News (中国知识产权报). 2015a. The dispute over Chuanyi reflects the predicament of universities in protecting abbreviations (“川医”之争折射高校简称保 护困境). June 24, 2015. China Intellectual Property News (中国知识产权报). 2015b. Right and wrong in the dispute over abbreviations for institutions of higher education should be judged by relying on the rules (高校简称之争应靠规则判明是非). July 22, 2015. China Youth Online (中青在线). 2016. Follow-up on the incident of Sichuan University’s opposition to the name change for Luzhou Medical School – After existing for more than half a year, the school name for ‘Sichuan Medical University’ is changed once again (川大 反对泸州医学院更名事件后续———存续半年多的“四川医科大学”校名再次更改). January 18, 2016, http://news.cyol.com/content/2016-01/18/content_12088105.htm. China Youth Net (中国青年网). 2015. After winning the abbreviation in the dispute over Nanda, then what? (“南大”之争赢了简称又如何). July 6, 2015, http://pinglun.youth.cn/tptt/ 201507/t20150706_6828169.htm. Eastday.com (东方网). The dispute over the abbreviation Nanda is a conflict over interests (“南 大”简称争议是利益争端). July 6, 2015, http://pinglun.eastday.com/p/20150707/ u1ai8782423.html. Guangming Daily (光明日报). 2015. “The dispute over the abbreviation Nanda needs a legal resolution” (“南大”简称争议须法律解决). July 15, 2015. Hangzhou Daily (杭州日报). 2015. The ‘defensive war’ over university abbreviations cannot be won (打不赢的大学简称“保卫战”). July 6, 2015. Nanchang University News website (南昌大学新闻网). 2015. ‘Nanchang University Charter’ is formally released (‹ 南昌大学章程› 正式发布). June 30, 2015, http://www.ncu.edu.cn/ xxgk/ndzc.html. Oriental Morning Post (东方早报). 2015. The dispute over the abbreviation Nanda: deadministrativization is the only way out (“南大”简称之争: 去行政化才是出路). July 9, 2015. People.com.cn (人民网). 2015. Weekly review of public opinion on education: Abbreviation ‘Nanda’ for Nanchang University sparks debate (教育舆情一周综述: 南昌大学简称“南大” 引争议). July 9, 2015, http://yuqing.people.com.cn/n/2015/0709/c392839-27280734. html. People’s Daily Weibo (« 人民日报»微博). 2015. July 5, 2015, http://weibo.com/2803301701/ CpEHVtCWe?type=comment#_rnd1450499890245. Rednet (红网). 2015a. Nanda becomes a favorite – behind the dispute over names is in fact a struggle for interests (“南大”变成香饽饽, 争名背后实为夺利). July 6, 2015, http://hlj.red net.cn/c/2015/07/06/3729258.htm. Rednet (红网). 2015b. Prohibiting the use of university abbreviations in official documents (官 方文件不得使用大学简称). July 5, 2015, http://hlj.rednet.cn/c/2015/07/05/3729069. htm. Science Net (科学网). 2015. The dispute over abbreviations for university school names – what is its root? (大学校名简称之争———根子是什么?). July 10, 2015, http://blog.sciencenet. cn/home.php?mod=space&uid=279177&do=blog&id=904414. Southern Metropolis Daily (南方都市报). 2015. The dispute over the abbreviation Nanda is itself a kind of degeneration (“南大”简称争议本身就是一种堕落). July 8, 2015.

248

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zhao Libo (赵立博)

Southern Weekly (南方周末). 2015. “In the debate over ‘Chuanyi,’ who is the real deal? Behind the name change for a local medical school” (“川医”之争, 谁是正宗? 一所地方医学院更 名背后). May 29, 2015. Southwest Medical School at the Third Military Medical University, official website (第三军医 大学西南医院官方网站). 2016. A stern statement on upholding the relevant interests of ‘Southwest Medical School’ and ‘Southwest Clinical Medical School’ (关于维护“西南医 院”和“西南临床医学院”相关权益的严正声明). January 26, 2016, http://www.xnyy.cn/ news_view.aspx?id=4612. The Beijing News (新京报). 2015. The disputes over abbreviations for institutions of higher education must rely on a legal resolution (高校简称之争应靠法律解决). July 7, 2015. Workers’ Daily (工人日报). 2015. The abbreviations for institutions of higher education are a debate over ‘famous schools on the tip of the tongue’ (高校简称, “舌尖上的名校”之争). July 7, 2015.

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zheng Tingting (郑婷婷)

21 Trending word lists for various sectors and industries During the Lianghui (两会, ‘Two Sessions’), relevant media outlets published the “Top Ten Trending Words” for the 2015 National Two Sessions (2015 全国两 会“十大热词”), drawing widespread attention from the public, and reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) for various sectors and industries became a distinctive sight on the Chinese Internet in 2015: The whole nation pitched into the task, with experts interacting with netizens, human labor cooperating with computers, and fields and industries working in concert with one another. According to incomplete statistics, more than 100 relatively formal lists appeared in the course of the year, with one reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word list’) emerging every 3 days on average; if self-media is included, more than 400 lists were put forward in the course of the year, with an average 1.3 reci bang (热词 榜, ‘trending word lists’) emerging per day.

1 Surveying the reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) 1.1 Who created the lists? The reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) were all put together online: As the Internet has broken down the barriers between regions and industries, and thinned the line between expert and netizen, the idea that “I’m in charge of my own affairs” developed into the concept of compiling various types of trending words. Lists compiled by experts: The trends in publishing in 2015 were reflected in the pishu (皮书, ‘papers’) on the state of development of relevant fields, many of which included relevant reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’), and these were fairly typical lists compiled by experts. For instance, the blue paper Report on Public Opinion on Chinese Higher Education (2015) (中国高等教育舆情 报 [2015]) (People.com.cn, 2015a), White Paper on the State of Physician Practices in China (中国医师执业状况白皮书) (Chinese Medical Doctor Association, 2015), Blue Paper on New Media in 2015 (2015 新媒体蓝皮书) (China Economic Net, 2015a), Blue Paper on New Media and Social Accountability (新媒体社会责 https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-021

250

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zheng Tingting (郑婷婷)

任蓝皮书), Blue Paper on Public Opinion in 2015 (2015舆情蓝皮书) (Xinhuanet, 2015a), Blue Paper on Mobile Internet (2015) (移动互联网蓝皮书[2015]) (People. com.cn, 2015b), White Paper on Cross-Border E-Commerce Export Transactions on DHgate.com in 2014–2015 (2014–2015 敦煌网跨境电商出口交易白皮书) (Shengyidi, 2015), and so on all represented lists compiled by experts, and these papers all presented research findings within relevant disciplines. In the example of the blue paper Report on Public Opinion on Chinese Higher Education (2015) (中国高等教育舆情报 [2015]), which was developed by the Center for Monitoring and Research on Communication and Public Opinion on Higher Education at Communication University of China, this paper presented important research findings by the research personnel at the center. The blue paper inventoried hot-topic events in the field of education in 2015, and argued on the basis of statistical analysis that chuangye (创业, ‘entrepreneurship’), gaokao (高考, ‘college entrance exam’), jiaoshi (教师, ‘teacher’), and other terms had become the “trending words of the year.” The paper divided the categories of public opinion on education that drew the most attention from netizens into seven areas, including educational administration, employment and entrepreneurship, policies, laws and regulations, student recruitment and examinations, safety incidents, anti-corruption and integrity, and student performance. Among these the section on “The Category of Student Performance” (学 生表现类) analyzed the reasons why liangchen ti (良辰体, ‘good day style’) went viral online. Deciphering lists of trending words or online slang terms to objectively reflect the state of development in relevant fields became a major feature of papers in 2015. In addition, reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) in a number of rather highly specialized industries were largely compiled by experts or figures within the industry, such as Top Eight Trending Words in Machine-Tool Circles in 2015 (2015年机床圈八大热词) (mei.net.cn, 2015), Top Ten Trending Words on the Stock Market in 2015 (2015 股市十大热词) (csai.cn, 2015), Top Ten Trending Words in the Packaging and Printing Industry in 2015 (2015年包装印刷行业十大热词) (Sohu, 2016a), Top Ten Trending Words in Equipment Manufacturing in 2015 (2015年十大 设备制造热词) (China Investment Consulting Net, 2015), Trending Words in the Textile Industry in 2015 (2015纺织行业热词) (Xinhuanet, 2016), ‘Trending Words’ of the Year in the Chinese Construction Industry in 2015 (2015年中国建筑业年度“热 词”) (Sohu, 2016b), et cetera. Lists compiled by netizens: Reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) in sectors related to the people’s livelihoods often drew direct participation by netizens, in a reflection of user demand, while providing commercial information to businesses. Examples include Grand Inventory of the Top Ten Trending Words in

21 Trending word lists for various sectors and industries

251

the Home Furnishings Industry in 2015 (2015家居业十大热词大盘点) (Sina Home Furnishings, 2015), Top Ten Trending Words in E-Commerce in 2015 (2015电商十 大热词) (Sohu, 2016c), Top Ten Trending Words in the Pharmaceutical Industry in 2015 (2015 医药行业十大热词) (askci.com, 2015), Top 8 Trending Words of the Year in Official Business Aviation in China in 2015 (2015中国公务航空年度热词 TOP 8) (CAN News, 2015), Inventory of the Top Five Trending Words in the Mobile Phone Industry in the First Half of 2015 (2015年上半年度手机行业五大热词盘点), Top Ten Trending Words for Automobiles in 2015 (2015年汽车十大热词) (Ifeng Auto, 2016), Top Ten Trending Words of the Year in YY Entertainment in 2015 (2015 YY 娱乐年度十大热词) (Baidu Bulletin Board – yy Board, 2015), and so on, which were largely compiled by netizens. Let us take the example of the Grand Inventory of the Top Ten Trending Words in the Home Furnishings Industry in 2015 (2015家居业十大热词大盘点), which were selected through a public vote organized by Beijing Business Today (北京商报). The top ten trending words in the home furnishings industry in 2015 were: shangshi (上市, ‘market listing’), binggou (并购, ‘mergers and acquisitions’), wei xingfu (微幸福, ‘micro-happiness’), hulianwang jiazhuang (互联网 家装, ‘Internet home improvement’), du diban (毒地板, ‘poison floorboards’), jianzou (健走, ‘walking for fitness’), chanye zhuanyi (产业转移, ‘industrial transfer’), jiaju fuwushang (家居服务商, ‘home furnishings service provider’), ershi nian 二十年, ‘twenty-year’), and mingxing (明星, ‘star’). The organizers stated that, “Through an inventory of the top ten trending words in the home furnishings industry in 2015, we calmly peered at the trends behind the hubbub, providing inspiration for innovative development by home furnishings enterprises for next year” (Sina Home Furnishings, 2015). Lists compiled by experts and netizens: A typical example of a list compiled by a combination of experts and netizens is the annual “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点) activity jointly held by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, and so on. This activity combines three stages, including nominations by netizens, appraisal by experts, and voting by netizens, and ultimately, the top 10 domestic and international words and their rankings are determined by voting. Sectors such as culture and arts, education and health, tourism services, and so on have also largely adopted this approach. Examples include Top Ten Trending Words in Sports Circles in 2015 (2015体坛十大热词), Trending Words of the Year in Online Music in 2015 (2015年互联网音乐年度热词), Inventory of Trending Words on TV Dramas in 2015 (2015电视剧热词盘点), and Trending Words in Chinese Tourism in 2015 (2015 中国旅游热词). The Top Ten Trending Words in Sports Circles in 2015 (2015体坛十大热词), presented by Tencent Sports, not only reviewed the “top ten trending words,”

252

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zheng Tingting (郑婷婷)

but also rated them using two specialized labels, chuangzaoxing (创造性, ‘creativity’) and yingxiangli (影响力, ‘influence’): kudang canglei (裤裆藏雷, ‘hidden bomb in crotch’) (creativity: 9.5 points; influence: 10 points); fanshou xuanfu (反手炫腹, ‘hand behind the back to show off the belly’) (creativity: 9.5 points; influence: 8 points); shen jiaotong (肾绞痛, ‘renal angina’) (creativity: 7 points; influence: 9 points); weibing (喂饼, ‘feed cookies’) (creativity: 7.5 points; influence: 7 points); 80 yi (80 亿, ‘8.0 billion’) (creativity: 7 points; influence: 9.5 points); 9 miao 99 (9秒99, ‘9.99 seconds’) (creativity: 7 points; influence: 9 points); fanzuishi guoren (犯罪式过人, ‘criminally excelling’) (creativity: 9.5 points; influence: 6 points); guomin laogong (国民老公, ‘the citizens’ husband’) (creativity: 5 points; influence: 9.5 points); zhibo dahu (直播打呼, ‘snoring on live broadcast’) (creativity: 5.5 points; influence: 7.5 points); and qin’ai de lanqiu (亲爱的篮球, ‘dear basketball’) (creativity: 3 points; influence: 9 points). This list amply demonstrates the integration and interaction between experts and netizens. Computer-generated lists: This type of list chiefly refers to results generated by searches on relevant portal websites. The “Sogou List of Trending Words” (搜狗热词榜) is a fairly typical example of a computer-generated list, which is compiled on the basis of the state of netizen searches, divided by category, including lists such as “Popular films” (热门电影), “Popular arts and entertainment” (热门综艺), “Popular animation” (热门动漫), and so on, which can be generated at any time. Another example is the ‘Trending Words’ of 2015 (2015年 度“热词”), presented by Sogou Baike: kangzhan shengli 70 zhounian (抗战胜利 70 周年, ‘70th anniversary of victory in the War of Resistance’), Tu Youyou (屠 呦呦, ‘Tu Youyou’), tianjia xia (天价虾, ‘astronomically expensive shrimp’), ISIS – Yisilanguo (ISIS – 伊斯兰国, ‘ISIS – Islamic State’), Dongfang zhixing kelun qingfu (东方之星客轮倾覆, ‘capsizing of Eastern Star Cruise Ship’), Tianjin Binhai Xinqu baozha (天津滨海新区爆炸, ‘explosions at Tianjin Binhai New Area’), xin Sanzijing (新三字经, ‘new Three-Character Classic’), Xiyouji zhi dasheng guilai (西游记之大圣归来, ‘return of the great sage of Journey to the West’) (CSDN, 2016). Individually compiled lists: In 2015, many individual bloggers also joined the ranks of those compiling reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’). These lists consisted of inventories of the author’s personal language life, while also providing people with a fresh perspective for observing social language life. For instance, on December 11, 2015, the Sina blogger @pipigou (@皮皮狗) put forward the personal trending words list Inventory of the Top Ten Online Slang Terms in 2015 (盘 点2015 十大网络流行语): Duang (Duang, ‘[meaningless sound]’), shijie zheme da, wo xiang qu kankan (世界这么大, 我想去看看, ‘the world is so big, I want to go see it’), wo daizhe ni, ni daizhe qian (我带着你, 你带着钱, ‘I’ll take you, you bring

21 Trending word lists for various sectors and industries

253

the money’), yanzhi (颜值, ‘attractiveness score’), danshen gou (单身狗, ‘single dog’), ranbing luan (然并卵, ‘but no use’), xiasi baobao le (吓死宝宝了, ‘scared the baby to death’), xiao gongju (小公举, ‘little princess’), zhongyao de shiqing shuo san bian (重要的事情说三遍, ‘say important things three times’), zhuyao kan qizhi (主要看气质, ‘mainly looking at temperament’) (Sina blogger @pipigou, 2015). Lists compiled by computer and by hand. This approach to compiling lists first involves a computer using a certain algorithm to process a large amount of data and extract candidate words, followed by manual selection, confirmation and categorization. For instance, the “Top Ten Popular Phrases in the Media” (媒 体十大流行语), “Top Ten Neologisms” (十大新词语) and “Top Ten Online Terms” (十大网络用语) published by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center as well as the “Top Ten List for Media Attention” (媒体关注度十 大榜单) published by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center for Broadcast Media at Communication University of China are all typical examples of this method.

1.2 What lists were created? The content of reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) in 2015 encompassed a fairly wide range of fields and industries. Reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) for the full year chiefly involved politics, economics, culture, education, science and technology, healthcare, services, and many other fields, and covered dozens of industries, including film and television, music, sports, entertainment, dining, food, aviation, tourism, automobiles, mobile phones, e-commerce, stock markets, funds, medicine, home furnishings, textiles, construction, paint, machine-tools, packaging and printing, digital signs, manufacturing, and so on. Among the lists, with respect to the format of the listed terms, “online slang terms” (网络流行语) were most common; in terms of the abundance of content, reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) for the field of economics were most abundant; and in terms of the state of attention, reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) in the field of politics drew the most attention. Reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) in the economic category: These include the Top Ten Trending Words of the Month in Economics (月度十大经济热词) jointly presented by China Economic Net and 360 News at the beginning of each month for January through December (China Economic Net, 2015b), along with the Top Ten Trending Words of 2015 in Economics (2015年十大经济热词) (China Economic Net, 2015c), as well as the Top 8 Trending Words in Internet Economics in the First Half of 2015 (2015年上半年互联网经济8 大热词) presented by the

254

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zheng Tingting (郑婷婷)

Sohu media platform (Sohu, 2015), along with the more targeted Trending Words of 2015 in Business (2015年度商务热词) (hexun.com, 2016), and so on. Reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) in the political category: Examples include “Top Ten Trending Words” for the 2015 National Two Sessions (2015 全国两会 “十大热词”) (China Water Transport News, 2015), Top Ten Trending Words on the Rule of Law for the 2015 Two Sessions (2015两会十大法治热词) (Xinhuanet, 2015b), Top Nine Neologisms and Trending Words in Government Work Reports in 2015 (2015政府工作报告九大新词热词) (People.com.cn, 2015c), Inventory of 10 Neologisms by Xi Jinping That Were On Fire in 2015 (盘点2015年习近平带火的10个新热 词) (People.com.cn, 2015d), 10 Key Words of the Year for Current Politics in 2015 (2015年10 个时政年度关键词) (Dangjian.cn, 2015), and so on. The “Top Ten Trending Words” for the 2015 National Two Sessions (2015 全国 两会“十大热词”) drew the most attention, including: dadao zhijian (大道至简, ‘the way of virtue is extremely simple’), youquan bukerenxing (有权不可任性, ‘powerful and headstrong’), chuangke (创客, ‘maker’), shuxiang shehui (书香社会, ‘literary society’), zeren qingdan (责任清单, ‘list of responsibilities’), shehui xinyong daima (社会信用代码, ‘social credit identifier’), Shen Gang tong (深港通, ‘Shenzhen-Hong Kong Stock Connect’), zhihui chengshi (智慧城市, ‘smart city’), Zhongguo zhizao 2025 (中国制造2025, ‘Made in China 2025ʹ), hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), and quanli xunzu (权力寻租, ‘power rent-seeking’).

1.3 How many lists were created? According to online statistical data, a total of 112 reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) for various sectors and industries were created in 2015, including 11 lists compiled by experts, 12 lists compiled by netizens, 18 computer-generated lists, 71 lists compiled by experts and netizens, and 4 lists compiled by computer and by hand.

2 Factors contributing to the reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) The reasons behind the popularity of the reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) can be explored from different perspectives. The speed at which they became popular and the breadth of their influence was closely related to the push by the media, and in particular, new media established on the basis of the Internet played an extremely important role.

21 Trending word lists for various sectors and industries

255

2.1 Making a start with paper media In the age of the Internet, online media holds an absolute advantage, but traditional media still plays an irreplaceable role. In 2003, Beijing Language and Culture University and other units announced the “Top Ten Popular Terms in Chinese Newspapers” (中国报纸十大流行语) for the first time. The State Language Commission’s The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况报告) established the zici yupian (字词语篇, ‘discourse on words’), specially reporting on the state of new words, new terms, and online popular phrases, and it could deservedly be referred to as the most authoritative reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word list’). In 2015, many disciplines and fields released papers, including the blue paper Report on Public Opinion on Chinese Higher Education (2015) (中国高等教 育舆情报 [2015]) (developed by the Center for Monitoring and Research on Communication and Public Opinion on Higher Education at Communication University of China, published by Higher Education Press), the Blue Paper on New Media in 2015 (2015 新媒体蓝皮书) (prepared by the Institute of Journalism and Communication of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and published by Social Sciences Academic Press), the Research Report on New Media and Social Accountability (2015) (中国新媒体社会责任研究报告[2015]) (jointly produced by the China New Media Communication Association and the Journalism and Information Communication School of Huazhong University of Science and Technology), and so on, all of which devoted a certain amount of space to discussing issues related to word rankings. (People.com.cn, 2015a)

2.2 Getting into formation with online media Online media served as the main battleground for various categories of reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’). Apart from the major search websites, which release relevant “trending search terms” every day, a number of official websites also publish relevant lists of trending words at appropriate times. The Top Nine Neologisms and Trending Words in Government Work Reports in 2015 (2015政府工作报告九大新词热词) (People.com.cn, 2015c), Survey Report on Vulgar Language Online (网络低俗语言调查报告) (People.com.cn, 2015e), and so on published on People.com.cn by the People.com.cn Public Opinion Monitoring Office are all quite influential. If online media is a key battleground, then the different types of trending word rankings form the disposition of forces. For instance, the Year-End Inventory of Online Slang Terms in 2015 (2015年网络流行语年终盘点) on Xinhuanet

256

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zheng Tingting (郑婷婷)

included zhuyao kan qizhi (主要看气质, ‘mainly looking at temperament’), xiao xianrou (小鲜肉, ‘little fresh meat’), xiasi baobao le (吓死宝宝了, ‘scared the baby to death’), mingming keyi kao lian chifan, que pianyao kao caihua (明明可 以靠脸吃饭 却偏要靠才华, ‘could clearly rely on the face to eat, but insists on relying on talent’), cheng hui wan (城会玩, ‘city can play’), xiao gongju (小公举, ‘little princess’), zhongyao de shiqing shuo san bian (重要的事情说三遍, ‘say important things three times’), wo danfangmian xuanbu (我单方面宣布, ‘I unilaterally declare’), wo de neixin jihu shi bengkui de (我的内心几乎是崩溃的, ‘my heart is close to collapse’), and wo daizhe ni, ni daizhe qian (我带着你, 你带着 钱, ‘I’ll take you, you bring the money’) (Xinhuanet, 2015c). The Grand Inventory of Online Slang Terms in 2015 (2015年网络流行语大盘 点) on iqilu.com included wo de neixin jihu shi bengkui de (我的内心几乎是崩溃 的, ‘my heart is close to collapse’), Duang (Duang, ‘[meaningless sound]’), shijie zheme da, wo xiang qu kankan (世界这么大, 我想去看看, ‘the world is so big, I want to go see it’), nimen chengli ren zhen hui wan / cheng hui wan (你们城里人 真会玩 / 城会玩, ‘you city people really can play / city can play’), goudai (狗带, ‘go die’ [phonetic]), xiasi baobao le (吓死宝宝了, ‘scared the baby to death’), zhongyao de shiqing shuo san bian / zhong shuo san (重要的事情说三遍 / 重说 三, ‘say important things three times / say three times if important’), women (我 们, ‘us’), guai wo lo (怪我咯, ‘do you blame me’), wo shi Ye Liangchen (我是叶良 辰, I am Ye Liangchen’), chitu (吃土, ‘eat dirt’), mingming keyi kao lian chifan, que pianyao kao caihua (明明可以靠脸吃饭 却偏要靠才华, ‘could clearly rely on the face to eat, but insists on relying on talent’), and zhuyao kan qizhi (主要 看气质, ‘mainly looking at temperament’) (Ifeng News, 2015). Specialized reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) each took their positions. The Top Ten Trending Words in the Pharmaceutical Industry in 2015 (2015 医药行业十大热词) by China Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Net included hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), da shuju (大数据, ‘big data’), jiankang Zhongguo (健康中国, ‘healthy China’), chuangxin yao (创新药, ‘innovative medicine’), jiqiren (机器人, ‘robot’), yidong yiliao (移动医疗, ‘mobile healthcare’), yiyao dianshang (医药电商, ‘e-commerce for medicine’), jianshou binggou (兼收并购, ‘mergers and acquisitions’), Zhongyi yaofa (中医药法, ‘Law on Traditional Chinese Medicine’), and fangzhiyao zhiliang (仿制药质量, ‘quality of generic drugs’) (China Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Net, 2015). The Top Ten Trending Words in the Funds Industry in 2015 (2015年基金行业 十大热词) by Sina Finance included lizhi (离职, ‘employment separation’), pobai (破百, ‘breaking a million’), qingpan (清盘, ‘liquidation’), fenji (分级, ‘structured’), daxin (打新, ‘buying new [shares / funds]’), da shuju (大数据, ‘big data’), hulian hutong (互联互通, ‘interconnection’), FOF (FOF, ‘fund of funds’),

21 Trending word lists for various sectors and industries

257

xin sanban (新三板, ‘New Third Board’), and jianguan (监管, ‘regulation’) (Sina Finance, 2016). Top Ten Trending Words for Automobiles in 2015 (2015年汽车十大热词) by Ifeng Auto included jiangjia (降价, ‘reduced price’), chemo (车模, ‘car model’), luhu jiguang (路虎极光, ‘Land Rover Evoque’), yuebing che (阅兵车, ‘troop review car’), dazhong paifang men (大众排放门, ‘crowd discharge gate’), gouzhi shui (购置税, ‘purchase tax’), quanmian ertai (全面二胎, ‘two births for all’), zuigui qiche (最贵汽车, ‘most expensive automobile’), shangmen baoyang (上门保 养, ‘drop-in upkeep’), and danshuang hao (单双号, ‘even and odd plate numbers’) (Ifeng Auto, 2016). It is worth noting that a number of portal websites for online media all devote attention to presenting special lists. For instance, through a combination of voting by netizens and selection by experts, with reference to comprehensive statistics on the number of times entries are browsed and the number of versions across the site each month, Baike.com presents the “Top Ten Trending Words of the Month on the Internet” (月度互联网十大热词) each month, while China Economic Net and 360 News jointly present the “Trending Words of the Month in Economics” (月度经济热词) each month. These special lists have already become innovative trademarks for relevant websites.

2.3 Assistance from screen media Television media outlets also added fuel to the fire of reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) for the different industries and sectors. The Guangdong Satellite Television News Broadcast (新闻联播) presented a “List of Top Ten Trending Words” (十大热词榜) drawing the attention of representatives at the 2015 National Two Sessions: shenhua gaige (深化改革, ‘deepening reforms’), jingji fazhan (经济发展, ‘economic development’), yidai yilu (一带 一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’), jianzheng fangquan (简政放权, ‘streamlining of administration and decentralization’), wenzhong qiujin (稳中求进, ‘seeking progress amidst stability’), Jing Jin Ji yitihua (京津冀一体化, ‘integration of Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei’), xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’), nongye xiandaihua (农业现代化, ‘agricultural modernization’), dangfeng lianzheng jianshe (党风廉政建设, ‘building a clean government with Party style’), and quyu fazhan (区域发展, ‘regional development’). The “Inventory of Trending Words for the 2015 Spring Festival” (2015春节 热词盘点) on CCTV’s A Portrait of Society (社会传真), the Inventory of Trending Words in TV Dramas in 2015 (2015电视剧热词盘点) produced by the China (Shenzhen) International TV Drama & TV Program Fair, and so on all drew

258

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zheng Tingting (郑婷婷)

upon screen media to expand the influence of reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’).

2.4 Integrated media promotion The reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) of 2015 were frequently characterized by the integration of the various types of media above, leveraging their strengths for comprehensive promotion. In the example of the “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点), a number of organizations have jointly promoted the annual “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点), simultaneously drawing upon print media, online media, screen media, and various other media outlets to enhance its radiation and expand its influence. For a period of time, Hanyu pandian (汉语盘点, ‘Chinese language inventory’) became a popular phrase for year-end 2015.

3 The function of reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) Reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) have continued to heat up, maximally realizing their function and social role as lists.

3.1 Observation of society The various types of lists drawing the general attention of the public, including reci (热词, ‘trending words’), reyu (热语, ‘trending phrases’), wangluo liuxingyu (网络流行语, ‘online slang terms’), and so on, are a true reflection of contemporary social life, and an authentic record of the social mood, public opinion, and pop culture. Reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) for specific fields or industries furthermore represent a distinct and tangible embodiment of the public’s social demands. Examples include: Trending Words in Dining in 2015 (2015餐饮热词) Top Ten Trending Words in the Home Furnishings Industry in 2015 (2015家居 业十大热词大) Top Ten Trending Words in the Pharmaceutical Industry in 2015 (2015 医药行 业十大热词)

21 Trending word lists for various sectors and industries

259

Top Five Trending Words in the Mobile Phone Industry in 2015 (2015手机行业 五大热词) Trending Words in the Paint Industry in 2015 (2015涂料行业热词) Top Ten Trending Words in the Funds Industry in 2015 (2015年基金行业十大 热词) Top Ten Trending Words for Automobiles in 2015 (2015年汽车十大热词) Trending Words of the Year in Official Business Aviation in China in 2015 (2015中国公务航空年度热词) Trending Words in the Digital Signage Industry in 2015 (2015数字标牌行业热 词) Top Eight Trending Words in Machine-Tool Circles in 2015 (2015年机床圈八 大热词) .... The majority of the lists mentioned above found a place for the “Internet +”: waimai (外卖, ‘takeout’) headed the list for Trending Words in Dining in 2015 (2015餐饮热词), and so on and so forth, concretely reflecting the quiet changes to people’s social lives and lifestyles.

3.2 Aggregation of popular sentiment Reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) often have very high popularity, easily producing a resonant effect in the social psychology, and objectively playing the role of the aggregation of popular sentiment. An example is the Cross-Strait Vote for Chinese Character of the Year in 2015 (2015海峡两岸年度汉字评选), in which the character he (和, ‘peace’) was selected with a high margin of votes (My Drivers, 2015). This reflected the shared expectations of compatriots across the straits for the vision of peaceful development, strengthening the centripetal force of the Chinese nation.

3.3 Revealing market conditions The reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’) for various industries use words as a basis for objectively reflecting social demand and the state of development in the given industry or field. In 2015, a number of industries and sectors devoted attention to presenting reci bang (热词榜, ‘trending word lists’), and as an industry or product marketing activity with broad public participation, they gave little cause for criticism.

260

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zheng Tingting (郑婷婷)

However, it is necessary to be on guard against the use of reci (热词, ‘trending words’) for amusement in voting activities that in fact set marketing traps for consumers.

References askci.com (中商情报网). 2015. Inventory of the Top Ten Trending Words in the Pharmaceutical Industry in 2015 (2015 医药行业十大热词). December 21, 2015, http://www.askci.com/ news/chanye/2015/12/21/16205204bk.shtml. Baidu Bulletin Board – yy Board (百度贴吧 – yy 吧). 2015. Ranking, introductions, and representative figures and events for the top ten trending words of the year in YY entertainment in 2015 (2015YY 娱乐年度十大热词排名及简介及代表人物、 事件). November 20, 2015, http://tieba.baidu.com/p/4169773478. CAN News (中国航空新闻网). 2015. Top 8 Trending Words of the Year in Official Business Aviation in China in 2015 (2015中国公务航空年度热词 TOP 8). December 31, 2015, http://www.cannews.com.cn/2015/1231/144223.shtml. China Economic Net (中国经济网). 2015a. Nearly six tenths of fake news is first posted on Weibo (近六成假新闻首发于微博). Blue Paper on New Media in 2015 (2015 新媒体蓝皮 书). June 24, 2015, http://www.ce.cn/xwzx/gnsz/gdxw/201506/24/t20150624_5727350. shtml. China Economic Net (中国经济网). 2015b. Top Ten Trending Words of February 2015 in Economics are released, ‘scrambling for red envelopes at the Spring Festival’ ranks first (2015年2 月十大经济热词发布“ 春节抢红包”居首). March 2, 2015, http://www.ce.cn/ xwzx/gnsz/gdxw/201503/02/t20150302_4695677.shtml. China Economic Net (中国经济网). 2015c. Top Ten Trending Words of 2015 in Economics are released, ‘comprehensive two-child policy’ ranks first (2015年十大经济热词发布“全面二 孩”居首). December 23, 2015, http://www.ce.cn/xwzx/gnsz/gdxw/201512/23/ t20151223_7757554.shtml. China Investment Consulting Net (中国投资资讯网). 2015. Top Ten Trending Words in Equipment Manufacturing in 2015: the Long-Awaited Smart Manufacturing (2015年十大设 备制造热词 致终将到来的智能制造). December 15, 2015, http://www.ocn.com.cn/chanj ing/201512/vieoa15141134.shtml. China Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Net (中国制药网). 2015. Great year-end contribution by China Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Net, Part I: Top Ten Trending Words in the Pharmaceutical Industry in 2015 (中国制药网年终钜献一: 2015 医药行业十大热词). December 10, 2015, http://www.zyzhan.com/news/detail/51096.html. China Water Transport News (中国水运报). 2015. “Top Ten Trending Words” for the 2015 National Two Sessions (2015 全国两会“十大热词”). March 9, 2015, http://epaper.zgsyb. com/html/2015-03/09/content_115937.htm. Chinese Medical Doctor Association (中国医师协会). 2015. Full text of the ‘White Paper on the State of Physician Practices in China’ (‹ 中国医师执业状况白皮书›全文), May 28, 2015, http://www.cmda.net/xiehuixiangmu/falvshiwubu/tongzhigonggao/2015-05-28/14587. html.

21 Trending word lists for various sectors and industries

261

csai.cn (希财网). 2015. Top Ten Trending Words on the Stock Market in 2015 (2015 股市十大热 词). December 15, 2015, http://www.csai.cn/gupiao/1088493.hmtl. CSDN. 2016. Remembering the past, and examining the present: Sogou Baike inventory of the ‘trending words’ of 2015 (忆往昔 看今朝 搜狗百科盘点2015 年度“热词”). January 7, 2016, http://www.csdn.net/article/a/2016-01-07/15833699. Dangjian.cn (党建网). 2015. 10 Key Words of the Year for Current Politics in 2015 (2015年10 个 时政年度关键词). December 28, 2015, http://www.wenming.cn/djw/sy/jjq/tt/201512/ t20151228_3050729.shtml. hexun.com (和讯网). 2016. Trending Words of 2015 in Business (2015年度商务热词). January 7, 2016, http://news.hexun.com/2016-01-07/181676003.html. Ifeng Auto (凤凰汽车). 2016. Top Ten Trending Words for Automobiles in 2015: model / shot while lying down / faking (2015年汽车十大热词 模/躺枪/作假). January 7, 2016, http://auto.ifeng.com/daogou/20160107/1051807.shtml. Ifeng News (凤凰资讯). 2015. Grand Inventory of Online Slang Terms in 2015: The world is so big, mainly looking at temperament (2015年网络流行语大盘点: 世界那么大主要看气质). December 11, 2015. http://news.ifeng.com/a/20151211/46630694_0.shtml. mei.net.cn (机经网). 2015. Which top eight trending words swept over machine-tool circles in 2015 (2015 年机床圈被哪八大热词刷屏). China Machinery Industry Federation, December 14, 2015, http://www.mei.net.cn/jcgj/201512/642266.html. My Drivers (驱动之家), 2015. 7 million netizens select the cross-strait Chinese character of the year in 2015: peace (700 万网友评出 2015 海峡两岸年度汉字: 和). December 18, 2015, http://news.mydrivers.com/1/462/462104.htm. People.com.cn (人民网). 2015a. Release of the blue paper ‘Report on Public Opinion on Chinese Higher Education (2015)’ (中国高等教育舆情报告 (2015) › 蓝皮书发布). November 30, 2015, http://liuxue.people.com.cn/n/2015/1130/c1053-27872959.html. People.com.cn (人民网). 2015b. The mobile Internet ecosystem is taking shape (移动互联网生 态系统正在形成). Blue Paper on Mobile Internet (2015) (移动互联网蓝皮书[2015]). June 24, 2015, http://it.people.com.cn/n/2015/0624/c1009-27201188.html. People.com.cn (人民网). 2015c. Top Nine Neologisms and Trending Words in Government Work Reports in 2015 (2015政府工作报告九大新词热词). March 5, 2015, http://lianghui.people. com.cn/2015npc/n/2015/0305/c393680-26642387.html. People.com.cn (人民网). 2015d. Inventory of 10 Neologisms by Xi Jinping That Were On Fire in 2015 (盘点2015年习近平带火的10个新热词). August 4, 2015, http://politics.people.com. cn/n/2015/0804/c1001-27408430.html. People.com.cn (人民网). 2015e. Survey Report on Vulgar Language Online is published by the People.com.cn Public Opinion Monitoring Office (人民网舆情监测室发布« 网络低俗语言 调查报告»). June 2, 2015, http://yuqing.people.com.cn/n/2015/0602/c39240427093108.html. Shengyidi (生意地). 2015. White Paper on Cross-Border E-Commerce Export Transactions on DHgate.com in 2014-2015 (2014-2015 敦煌网跨境电商出口交易白皮书). August 4, 2015, http://www.shengyidi.com/news/d-1884603/. Sina blogger @pipigou (新浪博客@皮皮狗). 2015. Inventory of the Top Ten Online Slang Terms in 2015: mainly looking at temperament (盘点2015 十大网络流行语, 主要看气质). December 11, 2015, http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4c41dc010102w00i.html. Sina Finance (新浪财经). 2016. Top Ten Trending Words in the Funds Industry in 2015: recalling a year that passed like flowing water (2015年基金行业十大热词: 追忆似水流年).

262

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Zheng Tingting (郑婷婷)

January 6, 2016, http://finance.sina.com.cn/money/fund/jjpl/2016-01-06/docifxneefu2322273.shtml. Sina Home Furnishings (新浪家居). 2015. Grand Inventory of the Top Ten Trending Words in the Home Furnishings Industry in 2015 (2015家居业十大热词大盘点). December 10, 2015, http://jiaju.sina.com.cn/news/20151210/6080525304382947359.shtml. Sohu (搜狐). 2015. Top 8 Trending Words in Internet Economics in the First Half of 2015 (2015年 上半年互联网经济8 大热词). July 14, 2015, http://mt.sohu.com/20150714/n416750973. shtml. Sohu (搜狐). 2016a. Inventory of the Top Ten Trending Words in the Packaging and Printing Industry in 2015 (盘点2015年包装印刷行业十大热词). February 17, 2016, http://mt.sohu. com/20160217/n437665030.shtml. Sohu (搜狐). 2016b. Inventory of the ‘Trending Words’ of the Year in the Chinese Construction Industry in 2015 (盘点2015 年中国建筑业年度“热词”). January 4, 2016, http://mt.sohu. com/20160104/n433399896.shtml. Sohu (搜狐). 2016c. Duangduangduang inventory of Top Ten Trending Words in E-Commerce in 2015 (duangduangduang 盘 点2015电商十大热词). January 5, 2016, http://mt.sohu. com/20160105/n433508000.shtml. Xinhuanet (新华网). 2015a. Prompt disclosure of anti-corruption information reduces the space for online rumors (反腐信息及时公开压缩网络谣言空间). Blue Paper on Public Opinion in 2015 (2015舆情蓝皮书). November 24, 2015, http://news.xinhuanet.com/zgjx/ 2015-11/24/c_134847664.htm. Xinhuanet (新华网). 2015b. Top Ten Trending Words on the Rule of Law for the 2015 Two Sessions: Anti-corruption legislation for the powerful and headstrong (2015两会十大法治 热词: 有权不可任性反腐败立法). March 16, 2015, http://news.xin-huanet.com/legal/ 2015-03/16/c_127586588.htm. Xinhuanet (新华网). 2015c. Do you know what the online slang terms were in 2015? (年你知道 的网络流行语有哪些?). December 9, 2015, http://www.ha.xinhuanet.com/hnxw/2015-12/ 09/c_1117407776.htm. Xinhuanet (新华网). 2016. Trending words in the industry in 2015 are an ‘explication of words and phrases’ on the current state of the textile industry (2015 行业热词纺织业现状“说文 解字”). January 5, 2016. http://news.xinhuanet.com/fashion/2016-01/05/c_128593715. htm.

Part VI: Words and passages

Liu Yueyan (刘玥妍)

22 Writing the annals of the characters and words of the year, 2015 On December 21, 2015, the “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点 2015), sponsored by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, Commercial Press, People.com.cn, and CCTV News, revealed that lian (廉, ‘honest’), hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), kong (恐, ‘fear’) and fankong (反恐, ‘counterterrorism’) had respectively been chosen as the domestic character, domestic word, international character, and international word of the year.

1 Online voting broadly assimilated the popular will The activities for the selection of the characters and words of 2015 drew upon broad and diverse media resources: In addition to the Commercial Press, National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, and People.com. cn, CCTV News participated in the sponsorship for the first time, exercising its influence and appeal as a mainstream media outlet. Weibo, Jinri Toutiao (今日 头条) and other self-media platforms with great potential also joined in as coorganizers, improving the power of communication and range of coverage of the activities. The National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus, Qingbo Big Data – New Media Index Platform, and the official website of the Commercial Press tracked, monitored and managed the relevant data throughout the process, providing a solid foundation for the activities. The selection of the 215 characters and words of the year was still divided into four stages, including nominations by netizens, appraisal by experts, online voting, and announcement and the presentation of awards, while exhibiting two distinguishing features as compared to the past: First, media integration was used to carry out three-dimensional publicity, expanding the channels for participation. The People.com.cn Activity Zone, Weibo Topics homepage, and CCTV News WeChat client joined together for publicity, to promote the entire process. Themed microfilms and microfilms as a mode of participation, in conjunction with the official website of the Commercial Press and the Jinri Toutiao (今日头条) self-media platform, were more intuitive, three-dimensional, and concise, attracting broad participation by netizens. Pages https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-022

266

Liu Yueyan (刘玥妍)

for participation by PC and by mobile phone were launched simultaneously, and the results of voting were shown in real time, providing netizens with more convenient and congenial avenues for nomination and methods of voting. Second, da shuju (大数据, ‘big data’) resources were fully utilized, airing multilateral viewpoints. The activities relied on 5 online media outlets and 3 institutions of higher education for radiation to more than one hundred million users, founded upon the massive data of the National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus and Qingbo Big Data – New Media Index Platform. At the same time, at the inaugural ceremony for the activities, the sponsors also released the “Big Data Edition” (大数据版本) and “Expert Edition” (专家版本) of nominations for the characters and words of the year, introducing related topics, and heating up the activities in advance. During the stage of expert appraisal, specialized opinions from the fields of linguistics, sociology, history, international relations, communication studies, economics, and so on were fully assimilated, making the results of the appraisal more persuasive and imbuing them with timeliness. The data showed that the activities received a total of more than 11,000 nominations of words and characters by netizens in the early stages, and during the voting stage, the number of clicks reached more than 140,000, and the number of views for the topic “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点) on Weibo reached more than one hundred million, both surpassing prior years, and fully mining the wisdom and value contained within the popular will. Below is the list of candidate characters and words of the year for the “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点2015): Domestic character (top 10): shi (实, ‘real’), die (跌, ‘tumble’), pin (拼, ‘piece together’), lian (廉, ‘honest’), wen (稳, ‘stable’), qiang (强, ‘strong’), zai (灾, ‘disaster’), gai (改, ‘reform’), meng (梦, ‘dream’), chuang (创, ‘innovate’) Domestic word (top 10): erhai (二孩, ‘two-child’), yuebing (阅兵, ‘troop review’), Xi-Ma hui (习马会, ‘Xi-Ma meeting’), hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), xin changtai (新常态, ‘new normal’), dahu (打虎, ‘cracking down on tigers’), chuangye (创业, ‘entrepreneurship’), guzai (股灾, ‘stock market crash’), wumai (雾霾, ‘smog’), fanfu (反腐, ‘anti-corruption’) International character (top 10): bei (悲, ‘tragedy’), kong (恐, ‘fear’), luan (乱, ‘chaos’), lian (廉, ‘honest’), fa (法, ‘law’), e (俄, ‘Russia’), nan (难, ‘trouble’), you (呦, ‘oh’), zhan (战, ‘war’), bian (变, ‘change’) International word (top 10): fankong (反恐, ‘counterterrorism’), yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’), Yisilanguo (ISIS) (伊斯兰国[ISIS], ‘Islamic State [ISIS]’), nanmin (难民, ‘refugee’), Yatouhang (亚投行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’), Baxi kongxi (巴黎恐袭, ‘Paris terrorist attacks’), gongying

22 Writing the annals of the characters and words of the year, 2015

267

(共赢, ‘win-win’), baorong (包容, ‘tolerance’), kongnan (空难, ‘aviation disaster’), heping (和平, ‘peace’)

2 Rational considerations arising from the characters and words of the year Domestic character: lian (廉, ‘honest’) The original meaning of lian (廉, ‘honest’) was ‘the side of a hall,’ that is, the side of a building. Later, by extension, it came to refer to an upright and honest person, or a decent and level-headed official. In official circles, qinglian (清廉, ‘integrity and honesty’) are the public’s greatest expectations. Leaders and cadres are to be low-key and restrained, repairing and improving the government’s credibility, and gradually cleaning up the style of government. Official virtue inspires public virtue in society, and only with a few more cadres in the style of Jiao Yulu (焦裕禄) and Kong Fansen (孔繁森) can there be a few more citizens in the style of Lei Feng (雷锋) and Lai Ning (赖宁). Domestic word: hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) As Premier Li Keqiang (李克强) advocated in a government work report, the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) has gradually set the world ablaze. The Internet is not merely a tool, but furthermore an incubator for improving conventional industries such as healthcare, commuting, media, agriculture, finance, and so on, and it is expected to usher in a new flood of productivity. Mass entrepreneurship, mass innovation, crowd-sourcing, and crowd-funding stand at the doorway to the Internet, and the computer mice of this generation of young people are flying. International character: kong (恐, ‘fear’) Kong (恐, ‘fear’) has the meaning of ‘dread.’ Fear is a human instinct with a certain self-protective function, but excessive fear does more harm than good. In 2015, international terrorist incidents occurred frequently, with France, Nigeria, Turkey, Lebanon, Mali, and other countries being the main targets of the attacks. These incidents had different modes of attacks and different scales, but their objective was always to create a fearful atmosphere, which runs counter to the people’s pursuit of the peaceful vision of “a prosperous country in which the people live in peace, with tranquility around the world.” International word: fankong (反恐, ‘counterterrorism’) Terrorism signifies the murder of innocents and disruption of society in order to achieve political objectives, and it has become the public enemy of the people in

268

Liu Yueyan (刘玥妍)

every country. There were attacks launched by Yisilanguo (ISIS) (伊斯兰国[ISIS], ‘Islamic State [ISIS]), massacres by Boko Haram, terrorist disturbances continually incited by the Taliban, and attacks in Mali arising from the Nasserite independence movement. In the face of rampant terrorism, the international community has increased efforts for military strikes on the one hand, while strengthening cooperation for online counterterrorism on the other, and each country has jointly and profoundly pursued counterterrorism. While the people of the world stand united, justice will ultimately prevail in the decisive battle against evil. The 2015 characters and words of the year fully reflected the will of the public at large as well as rational considerations. The domestic character lian (廉, ‘honest’) kept up the enthusiasm of the domestic word of 2014, fanfu (反腐, ‘anti-corruption’), reflecting people’s urgent expectations with respect to purifying the social environment and improving government credibility. The domestic word hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) emerged with a bang, explaining the enormous changes in compatriots’ lifestyles and modes of thinking. The selection of kong (恐, ‘fear’) and fankong (反恐, ‘counterterrorism’) as the international character and international word points to the central topic of terrorism, which the entire world met head-on in 2015, expressing the respect for life and yearning for peace of all of humanity.

3 A record of changing times over the course of ten years The aim of the “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点) is to “use a single character and a single word to describe China and the world in a given year,” encouraging netizens to use language to record life and describe social changes and the phenomena of the world from a Chinese perspective. Ten consecutive rounds have been held since 2006. In this decade, the inventory for the characters and words of the year has become a cultural occasion in which all the people participate, while the words and characters of the year that were selected have formed annals in characters and words truthfully recording the changing times. In the example of the domestic word, hexie (和谐, ‘harmony’) (2006), minsheng (民生, ‘people’s livelihood’) (2007), gaige kaifang 30 nian (改革开放30 年, ‘30 years of Opening and Reforms’) (2008), minsheng (民生, ‘people’s livelihood’) (2009), geili (给力, ‘awesome’) (2010), shangbuqi (伤不起, ‘can’t take it any more’) (2011), Diaoyu dao (钓鱼岛, ‘Diaoyu Islands’) (2012), zheng nengliang (正能 量, ‘positive energy’), fanfu (反腐, ‘anti-corruption’), and hulianwang+ (互联网+,

22 Writing the annals of the characters and words of the year, 2015

269

‘Internet+’), these ten words are a precise record of the development and changes to Chinese society in the last ten years, outlining compatriots’ most authentic feelings. In addition, the several characters and words that were repeatedly selected during these ten years are a concentrated reflection of the points drawing public attention as well as the hot topics of the era, such as: zhang (涨, ‘inflation’), the domestic character of 2007 and 2010; minsheng (民生, ‘people’s livelihood’), the domestic word of 2007 and 2009; as well as luan (乱, ‘chaos’) and zheng (争, ‘conflict’), both of which were twice selected as the international character, and so on. This year, the sponsors also selected the “Neologisms of the Decade” (十年 时代新词) on the basis of monitoring data over the course of ten years, relying on the frequency of use, period of use, trends of development, and other indicators, including: Weibo (微博, ‘Weibo’) (2009), Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘Chinese dream’) (2012), Weixin (微信, ‘WeChat’) (2010), zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’) (2012), dianshang (电商, ‘e-commerce’) (2009), 80 hou / 90 hou (80后 / 90后, ‘post-80s / post-90s’) (2005), baozhang fang (保障房, ‘guaranteed housing’) (2007), da shuju (大数据, ‘big data’) (2011), xiao changjia (小长假, ‘short long vacations’) (2007), and dongche (动车, ‘power car’) As the neologisms with the highest indicators of vitality in the last decade, they condensed the history of the innovation and development of Chinese society over the last ten years, reflecting the profound changes to compatriots’ lifestyles.

4 An annual language custom gradually became a global scene In the last few years, in Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan, and other countries and regions, activities for the selection of the Chinese character of the year have also caught on like wildfire, fully demonstrating the unique charm and international expressiveness of written Chinese culture. One could say that this annual language custom has already become a global cultural scene, and the cultural information and social value contained within language have also increasingly drawn people’s attention.

270

Liu Yueyan (刘玥妍)

4.1 Japan: The character an (安, ‘safe’) held sway over the domestic and international situation On December 15, 2015, the Japanese Association for Assessment of Chinese Character Proficiency announced at Kiyomizu-dera in Kyoto that Japan’s “Chinese Character of the Year” (年度汉字) was an (安, ‘safe’). The reasons for selecting the character an (安, ‘safe’) were: “This year, many incidents occurred which made people feel unsafe: For instance, under the push of the Abe [安倍] government, domestic Japanese public opinion split into two factions revolving around whether or not to pass the Legislation for Preservation of Peace and Security [安保法]; and around the world, terrorist activities continually took place, and unusual weather emerged, et cetera.” Ranking behind an (安, ‘safe’) was the character bao (爆, ‘explosive’) from the popular word of the year baomai (爆买, ‘explosive shopping’), immediately followed by the character zhan (战, ‘war’), which reflected the 70-year postwar era, as well as the character jie (结, ‘marry’), which described the series of performers getting married.

4.2 Singapore: The character yao (耀, ‘Yew’) cherished the memory of the founding prime minister On December 14, 2015, the results were revealed in the activities for selection of the Chinese character of the year, to “describe a year in one character,” held by Lianhe Zaobao (联合早报) of Singapore, and the character yao (耀, ‘Yew’) was selected as the 2015 character of the year. In March 2015, Lee Kuan Yew (李光耀), the former prime minister of Singapore, had passed away from illness, and the character yao (耀, ‘Yew’) represented how the people of Singapore remembered this great man and cherished his memory. Many words are formed from the character yao (耀, ‘Yew’), including yaoyan (耀眼, ‘dazzling’), shanyao (闪耀, ‘shine’), rongyao (荣耀, ‘glory’), and so on. During the parliamentary elections of September 2015, the People’s Action Party, the ruling party of Singapore, secured dazzling results, with its share of the vote rebounding from 60.14% in the last round ot elections to 69.86%. In July, the Singapore Botanic Gardens had succeeded in the application for World Heritage Site status, becoming the first World Heritage Site of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in the Lion City.

22 Writing the annals of the characters and words of the year, 2015

271

4.3 Malaysia: The character ku (苦, ‘hardship’) reflected the public’s heartfelt feelings On December 11, 2015, the selection was announced for “2015 Chinese Character of the Year in Malaysia” (2015年马来西亚年度汉字), jointly sponsored by the Federation of Chinese Associations Malaysia and the Han Culture Centre Malaysia, and the character ku (苦, ‘hardship’) was selected as the Chinese character of the year. Of the 14078 votes, ku (苦, ‘hardship’) earned 16%, narrowly winning out over tan (贪, ‘corrupt’) (15%), while shui (税, ‘tax’), juan (捐, ‘taxation’), luan (乱, ‘chaos’), die (跌, ‘tumble’), chi (耻, ‘disgrace’), mai (霾, ‘smog’), yi (一, ‘one’), he (和, ‘peace’), and zhen (震, ‘earthquake’) were respectively ranked third through tenth. The selection of the character ku (苦, ‘hardship’) reflects the public’s deep dissatisfaction with the impact of the levying of the consumption tax, soaring commodity prices, devaluation of the currency, and so on.

4.4 Taiwan: The character huan (换, ‘exchange’) captured the current political atmosphere On December 8, 2015, the results of selection in the “Vote for the Representative Character of 2015 in Taiwan” (台湾2015 代表字大选) were announced, and huan (换, ‘exchange’) came to the fore among 50 candidate characters, to be selected as Chinese character of the year. The expert scholar who nominated huan (换, ‘exchange’) argued that huan (换, ‘exchange’) reflects the changes to Taiwan’s political situation, and is in accord with Taiwan’s current political atmosphere. “Vote for the Representative Character in Taiwan” (台湾代表字大选) began in 2008, and at the end of each year, the public is invited to vote for the Chinese character that best represents that year. Huan (换, ‘exchange’) was the 8th representative character of the year in Taiwan to be selected, after luan (乱, ‘chaos’), pan (盼, ‘looking forward’), dan (淡, ‘dull’), zan (赞, ‘like’), you (忧, ‘worry’), jia (假, ‘fake’) and hei (黑, ‘black’).

4.5 Cross-Strait: The character he (和, ‘peace’) sketches a win-win vision On December 18, 2015, the “Vote for the 2015 Cross-Strait Chinese Character of the Year” (2015 海峡两岸年度汉字评选), jointly sponsored by Want Daily (旺报) of Taiwan and Sun News (海西晨报) of Xiamen, was revealed, and the character

272

Liu Yueyan (刘玥妍)

he (和, ‘peace’) was selected as Chinese character of the year with 433,722 votes. This voting activity drew a total of 7.02 million votes, and the Chinese characters that made it into the top ten were respectively he (和, ‘peace’), an (安, ‘safe’), wo (握, ‘grasp’), zhuan (转, ‘transition’), chuang (创, ‘innovate’), qiang (强, ‘strong’), qi (祈, ‘pray’), zhi (志, ‘aspiration’), and kun (困, ‘difficult’). In the wake of the construction of “One Belt, One Road” (一带一路), the establishment of free trade zones in Fujian, Tianjin, Guangdong, and so on, as well as the inclusion of the RMB in currency baskets, Mainland China has been integrated into the tide of economic globalization with more open aspirations. At the same time, Taiwan also faces the challenges and opportunities of economic transition and industrial updating. The character he (和, ‘peace’) depicts the two sides of the strait today, while providing inspiration for tomorrow, looking forward to peace and prosperity for both sides of the strait, and a peaceful winwin situation.

Hou Min (侯敏), Liang Linlin (梁琳琳), Zou Yu (邹煜), and Teng Yonglin (滕永林)

23 Hot topics in society in the neologisms of 2015 The neologisms of the year serve as a recorder and microscope on social changes, and as concentrated embodiments of linguistic changes and social changes throughout the year. We sifted through 1.18 million texts and 1.7 billion character instances in the National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus layer by layer, and extracted a total of 469 neologisms (for details, see the CD enclosed with this book, List of Neologisms in the Media in 2015 [2015年度媒体新词语表]). These neologisms truthfully record the new things, new concepts, and new situations that emerged in 2015, as well as the quiet changes that took place in the popular mentality and ideas throughout the year.

1 Interpretation of the “Top Ten Neologisms” (十大新词语) On December 21, 2015, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, and other organizations jointly issued the Top Ten Neologisms in Chinese Media in 2015 (2015年度中国媒体十大新词语): Hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+), zhongchuang kongjian (众创空间, ‘mass innovation space’), huodegan (获得感, ‘sense of benefit’), fei shoudu gongneng (非首都功能, ‘non-capital functions’), wang yueche (网约车, ‘online car-hailing’), hongtong (红通, ‘red notice’), xiao duanjia (小短假, ‘little short vacation’), yuebing lan (阅兵蓝, ‘troop review blue’), renminbi rulan (人民币入篮, ‘RMB inclusion in the basket’), yizhao yima (一照一码, ‘one license, one identifier’) These ten neologisms had a relatively high frequency of use among the 469 entries, and in them, one can see the major events of social life in China in 2015, as well as the hot topics drawing the attention of the media and the general public.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-023

274

Hou Min (侯敏) et al.

1.1 A national strategy under the new economic circumstances –hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+) When hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+) was elevated to a national strategy by means of a government work report, as traditional industries vied to be first to tag themselves with the label hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+), and as community grocery stores began offering orders via the Internet, hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+) naturally became the most popular neologism of 2015, while the Internet became a standard feature of modern production and life. However, in the addition problem of the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+), what is added, how it is added, and how the effect of 1 + 1 > 2 is achieved are questions that merit further exploration.

1.2 A guest house where makers can pitch camp – zhongchuang kongjian (众创空间, ‘mass innovation space’) People say that entrepreneurship is difficult, with one success among a hundred failures. Creativity is unquestionably important, while a good eco-environment is also indispensable. Amidst the tide of mass entrepreneurship and mass innovation, a zhongchuang kongjian (众创空间, ‘mass innovation space’) not only serves as a guest house where small and micro-enterprises can pitch camp during the entrepreneurial startup phase, but furthermore calls upon scholarly associations to serve as qualified dian xiao’er (店小二, ‘waiters’), providing chuangke (创客, ‘makers’) on various paths with convenient, low-cost and comprehensive services. This is the only way that dian xiao’er (店小二, ‘waiters’) can support the da zhanggui (大掌柜, ‘big shopkeeper’), and that xiao kezhan (小客栈, ‘little guest houses’) can achieve da mengxiang (大梦想, ‘big dreams’).

1.3 A touchstone for testing the effects of reforms –huodegan (获得感, ‘sense of benefit’) In comparison with the ambiguous and ineffable feeling of happiness, huodegan (获得感, ‘sense of benefit’) hews more closely to the general public’s mode of expression, providing a dependable touchstone for testing the development and effects of reforms: Making the sky a little bluer, cities a little greener, the people’s income a little higher, government barriers a little lower, seeing the doctor a little easier, the roads a little clearer, employment opportunities a little

23 Hot topics in society in the neologisms of 2015

275

more numerous, corruption a little less common . . . and bit by bit, the huodegan (获得感, ‘sense of benefit’) will accumulate to bring happiness to the masses in their hundreds of millions.

1.4 Only by easing fei shoudu gongneng (非首都功能, ‘non-capital functions’) can da chengshi bing (大城市病, ‘big city disease’) be treated With a swelling population, traffic congestion, soaring housing process, and frequent smog, Beijing has come down with da chengshi bing (大城市病, ‘big city disease’). “As a capital city of a great nation with a population of 1.3 billion, it should not undertake too many functions which it has not sufficient capacity to bear” (Xi Jinping [习近平], Feb. 10, 2015), and easing fei shoudu gongneng (非首 都功能, ‘non-capital functions’) has become a matter of vital urgency. Such a task cannot be achieved overnight. This requires superb wisdom, and is also inseparable from powerful enforcement, with the multi-pronged approach of jin (禁, ‘prohibition’), guan (关, ‘closure’), kong (控, ‘control’), zhuan (转, ‘transferring’), and tiao (调, ‘regulation’), taking a broad view and making long-term plans, steadily moving ahead and consolidating at every step, and persevering in making unremitting efforts.

1.5 Wang yueche (网约车, ‘online car-hailing’): is it an innovation, or a violation of the law? Is wang yueche (网约车, ‘online car-hailing’) an innovative product of the integration of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+) with the traditional taxi market, or is it unlicensed taxis operating illegally? Is it a practical convenience for public commuting ushered in with the aid of the Internet, or a concerning safety hazard lacking oversight? Amidst the tide of the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+), the dilemma of wang yueche (网约车, ‘online car-hailing’) reminds us in timely fashion that when traditional industries actively seek development through integration of the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+), the government cannot be absent.

276

Hou Min (侯敏) et al.

1.6 The hongtong (红通, ‘red notice’) once again sounds the alarm for the pursuit of fugitives In April 2015, the central authorities marshalled significant forces to deploy the “Tianwang” (天网) operation targeting corrupt individuals who had fled abroad, and the Interpol China National Central Bureau issued hongse tongjiling (红色通 缉令, ‘red notices’) for the pursuit and capture of criminal fugitives around the world. As of year-end 2015, 18 individuals with hongtong (红通, ‘red notices’) had been captured. “China is committed to beating back corruption and cleaning up graft, combatting corruption with a zero-tolerance attitude, and strengthening international cooperation for anti-corruption,” so that corrupt individuals cannot rest in paradise: even if they have fled to the ends of the Earth, they will inevitably be captured and punished in accordance with the law.

1.7 Xiao duanjia (小短假, ‘little short vacations’) to unleash consumption and fuel domestic demand The topic of vacations always touches a nerve for the public: from 7-day changjia (长假, ‘long vacations’) to 3-day xiao changjia (小长假, ‘little long vacations’) to 2.5-day xiao duanjia (小短假, ‘little short vacations’), it seems that vacations are getting shorter and shorter, while in reality, compatriots’ demands for quality of life are getting higher and higher. Xiao duanjia (小短假, ‘little short vacations’) can undoubtedly unleash consumer vitality for short-distance weekend trips, fueling domestic demand, and stimulating economic growth. However, at a time when many enterprises regard even two-day weekends as jiaxiu (假休, ‘taking a vacation’), how to prevent xiao duanjia (小短假, ‘little short vacations’) from devolving into a benefit on paper only, and how to allow the general public to truly achieve happy work and a dignified life will test the wisdom of the government and enterprises.

1.8 When can yuebing lan (阅兵蓝, ‘troop review blue’) become the new normal? As aircraft formations flew across Beijing’s azure sky for the troop review, impressed upon the spectator’s minds like powerful eagles, that was pure yuebing lan (阅兵蓝, ‘troop review blue’). With Aoyun lan (奥运蓝, ‘Olympic blue’), APEC lan (APEC 蓝, ‘APEC blue’) and yuebing lan (阅兵蓝, ‘troop review blue’), blue skies in Beijing always seem to be able to grab the headlines. Although the

23 Hot topics in society in the neologisms of 2015

277

blue skies soon pass away, we still see hope in them: We are absolutely not helpless against smog, and if only the government sets its resolve, if only enterprises are compliant with the standards and abide by the law, if only the public actively cooperates, the beautiful blue skies will stay, and will no longer be far away.

1.9 Renminbi rulan (人民币入篮, ‘RMB inclusion in the basket’) is witness to the internationalization of Chinese finance Compared to the difficulties seen when China rushi (入世, ‘joined the WTO’), renminbi rulan (人民币入篮, ‘RMB inclusion in the basket’) was assured of success. From rushi (入世, ‘joining the WTO’) to rulan (入篮, ‘inclusion in the basket’), China has been comprehensively integrated into the global economic system, from trade to finance. Rushi (入世, ‘joining the WTO’) allowed China to take its place as a major trade power in the world; and rulan (入篮, ‘inclusion in the basket’) will propel the internationalization of RMB. With respect to the general public, rushi (入世, ‘joining the WTO’) allowed us to enter the global markets, while rulan (入篮, ‘inclusion in the basket’) will allow us to use RMB to more freely engage in consumption.

1.10 The sole identification for enterprises in the future: yizhao yima (一照一码, ‘one license, one identifier’) As the sole shenfenzheng (身份证, ‘identity card’) for enterprises in the future, yizhao yima (一照一码, ‘one license, one identifier’) will transform the longstanding situation in which enterprises hold licenses from Industry and Commerce, the Tax Administration, and Quality Supervision. It can break down the two major problems in reforms to business systems, administrative barriers and lack of credit, improve public operational efficiency, build up the social credit system, and establish a unified national market, transforming the entrepreneurial environment on an institutional level, reducing the costs of entrepreneurship, and lighting the way for mass entrepreneurship.

278

Hou Min (侯敏) et al.

2 A review of hot topics in society If we say that language is a mirror to society, then neologisms are a kaleidoscope of social life. Through each batch of neologisms, we can more clearly appreciate the richly colorful hot topics of society in 2015.

2.1 Mass innovation Innovation-driven development is a strategic measure taken by our country to deepen institutional reforms and become an innovation-oriented country by 2020. 2015 was the era of zhongchuang (众创, ‘mass entrepreneurship and innovation’), short for dazhong chuangye (大众创业, ‘mass entrepreneurship’) and wanzhong chuangxin (万众创新, ‘mass innovation’). Makers became the favorites of the era, and everyone vied to be part of the innovative generation, giving rise not only to maker groups, but also to maker trends: chuangju (创居, ‘innovative homes’), chuangye dao (创业岛, ‘entrepreneurial islands’), chuangke+ (创客+, ‘maker +’), chuangye baitiao (创业白条, ‘startup funding vouchers’), chuangke daxue (创客大学, ‘maker universities’), chuangke Zhongguo (创客中国, ‘maker China’), shuangchuang shequ (双创社区, ‘communities for entrepreneurship and innovation’), and shuangchuang tequ (双创特区, ‘special zones for entrepreneurship and innovation’), all of which have created zhongchuang kongjian (众创空 间, ‘mass innovation spaces’) for makers. This era of innovation not only gives indicators for startup investment, but also calls for the construction of a mass innovation ecosystem suited to shuangchuang (双创, ‘entrepreneurship and innovation’), to achieve the sustainable, leapfrog-style development of the national economy through a maker economy centered on creativity and innovation and a creative economic model.

2.2 Deepening reforms 2015 was a key year for comprehensively deepening reforms in China. The deepening of reforms was reflected in many areas. In the course of this year, the Chinese government pursued many great efforts, including 16 + 1 cooperation, yidai yimeng (一带一盟, ‘One Belt and One League’), the craze for the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, as well as the Shanghai London Stock Connect, London Hong Kong Stock Connect, inclusion of RMB in the basket, with one thing after another, fully displaying the style of a great nation. In terms of the political system, the four comprehensive strategic arrangements of “comprehensively building a

23 Hot topics in society in the neologisms of 2015

279

moderately prosperous society, comprehensively deepening reforms, comprehensively administering the country in accordance with the law, and comprehensively and strictly governing the Party” were proposed, and the general framework for collective national governance by the new generation of central leaders was put forward in a complete form. The separation of discipline and the law, discipline stricter than the law, and discipline before the law reflect the nature of the Chinese Communist Party as the vanguard, providing institutional guarantees and innovation with respect to strict governance of the Party and governance of the Party in accordance with regulations. With respect to administration, not only is it necessary to have an agenda for decentralization of power, enclosing power within an institutional cage, it is also necessary to have an iron cage of data, so that scientific management can be achieved. In the judicial field, the criminalization of proxy exam taking, cheating on exams, and swindling has resulted in the quiet refinement of the laws and regulations, achieving dingceng sheji (顶层设计, ‘top-down design’) for comprehensive governance in accordance with the law, and solidifying equity and justice in society. In the economic field, supply-side reforms have called for structural reforms for manufacturers, capacity reduction, destocking, deleveraging, reduced costs, remediation of shortcomings, and adaptation to market demand. The proposal of the three technical grades of jishi (技士, ‘technician’), jiangshi (匠士, ‘artisan’) and gaoji jiangshi (高级匠士, ‘senior artisan’) has provided beneficial exploration and innovation with respect to training senior talents with occupational skills, contributing to the country’s industrial development and the achievement of Made in China 2025. Yizhao yima (一照一码, ‘one license, one identifier’) combined three licenses into one, and was an important reform measure for building the social credit system, and establishing a unified national market.

2.3 Unabated anticorruption In 2014, the anticorruption campaign “Cracking Down on Tigers and Flies” (打 虎拍蝇) maintained a state of high pressure, and in 2015, the efforts for anticorruption were unabated. The central authorities released a series of decrees, and initiated a series of campaigns. The Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued Standards of the Chinese Communist Party on Integrity and SelfDiscipline (中国共产党廉洁自律准则) and Regulations of the Chinese Communist Party on Disciplinary Measures (中国共产党纪律处分条例), proposing the “four musts and the eight standards,” upholding a gaoxian (高线, ‘high line’) in terms of ideals, beliefs and aims, while also delineating a dixian (底线, ‘bottom line’) that party members and cadres could not cross. At the same time, the disciplinary inspection departments established a hongxian (红线, ‘red line’) on

280

Hou Min (侯敏) et al.

banquets for officials, sending up the flag for anticorruption, removing all the loopholes for corruption on the tip of the tongue, and taking measures to prevent corruption among party members and cadres. In order to pursue and capture corrupt elements that had fled abroad, the central authorities initiated “Tianwang” (天网), the Ministry of Public Security launched the special action “Foxhunt 2015” (猎狐2015), and the Interpol China National Central Bureau issued hongse tongjiling (红色通缉令, ‘red notices’). In the lists of crackdowns on tigers, the principal tigers in each province, region and sector were caught by surprise. From privilege laundering, archive laundering, corruption by relay, corruption in school transfers, corruption in literature and art, corruption among the mosquitoes and flies, peripheral corruption, symbiotic corruption, regulatory corruption, and chain-style corruption to clannish tunneling, the diverse forms of corruption were exposed one by one, and the chaoji cangying (超 级苍蝇, ‘super flies’), low-ranking officials and big shots alike who were causing the general public to experience corruption all struggled to escape the legal net of high-pressure anticorruption.

2.4 Hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+) Since Li Keqiang (李克强) proposed the formulation of a hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+) action plan in a government work report, the term hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+) has been ubiquitous across media outlets, standing head and shoulders above the crowd. Its silhouette was found on three lists for the “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点2015). The Internet has already become a fundamental element of people’s daily lives, allowing the general public make purchases around the world without setting foot from home, and allowing shopkeepers to make sales around the world without stirring as well. The craze for e-commerce has not only overtaken the cities, but has also spread to the countryside, with cuntao (村淘, ‘village Taobao’) and cuntao dian (村淘点, ‘village Taobao locations’), proving that the ruralization of e-commerce has already become a reality. In order to resolve the problem of commuting, wang yueche (网约车, ‘online car-hailing’), wangluo zhuanche (网络专车, ‘online reserved vehicles’), hulianwang bashi (互联网巴士, ‘Internet buses’), and hulianwang banche (互联网班车, ‘Internet work unit buses’) have successively emerged, transforming the past situation in which “I wait for a car” into the present situation of “the cars wait for me.” Yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) includes not only the Maritime Silk Road but also the Digital Silk Road and the Online Silk Road, where the Online Silk Road is a further expansion of the real Silk Road. The Internet has also promoted cultural prosperity, with the flourishing content in online life,

23 Hot topics in society in the neologisms of 2015

281

opening up a big-screen era in which much of the e-commerce drama, IP films and IP television all originate online. The Internet has also given rise to extremely impactful wanghong (网红, ‘influencers’), forming a new economic force, and promoting the birth of the influencer economic model.

2.5 The myriad of forms of life We are already living in an appearance-oriented era. Among the “Top Ten Trending Words” (十大潮词) on the top ten list for media attention released by Communication University of China, yanzhi (颜值, ‘attractiveness score’) was ranked second, after renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’). From yanwang (颜王, ‘king of attractiveness’) and yanzhi di (颜值帝, ‘emperor of attractiveness’) to yanzhi ju (颜值剧, ‘attractive dramas’) and yanzhi pai (颜值派, ‘attractive faction’), a series of words starting with yan (颜, ‘appearance’) have crowded into the world, with a variety of shougeji (收割机, ‘harvesters’) that are closely related to yanzhi (颜值, ‘attractiveness score’). In all fairness, it is reasonable for everyone to have a love for beauty, but society‘s excessive focus on yanzhi (颜值, ‘attractiveness score’) merits consideration. We also live in an industrial age. The smoggy state in which London once existed has not become the norm for several of our cities. Beijing has already sounded the red alert, demonstrating that the government is not afraid to squarely face up to reality, and further reflecting how serious the situation is with respect to environmental protection! With yuebing lan (阅兵蓝, ‘troop review blue’), lianghui lan (两会蓝, ‘Two Sessions blue’), shijin lan (世锦蓝, ‘world championship blue’), Aoyun lan (奥运蓝, ‘Olympic blue’), and dong’ao lan (冬奥蓝, ‘Winter Olympics blue’), this string of lan (蓝, ‘blue’) terms reflects the people’s longing for blue skies and white clouds. People rejoice at few days of smog-free weather, referred to as jipin lantian (极品蓝天, ‘highgrade blue skies’). Given this yearning and hope for blue skies, many people have joked that they have come down with lantian zonghezheng (蓝天综合征, ‘blue sky syndrome’). Moreover, we live in an era of universal fitness. In 2015, Beijing cancelled the half marathon for the first time, entering the quanma shidai (全马时代, ‘era of the full marathon’). Beijing has the Beijing Marathon, Nanjing has the Nanjing Marathon, Guangzhou has the Guangzhou Marathon, Hangzhou has the Hangzhou Marathon, Xiamen has the Xiamen Marathon, and Hefei has the Hefei Marathon, while college students nationwide have mima (迷马, ‘mini marathons’) (mini malasong [迷你马拉松, ‘mini marathons’]). Across eastern, western, southern, northern and central China, there are marathons everywhere. Apart

282

Hou Min (侯敏) et al.

from running marathons, the shai pao zu (晒跑族, ‘sun running tribe’) also puts together the step counts within their friend circles, while members of the shai bu dang (晒步党, ‘sun walking party’) go walking in the sun and post their step counts on apps. Online and offline, the entire nation is racing as an expression of their spirit, their mood, and their health, with unbounded joy.

3 The “Neologisms of the Era” (时代新词) record the innovations and characteristics of the era The surveys for the neologisms of the year began in 2006, and have now reached ten years as of 2015. The neologisms that saw stable use and were rich in vitality over the course of this decade reflect the innovations and characteristics of this era, and can be referred to as the “Neologisms of the Era” (时代新 词). The frequency of use, period of use, trends of development, and other indicators determine the vitality of a neologism. Below are the top ten words with the highest vitality indicators (ranked in order of vitality indicators): Weibo (微博, ‘Weibo’) (2007), Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘Chinese dream’) (2012), Weixin (微信, ‘WeChat’) (2010), zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’) (2012), dianshang (电商, ‘e-commerce’) (2009), 80 hou / 90 hou (80 后/90 后, ‘post-80s / post-90s’) (2005), baozhang fang (保障房, ‘guaranteed housing’) (2007), da shuju (大数据, ‘big data’) (2011), xiao changjia (小长假, ‘little long vacation’) (2007), dongche (动车, ‘power car’) (2007) These “Neologisms of the Era” (时代新词) are a concentrated embodiment of the innovations in this era, the characteristics of this era, as well as the focal points that drew people’s gaze in this era. This is an era of brand-new lifestyles. The emergence of Weibo and WeChat has almost entirely transformed people’s lives: Many people now open their phones first thing in the morning to repost, like and comment, benefiting from the delight of yupi tianxia (御批天下, ‘royally commenting on the world’). E-commerce has rapidly taken over the purchasing market, and online purchases are not only a fashion among young men and women, but also a passion among the Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’). E-commerce has not only made a huge impact in the cities, but is also beginning to blossom in the countryside. Baozhang fang (保障房, ‘guaranteed housing’) and xiao changjia (小长假, ‘little long vacation’) have been focal points for the people’s livelihood in this era, including the warmth, dignity and leisure that people seek on their journey for a happy life, as well as a certain degree of unavoidable suffering.

23 Hot topics in society in the neologisms of 2015

283

This is an era in which Chinese science and technology are soaring. Dongche (动车, ‘power cars’), high-speed rail, and large airliners have become the symbol of scientific and technological development in this era, opening access along major arteries, accelerating the pace of economic construction, changing the rhythm of the people’s lives, and shining a light on the thriving vitality of the fatherland. Da shuju (大数据, ‘big data’) and cloud computing have ushered in new technologies and new ways of thinking, helping people to unearth the essence of things through data, and clearly glimpse the future through the lens of the present. This is furthermore an era in which the Chinese people are beginning to pursue their dreams. Releasing zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’) and building a beautiful China has become the Chinese dream for thousands upon thousands of sons and daughters of China. The generations of the 80 hou / 90 hou (80 后/90 后, ‘post-80s / post-90s’) have become the biggest groups followed by people in this era: they are not a kuadiao de yidai (垮掉的一代, ‘beat generation’) but rather a you xiwang de yidai (有希望的一代, ‘hopeful generation’), and they are now slowly maturing into the backbone of the Chinese nation, allowing us to glimpse the dazzling future of the country and the nation!

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) and Zhang Ken (张肯)

24 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2015 The “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点2015) released the “Top Ten Popular Phrases in the Media” (媒体十大流行语), including the top ten popular phrases in six categories, encompassing the comprehensive category, domestic current politics category, international current politics category, economic category, science and technology category, and social life category. On December 29, Guangming Daily (光明日报)reported on the trending words of the year in education in a special column with the headline “Remembering a Year of Chinese Education in 2015” (2015中国教育年度记忆). These popular phrases and trending words were extracted from the large-scale corpora of the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center using language information processing techniques. The corpora were sourced from the National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus, which covers 18 domestic newspapers, 26 radio and television stations, and 2 portal websites, with approximately 1.2 billion character instances.

1 Top ten popular phrases in the comprehensive category Kangzhan shengli 70 zhounian (抗战胜利70周年, ‘70th anniversary of victory in the War of Resistance’), hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), nanmin (难民, ‘refugee’), Yatouhang (亚投行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’), Xi-Ma hui (习马会, ‘Xi-Ma meeting’), Bali kongbu xiji shijian (巴黎恐怖袭击事件, ‘Paris terrorist attacks’), Tu Youyou (屠呦呦, ‘Tu Youyou’), sige quanmian (四个全面, ‘Four Comprehensives’), dazhong chuangye wanzhong chuangxin (大众创业 万 众创新, ‘mass entrepreneurship, mass innovation’), hulian hutong, gongxiang gongzhi (互联互通共享共治, ‘interconnection, sharing and co-governance’) Among the tens or even hundreds of popular phrases that are extracted each year, we select the year’s ten most representative words and expressions as popular phrases in the comprehensive category based on the data. The popular phrases in the comprehensive category often encompass several fields, including international current politics, domestic current politics, economics, science and technology, and so on. These ten words and expressions are like https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-024

286

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) and Zhang Ken (张肯)

part of the same expansive and magnificent symphony of the era, performing the music of the era from the perspective of the media.

1.1 Kangzhan shengli 70 zhounian (抗战胜利70周年, ‘70th anniversary of victory in the War of Resistance’) 2015 marked the 70th anniversary of the Chinese people’s victory in the War of Resistance Against Japan and the global war against fascism. September 3 was China’s first statutory “Day of Commemoration of the Chinese People’s Victory in the War of Resistance Against Japan,” and a Convention for the 70th Anniversary of the Chinese People’s Victory in the War of Resistance Against Japan and the Global War Against Fascism was ceremoniously held in Tiananmen Square. Xi Jinping (习近平), the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, National Chairman, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission, gave an important speech and reviewed the troops. The frequency of use of the phrase Kangzhan shengli 70 zhounian (抗战胜利70周年, ‘70th anniversary of victory in the War of Resistance’) in the media thereafter reached its peak. This indicates that, “The peace today did not come easily. We must use history as a mirror to steadfastly safeguard peace.” (see Figure 1)

1.2 Hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) Hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) created a new format for words and phrases in the Chinese language, consisting of a term plus a symbol. This format emerged in conformity with the development of the times. Hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) can be understood as the “Internet + various traditional industries,” but this does not mean that the two are simply added together. Rather, through the thorough application of information and communications technology as well as Internet platforms, the Internet is deeply integrated with each of the traditional industries, thereby creating a new developmental ecology. In March 2015, Li Keqiang proposed the formulation of a Hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) action plan in a government work report, and thereafter, the media’s attention on it sharply rose. In July, the State Council issued the Guiding Opinions on Actively Promoting ‘Internet+’ Actions (关于积极推进“互联网+”行动的指导意见), clearly noting the direction of development of the Hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), and its volume of use in the media reached a high point. In October, the 5th Plenum of the Party’s 18th Central Committee deliberated on and passed the recommendations for the “13th Five-Year” Plan, clearly proposing the implementation of

24 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2015

287

the great cyberpower strategy, the implementation of the Hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) action plan, the development of a sharing economy, and the implementation of the national big data strategy. (see Figure 2) 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 1: State of use of Kangzhan shengli 70 zhounian (抗战胜利70周年, ‘70th anniversary of victory in the War of Resistance’) in 2014–2015.

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 2: State of use of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) in 2014–2015.

1.3 Nanmin (难民, ‘refugee’) September 2015 was the period that saw the highest frequency of use of the word nanmin (难民, ‘refugee’) in the media. In that month, images of the prostrate body of 3-year-old Syrian refugee on a Mediterranean beach drew the attention of the entire world, becoming a true portrait of the European refugee crisis. According to statistics, a total of approximately 1.5 million refugees flooded into continental Europe in 2015, and Europe is now experiencing its most severe refugee crisis since World War II. The sharply climbing number of refugees over the last year has already surpassed the housing capacity of the

288

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) and Zhang Ken (张肯)

countries of Europe, and has become a common problem faced by all the countries of Europe. (see Figure 3)

1.4 Yatouhang (亚投行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’) Yatouhang (亚投行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’) is an abbreviation for Yazhou Jichu Sheshi Touzi Yinhang (亚洲基础设施投资银行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’), which is headquartered in Beijing, with authorized capital of 100.0 billion USD. On October 2, 2013, Chairman Xi Jinping proposed an initiative for its establishment, and on October 24, 2014, the ministers of finance and authorized representatives of an initial group of 21 countries with intent to be founding members, including China, India, Singapore, and so on, signed an agreement in Beijing on the joint decision to found the Yatouhang (亚投行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’). On April 15, 2015, the number of countries with intent to be founding members was set as 57, including 37 countries within the region, and 20 countries outside the region. On June 29, 2015, the signing ceremony for the Agreement on the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (亚洲基础设施投资银行协定) was held in Beijing. On December 25, the Yatouhang (亚投行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’) was officially established, and the entire world welcomed the first multilateral financial institution to be proposed and established by China. The establishment of the Yatouhang (亚投行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’) will create a new platform for the interconnection of Asia, providing new opportunities for the development of Asia and the world. (see Figure 4) 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 3: State of use of nanmin (难民, ‘refugee’) in 2014–2015.

24 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2015

289

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 4: State of use of Yatouhang (亚投行, ‘Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank’) in 2014–2015.

1.5 Xi-Ma hui (习马会, ‘Xi-Ma meeting’) The Xi-Ma hui (习马会, ‘Xi-Ma meeting’) was a historic meeting in Singapore between the highest-ranking leaders on either side of the Taiwan Strait, Xi Jinping (习近平) and Ma Ying-jeou (马英九). On the afternoon of November 7, 2015, Xi Jinping (习近平), General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and National Chairman, met in Singapore with Ma Ying-jeou (马英九), the leader of Taiwan, to exchange opinions on further promoting the peaceful development of cross-strait relations. This was the first meeting between the highest-ranking leaders on both sides of the strait since 1949. At 3 PM in the afternoon, the cross-strait leaders performed a “handshake of the century” at Shangri-La Hotel in Singapore, referring to one another as xiansheng (先生, ‘mister’). The handshake lasted 80 seconds, and the movement was naturally silent, while the body language expressed overtones of being of one blood. Each of the major Chinese media outlets provided extensive reporting and in-depth commentary on the Xi-Ma hui (习马会, ‘Xi-Ma meeting’), making it a trending phrase that was popular for a period of time. (see Figure 5)

1.6 Bali kongbu xiji shijian (巴黎恐怖袭击事件, ‘Paris terrorist attacks’) On the evening of November 13, 2015, local time, Paris, the capital of France, experienced multiple terrorist attacks. The most grievous casualties took place at the theater Bataclan. That night, the attackers took the audience members watching a rock and roll performance in the theater hostage, resulting in the deaths of more than one hundred people. After the incidents, France proper and Corsica

290

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) and Zhang Ken (张肯)

entered a state of emergency, while countries around the world condemned the terrorist attacks, and expressed support and sympathy for France and the French people. The extremist organization Yisilanguo (伊斯兰国, ‘Islamic State’) claimed responsibility for the series of terrorist attacks that took place in Paris on the evening of the 13th. The Bali kongbu xiji shijian (巴黎恐怖袭击事件, ‘Paris terrorist attacks’) was the international topic that drew the most attention in that month, with large-scale, intensive reporting by the media. (see Figure 6) 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 5: State of use of Xi-Ma hui (习马会, ‘Xi-Ma meeting’) in 2014–2015.

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 6: State of use of Bali kongbu xiji shijian (巴黎恐怖袭击事件, ‘Paris terrorist attacks’) in 2014–2015.

1.7 Tu Youyou (屠呦呦, ‘Tu Youyou’) On October 5, 2015, Beijing time, the female Chinese scientist Tu Youyou (屠呦呦) and two foreign scientists were co-recipients of the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Due to her discovery of artemisinin and her outstanding contributions to new treatments for malaria, this 85-year-old female scientist received

24 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2015

291

what the world recognizes as a brilliant academic honor. This was the first time that a Chinese scientist received a Nobel Prize in science for scientific research carried out on Chinese soil, and it was the highest award that Chinese medical circles had received to date, as well as the highest award received by findings in traditional Chinese medicine. In the 1960s and 70s, under extremely arduous scientific research conditions, Tu Youyou’s team cooperated with other organizations in China through extraordinarily difficult efforts, gaining inspiration from classical texts on Chinese medicines, discovering artemisinin through exceptional insight, and opening up a new era for the treatment of malaria, thereby benefiting several hundred million people around the world. As of the present, compound medications based on artemisinin have already become the standard medication for treatment of malaria, and the World Health Organization has included artemisinin and related drugs in its List of Essential Medicines. After Tu Youyou received the Nobel Prize, Tu Youyou (屠呦呦, ‘Tu Youyou’) immediately became a trending popular phrase. (see Figure 7)

1.8 Sige quanmian (四个全面, ‘Four Comprehensives’) The sige quanmian (四个全面, ‘Four Comprehensives’) refer to comprehensively building a moderately prosperous society, comprehensively deepening reforms, comprehensively administering the country in accordance with the law, and comprehensively and strictly governing the Party. In October 2015, the 5th Plenum of the Party’s 18th Central Committee deliberated on and passed the Recommendations of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party on Formulating the 13th FiveYear Plan for National Socioeconomic Development (中共中央关于制定国民经济和 社会发展第十三个五年规划的建议), proposing general requirements and proposing a general design for the formulation of the 13th Five-Year Plan. The strategic arrangements of the sige quanmian (四个全面, ‘Four Comprehensives’) were formally written into the documents of the Party plenum, and were also written into the Party Central Committee’s Recommendations (建议) as the guiding ideas for the 13th Five-Year Plan, signifying that they have already become the ideological consensus for the Party as a whole, the guiding ideas and working principles for national socioeconomic development, and the strategic measures for achieving the “Two Centenary” struggle objectives and realizing the Chinese dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. (see Figure 8)

292

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) and Zhang Ken (张肯)

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 7: State of use of Tu Youyou (屠呦呦, ‘Tu Youyou’) in 2014–2015.

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 8: State of use of sige quanmian (四个全面, ‘Four Comprehensives’) in 2014–2015.

1.9 Dazhong chuangye wanzhong chuangxin (大众创业 万众创新, ‘mass entrepreneurship, mass innovation’) Li Keqiang (李克强) elevated dazhong chuangye wanzhong chuangxin (大众创业 万众创新, ‘mass entrepreneurship, mass innovation’) (shuangchuang [双创, ‘entrepreneurship and innovation’]) to the strategic height of a new engine for national economic development for the first time in a government work report in 2015. As early as the Summer Davos Forum of September 2014, Li Keqiang (李克 强) had proposed dazhong chuangye, caogen chuangye (大众创业 草根创业, ‘mass entrepreneurship, grassroots entrepreneurship’), and he subsequently repeatedly expounded upon this idea at the 1st World Internet Conference, the Executive Meeting of the State Council, and various other settings. Dazhong chuangye wanzhong chuangxin (大众创业 万众创新, ‘mass entrepreneurship, mass innovation’) offers another round of liberation for the productive forces of Chinese society

24 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2015

293

under the conditions of the great scientific and technological development in the contemporary era, as represented by the development of the Internet and big data, as well as under the effect of institutional reforms and policy innovation. (see Figure 9)

1.10 Hulian hutong, gongxiang gongzhi (互联互通共享共治, ‘interconnection, sharing and co-governance’) On December 16–18, 2015, the 2nd World Internet Conference was held in Wuzhen, China. The theme of the conference was “Interconnection, sharing and co-governance –building a community of destiny in cyberspace.” Chairman Xi Jinping (习近平) personally attended at the scene and gave a keynote speech with the title “Achieving interconnection, and promoting sharing and cogovernance” (实现互联互通、 推动共享共治), noting that cyberspace is a common space for human activities, and the future and fate of cyberspace should be jointly controlled by the countries of the world, while each country should strengthen communication, expand the consensus, deepen cooperation, and together build a community of destiny in cyberspace. At this Internet gala, which was the largest and most high-level of its kind today, the elite from more than 1000 Internet sectors in nearly 100 countries and regions gathered under one roof to communicate in-depth on general issues, key issues and major issues revolving around Internet governance, cybersecurity, the Internet economy and culture, Internet science and technology, and other areas, achieving a broad consensus. (see Figure 10) 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 9: State of use of dazhong chuangye wanzhong chuangxin (大众创业 万众创新, ‘mass entrepreneurship, mass innovation’) in 2014–2015.

294

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) and Zhang Ken (张肯)

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4

Frequency of use

0.2 0 Jan. Apr. 2014

July

Oct.

Jan. Apr. 2015

July

Oct.

Figure 10: State of use of hulian hutong, gongxiang gongzhi (互联互通共享共治, ‘interconnection, sharing and co-governance’) in 2014–2015.

2 Categories of popular phrases If the popular phrases in the comprehensive category are a symphony of the era, then the categories of popular phrases are musical movements proceeding in each field, while the ten words and expressions respective to them are like pulsing musical notes, playing the different melodies of social life.

2.1 Domestic current politics category Shiba jie wu zhongquanhui (十八届五中全会, ‘5th Plenum of the 18th Central Committee’), shisan wu guihua (十三五规划, ‘13th Five-Year Plan’), san yan san shi (三严三实, ‘three stricts and three earnests’), yidai yilu (一带一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’), tuopin gongjian (脱贫攻坚, ‘tackling poverty relief’), yuebing (阅兵, ‘troop review’), Beijing dong’ao (北京冬奥, ‘Beijing Winter Olympics’), Zhongguo gongchandang lianjie zilü zhunze (中国共产党廉洁自律准则, ‘standards of the Chinese Communist Party for integrity and self-discipline’), zhiku (智库, ‘think tank’), quanmian erhai (全面二孩, ‘second child for all’) In 2015, a new round of reforms set sail, and the Shiba jie wu zhongquanhui (十八届五中全会, ‘5th Plenum of the 18th Central Committee’) injected fresh impetus into the development of reforms. The comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society entered a decisive phase, and the shisan wu guihua (十三五规划, ‘13th Five-Year Plan’) outlined a new path for future development. The san yan san shi (三严三实, ‘three stricts and three earnests’) captured the essence of personal conduct and engagement in politics, while yidai yilu (一带 一路, ‘One Belt, One Road’) opened up zhumeng kongjian (筑梦空间, ‘space for

24 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2015

295

building dreams’) for countries along the line. The charge was sounded for tuopin gongjian (脱贫攻坚, ‘tackling poverty relief’), and preparations for the Beijing dong’ao (北京冬奥, ‘Beijing Winter Olympics’) got under way. The Zhongguo gongchandang lianjie zilü zhunze (中国共产党廉洁自律准则, ‘standards of the Chinese Communist Party for integrity and self-discipline’) built an anti-corruption wall for Party members and cadres, while zhiku (智库, ‘think tanks’) provided strategic guarantees for the steady development of various fields. A quanmian erhai (全面二孩, ‘second child for all’) seized the window of opportunity for optimization of the demographic structure, while yuebing (阅兵, ‘troop review’) revealed the new image of China’s peaceful development.

2.2 International current politics category Fan faxisi zhanzheng shengli 70 zhounian (反法西斯战争胜利70 周年, ‘70th anniversary of victory in the war against fascism’), E Tu jiao’e (俄土交恶, ‘worsening of Russian-Turkish relations’), Li Guangyao (李光耀, ‘Lee Kuan Yew’), daji ‘Yisilanguo’ (打击’伊斯兰国,’ ‘striking against the ‘Islamic State’’), guoji zulian (国际足联, ‘FIFA’), Xi Ao hui (习奥会, ‘Xi-Obama meeting’), xin anbao fa’an (新 安保法案, ‘New Legislation for Peace and Security’), Zhong Fei hezuo luntan (中 非合作论坛, ‘Forum on China-Africa Cooperation’), xinxing guoji guanxi (新型国 际关系, ‘new form of international relations’), Bali qihou dahui (巴黎气候大会, ‘Paris Climate Conference’) In 2015, activities commemorating the fan faxisi zhanzheng shengli 70 zhounian (反法西斯战争胜利70 周年, ‘70th anniversary of victory in the war against fascism’) were widely and ceremoniously held, marking an engraved historical memory, while calling for peace. The international community’s resolve and efforts to daji ‘Yisilanguo’ (打击’伊斯兰国,’ ‘strike against the ‘Islamic State’’) were continuously heightened, while the E Tu jiao’e (俄土交恶, ‘worsening of Russian-Turkish relations’) continued to rise in temperature. Singapore held a state funeral for former Prime Minister Li Guangyao (李光耀, ‘Lee Kuan Yew’), who had passed away from illness, and the Japanese government passed the xin anbao fa’an (新安保法案, ‘New Legislation for Peace and Security’) amidst a tone of controversy. The Xi Ao hui (习奥会, ‘Xi-Obama meeting’), Zhong Fei hezuo luntan (中非合作论坛, ‘Forum on China-Africa Cooperation’) and other diplomatic activities inscribed the chapter for the establishment of a), xinxing guoji guanxi (新型国际关系, ‘new form of international relations’). Guoji zulian (国际足联, ‘FIFA’) sunk deeply into the scandal of voting bribery, while the Bali qihou dahui (巴黎气候大会, ‘Paris Climate Conference’) sought for the countries of the world to join forces to resolve environmental problems together.

296

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) and Zhang Ken (张肯)

2.3 Economic category Gushi (股市, ‘stock market’), zimao qu (自贸区, ‘free trade zone’), san zheng heyi (三证合一, ‘unification of three licenses’), zhongchou (众筹, ‘crowd-funding’), Zhongguo zhizao 2025 (中国制造2025, ‘Made in China 2025ʹ), Weizhong yinhang (微众银行, ‘WeBank’), O2O (xianshang xianxia) (O2O[线上线下], ‘O2O [onlineoffline]), renminbi rulan (人民币入篮, ‘RMB inclusion in the basket’) (SDR), Changjiang jingji dai (长江经济带, ‘Yangtze River Economic Belt’), zhongchuang kongjian (众创空间, ‘mass innovation space’) In 2015, zhongchuang kongjian (众创空间, ‘mass innovation spaces’) stimulated the public’s creative vitality, and san zheng heyi (三证合一, ‘unification of three licenses’) improved the efficiency of market access for entrepreneurs. The first group of Weizhong yinhang (微众银行, ‘WeBank’) branches began operation, highlighting the role of zhongchou (众筹, ‘crowd-funding’), and the O2O (xianshang xianxia) (O2O[线上线下], ‘O2O [online-offline]) commercial model came into vogue. A severe shock to the gushi (股市, ‘stock market’) left people worried, but the Changjiang jingji dai (长江经济带, ‘Yangtze River Economic Belt’) injected vitality into regional development, and zimao qu (自贸区, ‘free trade zones’) revitalized the playing field for the Opening and Reforms. Zhongguo zhizao 2025 (中国制造2025, ‘Made in China 2025ʹ) mapped out the transition from a major manufacturing power to a great manufacturing power, while the renminbi rulan (人民币入篮, ‘RMB inclusion in the basket’) spurred along the process of the internationalization of RMB.

2.4 Science and technology category Qinghaosu (青蒿素, ‘artemisinin’), da feiji C919 (大飞机 C919, ‘C919 airliner’), Kaipulei 452b (开普勒452b, ‘Kepler 452b’), rengong zhineng (人工智能, ‘artificial intelligence’), xuni xianshi jishu (虚拟现实技术, ‘virtual reality technology’), huoxing yetai shui (火星液态水, ‘liquid water on Mars’), Changzheng liuhao (长 征六号, ‘Long March 6ʹ), Tianhe erhao (天河二号, ‘Tianhe-2ʹ), 4D dayin (4D 打 印, ‘4D printing’), zhihui chengshi (智慧城市, ‘smart city’) In 2015, Tu Youyou (屠呦呦) received the Nobel Prize for her research on qinghaosu (青蒿素, ‘artemisinin’). To resolve the problems of urban development, the construction of zhihui chengshi (智慧城市, ‘smart cities’) was steadily promoted. Xuni xianshi jishu (虚拟现实技术, ‘virtual reality technology’) and rengong zhineng (人工智能, ‘artificial intelligence’) moved into everyday life, while the champion Tianhe erhao (天河二号, ‘Tianhe-2ʹ) wrote the sequel to the legend of supercomputing in China, and 4D dayin (4D 打印, ‘4D printing’) left

24 China and the world in the popular phrases of 2015

297

people amazed. The discovery of huoxing yetai shui (火星液态水, ‘liquid water on Mars’) and Kaipulei 452b (开普勒452b, ‘Kepler 452b’) were pleasant surprises for astronomy fans. The first flight of the Changzheng liuhao (长征六号, ‘Long March 6ʹ) was a success, and the da feiji C919 (大飞机 C919, ‘C919 airliner’) officially came off the line, composing another new chapter for Chinese aviation.

2.5 Social life category Kongyan (控烟, ‘tobacco control’), zhuanche (专车, ‘reserved vehicle’), erwei ma (二维码, ‘QR code’), shiming zhi (实名制, ‘real name system’), yanzhi (颜值, ‘attractiveness score’), chuangke (创客, ‘maker’), weixin hongbao (微信红包, ‘WeChat red envelope’), tisu jiangfei (提速降费, ‘increased speed and reduced fees’), shijie jiyi (世界记忆, ‘Memory of the World’), huodegan (获得感, ‘sense of benefit’) As the 2015 Lunar New Year arrived, weixin hongbao (微信红包, ‘WeChat red envelopes’) dancing on the screens of mobile phones and ubiquitous erwei ma (二维码, ‘QR codes’) to be scanned became the norm of life. The fields in which the shiming zhi (实名制, ‘real name system’) had been applied were continuously increased, and the topic of the yanzhi (颜值, ‘attractiveness score’) emerged over and over. On the 70th anniversary of victory in the War of Resistance, the Nanjing Massacre was included in shijie jiyi (世界记忆, ‘Memory of the World’). With the shuangchuang (双创, ‘entrepreneurship and innovation’) engines roaring, the chuangke (创客, ‘maker’) spirit became a new force for mass creation. Kongyan (控烟, ‘tobacco control’) purified public spaces, while zhuanche (专车, ‘reserved vehicles’) facilitated mass commuting. The unveiling of tisu jiangfei (提速降费, ‘increased speed and reduced fees’) and other proposals is giving the public a huodegan (获得感, ‘sense of benefit’).

2.6 Education category Xiangcun jiaoshi (zhichi jihua) (乡村教师[支持计划], ‘Village Teacher [Support Plan]’), chengxiang yiwu jiaoyu jingfei baozhang jizhi (城乡义务教育经费保障机 制, ‘funding assurance mechanisms for urban and rural compulsory education’), liushou ertong (留守儿童, ‘left-behind children’), zhongshi jiaoyu (中式教 育, ‘Chinese-style education’), daxuesheng chuangxin chuangye (大学生创新创 业, ‘college student innovation and entrepreneurship’), difang gaoxiao zhuanxing (地方高校转型, ‘transformation of local institutions of higher education’), gaokao tongyi mingti (高考统一命题, ‘unified topics on the college entrance

298

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘) and Zhang Ken (张肯)

examination’), liangge yiliu (两个一流, ‘double first-class’), gaoxiao fanfu (高校 反腐, ‘anti-corruption at institutions of higher education’), hanmen xuezi shang mingxiao (寒门学子上名校, ‘students of humble family attending elite schools’) In 2015, the Xiangcun jiaoshi (zhichi jihua) (乡村教师[支持计划], ‘Village Teacher [Support Plan]’) provided village teachers with solid support. The chengxiang yiwu jiaoyu jingfei baozhang jizhi (城乡义务教育经费保障机制, ‘funding assurance mechanisms for urban and rural compulsory education’) promoted the balanced allocation of resources for compulsory education. Liushou ertong (留守 儿童, ‘left-behind children’) inspired profound concern across society. Zhongshi jiaoyu (中式教育, ‘Chinese-style education’) triggered passionate debate in England. A series of preferential policies boosted daxuesheng chuangxin chuangye (大学生创新创业, ‘college student innovation and entrepreneurship’). To guide the difang gaoxiao zhuanxing (地方高校转型, ‘transformation of local institutions of higher education’), more high-caliber workers and technical personnel were trained across China. The return to gaokao tongyi mingti (高考统一命题, ‘unified topics on the college entrance examination’) guaranteed the quality of the college entrance examination under new conditions. The construction of first-class universities and first-class disciplines was planned out and promoted, with liangge yiliu (两个一流, ‘double first-class’) serving as the foundation for building a great power for higher education. Gaoxiao fanfu (高校反腐, ‘anti-corruption at institutions of higher education’) returned academics to the Pure Land. Hanmen xuezi shang mingxiao (寒门学子上名校, ‘students of humble family attending elite schools’) allowed poor students who diligently study to benefit from the premium resources of elite schools, while elite schools benefited from the resolute spirit of poor students in the face of adversity. Popular phrases not only sound the expansive and magnificent symphony of the era, but also the concise ditties of the era, together composing the music of the era. Popular phrases reflect the major events that occurred throughout the year, recounting the people’s livelihood and circumstances in this era, and depicting the vision of society. Through popular phrases, we can efficiently survey the phenomena of this world, and tap the pulse of the era, to understand China and the world in the media.

Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

25 The grassroots variety of online slang in 2015 The “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点2015) published the top ten online slang terms. In order to systematically explore the characteristics of the development of online slang, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center for Online Media utilized linguistic information processing technology to conduct survey analysis of massive online linguistic data with 6.5 billion character instances and 256,000 threads,1 objectively revealing the overall state of use of online slang in 2015, and portraying the grassroots variety of online slang.

1 Top ten online slang terms Zhongyao de shiqing shuo san bian (重要的事情说三遍, ‘say important things three times’), shijie name da, wo xiang qu kankan (世界那么大, 我想去看看, ‘the world is so big, I want to go see it’), nimen chengli ren zhen hui wan (你们城里人 真会玩, ‘you city people really can play’), weiguo hupan (为国护盘, ‘protecting the market for the country’), mingming keyi kao lian chifan, que pianpian kao caihua (明明可以靠脸吃饭 却偏要靠才华, ‘could clearly rely on the face to eat, but insists on relying on talent’), wo xiang jingjing (我想静静, ‘I want quiet’), xiasi baobao le (吓死宝宝了, ‘scared the baby to death’), neixin jihu shi bengkui de (内心几乎是崩溃的, ‘my heart is close to collapse’), woma shi woma (我妈是 我妈, ‘my mom is my mom’), zhuyao kan qizhi (主要看气质, ‘mainly looking at temperament’) These top ten frequently heard and familiar online slang terms represent the most distinctive characteristics of online language use in 2015, and also reflect the issues drawing the attention of netizens.

 The data used in this paper was sourced from a full year of threads on the Tianya (天涯) online forum in 2015; the original document size was approximately 45 GB, including 256,000 threads, and approximately 6.5 billion characters. Tianya Forum (天涯论坛), http://www.tia nya.cn. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-025

300

Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

1.1 Zhongyao de shiqing shuo san bian (重要的事情说三遍, ‘say important things three times’) There are many theories as to the source of this line. Some believe that it stemmed from the lines of an animated character, while others believe that it came from a pharmaceutical commercial, and some netizens even pull out the works of the German philosopher Nietzsche. Its origins may be difficult to determine, but yingxiong bu wen chuchu (英雄不问出处, ‘heroes don’t ask for the source’). In July 2015, it began swiftly gaining in popularity, and enthusiasm for its use quickly rose thereafter (Figure 1). Now it is already the case that zhongyao de shiqing (重要的事情, ‘important things’) must be shuo san bian (说三 遍, ‘said three times’). 9.E–06

Normalized usage (* 106)

8.E–06 7.E–06 6.E–06 5.E–06 4.E–06 3.E–06 2.E–06 1.E–06 0.E–06 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 1: State of use of zhongyao de shiqing shuo san bian (重要的事情说三遍, ‘say important things three times’) in 2014–2015.

1.2 Shijie name da, wo xiang qu kankan (世界那么大, 我想去 看看, ‘the world is so big, I want to go see’) This phrase originated from a letter of resignation that was posted online. The reason for resigning consisted of only 10 characters: Shijie name da, wo xiang qu kankan (世界那么大, 我想去看看, ‘the world is so big, I want to go see it’). With overtones of parting forever and subversion, the phrase was both romantic and refreshing (Figure 2). An online craze for cizhi ti (辞职体, ‘resignation style’) soon surged forth, and a multitude of resignation letters were aired online, for self-entertainment as well as entertainment of others.

301

25 The grassroots variety of online slang in 2015

2.E–07

Normalized usage (* 106)

2.E–07 2.E–07 1.E–07 1.E–07 1.E–07 8.E–08 6.E–08 4.E–08 2.E–08 0.E+00 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 2: State of use of shijie name da, wo xiang qu kankan (世界那么大, 我想去看看, ‘the world is so big, I want to go see it’) in 2014–2015.

1.3 Nimen chengli ren zhen hui wan (你们城里人真会玩, ‘you city people really can play’) This phrase is also abbreviated as cheng hui wan (城会玩, ‘city can play’) It originated from the attire of a certain Chinese film star who attended Cannes Film Festival “wearing a northeastern quilt as a skirt,” attracting many eyes. She called herself a simple country girl, and said “You city people really can make a racket,” which later evolved into nimen chengli ren zhen hui wan (你们城里人真 会玩, ‘you city people really can play’). The original meaning was to mock certain people who did things ordinary people could not understand, but it has now evolved into simply mocking others for doing things in a very special way. Its usage reached the annual peak around July, but thereafter exhibited a trend of gradual decline, demonstrating that the lingering effects of its popularity were insufficient (Figure 3).

1.4 Weiguo hupan (为国护盘, ‘protecting the market for the country’) Also phrased as weiguo jiepan (为国接盘, ‘accepting the market for the country’), this line was the title of a research report, copying Jin Yong’s (金庸) “The greatness of a knight is for the country and for the people.” In a period when the stock market conditions were generally poor, and many people were dumping stocks,

302

Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

the slogan weiguo hupan (为国护盘, ‘protecting the market for the country’) began privately circulating online. The meaning was that one should not undersell stocks for the sake of one’s personal interest; later, the meaning of the phrase became generalized. Its usage reached its highest point in June, but once the stock market stabilized, it gradually faded from view (Figure 4). 2.E–06

Normalized usage (* 106)

1.E–06 1.E–06 1.E–06 8.E–07 6.E–07 4.E–07 2.E–07 0.E+00 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 3: State of use of nimen chengli ren zhen hui wan (你们城里人真会玩, ‘you city people really can play’) in 2014–2015.

5.E–06

Normalized usage (* 106)

5.E–06 4.E–06 4.E–06 3.E–06 3.E–06 2.E–06 2.E–06 1.E–06 5.E–07 0.E+00 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 4: State of use of weiguo hupan (为国护盘, ‘protecting the market for the country’) in 2014–2015.

25 The grassroots variety of online slang in 2015

303

1.5 Mingming keyi kao lian chifan, que pianpian kao caihua (明明可以靠脸吃饭 却偏要靠才华, ‘could clearly rely on the face to eat, but insists on relying on talent’) After photograph of a certain celebrity in her early days of beauty was circulated by netizens, everyone was amazed to discover that she was also a nüshen (女神, ‘goddess’) who joked about frequently bai wanzi (掰腕子, ‘arm-wrestling’) with men! This star responded on Weibo: “I deduced with profound feeling: I could clearly rely on my face to eat, but I insisted on relying on talent.” The moment this line emerged, it resonated with many netizens, and was widely circulated. This usage originated on Weibo, and has consistently maintained relatively strong popularity and vitality. In particular, it welcomed a new high tide of use at the end of the year (Figure 5). 8.E–07

Normalized usage (* 106)

7.E–07 6.E–07 5.E–07 4.E–07 3.E–07 2.E–07 1.E–07 0.E+00 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 5: State of use of mingming keyi kao lian chifan, que pianpian kao caihua (明明可以靠 脸吃饭 却偏要靠才华, ‘could clearly rely on the face to eat, but insists on relying on talent’) in 2014–2015.

1.6 Wo xiang jingjing (我想静静, ‘I want quiet’) The original phrase was, bie zhao wo, wo xiang jingjing, bie wen wo Jingjing shi shei (别找我, 我想静静, 别问我静静是谁, ‘don’t look for me, I want quiet, don’t ask me who Jingjing is’). There are two instances of jingjing (静静, ‘quiet / Jingjing’), and by examining the second usage, netizens suddenly realized that it had a different meaning from the first, setting people roaring with laughter and

304

Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

demonstrating the exquisite contrivances of the Chinese language. In fact, wo xiang jingjing (我想静静, ‘I want quiet’) emerged online early in the year, but it was not until March or April that it began to spike in popularity. In the latter half of the year, it presented a certain decline in temperature (Figure 6). 4.E–06

Normalized usage (* 106)

4.E–06 3.E–06 3.E–06 2.E–06 2.E–06 1.E–06 5.E–07 0.E+00 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 6: State of use of mingming keyi kao lian chifan, que pianpian kao caihua (明明可以靠 脸吃饭 却偏要靠才华, ‘could clearly rely on the face to eat, but insists on relying on talent’) in 2014–2015.

1.7 Xiasi baobao le (吓死宝宝了, ‘scared the baby to death’) The original meaning of this phrase was xiasi wole (吓死我了, ‘scared me to death’). The word baobao (宝宝, ‘baby’) further served to highlight the nervous tension experienced by a gentle spirit who has been startled, with heavy overtones of deliberate cuteness and ample online flavor. It expresses a lack of identification or understanding of a certain phenomenon or statement, while also reducing conflict, and it has been widely used. Netizens are often fond of using this phrase in a cute way to express that they have experienced something unexpected. The data shows that its peak period of popularity among netizens was concentrated in the beginning of the year (Figure 7).

305

25 The grassroots variety of online slang in 2015

1.E–00

Normalized usage (* 106)

1.E–00 8.E–01 6.E–01 4.E–01 2.E–01 0.E+00 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 7: State of use of xiasi baobao le (吓死宝宝了, ‘scared the baby to death’) in 2014–2015.

1.8 Neixin jihu shi bengkui de (内心几乎是崩溃的, ‘my heart is close to collapse’) In early 2015, the post-90s CEO at a certain company uttered the phrase Wo de neixin jihu shi bengkui de (内心几乎是崩溃的, ‘my heart is close to collapse’) while giving an interview, and many netizens vied with one another to borrow it. The phrase takes an exaggerated, bantering, but non-negative approach to express inner conflict, dissatisfaction and other feelings. Enthusiasm for its use remained at a high watermark throughout the year (Figure 8).

1.9 Woma shi woma (我妈是我妈, ‘my mom is my mom’) This phrase stemmed from a piece of news: The Beijing resident Mr. Chen (陈) was merely handling the procedures for going on a tour overseas, but he was required to submit documents certifying the parent-child relationship between himself and his mother. Netizens therefore adopted the words of Mr. Chen (陈), “proving my mother is my mother,” to express the hope that various burdensome administrative procedures would be streamlined and that processing would be simplified. After it was reported on by the media, Premier Li Keqiang (李克强) referred to this typical case at an Executive Meeting of the State Council, boosting people’s familiarity with this phrase. Its state of use is as shown in Figure 9.

306

Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

5.E–07 5.E–07 Normalized usage (* 106)

4.E–07 4.E–07 3.E–07 3.E–07 2.E–07 2.E–07 1.E–07 5.E–08 0.E+00 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 8: State of use of neixin jihu shi bengkui de (内心几乎是崩溃的, ‘my heart is close to collapse’) in 2014–2015.

6.E–07

Normalized usage (* 106)

5.E–07 4.E–07 3.E–07 2.E–07 1.E–07 0.E+00 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 9: State of use of woma shi woma (我妈是我妈, ‘my mom is my mom’) in 2014–2015.

1.10 Zhuyao kan qizhi (主要看气质, ‘mainly looking at temperament’) A certain singer posted an image from a new special issue on his personal Weibo, which had a very strange appearance. Netizens described it as “mainly consisting of temperament.” Within a short period of time, the Weibo post had

307

25 The grassroots variety of online slang in 2015

inspired me-tooism for posting qizhi tu (气质图, ‘temperament pictures’) within friend circles. This topic also swiftly became popular on social media, and later evolved into a game for sequentially posting images within friend circles. It maintained a high rate of use in the latter half of the year, particularly around September (Figure 10). 5.E–06

Normalized usage (* 106)

5.E–06 4.E–06 4.E–06 3.E–06 3.E–06 2.E–06 2.E–06 1.E–06 5.E–07 0.E+00 Jan. 2014

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2015

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 10: State of use of zhuyao kan qizhi (主要看气质, ‘mainly looking at temperament’) in 2014–2015.

2 The grassroots variety of popular online slang Online slang is often a product of the times for population-wide entertainment against the backdrop of online trends, embodying not only netizens‘ recreation of language, but also containing a social significance that far transcends the superficial appearance of a word or phrase. Careful analysis of online slang can accurately reflect the lives and concerns of ordinary people, displaying the variety of ordinary life in the city in a direct and clear way.

2.1 Film and television Bidong (壁咚, ‘wall thumping’), cuwen (醋吻, ‘vinegar kiss’), shi zaixia shu le (是在 下输了, ‘I humbly lost’), zhe tui gou wo wan yi nian / tui wan nian (这腿够我玩一

308

Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

年 / 腿玩年, ‘this leg is enough for me to play with for a year / leg to play with for a year’) Words and phrases in this category are often associated with the films or television series that are popular at the time. Bidong (壁咚, ‘wall thumping’) or kabedon (壁ドン, ‘wall thumping’) in Japanese is a popular Japanese expression that often appears in girl anime or Japanese dramas: A man presses a woman against the wall, making a dong (咚, ‘thump’) sound in a fluid motion. This has also become a masterstroke seen in the current batch of popular TV dramas. In the face of the many flirtatious techniques of the gods of the screen, such as the cuwen (醋 吻, ‘vinegar kiss’) seen between the immortal Changliu and Hua Qiangu, danshen gou (单身狗, ‘single dogs’) can only say shi zaixia shu le (是在下输了, ‘I humbly lost’). In the classic Hong Kong gangster movie Century of the Dragon (龙在边缘), the line “This leg is enough for me to play with for a year,” spoken by the gang leader, left people helpless with laughter, while also making us disappointed on behalf of the quiet heroes behind the screen, and filled with admiration.

2.2 People Xiao gongju (小公举, ‘little princess’), lao xianrou (老鲜肉, ‘old fresh meat’), Ye Liangchen (叶良辰, ‘Ye Liangchen’), ai qiong cuo (矮穷矬, ‘short, poor and ugly’), tanxing (毯星, ‘carpet star’), ganwu mei (干物妹, ‘dry girl’), Chaoyang qunzhong (朝阳群众, ‘Chaoyang crowd’) The words and expressions in this category have largely been used to ridicule certain special groups in society, and sometimes also for self-mockery. In the summer of 2015, on the strength of the hit series Sing! China (中国好声音), the proud and delicate attitude of Jay Chou (周杰伦) as a xiao gongju (小公举, ‘little princess’) was diffused across the country in an instant. In fact, many male celebrities in entertainment circles have a princess mentality, and perhaps because of this, the years can leave no trace on their faces, allowing them to truly become lao xianrou (老鲜肉, ‘old fresh meat’). In September 2015, a female student at a university called in her older brother, referred to as Ye Liangchen (叶良辰, ‘Ye Liangchen’), to have a highly bizarre conversation with her dormitory supervisor over a problem with cleaning the dormitory, and thereafter, the name Ye Liangchen (叶良辰, ‘Ye Liangchen’) went viral across the Internet. Because he showed strong self-confidence in the discussion, people were reminded of a high-handed CEO, winning him popularity among many of the ai qiong cuo (矮穷矬, ‘short, poor and ugly’) in life. The enthusiastic and welcoming Ma dajie (马大姐, ‘Sister Ma’) is the epitome of Beijingers, who made outstanding contributions to the campaign to purify entertainment circles in 2015.

25 The grassroots variety of online slang in 2015

309

From the tanxing (毯星, ‘carpet stars’) who have no works yet frequently attend international film festivals to walk the red carpet, to the ganwu mei (干物妹, ‘dry girls’) who die at home, unwilling to experience love, as netizens on the Baidu Di Bar joked, everywhere the sun shines, the silhouette of the Chaoyang qunzhong (朝阳群众, ‘Chaoyang crowd’) may be found.

2.3 Mood Tian la lu (天啦撸, ‘oh heavens’), zuizui da (醉醉哒, ‘tipsy’), neixin jihu shi bengkui de (内心几乎是崩溃的, ‘my heart is close to collapse’), xiasi baobao le (吓死 宝宝了, ‘scared the baby to death’) The terms in this category are often closely tied to the current grassroots mood or mentality. The expression tian la lu (天啦撸, ‘oh heavens’) is somewhat difficult to understand at first glance, inevitably making people feel a bit dull, but it expresses a tone of surprise, similar to wo de tian (我的天, ‘my heavens’). Has everyone heard of zuizui da (醉醉哒, ‘tipsy’)? The phrase xiasi baobao le (吓死宝宝了, ‘scared the baby to death’) used by netizens is a sarcastic and deliberately cute expression indicating that one is startled or has encountered an unexpected situation, and presumably at that moment, neixin jihu shi bengkui de (内心几乎是崩溃的, ‘my heart is close to collapse’)! Wo xiang jingjing (我想静静, ‘I want quiet’), qilai hei (起来嗨, ‘get excited’), zhongyao de shiqing shuo san bian (重要的事情说三遍, ‘say important things three times’) Expressions in this category tend to be closely linked to the state of day-today grassroots life. In fast-paced, high-intensity modern life, people unavoidably have the longing feeling that wo xiang jingjing (我想静静, ‘I want quiet’). Feeling doubly helpless, we only want to contemptuously say: Faced with the hubbub of the mundane world, we reject qilai hei (起来嗨, ‘get excited’), and want only a little peace and quiet. Zhongyao de shiqing shuo san bian (重要的事 情说三遍, ‘say important things three times’) arrived and began to make its way into the formal register. It was used in speeches by several leading cadres, giving the feeling that it had reached a higher level.

2.4 Hot topics Weiguo hupan (为国护盘, ‘protecting the market for the country’), shangjiao gei guojia (上交给国家, ‘hand it over to the state’), woma shi woma (我妈是我妈, ‘my mom is my mom’), wo dan fangmian xuanbu (我单方面宣布, ‘I unilaterally declare’)

310

Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

Terms in this category are often closely related to current events. The emergence of weiguo hupan (为国护盘, ‘protecting the market for the country’) was related to the enormous fluctuations in the Chinese stock market in 2015. Shangjiao gei guojia (上交给国家, ‘hand it over to the state’) originated from a line in the hit series Grave Robbers’ Chronicles (盗墓笔记). As netizens considered how to break down the awkwardness of proving that woma shi woma (我 妈是我妈, ‘my mom is my mom’), a female ball game fan posted a dan fangmian xuanbu (单方面宣布, ‘unilateral declaration’) on her Twitter that she would marry the soccer star Lionel Messi, and this crazed action provided the inspiration for endless mockery among netizens. Netizens therefore posted a slew of dan fangmian xuanbu (单方面宣布, ‘unilateral declarations’) that they would marry a host of celebrities, and wo dan fangmian xuanbu (我单方面宣布, ‘I unilaterally declare’) thus became prevalent online. Shijie name da, wo xiang qu kankan (世界那么大, 我想去看看, ‘the world is so big, I want to go see it’), mingming keyi kao lian chifan, que pianpian kao caihua (明明可以靠脸吃饭 却偏要靠才华, ‘could clearly rely on the face to eat, but insists on relying on talent’), zhuyao kan qizhi (主要看气质, ‘mainly looking at temperament’) In April 2015, a letter of resignation drew a wave of passionate commentary within friend circles and on Weibo: Shijie name da, wo xiang qu kankan (世界那 么大, 我想去看看, ‘the world is so big, I want to go see it’). Netizens commented that this was the most fervent letter of resignation in history, bar none. Everyone yearns for freedom, but not everyone has the courage to take that step. Of course, living a carefree life requires a basis for supporting oneself, and perhaps this is the reason for the emergence of the phrase, mingming keyi kao lian chifan, que pianpian kao caihua (明明可以靠脸吃饭 却偏要靠才华, ‘could clearly rely on the face to eat, but insists on relying on talent’). Because a beautiful appearance is ultimately just fleeting fireworks, and only an intelligent temperament built up over time will last, people often say that looking at a person does not really concern their appearance, and they are zhuyao kan qizhi (主要看气质, ‘mainly looking at temperament’).

2.5 Word formation Gou dai (狗带, ‘go die’), Duang (Duang, ‘duang’) The terms in this category were phonetically invented by netizens. At first glance, it is not easy to discern the meaning of the expression gou dai (狗带, ‘go die’) from the characters, but on reading it aloud and carefully savoring it, it is not difficult to guess its significance, that is, a transliteration of the English

25 The grassroots variety of online slang in 2015

311

expression go die. The vivid onomatopoeic word Duang (Duang, ‘duang’) first appeared in a commercial for liquid shampoo with a celebrity spokesperson, and at the beginning of the year, it resurfaced and quickly went viral on the Internet, with the feeling of adding special effects. Huo de jiu le shenme dou jian de dao (活得久了什么都见得到[活久见], ‘if you live a long time, you see everything [live long and see it]’), nimen chengli ren zhen hui wan (cheng hui wan) (你们城里人真会玩 [城会玩], ‘you city people really can play [city can play]’) The expressions in this category consist of contractions invented by netizens. In modern society, there is something new every day, and people’s aesthetic notions are also constantly changing. At a certain film festival in 2015, a female Chinese star unexpectedly struck a pose wearing a long skirt made from a Northeastern Chinese quilt, truly demonstrating that huo de jiu le shenme dou jian de dao (活得久了什么都见得到, ‘if you live a long time, you see everything’). Some people even wore the same long skirt to see The Avengers on the opposite shore of the ocean, and many people found it to be unexpectedly flattering, and wanted to go buy one for themselves. In response, netizens commented that it does not matter what you wear, and the length is what’s most important. The female star also responded on Weibo in a self-mocking tone that nimen chengli ren zhen hui wan (你们城里人真会玩, ‘you city people really can play’). The length of the phrases made them inconvenient to use, so they were shortened to huo jiu jian (活久见, ‘live long and see it’) and cheng hui wan (城会 玩, ‘city can play’) The online slang expressions of 2015 perpetuated the fresh, lively and interesting characteristics of online slang, and were easily accepted by netizens. These terms reflected a year’s worth of the concerns and realizations of netizens in social life, providing us with a window for perceiving, comprehending and understanding society. The majority of the online slang terms that emerged this year have distinctive characteristics and a positive meaning, but there were also a handful of online slang expressions that were fairly vulgar, yet these were welcomed by young netizens, with a very high rate of use. In response, we call upon young netizens to establish healthy language consciousness. General Secretary Xi Jinping (习近平) mentioned the governing objective of “making online spaces clear and bright” on several occasions, and purifying online language is undoubtedly an important and highly effective breakthrough point for purifying the online environment as a whole, which should draw attention across society.

Hou Min (侯敏), Teng Yonglin (滕永林), and Cheng Nanchang (程南昌)

26 Comparative analysis of the use of alphabetic words in the media in 2015 and 2006 In the Survey on the State of Use of Alphabetic Words in Newspapers, Radio and Television, and Online (Journalism) (报纸、广播电视、网络[新闻]字母词语使用 状况调查) (hereafter referred to as the “2006 Survey” [2006 调查]), in Volume II of The Language Situation in China (2006) (中国语言生活状况报告[2006]), the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center conducted a specialized survey on the state of use and distribution of alphabetic words in the media in 2006, and summarized the characteristics of the use of alphabetic words. After an interval of 10 years, we carried out a survey of alphabetic words in Chinese-language media once again, and performed a comparison with the results of the 2006 survey.

1 Description of the survey 1.1 Defining the objects of the survey To use the definition in the “2006 Survey” (2006 调查), a zimuci (字母词, ‘alphabetic word’) refers to a semantic unit composed of letters alone or of letters in combination with Chinese characters, numerals, symbols, and so on. Alphabetic words have complex origins, diverse formats, and wide-ranging uses, and are divided between the typical and atypical. Typical alphabetic words all exhibit certain conditions with respect to their format characteristics and linguistic applications. In terms of their format, they should possess four characteristics (Zou, 2006): (1) Combined with Chinese characters; (2) Abbreviated; (3) Formatted in capital letters; (4) Read as a letter sound. Among these, the first two characteristics correspond to two prototypes that successively emerged in the history of the use of Chinese-language alphabetic words, and they represent the primary characteristics. In terms of their linguistic applications, they must conform to three conditions (Hou, 2006): (1) Possessing semantic generality; (2) Having cognitive commonality; and (3) Having a relatively high

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-026

314

Hou Min (侯敏), Teng Yonglin (滕永林), and Cheng Nanchang (程南昌)

frequency of use. Given the current trend of development of global integration, this survey also added a fourth condition: Having international universality. In this round, we chiefly surveyed typical alphabetic words, while also examining the state of use of atypical alphabetic words and word segmentation units containing letters of the alphabet in passing.

1.2 Survey corpora The corpora were selected from the National Language Monitoring Corpus, of a scale essentially identical to the “2006 Survey” (2006 调查), including newspapers, radio, television, and online journalism corpora with a total of 921,860 texts, 968,745,950 character instances, and 667,257,299 word instances.

1.3 Survey methods The extraction of alphabetic words included the following two steps: 1. The alphabetic word monitoring software CUCLems developed by the National Broadcast Media Language Resources Monitoring & Research Center of Communication University of China was used to extract all units containing letters of the alphabet within the corpora, and automatically carry out categorization and tagging. 2. Filtering of these units was carried out to eliminate English words, Chinese pinyin, websites and emails, errors, and other non-alphabetic words, and typical alphabetic words were differentiated from atypical alphabetic words on the basis of the format characteristics and standards of linguistic application described above. During tabulation, the survey did not distinguish between fullwidth and halfwidth letters, nor did it differentiate homographs and polysemous words: regardless of how many meanings a given format had, and whether or not there were associations between these meanings, each was processed as a single unit.

26 Comparative analysis of the use of alphabetic words in the media

315

2 Results of survey Among the corpora for the year 2015, there were 168532 entries for word segmentation units containing letters (referred to below as an “alphabetic format”), representing 6.85% of the total number of types of word segmentation units within the corpora; these appeared in a total of 2,388,201 instances, with an overall frequency of 0.36% within the corpora. Non-alphabetic words were eliminated, including: 67,968 English words, with 749,931 instances; 580 Chinese pinyin entries, with 4295 instances; 37,237 website and email entries, with 52,003 instances; 984 non-word units, with 907,747 instances. The results consisted of: 62,863 alphabetic word types, representing 37.28% of the total number of alphabetic word segmentation units, and 2.6% of the total number of types of word segmentation units in the corpora. The frequency of the alphabetic words was 1,491,225 instances, representing 62.44% of the total frequency of the appearance of alphabetic word segmentation units, and 0.22% of the total frequency of word segmentation units within the corpora overall. Herein, there were 3882 types of typical alphabetic words, with 982, 767 instances. Apart from typical alphabetic words, foreign-language acronyms were predominance, along with a small number of Chinese pinyin acronyms (such as RMB) and units composed of foreign-language alphabetic letters plus Chinese characters, such as X-guang (X 光, ‘X-ray’), T-tai (T 台, ‘T-stage’), and β-huluobosu (β-胡萝卜素, ‘β-carotene’). Through comparison with the results of the 2006 survey, we can see the changes in and characteristics of the state of use of alphabetic words in the media during this ten-year period.

2.1 The rate of use of the alphabetic format presented a declining trend Comparison of the results showed that the most significant changes to the use of the alphabetic format in the media consisted of a clear decline in types and frequency. For details, see Table 1. From Table 1, we can see that, in this 10-year period, the rate of use of the alphabetic format, dominated by letters in the Roman alphabet, experienced a significant decline: The percentage of word types declined by nearly one quarter, from 9.01% in 2006 to 6.85% in 2015, and the word frequency fell by more than half, from 0.82% to 0.36, while the expected growth was not seen. Among these, the most significant decline was seen in English words, as well as atypical alphabetic words, represented by various formats. There may be two reasons for these

316

Hou Min (侯敏), Teng Yonglin (滕永林), and Cheng Nanchang (程南昌)

Table 1: State of Use and Distribution of the Alphabetic Format in the Media in 2015 and 2006. Year

Category



Word type Word instance



Word type Word instance

All corpora

Alphabetic format

Percentage of all corpora (%)

,,

,

.

,,

,,

.

,,

,

.

,,

,,

.

changes. The first is administrative intervention by government organizations: Relevant organizations have introduced a series of regulations regarding the use of spoken and written language, which have had a positive impact on the use of language in the media. The second is the self-purifying function of a linguistic system, whereby language codes that affect communication are not accepted by the linguistic system.

2.2 The use of foreign-language acronyms is decentralized: The number of types increased, and the frequency decreased The frequency of use of typical alphabetic words, which are dominated by foreign-language acronyms, declined while the number of types significantly increased, exhibiting a trend toward decentralization. This differs significantly from the overall tendency toward a decline in the use of the alphabetic format. Table 2: State of use of typical alphabetic words in the media in 2015 and 2006. Year

Category

 Word type

All corpora

Alphabetic Typical format alphabetic words

Percentage of Percentage of all corpora alphabetic (%) format (%)

,,

,



.

.

Word instance ,,

,,

,

.

.

,,

,



.

.

Word instance ,,

,,

,,

.

.

 Word type

26 Comparative analysis of the use of alphabetic words in the media

317

Table 2 shows that the word types for typical alphabetic words in 2006 only represented 0.06% of the word types for all corpora, but by 2015, they represented 0.16%, increasing by nearly two-fold; yet the frequency of use declined from 0.37% in 2006 to 0.15% in 2015, dropping by more than one half. In terms of the percentages, the word types for typical alphabetic words in 2006 was 0.68% as a percentage of the alphabetic format, while the frequency was 45.36%; yet in 2015, the percentage of word types was 2.30%, while the frequency was 41.15%, presenting a clear tendency toward decentralization. On reviewing the corpora, we found that the frequency of the top 5 words in 2006 (3S jishu [3S 技术, ‘3S technology’], VS, NBA, ST, and GDP) accounted for 33.36% of the frequency of all typical alphabetic words, but the top 5 words in 2015 (A gu [A股, ‘A stock’], GDP, P2P, APP, and O2O) only accounted for 21.55%.

2.3 Different characteristics of the times reflected in high-frequency alphabetic words Changes in language reflect changes in society, and this point can also be seen in the high-frequency alphabetic words used in these two years. Table 3: Top 10 alphabetic words with high-frequency use in 2015 and 2006. No.

 Alphabetic word

         

A gu (A股, ‘A stock’) GDP PP APP OO IPO CEO PPP ST CPI

 Frequency , , , , , , , , , ,

Alphabetic word S jishu (S 技术, ‘S technology’) VS NBA ST GDP AC IT MP TD QQ

Frequency , , , , , , , , , ,

Table 3 shows that, among the top 10 alphabetic words for frequency of use in these two years, only two words were the same, GDP and ST, demonstrating that, in the course of our country’s economic development during this decade, the gross domestic product (GDP) was always an important indicator, while the stock market and particular garbage stocks (ST) drew widespread attention from society

318

Hou Min (侯敏), Teng Yonglin (滕永林), and Cheng Nanchang (程南昌)

and the public. The alphabetic words of this decade reflect that fields have also become fairly decentralized: In 2006, there was the common word VS, NBA and AC (Milan) from the field of sports, as well as the online social media platform QQ; the scientific and technological achievements chiefly consisted of 3S jishu (3S 技术, ‘3S technology’), which combined remote sensing (RS), geographic information systems (GIS), and global positioning systems (GPS), as well as IT and MP3. In 2015, the high-frequency alphabetic words were concentrated in the field of economics, particularly finance and e-commerce, including A gu (A股, ‘A stock’), P2P, O2O, APP, IPO, PPP, and CPI, confirming that economic development is a hard principle. On further comparison, we found that the high-frequency alphabetic words that only appeared in 2015 also represented a concentrated reflection of the unprecedented scenes of the last 10 years: Examples include P2P and O2O, which are used in e-commerce, applications (APP), 4G, 5G and WiFi, which represent modern science and technology, as well as PM2.5, which reflects the negative impact of economic development.

2.4 Differences between types of media The use of alphabetic words varies between different types of media. We selected one central and one local media outlet, People’s Daily (人民日报) and Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报), and respectively produced statistics on the corpora in the two given years, with results as follows: From Table 4, we can see that, as a Party newspaper, People’s Daily (人民日报) has always been fairly circumspect in its use of alphabetic words: whether with respect to the alphabetic format or typical alphabetic words, word type or word instance, the percentage of all corpora is far below the mean value, and there has essentially been no change in the course of this decade. Typical alphabetic words increased slightly as a percentage of the alphabetic format, but by less than one percentage point, while the word instances declined by 1.75 percentage points. Among all alphabetic formats, typical alphabetic words represented a higher percentage, with the word types accounting for one third, while the word instances held strong at two thirds. This obliquely indicates that there may indeed be no choice but to use such typical alphabetic words; and it also indicates that, while many of the typical alphabetic words in the Chinese language may have already been replaced over the course of these ten years, their overall number has not significantly increased. In comparison, as a local newspaper, Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报) is of an avant-garde nature with a lively reputation, and it is fairly liberal in the use

Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报)







Word type



People’s Daily (人民日报)

Word instance

Word type

Word instance

Word type

Word instance

Word type

Word instance

Category

Year

Media outlet

, ,

,,

,

,, ,

,

,

,, ,



,

,, ,



Alphabetic format

,

All corpora

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Percentage of all corpora (%)

,



,







,



Typical alphabetic words

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Percentage of all corpora (%)

Table 4: State of use on alphabetic words in People’s Daily (人民日报) and Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报) in 2015 and 2006.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Percentage of alphabetic format (%)

26 Comparative analysis of the use of alphabetic words in the media

319

320

Hou Min (侯敏), Teng Yonglin (滕永林), and Cheng Nanchang (程南昌)

of alphabetic words, while also exhibiting significant changes. On the whole, in terms of the percentage of use of the alphabetic format, it surpasses People’s Daily (人民日报) with respect to both the word type and word instance by a factor of 3 to 6, yet it is still below the mean value. Typical alphabetic words as a percentage of all corpora in terms of word type were 1.6 times those in the People’s Daily (人民日报), while being 3 to 5 times higher than the People’s Daily (人 民日报) in terms of the word instances. Among all alphabetic formats, the percentage of typical alphabetic words was relatively low, with the word type percentage being 15.33% in 2015 but only 11.12% in 2006, demonstrating that the vast majority of those used are atypical alphabetic words, such as English words, as well as model numbers, the names of organizations, and other atypical alphabetic words. In the course of this decade, apart from a minor decline in word types for typical alphabetic words in Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报), the word instances for the alphabetic format and for typical alphabetic words both experienced major declines, with 2015 being only around two thirds of 2006. It is arguable that media outlets such as Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报) contributed to the significant decline in the use of the alphabetic format in 2015.

2.5 Reading barriers caused by alphabetic words still persist Although the use of the alphabetic format in the media has significantly declined, for the people, reading barriers caused by alphabetic words still persist, and merit our attention. Examples include: Guizhou is still attracting China Communications Construction, China Railway Construction, and other large-scale central enterprises, allowing expressways in Guizhou to advance by leaps and bounds by means of BOT + EPC, BOT + EPC + government subsidies and other construction financing models. (People’s Daily [人民日报], December 30, 2015) Harbin Municipal Bureau of Environmental Protection stated that the city districts are still projected to have continuing severe pollution over the next 48 hours, with an AQI index of 201–300, and the primary pollutant being PM 2.5. (Beijing Youth Daily [北京青年报], November 4, 2015) JDB is encouraging farming households to grow the raw materials for JDB Herbal Tea in accordance with the GAP standards. (People’s Daily [人民日报], October 27, 2015) Wherever you’re going, after the merger of Ctrip, Baidu will have a significant advantage in the field of OTA. (Beijing Youth Daily [北京青年报], December 29, 2015)

The alphabetic words in the above examples were all used for the first time or among the first times in the article, without any explanation, and it is likely that the vast majority of readers would be unable to understand them. The same

26 Comparative analysis of the use of alphabetic words in the media

321

alphabetic words appeared in the following articles with an explanatory note or in the format “Chinese term + alphabetic word,” eliminating reading barriers in a manner worth encouraging. Using the method of BOT (build – operate – transfer) to build a sewage plant is not so difficult; what is difficult is the accompanying pipe system, because this part always has to rely on government funding. (People’s Daily [人民日报], January 26, 2015) The monitoring data of the Ministry of Environmental Protection shows that, at 21:00 on the 15th in the capital, the air quality index (AQI) was 224, but at 21:00 on the 16th, it had declined to 93. (Beijing Youth Daily [北京青年报], November 18, 2015) In order to ensure the quality of herbal teas, JDB has established cultivation bases for its herbal raw materials, and has adopted GAP (good agricultural practices) at all of the cultivation bases, providing high-quality raw materials for the production of the enterprise’s products (People’s Daily [人民日报], November 18, 2015) In 1999, the Ctrip travel website caught fire under the leadership of the four gentleman of Ctrip, and its headquarters was established in Shanghai, opening the curtains for online travel agencies (OTA) in China. (Beijing Youth Daily [北京青年报], July 21, 2015)

The facts of the linguistic survey described above indicate that there is a certain need for and pattern to the use of alphabetic words, and we should take an open, tolerant and realistic attitude toward them, without no need to regard them as scourges. However, the misuse of alphabetic words affects communication, and cannot be allowed to go unchecked.

References Hou, Min (侯敏). 2007. Survey on the State of Use of Alphabetic Words in Newspapers, Radio and Television, and Online (Journalism) (报纸、 广播电视、 网络[新闻]字母词语使用状况 调查), in Volume II of The Language Situation in China (2006) (中国语言生活状况报告 [2006]). Commercial Press. Zou, Yuhua (邹玉华). 2006. Study of modern Chinese-language alphabetic words (现代汉语字 母词研究). Doctoral degree dissertation presented at Communication University of China.

Zou Yu (邹煜)

27 The Internet+ in language life On March 5, 2015, Premier Li Keqiang (李克强) proposed in a government work report: “Formulating an ‘Internet+’ action plan, to promote the integration of mobile Internet, cloud computing, big data, the Internet of Things, and so on with the modern manufacturing industry, spur the healthy development of e-commerce, the industrial Internet, and Internet finance, and guide Internet enterprises to expand into international markets.” On July 4, the State Council issued the Guiding Opinions on Actions for Actively Promoting the ‘Internet+’ (关于积极推进“互联网+”行动的指 导意见), proposing supporting measures for promoting the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’). On December 16, the 2nd World Internet Conference was held in Wuzhen, Zhejiang, and at the “Internet+” Forum, the China Internet Development Foundation joined hands with Baidu, Alibaba, and Tencent to jointly sponsor a proposal to established the “Internet+ Association of China” (中国互联网+联盟). For a period of time, the term hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) was seemingly ubiquitous, deeply permeating our language life.

1 Reasons for the emergence of the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) The hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’) came into being in 1969 with the United States’ apawang (阿帕网, ‘ARPANET’), and it is referred to in English as the Internet. Opinions now vary as to when the Internet entered China. Some argue that it began in August 1986 when Chinese scientists connected to a satellite link in Beijing, to send an email to Jack Steinberger, located in Geneva; other believe that it started in early April 1994, when our country’s reiterated request to the US National Science Foundation (NSF) to connect to the Internet was approved (China Internet Network Information Center, n.d.). From a search on the CNKI Database (China National Knowledge Infrastructure, n. d. [a]), it is evident that Lin Yuchun (1981) was the first to use the term hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’) in the Chinese language, noting that the hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’) is a “network requiring the achievement of paired communications between arbitrary users” (Lin, 1981). In 1991, a researcher used both the terms Internet and hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’) in a paper, linking them together (Chen and Shao, 1991).

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-027

324

Zou Yu (邹煜)

Following the rapid development of the Internet, people began pondering various innovations based on the Internet. One person proposed “The Internet+ tricycle” (互联网+ 三轮车), while others wondered, “Internet + general store = ?” (互联网+ 杂 货店= ?)(Anonymous, 2000), or “Internet + traditional finance + paid services = ?” (互联网+ 传统金融+有偿服务= ?) (Wu, 2000), and so on. Thereafter, someone else proposed the “Internet+ mobile phones,” calling it the “most dynamic mode of transactions in e-commerce,” further explaining that the “plus” (+) symbol here consisted of “building a business information platform to more thoroughly exercise the excellent functions of the Internet and mobile networks” (Ding, 2004). Usage of the term generally adopted the format hulianwang + X (互联网+X, ‘Internet + X’) or hulianwang + X = Y (互联网+X = Y, ‘Internet + X = Y’), such as hulianwang+ weixing (互联 网+卫星, ‘Internet+ satellite’) (Anonymous, 2001), hulianwang+ tongxin (互联网+ 通 信, ‘Internet+ communications’) (Wang, 2006), hulianwang + wulianwang = zhihui diqiu (互联网+物联网= 智慧地球, ‘Internet + Internet of things = smart world’) (Lin, 2009), hulianwang+ shequ (互联网+社区, ‘Internet+ community’) (Shi, 2011), and so on. The hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) was proposed as an independent concept for the first time by Yu Yang (于扬) of Analysis International at the 5th Mobile Internet Exhibition in November 2012 (Dong, 2013). He said that finding this hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) would mean opportunities for users to create value, while simultaneously being able to achieve new self-value, establishing a rapidly developing foundation for corporate growth. In the future, the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) would likely transform or even subvert the products and services of all industries, resting in the chemical formula resulting from the integration of multi-screen, network-wide, cross-platform user settings that we would see in the future (Yu, 2013). The netizen “benjaminwen” created an entry for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) on Baidu Baike on November 10, 2013, noting that the “plus” (+) referred to various traditional industrial sectors. The netizen “yitianzhao 1” supplemented that content on April 22, 2014, commenting that the hulianwang+ (互联 网+, ‘Internet+’) is a trend, and what is added to it are various conventional industries. Over the past decade or so, the development of the Internet has clearly demonstrated this point: + meiti (+ 媒体, ‘+ media’) has given rise to online media, greatly affecting traditional media; + yule (+娱乐, ‘+ entertainment’) has given rise to online games; and + lingshou (+ 零售, ‘+ retail’) has given rise to e-commerce, which has now grown immensely. Most recently, Internet finance has been extremely popular, while the Internet has allowed finance to become more efficient and provide better economic services (Baidu Baike, n. d.). In 2015, the National People’s Congress Representative Ma Huateng (马化腾) submitted the proposal Recommendations on promoting innovative socioeconomic

27 The Internet+ in language life

325

development in our country driven by the ‘Internet+’ (关于以“互联网+”为驱动,推 进我国经济社会创新发展的建议) to the lianghui (两会, ‘Two Sessions’). He stated that the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) refers to utilizing Internet platforms and information communications technology to integrate the internet with all industrial sectors, including conventional industries, thereby creating a new ecology in new fields. On March 5, Premier Li Keqiang (李克强) proposed the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) action plan in a government work report for the first time. Today, the Internet has ushered in disruptive revolutions in many traditional industries. While commenting on the domestic word of the year hulianwang+ (互 联网+, ‘Internet+’) at the scene of the announcement ceremony for the “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点2015), Luo Hua (罗华), the Vice President of People.com.cn, noted that the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) has gradually become a trend that is setting the world on fire. The Internet is not just a tool, but also an incubator for improving conventional industries such as healthcare, commuting, media, agriculture, finance, and so on. With mass entrepreneurship, mass innovation, crowdsourcing, crowd-funding, and mass creativity, a new generation of young people are using computer mice to fly through the opening provided by the Internet (Zhang Zhiyi, 2015).

2 The hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) illuminates language life On December 21, 2015, the “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点2015) was announced, and hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) was not only selected as the domestic word of the year with a high margin of votes, but also made it onto the lists for the Top Ten Popular Phrases and Top Ten Neologisms of the year, respectively taking 2nd place and 1st place on the lists. The hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) is already influencing our language life.

2.1 The widespread dissemination of the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) We conducted an exact match search for the keyword hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) with article titles on the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), obtaining the results for a total of five years, from 2011–2015 (see Figure 1). The data shows that there was little variation in the search results for 2011–2013, but

Zou Yu (邹煜)

Frequency

326

16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0

hulianwang+ +, ‘Internet+’) (

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2

6

5

40

14225

Figure 1: Search results for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) on CNKI (with “article title” as the control condition, and “exact” matching) (China National Knowledge Infrastructure, n.d. [b]).

Frequency

Thousands

there were 40 hits for 2014, 8 times higher than in the first year. By 2015, the number of hits had risen precipitously to 14,225, approximately 356 times higher than in the previous year. The dissemination of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) online similarly showed an explosive trend. Figure 2 is the search results for hulianwang+ (互联 网+, ‘Internet+’) over the last 5 years on Baidu News (百度新闻). We can see that 2013 experienced a fairly significant increase, leaping from 575 to 2,700,000 all at once; in 2014, the results rose to 3,610,000, showing an increase, but not matching the rate of growth seen in the previous year. In 2015, the results rose again to 7,530,000, more than 2 times higher than in the previous year. 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 hulianwang+ ( +, ‘Internet+’)

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

162

575

2700000

3610000

7530000

Figure 2: Search results for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) on Baidu News (百度新闻) (Baidu News Advanced Search, n. d.).

327

27 The Internet+ in language life

In the wake of its explosive spread in the media, were audiences similarly filled with anticipation regarding the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’)? In this connection, we surveyed trends in the popularity of search key words among the users of the two search engines Sogou (搜狗) and Haosou (好搜); for the specific details, see Figures 3 through 6. Figures 3 and 4 respectively show the interannual (2013–2015) and 2015 annual search indices among users for the three key words hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’), and yintewang (因特网, ‘Internet’) on Sogou Index. The data shows that, prior to March 5, 2015, there was no record of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) on Sogou, and search records only appeared starting on March 5. On the day of the 5th, there were 58 records, and this number thereafter climbed rapidly to 174 on the 6th and 286 on the 12th, exceeding the same-day search records for hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’) for the first time, at 281. From that point on, the search records for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) consistently remained in a leading position. On December 17, 2015, the relevant records all reached their peak, at 3746 hits for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), and 1744 hits for hulianwang

01-01-2013 to 12-31-2015

yintewang

hulianwang

hulianwang+

‘Internet’)

‘Internet’)

‘Internet+’)

User Search Index

2013

2014

2015

Figure 3: Interannual user search indices for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) and other terms on Sogou.1

 Sogou Index (搜狗指数), http://index.sogou.com/sidx?type=0&domain=−1&fbjs=0&query=% D2%F2%CC%D8%CD%F8%2C%BB%A5%C1%AA%CD%F8%2C%BB%A5%C1%AA%CD% F8%2B&date1=0&area=all.

328

Zou Yu (邹煜)

12-31-2014 to 12-31-2015

yintewang

hulianwang

hulianwang+

‘Internet’)

‘Internet’)

‘Internet+’)

User Search Index

Jan. – Mar. 2015

Apr. – Jun.

Jul. – Sept.

Oct. – Dec.

Figure 4: Annual user search indices for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) and other terms on Sogou.2

(互联网, ‘Internet’). This provides a general picture of the popularity of the use of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’). Figures 5 and Figure 6 respectively show the interannual (2013–2015) and 2015 annual search indices among users for the three key words hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’), and yintewang (因特网, ‘Internet’) as well as media attention on Haosou Index (now 360 Index). As on Sogou Index, the search popularity and media attention for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) similarly took off in March 2015. After that point, the search popularity and media attention continuously climbed, while also maintaining a relatively high level. This is just as in the media reports: Once the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) was mentioned by Premier Li Keqiang (李克强) at the Two Sessions, it not only became an extensively disseminated neologism, but also became a new development concept (Zhang Yuling, 2015).2

 Sogou Index (搜狗指数), http://index.sogou.com/sidx?type=0&domain=−1&fbjs=0&query=% D2%F2%CC%D8%CD%F8%2C%BB%A5%C1%AA%CD%F8%2C%BB%A5%C1%AA%CD% F8%2B&date1=0&area=all.

329

27 The Internet+ in language life

Search Index Trends 1-11-2013 to 12-31-2015 Nationwide [Update] yintewang

‘Internet’)

hulianwang

‘Internet’)

hulianwang

‘Internet+’) 7700 6600 5500 4400 3300 2200 1100

Jan. 2013 May 2013 Sept. 2013 Jan. 2014

May 2014

Sept. 2014

Jan. 2015 May 2015 Sept. 2015

Media Attention 1-11-2013 to 12-31-2015 Nationwide yintewang

‘Internet’)

hulianwang

‘Internet’)

hulianwang

‘Internet+’) 84000 72000 60000 48000 36000 24000 12000

Jan. 2013 May 2013 Sept. 2013 Jan. 2014

May 2014

Sept. 2014

Jan. 2015 May 2015 Sept. 2015

Figure 5: Interannual search indices and media attention for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) and other terms on Haosou Index (360 Index).3

2.2 Dissemination of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) in the mainstream media In order to survey the state of use of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’), hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’), and other terms in the mainstream media, we sampled 8 newspapers, including the People’s Daily (人民日报), Guangming Daily (光明日报), Economic Daily (经济日报), and Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报), along with online news outlets including People.com.cn (人民网), Sohu (搜狐), Tencent (腾讯), and Sina (新浪) for the years 2014 and 2015 from the National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus, as well as all corpora for broadcast media. The corpora for the

 Haosou Index (好搜指数) (360 Index [360指数]), http://index.so.com/#trend?q=%E5%9B% A0%E7%89%B9%E7%BD%91,%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91,%E4%BA%92%E8% 81%94%E7%BD%91%2B&t=201301|201512.

330

Zou Yu (邹煜)

two years were averaged, with a total of approximately 2.6 billion character instances (4.82 GB) and 2.32 million texts. Search Index Trends 1-1-2015 to 12-31-2015 Nationwide [Update] yintewang

‘Internet’)

‘Internet’)

hulianwang

‘Internet+’) 12600

hulianwang

10800 9000 7200 5400 3600 1800 Jan. 2015 Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Media Attention 1-1-2015 to 12-31-2015 Nationwide yintewang

‘Internet’)

‘Internet’)

hulianwang

‘Internet+’) 98000

hulianwang

84000 70000 56000 42000 28000 14000 Jan. 2015 Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Figure 6: Annual search indices and media attention for hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet +’) and other terms on Haosou Index (360 Index). 4

Table 1 and Figure 7 show the state of use of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet +’), hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’), yintewang (因特网, ‘Internet’), and Internet in the mainstream media in 2014 and 2015. In comparing the data for the two years, hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) saw the greatest increase; among newspapers, radio and television, and online corpora, the frequency of use in 2015 respectively increased by a factor of 310, a factor of 1969, and a factor of 838 compared to the previous year, while the three types of corpora saw an average increase by a factor of 638, which may well be called explosive growth. Yet hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’) only increased by a factor of 1.2, while yintewang (因特网, ‘Internet’) and Internet decreased by nearly one half in comparison with the previous year.

 Haosou Index (好搜指数) (360 Index [360指数]), http://index.so.com/#trend?q=%E5%9B% A0%E7%89%B9%E7%BD%91, %E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91, %E4%BA%92%E8% 81%94%E7%BD%91%2B&t=201301|201512.

331

27 The Internet+ in language life

Table 1: State of use of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) and other terms in the mainstream media (unit: frequency). 



Newspapers Radio and Online Television 

hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’)



Newspapers Radio and Online Television



,

, ,

,

,

,

,

yintewang (因特网, ‘Internet’)













Internet













Thousands

hulianwang (互联网, ‘Internet’)

, ,

250 200 150 100 50 0 Newspapers

Radio and Television

Online

Newspapers

2014 hulianwang + ( yintewang (

+,‘Internet’) ,‘Internet’)

Radio and Television

Online

2015 hulianwang + ( Internet

,‘Internet’)

Index (hulianwang+ [

,‘Internet+’])

Figure 7: State of use of hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) and other terms in the mainstream media.

So, what was added after the “plus” (+) symbol in hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) in the mainstream media? We selected newspaper corpora from the year 2015, with approximately 270 million character instances, and 251,432 texts. Through retrieval, manual screening, and tabulation of statistics, we obtained 167 formats for huliangwang + X (互联网+ X, ‘Internet + X’), with a total of 404 instances of use. We then ranked them in descending order by frequency of use

332

Zou Yu (邹煜)

and selected the top 10 high-frequency huliangwang + X (互联网+ X, ‘Internet + X’) formats to produce a distribution chart for their state of use (see Figure 8). The data shows that the terms most frequently appearing in the position of “X” in huliangwang + X (互联网+ X, ‘Internet + X’) were, in order, nongye (农业, ‘agriculture’), jiaoyu (教育, ‘education’), jinrong (金融, ‘finance’), yiliao (医疗, ‘healthcare’), dianying (电影, ‘film’), wenhua (文化, ‘culture’), lüyou (旅游, ‘tourism’), zhengwu (政务, ‘government affairs’), qiche (汽车, ‘automobile’), and fangdichan (房地产, ‘real estate’). From the above, it can also be seen that the original format huliangwang + X (互联网+ X, ‘Internet + X’) was, to a very great extent, replaced by hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’). fangdichan qiche (real estate), 6 (automobile), 7 zhengwu (government affairs), 8

(a no gr ng icu ye 47 lture ),

lüyou (tourism), 9 wenhua (culture), 9

hulianwang+ (Internet+’)

(ed jiaoy uca u ti 27 on),

jinrong e), (financ 25

(h yi ea lia lth o 22 car e) ,

dianying (film), 15

Figure 8: State of distribution of the top 10 high-frequency huliangwang + X (互联网+ X, ‘Internet + X’) formats in newspaper corpora in 2015.

27 The Internet+ in language life

333

3 The changes ushered in by the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) and considerations The hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) not only left a powerful mark on language life in 2015, but is also still influencing our language life, as well as transforming our lives. First, hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) created a new linguistic format, expanding the range of coverage. It used the format of Chinese characters plus a symbol (that is, the “plus” [+] symbol) for the first time, which was a breakthrough for word creation in the Chinese language. Hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) was formed on the foundation of huliangwang + X (互联网+ X, ‘Internet + X’), shifting from a mathematical expression to a set term, and providing unlimited space for development and possibilities for more advanced applications of the Internet. Second, it is necessary to correctly understand the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’). The “plus” (+) in hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) signifies the crossing of boundaries, representing connection and fusion; it is not only addition, but moreover improvement, creating a new developmental ecology. The hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) does not mean + hulianwang (+互联网, ‘+ Internet’). Professor Wu Ge (吴革) of the University of International Business and Economics said during an interview with a reporter for Guangming Daily (光明日报): “The ‘Internet+’ is a chemical reaction, while ‘+ Internet’ is merely a physical reaction; the ‘Internet+’ must destroy the original framework, to carry out top-down disruption” (Li and Yao, 2015). However, based on the current practical circumstances, the hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) has not yet achieved a true chemical reaction, that is, no new substance has been produced. Although it has improved the level of development in certain areas, it is not yet truly able to drive development. In order to truly drive development, it is necessary to transform our thinking and pursue scientific and technological innovation, so as to achieve a true chemical reaction.

References Anonymous. 2000. Internet+ general store =? (互联网+ 杂货店= ?). South Reviews (南风窗), no. 7. Anonymous. 2001. Proposal of ‘Internet+ satellites’ as a solution for long-distance basic education (推出“互联网+ 卫星”远程基础教育解决方案). Science and Technology Daily (科技日报), April 28, 2001, p. 006.

334

Zou Yu (邹煜)

Baidu Baike (百度百科). n. d. Historical versions of the ‘Internet+’ (“互联网 +” 历史版本). http://baike.baidu.com/historylist/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%2B/ 12277003. Baidu News Advanced Search (百度新闻高级检索). n. d. http://news.baidu.com/advanced_ news.html. Cai, Hongbo (蔡洪波). 2000. The Internet+ tricycle (互联网+ 三轮车). China Economic Express (中国经济快讯), no. 15. Chen, Taiyi (陈太一) and Shao, Junli (邵军力). 1991. Review of computer and data communications (计算机与数据通信综述). Telecommunications Science (电信科学), no. 6. China Internet Network Information Center (中国互联网络信息中心). n. d. Record of important events for the Internet (互联网大事记). http://www.cnnic.net.cn/hlwfzyj/hlwdsj/. China National Knowledge Infrastructure (中国知网). n. d. (a). http://www.cnki.net/. China National Knowledge Infrastructure (中国知网). n. d. (b). http://epub.cnki.net/kns/brief/ default_result.aspx. Ding, Xiaojiong (丁潇炯). 2004. The Internet+ mobile phones is the most dynamic mode of transactions in e-commerce (互联网+ 手机电子商务最活跃的交易模式). China Internet (互联网天地), no. 5. Dong, Jun (董军). 2013. Can we find our own ‘Internet+’? (能否找到自己的“互联网+”?). China Business Journal (中国经营报). November 25, 2013, p. D06. Li, Hui (李慧) and Yao, Yu (姚雨). “Internet+ agriculture”: “land” and “ocean” collide in a chemical reaction (“互联网+ 农业”: “土”和“洋”撞出化学反应). Guangming Daily (光明日报), July 9, 2015, p. 08. Lin, Jing (林婧). 2009. Internet+ Internet of things = smart world (互联网+ 物联网= 智慧地球). People’s Posts and Telecommunications (人民邮电). September 09, 2009, p. 006. Lin, Yuchun (林遇春). 1981. Utilizing communications networks to transmit code (利用通信网 传送密钥). Communications Privacy (通信保密), no. 3. Shi, Kai (史凯). 2011. Internet+ community, Haier creates a warm services brand (互联网+ 社 区, 海尔打出温情服务牌). Sales and the Market (Management Edition) (销售与市场[管理 版]), no. 7. Yu, Yang (于扬). Seeking the ‘Internet+’ (寻找“互联网+”). 2013. New Business Weekly (新商务 周刊), no. 10. Wang, Ji (王冀). 2006. Internet+ communications: a painful and joyful wearing in (互联网+ 通 信: 痛并快乐的磨合). Communications Weekly (通信产业报), September 25, 2006, p. 008. Wu, Nanyan (吴南雁). 2000. Putting old wine in new bottles (新瓶装旧酒). China Financial and Economic News (中国财经报). August 23, 2008, p. 008. Zhang, Yuling (张玉玲). 2015. Allowing the culture’s creative vitality and enthusiasm to burst forth –a review of cultural and industrial development in 2014 (让文化创造活力激情迸 发 –2014 文化产业发展述评). Guangming Daily (光明日报), May 14, 2015, p. 10. Zhang, Zhiyi(张知依). 2015. The ‘2015 inventory’ on the use of the Chinese language: honest, Internet+, fear and counterterrorism become the characters and words of the year (用汉 语“盘点2015”: 廉 互联网+ 恐 反恐成年度字词). Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报), December 22, 2015, A18.

Part VII: Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan

Tian Xiaolin (田小琳), Qin Jiali (秦嘉丽), and Lin Aini (林爱妮)

28 The Chinese language arts curriculum in Hong Kong pre-primary education The majority of students in Hong Kong receive pre-primary education in Hong Kong (3 years at kindergarten). The data shows that, during the 2015 to 2016 school year, there were a total of 957 kindergartens across Hong Kong.

1 Basic circumstances 1.1 Pre-primary education Pre-primary education provides services to children aged 3 to 6. Currently, the majority of kindergartens only offer a half-day curriculum, with a children’s program, junior program and advanced program, while some kindergartens simultaneously offer a full-day curriculum. Following the trends of development of kindergarten education around the world, and in support of the pathway for reforms to the Hong Kong education system and curriculum, the Curriculum Development Council announced the newly revised Guide to the Pre-Primary Curriculum (学前教育课程指引) in 2006 (Curriculum Development Council of the Hong Kong Education Bureau, 2006), and in 2007, it was comprehensively implemented at kindergartens. The revised Guide to the Pre-Primary Curriculum (学前教育课程指引) declared that kindergarten education is the foundation for lifelong learning and whole person development, while also placing great emphasis on the core value of being child-centric. Pre-primary education is the starting point for students to receive a formal education. In Hong Kong, pre-primary education works in concert with primary school, secondary school and even university education, forming an integral whole. Within the curriculum framework, the principal objectives for child development include four items: “Physical fitness,” “cognition and language,” “emotions and sociality,” and “aesthetics.” These four objectives can be fulfilled through the six learning categories of “fitness and health,” “language arts,” “early math,” “science and technology,” “the individual and the group,” and “art.” All curricula for pre-primary education cover the three important elements of “knowledge,” “skills” and “attitude,” so as to foster children’s comprehensive

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-028

338

Tian Xiaolin (田小琳), Qin Jiali (秦嘉丽), and Lin Aini (林爱妮)

development in the areas of moral virtue, intellectual ability, physical fitness, sociality and aesthetics. Hong Kong kindergartens are all classified as private institutions run by volunteer groups or private individuals, and are divided into the two categories of nonprofit kindergartens and private independent kindergartens. Kindergartens must be registered in accordance with the Education Ordinance (教育条例). Educational inspectors from the Education Bureau frequently inspect each kindergarten and provide recommendations to the principals and teachers with respect to the curriculum, teaching methods, and administration. The Operation Manual for Pre-Primary Institutions (学前机构办学手册), compiled by the Education Bureau and the Social Welfare Department, provides the regulations that must be observed as well as recommendations for running kindergartens to those with intent to engage in this category of education. Kindergartens vary widely in terms of their scale: Some kindergartens only have two or three classrooms, while others have more than ten. The majority of kindergartens are able to adapt to the children’s life experiences and interests to build an inspiring learning environment, establishing a tushu jiao (图书角, ‘reading corner’), shuxue jiao (数学角, ‘math corner’), ziran jiao (自然角, ‘nature corner’), meilao jiao (美劳角, ‘arts and crafts corner’), yinyue jiao (音乐角, ‘music corner’), jiating jiao (家庭角, ‘family corner’), and so on in classrooms, and supplementing with relevant teaching aids, to guide children’s spontaneous learning. The minimum entry qualifications for kindergarten teachers require that passing grades be obtained in the five subjects on the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination / Diploma of Secondary Education Examination, including the subjects of Chinese and English, and these must be obtained in no more than two sittings for the examination. Beginning in the 2003–2004 school year, all newly hired kindergarten teachers were required to have standards-compliant kindergarten teacher qualifications or an equivalent level of education. In Hong Kong, there are many colleges and universities that offer courses for kindergarten education certificates, courses for kindergarten education degrees and teacher diplomas, and courses for Bachelor’s degrees in kindergarten education, with relevant required subjects including “child studies, basic theory of pre-primary education, pre-primary education: parent participation, curriculum planning for pre-primary education, management of institutions for pre-primary education, individual differences among children, early learning experiences for children,” and so on.

28 The Chinese language arts curriculum in Hong Kong pre-primary education

339

1.2 Pre-primary Chinese language arts education Pre-primary Chinese language arts education is primarily integrated with nature and life, including teaching children communication tools for everyday activities, interpersonal skills, and so on, and enabling students to engage with learning through real situations. This lets children develop language abilities through trying, exploration, and interpersonal interactions. In teaching, teachers provide children with comprehensive language arts learning experiences based on their language abilities and developmental needs, integrating experience in “listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing” into everyday classroom situations and learning activities, and guiding children to appropriately use spoken and written language. In accordance with child language development, children are generally first able to master listening comprehension and speaking skills, and then master reading and writing skills. Based on the local language learning environment in Hong Kong, the area of spoken language includes Cantonese and Putonghua, while reading and writing use traditional characters. Below, with reference to the Guide to the Pre-Primary Curriculum (学前教育 课程指引) (2006), we will examine the general situation of Chinese language arts in pre-primary education in Hong Kong in terms of the four areas of curriculum design, syllabi, genres and subject matter of educational materials, and assessment.

2 Curriculum design Curriculum design for Hong Kong kindergartens follows three principles: Being child-oriented and comprehensively balanced, and taking play as a strategy.

2.1 Child-oriented Curriculum design adopts a child-oriented approach, setting out from children’s perspective to understand their abilities, needs, learning styles, prior experiences, interests, and so on. When designing a curriculum, it is necessary to capture opportunities for children to learn, in conjunction with their developmental needs and abilities, to provide suitable space to allow children to achieve balanced development.

340

Tian Xiaolin (田小琳), Qin Jiali (秦嘉丽), and Lin Aini (林爱妮)

Children’s experiences in the past will influence their learning now. Therefore, the arrangement of a curriculum must take children’s experiences as the foundation, and directly select materials from the living environment. In addition, the content of activities must match children’s interests, allowing them to spontaneously and actively engage in learning.

2.2 Comprehensively balanced Being comprehensively balanced considers two areas: The first is a child’s overall development in terms of physical fitness, cognition and language, emotions and sociality, and aesthetics; and the second is the cultivation of knowledge, skills and attitudes in different learning categories. In the area of physical fitness, curriculum design for pre-primary education has four development objectives: 1) To develop children’s sensory skills and ability to focus and observe; 2) To cultivate good life habits, the capacity for self-care, and a healthy lifestyle in children; 3) To promote the development of children’s ability for major and minor kinesthetic abilities; and 4) To recognize the limitations of bodily functions, and establish safety awareness for selfprotection. In the area of cognition and language, there are three development objectives: 1) Evoking and satisfying children’s desire for knowledge, enabling them to understand the people and things in the surrounding environment with a positive attitude; 2) Development children’s concepts of simple mathematical logic, and helping them analyze, reason through, judge and resolve problems; 3) Developing children’s language and thinking abilities. In the area of emotional and social development, there are the following six objectives: 1) Encouraging and helping children to understand their own thoughts and feelings, and express what they feel and need through the appropriate application of language and skills for non-verbal expression; 2) Helping children develop a positive self-concept, and establish self-respect, self-confidence, a sense of achievement, and an optimistic and positive attitude toward life; 3) Enriching children’s life experiences, and strengthening their capacity for interpersonal communication; 4) Helping children balance their personal inclinations and the interests of the group, enabling them to understand that good relationships with people are established through negotiation and cooperation, and to absorb certain basic values and behavioral norms for group life; 5) Cultivating a proper attitude in children for getting along with other people, including the roles and responsibilities taken on by the individual within the family, at school, in society,

28 The Chinese language arts curriculum in Hong Kong pre-primary education

341

and in the state; and 6) Cultivating in children the sentiments of caring for society, cherishing the environment, and respecting different cultures. In the area of aesthetic development, four objectives are achieved through art education for children: 1) Allowing children to explore different art and media symbols through an enriched and diversified environment; 2) Enriching children’s sensory experiences, and encouraging children to express personal thoughts and feelings; 3) Cultivating creativity and imagination, and enjoying the delight of creation; 4) Guiding children to actively appreciate their surroundings, cultivating interest in life, and improving the quality of life. A pre-primary curriculum must simultaneously consider the six learning categories of “fitness and health,” “language arts,” “early math,” “science and technology,” “the individual and the group,” and “art,” as well as the cultivation of related knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes.

2.3 Play as a strategy Pre-primary institutions interweave play into the content for each learning category to design a curriculum with a comprehensive approach.

3 Outline of the Chinese language arts curriculum The aim of a child language arts curriculum is to design a rich language environment, allowing children to develop language skills through trying, exploration, and interpersonal interactions. Teachers must provide children with comprehensive language learning experiences based on their language abilities and developmental needs, integrating experiences in “listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing” into everyday classroom situations and learning activities, and guiding children to appropriately use spoken and written language. In terms of conforming to children’s level of development, children master listening and speaking skills before reading and writing. According to the Education Bureau’s Guide to the Pre-Primary Curriculum (学前教育课程指引), the learning objectives and educational principles for the four areas of listening, speaking, reading and writing are as follows:

342

Tian Xiaolin (田小琳), Qin Jiali (秦嘉丽), and Lin Aini (林爱妮)

3.1 Listening and speaking 3.1.1 Teaching objectives In the areas of listening and speaking, through stories on different subjects, to enable students to: a. Listen to dialogue and stories, enriching the vocabulary with which they come in daily contact, and understand the meaning of the stories and dialogue; b. Apply the words and phrases they have learned to express their own opinions and needs; c. Having a polite attitude, clear speech, and fluent expression when chatting with others; d. Posing and answering questions, being able to engage in simple reasoning and problem-solving, and guessing the results; e. Sharing life experiences and details with others.

3.1.2 Educational principles a. Listening and speaking skills are the prerequisites for oral communication; motivation should be drawn from children’s everyday experiences and the things that interest them, to encourage children to listen, describe, report, ask questions, and express opinions; b. At suitable times, such as during morning sessions, recreational time, snack time, interest-based activities, and so on, randomly engage in conversation with children, and allow them to converse with one another; c. Suitably using characters and words that are easy for children to understand to converse with them, and then appropriately increasing the application of vocabulary, encouraging children to accumulate words, and expand their range of vocabulary; d. When conversing with children, teachers should provide ample time, patiently listen, and give appropriate responses; e. Conversations should be carried out in a relaxed and happy environment: For instance, if a child expresses that there is a problem, the teacher should provide encouragement and guidance, enhancing their self-confidence in speaking; f. Use open-ended questions to stimulate children’s thinking ability; g. Permit children to have different opinions and reactions to things; under general circumstances, it is not necessary to emphasize unanimous opinions and absolute answers; h. If a child’s pronunciation is incorrect, teachers can use a kind attitude and a natural intonation to suitably introduce vocabulary words with correct pronunciation or structurally complete sentences, as models for children to emulate; i. Listening to stories can cultivate children’s focus and imagination: Encouraging questions and discussion in the process of story-telling activities can establish critical thinking abilities, encourage children to engage in oral story-telling and creation, and also develop creativity.

28 The Chinese language arts curriculum in Hong Kong pre-primary education

343

In the area of teaching language, Cantonese is universally used for communication in Hong Kong society, and apart from certain international kindergartens which use Putonghua as the language of instruction for Chinese language arts classes, the majority of local kindergartens all use Cantonese as the language of instruction. Learning in the subject of Chinese language arts is generally carried out by integrating “themed instruction” (for details, see the section on “Educational Materials” below), and there are generally four to five class sessions per week, with each session being approximately 20 to 30 minutes. Given the increasingly important social status of Putonghua, many kindergartens have added Putonghua classes, generally having two class sessions per week, with each session being 20 to 30 minutes. Full-time or part-time teachers who are able to fluently speak Putonghua are hired to provide children with opportunities to have contact with Putonghua during pre-primary education through singing and games, story-telling, and other activities, laying a foundation for children to learn Putonghua.

3.2 Reading 3.2.1 Learning objectives a. Mastering rudimentary reading skills; b. Cultivating an interest in and the habit of reading; c. Understanding the content of a story; d. Recognizing common characters and frequently used characters for learning themes; e. Learning through reading.

3.2.2 Educational principles a. Engaging in reading activities through reading aloud, story-telling and games; b. Encouraging children to read books and various types of reading materials in which children have an interest, such as posters, advertisements, magazines, pictures, and so on; c. Providing high-quality books suited to children’s age, level and experiences for children to read at any time; d. Providing children with books to read, which can be self-compiled; e. When selecting books, it is necessary to meet the following standards: Healthy and interesting content; simple plot, with repetition; the characters in the story shall have distinctive images, be easy to understand, be able to stimulate children’s imagination, and satisfy their curiosity; the pictures shall have pleasing colors, with simple and vivid character models,

344

Tian Xiaolin (田小琳), Qin Jiali (秦嘉丽), and Lin Aini (林爱妮)

and a composition that can highlight the theme; the characters and vocabulary words in the book must match the children’s lives and interests.

3.3 Writing 3.3.1 Learning objectives a. Using paper and pen to use pictures and characters to express what they have seen, heard and felt, to communicate with others; b. Using tactile and hand-eye coordination abilities to understand space and position, cultivating flexible control of the fingers, and developing the inertia of the left and right hands; c. Being fond of reading aloud or sharing works they have drawn or written, and enjoying the delight of doing so; d. Exploring how to use different writing materials.

3.3.2 Educational principles a. Characters from everyday living environments can be used to stimulate children’s interest in writing; b. Cultivating children’s interest in and ability to express and record their individual thoughts and life experiences through pictures and text; c. Before children have sufficient ability to write characters, teachers should not force them to write. Through play with diversified minor muscles and handeye coordination, the basic skills for pre-writing can be cultivated. Once a pen and paper are formally used for writing, it also need not be limited to the use of grid paper or exercise books; d. Guiding children to pay attention to characters they encounter, and particularly exploring the structural system of characters; teachers can design diversified games on character structure, such as character strokes or combinations of radicals, et cetera, to allow children to comprehend the joy and methods of writing through games; e. Providing more positive encouragement, to help children build self-confidence; opportunities to share works with others can also be provided, to offer encouragement. Concretely speaking, based on the recommendations of the Education Bureau’s guide, students in the phase of the children’s program (ages 3 to 4) chiefly engage in hand-eye coordination (such as stringing beads or straws, et cetera) as well as training for minor muscles (such as stacking blocks, picture puzzles, playing with sand, et cetera). Only once students are in the advanced program (ages 5 to 6) do they begin to receive training in writing characters. With respect to the selection of characters, characters chiefly composed of horizontal and vertical strokes, with relatively few strokes and a simple structure should be selected

28 The Chinese language arts curriculum in Hong Kong pre-primary education

345

as far as possible. As homework, children in the advanced program will write at least forty characters per week.

4 Educational materials The latest data published by the Education Bureau (Hong Kong Education Bureau, n. d.) shows that the reviewed Chinese language educational materials for Hong Kong kindergartens all met the requirements of the Guide to the Pre-Primary Curriculum (学前教育课程指引), satisfying the following conditions: (1) Suited to the aims and objectives of the curriculum guide; (2) Appropriately handling the core course content for school subjects; (3) Clear concepts, and appropriate reference data; (4) Appropriate and reasonable arrangement of content and concepts; (5) Suitable for learning activities; (6) Clear and precise language.

4.1 Subject matter The subject matter in Chinese language educational materials for Hong Kong kindergartens is chiefly selected to revolve around the areas of children’s growth and learning, living environments, society and nature, and so on, and they are specifically compiled using the following themes: Junior program: Self-recognition, animals, seasons, transportation, Hong Kong, food, people who help us, light and shadow, water, school and interpersonal relations, family, health, science, reading, art, holidays, and so on. Advanced program: Self-recognition and interpersonal relations, animals, measurement, symbols and information, China and the world, food and a healthy life, people who help us, nature and the weather, art and creativity, feelings, communities, money management, information science and technology, school, natural phenomena and science, transportation, reading, holidays, independent thinking, and so on.

4.2 Genres In terms of genres, adapting to the different themes described above, the Chinese language educational materials now used in Hong Kong kindergartens chiefly fall into two categories, the first of which is thematic books, while the second is storybooks. See Tables 1 and 2.

346

Tian Xiaolin (田小琳), Qin Jiali (秦嘉丽), and Lin Aini (林爱妮)

Table 1: Examples of educational materials on the theme of animals. Category

Theme

Book title

Name of learning data set Publisher and year

Thematic book

Animals The Animals I See (我看见的动物)

Storybook Animals Adventures of the Little Sea Turtle (小海龟历险记)

Kindergarten learning data (advanced program)

Crystal Education Publications (晶晶教育 出版社) ()

Oxford story enjoyment, growth and learning set (advanced program)

Oxford University Press (China) Co., Ltd. (牛津 大学出版社[中国] 有限公司) ()

Table 2: Examples of educational materials on the theme of food. Category

Theme Book title

Thematic book

Food

Storybook Food

Name of learning data set

I Like to Eat Kindergarten learning data Beneficial Foods (advanced program) (我爱吃有益的 食物) The Princess’ Birthday Party (公主的生日会)

Comprehensive learning set for enjoyment of new stories (advanced program)

Publisher and year Crystal Education Publications (晶晶教育 出版社) () Oxford University Press (China) Co., Ltd. (牛津大 学出版社[中国] 有限公司) ()

It is clear that, within the same theme, the content of thematic books presents things related to a given theme: For instance, the thematic books The Animals I See (我看见的动物) and I Like to Eat Beneficial Foods (我爱吃有益的食物) in Tables 1 and 2 list the animals and foods that children commonly encounter on an everyday basis in the form of words, accompanied by brightly colored pictures, thereby allowing children to recognize things related to the theme, such as a dog, milk, et cetera. The storybooks Adventures of the Little Sea Turtle (小海龟历险记) and The Princess’ Birthday Party (公主的生日会) in Tables 1 and 2 are not only accompanied by an exquisite chain of illustrations, but furthermore present the theme through a specific story (often taking the approach of personification or metaphors). Comparatively speaking, storybooks are better able than thematic books to prompt children’s interest in learning, and are better able to achieve learning objectives. Consequently, increasing numbers of kindergartens are now choosing new textbooks in the genre of storybooks to serve as educational materials for Chinese language courses.

28 The Chinese language arts curriculum in Hong Kong pre-primary education

347

5 Assessment 5.1 Objectives and principles The objectives of assessment are: That the assessment data helps teachers improve arrangements for learning and teaching, and facilitates curriculum leaders in reviewing an institution’s overall curriculum planning, so as to make suitable adjustments to promote children’s learning and development. Principles of assessment: Through observation and recording, children’s performance in actual learning environments is analyzed; the use of oral examinations or open-book examinations is not suitable, and assessment must be continuously carried out year-round. The assessment content must not only search for things that children are able to do, while providing affirmation and appreciation, but also find the items on which they still need improvement, while providing guidance. It is necessary to systematically and positively inform parents of the assessment results, to deepen parents’ understanding of their children.

5.2 Categories and models The assessment categories for Chinese language arts are: Listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing. Progress-based and summary assessment methods are flexibly applied to continuously assess the state of children’s learning and mental and physical development throughout the school year. Teachers take the lead in the assessment process, but children and parents also play important roles. Only where all three sides are jointly participating can the assessment results truly reflect a child’s situation.

5.2.1 Teacher assessments Anecdotal records, et cetera. Through routine observation, record-keeping and analysis, children’s learning and state of development at a school are assessed.

5.2.2 Children’s feedback With the teacher’s guidance and assistance, children engage in introspection on their own learning and growth. For instance, children can use a simple action

348

Tian Xiaolin (田小琳), Qin Jiali (秦嘉丽), and Lin Aini (林爱妮)

key formulated by the teacher to attempt to record the things they are able to do, such as taking the initiative to pick up toys, et cetera.

5.2.3 Parents’ assessment Parents should regularly communicate with teachers on children’s everyday performance in the home, to help children learn better.

5.3 Archives on the learning process A child’s growth and development are continuous processes, and any given point in time marks important data on a child’s growth. Therefore, teachers must record certain important data, establishing archives on the learning process, for reference by the primary school the child attends in the future. During the period of record-keeping, it is necessary to engage in continuous review, and collect feedback from parents and children; engaging in dialogue and listening are the most important and effective tools between children, parents and teachers. Strategies should be promptly adjusted and revised if needed, so as to more effectively achieve the expected learning objectives.

References Curriculum Development Council of the Hong Kong Education Bureau (香港教育署课程发展 议会). 2006. Guide to the Pre-Primary Curriculum (学前教育课程指引). Hong Kong Education Bureau (香港教育署). n. d. Suitable Booklist for the 2014/15 School Year: Kindergarten Learning Data (Advanced Program / Junior Program) for Chinese Textbooks and Learning Materials (2014/15学年适用书目表: 幼儿园学习数据( 高班/低班) 中文课本及学习 材料). https://cd.edb.gov.hk/rtl/searchlist.asp.

Wang Mingyu (王铭宇)

29 The language associations of Macau Macau is located in a corner of southern Guangdong, with a population of only 600,000, yet the state of spoken and written language use there is quite complex. It is commonly said to have “three written languages [Chinese, Portuguese and English] and four spoken languages [Putonghua, Cantonese, English and Portuguese],” adding another written language and another spoken language as compared to Hong Kong’s “two written languages [Chinese and English] and three spoken languages [Putonghua, Cantonese, and English],” and it is worthy of being called a multilingual, multi-dialect, multicultural society. Macau has many types of associations, and after many years of development and growth, those related to language (in this paper, chiefly referring to Chinese) teaching and research have become indispensable and influential social and civil organizations in Macanese language life.

1 Associations and their activities It has been nearly seventeen years since the return of Macau, but to this day, there are no government departments dedicated to social language issues or language research institutes of an official nature. The existing language associations in Macau are all private organizations of peers. Associations must register with the government and formulate a charter, and associations may apply to relevant government offices for funding for activities, publishing and so on. Among the language associations of Macau, there is no shortage of groups with a long history and considerable size, which play an important role in Macanese society, and these each have their own characteristics.

1.1 The Chinese Educators Association of Macau The Chinese Educators Association of Macau (abbreviated as the Educators Association)1 was established in 1920, and it is among the cultural and educational groups in Macau with the longest history. It currently has more than 3000 members, and the members come from 32 schools in Macau. This association has  See http://www.edum.org.mo/orginfo/about/. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-029

350

Wang Mingyu (王铭宇)

always pursued the aims of uniting figures in Macanese education circles, loving the motherland and loving Macau, supporting “one country, two systems,” promoting Chinese culture, safeguarding teachers’ interests, properly managing teachers’ welfare, and jointly furthering the cause of education in Macau. In 1985, it was awarded the Medal of Cultural Merit by the Macanese Portuguese government, and in 2005, it was awarded the Medal of Educational Merit by the Special Administrative Region government. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Educators Association was among the first associations in Macau to fly the Five-Starred Red Flag. In order to implement the Basic Law of Macau (澳门基本法), prior to the return of Macau, it published a textbook on the Basic Law of Macau (澳门基本法) and held training courses on the Basic Law (基本法). After the return, it joined with other associations to hold the activity “Project for Attaining Standards for General Knowledge of Chinese Culture” (中华文化常识达标工程) in Macau. It has proactively organized Macanese teachers and students to participate in exchanges with mainland of China, and has jointly engaged in the “Chinese Oasis Financial Aid Action” (华夏绿洲助学行动) together with other education groups and a number of universities. The Educators Association has long been dedicated to the cause of education in Macau. Since 1985, the association has jointly operated associate and undergraduate training courses at vocational education and normal universities for 20 years in a row alongside South China Normal University, offering specialized courses on education, preschool education, Chinese language education, English language education, mathematics education, et cetera, and in recent years, it has also offered teacher training diploma courses. It regularly holds meetings with the Special Administrative Region Education and Youth Affairs Bureau to communicate on and explore education issues, and each year, it submits a proposal for educational administration to the Special Administrative Region Government. On several occasions, it has sponsored the “Get-Together for Chinese Teachers” (华夏园丁大联欢) and the “Academic Conference on Education for the CrossStrait, Hong Kong and Macau Regions” (海峡两岸暨港澳地区教育学术研讨会), and it has held academic activities such as the “Youth Conference on Moral Education” (青少年德育研讨会), et cetera. In recent years, the Educators Association has organized local Macanese teachers to establish four sections for Chinese, English, mathematics, and preschool education, and has regularly held activities. The Group for Scientific Research on Education, which is subordinate to the association, has regularly examined hot topics in Macanese education, and published a number of research reports. The association also regularly publishes periodicals such as Macau Education (澳门教育) and Education Information (教育信息), providing

29 The language associations of Macau

351

teachers with more information on education. Beginning in 2011, it formulated a publishing plan for the Series on Education in Macau (澳门教育丛书), publishing selected works or monographs on education each year on behalf of teachers. It has pushed the Special Administrative Region government to establish scholarships and stipends for students who register for teacher training majors at universities, so as to encourage more talented people to devote themselves to education, and improve the standards for qualified teachers. Since the Chinese Ministry of Education established an examination hall in Macau in 1984, the association has assisted Macanese high school graduates each year with the process of applying to mainland Chinese universities, encouraging and aiding Macanese students in pursuing advanced studies in mainland of China. To date, the association still undertakes testing work in Macau for Jinan University, Huaqiao University, Sun Yat-sen University, and other mainland institutions of higher education. Prior to the return of Macau, the Educators Association had tirelessly persevered in fighting for reasonable benefits, rights and interests for the teachers of Macau, calling on the Macanese-Portuguese government to sponsor public education. Since the return, it has actively pushed the Special Administrative Region government to recognize the reality that education funding has long been on the low side, appealed to the government to increase investment in education, proposing rational recommendations for the formulation of the Outline of the Education System in Macau (澳门教育制度纲要法), pushed the government’s education department to formulate the Framework for the Teaching Faculty System at Private Schools (私立学校教学人员制度框架), supported teachers’ rights and interests and improved their level of specialization, and presented the 2012 Plan for the Specialization and Growth of Teachers in Macau (2012 澳门教师专业成长计划). In conjunction with the Union of Catholic Schools of Macau and the Macau Association for Civil Service Education, and in cooperation with Teledifusão de Macau (TDM), it filmed the special series A Teacher’s Path and the Language of the Heart (师路心语) on teachers’ stories, broadcasting moving stories about young, middle-aged and older teachers in Macau from three generations. The Educators Association has also cooperated with the Macau Association for Civil Service Education to formulate the Covenant for Teachers in Macau (澳门教师公约), hold activities for collecting comments via questionnaire as well as different kinds of meetings for gathering ideas, sponsor special performances and introductory meetings, and produce relevant microcinema videos and theme songs. In order to express its human concern for retired teachers who contributed to education in Macau over the past few decades, the Educators Association persuasively urged the government to issue one-time jingshijin (敬师金, ‘payments to show respect to teachers’) to qualifying retired teachers, so as to

352

Wang Mingyu (王铭宇)

cultivate a social atmosphere of respect for teachers and attention for education. As of the second half of 2013, the relevant registration and issuance procedures had already been initiated. The Educators Association is also concerned with the healthy development of children and adolescents in Macau. The association has already held the “Secondary School Students with an Interest in Science Competition” (中学生 趣味科学比赛) more than 10 times, the “Declamation Competition for All Macanese Students” (全澳学生朗诵比赛) more than 20 times, and the “Drawing Competition for All Macanese Students” (全澳学生绘画比赛) more than 30 times, and each of these academic and art competitions have become important contests for Macanese students. The Educators Association also actively participates in various social affairs. Members of the association serve as National People’s Congress representatives for the Macau Special Administrative Region, members of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, and members of various provincial and municipal CPPCC committees to participate in the work of national affairs, while other members serve as members of the Legislative Committee, participating in legislative work in Macau. The association also sends representatives to participate in the work of the Education Commission, the Commission for Specializations for Teaching Personnel, and other government advisory bodies, conveying the opinions and recommendations of association members and teachers.

1.2 Linguistic Society of Macao The Linguistic Society of Macao2 was founded in 1994, witnessing the return of Macau and the resurgence of Chinese. For a long period of time, nine tenths of the residents of Macau were native Chinese speakers, yet only Portuguese had been established as an official language. Many patriotic individuals in Macau had long striven to secure an official status for Chinese, and relevant scholars were even more devoted to this cause. In December 1991, the Portuguese Council of Ministers passed and promulgated a law giving the Chinese language official status in Macau. In February 1992, the Government Bulletin (政府公报) of Macau published the law, completing the legislative process whereby Chinese became an official language of Macau. However, many obstacles were encountered in truly implementing this law, and the Linguistic Society of Macau thus

 See http://www.umac.mo/fah/dc/south_china/society1.html.

29 The language associations of Macau

353

emerged as the times required, speaking as a professional body, publicizing the theory of official languages from an academic perspective, and expounding upon the proposal that Chinese should have status as an official language. As the founding foreword to the society’s journal Macau Journal of Linguistics (澳 门语言学刊) said, “The official status of Chinese is in the process of implementation . . . .The times have entrusted language workers in Macau with a great and glorious mission, as a series of problems with language itself and problems related to language call upon us to provide scientific answers.” Prior to the return of Macau, the society had specifically made reference to sensitive and keen-edged topics such as “the place and development of Chinese in Macau.” In research projects during this period of time, it often appealed to officials or the social elite to pay attention to the state of survival of languages in Macanese society and their paths for development, striving to win space for the survival of Chinese, with more than 30 publications related to this topic. The conferences sponsored and presided over by the society included “International Academic Conference on Pathways for the Development of Languages in Macau in the Transitional Period (1992)” (澳门过渡时期语言发展路向国际学术研讨会 [1992]) and “International Academic Conference on Linguistic Styles, Translation and Writing (1993)” (语言风格暨翻译写作国际学术研讨会[1993]). After the return of Macau, the society put forward two proposals: First, to elevate general narrative history into the explication of linguistic patterns, and second, to conduct special surveys on certain topics, and engage in more in-depth exploration of linguistic patterns on the basis of the survey data. The emergence of this trend benefited from the rise of academic exchanges between Macau and the outside world as well as new indigenous talents in Macau. Members of the society successively published several dozen high-level academic papers in national academic periodicals, including Studies of the Chinese Language (中国语文), Linguistic Sciences (语言科学), Language Planning (语文建 设), and Applied Linguistics (语言文字应用). Apart from the study of language itself, the topics largely touched upon practical language problems in Macau, such as surveys of the current state of language in Macau, the language of the Macau lottery, language policies in Macau, the Creole language of native-born Portuguese, as well as the linguistic status of Macau in exchanges between Chinese and Western culture. Dozens of academic monographs or anthologies on linguistics were published one after another, including Collected Papers on Linguistic Styles (语言风格论集) (Nanjing University Press, 1994), Let Traditional and Simplified Characters Take Their Course (繁简由之) (Fourth Edition) (Joint Publishing HK, 1996), The Evolution of Chinese in Macau (中文变迁在澳门) (Joint Publishing HK, 2005), Studies of Language in Macau (澳门语言研究) (Commercial Press, 2007), and Studies of the Rotundas of Macau (澳门圆形地研究) (Macau Polytechnic

354

Wang Mingyu (王铭宇)

Institute, 2012). As of 2014, the society had sponsored, presided over, or organized groups to participate in more than 20 major academic activities, including the “International Academic Conference on Dialects and Common Languages” (方言与共同语国际学术研讨会) (1996), “International Academic Conference on the Theory and Practice of Language Planning” (语言规划的理论与实践国际学 术研讨会) (1998), “The Second International Academic Conference on Linguistics in Chinese Society” (第二届中国社会语言学国际学术研讨会) (2003), and “Academic Confernce on the State of Cross-Strait Use of Chinese Characters” (两岸汉 字使用情况学术研讨会) (2013), causing Macau to become another bastion for the study of linguistics in the cross-strait, Hong Kong and Macau region. In 1995, the society founded the Macau Journal of Linguistics (澳门语言学 刊). The “Editorial Afterword” (编后记) to the founding issue expressed the aims of establishing the journal: “She is the journal of the Linguistic Society of Macao, and the academic garden of linguistics circles in Macau.” The manuscripts were drawn from Macau, mainland of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and the overseas Chinese community, with the preferred choice being manuscripts that discussed language issues in Macau. As of 2014, the journal has published a total of 43 issues. The society has cooperated with relevant government departments (such as the Public Prosecutions Office and the Academy of Public Security Forces) to offer language training courses, for the purpose of understanding social demand, achieving the founding aim of serving society with specialized knowledge of linguistics, and simultaneously improving the professional competence of members of the society in linguistics through social practices.

1.3 Macao Yue Dialect Association The Macao Yue Dialect Association3 was founded in 2003 as an independent nonprofit academic organization, and it began formal operations as of 2004. The association is a relatively new community organization, which currently has over thirty members. To date (December 2014), the association’s journal Studies of Yue Chinese (粤语研究) has published a total of 16 issues. The association regularly holds academic lectures and language salons for the Yue dialect. In 2010, it presided over the “15th International Academic Conference on the Yue Dialect” (第十五 届国际粤方言学术研讨会), attended by 93 scholars from mainland of China,

 See http://macau-yue-da.blogspot.com/.

29 The language associations of Macau

355

Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, as well as Japan, Singapore, the United States, and other countries and regions, with profound discussions of the theory of studies of the Yue dialect and applied issues. In 2013, it founded the Yue Chinese Forum, and the theme of the first session was “Lexical Studies of Yue Chinese” (粤语词汇研究), including the four subtopics “The Study of Individual Words” (个别词汇的研究), “Examining the Mutual Influence Between Yue Chinese and Other Dialects Through Dialect Loanwords” (以方言借词来看粤语和 其他方言的相互影响), “Lexicography of the Yue Dialect” (粤方言辞典编纂), and “The Application of Vocabulary” (词汇的应用). The related papers were included in issues 13 and 14 of Studies of Yue Chinese (粤语研究). In 2014, the theme was “Applications of Yue Chinese” (粤语应用), with discussions in lecture and conversational formats on the role of native languages in language arts education. Related papers were included in issue 16 of Studies of Yue Chinese (粤语研究). The Macao Yue Dialect Association is now building an academic exchange platform for the Cross-Strait, Hong Kong and Macau regions for the study of the Yue dialect.

1.4 Chinese Language Society of Macau The Chinese Language Society of Macau was established in 1986, and it is a nonprofit academic organization in Macau. The society’s aims are to develop language education in Macau and promote and study the Chinese language, and its members chiefly include writers and other language workers as well as teachers and other figures in education circles. The members of the society broadly participate in conferences focused on spoken and written language, improvement the level of research. The society publishes a specialized journal on language, Thicket of Sayings (语丛). The International Conference on the Yue Dialect (国际粤方言研 讨会), which began in the 1990s, has been held 17 times to date, and the Chinese Language Society of Macau sponsored 4 of these occasions. The society also serves the development of secondary school language arts courses and advanced teacher training programs in the Cross-Strait, Hong Kong and Macau regions, providing a platform for research and exchanges on new language arts courses.

1.5 Chinese Language and Culture Association of Macau The Chinese Language and Culture Association of Macau was founded in 1986 as an organization for research on the Chinese language. Its members largely consist of secondary school teachers. The association is dedicated to promoting

356

Wang Mingyu (王铭宇)

the development of the Chinese language in Macau, and improving the caliber of Chinese language teachers in Macau. It actively engages in activities for outward-oriented exchanges, and on several occasions, it has invited mainland Chinese scholars to give lectures in Macau and has organized conferences. Other organizations related to language activities in Macau include the Macao Association of Literacy Promotion, the Macau Society for Chinese Poetry, the Macau Couplets Association, and so on. These groups have also had a positive and far-reaching impact on the promotion of traditional Chinese culture and the improvement of language proficiency in Macau.

2 Focal issues Macau‘s complex language ecology not only represents a problem faced by the language associations of Macau, but also language resources that can be used by the associations and by scholars. How to handle the relationship between the languages of Chinese, Portuguese and English, how to approach the internal division within Chinese between Putonghua and the Yue dialect, issues surrounding the use of traditional characters and simplified characters, and so on are all worth further in-depth consideration and exploration by the language workers of Macau.

2.1 Language policy issues Faced with a more complex linguistic environment even than in Hong Kong, what kind of bilingual Chinese-Portuguese policies should the government of Macau specifically put forward? Professor Ching Cheung Fai (程祥徽) has called for Macau to implement a policy “social bilingualism” (a society with two official languages) rather than “individual bilingualism” (where individuals master two official languages). Further questions include: Should there be a specific distinction between spoken and written language with respect to the place of Chinese within a bilingual system? How should divergences in the use of the Yue dialect and Putonghua be addressed? How should differences between traditional and simplified characters, different dialect phoneticization systems, and various official document formats in the actual application of Chinese be standardized? In light of the economic development of Macau and its rising international status, is it necessary to improve residents’ general English proficiency? Similar questions abound, demonstrating that Macau urgently needs to introduce corresponding

29 The language associations of Macau

357

language policies, plans, and standardized norms. The language associations of Macau can marshal civil forces to offer advice and suggestions, promoting the formulation and implementation of relevant language policies.

2.2 Issues in language education The Macau government has formulated relevant language policies, including the establishment of both Chinese and Portuguese as the official languages of Macau; the institution of equal status for both official languages; and a policy under which schools are to adopt one of the official languages as the language of instruction. Do these policies effectively address the linguistic reality since the return of Macau? One survey studying language attitudes and language preferences among students following the return of Macau found that the preferred language of instruction among students is the Yue dialect, and the majority of students like a Yue dialect – Putonghua – English trilingual mode of instruction, followed by bilingual modes of instruction, including Yue dialect – English and Yue dialect – Putonghua (Su, 2012). How can policy formulation truly conform to actual language use? These questions concern the development of Macau, as well as its future. The language associations of Macau can certainly contribute keen insights to these practical issues.

Reference Su, Jinzhi (苏金智). 2012. The social and cultural significance of the ‘Survey on the State of Use of Putonghua in Macau’ and its theoretical value (“澳门普通话使用情况调查”的社会 文化意义及其理论价值). Applied Linguistics (语言文字应用), no. 2.

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

30 The state of language life in Taiwan (2015) In 2015, there were many aspects of language life in Taiwan worth noting, which were chiefly expressed in areas such as Chinese character writing, the languages of immigrants, the establishment of departments for speech-language pathology and audiology, a curriculum outline for social subjects in senior high school, the problem of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’), voting for the representative character of the year, and so on.

1 Chinese character writing draws discussion 1.1 Adjustments to the writing style for certain Chinese characters According to reports in the Taiwanese media, a parent with the surname Wu (吴), whose daughter was in the fourth grade in elementary school, discovered that his daughter was using a graph similar to the phonetic symbol tu (ㄊ, ‘t’) when writing the top half of the character yu (育, ‘education’). He believed that it was written incorrectly, and as he had learned while in school, he taught his daughter to first write the radical tou (亠, ‘lid’) and then write si (ㄙ, ‘s’). It was only later, upon checking the textbook, that he discovered that he was the one writing the character incorrectly, not his daughter. The Taiwanese education authorities had made corrections to script styles and character stroke order over the years, and the writing style for certain Chinese characters had changed. Mr. Wu 吴 believed that the public should have been made aware of such an important change, otherwise many parents might, like him, “misteach their children to write characters wrongly.” Chen Yi-Hung (陈毅宏) the Academic Dean at Malan Elementary School in Taitung, said that, around twenty years ago, the Taiwanese education authorities had changed the writing styles for a series of characters, and published the Teachers’ Manual for the Standard Chinese Script (汉字标准字体教师手册) for reference by teachers. In the example of yu (育, ‘education’), according to the Manual (手册), the top was to be written as tu (ㄊ, ‘t’), with reference to the ancient script, while the lower section was not yue (月, ‘month’) but was written as bing (冫, ‘two-dot water’) inside. The writing style for the upper right-hand section of the character liu (流, ‘flow’) was the same as yu (育, ‘education’); the https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-030

360

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

How to write correctly?

Wrong

yu ( , ‘rain’)

yu ( , ‘education’)

mao ( , ‘pretend’)

pei ( , ‘plentiful’)

Right

Figure 1: How to write correctly?

upper right-hand section of the character wen (温, ‘warm’) was written as qiu (囚, ‘imprison’) rather than ri (日, ‘sun’); the right side of the character pei (沛, ‘plentiful’) had to be written in one stroke from start to finish, and could not be written as shi (市, ‘city’); mao (冒, ‘pretend’) had formerly consisted of yue (曰, ‘speak’) above and mu (目, ‘eye’) below, but now the top section is mi (ㄇ, ‘m’) with the addition of two horizontal strokes. (refer to Figure 1) Associate Professor Hsu Hsiu-Hsia (许秀霞) of National Taitung University, who specializes in philology, stated that some characters have indeed been written incorrectly for a long period of time, and the corrections are helping students learn to read. She said that the ancient meaning of yu (育, ‘education’) was a mother hugging a small child: the lower section is the rou (肉, ‘flesh’) component, rather than yue (月, ‘month’), while the upper section tu (ㄊ, ‘t’) is a reversed zi (子, ‘child’), symbolizing how a child arrives headfirst at birth, but after being raised by his mother, he is able to stand up. The meaning of the character mao (冒, ‘pretend’) is to use a hat or other article to cover one’s eyes, signifying layers of obstruction, and the upper section is not yue (曰, ‘speak’). How should Chinese characters ultimately be written? Taiwanese experts vary in their opinions: Some hope for a unified writing style based on a standard script, while other scholars believe that scripts are not right or wrong, but merely differ in form, and it is not suitable to place undue emphasis on uniformity.

30 The state of language life in Taiwan (2015)

361

1.2 Degeneration of students’ writing skills In the wake of the development of Internet technology, modern people often use communication software to communicate, and rarely write letters, resulting in the weakening of writing skills to a certain extent, being unable to write characters or produce essays. Some students simply do not know how to use punctuation marks when writing essays, or are unable to convey their thoughts when writing. Chen Hsiang-Ju (陈相如), a language arts teacher at Kainan High School of Commerce and Industry, found that some students were actually writing shouji (手 機, ‘cellular phone’) as shouji (手鷄, ‘hand chicken’) or xiang banfa (想辦法, ‘think of a way’) as xiang bianfa (想辨法, ‘think to distinguish a way’). “Students who are familiar with idioms often use them incorrectly, or simply do not use idioms.” Chen Hsiang-Ju said that students are not fond of hardship: They know that, if they use idioms incorrectly, they will be corrected by the teacher, so they simply do not use them, while their compositions become increasingly colloquialized. In new versions of language arts textbooks, in order to improve students’ interest in reading, the selected texts are becoming shorter and shorter, with more and more pictures, resulting in a vicious cycle, wherein students “can read each character taken separately, but do not understand their meaning in combination.” Chen Hsiang-Ju said that modern students seeking to gain knowledge need only Google it, and after seeing the sentence they want to use, they just “copy and paste”; as time passes, they obviously become unable to write essays. Chuang Chuan-Fang (庄传芳), a language arts teacher at Yanping High School, believes that students start facing examinations beginning in junior high school, without a high amount of reading, and they are unable to write in-depth essays. In the past, students would write love notes or letters, but now they use communication software, and can even use voice recognition systems to “type with their mouths.” These changes in the approach to writing have resulted in the increasing colloquialization of student essays, while superfluous characters abound.

2 The languages of immigrants draw attention 2.1 The native languages of immigrants enter the elementary school curriculum On August 4, at the first meeting for the “Report of the Coordinating Council for Immigrant Affairs” (新住民事务协调会报) of the Taiwanese education authorities, Mao Chi-Kuo (毛治国), a representative of the Taiwanese government,

362

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

noted that instruction in the native languages of immigrants can be compared to the Hakka language and other ethnic minority languages, and studying their incorporation into the elementary school curriculum would provide secondgeneration immigrants with linguistic advantages with respect to future employment. In response to the problems immigrants often have in being unable to produce complete documentation of educational attainment and thus being unable to participate in tourism license examinations, et cetera, Mao Chi-Kuo stated that relevant units will examine more flexible approaches to examination qualifications. On December 7, Wu Ssu-Hua (吴思华), a representative of the Taiwanese education authorities, stated while visiting the Immigrant Center for Learning in Taoyuan that, in order to help second-generation immigrants retain proficiency in their native languages, apart from Southern Min, Hakka, and ethnic minority languages, the 2018 Taiwanese curriculum outline would also incorporate immigrant languages as required native language courses at elementary schools (1 hour per week); during the junior high school stage, though they would only be electives, if they were selected by students, schools would be required to offer the courses. Following the increase in the immigrant population, the Taiwanese Ministry of Education will provide subsidies for different localities to establish immigrant centers for learning.

2.2 Encouraging immigrant students to study their native languages In 2015, the Taiwanese education authorities launched the pilot “Happy Learning Program” (乐学计划), allowing elementary and high school students to use extracurricular time to engage in “immersive” learning through clubs, camps and so on, and letting students study Southern Min, Hakka, ethnic minority languages, and other native languages through happy recreation. Because increasing numbers of students at elementary and high schools are the children of immigrants, where the father or mother originates from countries in Southeast Asia, including Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, and other countries, their native languages also include the languages of these countries. The Taiwanese Ministry of Education therefore initiated the “Immigrant Language and Literature Happy Learning Program” (新住民语文乐学计划), providing subsidies for schools to hold camps and offer language and literature courses, summer experiences and activities, and so on; in particular, schools are encouraged to build a parent-child co-learning community, allowing parents and children to learn together, and enhancing family communication skills. Wang

30 The state of language life in Taiwan (2015)

363

Chun-Cheng, a representative of the Taiwanese education authorities, stated that plans are now being made for one junior high school and one elementary school to be selected in each county and city as pilot locations for the Immigrant Language and Literature Happy Learning Program. If a given county or city exceeds the quota of two schools, and the number of immigrant students at a school exceeds 100 individuals, or accounts for 1/10 of the total number of students, it can apply to increase the quota. Through the Language and Literature Happy Learning Program, Taiwan hopes to increase self-confidence and a sense of accomplishment among immigrant children.

3 First establishment of a “speech-language pathology and audiology department” In June 2015, the Taiwanese education authorities gave approval for Hungkuang University to establish a “Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology Department.” After graduating, students will be able to participate in the examinations for “speech-language pathologist” and “audiologist.” Relevant personnel at Hungkuang University stated that there is high demand on the island for specialized personnel engaged in the work of treating hearing and speech impairment, and patients and families are all looking forward to improvements in the standard of care. It is hoped that the establishment of this department “can satisfy people’s longing to regain their hearing and engage in conversations.”

3.1 Reasons for its establishment In 2014, the Taiwanese Ministry of Health and Welfare revised the standards for the establishment of medical institutions under the public healthcare system, stipulating that hospitals provide practitioners for speech-language pathology and audiology, and specifying that 1 or more speech-language pathologist and audiologist should be installed, and that 1 more individual should be hired for every 500 beds. Under the acute late-stage healthcare and nursing model, it was also specified that at least 1 functional or language pathology staff member was needed for every 4 rehabilitative treatment beds. Assistant Professor Cheng Hsiang-Chun (郑湘君), the director of the Preparatory Committee for this department, remarked by way of analysis that, based on the allocation standards described above, it is estimated that the hospitals at different levels in Taiwan would need add at least 511 speech-language pathologists or audiologists.

364

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

Cheng Hsiang-Chun (郑湘君) expressed that only 126 students graduate from the four universities and institutes on the island that have established relevant departments, demonstrating a significant disparity between the number of specialized audiology and speech pathology personnel engage in clinical hearing and speech impairment work and the actual demand, with the result that 67.9% of patients wait more than 14 days to receive a speech assessment, and 20.2% wait more than 20 days. After receiving assessment and entering the treatment stage, at 75.2% of healthcare institutions, it is necessary to wait for more than a month, or even to wait for 6 months. This not only delays treatment, but also impacts the results of treatment.

3.2 Content of professional work According to the introduction by Cheng Hsiang-Chun (郑湘君), the work of speech-language pathologists includes: Treatment of pronunciation problems (unclear enunciation, commonly referred to as a lisp), voice disorders (a hoarse voice, excessive shouting), swallowing impairment (difficulty eating), stuttering, aphasia (difficulty speaking after a stroke), child language development delays, and oral communication difficulties in those experiencing different kinds of physical and mental disabilities. In contrast, audiologists perform hearing screening tests, hearing comprehension and hearing evaluations and examinations, examinations and rehabilitation of the inner ear and balance system, hearing rehabilitation for the hearing-impaired, selection of hearing aids, evaluation and rehabilitation with artificial cochlear implants, and selection and consultations on hearing aid devices. Cheng Hsiang-Chun (郑湘君) stated that this department is expected to formally begin externally recruiting students for the 2016 school year, jointing the ranks of those training talented personnel for audiology and speech-language pathology and serving patients with hearing and speech impairments. The curriculum design will take into account both theory and clinical practices, and at the same time, students will receive training in skills for the licensing exams. Personnel for audiology and speech-language pathology generally earn salaries of between 40,000 and 60,000 NTD, with good prospects, making it worthwhile for students to enter this professional field.

30 The state of language life in Taiwan (2015)

365

4 The problem of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) stirs debate 4.1 The problem of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) gives rise to debate In the wake of reporting on the topic of yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) in Taiwan by relevant media outlets, jinxing yige XX de dongzuo (进行一个XX的动 作, ‘carrying out the action of XX’) split the Internet into two camps, which engaged in endless debate. One faction argued that yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) does not exist, and a patriarchal form of “language purification” should not be adopted to accuse the younger generation of causing language cancer through excessive use of the Internet. The other faction argued that language has its standards, and pleonasm and redundant characters represent ineffective communication; furthermore, language cancer is not divided by class or age, and anyone can suffer from it.

4.2 Yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) does not exist On December 20, 2014, the young novelist Chu You-Hsun (朱宥勋) fired the first shot online, arguing that there is simply no correct language in this world, only suitable language. Chu Chia-An (朱家安), a lecturer at Huafan University who was similarly part of the post-80s generation, shared Chu You-Hsun’s opinion. Chu Chia-An said that placing an emphasis on correct language or criticizing yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) highlights a patriarchal, disciplinary attitude. In particular, many teachers and scholars point to the Internet as the cause of the disease, arguing that language skills have degenerated among young people, but “we cannot criticize other’s people’s mode of speech and seek to control it because it doesn’t sound pleasing to the ear, or we don’t like it.”

4.3 Yuyan ai (语言癌, ‘language cancer’) exists Chia Pei-Te (贾培德), the board chair of the Chinese Debate Promotion Association, opposed Chu You-Hsun’s argument that “correct language does not exist.” Chia Pei-Te stated that, while language does indeed evolve, that does not mean that it has no standards. As a member of the post-70s generation, he said that language cancer is not divided by class or age, and if a senior female TV anchor

366

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

were to use trivialized and wordy language while delivering broadcasts, her language cancer would be more severe than in a young TV anchor. The playwright Chi Wei-Jan (纪蔚然) stated that a living language is constantly changing, while the concept of a dead language is one that has not changed in many years, but jinxing yige XX de dongzuo (进行一个XX的动作, ‘carrying out the action of XX’) does not sound like human speech, and he feared that no one knew where it had come from. Chi Wei-Jan agreed that the older generation has been “sorely afflicted” by language cancer, particularly among many politicians and social pundits.

5 Voting for the representative character of the year 5.1 Initiation of voting On November 13, the activity of the “Vote for Representative Character of 2015 in Taiwan” (台湾2015 代表字大选) was launched. Huang Ching-Wen (黄晴雯), the board chair of Sogo Department Store, Yu Mei-Yue (游美月), the editor-inchief of United Daily News (联合报), and Huang Shih-Feng (黄士峰), the winner of the gold medal in the javelin throw at the Asian Championships in Wuhan, jointly revealed the representative characters included in the vote, with a total of 50 candidates for the representative character, such as xuan (选, ‘elect’), huan (换, ‘replace’), qi (祈, ‘pray’) and zhen (真, ‘truth’). The 2015 list also marked the first appearance of modal particles such as ng (嗯, ‘huh’) and a (啊, ‘ah’). Huang Ching-Wen (黄晴雯) argued that this represents that “social phenomena cannot be described using language, and young people can only express themselves with grammatical particles” (Chen, 2015). The characters with the most nominations were pan (盼, ‘looking forward’) and bian (变, ‘change’), with four nominations each, symbolizing the power of “looking forward to change” in Taiwan.

5.2 Results of voting On December 8, the “Vote for Representative Character of 2015 in Taiwan” (台 湾2015 代表字大选) was revealed. Out of a total of 90,530 votes, the character huan (换, ‘replace’) was the winner with 13,842 votes, and was selected as the representative character of 2015. The 2nd through 10th place finishers were, in

30 The state of language life in Taiwan (2015)

367

order, bian (变, ‘change’), pian (骗, ‘deceive’), qi (祈, ‘pray’), tong (痛, ‘pain’), xuan (选, ‘elect’), mang (茫, ‘vast’), zhi (滞, ‘stagnant’), qi (欺, ‘cheat’), and pan (盼, ‘looking forward’). (refer to Figure 2)

Vote for Representative Character of 2015 in Taiwan

Figure 2: Representative character of 2015 in Taiwan: huan (换, ‘replace’). Source: Chen, Wan-Chien (陈宛茜). 2015. Is it Bian (变, ‘change’)ed to Pian (骗, ‘deceive’) after being Huan (换, ‘replace’)ed for the 2015 representative character of the year in Taiwan? (2015 十大代表字,“换”了以后“变”成“骗”？) United Daily News (联合报). December 8, 2015.

Huang Ching-Wen (黄晴雯) pointed out that, in comparison with previous representative characters of the year, the character huan (换, ‘replace’) is a “powerful expression of the mood” of the public, which works in concert with xuan (选, ‘elect’), ranked sixth, demonstrating the public’s wish to take back the power to lead, and control their own future (Chen, 2015). The baseball star Lin Yi-Chuan (林益全) was responsible for revealing the representative character. He said, “On the sports field, each year, you have to replace your state of mind with a different one, and face new challenges.” When at a low ebb, one need only transform one’s state of mind and bravely confront things, to replace a negative state of mind with positive energy, and get better results in return (Huaxia.com, 2015). The “Vote for Representative Character in Taiwan” (台湾代表字大选), cooperatively sponsored by United Daily News (联合报) and the Far Eastern Y. Z. Hsu Memorial Foundation, marked its 8th year in 2015, and apart from adhering to the convention of voting via mobile phones, online voting was also instituted for

368

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

the first time. Each of the representative characters of the year in Taiwan, from luan (乱, ‘chaos’) in 2008, pan (盼, ‘looking forward’) in 2009, dan (淡, ‘dull’) in 2010, zan (赞, ‘like’) in 2011, you (忧, ‘worry’) in 2012, jia (假, ‘fake’) in 2013, and hei (黑, ‘black’) in 2014, is a portrayal of social intentions and public opinion in the given year.

References Chen, Wan-Chien (陈宛茜). 2015. Which character do you choose for the 2015 representative character of the year in Taiwan? (2015 台湾年度代表字, 你选哪一字). United Daily News (联合报). November 12, 2015. Huaxia.com (华夏经纬网). 2015. “Huan” [replace], representative character of 2015 in Taiwan, was nominated by Tsai Ing-Wen and Liu Ke-Hsiang (台湾2015 年度代表字“换” 蔡英文、 刘克襄推荐). December 9, 2015.

Appendices

Bai Juan (白娟)

31 Chronicle of events in language life (2015) On January 5, a publishing symposium for the new work Language and the State (语言与国家) was held at the Commercial Press. On January 8, the 14th Conference of the Advisory Committee to the State Language Commission was convened in Beijing. On January 15, the 2015 Plenary Session of the State Language Commission was held in Beijing. On January 20, the Putonghua Pronunciation Committee convened its 2015 Working Conference in Beijing. On January 27, the State Language Commission convened the National Working Conference on Spoken and Written Language in Beijing. On February 1, the State Language Commission issued a draft document on norms and standards for spoken and written language, the Chinese Pinyin Lexicon (Proper Nouns Section) (汉语拼音词汇[专名部分]) in the form of a Green Paper on Language Life in China (中国语言生活绿皮书), Series A. On March 3, the State Language Commission issued the Plan for the Establishment of a National Language Think Tank (国家语言文字智库建设规划) (State Language Commission [2015] No. 1). In March, during the period of the Two Sessions, representatives of the Two Sessions proposed legislation on spoken and written minority ethnic languages, so as to protect critically endangered languages. From March 9 to 13, the Third Special Topic Study Program for Core Examination Personnel, sponsored by the State Language Commission, was held in Beijing; in this session, the special topic for study involved the work of Putonghua proficiency testing in the Hong Kong and Macau regions. From March 30 to April 6, the activity “Sino-German Language and Cultural Study Tour” (中德语言文化研习之旅) was held, sponsored by the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission, and organized by Beijing Foreign Studies University, Henan Provincial Department of Education, Yunnan Minzu University, Jiangsu Provincial Department of Education, and so on. From April 4 to 5, the Fifth International Academic Conference on Language and Education Policies, sponsored by Southeast University, was held in Nanjing, and “online linguistic violence” was one of the topics of concern to the experts in attendance.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-031

372

Bai Juan (白娟)

On April 9, China’s first Confucius Institute Teacher Training Center was established at Beijing Language and Culture University. From April 12 to 17, upon approval by the Department of Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education, the Jiangsu Provincial Language Commission held the first Putonghua Group Training Program for Hearing-Impaired Education Personnel in Nanjing. From April 18 to 19, the first Workshop on “Cross-Strait Language Survey Studies and Language Life” (两岸语言文字调查研究与语文生活), sponsored by the Coordinating Group for Cross-Strait Exchanges and Cooperation on Spoken and Written Language and organized by Fujian Normal University, was convened in Fuzhou. From May 4 to 5, the 8th National Academic Conference on Sociolinguistics was convened at Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College, and the theme of the conference was “Studies on Language Ability and Language Policies” (语言能 力与语言政策研究). On May 8, the First National Conference for the Establishment of Majors and Disciplines for Southeast Asian Languages was convened at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. On May 13, the National Meeting of Office Directors for Putonghua Awareness Week Groups was convened at the Ministry of Education. On May 14, the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission issued the Notice on Initiation of the Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China (关于启动中国语言资源保护工程的通知), resolving that work centered on surveying, preservation, presentation, development, and utilization of language resources would be launched on a national scale beginning in 2015. On May 19, the “New Teacher Education” Online Study Platform of Xinjiang Normal University officially went online, symbolizing that the 180,000 minority ethnic language teachers in Xinjiang would henceforth have a barrier-free, personalized study platform. On May 21, the 2015 Working Conference for Scientific Research Institutes of the State Language Commission was convened at Yunnan Minzu University. On May 23, the Fourth Academic Conference on Issues in Research Methods and Methodology for Chinese Linguistics, sponsored by the Editorial Board of Social Sciences in China (中国社会科学) and the Institute of Linguistics of Shanghai International Studies University, was held in Shanghai. On May 23 to 24, the “Fourth International Conference on Country-Specific Educational Materials for the Chinese Language” (第四届汉语国别化教材国际 研讨会), jointly sponsored by Chongqing University, Xiamen University, and the University of Milan in Italy, was held at Chongqing University.

31 Chronicle of events in language life (2015)

373

On May 28, the Fourth Meeting of the Expert Committee for the Interministerial Joint Conference on Standards for the Translation of Foreign Languages in Chinese was held in Beijing. On May 28, the Supreme People’s Court and the State Ethnic Affairs Commission jointly organized the Working Seminar on Fostering and Training Bilingual Judges in Urumqi, Xinjiang. On May 27 to 29, the “Exchange Conference on Collaborative Engagement in Putonghua Proficiency Testing Work in the Hong Kong Region” (香港地区合 作开展普通话水平测试工作交流会), sponsored by the Putonghua and Written Language Applied Training and Testing Center of the State Language Commission and coordinated by the Hubei Province Putonghua Training and Testing Center, was convened in Wuhan City, Hubei Province. On May 30, the world’s first standardized Chinese speech audiometry system – the Bosch Chinese Audiometry System – was announced in Beijing. From May 31 to June 7, the national finals for the third Chinese Character Dictation Contest (汉听大会) were held in Anyang, Henan, the “Capital of Writing.” On June 1, the Roman Alphabet Transcription Scheme for the Tibetan Language (Draft) (藏文拉丁字母转写方案[草案]), Modern Tibetan Language Word Segmentation Standards for Use in Information Processing (Draft) (信息处理用现 代藏语分词规范[草案]), and Standards for Part-of-Speech Tagging Set for the Modern Tibetan Language for Use in Information Processing (Draft) (信息处理用 现代藏语词类标记集规范[草案]) were published by the Commercial Press as part of the Green Paper on Language Life in China (中国语言生活绿皮书), Volume A. On June 2, the Forum on the Theme of the Purification of Online Language, supervised by the Bureau of Communications of the Cyberspace Administration of China and sponsored by the Chinese Culture Institute of Internet Communication, was held in Beijing. At the forum, the Public Opinion Monitoring Office of People.com.cn presented the Report on a Survey of Vulgar Online Language (网络低俗语言调查报告). From June 3 to 10, the Center for Collaborative Innovation on Language Ability, the School of Linguistic Science of Jiangsu Normal University, the Institute of Linguistics of Jiangsu Normal University, and the Journal Association for Linguistic Sciences (语言科学) jointly sponsored the “Fifth Forum for Overseas Scholars of the Chinese Language” (第五届海外中国语言学者论坛), which was held at two locations, in Xuzhou and Chengdu. From June 6 to 7, the “Academic Conference on the Construction, Development and Utilization of Language Resources in Service of the ‘One Belt, One Road’ Strategy” (服务‘ 一带一路’ 战略的语言资源建设与开发利用学术研讨会), sponsored by the China Center for Research on Language Sentiment and Social

374

Bai Juan (白娟)

Development and the Language Work Committee of Guangxi University, was held at Guangxi University. On June 11, the publishing ceremony for the latest findings of the “Project for Dissemination of Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture” (中华思想 文化术语传播工程), Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture 1 (中华思想文 化术语1), was held at the Fourth National Conference on International Communication Theory. On June 13, the commencement ceremony for the 29th Central Putonghua Advanced Study Program was held in Beijing, with students from 13 provinces, autonomous regions and minority regions participating in the program. On June 15, the Conference on the Establishment of a National Language Think Tank wa held at Wuhan University. From June 15 to June 21, the Department of Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education held the 2015 National Advanced Study Program on Calligraphy and Standard Chinese Character Writing for Primary and Secondary School Teachers. On June 23, the Academic Conference on Language Planning to Promote the Construction of ‘One Belt, One Road,’ sponsored by the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education, was convened at Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College. On June 25, the State Ethnic Affairs Commission convened the Meeting for Discussion and Promotion of National Ethnic Language Work. On June 27, the Language Policy and Planning Research Association of the Chinese Linguistics Society was established in Beijing. On June 28, the Summit on Innovation in International Chinese Language Education and Launch Ceremony for the i-Chinese Chinese Language Educational Resources Platform, jointly sponsored by Sinolingua Press and the International Chinese Language Teacher Training Base of East China Normal University, was held at the China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration. On July 1, the Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Chinese Dialects (中国语言资源调查手册· 汉语方言) in the Green Paper on Language Life in China (中国语言生活绿皮书), Volume A, was published by the Commercial Press. The book will serve as a handbook for survey work on Chinese dialects under the “Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China” (中国语言资源保护工 程). From July 3 to July 9, the Department of Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education held the 2015 National Advanced Study Program for Primary and Secondary School Calligraphy Teachers. From July 4 to 9, the 2015 National Advanced Study Program for Primary and Secondary School Calligraphy Teachers, sponsored by the Department of

31 Chronicle of events in language life (2015)

375

Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education in conjunction with Southeast University and the Education Committee of the China Calligraphers Association, was held at Southeast University. From July 13 to 19, the 2015 Language Management Cadre Skill Improvement Training Program was held by the Department of Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education. On July 20, the Second “Advanced Program on the Study of Language Applications for Outstanding Young and Middle-Aged Scholars,” sponsored by the State Language Commission, was held at Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College. From July 21 to 23, a cultural promotion activity supported with special funds of the Department of Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education, the First Chinese Word Etymology and Interpretation Competition for College Students in the South China Region, was held at Guangxi Normal University. On August 1, the Survey Handbook for Cultural Repositories of the Dialects of China (中国方言文化典藏调查手册) in the Green Paper on Language Life in China (中国语言生活绿皮书), Volume A, was published by the Commercial Press. The book will serve as a handbook for survey work on Chinese dialects under the “Cultural Repositories of the Dialects of China” (中国方言文化典藏) project. On August 2, the curtains were lowered on the 14th “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) Chinese Proficiency Competition for World College Students in Changsha, Hunan. On August 3, the Central Studio of News Reels Production (Group) and the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences jointly held the “Chinese Micro-Local Accents” (中国微乡音) Chinese Dialect Competition. On August 3, the First National Advanced Study Program for Applied Research on Ethnic Languages for Young and Middle-Aged Scholars, jointly sponsored by the State Ethnic Affairs Commission and the Ministry of Education, was held at the Beijing Chinese Language and Culture College. On August 4, the Regional Chinese-Tibetan “Bilingual” Translation Training Program sponsored by the Central Institute of Ethnic Administrators and the Office of the Autonomous Region Tibetan Language Commission and organized by the Lhasa Municipal Government and the Office of the Lhasa Municipal Language Commission, offered lessons in Lhasa. From August 11 to 12, the 13th International Academic Conference on Urban Language Surveys, jointly sponsored by the School of Chinese Language and Literature of Shaanxi Normal University, the Editorial Board of the Journal of

376

Bai Juan (白娟)

Shaanxi Normal University (陕西师范大学学报), and the Center for Research on Chinese Language Strategies at Nanjing University, was convened in Xi’an. On August 13, the Notice of the Office of the State Council Education Supervision Committee on the Issuance of the ‘Interim Measures for Supervision and Evaluation of Spoken and Written Language Work’ (国务院教育督导委员会办公 室关于印发< 语言文字工作督导评估暂行办法> 的通知) was issued, symbolizing the formal establishment of a system for the supervision and evaluation of spoken and written language work. From August 13 to 21, the third and fourth sessions of the National Training (2015) Language Standards Training Program, sponsored by the Department of Teacher Education and the National Training Office of the Ministry of Education and organized by the Institute of Applied Linguistics, were held at the Conference Center at University of Science and Technology Beijing, focusing on core language arts teachers at primary and secondary schools in impoverished regions nationwide. From August 13 to 14, the “15th Academic Conference on Ethnic Language Information Processing” (第十五届少数民族语言文字信息处理学术研讨会), sponsored by the Special Committee on Ethnic Language Information Processing of the Chinese Information Processing Society of China and organized by Minzu University of China, Yanji Beiya Institute of Information Technology, and the Korean Information Processing Society of China, was convened in Yanji City. From August 14 to 20, the “National Training Plan (2015)” (国培计划[2015]) Language Standards Training Program was held at University of Science and Technology Beijing. From August 21 to 23, the Academic Conference on the “One Belt, One Road” Strategy and Language Life, Language Planning and Language Innovation and Founding Ceremony for the League of Young and Middle-Aged Scholars for Collaborative Innovation in Applied Language Research, sponsored by Liaoning Normal University, was held in Dalian. From August 22 to 24, China Publishing Group Corporation held the “Second Roundtable on Chinese-Foreign Publishing and Translation and ‘One Belt, One Road’ Publishing Forum” (第二届中外出版翻译恳谈会暨‘ 一带一路’ 出版 论坛) in Beijing. On August 26, the 2015 Advanced Study Seminar on Chinese-Foreign Literary Translation, jointly sponsored by the Ministry of Culture and the China Writers Association, was held in Beijing. On September 14, the curtains were raised on the 18th National Publicity Week for the Promotion of Putonghua at the National Museum of Chinese Writing in Anyang, Henan, with the theme of “Promoting Putonghua in accordance with the law, and increasing national soft power”; key activities were then held

31 Chronicle of events in language life (2015)

377

in Diankou Town, Zhuji City, Zhejiang Province, and Huining County, Baiyin City, Gansu Province. On September 18, ISO 7098 Romanization of Chinese (中文罗马字母拼写法) was unanimously passed in an internal vote by the ISO/TC46 International Organization for Standardization Technical Committee for Information and Documentation. On September 20, the closing ceremony for the 18th National Publicity Week for the Promotion of Putonghua was held in Huining County, Gansu Province; a total of more than 4000 people, including representatives for all sectors of society as well as teachers and students from schools of all levels and categories in Huining County, participated in the closing ceremony. On September 21, the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission issued the Measures of the State Language Commission for Scientific Research Project Management (Revised 2015) (国家语委科研项目管理办法[2015年 修订]). From September 20 to 21, the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International – Chinese Testing International held the Working Conference on the International Chinese Teacher Certificate (国际 汉语教师证书) Examination. This conference formally released information on the International Chinese Teacher Certificate (国际汉语教师证书) examination to the public and issued licenses for accredited examination sites and training centers. From September 29 to 30, the Chinese Institute for Research on Bilingual Education for Ethnic Minorities and Guangxi University for Nationalities jointly held 21st National Academic Conference on Bilingual Education for Ethnic Minorities in Nanning. On October 2, the finals for the 2015 Chinese Character Dictation Contest (中国汉字听写大会) were held on CCTV. On October 2, the Exhibition on the Origins of Chinese Characters (汉字源流 展), jointly sponsored by the National Museum of Chinese Writing and Hangzhou Museum, was held in the Southern Hall of Hangzhou Museum. On October 9, the Tibetan-Chinese Bilingual Judge Training Program for National Courts was held in Lhasa. From October 10 to 11, the 9th Cross-Strait Academic Conference on Issues in the Modern Chinese Language was convened at Ludong University; the theme of the conference was “Exploring mechanisms for language coordination, and building harmonious language life.” On October 14, the Ministry of Justice Tibetan-Chinese Bilingual Training Base was unveiled at the Sichuan Judicial and Police Officers Professional College; this was the first minority ethnic language training base established by the Ministry of Justice.

378

Bai Juan (白娟)

From October 15 to 16, the “2nd Academic Conference on Chinese Language Life and Forum on the 10th Anniversary of The Language Situation in China (中国 语言生活状况报告),” sponsored by Beijing Language and Culture University and the Commercial Press, with academic guidance by the State Language Commission, was held at Beijing Language and Culture University. On October 15, The Language Situation in China 2014 (中国语言生活状况报 告2014) was released in Beijing; this marked the tenth time that the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission had released an annual report on the state of language life to the public. A Korean-language edition was simultaneously released. On October 16, the signing ceremony for the “Applied Center for the Development of Chinese Language Resources” (中国语言资源开发应用中心), jointly established by the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education and the Commercial Press was held at the closing ceremony for the “2nd Academic Conference on Chinese Language Life and Forum on the 10th Anniversary of The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况 报告).” From October 16 to October 18, the 9th National Academic Conference on Language Applications, sponsored by the Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education and the Chinese Society for Applied Linguistics and organized by Hubei Normal University, was held at Hubei Normal University. From October 16 to November 1, the 8th “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) Chinese Proficiency Competition for World College Students, sponsored by Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International and the Yunnan Provincial Government, was held in Beijing, Kunming and Dali, with the theme “Learning the Chinese language and making friends around the world.” From October 17 to 18, the First Exchange Conference on Translation Technology and Language Asset Management was convened in Nanjing. From October 17 to 18, the “Fourth Cross-Strait, Four-Region Academic Conference for Comparative Studies of Modern Chinese” (第四届两岸四地现代汉语 对比研究学术研讨会), sponsored by the Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education, the Institute of Modern Chinese at Beijing Normal University, and Liaoning Normal University, and organized by the School of International Education at Liaoning Normal University, was convened at Liaoning Normal University. From October 17 to 18, the “12th International Conference on Chinese as a Second Language” (第十二届对外汉语国际学术研讨会), jointly sponsored by the Center for Studies of Chinese as a Second Language at Beijing Language and Culture University and Beijing International Studies University, with coordination by

31 Chronicle of events in language life (2015)

379

the Beijing Language Association, was convened in Beijing; the theme of the conference was “Study of teaching grammar and grammar education for Chinese as a second language from diversified academic perspectives.” From October 17 to 19, the 2015 National Training Program for Core Kindergarten Principals on Language Work was held in Xuzhou, and 100 kindergarten principals from each province, autonomous region and direct-administered municipality nationwide and the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps participated. On October 20, the First China (Anyang) International Conference on Chinese Characters, jointly sponsored by the Chinese People’s Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries, Beijing Foreign Studies University, the Foreign Affairs and Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the Hunan Provincial People’s Government, the Anyang Municipal People’s Government, and Anyang Normal University, held its opening ceremony at the Anyang National Museum of Chinese Writing. From October 21 to 25, the 2015 National Advanced Study Program for Calligraphy Instructors at Institutions of Higher Education, jointly sponsored by the Department of Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education and the China Academy of Art, was held in Hangzhou. On October 24, the curtains were officially raised in the unveiling ceremony for “Eastern Wisdom: An Exhibition of Calligraphy Works on Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture” at the Confucius Institute at Oxford Brookes University; this exhibition was jointly planned by the Secretariat of the “Project for Dissemination of Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture” (中华思想文化 术语传播工程), Beijing Normal University, and Oxford Brookes University. On October 27, the 2015 Training Program for Core Principals on Language Work was held at the Suzhou Training Base. On October 28, the Academic Conference on “Building Harmonious Language Life,” sponsored by the Macau Polytechnic Institute and organized by the Macau Language and Culture Research Institute at Macau Polytechnic Institute, with coordination by the Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education, was held at the Macau Polytechnic Institute. From October 30 to 31, the 6th Chinese Forum on the Economics of Language was held at Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics. On November 2, the Handbook on the Language Situation in Countries Along ‘One Belt, One Road’ (“一带一路”沿线国家语言国情手册), which the Center for Collaborative Innovation on Language Ability at Jiangsu Normal University took the lead in compiling, was formally released in Xuzhou, Jiangsu. On November 3, the National Working Conference on Language Monitoring was convened in Xuzhou, Jiangsu.

380

Bai Juan (白娟)

From November 5 to 7, the Center for Cooperative Chinese-Japanese-Korean Research at Dalian University of Foreign Languages held “Toward the Great Beyond: The Second International Conference on Political Linguistics” (面向大周边: 第二届国际政治语言学研讨会). From November 7 to 8, the “Second International Academic Conference on Chinese Language and Culture Education” (第二届华文教育国际学术研讨会) was held in Guangzhou and at the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University; the theme of the conference was “Development of Chinese language and culture education.” On November 9, the 2015 “National Advanced Study Program on External Cultural Publicity and Translation” (全国文化外宣翻译高级研修班), sponsored by the Bureau of International Promotion of the CCP Publicity Department and the Bureau for External Cultural Relations of the Ministry of Culture, coordinated by the Central College of Culture Management Cadres and the Committee for International Communication and Translation of the Translators Association of China, and organized by the Center for Education and Training of the China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration, was held in Beijing. From November 9 to 19, the 56th National Putonghua Proficiency Test Examiner Qualifications Examination Training Program was held in Beijing. On November 11, the “One Belt, One Road” Research Institute, jointly founded by the Xuzhou Municipal People’s Government in Jiangsu Province and Jiangsu Normal University, was established at Jiangsu Normal University. On November 13, the 17th Qi Yue Declamation Art Festival and the finals for the National College Student Declamation Contest, which were jointly sponsored by the Department of Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education and Communication University of China, and organized by the Broadcasting and Anchoring School of Communication University of China, with the theme “Recitation of valued advice from the classics, declamation of true sentiments on China,” were held at Communication University of China. From November 13 to 14, the 2015 Academic Conference of the Chinese Information Processing Society of China (abbreviated as CIPS2015) and the 14th National Academic Conference on Computational Linguistics and 3rd International Academic Conference on Natural Language Processing Based on Naturally Annotated Big Data were held at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. On November 14, the 2015 Forum on Academic Frontiers of the Beijing Language Association was held in Beijing. The attending scholars engaged in indepth discussion of language protection, language development, language ability, language and the state, and other problems, with the theme of “Language research and national strategies.”

31 Chronicle of events in language life (2015)

381

On November 15, Beijing Foreign Studies University held a series of memorial activities in commemoration of the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Mr. Xu Guozhang (许国璋). On November 15, Beijing Foreign Studies University held a Forum for Presidents of Foreign Studies Universities, uniting the presidents of over ten domestic foreign studies universities, Communist University of the Toilers of the East in Russia, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, and other overseas universities to establish the “Global Alliance of Foreign Studies Universities” (全球外国语大学 联盟). In the future, the alliance will use language as a vehicle to strengthen cooperation with respect to personnel training, scientific research, teaching, and other areas. On November 17, the Center for Research on National Language Policies, Shanghai Association of Language Workers, and the Institute for Higher Education Research of the Shanghai Academy of Educational Sciences jointly convened the “Academic Conference on the Establishment of Language Think Tanks” (语言文字智库建设学术研讨会) in Shanghai. On November 20, the second season of the “National Idiom Contest” (全国 成语大会) on started broadcasting on CCTV. On November 20, the opening ceremony for the “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点2015), jointly sponsored by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, People.com.cn, and CCTV News, was held at the Commercial Press. From November 21 to 22, the 11th Annual Meeting and Academic Conference of the Lexicographical Society of China, sponsored by the Lexicographical Society of China and organized by the Center for Lexicographical Research at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, was held at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. On November 26, the new session of the Committee for the Approval of Language Standards of the State Language Commission was formed, and the committee members voted to pass the Charter of the Approval Committee of the State Language Commission (Revised 2015) (国家语委审委会章程[2015 年修订]). On November 26, the Special Consultative Conference of the State Language Commission and Reseating Conference for the Approval Committee of the State Language Commission were held in Beijing. The research and development work for nine English Translation Standards for the Public Services Sector (公共服务领域英文译写规范) was completed, and were finalized by the Committee for the Approval of Language Standards. On November 28, the Third Working Conference for the Development of Russian, Japanese and North / South Korean Translation Standards in the Public Services Sector was convened at Shanghai Jian Qiao University.

382

Bai Juan (白娟)

On December 3, the “2015 Working Conference of the National Center for Language Resources Monitoring and Research on Minority Ethnic Languages and Summit Forum on ‘One Belt, One Road’ Ethnic Language Services” (2015 年 度国家语言资源监测与研究少数民族语言中心工作研讨会暨‘ 一带一路’ 民族语 言服务高层论坛) was convened in Hohhot City. On December 3, a publication briefing was held in Beijing for The Language Situation and Language Policies in ‘One Belt, One Road’ Countries (“一带一路”国 家语言状况与语言政策), which is Volume 1 in the series The Language Situation and Language Policies in ‘One Belt, One Road’ Countries (“一带一路”国家语言状 况与语言政策), undertaken by Ningxia University. From December 6 to 7, the 10th Confucius Institute Conference was held in Shanghai. On December 15, the Editorial Board of Verbalism (咬文嚼字) announced the Top Ten Popular Phrases of 2015, which were, respectively: huodegan (获得 感, ‘sense of benefit’), hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+), yanzhi (颜值, ‘attractiveness score’), baobao (宝宝, ‘baby’), chuangke (创客, ‘maker’), naodong dakai (脑洞大开, ‘mind-blowing’), renxing (任性, ‘headstrong’), duoshou dang (剁手党, ‘hand chopper party’), wanghong (网红, ‘influencer’), and zhuyao kan qizhi (主要看气质, ‘mainly looking at temperament’). From December 17 to 20, the “First National Exchange Conference on the Art of Ancient Chinese Poetry and Prose Declamation” (首届全国中华古诗文朗 诵艺术交流研讨会) was held at Jiangsu Normal University. On December 18, the results of the “2015 Vote for Cross-Strait Chinese Character of the Year” (2015 年海峡两岸年度汉字评选) were revealed in Taipei, and the character he (和, ‘peace’) was selected with a high margin of votes. On December 21, the “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点2015), jointly sponsored by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, People.com.cn, and CCTV News, was announced: lian (廉, ‘honest’), hulianwang+ (互联网+, ‘Internet+’) were respectively selected as the domestic character and domestic word of the year; while kong (恐, ‘fear’) and fankong (反恐, ‘counterterrorism’) were respectively selected as the international character and international word of the year. At the announcement ceremony, the Top Ten Popular Phrases, Top Ten Neologisms, and Top Ten Online Slang Terms of 2015 were simultaneously released. From December 21 to 25, the Office of the National Education Supervisory Committee and the Office of the State Language Commission jointly sponsored the Second Training Program for Language Supervision Work, held at the State Language Commission Language Applications Training Base at Guangxi Normal University.

31 Chronicle of events in language life (2015)

383

On December 24, the Third Edition of Ciyuan (辞源) was first released in Beijing, and the Forum on the Hundredth Anniversary of the Publication of Ciyuan and the Publication of the Third Edition of Ciyuan was simultaneously held. On December 29, the “National Braille Standards” (国家通用盲文标准) and “National Sign Language Standards” (国家通用手语标准) finalization and appraisal meeting was convened in Beijing. On December 29, the China Disabled Persons’ Federation, Ministry of Education, State Language Commission, and State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television held the announcement and initiation conference for the National Action Plan for Standardization of Sign Language and Braille (2015–2020) (国家手语和盲文规范化行动计划[2015–2020 年]) in Beijing.

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

32 Language-related content in the official documents of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, State Council and relevant ministries and commissions 1 Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Opinions on the Accelerated Construction of a Modern Public Cultural Services System (关于加快构建现代公共文化服务体系的意见) (January 14, 2015), issued by the Office of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the Office of the State Council (Office of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and Office of the State Council, 2015a) While encouraging radio and television broadcasting organizations in minority ethnic regions to popularize the standard spoken and written Chinese language, channels in minority ethnic languages shall be established, and the capacity for dubbing, creation, broadcasting and transmission coverage for programs in minority ethnic languages shall be improved; the “East Wind Project” [东风工程] for minority ethnic press and publishing shall continue to be implemented, strengthening publishing and distribution of minority ethnic script and bilingual publications; the establishment of websites in minority ethnic scripts shall be promoted. Public cultural services organizations must provide accessible facilities for disabled persons. Braille publishing projects shall be implemented, audiovisual reading materials shall be developed, audio libraries shall be established, and qualifying television stations shall be encouraged and supported in increasing sign language programs or adding captions.

2 National People’s Congress Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国广告法) (Passed by the 10th Session of the Standing Committee of the 8th National People’s

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-032

386

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

Congress on October 27, 1994, and revised by the 14th Session of the Standing Committee of the 12th National People’s Congress on April 24, 2015) Article 9: The following circumstances are not permitted in advertisements: (3) Use of “national-level,” “most advanced,” “best,” and other such wording.

3 State Council 3.1 Decision of the State Council on Accelerating the Development of Ethnic Education (国务院关于加快发展 民族教育的决定) (Guo Fa [2015] No. 46, August 16, 2015) (State Council, 2015) Through the joint efforts of each locality and relevant departments, the cause of ethnic education has rapidly developed, garnering significant achievements, the scale of education has continuously expanded, the conditions of school administration have significantly improved, the caliber of the teacher workforce has steadily improved, education on ethnic unity has been broadly implemented at schools, bilingual education has been actively and steadily furthered, and the quality of education and teaching has continuously improved, cultivating a large group of talented minority ethnic personnel, and making important contributions to accelerating socioeconomic development in ethnic regions, upholding the unification of the fatherland, and promoting ethnic unity. The role of central planning and support shall be leveraged to expand partner assistance efforts in the central and eastern regions, and stimulate the endogenous potential of ethnic regions, with systematic planning and highlighting of key points, inclusive policies with an inclination toward ethnic education, and formulation of special policies focusing on support for the rapid development of education in regions with a weak foundation for education in the standard spoken and written Chinese language. In regions with a weak foundation for education in the standard spoken and written Chinese language, two-year bilingual education shall be essentially universalized in the preschool education stage, and bilingual education shall be completely universalized in the compulsory education stage. All spoken and written ethnic languages shall be scientifically protected. Vocational education and education in the standard spoken and written Chinese language geared toward the needs of disabled students shall be developed, with a focus on improving students’ life skills and employability.

32 Language-related content in the official documents of the Central Committee

387

Efforts for training minority ethnic personnel of advanced talents shall be strengthened, cultivating a group of outstanding minority ethnic personnel with high political caliber, profound academic achievements, and international influence and voice. At schools where minority ethnic students are concentrated, minority ethnic teachers of high political caliber who are fluent in two languages and have a capacity for management shall be assigned according to a 50: 1 student-teacher ratio, promoting the establishment of a working demonstration platform for minority ethnic students, and comprehensively improving the standards for education management services. Graduates from ethnic programs at inland institutions of higher education shall be guided to serve as bilingual teachers at rural primary and secondary schools. Efforts to publicize employment policies shall be expanded, guiding students to pursue employment at the grassroots level, employment at enterprises, and self-employment. Taking aim at the practical circumstances of regions with a weak foundation for education in the standard spoken and written Chinese language, agricultural and pastoral regions, and remote regions, plans for the construction of boarding schools shall be scientifically formulated, with rational arrangements for the reconstruction, expansion and new construction of standardized primary and secondary boarding schools. Bilingual education shall be scientifically and conservatively promoted. In accordance with the law, adhering to regulations, and with reference to practical circumstances, education in the standard spoken and written Chinese language shall be resolutely promoted, ensuring that minority ethnic students basically master and use the standard spoken and written Chinese language, and that minority ethnic college graduates are able to proficiently master and use the standard spoken and written Chinese language. The right of minority ethnic groups to receive education in their own ethnic spoken and written languages shall be respected and guaranteed, and the teaching standards for minority ethnic spoken and written languages shall be continuously improved. In regions with a weak foundation for education in the standard spoken and written Chinese language, taking bilingual understanding of ethnic languages and Chinese as the basic objective, effective linkage from the preschool to primary and secondary school stages shall be established and perfected, with adaptation of teaching models to students’ learning abilities, for a bilingual education system in which the needs for a qualified teacher workforce and educational resources are satisfied. The state will provide support for the development and publication of training for bilingual teachers, educational research, and educational materials, providing policy support for matriculation and examinations

388

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

for students receiving bilingual education. The study of minority ethnic spoken and written languages by teachers and students of Han ethnicity in ethnic regions and the mutual study of spoken and written languages among teachers and students of different minority ethnic groups shall be encouraged to study. Standards for the evaluation of the job qualifications of bilingual teachers shall be studied and refined, and mechanisms for supervision, evaluation and quality monitoring in bilingual education shall be established. Ethnic regions must formulate special plans for the construction of the teacher workforce, and promote restructuring of majors and teaching reforms at normal schools, with a focus on cultivating bilingual teachers, “dual-position” teachers, and teachers for science, music, physical education, arts, and other subjects in urgent demand at rural primary and secondary schools, forming longacting mechanisms for training and replacement of teachers. Normal schools in ethnic regions will be supported in free training for bilingual teachers. Emphasis shall be placed on strengthening ideological, political, and professional skills training for principals, core teachers, and class teachers (counselors) at kindergartens, primary and secondary schools, vocational schools, and inland ethnic programs. Training for minority ethnic bilingual teachers in the standard spoken and written Chinese language shall be strengthened. Management and bidirectional evaluation for completion assessments shall be strengthened in the training process. In the eastern and central regions, a certain number of normal schools shall be selected to establish cultivation and training bases for core bilingual and “dual-position” teachers in ethnic regions. Benefits and pay for teachers shall be improved, with a preference for teachers at rural teaching sites, village primary schools, and town and township schools, bilingual teachers, and teachers and inland ethnic programs in the distribution of performance-based pay, policy measures for improving pay for teachers at rural primary and secondary school shall be effectively implemented, and living subsidy policies for rural teachers in clustered and contiguous regions in extreme poverty shall be properly implemented. Geared toward the special circumstances of ethnic regions, the central financial administration shall expand efforts for general transfer payments and transfer payments for educational special funds, with an emphasis on supporting the development of bilingual education in Xinjiang, Tibet, the four-province Tibetan regions, and other regions with a weak foundation in the standard spoken and written Chinese language. The central special funds for ethnic education shall be integrated and the scale of the funds shall be appropriately expanded, with concentrated use in resolving outstanding problems in bilingual education, teacher cultivation and training, ethnic unity education, blending and innovation of ethnic culture, and other areas.

32 Language-related content in the official documents of the Central Committee

389

Inland institutions of higher education shall be encouraged to expand efforts for awards and financial aid for students from regions with a weak foundation in the standard spoken and written Chinese language through the establishment of learning progress scholarships and other means. Plans for the construction of educational resources in ethnic regions shall be formulated, to develop, import, and translate digital resources for bilingual teaching, teacher training, ethnic culture, and so on, and promote their application. Assisted provinces, cities, central enterprises, and schools must establish political consciousness, situational consciousness, and global consciousness, and on the basis of the corresponding assistance relationships already established, emphasis shall be placed on expanding efforts for assistance for bilingual education, vocational education and preschool education in assisted regions, accompanied by perfecting the necessary facilities and equipment, training and assigning primary and secondary school principals, class teachers, and core teachers, and helping to train talented personnel in various categories.

3.2 Notice of the Office of the State Council on the Issuance of the Proposal for Implementation of the Outline of the Action Plan for National Scientific Literacy (2016–2020) (国务院办公厅关于印发全民科学素质行动计 划纲要实施方案[2016–2020 年]的通知) (Guo Ban Fa [2016] No. 10, February 25, 2016) (Office of the State Council, 2016) Efforts for science popularization with support and assistance for Tibet and Xinjiang shall be implemented, efforts for preferentialism in science popularization resources shall be expanded, and the creation and dissemination of bilingual science popularization shall be strengthened. – Science and technology education textbooks and teaching materials shall be perfected, and in particular, the creation of teaching materials in ethnic languages shall be strengthened, satisfying the needs of different audiences for science and technology education and training. The creation of teaching materials for science and technology education in vocational education, adult education, bilingual education in ethnic regions, and various types of training shall be strengthened. The role of ethnic schools shall be leveraged to strengthen the cultivation of talented personnel for bilingual science popularization.

390

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

3.3 Notice of the Office of the State Council on the Issuance of the Plan for Construction and Development of a National Standardization System (2016–2020) (国务院办 公厅关于印发国家标准化体系建设发展规划(2016–2020 年) 的通知) (Guo Ban Fa [2015] No. 89, December 17, 2015) ( Office of the State Council, 2015a) The formulation and revision of standards for the standard spoken and written Chinese language, minority ethnic spoken and written languages, special spoken and written languages, foreign-related spoken and written languages, and spoken and written language informatization shall be undertaken. Emphasis shall be placed on undertaking efforts for the formulation, revision and implementation of important standards in fields such as public cultural services, terminology and categories for cultural market products and services, cultural content management, quantitative and qualitative requirements for services, operational indicator systems, evaluation systems, as well as public services technology, quality, service facilities, service information, terminology and language resources for public libraries, cultural centers (stations), museums, art museums, art galleries, and temporarily constructed stages and bleachers, et cetera, promoting cultural innovation, helping cultural causes prosper, and developing cultural industries. A system of smart manufacturing standards shall be established, and standards for more than 200 items, including key terminology and term lists for smart manufacturing . . . shall be studied and formulated.

3.4 Guiding Opinions of the Office of the State Council on Strengthening Efforts for the Protection of the Rights and Interests of Financial Consumers (国务院办公厅关于 加强金融消费者权益保护工作的指导意见) (Guo Ban Fa [2015] No. 81, November 13, 2015) (Office of the State Council, 2015b) Financial consumers’ right to know shall be guaranteed. Financial institutions shall use easy-to-understand language to promptly, truthfully, accurately and comprehensively disclose to financial consumers information which may affect their decision-making, with full reminders of risks, and are prohibited from issuing fraudulent information exaggerating the benefits of a product, covering up the risks of a product, et cetera, and prohibited from engaging in false or misleading publicity.

32 Language-related content in the official documents of the Central Committee

391

3.5 Notice of the State Council on the Issuance of the Action Program for Promoting the Development of Big Data (国务 院关于印发促进大数据发展行动纲要的通知) (Guo Fa [2015] No. 50, August 31, 2015) (State Council, 2015b) Innovation of natural language understanding, machine learning, deep learning, and other artificial intelligence technologies shall be supported, to improve data analysis and processing capabilities, knowledge discovery capabilities, and decision aid capabilities.

3.6 Notice of the State Council on Further Perfecting Funding Support Mechanisms for Urban and Rural Compulsory Education (国务院关于进一步完善城乡义务教育经费保障 机制的通知) (Guo Fa [2015] No. 67, August 31, 2015) (State Council, 2015c) Funds for free textbooks and the national regulated curriculum shall be borne in full by the central authorities (including subsidies for losses in the publication and distribution of educational materials in minority ethnic languages), and the local curriculum shall be borne by the localities.

3.7 Guiding Opinions of the State Council on Actively Promoting “Internet+” Actions (国务院关于积极推进“ 互联网 +” 行动的指导意见) (Guo Fa 2015, No. 40, July 1, 2015) (State Council, 2015d) Emerging industries in artificial intelligence shall be cultivated and developed. Novel computing clusters for super large-scale deep learning shall be constructed and supported, building massive training resource libraries including speech, images, video, maps, and other data, to strengthen the construction of basic resources for artificial intelligence and innovation platforms for public services, et cetera. Research, development and industrialization of computer vision, smart speech processing, biometric recognition, natural language understanding, smart decision control, novel human-machine interactions, and other key technologies shall be further promoted, forwarding the scaled-up commercial application of artificial intelligence in smart products, industrial manufacturing, and other fields, and solidifying the foundation for industrial intelligentization and upgrading.

392

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

4 Ministry of Education 4.1 Key Points of the Work of the Ministry of Education in 2015 (教育部 2015 年工作要点) (January 31, 2015, Jiao Zheng Fa [2015] No. 3) (Ministry of Education, 2015a) The opening of education to the outside world continued to be expanded, and the cultivation of talented personnel for uncommon foreign languages and talented personnel for international organizations was accelerated. The construction of Model Confucius Institutes and Online Confucius Classrooms was strengthened. Moral education at primary and secondary schools was effectively strengthened and improved, and activities for recitation of the Chinese classics continued to be promoted. Spoken and written language work was comprehensively promoted. The Measures for Implementation of the ‘Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language’ (< 国家通用语言文字法> 实施办法), Regulations for Management of the Use of Foreign Spoken and Written Languages (外国语言文字使用管 理规定), and Regulations for Management of the Use of Spoken and Written Language in Information Technology Products (信息技术产品语言文字使用管理规定) were prepared. The establishment of spoken and written language standards and criteria was strengthened, the publicizing and implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) was completed, and work related to standards and criteria for the standard spoken and written Chinese language and standards for foreign language translation in the public services sector was carried out. The “Project for Dissemination of Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture” (中华思想文化术语传播工程) was implemented. The incorporation of language work into educational supervision and evaluation was further promoted. The construction of a language oversight system and mechanisms and a monitoring platform was strengthened, and the annual report on the language situation in China was released. Construction of the Phase 2 and Phase 3 projects for the Video Library of Chinese Classics as well as activities for “Calligraphy Masters Enter School Campuses” (书法名家进校园), activities for the 18th Putonghua Awareness Week, and publicity activities for the 15th anniversary of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通 用语言文字法) were carried out. In conjunction with CCTV, the “Chinese Character Dictation Contest” (中国汉字听写大会), “Chinese Idiom Contest” (中国 成语大会), and other programs were completed. The applied language skills testing and evaluation system was perfected. The Putonghua Proficiency Test for visually impaired persons was carried out, and the cultivation of anchors proficient in sign language was strengthened. The construction of the Project for the

32 Language-related content in the official documents of the Central Committee

393

Protection of Language Resources of China was promoted. A survey on the national state of language was completed. Efforts for language training in ethnic regions was completed. The scientific development of ethnic education was promoted. Bilingual education was promoted, and the creation of bilingual educational materials and resources was strengthened.

4.2 Key Points of the Work on Informatization of Education in 2015 (2015 年教育信息化工作要点) (February 12, 2015, Jiao Ji Ting [2015] No. 2) (Ministry of Education, 2015b) The development and application of ethnic bilingual, digital educational resources were organized. Plans were formulated for the development and application of bilingual, digital educational resources in minority ethnic and ethnic regions. The work of development and application of bilingual, digital educational resources for Mathematics (数学) for use in the compulsory education stage in the Xinjiang Region continued to be performed. The existing high-quality Uyghur-Chinese bilingual educational resources were approved and integrated for free distribution to primary and secondary schools in Xinjiang, and applied training was completed.

5 State Administration for Industry and Commerce Standards for the Review and Issuance of Pesticide Advertisements (农药广告审 查发布标准) (State Administration for Industry and Commerce Order No. 81, December 24, 2015) (State Administration for Industry and Commerce, 2015) Article 8: The use of direct or implied means, or equivocal or exaggerated language, to mislead people as to a product’s safety, suitability, government approval, and other aspects is prohibited in pesticide advertisements. Article 9: Misuse of research findings without state accreditation or unscientific expressions and terms is prohibited in pesticide advertisements.

394

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

6 State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television 6.1 Notice of the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television on the State of Execution and Supplemental Projects for the Submitted ‘Plan for the Compiling and Publication of National Dictionaries in 2013–2025ʹ (国家新闻出版广电总局关于报送《2013–2025 年国家辞书编纂出版规划》执行情况和增补项目的通知) (May 18, 2015, Xin Guang Chu Han [2015] No. 198) (State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, 2015a) 1. Key Points of Supplemental Projects (1) Dictionary projects of an original, scientific, authoritative and practical nature, reflecting our country’s new achievements and new standards in the compiling of dictionaries. (2) Compiling and publication are currently relatively weak, and dictionary projects in specialized categories are needed to fill the gaps, and continuously perfect the variety and structure of dictionaries in specialized categories. (3) Actively coordinating with the strategy for national culture to go global, high-quality, foreign-oriented dictionary projects with international vision shall be compiled and published. (4) Excellent dictionaries that are newly compiled or previously published shall serve as models in projects for the translation of specialized or comprehensive dictionaries into minority ethnic languages, effectively satisfying the needs of minority ethnic populations for production, life and culture. (5) Projects for the revision of existing trademark dictionaries, gradually establishing scientifically perfected mechanisms for regular revisions. (6) Projects for dictionary digitization and the establishment of corpora, making robust efforts to improve the standards for digitizing the compiling and publication of dictionaries and moving them online.

2. Scope of Supplemental Projects (1) The scope of application shall include dictionary projects focusing on character dictionaries, word dictionaries, and encyclopedias, encompassing

32 Language-related content in the official documents of the Central Committee

395

language dictionaries, specialized dictionaries, comprehensive dictionaries, and various other categories of dictionaries. (2) Units applying for publication must have the qualifications for dictionary publishing. The executive editor undertaking a language dictionary project must hold a certificate of qualifications for on-the-job training for dictionary editorial staff.

6.2 Notice on Engaging in 2015 National Reading Work (关于 开展2015 年全民阅读工作的通知) (February 25, 2015) (State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, 2015b) 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10.

11.

Enriching the supply of excellent published products. Strengthening recommended guidance for excellent reading matter. Broadly engaging in themed reading activities. Broadly engaging in themed publication exhibitions and sales, recitation of classical works from the excellent traditional Chinese culture, lectures on reading, solicitation of texts for reading, knowledge contests, and other themed reading activities with rich content and diverse forms, stimulating the public’s enthusiasm for reading, promoting themes, and spreading positive energy. Leveraging the leading role of literary brands. Perfecting the system for implementation of national reading. Driving national reading to extend to the grassroots level. Strengthening efforts for publishing and distribution of minority ethnic language and bilingual publications. Supporting the basic needs of key communities. Continuously innovating the methods for popularization of reading. Strengthening national reading publicity services. Promoting reading legislation and reading plans. Accelerating and driving progress on legislation for the Regulations on the Promotion of National Reading (全民阅读促进条例), and issuing the Mid to Long-Term Plan for National Reading (国家全民阅读中长期规划). Strengthening the organization and coordination of national reading.

396

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

6.3 Notice on Applications for 2015 Grant Projects for Subsidy Funds for the Development of the Cause of Minority Ethnic Culture (Funding Section for Ethnic Language Publishing) (关于申报 2015 年度少数民族文化 事业发展补助资金 [民族文字出版资金部分] 资助项目 的通知) Key Points for Grants: 1. Publishing projects included in the National ‘12th Five-Year’ Plan for Minority Ethnic Language Publishing (国家“十二五”少数民族语言文字出版规划). 2. Publishing projects in the languages of ethnic groups with relatively small populations. 3. Publication of best-selling books and outstanding periodicals with favorable public comments in a bilingual format, as well as bilingual publishing projects meeting the needs of minority ethnic communities for study and reading and the needs of the construction of farmer study rooms. 4. Projects for digital publishing projects in minority ethnic languages developed on the basis of minority ethnic cultural content and adapted to and satisfying novel modes of cultural consumption within minority ethnic communities. 5. Projects for translation and publishing of minority ethnic language publications, material exports, copyright exports, cooperative publishing, et cetera implemented by leveraging the advantages and human characteristics of minority ethnic border regions. 6. Projects for training minority ethnic language translation, publishing, editing and production personnel with applications, organization and implementation by the provincial-level department responsible for the administration of press and publication. 7. State Food and Drug Administration Regulations on the Designation of Generic Names for Medical Devices (医疗 器械通用名称命名规则) (State Food and Drug Administration Order No. 19, December 21, 2015) (State Food and Drug Administration, 2015)

32 Language-related content in the official documents of the Central Committee

397

References Ministry of Education (教育部). 2015a. Key Points of the Work of the Ministry of Education in 2015 (教育部 2015 年工作要点). http://www.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/ moe/s7049/201503/184497.html. Ministry of Education (教育部). 2015b. Key Points of the Work on Informatization of Education in 2015 (2015 年教育信息化工作要点). http://www.moe.gov.cn/publicfiles/business/ htmlfiles/moe/s3342/201503/184892.html. Office of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (中共中央办公厅), Office of the State Council (国务院办公厅). 2015. Opinions on the Accelerated Construction of a Modern Public Cultural Services System (关于加快构建现代公共文化服务体系的意见). http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2015/content_2809127.htm. Office of the State Council (国务院办公厅). 2015a. Notice of the Office of the State Council on the Issuance of the Plan for Construction and Development of a National Standardization System (2016–2020) (国务院办公厅关于印发国家标准化体系建设发展规划(2016–2020 年) 的通知). http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-12/30/content_10523.htm. Office of the State Council (国务院办公厅). 2015b. Guiding Opinions of the Office of the State Council on Strengthening Efforts for the Protection of the Rights and Interests of Financial Consumers (国务院办公厅关于加强金融消费者权益保护工作的指导意见). http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-11/13/content_10289.htm. Office of the State Council (国务院办公厅). 2016. Notice of the Office of the State Council on the Issuance of the Proposal for Implementation of the Outline of the Action Plan for National Scientific Literacy (2016–2020) (国务院办公厅关于印发全民科学素质行动计划纲 要实施方案[2016–2020 年]的通知). http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2016-03/14/ content_5053247.htm. State Administration for Industry and Commerce (国家工商行政管理总局). 2015. Standards for the Review and Issuance of Pesticide Advertisements (农药广告审查发布标准). http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2016/content_5038029.htm. State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television (国家新闻出版广电总局). 2015a. Notice of the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television on the State of Execution and Supplemental Projects for the Submitted ‘Plan for the Compiling and Publication of National Dictionaries in 2013–2025ʹ (国家新闻出版广电总局 关于报送《2013–2025 年国家辞书编纂出版规划》执行情况和增补项目的通知). http://www.sapprft.gov.cn/sapprft/contents/6588/279429.shtml. State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television (国家新闻出版广电总局). 2015b. Notice on Engaging in 2015 National Reading Work (关于开展2015 年全民阅读工作 的通知). http://www.sapprft.gov.cn/sapprft/contents/6588/279390.shtml. State Council (国务院). 2015a. Decision of the State Council on Accelerating the Development of Ethnic Education (国务院关于加快发展民族教育的决定). http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/ content/2015-08/17/content_10097.htm. State Council (国务院). 2015b. Notice of the State Council on the Issuance of the Action Program for Promoting the Development of Big Data (国务院关于印发促进大数据发展行 动纲要的通知). http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-09/05/content_10137.htm.

398

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖)

State Council (国务院). 2015c. Notice of the State Council on Further Perfecting Funding Support Mechanisms for Urban and Rural Compulsory Education (国务院关于进一步完善 城乡义务教育经费保障机制的通知). http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-11/28/ content_10357.htm. State Council (国务院). 2015d. Guiding Opinions of the State Council on Actively Promoting “Internet+” Actions (国务院关于积极推进“ 互联网 +” 行动的指导意见). http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2015/content_2897187.htm. State Food and Drug Administration (国家食品药品监督管理总局). 2015. Regulations on the Designation of Generic Names for Medical Devices (医疗器械通用名称命名规则). http://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2016/content_5059099.htm.

Yi Jun (易军), Zhou Daojuan (周道娟), and Chen Min (陈敏)

33 Work on the standard spoken and written Chinese language In 2015, the work on the standard spoken and written Chinese language took serving the needs of national development as its aim, scientific planning for development of the cause in the “13th Five-Year” period as its core, and popularization, construction, management and service as its measures, to vigorously popularize and standardize the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, scientifically protect the various spoken and written ethnic languages, and actively promote the standardized and informatized construction of spoken and written language, achieving important progress in striving to build a harmonious language life, and comprehensively improve national language ability.

1 Planning arrangements and the establishment of systems The development of the cause of spoken and written language in the “13th FiveYear” period has been scientifically planned. Taking up the principles of “focusing on the big picture, serving needs, being problem-oriented, and highlighting the key points,” and in accordance with the requirements of “strategic thinking, systematic planning, and creative operations,” the Plan for the Development of the Cause of National Spoken and Written Language in the ‘13th Five-Year Period’ (国家语言文字事业“十三五”发展规划) and the Plan of the State Language Commission for Scientific Research in the “13th Five-Year” Period (国家语委“十三五”科 研规划) were studied and formulated, respectively giving shape to the drafts for finalization on the basis of in-depth survey studies and broadly listening to opinions on all sides. The establishment of systems for language work has been solidly driven forward. The organizational framework of the State Language Commission was perfected, and the coordination and management capabilities of the State Language Commission were improved, adding 11 departments as member units of the State Language Commission, including the Publicity Department and the Cyberspace Administration of China, increasing the number of member units of the State Language Commission to 29. A system for supervision of language https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-033

400

Yi Jun (易军), Zhou Daojuan (周道娟), and Chen Min (陈敏)

work was established and, in conjunction with the Office of the State Council Education Supervision Committee, the Interim Measures for Supervision and Evaluation of Spoken and Written Language Work (语言文字工作督导评估暂行 办法) and the evaluation index system were issued; the National Working Conference on Language Monitoring, and pilot evaluations were held in certain provinces and cities. Local language commissions at all levels were encouraged to complete evaluations of 21 Category 2 cities and 131 Category 3 cities, causing the number of Category 2 cities that had passed evaluation nationwide to reach 347, while the number of Category 3 cities reached 985, with the respective pass rates reaching 87.7% and 46.8%. Criteria for the standardization of regional language work were formulated, and the establishment of a county language work supervision system was discussed, promoting the extension of public language standardization work into counties, townships, neighborhoods and communities. Various localities were guided to continue engaging in the work of founding model schools for language standardization.

2 Promotion, popularization, publicity and training for the standard spoken and written Chinese language The activities for the 18th National Publicity Week for the Promotion of Putonghua were pursued in depth on the theme of “Promoting Putonghua in accordance with the law, and increasing national soft power,” creating a strong atmosphere for the promotion of Putonghua across society. Training and testing for the standard spoken and written Chinese language were solidly driven forward, completing more than five million person-instances for the Putonghua Proficiency Test and Chinese Character Usage Proficiency Test, while at the same time, testing sites launched Putonghua training and testing for hearing-impaired persons. Training in the standard spoken and written Chinese language was strengthened, respectively holding the Skills Improvement Training Program for Local Language Work Management Cadres, the Training Program for Directors of Language Committees and Language Committee Offices at Undergraduate Institutions of Higher Education, and the Training Program on Language Work for Core Principals and Kindergarten Principals, training approximately 400 grassroots-level cadres. Putonghua training for bilingual teachers from minority ethnic groups was strengthened, and 10 provinces and regions, including Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai

33 Work on the standard spoken and written Chinese language

401

and Xinjiang, were entrusted with training nearly 2000 bilingual teachers. Language ability training for core rural teachers was strengthened, and provinces and cities such as Anhui, Hubei and Hunan were entrusted to carry out rural teaching training programs, training approximately 300 rural teachers. The State Language Commission Language Applications Training Bases were established, and a survey conference on the establishment of the bases was convened, guiding each base to launch diversified publicity activities with reference to their respective practical circumstances while holding various types of language training programs.

3 Establishing standards and promoting the informatization of the standard spoken and written Chinese language The creation of standards for spoken and written language was furthered. The third round of work for the determination of pronunciations in Putonghua proceeded smoothly, giving shape to the List of Correct Pronunciations for Words for Variant Pronunciations in Putonghua (普通话异读词审音表) (Revised Version). This was followed by the development of the “Outline for National Language Education” (国民语言教育大纲) and the standards for the evaluation of oral ability in Putonghua for primary and secondary school students, and the publication of the Reader for National Language Ability (公民语言能力读本). The revisions to the international standard Information and Documentation – Romanization of Chinese (信息与文献———中文罗马字母拼写法), in which our country played a leading role, were unanimously passed in in an internal vote by the International Organization for Standardization. Major progress was achieved in the work of developing standards for foreign language translation in the public services sector: The development of standards for English translation was fully completed, while drafts for comments were formed for Russian, Japanese, and North and South Korean translation standards. The Chinese Character Usage Ability Assessment and Testing Guideline (汉字应用水平等级及测试大纲) and other standards of the State Language Commission were issued, as well as green papers and soft standards such as the Chinese Pinyin Lexicon (Proper Nouns Section) (汉语拼音词汇[专名 部分]), Survey Handbook for Language Resources of China: Chinese Dialects (中国语 言资源调查手册· 汉语方言), and Survey Handbook for Cultural Repositories of the Dialects of China (中国方言文化典藏调查手册). Projects were initiated for the development of the Standardization of Stroke Order for General Standard Chinese

402

Yi Jun (易军), Zhou Daojuan (周道娟), and Chen Min (陈敏)

Characters (通用规范汉字笔顺规范), Model Script Font Standards for Chinese Characters for Use in Basic Education (基础教育用汉字楷书字形规范), Standards for the Components of Chinese Characters (汉字部件规范), List of Frequently-Used Words in Modern Chinese (Revised) (现代汉语常用词表[修订]), and Standards for Term Abbreviations (词语缩略规范). At the same time, in order to strengthen work on publicizing and strengthening language standards, the Handbook of Common Standards for Spoken and Written Language (常用语言文字规范手册) was compiled and published, and 8 training programs on language standards were held, training a total of more than 2200 teachers, teaching researchers, and dictionary editors. A training program on language standards was then held under the “National Training Plan” (国培计划), training more than 200 core teachers in the subject of language arts at primary and secondary schools in counties meeting the national poverty guidelines. The informatization of spoken and written language was driven forward. The construction of the Dynamic Circulating Corpus of National Language Resources and other key resource libraries was further perfected, the creation of the Holographic Database of Standard Chinese Characters was initiated, and research and development on “Informatizing Construction of an Educational Services and Monitoring System: A Subproject of the National Language Information Management System” (教育服务与监管体系信息化建设· 国家语言文字 信息管理系统子项目) was pushed forward. A survey study was then launched for the legislation Regulations for Management of the Use of Spoken and Written Language in Information Technology Products (信息技术产品语言文字使用管理 规定). At the same time, a series of scientific research projects on spoken and written language informatization were established, including “Study on Language Applications in the Government, Government Affairs and New Media and Government Effectiveness” (政府政务新媒体的语言应用与政府效能研究), “Research, Development and Application of Smart Monitoring System for the Standardization of Spoken and Written Language Use” (语言文字使用规范化智能监 测系统研发与应用), et cetera.

4 The construction of language culture and the protection of language resources A trademark was created for activities for the transmission and promotion of the excellent Chinese culture, and the third Chinese Character Dictation Contest (中国汉字听写大会), second Chinese Idiom Contest (中国成语大会), and first Chinese Poetry Congress (中国诗词大会) were held in conjunction with CCTV.

33 Work on the standard spoken and written Chinese language

403

On the theme of commemoration of the 70th anniversary of victory in the War of Resistance Against Japan, the 17th “Qi Yue Declamation Art Festival and National College Student Declamation Contest” (齐越朗诵艺术节暨全国大学生朗 诵大会) was held in conjunction with Communication University of China. Efforts for publicity and construction of the Video Library of Chinese Classics were expanded, and a publicity film on the achievements of the Phase 1 Project was broadcast on CCTV and China Education Television. Training on the subject of “Recitation, writing and speaking on the Chinese classics” was further strengthened, and the “National Training Plan (2015) – Training Program for Core Teachers for Education on Recitation and Reading of the Classics at Primary and Secondary Schools” (国培计划(2015) ——中小学经典诵读教育骨干教 师培训), 2015 National Advanced Study Program on Calligraphy and Standard Chinese Character Writing for Primary and Secondary School Teachers, National Advanced Study Program for Primary and Secondary School Calligraphy Teachers, National Advanced Study Program for Calligraphy Instructors at Institutions of Higher Education, and so on were respectively held, training a total of approximately 400 teachers. The Project for the Protection of Language Resources of China was comprehensively initiated, and the work tasks were completed at 81 minority ethnic language survey sites, 53 Chinese dialect survey sites, and 32 language culture survey sites, while the platforms for the collection and exhibition of language resources of China were essentially constructed, further perfecting the relevant technical specifications and management systems. The Project for Dissemination of Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture continued to be driven forward, releasing the first group of 100 terms and their English translations in the three disciplines or fields of literature and art, history, and philosophy, publishing the first and second volumes of Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture (中华思想文化术语), and building and opening up the “Website for Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture” (中华思想文化术语网).

5 Guidance and services for monitoring of language life Monitoring and research on language life were carried out, and The Language Situation in China (2015) (中国语言生活状况报告[2015]) was released. In the wake of the English edition, a Korean edition of The Language Situation was published, publicizing and introducing our country’s guiding policies on spoken and written language to the world, and leading Chinese scholarship on

404

Yi Jun (易军), Zhou Daojuan (周道娟), and Chen Min (陈敏)

linguistics to “go global.” Activities were held in commemoration of the 10th anniversary of The Language Situation in China (2015) (中国语言生活状况报告), and the “2nd Academic Conference on Chinese Language Life and Forum on the 10th Anniversary of The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况报 告)” was convened, comprehensively summarizing the academic concepts of “focusing on applications, serving society, improving ability, and promoting harmony” that guide The Language Situation, as well as its enormous achievements over the last ten years. Activities were organized for the “Chinese Language Inventory 2015” (汉语盘点2015), releasing the international and domestic trending characters and words of the year for 2015, as well as the Top Ten Popular Phrases, Top Ten Neologisms, and Top Ten Online Slang Terms of 2015, guiding the public to rationally consider the self, society, the state and the world, expressing their personal feelings while simultaneously consolidating the memory of the times, and promoting the advancement and development of society and civilization.

6 Scientific research on spoken and written language and the establishment of think tanks The supporting role of scientific research was fully leveraged, and by initiating scientific research projects, research on key problems in the development of the cause of language was strengthened, with nearly one hundred scientific research tasks established in areas such as improvement of language ability, reading campaigns, language and education, spoken and written language standards, Chinese language globalization, and so on. The Measures of the State Language Commission for Scientific Research Project Management (国家语委科研项目管理 办法) were revised, further strengthening the standardized management of scientific research projects. Special research was carried out on language strategies for “One Belt, One Road,” and the Action Plan for Research on Language Planning to Promote the Construction of ‘One Belt, One Road’ (推进’一带一路’建设语言规划研 究行动方案) was formulated. A survey study was carried out on the state of implementation of the spirit of the speech “Bringing the Language of Ancient Books to Life” (让古籍中的文字活起来) by General Secretary Xi Jinping (习近平), and in conjunction with relevant member organizations of the State Language Commission, survey studies were completed on the state of language use in tourist systems, cultural sites, place names, trademarks and advertisements, and enterprise names, providing a basis for the formulation of relevant policies. A series of survey studies were carried out on the state of use of Putonghua by teachers in ethnic

33 Work on the standard spoken and written Chinese language

405

regions and the state of bilingualism among cadres in ethnic regions, providing further understanding of the national language conditions. Studies were completed on a series of special topics, including Taiwanese language policies, the international influence of the overseas Chinese language, the position and role of the Chinese language in the United Nations, foreign language policies, transborder languages and national security, and language monitoring on government websites, and recommendations were provided for decision-making to address relevant language issues. The establishment of language think tanks was initiated, the Plan for the Establishment of National Think Tanks on Spoken and Written Language (国家语言 文字智库建设规划) was issued, and relevant scientific research institutes were directed to pursue pilot programs for the establishment of think tanks. The construction of scientific research institutes was strengthened, and the Research Center for Protection of the Language Resources of China and the Center for the Development and Application of the Language Resources of China were established, bringing the total number of scientific research institutes of the State Language Commission to 18. At the same time, the Secretariat for Scientific Research Institutes of the State Language Commission was established, promoting resource sharing and collaborative innovation between the different institutes. Qualified personnel development for scientific research was strengthened, holding the Second Program for Outstanding Young to Middle-Aged Scholars for Applied Research on Spoken and Written Language, and establishing the Alliance of Young and Middle-Aged Scholars for Collaborative Innovation in Applied Research on Spoken and Written Language.

7 Language exchanges and cooperation Cross-strait language exchanges and cooperation were robustly strengthened. The Coordinating Group for Cross-Strait Exchanges and Cooperation on Spoken and Written Language was supported in holding the first “Cross-Strait Symposium on Spoken and Written Language Survey Research and Language Life” (两岸语言文字调查研究与语文生活研讨会), and guided in convening the 9th Academic Cross-Strait Conference on Issues in Modern Chinese, building highlevel platforms for academic exchanges between attending experts from either side of the Taiwan Strait. At the same time, the Guide to Cross-Strait Scientific Research Projects on Spoken and Written Language (两岸语言文字科研项目指南) was formulated, and research was carried out on “Convergence of Cross-Strait Written Communications” (海峡两岸文字沟通趋同) and other projects. Language

406

Yi Jun (易军), Zhou Daojuan (周道娟), and Chen Min (陈敏)

exchanges and cooperation were pursued: The 2015 Chinese Calligraphy and Art Exchange Summer Camp for Cross-Strait College Students was held in conjunction with Taiwan’s General Association of Chinese Culture, guidance and sponsorship were provided for the Cross-Strait Conference on Chinese Characters and Cultural Creativity for College Students, and the special Affection for the National Language (国语乡情) on cross-strait language culture was filmed in cooperation with China Education Television. In service of cross-strait language life, mainland editions of the Cross-Strait Dictionary of Frequently-Used Words (两岸常用词典) and the Cross-Strait Dictionary of Common Scientific and Technical Terms (两岸科 技常用词典) were published, and the second phase of research and development work for the “Smart Text Conversion System for Simplified and Traditional Chinese Characters” (汉字简繁文本智能转换系统) was initiated. Language survey studies and testing services were carried out in the Hong Kong and Macau regions. A joint survey group was formed to carry out a special survey study on language policies and the state of use in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. National Putonghua testing organizations were guided in continuing to pursue training and testing work in cooperation with 15 institutions of higher education and organizations in Hong Kong and Macau, serving the needs for learning Putonghua in the Hong Kong and Macau regions. In the course of the year, a total of 30 examinations were organized, and more than 7600 Hong Kong and Macau residents received testing. International exchanges and cooperation on language were strengthened. The “Chinese-German Language and Culture Study Tour” (中德语言文化研习之旅) activity was held, facilitating the intent for cooperation between China and Germany in the areas of promoting the globalization of Chinese scholarship and dialogue between China and the West, and strengthening high-level personnel training, et cetera. The objectives of Chinese-French exchanges on language policies were established as part of the mechanisms for Chinese-French human exchanges, and the “Minutes of the Fourth Conference of the Chinese-French Mixed Commission on Education” (中法教育混委会第四次会议纪要) were signed, reaching a cooperative consensus for the two sides to continue jointly holding conferences on language policies, exploring the establishment of mechanisms for cooperation on language policies, engaging in exchanges on related research findings by experts and scholars, and so on. The “China Exchange Program for International HighLevel Experts on Spoken and Written Language” (语言文字国际高端专家来华交 流项目) was implemented, providing arrangements and funding for scientific research institutes of the State Language Commission to invite 10 well-known international experts from the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Israel, the Netherlands, Greece, and other countries to visit China

33 Work on the standard spoken and written Chinese language

407

to engage in academic exchanges, amply drawing lessons from the research findings in overseas language work.

8 Special local work Beijing robustly promoted language services, engaging in publicity and training on standards for language services by industry, researching and compiling our country’s first city-specific green paper on language life – Report on the State of Language Life in Beijing (北京市语言生活状况报告), and establishing the “Beijing Center for Research and Development of Reading Ability” (北京市阅读能力 研究发展中心). Shanghai effectively strengthened the lawful management of spoken and written language, joining forces with the Education, Science, Culture and Public Health Committee of the Municipal People’s Congress to pursue survey studies on enforcement in the language work of Huangpu District and the Municipal Administration of Culture, Radio, Film and Television. Jiangsu continued to promote work for the protection of language resources, publishing the Collection of Language Resources and Materials in Jiangsu (江苏语言资源资 料汇编). Heilongjiang launched a circuit tour of training activities to improve the competence of primary and secondary school teachers in the standard spoken and written Chinese language. Jilin created the WeChat public account “Spoken and Written Language in Jilin Province” (吉林省语言文字). Hebei initiated efforts for monitoring and surveys of spoken and written language. Henan vigorously furthered assessments of language work in cities in three categories. Shandong held the first Summit Forum on Education in the Excellent Traditional Chinese Culture. Zhejiang held the third Chinese Speech Contest for College Students (大学生汉语口语大赛). Hubei held the fourth Putonghua Contest for Rural Primary and Secondary School Teachers (农村中小学教师普通话大赛).

Index 12th Five-Year 23–24, 28, 35 13th Five-Year Plan 3, 5

hot topics 273, 278 Hubei Province 85, 97

abbreviation 237–246 alphabetic words 313–321 assimilation education 210

industries and sectors 257, 259 inland students 127, 129–130, 132–133 institutions of higher education 183–185, 188–198 international Chinese language education 190, 197 Internet+ 323–333

categories 285, 294 Central Asia 183, 192–193, 195–198 character of the year 270–271 Chinese character of the year 269–272 Chinese language and culture education 173–174, 176–180 Chinese language arts 339, 343, 347 Chinese Language Inventory 2015 285 Chinese Language Inventory 265–266, 268 Chinese testing 165 Chinese-language teaching 163 civil aviation 135–137, 139–140, 142–146 Ciyuan 199–203, 205–207 classroom 99–100, 102–103, 105–107, 109–110 communication 125–129, 133–134 Confucius Institutes 163–164, 166, 168–169 cultural heritage 41, 45 development concepts 3–4 dialect 99–110 dialect culture 99, 110 dictionary 199–204, 206–207 dispute 237–240, 242–246 distortion of history 220 education 350–351, 355 ethnic language culture 73 ethnic languages 113, 119–120, 123 ethnic minority languages 73–74, 78–80

lack of standardization 156, 161 Lahu ethnic group 113–116, 120 language ability 5–8 language associations 349, 356–357 language life 233, 323, 325, 332, 359, 371, 377–378, 399, 403, 406–407 language policies 353, 357 language protection project 44, 52–56, 58–59, 61, 64–70 language resources 39–43, 45–47, 52–54, 56–59 language use 149–150, 156, 161–162 language work 15–18, 20–22, 399, 407 – supervision 15, 17–22 literature and history textbooks 209–210, 220 Macau 349–353, 355–357 Manchukuo 209–210, 212, 215–217, 219–220 media 249, 254–255, 257–258, 324–325, 327–331 military documents 149, 162 Mongolian ethnic groups 113, 117–119, 122

Foreign language ability 135

neologisms 273, 278, 282 netizens 227–230, 232, 234, 299–300, 303–305, 307, 309–311

Hong Kong 337–339, 343, 345 Hong Kong, Macanese and Taiwanese students 125, 127–134

objectives 53, 56, 58 omni-media 69 Online Collection and Recording 64

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110799750-034

410

Index

online slang in 2015 299 overseas Chinese affairs 173–175, 177–178 Overseas Chinese Youths 173 popular phrases 285, 294, 298 pre-primary curriculum 341 rural language use 85 school name 237, 240–243, 245–246 scientific research 23–29, 32–36 society 278–279, 281 standard spoken and written Chinese language 399–400, 407 State Ethnic Affairs Commission 73, 75, 77, 79–80

State Language Commission 23 survey 85–89, 97, 113–117, 119, 123, 125–127, 133, 135–136, 139–140, 142–146, 327, 329 Survey 313–314 Taiwan 359–363, 365–367 third edition 199, 201, 203–205, 207 trending word lists 249–250, 252–259 two-child policy 225–230, 232–233 University 237–242, 244–246 word of the year 265, 270