The Language Situation in China: Volume 5 2014 9781501511721, 9781501517440

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The Language Situation in China Volume 5

Language Policies and Practices in China

Edited by Li Wei (李嵬)

Volume 7

The Language Situation in China Volume 5. 2014 Editor-in-Chief: Li Yuming (李宇明) Associate Editors: Guo Xi (郭熙), Zhou Hongbo (周洪波), Zhou Qingsheng (周庆生) English Editor: Li Wei (李嵬) Editorial Assistants: Xu Xiaoying (许小颖), Dai Wenying (戴文颖) Translation Advisors: Fletcher Translations, Inc.

The Commercial Press

ISBN 978-1-5015-1744-0 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-1-5015-1172-1 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-1-5015-1143-1 ISSN 2195-9838 Library of Congress Control Number: 2012040712 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2019 Walter de Gruyter Inc., Boston/Berlin and the Commercial Press, Beijing, China Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

Li Yuming (李宇明)

Diglossic, bilingual life and diglossic, bilingual policies Preface to The Language Situation in China: 2014 Language planning is in service of linguistic life. How language planning is formulated and whether language planning has been appropriately formulated depends on whether it is in accord with the practical circumstances of linguistic life, and whether it can guide the healthy development of linguistic life. Language planning must therefore be scientifically formulated, requiring an understanding of linguistic life, and comprehension of the developmental trends of linguistic life. Linguistic life is not only the object of study in language planning, but also the object of and fundamental basis for sociolinguistic governance.

1 Diglossic, bilingual life Although linguistic life in China at present features certain discordant phenomena, on the whole, it is healthy and brimming with vitality: one of its most important characteristics is that it is rapidly developing from monoglossic, monolingual life toward diglossic, bilingual life.

1.1 Diglossic life The term “diglossia” refers to the common form of a given language and its dialect. Diglossic life refers to circumstances where a common language and dialect, or two/multiple dialects are used in linguistic life: this has now become the fundamental pattern of linguistic life in our country. In linguistic life at the national level, Mandarin Chinese (Putonghua) is predominant, but dialects also play a role on certain occasions and in particular spheres. For instance, at the national “Two Sessions,” some use dialects to discuss national affairs; some high-ranking public servants use dialects to perform their duties of governance; on national-level radio and television, one can also frequently hear the sound of dialects. In linguistic life at the provincial level, Putonghua and dialects are essentially in a situation of “diglossic co-use”; https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-201

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Putonghua predominates in written language, while in oral language, dialects and Putonghua take equal shares. In linguistic life at the county level, dialects may predominate, but the occasions on which Putonghua is used are multiplying, the number of people able to speak and understand Putonghua is increasing, and the role of Putonghua is expanding. With respect to the social sphere, Putonghua predominates in the fields of radio and television, but there are also some dialect stations, dialect channels, and dialect programs; the application of dialects in radio and television is more common in the south than in the north, more common locally than centrally, and more common in non-satellite programs than in satellite programs. In the educational sphere, Putonghua serves as the fundamental medium of instruction, but some instructors use dialects to teach classes: the use of dialects is more common at non-normal schools than at normal schools, more common among instructors in science and engineering than among instructors in the humanities, more common among older instructors than among young instructors, and more common at a higher stage of education than at a lower stage of education; in addition, dialect education or dialect classes have also been incorporated into the school curriculum at some schools. The public service sector also features diglossic co-use: Putonghua is used comparatively more often in public service, while dialects account for a certain proportion of usage as a working language within enterprises. Diglossic life has existed since ancient times: in border areas and cities of immigrants, dialects have seen diglossic co-use since time immemorial. However, at that time, diglossic life was “natural diglossic life,” characterized by the natural formation of diglossic life: the role of the common language in diglossia was not pronounced, and its range of distribution was comparatively small. In contrast, the diglossic life of today is “rational diglossic life,” formed through sociolinguistic planning for linguistic unification, and formed through school education; in diglossia, Putonghua occupies a dominant position, and diglossic life extends nation-wide.

1.2 Bilingual life The root “-lingual” refers to different languages. Here, “bilingualism” also includes “multilingualism,” encompassing multiple categories such as ethnic languages and the national common language; ethnic languages and Han dialects; ethnic languages and other ethnic languages; one’s native language and foreign languages, and so on. Our country’s bilingual life has also existed since ancient times, and the general situation at present is:

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In ethnic minority regions, bilingual life has gradually become mainstream. Of course, there is some variation in the application of bilingualism in different regions and among different ethnic groups: in some regions and within some ethnic groups, the native language is predominant, while others might use the national common language comparatively more often. On a nation-wide scale, bilingual life is only present in certain spheres and on certain occasions. Within the state’s important political life, minority languages such as Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Kazakh, Korean, Zhuang and Yi are working languages at conferences. Toponym signage, public instructional signs, and other urban instructional systems have essentially adopted bilingualism or multilingualism. Most government, enterprise and institution webpages are bilingual: at the very least, there will be an English webpage. With respect to international affairs, bilingualism is in the majority. International conferences convened in China essentially all adopt bilingualism. In the sphere of higher education, there is also advocacy for bilingual courses. Bilingualism is also quite often adopted in communications, transportation and other public service sectors. There are applications of bilingualism even in personal life: for instance, business cards are printed in Chinese on the front side, and the majority are printed in English on the reverse side. Overall, bilingual life in our country is still regional and sector-based in nature, and has not reached the degree of popularity seen in diglossic life; based on its trends of development, it is not possible for it to reach this degree of popularity.

2 Multicultural life Diglossic, bilingual life is an expression of multicultural life in the linguistic sphere. It can be said without hesitation that we are in an era of multicultural life. The Chinese people are a big family composed of 56 ethnic groups, and the cultures of each ethnic groups blend together to form a unique, pluralistic culture. Many ethnic groups have historical cultures and dialect cultures: for instance, Han culture features variations between north, south, east and west, and variations between traditional culture and modern culture; the communications between ancient, modern and regional cultures give bloom to myriad cultural blossoms. Foreign cultures have continuously been imported into China: for instance, ancient Indian culture and modern Euro-American culture, Russian culture, Japanese culture, Korean culture and so on have all influenced our cultural life to varying degrees, and exchanges between Chinese and

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foreign cultures have given rise to a cultural garden of many flowers. In particular, the influence of European and American culture and Japanese and Korean culture has caused China to develop from a traditional multicultural society into a modern multicultural society. One important reason for the formation of multicultural life is the multitude of diglossic, bilingual people. As they effect the convergence of different cultures, they promote cultural exchanges and intermingling. As the vast number of diglossic, bilingual people bring together different cultures, this allows even monoglossic, monolingual people to understand and partake of multiculturalism. Multiple cultures coexisted from the beginning in traditional China, but Confucian culture held a commanding position: in cultural contact, the other culture would often be assimilated; furthermore, due to the slow pace of social development, the frequency and dynamism of intercultural contact were relatively low, and ordinary people often did not experience the impact of different cultures. Not so today: the rapid development of transportation, communications and the Internet has accelerated the pace of exchanges between different cultures, and widened the scope of exchanges. Modern communications, the media and the Internet have transformed the mildly hyperbolic statement that “A scholar knows the affairs of the entire world without stepping out the door” into a vital reality of life. It is particularly worth noting the high population flow. The population flow in China is unprecedented, as the floating population continuously moves from rural to urban areas, from small cities to big cities, and from the west to the east. From a global perspective, this population flow in China is merely a microcosm of the global population flow: the population of the entire world is also rapidly moving, from one country to another country, from small countries to large countries, and from developing countries to developed countries. Everywhere in the world, population flow is like a “Russian nesting doll”: when one doll is opened, a similar doll is found within; and when that doll is opened, another similar doll is found within. The large scale and high frequency of population flow drives the flow of culture, bringing different cultural experiences to migrants and zones of migration: multicultural life has gradually become the norm in life. Vertical cultural inheritance and horizontal cultural dissemination are the two avenues of cultural development, as well as the two means of cultural expansion. In the past, vertical inheritance of culture predominated, while today, horizontal dissemination has become an important or even the primary means. The dynamism of horizontal dissemination has grown, giving rise to an increasingly profound cultural generation gap, and sharply curtailing the period of time for the formation of a generation gap: in the past, it took several

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generations to form a cultural generation gap, while today, a generation gap can form in a single generation, or even in 20 or 10 years. Grandparents, parents and grandchildren may live as three generations under the same roof, and the post-60s, post-70s, post-80s and post-90s may all live under the same sky, but their world views, value systems, and even their hobbies in life may be vastly different, or even substantively divergent. In connection with this, vertical cultural inheritance has clearly been constructed, thus often giving rise to cultural anxiety in society. This cultural anxiety impels society to adopt various measures for “cultural conservation”: first, endeavoring to publicize and promote traditional culture, and striving to guard against the “infiltration” of external culture, in an attempt to enable the smooth inheritance of our culture by later generations; and second, utilizing the mechanisms and opportunities of horizontal cultural dissemination to allow one’s own culture to “Go Global,” and exercise more influence over other ethnic groups. At the same time, two issues have incited reflection: first, how to absorb the outstanding cultural achievements of humanity to develop our own culture, and allow our own culture to become stronger and more prosperous; and second, how to enable society to better adapt to multicultural life. Of course, this kind of cultural anxiety may at times foment “populism,” “fundamentalism,” and other sentiments, and encourage the spread of “linguistic purism”: foreign loanwords and foreign language studies are often the targets of social criticism and reform. Regardless of how people think and act, multicultural life is an inescapable, immutable reality. Multicultural life requires that people have a capacity for cross-cultural life. A capacity for cross-cultural life should primarily comprise the following aspects: first, one should be bilingual or trilingual, with the capacity for cross-cultural communication; second, one should construct a multicultural knowledge framework, to understand the history and current conditions of different cultures; and third, one should establish a correct cultural outlook, with the ability to understand and preserve one’s own culture, while also mastering inclusiveness and respect for different cultures.

3 Diglossic, bilingual policies Diglossic, bilingual life is not only an expression of multicultural life, but also a promoting factor for multicultural life. Many studies have shown that diglossia and bilingualism have many advantages with respect to personal development, such as: being able to have a more capacious cultural breadth of mind, to objectively approach different cultures and subcultures; being able to have

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a comparatively strong capacity for cross-cultural communication, expanding one’s radius of activities and radius of living, and easily finding a fairly suitable job (employment opportunities for bilingual people are markedly more numerous than for monolingual people); and benefiting the development of different regions of the brain, enriching cerebral intelligence, and so on. Diglossic, bilingual people are beneficial to national progress: they can import different cultures and increase the vitality of development of our own culture; they can disseminate culture outward and increase the influence of our culture; they can improve the nation’s language proficiency to help achieve national missions; and they can improve the nation’s cultural soft power, and even its hard power in relation to the military, the economy and so on. Training diglossic, bilingual people and building diglossic, bilingual life requires policy support. Education in our country is currently training a cohort of diglossic, bilingual people: the popularization of Putonghua has created large numbers of diglossic people; and the practice of a national common language, mutual language learning between ethnic groups, foreign language education, et cetera, has created a large number of bilingual or trilingual people. However, the state has not yet introduced corresponding requirements for citizens’ language proficiency, and with respect to the phenomena of diglossia and bilingualism, research from a policy perspective and awareness on a policy level are still lacking. On the foundation of a variety of educational practices, to satisfy the requirements of multicultural life, appropriate diglossic, bilingual policies should be formulated, and relevant effective measures should be adopted. Appropriate diglossic, bilingual policies are first and foremost able to guide diglossic, bilingual life, standardize certain levels and certain spheres of diglossic, bilingual life, and reduce conflict between Putonghua and Han dialects, between the national common language and ethnic languages, and between the Chinese language and foreign languages, facilitating the construction of harmonious linguistic life. Second, they facilitate the training of advantaged diglossic and bilingual people. For advantaged diglossic people, the two dialects they have mastered include the national common language; and for advantaged bilingual people, the two languages they have mastered include a language that is comparatively prevalent in the region or in the world. Advantaged diglossic and bilingual people are an important element in the development of national human resources. Third, they are able to ensure the training of diglossic, bilingual people particularly required by the state. The languages particularly required by the state refer to languages or dialects for which the state has a special need with respect to foreign exchanges, national security, international peacekeeping, cultural inheritance, academic research, social services, economic development, and other areas. Training the linguists

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particularly required by the state represents a guarantee that the state will have the language proficiency to handle domestic and foreign affairs. At present, language planning exhibits a comparatively strong mentality of “monoglossia and monolingualism.” Within the reality of multiculturalism and diglossic, bilingual life, a “mentality of diglossia and bilingualism” ought to be established, recognizing that diglossia and bilingualism are an advanced form of linguistic life, fine qualities in future citizens, and a necessary path for a strong nation and a wise people. On this foundation of this mentality toward language, by carefully studying diglossic, bilingual life, and studying diglossic, bilingual people, language planning and relevant policies will be able to facilitate the training and development of diglossic, bilingual people, and facilitate the construction of diglossic, bilingual life. The state and its citizens will thus be able to adapt to an era in which multiculturalism has already become the norm.

Contents Li Yuming (李宇明) Diglossic, bilingual life and diglossic, bilingual policies Preface to The Language Situation in China: 2014 V

Introduction 1

The language situation in China in 2013

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Part I: Special focuses Preparation team for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (《通用规范汉字表》研制组) 2 Process of preparation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters 17

Part II: Special fields Guo Fenglan (郭风岚) 3 Interest in China’s neighboring languages

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Guan Xianqiang (管贤强), Zheng Guomin (郑国民), Wu Xinxin (吴欣歆), Wang Tao (王涛), Wang Xuanrui (王轩蕊) and Liu He (刘禾) 4 Recent trends in changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination 39 Li Jia (李佳) 5 New trends in the protection of dialects

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Zhang Ripei (张日培) 6 Passionate discussions of the “Shanghai dialect” by the Shanghainese people 71 Li Xianle (李现乐), Gong Yujuan (龚余娟) and Liu Song (刘松) 7 The state of language services in the healthcare industry

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Wu Xiaojun (武小军) 8 Linguistic life for migrant workers of Sichuan origin

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Liu Housheng (刘厚生) 9 Reclamation, perpetuation and application of the Manchu language 109 Wang Zhijuan (王志娟) and Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵) 10 The state of minority language websites of China

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Liu Yanhong (刘艳虹), Gu Dingqian (顾定倩), Cheng Li (程黎) and Wei Dan (魏丹) 11 Survey study of the use of sign language 129 Wei Xiangqing (魏向清) 12 National plans for the compilation and publication of lexicographical works 143 Su Xinchun (苏新春) and Qiu Yanlin (邱燕林) 13 Studies on linguistic life among the projects of the National Social Science Fund 155 Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Luo Qingping (罗清平) and Shang Ya (尚娅) 14 International dissemination of the Chinese language 167 Yang Wanbing (杨万兵) 15 The state of development of overseas Chinese language education 185

Part III: Hot topics Li Delong (李德龙) 16 The focus on “stylistic improvement” in the media Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Xu Nianyi (许念一) 17 The quiet rise of a new annual linguistic custom

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Wang Yubo (王宇波) 18 The gradual rise of emoticons

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Part IV: Words and passages Hou Min (侯敏), Liang Linlin (梁琳琳), Zou Yu (邹煜), Teng Yonglin (滕永林) and He Wei (何伟) 19 Hot topics in society among the neologisms of 2013

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Yang Erhong (杨尔弘), Li Yanyan (李彦燕) and Wang Lei (王磊) 20 China and the world in popular phrases in 2013 257 Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷) 21 Grassroots diversity within Internet slang in 2013 Zou Yu (邹煜) and Hou Min (侯敏) 22 “PM2.5” amidst the haze on all sides

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Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Chen Xi (陈熹) 23 Terms which have “proceeded out the national gate”

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Tu Xinhui (涂新辉) and He Tingting (何婷婷) 24 Survey of Weibo language usage 315

Part V: Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan Ma Maopeng (马毛朋) and Li Fei (李斐) 25 Hong Kong language associations

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Su Jinzhi (苏金智) 26 Survey on the use of Putonghua in Macao

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Yu Guilin (余桂林) 27 The state of linguistic life in China Taiwan (2013)

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Contents

Appendices He Lin (赫琳) and Huang Xiaochun (黄晓春) 28 Chronology of major events in linguistic life 2013

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The State Council 29 Notice of the State Council on the Publication of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters 377 Ministry of Education, et al. 30 Notice of 12 departments, including the Ministry of Education, on the implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters 379 Contents (Chinese version 2014)

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Editorial Teams of the English Edition Index

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Introduction

1 The language situation in China in 2013 2013 was the first year that our country implemented the Outline for Spoken and Written Language Planning (语言文字规划纲要). The spirit of “vigorously promoting and standardizing the use of the common national spoken and written language, and scientifically protecting the spoken and written languages of each ethnic group” was more deeply impressed upon the public consciousness, as inheriting and promoting the perpetuation of Chinese linguistic culture became the focus of attention, language and national security entered the field of vision of more people, society profoundly pondered hot topics of conversation on language, and new aspects emerged in exchanges and cooperation on language and culture, for the harmonious and healthy development of linguistic life.

1 The state’s energetic promotion of the standardization of spoken and written language The 18th National Congress proposed the need to “popularize and standardize the use of the common national spoken and written language.” In 2013, as spoken and written language work received a high degree of attention from the party and the state, spoken and written language work achieved rapid development, making particularly outstanding achievements with respect to the standardization and regularization of the national spoken and written language, and the popularization of the common national spoken and written language.

1.1 Issuance of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) by the State Council In June 2013, the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) was officially issued by the State Council. This character table was an important standard for Chinese characters required in the implementation of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法) and adaptation to new trends in the application of Chinese characters in various social spheres, which had important

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significance in improving the level of standardization, regularization, and informatization for the common national spoken and written language, and promoting the development of the national economy, society, and the cause of cultural education. Through a comparative analysis of more than 1 billion character instances used in print, broadcast and online media in 2013, it was discovered that general, standard Chinese characters covered 99.99% of all characters used, indicating that the character table was consistent with the patterns of use of Chinese characters with respect to its classifications and quantity.

1.2 Outstanding results in the promotion and popularization of the common national spoken and written language The 16th National Publicity Week for the Promotion of Putonghua (Mandarin Chinese), with the theme “Promoting Putonghua, and Jointly Building the China Dream,” was a success. In 2013, a total of 4.903 million people nation-wide participated in the Putonghua proficiency test, and Putonghua proficiency testing work for visually impaired people was officially initiated. A total of 297 cities nationwide passed the spoken and written language work assessment for Category 2 cities, accounting for 75% of all Category 2 cities. A supervisory system for spoken and written language work at schools was established, incorporating supervision and assessment of spoken and written language work at primary and secondary schools into the scope of quality education supervision and assessment.

1.3 New achievements in the establishment of spoken and written language standards The national criteria Standards for English Translation and Writing in the Public Service Sector, Part 1: General Principles (公共服务领域英文译写规范 第 1 部分: 通则) were issued: their content encompasses rules, typical examples, and so on for foreign language translation and writing in the public service sector; the national standards for Undersea Feature Names (海底地名命名) were also issued, providing comprehensive regulations with regard to naming principles for undersea features, naming methods for proper names, and the selection and use of general names. The Evaluation Rules for Chinese Character Input Systems for the Universal Keyboard for Use in Literacy Education (识字教学用 通用键盘汉字字形输入系统评测规则) were issued and implemented: these standards stipulate that Chinese character input systems for the universal keyboard for

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use in literacy education shall adhere to the requirements of the spoken and written language standards; the revised version of the international standards for the transliteration of Chinese to Latin script, Documentation – Romanization of Chinese (文献工作—中文罗马字母拼写法), has achieved interim results after being adopted in a vote by the member countries of the International Organization for Standardization.

1.4 Issuance of the first batch of Chinese transliterations for foreign terms The Expert Committee of the Interministerial Joint Conference on Standards for Chinese Translation and Transcription of Foreign Languages issued recommendations to the public for the use of 10 sets of Chinese transliterations for foreign terms: xike liwu (细颗粒物, ‘particulate matter’ / ‘PM2.5’); Aizibing (艾 滋病, ‘AIDS’); dianzi youjian (电子邮件, ‘E-mail’), dianyou (电邮, ‘E-mail’); guonei shengchan zongzhi (国内生产总值, ‘gross domestic product’ / ‘GDP’); zhishang (智商, ‘intelligence quotient’ / ‘IQ’); xinxi jishu (信息技术, ‘information technology’ / ‘IT’); Jingji hezuo yu fazhan zuzhi (经济合作与发展组织, ‘Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’ / ‘OECD’), Jinghe zuzhi (经合组织, ‘Organization for Economic Cooperation’ / ‘OECD’); Shiyou shuchu guo zuzhi (石油输出国组织, ‘Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries’), Oupeike (欧佩克, ‘OPEC’); Shijie weisheng zuzhi (世界卫生组织, ‘World Health Organization’), Shiwei zuzhi (世卫组织, ‘WHO’); and Shijie maoyi zuzhi (世界贸易组织, ‘World Trade Organization’), Shimao zuzhi (世贸 组织, ‘WTO’).

1.5 National dictionary standards enter a new phase The State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television issued the 2013–2025 National Plan for the Compilation and Publication of Lexicographical Works (2013–2025 年国家辞书编纂出版规划): this plan emphasizes the application of standards and strengthens practical functions, requiring that dictionary projects for Hanwen (汉文, ‘classical Chinese’), minwen (民文, ‘ethnic languages’), waiwen (外文, ‘foreign languages’) and other key spoken and written language categories strictly enforce the spoken and written language standards and criteria. Since the founding of New China, our country has successively formulated three national plans for the compilation and publication of dictionaries. The new phase of the

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dictionaries plan highlights the national strategies for cultural development, further perfects the national dictionary system, and places more emphasis on serving sociolinguistic life.

2 Achieving multilateral inheritance and promotion of Chinese language and culture The Party’s 18th National Congress and the 6th Plenary Session of the 17th Central Committee further clarified the requirements for “promoting outstanding Chinese traditional culture,” and “scientifically protecting the spoken and written languages of all ethnic groups.” In 2013, there was a brilliant display of activities related to language and culture: some hot topics gave rise to widespread discussion among the public and the media, reflecting the high degree of interest in the inheritance and promotion of Chinese language and culture in society as a whole.

2.1 Successfully holding the Chinese Character Dictation Contest (汉字听写大会) Following the broadcasting of the program Chinese Character Hero (汉字英雄) on Henan (河南) Television, the State Language Commission joined hands with China Central Television to successfully hold the first Chinese Character Dictation Contest (汉字听写大会), attracting an audience of 600 million people, and garnering extremely high viewership and interest: there was a strong response from every sector of society, further promoting the country’s Hanzi re (汉字热, ‘Chinese character craze’), and triggering an enthusiastic, society-wide discussion on the inheritance of Chinese characters and Chinese character writing proficiency.

2.2 Incorporating calligraphy education into the primary and secondary school education systems The Ministry of Education issued the Guiding Outline for Calligraphy Education at Primary and Secondary Schools (中小学书法教育指导纲要), actively promoting calligraphy education at primary and secondary schools, to perpetuate outstanding Chinese and ethnic culture. The State Language Commission

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joined hands with the China Calligraphers Association to hold the activity “Calligraphy Masters Enter School Campuses” (书法名家进校园): the content of the activity included calligraphers creating at the scene and giving critiques on the spot, supervising Chinese and foreign students in producing works of calligraphy, holding lectures on calligraphy and calligraphy workshop exchanges, and a series of other content.

2.3 “Reading for All” (全民阅读) activities have flourished Party and state leaders including Xi Jinping (习近平), Li Keqiang (李克强), and Wang Qishan (王岐山) have personally recommended books and advocated “Reading for All.” During the period of the Two Sessions, 115 members of the National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, including Wu Shulin (邬书林) and Li Weihong (李卫红), submitted a motion proposing that “Reading for All” be elevated to a national strategy. “Reading for All” legislation was included in the 2013 working plan for national legislation. A lively dynamism was achieved in holding “4.23 World Reading Day” (4.23 世界读书日), the “China Reading Campaign” (中国阅读行动), and other “Reading for All” activities.

2.4 Achieving new progress in the movement for the protection of language resources Concurrent with the popularization of Putonghua, public awareness for the protection of language resources has gradually been strengthened, and the protection of dialect culture has drawn attention from all sectors of society. The State Language Commission has actively promoted the construction of the China Language Resource Audio Database (中国语言资源有声数据库), and the Jiangsu Database has already completed its data field work and passed national review, becoming the first provincial-level language resource database nationwide to be established and opened; efforts for the construction of audio databases in Shanghai (上海), Beijing (北京), Liaoning (辽宁), Guangxi (广西) and other provinces, regions and cities have achieved results, and the work for the construction of audio databases in Shandong (山东), Hebei (河北), Fujian (福 建) and other provinces has been initiated. The first phase of the construction work for the “Video Library of Chinese Classics” (中华经典资源库) has also been initiated.

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2.5 Continuously promoting work on ethnic languages The construction of a system and mechanisms for work on ethnic languages, bilingual education, and other efforts have moved forward. The Standing Committee of the Yunnan Provincial People’s Congress deliberated and passed the Regulations for Work on Spoken and Written Minority Ethnic Languages in Yunnan Province (云南省少数民族语言文字工作条例), while Guangxi issued the Zhuang Language and Literature Curriculum Criteria (壮语文课程标准) for the compulsory education stage. The State Language Commission and State Ethnic Affairs Commission jointly approved and initiated studies on “Standards for the Protection of Critically Endangered Minority Ethnic Languages” (少数民族濒危 语言保护标准), “Surveying and Conservation of 20 Critically Endangered Minority Ethnic Languages” (20 种少数民族濒危语言调查与保护), and other topics. Important results were achieved in the informatization of minority ethnic languages: as of October 2013, the number of websites for spoken and written minority ethnic languages had surpassed 1,000.

3 Drawing more attention to language and national security In the wake of society’s informatizing development, the links between language and national military affairs, politics, the economy, culture, science and technology, information, and other core fields have grown closer, revealing unprecedented strategic significance and security value. In 2013, the issue of language and national security entered the field of vision of more people.

3.1 The issues of neighboring languages and trans-border languages attracted further attention from all sides In July, the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing Language and Culture University, the Linguistics Institute of China, and the Commercial Press jointly held the “2013 Gathering of International Scholars of the Chinese Language” (2013 海内外中国语言学者联谊会) with the theme, “The state of China’s neighboring languages.” In November, Beijing Language and Culture University took the lead in formally establishing the “Collaborative Innovation Center for China’s Neighboring Languages and Cultures” (中国周边语言文化协同创新中心). In the same month, the “7th

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National Academic Symposium on Sociolinguistics and 1st Forum on the Study of Trans-border Languages” (第七届全国社会语言学学术研讨会暨首届 跨境语言研究论坛) was held in Guangxi.

3.2 Foreign language proficiency and national security became an important topic In December, the first high-level forum on “Language and the Future” (语言与 未来) was held at Shanghai International Studies University, revolving around the topic of “New perspectives on national strategies and foreign language education,” and profoundly examining issues such as “Foreign language strategies and national security,” “Foreign language proficiency and national governance,” “Foreign language education and national language security,” “Foreign language education and comprehensive human development,” and so on. As of 2013, the series Studies on Foreign Language Policy (外语战略研究) had published 10 consecutive volumes.

3.3 Achieving progress in the study of “language and national security” In April 2011, the State Language Commission and the Council for National Security Policy Studies of the China Association of Policy Science jointly held a forum on “Language and National Security and Development” (语言与国家的 安全和发展) in Yangzhou (扬州), Jiangsu (江苏). Thereafter, scholars were organized for a study on the topic of “Language and national security,” which achieved important progress in 2013. The National Social Science Fund supported the construction of the Active National Human Resources Database for Foreign Languages (国家外语人才资源动态数据库) to actively serve national language security, achieving interim results. The reader Language and State (语言 与国家) was finalized for publication.

4 Hot words and hot phrases as a reflection of social diversity In 2013, another batch of hot words and phrases were introduced into linguistic life. These terms and expressions are a record of the abundantly

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1 The language situation in China in 2013

colorful year of 2013, offering a glimpse of social life in China and in the world in 2013.

4.1 Neologisms On the foundation of a corpus of 1.25 million texts and 1.2 billion character occurrences, after sifting through layer upon layer, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center collected 364 neologisms. These were an embodiment of the characteristics of social life and the use of language in China and in the world in 2013. In particular, the top ten neologisms, including Zhongyang baxiang guiding (中央八项规定, ‘Central Eight-Point Regulation’), Lengjing men (棱镜门, ‘PRISM-gate’), H7N9 qin liugan (H7N9 禽流感, ‘H7N9 bird flu’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’), zimao shiyan qu (自贸试验区, ‘free trade pilot zone’), dandu ertai (单独二胎, ‘Two Children for One Only Child’), Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’), guangpan xingdong (光盘行动, ‘Clean Your Plate campaign’), nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’), and shimian maifu (十面霾伏, ‘haze on all sides’), reflected the major events of social life in 2013, as well as key points of interest for the media and for ordinary people.

4.2 Popular terms and expressions San zhongquanhui (三中全会, ‘3rd Plenary Session’), quanmian shenhua gaige (全面深化改革, ‘comprehensively deepened reforms’), Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘China dream’), and zimao qu (自贸区, ‘free trade zone’) revealed a China in pursuit of reforms and progress; Zhongyang baxiang guiding (中央八项规定, ‘Eight Central Regulations’) and laohu cangying yiqi da (老虎苍蝇一起打, ‘striking both tigers and flies’) exhibited new attitudes in governance and resolve for anti-corruption; Sinuodeng (斯诺登, ‘Snowden’) and fangkong shibie qu (防空识 别区, ‘air defense identification zone’) recorded the multifarious fluctuations on the world stage; while tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) and wumai (雾霾, ‘haze’) reflected social concerns.

4.3 Internet slang Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’), gaoduan daqi shang dangci (高端大 气上档次, ‘high-end, high-up, high-class’), Baba qu nar (爸爸去哪儿, ‘Where are we going, dad?’), xiao huobanmen dou jingdai le (小伙伴们都惊呆了, ‘friends

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were all amazed’), dai wo changfa ji yao (待我长发及腰, ‘once my long hair reaches my waist’), xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’), nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) / tujin (土金, ‘local nouveau riche’), tanshang da shi le (摊上大事了, ‘stirred up trouble’), zhang zishi (涨姿势, ‘gaining experience’), and other Internet slang terms represent distinctive characteristics in the use of language online in 2013.

4.4 Polysyllabic internet phrases Xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’), buming jueli (不明觉厉, ‘don’t understand, but think it’s great’), renjian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’) and other phrases have successively been selected for the “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点) as well as several lists for “Top ten most popular phrases,” satisfying some netizens’ urge to create language, and reflecting the entertainment function of language; their vitality must still be tested by time.

4.5 Terms and phrases going global Dama (大妈, ‘dama’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) and other expressions and lofty phrases have zouchu guomen (走出国门, ‘proceeded out the national gate’), taking the stage in authoritative international media and attracting widespread attention. For a period of time, domestic and international media outlets were competing to release reports, giving rise to hot topics of interest. The terms and phrases that went global in different eras fared differently: some settled abroad, and some are still floating on the seas, reflecting a certain perspective on the history of Chinese-foreign exchanges.

5 Hot topics of conversation on society’s concerns for language As the pace of social development has accelerated, the frequency of linguistic exchanges and contact, as well as the diversification of linguistic demand, have continuously given rise to hot topics on language, attracting widespread attention from society.

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5.1 Stylistic issues continue to be a focus of the media The media’s intense interest in gaijin wenfeng (改进文风, ‘stylistic improvement’) is primarily concentrated on qinmin wushi (亲民务实, ‘approachability and pragmatism’), zhidu baozheng (制度保证, ‘institutional guarantees’), minzhong qidai (民众期待, ‘popular expectations’), and other areas. The public at large fully approves of the results of stylistic improvement, but is also concerned that these improvements are merely a phase: the people hope that it will be possible to “keep the word ‘strictness’ in mind, without just going through the motions.”

5.2 The “Chinese Language Inventory” has become a new annual custom for language The once-annual “Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点) has once again become a focal point for public interest: fang (房, ‘house’), zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’), zheng (争, ‘dispute’) and Mandela (曼德拉, ‘Mandela’) respectively headed up the lists for the domestic character, domestic phrase, international character, and international phrase of 2013. This new annual linguistic custom characterized by a yearly language inventory is not only in vogue in Mainland China, but is also popular in the Hong Kong and Taiwan regions, with activities such as the “Chinese Character Inventory” (汉字盘点) and “Chinese Character of the Year” (年度汉字) in Hong Kong and Taiwan. This new annual linguistic custom drew support from new media to effectively create and perpetuate a culture of annual customs.

5.3 Language issues in the doctor-patient conflict have drawn attention Doctor-patient disputes have occasionally arisen in recent years, and some doctor-patient conflicts and clashes have had serious consequences. One very important factor in the tense relationship between doctors and patients, as well as conflict and friction between doctors and patients, is the issue of language and communication. It is necessary to further enhance awareness of language services among medical personnel, construct a good environment for access to medical care, and promote understanding and tolerance among both doctors and patients.

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5.4 Linguistic changes occasioned by population flow A survey of non-native migrant workers in Sichuan (四川) found that population influx and reflux spreading across the Eastern, Central and Western regions have become increasingly frequent. Population flow not only brings a labor force into the place of influx, but also brings dialects from various regions: the collision and interaction between dialects and Putonghua have led to linguistic changes in contemporary Chinese society, exhibiting pluralistic characteristics.

6 Gradual promotion of language and cultural exchanges 2013 saw an abundance of language and cultural cooperation and exchange activities. Li Keqiang (李克强), the Premier of the State Council, jointly attended the inaugural ceremony for the “Sino-Germany Year of Language” in Berlin alongside Chancellor Merkel of Germany. Deepening and expanding international and interregional language and cultural exchanges has increasingly become a consensus for all sides.

6.1 Achieving a consensus on cross-strait spoken and written language exchanges and cooperation The Coordination Group for Cross-Strait Spoken and Written Language Exchanges and Cooperation (两岸语言文字交流与合作协调小组) was founded, adopting a private format to promote exchanges and cooperation on spoken and written language between Mainland China and Taiwan, based on the principles of strengthening exchanges, promoting consensus, seeking to move from homogeneity toward heterogeneity, and facilitating practical application. Efforts to collaboratively compile a cross-strait Chinese language reference book progressed smoothly, and the eighth round of talks was held, reaching a consensus on expanding and deepening cooperation, and other aspects. The 7th Cross-Strait Symposium on Modern Chinese Language (海峡两 岸现代汉语问题学术研讨会) was also convened.

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1 The language situation in China in 2013

6.2 Achieving breakthroughs in Sino-Germany language cooperation and exchanges As an important part of the “Sino-Germany Year of Language,” China’s Ministry of Education and State Language Commission and the Embassy of Germany in China successfully held the “Sino-Germany Forum on Language and Cultural Policies” (中德语言文化政策高层论坛), with the theme “Language – a bridge between the Chinese and German cultures,” focusing on Chinese and German language and cultural policies, and dynamically promoting further deepening of the mutual understanding between China and Germany on language and culture. This was the first high-standard, high-level cooperation and exchange activity held by China and Germany in the field of spoken and written language.

6.3 The field of Chinese language globalization continues to exhibit good trends of development As of year-end 2013, the Confucius Institute covered 120 countries and regions, with 440 Confucius Institutes and 646 Confucius Classrooms, for a total of more than 1,000 centers, and the number of registered students reached 850,000. The number of students studying abroad in China was nearly 330,000. As of 2013, 68,000 American students had visited China through the United States’ “100,000 Strong Initiative” for study abroad in China.

6.4 Displaying a new approach for overseas Chinese language education An agenda was proposed for the transformation and upgrading of Chinese language education, and efforts were made to promote the regularization, standardization and professionalization of overseas Chinese language education, becoming the new working approach. Support for Chinese language education within the government and various sectors has continuously increased, forming a teaching and subject system for Chinese language education. Online Chinese language education has further expanded, and overseas demonstration schools and camps for the Chinese language have seen further development: a total of 88 overseas Chinese language schools were selected for the third batch of “Chinese Language Demonstration Schools (Organizations)” (华文教育示范学校[单位]).

Part I: Special focuses

Preparation team for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (《通用规范汉字表》研制组)

2 Process of preparation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters Twelve years passed between the initiation of the preparation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) in 2001, and its approval and publication by the State Council in 2013. During this period, a total of more than 120 conferences were convened revolving around the preparation of the character table, with more than 4,000 people participating in the preparation and discussions, and more than 90 revised drafts in the process. The preparation of the character table chiefly involved efforts in the following three areas.

1 Recurring deliberations on grading and quantitative determinations for each grade In the first phase of the preparation of the character table, on the basis of existing modern Chinese dictionaries, more than 10,000 characters were selected as candidates for the character table. Following the establishment of the Expert Work Team in 2004, there were two different views regarding the number of characters to be included in the character table: some experts argued that as many characters should be included as possible, the more the better; while other experts believed that quantity was not tantamount to quality, and that characters should be included as applicable. On synthesizing the two views, the conclusion was that an adequate number of characters should be included, without leading to disordered immoderation. After many rounds of discussion, three resolutions were issued at a plenary conference of the Expert Work Team convened at Hebei (河北) University in August 2005: First, the objective in character selection would be to serve as a record of the general properties of the modern Chinese language; second, objectivity would be maintained, with an emphasis on the scientific approach, to avoid being influenced by the preparers’ subjective understanding, as far as possible; and third, with reference to the requirements of different practical applications, the selected Chinese characters were to be divided into grades. The specific operational approach would be to first ease the restrictions on the number of characters to be included, and then examine each character individually. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-002

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Preparation team for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters

On April 18, 2006, a conference for the appraisal of the character table was convened: the draft character table provided by the Expert Work Team included a total of 9,100 characters. On the basis of the recommendations of the Appraisal Committee, after the conference, through a survey of several text corpora and a small number of human interventions, 6,500 characters were determined to be common, general characters, of which 3,500 were frequently-used characters; for the methods of determination, see the Interpretation of the ‘Table of General Standard Chinese Characters’ 《通用规范汉字表》解读) ( (hereafter abbreviated as “the Interpretation”) published by the Commercial Press. On June 12, 2006, following the establishment of the Expert Committee for the Table of Standard Chinese Characters (Draft for Review) (规范汉字表 [送审 稿]), its subordinate Preparation Team was charged with completing the finalization efforts: on the one hand, the frequently-used characters and general characters were further reviewed for their practicality and scientific quality; on the other hand, the focal point of the work shifted to the determination of the Grade Three Character Table. Different views also began to arise with respect to whether to establish the Grade Three Character Table. Between 2007 and 2009, under the guidance of the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education (hereafter abbreviated as “the Department of Language Information”), the Preparation Team conducted 16 interviews with relevant subordinate units of the Ministry of Public Security, Ministry of Civil Affairs, the China National Committee for Terms in Sciences and Technologies, and the Ministry of Industry and Information technology, to ascertain the degree of popularity of lexicons, and gather more accurate materials; after the report was submitted to the Expert Committee, the following, unified recommendation was given: The character table is to satisfy the requirements of universal computer applications, scientific and technological development, and social interactions. Lexicons in four specialized fields closely associated with public life are to be supplemented; that is, characters used in surnames and personal names, characters used in place names at the township level or higher, characters used in standardized scientific and technical terminology, and characters used in classical Chinese passages in elementary and middle school language teaching materials are absolutely essential. Usage of Chinese characters include the dimensions of both reading and writing: Chinese characters that have made their way into balanced corpora, with some degree of generality in both of these areas, as well as some specialized Chinese characters, which are of low frequency in writing but very high frequency in reading, or which have garnered a high volume of demand, are also indispensable among the standard characters. For instance, regarding specialized characters for names and surnames, apart from celebrities,

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the rate of usage for the names of ordinary people at the level of general, public application is not particularly high; for place name characters, apart from large cities and famous scenic locations, the rate of usage at the level of general, public application is also comparatively limited. Based on character frequency and coverage in balanced corpora, these two lexical categories might not qualify for the parameters of general characters, but the postal system, finance, transportation and other services extend everywhere, while identity cards, household registration cards, academic certificates, health records, and other documents are used by everyone, thus it is necessary to store Chinese characters that may be used. Furthermore, owing to scientific and technological development and improving standards of education, many scientific and technical terms and characters are rapidly spreading into daily public life. For instance, many characters used in the notation of chemical elements and symbols are employed in medicines, chemical fertilizers, renovation materials, descriptions for cosmetic products and detergents, explanations on dietary health, weather forecasts, and other areas; these products and their descriptions are common in society, and although their frequency in textual writing is not high, their probability of being read is very high, affecting thousands upon thousands of households. In addition, a minority of characters found in classical Chinese texts in language teaching materials for basic education are also not classified as general characters in ordinary society, but they must be used in the publication of teaching materials, and also require unified standards. If these characters were not standardized, it would give rise to chaos in public information banks and usage. The Grade Three Character Table within the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) was specially established to collect relatively common characters within these specialized fields to serve as necessary supplements to the Grade 1 and Grade 2 character tables, and is quite indispensable. On the premise of the above understanding, perfecting the Grade Three Character Table became the primary task for this phase. In order to ensure the practicality and universality of the Grade Three Character Table, 1,805 characters were selected after sifting through a list of 2,003 characters; this was later reduced to 1,800 characters, and finally set at 1,605 characters. To determine the inclusion of a given character in the character table, the Preparation Team conducted careful examinations, and reached the final conclusion by means of phone or in-person interviews with relevant personnel. Between 2009 and 2013, the total number of characters in the character table and the number of characters in each grade of the character table did not change; however, to ensure internal balance, the fine-tuning of individual characters continued without pause.

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Preparation team for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters

2 Appropriately handling the treatment of simplified and traditional characters The efforts for the simplification of Chinese characters in New China have continued for more than half a century. During this period, the 1964 General Table of Simplified Characters (简化字总表) and the 1986 reissuance of the General Table of Simplified Characters (简化字总表) made great strides with respect to the publication of fine-tuning for simplified characters. In light of the inertia of public usage of characters and continuity in the usage of characters in basic education, this character table adopted the policy of using the original standards as a foundation for integration, revision, and supplementation. On the issue of the approach to the simplification of Chinese characters, there are two sharply opposing views, the first of which advocates the restoration of traditional characters. Herein, several representatives of the National People’s Congress and committee members of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference lean toward the comprehensive restoration of traditional characters, while some scholars instead lean toward the restoration of a small number of traditional characters. Their reasons are: (1) The merged usage of certain simplified characters has given rise to a phenomenon in which a single simplified character corresponds to multiple traditional characters, leading to a number of problems with automatic conversions between simplified and traditional and explanation of usage; (2) Owing to the reduction in strokes, some simplified characters are inadequately distinguished from other characters, causing difficulties in recognition and differentiation. These views have given rise to three proposals, “Restoration of 14 Characters” (恢复 14 个字), “Restoration of 12 Characters” (恢复 12 个字), and “Restoration of 8 Characters” (恢复 8 个字), one of which was put forward by the Language Society of Hong Kong. The other view advocates the continued simplification of Chinese characters, the reason being that issues with the complexity of Chinese characters remain unresolved. Some people have issued a proposal for the “Continued Simplification of 100 Characters,” while others advocate the adoption of certain characters from the Second Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (第二次汉 字简化方案), which has already been abolished. The Department of Language Information organized and convened several conferences to discuss these two opposing views before finally formulating a principle for the treatment of simplified and traditional Chinese characters: At the general level, the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) would uphold the policy of simplification, while simultaneously abiding by the 1986 notice of the State Council endorsing the State Language Commission’s “Request for instructions

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regarding the abolishment of the Second Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (Draft) and redress of the phenomenon of disorder in public character usage” (关于废止《第二次汉字简化方案[草案]》和纠正社会用字混乱现象的请示), taking a circumspect approach to the simplification of Chinese characters. The specific treatment was as follows: (1) Regarding the suggestions for “comprehensive restoration of traditional characters,” an analysis was provided to the representatives of the National People’s Congress and committee members of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference: The simplification of Chinese characters has been practiced for half a century, facilitating character literacy and character writing for several hundred million people, and accelerating the pace of universal education and the elimination of adult illiteracy in our country; it has already become the vehicle for the modern dissemination of information and international exchanges, and has also played an extremely positive role with respect to the modernization of traditional culture. Simplified Chinese characters have already become habitual for the vast majority of Chinese character users domestically and overseas, and based on the principle of the social nature of character usage, adhering to the direction of simplification is completely correct. The representatives of the National People’s Congress and committee members of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference expressed their understanding. (2) Regarding the suggestions for the “restoration of specific traditional characters,” the final conclusion was: Upon comprehensive consideration, weighing the advantages and disadvantages, given that there was insufficient time to produce a comprehensive summary of the proposals regarding simplified characters in terms of academic principles and in terms of usage, and that the issue of simplified and traditional characters is a fairly sensitive topic, the character table therefore would not restore traditional characters. It would be more prudent to address this matter at the appropriate time, on the foundation of abundant and substantive scientific research and social surveys, once the moment for resolution was ripe. In order to reach a unified understanding with the Hong Kong and Macao regions, the Preparation Team was authorized by the Department of Language Information to specially engage in communication with the Language Society of Hong Kong. (3) Regarding the suggestions for “continued simplification,” the final conclusion was: On the basis of the 1986 notice of the State Council endorsing the State Language Commission’s “Request for instructions regarding the abolishment of the Second Chinese Character Simplification Scheme (Draft) and redress of the phenomenon of disorder in public character usage” (关于废 止 《第二次汉字简化方案[草案]》 和纠正社会用字混乱现象的请示), and on

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Preparation team for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters

the basis of the views of the vast majority of people, this round of standardization would comb through existing simplified characters to sort out simplified characters in popular usage going beyond Table Three of the General Table of Simplified Characters (简化字总表), and determine whether to accept or reject them; however, outside of the character table, the scope of simplification would not be further expanded. With respect to the simplification by analogy1 implemented in the General Table of Simplified Characters (简化字总表), the State Language Commission held forums at different levels: the vast majority of views disagreed with “unlimited analogy,” particularly calling for restrictions on unlimited analogy in large dictionaries. The various views were ultimately synthesized, and it was determined that, in the preparation of this character table, the principles of simplification and the internal systematicness of the character table should be upheld; all characters included in the character table would be analogized when conforming to the principles of analogy in the General Table of Simplified Characters (简化字总 表), while characters outside the table would not be further analogized, without exception. This spirit was gradually clarified. In 2001, following project approval for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表), the Project Team used Table Two of the General Table of Simplified Characters (简化 字总表) as a standard to conduct exhaustive simplification by analogy of all traditional characters meeting the conditions within the scope of the 54,678 characters in the Great Compendium of Chinese Characters (汉语大字典), deriving a total of 12,818 new character forms through simplification by analogy, or 23.5% of the Great Compendium of Chinese Characters (汉语大字典). This included many homoglyphs and irregular character forms inconsistent with the patterns of Chinese character structure, but these new analogized character forms had no practical value today. Regarding the results of this survey, the members of the Project Team published a paper in 2003 arguing that, “It is neither necessary nor possible to complete simplification by analogy for all simplified characters.” This was in fact a rejection of “unlimited analogy.” At the expanded conference of the Character Table Expert Committee held at Dajue Temple (大觉寺) in Beijing (北京) from July 17 to 19, 2007, it was proposed that the scope of analogy be limited to the character table, and a formal resolution was made for “no further

1 Translator’s note: “Simplification by analogy” (类推简化) signifies that, where a character has been simplified, all other characters containing it as a component are analogously simplified. For example, the simplified version of che (车, traditional: 車, ‘vehicle’) was utilized to simplify related characters such as ku (库, traditional: 庫, ‘warehouse’).

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analogizing of characters outside the table.” On January 11, 2008, the Expert Committee for the Table of Standard Chinese Characters (Draft for Review) (规范 汉字表 [送审稿]) held a seminar on the character table in Beijing, to conduct a study on perfecting and finalizing the character table. At the seminar, it was further determined that there would be “no further analogizing of characters outside the table,” and the Preparation Team was charged with strictly reviewing analogized characters in the character table, and making efforts to remove certain disputed analogized characters, analogized characters with no usage or extremely low character frequency across several text corpora, and especially characters not encoded in the National Standard Coding System. The Preparation Team conducted rigorous screening of analogized simplified characters in the Grade Three Character Table (1,805 characters), selecting 226 simplified characters for inclusion in the character table. The circumstances of these 226 characters were: they conformed to the principles for character inclusion in the Grade Three Character Table, and due to their inclusion in several influential dictionaries, their frequency of usage was higher than the average frequency in the Grade Three Character Table. On April 1, 2009, the Department of Language Information specially convened an expert seminar on the issue of the usage of characters outside the table in the Table of Standard Chinese Characters (规范汉字表): on the basis of the views of the vast majority of experts at the seminar, once again the conclusion was explicitly reached that, “Simplification by analogy must be strictly controlled, with limited analogy only within the scope of the character table, and no further analogizing of characters outside the table.” Following the issuance of the character table, the Notice of Twelve Ministries and Departments Including the Ministry of Education on the Implementation of the ‘Table of General Standard Chinese Characters’ (教育部等十二部门关于贯彻实施《通用规范汉字表》的通知) again issued a special statement on the use of characters outside the table in compiling dictionaries: “The Table of General Standard Chinese Characters is an important basis for compiling standard language dictionaries for the modern Chinese language. Relevant language dictionaries published, revised, or republished following the issuance of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters should be in compliance with the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters, with some or all of the characters included in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters, based on the service sector or different objects of usage, and additional reference characters may also be included as appropriate; the inclusion of characters outside the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters should generally adopt the historically common character forms, and new simplified characters that have not been used previously should not be created independently.” This statement is in accord with the formulation of “no further analogizing of characters outside the table.” It is clear that the fundamental spirit of “no further analogizing of

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Preparation team for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters

characters outside the table” is a principle that has consistently been upheld in this round of standardization, and is also the mainstream view held by the majority of experts and the public.

3 Recataloguing the variant character table The cataloguing of variant forms is highly important work, as well as the most complex work to be done in this round of formulation for the character table. The First Catalogue of Variant Characters (第一批异体字整理表) (hereafter abbreviated as “the First Variant Catalogue”) presented the following problems: (1) As there was no complete simplified character program at the time, and traditional characters were instead used as the basic materials to address variant characters, this gave rise to disputes and lack of clarity with regard to variant characters versus simplified and traditional characters. (2) The First Variant Catalogue also experienced issues with lack of clarity in its relational definitions. Within the scientific terminology system for Chinese logography, yitizi (异体字, ‘variant character’) is one of the terms for demarcating relationships between Chinese characters, coexisting alongside tongjiazi (通假字, ‘interchangeable homophone’), fenhuazi (分化字, ‘derivative character’), and other terms defining the relationships between characters. In theory, a variant character should have a clear definition, and the boundaries for variant characters and other relationship-defining character terminology must not be blurred. Strict variant characters should consist of plural character forms with identical pronunciation and significance, and completely identical lexical function, where only the character form differs, which can be substituted interchangeably in any context without influencing the expression of meaning. However, due to the long period of time over which Chinese characters developed, characters from many different eras often accumulate on a synchronic level, giving rise to an intricate and complex situation. The so-called “variant characters” in the First Variant Catalogue included strict variant characters as well as some interchangeable homophones, derivative characters, et cetera which exhibited inclusive relationships and intersecting relationships in terms of their usage and functions, which were not in conformity with the principles for the cataloguing of Chinese characters. (3) The First Variant Catalogue adopted the method of “invalidation” to approach variant characters, leading to the omission of a number of language units and characters. Upon the joint issuance of the First Variant Catalogue by the Ministry of Culture and the Committee for Language Reform in China

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in December 1955, it was explained that: “A total of 810 groups of variant characters are listed in the catalogue; each group has a minimum of 2 characters and a maximum of 6 characters, for a total of 1,865 characters. Through cataloguing, this was reduced by 1,055 characters.” However, in terms of their general usage in the modern Chinese language, some of these 1,055 invalidated and unusable characters were not strictly variant characters, particularly among the characters used in surnames and personal names, place names, and scientific and technical terminology; some of these characters not strictly qualifying as variant forms had irreplaceable utility, yet they were all included within the category of “non-standard characters” and thus invalidated, greatly inconveniencing the application and teaching of Chinese characters. (4) Once simplified characters came into general use, the First Variant Catalogue created hindrances in the usage of Chinese characters with respect to certain issues, and the State Language Commission carried out fine-tuning for individual variant characters. However, since these adjustments were not released in their entirety at the same time, while resolving issues of application, they also mutually gave rise to new discordances and conflicts. Due to the existence of the above problems, recataloguing the variant characters under the scope of the First Variant Catalogue became an important task in the preparation of this character table. In addressing the standards of treatment for variant characters in the First Variant Catalogue, there were initially two different views: The first argued that the concept of “invalidation of variant characters” should be revised to “recognition of variant characters,” with no invalidation; the issue of character omissions could thus be resolved. The other argued that it was necessarily to strictly determine the academic definition of “variant characters,” and any characters not conforming to the definition of “identical pronunciation and significance, and completely identical lexical function, where only the character form differs, which can be substituted interchangeably in any context without influencing the expression of meaning” would not be treated as variant characters, without exception. On November 23, 2005, the Ministry of Education held a high-level expert consultative conference. At the meeting it was proposed that the cataloguing of variant characters in the 1950s showed extraordinary foresight, and was in conformity with the patterns of the standardization of Chinese characters. Given that the number of characters included in international Chinese character coding had already reached nearly 80,000, with chaotic application of many variant characters, this had led to great confusion on the level of information processing for general Chinese characters. Cataloguing and summarizing

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Preparation team for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters

variant characters on a general level was quite indispensable work in reducing the number of Chinese characters in use, and achieving the standardization and normalization of Chinese characters; provided this was handled well, it would not only dispel the issue of character omissions, but could also decrease the difficulty of Chinese character education, and improve the rationalization of Chinese character usage. This understanding cemented the resolution to emphasize the cataloguing of variant characters in the preparation of the character table. At the same time, variant characters were to be clearly distinguished on the two levels of academic principles and application: on the one hand, it was necessary to firmly establish the concept of “strict variant characters” in the academic sense; and on the other hand, it was also necessary to set forth from the perspective of application based on the circumstances of usage in the modern Chinese language, to separate out characters that are not strictly variants, and respectively approach them based on different circumstances and on different levels. In 2008, progressive adjustments were made to the cataloguing practices, establishing scientific, stable, practical and concrete principles for the treatment of variant characters. The final treatment methods were formed on the basis of these principles, after several rounds of revisions. For the detailed circumstances, please see the Interpretation of the ‘Table of General Standard Chinese Characters’ 《通用规范汉字表》解读). (

Part II: Special fields

Guo Fenglan (郭风岚)

3 Interest in China’s neighboring languages China has the world’s largest number of bordering countries, but China’s neighboring countries are more than just a geographical concept: they also have strategic significance. From this dual perspective, China’s close neighbors comprise a total of 21 countries, including Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, South Korea, Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, North Korea, and Vietnam. China also has eight near neighbors, including Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Turkey, Iran, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia. These 29 countries shall be generally referred to in this paper as China’s neighboring countries. Nearly one thousand languages are in use in China’s neighboring countries: the region is among those with the most complex linguistic distribution in the world. The border regions of China, which lie adjacent to its neighbors, feature a complex ethnic composition and a staggering quantity of languages, ranging from the country’s lingua franca, Mandarin Chinese, to several hundred minority languages and associated dialects, as well as trans-border languages used on either side of the border with neighboring countries. Mandarin Chinese, the minority languages and their dialects, and Chinese dialects coexist alongside a distinctive array of trans-border languages. In recent years, neighbor affairs have increasingly drawn the attention of the world and of scholarly circles. In 2013, interested parties particularly focused their attention on neighboring diplomacy, neighboring tourism, and neighboring languages.

1 Government interest 1.1 Neighboring diplomacy In 2013, neighboring diplomacy was one of the key focal points in Chinese diplomacy. President Xi Jinping (习近平) and Premier Li Keqiang (李克强) frequently visited neighboring countries in 2013, and China exchanged visits with foreign ministers and other high-ranking leaders of its neighboring countries on more than 100 occasions (Ministry of Foreign Affairs Website 2013). https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-003

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China and its neighboring countries are engaging in ever more profound regional cooperation, driven by the dual wheels of economic cooperation and security cooperation: interconnection and the establishment of free trade zones have advanced side by side, with the revival of the “Ancient Silk Road” by land and by sea, the establishment of the “Silk Road Economic Belt” in conjunction with Central Asian countries, and the establishment of the “Maritime Silk Road” in collaboration with member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). China and ASEAN have established the world’s largest free trade zone for developing countries, creating an upgraded version of the ASEAN – China Free Trade Area, while also exploring the establishment of a framework for regional security cooperation, and other matters. China is ASEAN’s largest trade partner: in turn, the ASEAN member states comprise the largest market for overseas investment by Chinese enterprises. At present, China has cumulatively invested 22.94 billion USD in ASEAN member countries, with the annual average growth rate reaching 68% (Hexun.com 2012). Bilateral trade between China and the countries of Central Asia is growing even more rapidly. China is the largest trade partner for each of the five countries that comprise Central Asia, as well as the largest buyer for Central Asia’s oil and gas resources. As of year-end 2012, bilateral trade volume had already reached 11.80 billion USD, with aggregate growth in trade volume in the economic sphere increasing a hundredfold over the growth of the past decade or more. From politics to the economy, China’s neighboring diplomacy has entered a phase of comprehensive development, and the strategic value of languages has been increasingly highlighted.

1.2 Cultural exchanges In 2013, China held annual events for friendship exchanges with several neighboring countries. For example, as a sequel to the “Year of Language” hosted in China and Russia in 2009 and 2010, and the “Year of Tourism” hosted in the two countries in 2012 and 2013, during President Xi Jinping’s visit to Russia in March of 2013, the two countries decided to jointly host the “Year of Youth Friendship Exchanges” in 2014 and 2015. In addition, 2012 was the “Sino-South Korea Year of Friendship Exchanges”; 2013 was the “Sino-ASEAN Friendship and Exchange Year”; and 2014 will be the “Sino-India Year of Friendship” and the “Sino-Mongolia Friendship and Exchange Year.” In order to promote study abroad and exchange between China and ASEAN, in 2010, the Chinese government proposed the “Double 100,000 Students Plan,” the objective of which is for the bidirectional exchange of students between China

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and ASEAN to respectively reach 100,000 by 2020. In 2010, China provided government scholarship to 3,337 students from ASEAN member countries, an increase of 329% over the 778 individuals who received scholarship in 2005 (China Education Newspaper 2013). At the 16th ASEAN-China (10+1) Summit held on October 9, 2013, Premier Li Keqiang made a point of noting that, aside from arranging a SinoASEAN Friendship and Exchange Year for the year 2014, over the next 3–5 years, China would also provide 15,000 government scholarships to ASEAN member countries, establish more education centers in China oriented toward ASEAN countries, and contribute 200 million RMB to the Asia Regional Cooperation Fund, focusing on deepening bilateral human exchanges and capacity building. Bilateral friendship exchanges promote mutual understanding and comprehension between the peoples of China and neighboring countries, while also spurring popular enthusiasm for learning languages in both China and its neighboring countries.

1.3 Language dissemination China has always maintained a traditional friendship with neighboring countries, particularly the Southeast Asian region, which is home to many overseas Chinese. In Malaysia, Thailand and other countries with a higher population of overseas Chinese, use of the Chinese variant language huayu (华语, ‘Chinese language’) is prevalent in overseas Chinese communities. Although huayu has not attained the status of an official language, it is highly influential. As China’s national power has steadily grown, the hanyu re (汉语热, ‘Chinese craze’) that has developed in its neighboring countries has continued to heat up, and some countries have begun incorporating the Chinese language (huayu) into their national language education systems. As of the present, 87 Confucius Institutes have been established in 25 of China’s neighboring countries, accounting for more than one fifth of the total number of Confucius Institutes around the world: 29 Confucius Institutes and 15 Confucius Classrooms have been established across the ten member states of ASEAN (China Education Newspaper 2013), while the number of institutes has risen to 19 in South Korea, and 18 in Russia. The Chinese language has already become the second most popular foreign language, after English. China sends qualified Chinese teachers and volunteers to neighboring countries to teach Chinese, instruct and train local Chinese teachers, jointly compile localized Chinese teaching materials in collaboration with linguistic experts from the neighboring countries, and so on, exerting great efforts to satisfy the demand for learning Chinese in neighboring countries.

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In 2013, the number of students studying abroad in China continued to grow, with a total of 356,000 students studying in China, setting new highs for both the total number of students and the number of students on scholarships awarded by the Chinese government. The five largest source countries for study abroad students are respectively South Korea, the United States, Thailand, Japan and Russia, four of which are countries neighboring on China (Beijing Examination News 2014). In 2012, the total number of study abroad students from ASEAN member countries exceeded 60,000, accounting for 19% of the total number of students studying abroad in China; among these, Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam all ranked in the top ten in terms of the total number of students studying abroad in China.

2 Private interest 2.1 Neighboring tourism In recent years, private interaction between China and its neighboring countries has becoming increasingly prevalent, and tourism by Chinese citizens in neighboring countries has continued to heat up. According to reports, there are 120 scheduled flights between China and South Korea daily, with more than 20,000 people traveling back and forth between the two countries. In February 2008, South Korea implemented a visa waiver for individual Chinese citizens to visit Jeju Island, and travelers have flocked to the island in increasing numbers: in 2012, the number of Chinese tourists reached 1,084,100, setting a new historical high (Kuang 2013). Nearly 150 scheduled flights shuttle back and forth between China and the ten ASEAN members states daily, with nearly 10 million passengers annually. In the case of Thailand, 1.76 million Chinese tourists visited in 2011; in 2013, the number of visitors reached 3,247,000 (Xinhua Net 2013). Thailand has become the second most-visited country for Chinese citizens traveling abroad. In 2012, China and Russia signed the Agreement on Visa-Free Group Tourism; during this same period, under the impetus of the “Year of Russian Tourism” then being held in China, the number of Chinese tourists visiting Russia reached 113,000 in the first half of the year, a year-over-year increase of 43% in comparison with 2011 (ChinaNews.com 2012). In 2013, the number of Chinese visitors exceeded 372,300, putting China in second place in the rankings for Russia’s inbound tourism (ChinaNews.com 2014). The expanding scope of tourism has improved the Chinese people’s understanding of local conventions and cultural customs in neighboring

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countries, and perhaps some studied a little of the language of their destination country.

2.2 Border trade In the last few years, China’s border trade has seen rapid growth. Xinjiang (新疆) shares a border with eight countries, including Russia, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, among others; they also share similarities with respect to the spoken and written languages, religious beliefs, customs of life, and other aspects. The border has 27 open ports of entry of various categories, providing extremely advantageous conditions for engaging in border trade. In 2011, the value of small-volume trade imports and exports at Xinjiang ports of entry rose to 12.83 billion USD, an increase of 27.9% in comparison with 2010; this included 8.82 billion USD in exports, with growth of 14.8%. In 2013, smallvolume border trade imports and exports reached 14.34 billion USD, an increase of 10.1% in comparison with 2012; within this figure, exports increased to 10.64 billion USD, with growth of 19.3% (Xinjiang Daily.com 2012). Yunnan (云南) borders on Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam: small-volume border trade and commerce between local residents is primarily concentrated around its various land ports of entry and border crossings. In 2012, the volume of trade with ASEAN countries reached 6.76 billion USD, an increase of 13.6%; small-volume border trade imports and exports reached 2.15 billion USD, with growth of 7.3% (Kunming Information Hub 2013). In 2013, the volume of trade between Yunnan and ASEAN countries reached 10.9 billion USD, an increase of 61%; the volume of small-volume border trade climbed to 3.33 billion USD, with growth of 55.1%; and the volume of trade with South Asian countries reached 780 million USD, an increase of 35.6% (Yunnan.cn 2014). Guangxi (广西) also neighbors on Vietnam: between January and October 2012, the volume of border trade between Guangxi and Vietnam was nearly 6.0 billion USD, a year-over-year increase of 23.9%; the amount of small-volume border trade accounted for 26.2% of Guangxi’s total trade volume in the same period, and 84% of the trade volume between Guangxi and Vietnam in the same period (Guangxi News Network 2012). In January to November 2013, the total volume of trade imports and exports between Guangxi and Vietnam reached 10.76 billion USD, a year-over-year increase of 27.2%. Vietnam has been Guangxi’s largest trade partner for the last 14 years running (Guangxi News Network 2014). The flourishing border trade has resulted in frequent contact with different languages, and has prompted a demand for language experts from neighboring countries.

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Guo Fenglan (郭风岚)

3 Academic interest 3.1 High-level forums on neighboring languages On July 27, 2013, the “2013 Gathering of International Scholars of the Chinese Language – 4th Academic Forum,” jointly sponsored by the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing Language and Culture University, Linguistics Institute of China, and the Commercial Press, was held at the Commercial Press, with the theme, “The State of China’s Neighboring Languages.” 38 linguistics scholars from North America, Europe, Japan, Hong Kong, China, and mainland China participated in the forum, alongside more than 50 fellows from the Linguistics Institute of China. The topics of discussion revolved around the significance and the value of research on China’s neighboring languages, methodology for the study of trans-border languages, surveys of trans-border minority languages, and so on. The attendees noted that the unique geographical and political conditions had weakened the study of languages along China’s borders, that engaging in research on China’s neighboring languages had important significance for friendly relations with neighboring countries as well as border security, and that the time and conditions were now ripe to proceed. Academic interest in neighboring languages focuses on three distinctive areas, including interest in the regions within and outside the borders, intralinguistic and cross-linguistic properties, and internal and external linguistics. It is to be hoped that more linguistics scholars can participate in the study of transborder languages, so as to make greater contributions to the development and construction of the nation.1 On November 21–22, 2013, the “7th National Academic Symposium on Sociolinguistics and 1st Forum on the Study of Transborder Languages” was held at Baise University in Guangxi, with 116 scholars hailing from Chinese and international universities, research institutes and other organizations in attendance. The topics of discussion addressed the history and current state of research on trans-border languages, the basic situation of trans-border languages in China and neighboring countries, linguistic ideologies and the linguistic order in the contemporary world, et cetera (Wan & Lu 2013). On December 14–15, 2013, Beijing Language and Culture University held the “1st Forum on China’s Neighboring Languages and Cultures,” with the theme of “Language Culture, Neighborliness and Border Security.” More than 20 experts and scholars in the field of research on neighboring languages and

1 See China Language Resource Developments (中国语言资源动态), 2013, No. 4.

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cultures within China published their respective studies, addressing the state of languages and language policies in China’s neighboring countries, strategic research on China’s “key” neighboring languages, trans-border languages and cultural dissemination, and other topics (BLCU News 2013).

3.2 Organizations researching neighboring languages On October 8, 2013, the “Collaborative Innovation Center for China’s Neighboring Languages and Cultures” was officially established at Beijing Language and Culture University. The Center is headed by Beijing Language and Culture University, and its key collaborating organizations include the Institute of Linguistics and the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, PLA University of Foreign Languages, Harbin Institute of Technology, among others; the principal participating organizations include Inner Mongolia University, Shihezi University, Tibet University, Yunnan University, Guangxi University, Guangxi University for Nationalities, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, Jinan University, the Commercial Press, Anhui IFLYTEK Co., Ltd., overseas Confucius Institutes (such as the Confucius Institute in Islamabad, Pakistan), and so on. The goal of the Center is to establish a world-class data center, research center and talent base on China’s neighboring languages and cultures, build a strategic knowledge base on national languages, and construct a support network for China’s soft power in neighboring countries, with the fundamental mission of neighborliness and border security, closely revolving around major national requirements, and fully exercising the clustering effect.

4 Points for recognition 4.1 National security China’s border regions lie adjacent to neighboring countries, with close interactions on either side of the border. In order to ensure national security, it is extremely important to gain an understanding of the languages in these regions. As Chinese enterprises continue to expand into foreign markets, the language barrier and substantial differences in cultural customs have increased the occupational risks for Chinese personnel assigned overseas; it is necessary to provide language training for overseas Chinese personnel so as to avoid or reduce the risks to their personal safety.

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Guo Fenglan (郭风岚)

National security has historically been inseparable from language security. China needs a harmonious and safe environment to pursue modernizing development: when its neighbors are at peace, China is at peace. It is imperative that the issue of neighboring languages be incorporated into the work of the National Security Commission, with the mission of friendly relations with neighboring countries, as well as border security.

4.2 Key languages As of the present, several scholars have already made recommendations for the issue of national language security to be incorporated into national strategic development, in areas such as programs for foreign languages and variants, the formulation of strategies for “key languages,” and so on (Wang 2011). Other scholars have called for 21 foreign languages, including English, French, Arabic, Malay (Indonesian), Russian, Japanese, Hindi (Urdu) and German, to be identified as key foreign languages for China and divided into three grades from the perspective of politics, economics, security, education and other factors (Zhang 2011). How to properly implement “key language” strategies for neighboring countries and determine a national “key language” strategy (incorporating other national languages and certain minority languages) suited to the conditions in China have already become pressing issues.

4.3 Cultural infiltration A number of broadcasters, including Voice of America and Radio Free Asia, are currently broadcasting in Uyghur, Kazakh, Mongolian, Uzbek, Kyrgyz and other languages on a daily basis in the Xinjiang region of China for the purposes of propaganda and infiltration (Huang 2013). Because China’s domestic broadcasting in minority languages receives little airtime and contains a low volume of information, whereas international radio broadcasting in minority languages receives significant airtime and contains a high volume of information, the latter has been warmly welcomed by the inhabitants of China’s border regions (Zhou 2013). This kind of cultural “encroachment” constitutes a threat to China’s national security and regional stability. How to resist negative cultural infiltration and cultural “encroachment” has become a question that urgently needs answering.

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4.4 Language competence National language competence refers to the capabilities required for China to handle domestic and international affairs, as well as for national development, involving competence in various languages, the domestic and international status of the principal national languages, citizens’ language capabilities, and so on (Li 2012). The “neighbor craze” of recent years triggered an exuberant demand for the languages of neighboring countries, and it is increasingly crucial to train talented linguists for neighboring languages. Establishing competence in the languages of neighboring countries confers the advantage of regional and cultural commonality: in the age of globalization, individuals with bilingual or multilingual proficiency also have advantages in their personal career development. Finding ways to utilize these advantages, train talented linguists for the languages of neighboring countries, and build a talent pool for national languages should be included on the national agenda.

References Beijing Examination News (北京考试报). 2014. Number of Chinese students studying abroad drops significantly in 2013 as number of returnees increases (2013 年我国出国留学人数 降幅明显回国人数增多). http://www.jyb.cn/world/gjsx/201403/t20140310_573328. html, Mar. 10, 2014. BLCU News (北语新闻网). 2013. Beijing Language and Culture University holds ‘1st Forum on China’s Neighboring Languages and Cultures’ (北语召开 ‘首届中国周边语言文化论坛’). http://news.blcu.edu.cn/xyxw/395294.shtml, Dec. 20, 2013. China Education Newspaper (中国教育报). 2013. China–ASEAN education exchanges attract over 60,000 study abroad students to China in 10 years (中国东盟教育交流 10 年吸引来 华留学生 6 万余人). http://is.nwsuaf.edu.cn/xueyuanxinwen/2013-03-26/465.html, Oct. 9, 2013. ChinaNews.com (中国新闻网). 2012. Chinese tourists to Russia reach 113,000 in first half of year for year-over-year increase of 43% (上半年赴俄罗斯中国游客达 11.3 万人同比增 43%). http://www.takungpao.com/sy/2012-10/26/content_1298084.htm, Oct. 26, 2012. ChinaNews.com (中国新闻网). 2014. Russia announces that the number of Chinese tourists visiting China essentially overtook Germany in 2013 (俄称 2013 年中国赴俄游客数量基本 赶上德国). http://news.xinhuanet.com/travel/2014-03/13/c_126261399.htm, Mar. 13, 2014. Guangxi News Network (广西新闻网). 2012. Guangxi and Vietnam reach a series of accords on promoting the development of bilateral border trade (广西与越南就推动双边边境贸易发 展达成系列共识). http://news.gxnews.com.cn/staticpages/20121213/newgx50c9058b6590094.shtml, Dec. 13, 2012.

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Guangxi News Network (广西新闻网). 2014. Guangxi–Vietnam cooperation in 2013: ten bright points bear witness to mutually beneficial win-win (广西–越南合作 2013: 十大亮点见证互 利共赢). http://news.gxnews.com.cn/staticpages/20140110/newgx52cf280-f9423593. shtml, Jan. 10, 2014. Hexun.com (和讯网). 2012. Report on trade cooperation between China and ASEAN in the years 2012–2013 (中国与东盟经贸合作 2012–2013 年度报告). http://news.hexun.com/ 2012-12-28/149611086.html, Dec. 28, 2012. Huang, Xing (黄行). 2013. The significance and value of research on China’s neighboring languages (中国周边语言研究的意义和价值). China Language Resource Developments (中国语言资源动态), No. 4. Kuang, Weinan (邝伟楠). 2013. New high set for Chinese tourists welcomed to Jeju Island (济州岛接待中国游客创新高). China Tourism News (中国旅游报), http://www.ctnews. com.cn/zglyb/html/2013-02/01/content_68023.htm?div=-1, Feb. 1, 2013. Kunming Information Hub (昆明信息港). 2013. Total volume of Yunnan imports and exports exceeds 20.0 billion USD for first time in 2012 (2012 年云南进出口总额首破 200 亿美元). http://news.kunming.cn/yn-news/content/2013-01/15/content_3187641.htm, Jan. 15, 2013. Li, Yuming (李宇明). 2012. Issues in Contemporary Chinese Languages and Life (当代中国语言 生活中的问题). Social Sciences in China (中国社会科学), No. 9. Ministry of Foreign Affairs website (外交部网站). 2013. A new journey in China’s neighboring diplomacy: Director-General Luo Zhaohui of the Department of Asian Affairs of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs accepts micro-interview with ‘Let’s Talk About Diplomacy’ (中国周边外交新征程—外交部亚洲司司长罗照辉接受 “外交· 大家谈” 微访谈). http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_chn/wjbxw_602253/t1112423.shtml, Dec. 26, 2013. Wan, Huanhuan (万欢欢) & Lu, Xuemei (卢雪妹). 2013. Report series on the 7th National Academic Symposium on Sociolinguistics and 1st Forum on the Study of Transborder Languages (I) (第七届全国社会语言学学术研讨会暨首届跨境语言研究论坛系列报道[一]). Department of Chinese, Baise University (百色学院中文系), http://www.bsuc.cn/depart ment/zwx/zwdt/2013112333971.html, Nov. 23, 2013. Wang, Jianqin (王建勤). 2011. Study of language security issues and national security countermeasures (语言问题安全化与国家安全对策研究). Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies (语言教学与研究), No. 6. Xinhua Net (新华网). 2013. Thailand becomes second-largest destination country for Chinese citizens traveling overseas (泰国成中国公民出境第二大目的地国家). http://news.xinhua net.com/world/2013-11/10/c_118077148.htm, Nov. 10, 2013. Xinjiang Daily.com (新疆日报网). 2012. Double growth for small-volume border trade imports and exports at Xinjiang ports of entry in 2012 (2012 年新疆口岸边境小额贸易进出口双增). http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/difang/bingtuan/201202/20120207946212.html, Feb. 1, 2012. Yunnan.cn (云南网). 2014. Foreign trade in Yunnan Province sets new high in 2013 with import-export volume of 25.8 billion USD (2013 年云南省外贸再创新高进出口额 258 亿美元). http://yn.yunnan.cn/html/2014-01/18/content_3043396.htm, Jan. 18, 2014. Zhang, Zhiguo (张治国). 2011. Exploration of China’s key foreign languages (中国的关键外语 探讨). Foreign Language Teaching and Research (外语教学与研究), No. 1. Zhou, Qingsheng (周庆生). 2013. Overview of Trans-Border Minority Languages (跨境少数民族 语言概况). China Language Resource Developments (中国语言资源动态), No. 4.

Guan Xianqiang (管贤强), Zheng Guomin (郑国民), Wu Xinxin (吴欣歆), Wang Tao (王涛), Wang Xuanrui (王轩蕊) and Liu He (刘禾)

4 Recent trends in changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination In 2007, the four provinces and regions of Guangdong (广东), Shandong (山东), Hainan (海南) and Ningxia (宁夏) administered the National College Entrance Examination on the basis of the New Curriculum Standards (新课程标准) for the first time: referred to as the xin gaokao (新高考, ‘New College Entrance Examination’), it was vastly different in comparison with the College Entrance Examination as it had been administered in the past under the Outline (大纲). Between 2008 and 2012, 20 provinces, regions and cities, including Jiangsu (江苏), Liaoning (辽宁), Tianjin (天津), and Anhui (安徽), successively acceded to the standards, followed by Sichuan (四川), Chongqing (重庆), Qinghai (青海), Tibet, Gansu (甘肃), and Guizhou (贵州) in 2013; so far, apart from Guangxi (广西), the entire country has joined the ranks for the New College Entrance Examination. In order to thoroughly reflect the situation of essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination in recent years, we consulted the results of domestic and international studies on essay questions, and produced a statistical analysis of essays questions in the College Entrance Examination from 2009 to 2013.

1 Basic circumstances The content on the subject of language arts in the College Entrance Examination can be roughly divided into five major sections: language accumulation and language performance; general literary knowledge, well-known phrases, and famous literary works; reading of ancient poetry; reading of modern literature; and writing. Due to the relatively large number of provinces and cities which set the questions autonomously, the contents and organization of the examination papers vary, and examination papers for the College Entrance Examination exhibit diverse structural characteristics. The essay section of the College Entrance Examination primarily tests students’ comprehensive ability to apply language, while also testing their ability to think. The purpose of studying language is to master its application: essays must be wellhttps://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-004

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written, and one must not only have a correct understanding of the prompt’s requirements, but must also thoroughly display the language learning accumulated over a long period of time, and express opinions on the ways of the world. For each set of examination questions, great weight is given to the formulation of the essay prompts. The importance of the essay is generally demonstrated through its score value: in the various provinces and cities, the score value for the essay question is usually between 50 and 70 points, accounting for 30% – 50% as a proportion of the overall examination score. In comparison with “Basic Knowledge,” “Reading” and other sections, the proportional score value of the essay question holds an absolute advantage. The methods of topic assignment for the essay can be divided into title-based essays, topical essays, and materials-based essays: in the last few years, title-based essays have faded away, while materials-based essays are still dominant. With respect to the stylistic requirements, the essay questions in the College Entrance Examination have comparatively distinct requirements regarding wenti (文体, ‘literary style’): in past years, there were often “no limitations on style,” but as of 2013, the requirements stipulated for “distinct stylistic characteristics” or explicitly called for “an argumentative essay or narrative essay.” Regarding the topics that are emphasized, the essay questions display the following notable characteristics with respect to the examination content: A focus on social development, attention to students’ personal growth, and an emphasis on the examinees’ thinking, to test the students’ personal expression. One shared characteristic is that they are all proximate to the students’ lives, and can thus induce the students to ponder, while also allowing them to write their passion, and youhua keshuo (有话可说, ‘have something worth saying’). In terms of the sources of materials for the essay questions, these include fables and tales, hot topics in the news, independently compiled materials, well-known sayings by famous figures, literary works, and so on, with a flexible diversity of formats.

2 Changing trends 2.1 Test content 2.1.1 Strengthening orientation toward the contemporary era The New College Entrance Examination has continuously drawn closer to the idea of “encouraging students to actively participate in life and experience life,

4 changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination

41

focusing on central issues in society, and stimulating their passion for writing,” as advocated in the New Curriculum Standards. The 2009 examination questions were all distinctively linked to hot topics in the news or popular trends in society, including the “Zodiac Head auction” (兽首拍卖) in the Jiangxi (江西) examination paper, “Celebrity endorsement” (明星代言) in the Liaoning examination paper, “Taste and fashion” (品味时尚) in the Jiangsu examination paper, and so on, with rich overtones of the era. The 2010 examination questions all reflected an excavation of the contents of modern life and central issues in society, including “Green living” (绿色生活) in the Jiangsu examination paper; the cartoon image of cats in the national Outline examination paper, captioned “Such times we live in! Why would you catch mice when we have fish?” (都什么年代了, 有鱼还捉老鼠); “Looking to the starry skies for guidance while planting our feet on the ground” (仰望星空与脚踏 实地) in the Beijing (北京) examination paper, and so on. With respect to the 2011 examination questions, in both the national Outline examination paper and the national New Curriculum Standards examination paper, the subject matter took aim at important issues in contemporary China, including “The rise of China” and “integrity”: The Beijing examination paper discussed how “China has become the world champion in table tennis” (中国乒乓球包揽世界冠军); the Chongqing examination paper addressed “The spirit of devotion among ordinary people” (平凡人的奉献精神); and the Fujian (福建) examination paper discussed “The significance of work” (工作 的意义). The 2012 examination questions all focused on the lives of ordinary people, emphasizing individual forms of life, in a strong alignment with the spirit of the era. These included “Solving problems as they arise” (顺手补船) in the New Curriculum Standards examination paper; “Laoji makes his rounds” (老计巡路) in the Beijing examination paper; “Security guards save people” (保安救人) in the Chongqing examination paper; and “Most admired classmate” (最欣赏的 同学) in the Zhejiang (浙江) examination paper. The 2013 examination questions all drew their materials from life: some were even directly extracted from news reports, closely cleaving to current trends, with a strong flavor of the era. These included “Among classmates” (同学之间) in the national New Curriculum Standards examination paper II; “Mobile phone, lost and found” (手机失而复得) in the national Outline examination paper; “Attitude toward philanthropy” (对慈善的态度) in the Guangdong examination paper; “The three fears of high school students” (中学生三怕) in the Jiangxi examination paper; “Pedantry” (咬文嚼字) in the Shandong examination paper; and so on.

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2.1.2 Encouraging creative expression The New Curriculum Standards advocate “encouraging students to engage in free expression, individual expression, and creative expression.” With respect to the examination questions seen over the years, many examples are quite proximate to the examinees’ personal lives, and are conducive to the examinees’ expressing personal ideas and displaying personality, including, in 2009, “I have a pair of invisible wings” (我有一双隐形的翅膀) in the Beijing examination paper, “Standing at the doorway to ________” (站在________的门口) in the Hubei (湖北) examination paper, and “My view of the post-90s” (我说 90 后) in the Tianjin examination paper; in 2010, “As your neighbor” (与你为邻) in the Guangdong examination paper, “Changing roles” (角色转化之间) in the Zhejiang examination paper, “Finding childhood again” (找回童年) in the Jiangxi examination paper, and “The world I live in” (我生活的世界) in the Tianjin examination paper; in 2011, “Always a kind of expectation” (总有一种期待) in the Sichuan examination paper, and “Returning to the origin” (回到原点) in the Guangdong examination paper; in 2012, “Shaking off excessive worries” (甩掉了 多余的顾虑) in the national Outline examination paper, “A very interesting and useful life” (很有趣而且有用的生活) in the Guangdong examination paper, “Thoughts on the form of letters from home” (对家书形式的思考) in the Hu’nan examination paper, and so on. In 2013, the College Entrance Examinations in each province perpetuated this trend, more distinctly drawing attention to the “I” in essays. For instance, “A balanced life” (平衡的生活) in the Sichuan examination paper, “Thoughts on a poem” (一首诗歌的思考) in the Fujian examination paper, “Butterfly in a cave” (山洞里的蝴蝶) in the Jiangsu examination paper, “Dialogue between a scientist and a writer” (科学家与文学家的对话) in the Beijing examination paper, and so on all sought to guide students in developing their individual personalities. The examinees’ were able to thoroughly mine their personal ideas, accomplishments and experiences, to write essays with novel opinions, fresh material, ingenious thinking, and distinctive personality.

2.1.3 Advocating independent innovation “Valuing the development of students’ ability to think and the development of creative thinking” was an important concept for teaching writing under the New Curriculum Standards. The essay requirements in the 2009 national Outline examination paper called for “wide-ranging essays, without departing from the content and

4 changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination

43

significance of the materials.” The seven essay prompts in the 2010 national Outline examination paper had no requirements regarding the scope of writing, in an effort to draw out the examinees’ subjectivity, by allowing them to set their own approach, choose their own style, and draft their own title. In 2011, the questions in the examination papers for several provinces explicitly stipulated the style or were in keeping with the application of style requirements. In 2012, the examination papers for Hubei, Guangdong and other provinces adopted a dialogue method to expand the space for conception, while also providing a prompt to examinees. In the 2013 Beijing examination paper, the use of the word “imagine” was specified in the requirements for branching questions, reflecting the examination requirements of “striving to engage in explication, evaluation and questioning from different perspectives and on different levels.” Although some examination questions provided parameters for writing, they allowed for an abundant diversity of approaches to the materials: examinees were able to autonomously choose the writing perspective, engage in independent innovation, and display personality, thus avoiding the flaw of examinees having nothing to say due to unfamiliarity with the materials, which can effectively differentiate the examinees’ levels of writing proficiency.

2.2 Test materials 2.2.1 Diversifying the source of materials The sources for test materials touch upon hot topics in current politics, advertising slogans, fables and tales, poetry and prose, dictionary entries, cartoon diagrams, well-known sayings by famous figures, and ordinary prepared materials, et cetera, exhibiting the characteristic of diversification of sources for test materials. Among these, ordinary prepared materials, fables and tales constitute the majority. In the 2010 examination papers, essay materials in the category of fables and tales accounting for 40% of the essay materials as a whole. It is worth noting that, in 2010, a number of provinces and cities began utilizing well-known sayings by famous figures as materials to assign topics. In 2010, the Shandong examination paper selected a well-known quote by the famous Leo Tolstoy to serve as test materials; in 2011, sayings by King David and Anton Chekhov were selected; in 2012, the Shandong examination paper quoted the words of Sun Yat-sen, while the Jiangsu examination paper quoted three celebrated remarks with a unifying theme; and in 2013, the Anhui examination paper cited the words of George Bernard Shaw. Well-known sayings by famous figures are concise and succinct: they can test examinees’ language

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comprehension capabilities, and guide examinees to engage in dialectical thinking on life, society and other issues. Among the 2009–2013 examination papers, excluding the exam questions which directly assigned a topic for writing, the number of examination papers which presented materials was 13 in 2009, 10 in 2010, 7 in 2011, 17 in 2012, and 18 in 2013. The specific sources are as shown in Table 4.1.

2.2.2 Combining openness and restrictions Commonly used methods for openness in the writing test in the College Entrance Examination generally include: multiple prompts to be selected at will, conceptual reification, expansion upon a moral, direct prompts, and so on. The 2013 Guangdong examination paper enumerated varying responses by different families to philanthropy by the wealthy, explicitly providing three different perspectives. This method can form writing orientations for different types of thinking, taking into account differences in the examinees’ modes of thinking, as well as examinees’ varying levels of writing proficiency. The 2013 Beijing examination paper provided the differing views of a scientist and a writer on the function and influence of the mobile phone in the context of a dialogue, which also lent itself well to writing by students of different levels and different knowledge backgrounds. Methods for restrictions on the essay test in the College Entrance Examination generally include stipulations as to the scope of content, restrictions on the approach, stylistic restrictions, a prescribed number of characters, and so on.

2.3 Test formats Macroscopic changes of the format of the essay question in the College Entrance Examination are primarily reflected through changes to the question format (as shown in Table 4.2), in which the following few characteristics can be discerned.

2.3.1 The fading of topical essays As a reform to the College Entrance Examination essay, the topical essay once served to tremendously expand examinees’ space for writing and stimulate examinees’ thinking, displaying a fairly high degree of openness, and generating many fine pieces of writing from the examination halls which were beautiful in

Number of examination papers

 Sets  Papers

 Sets  Papers

 Sets  Papers

 Sets  Papers

 Sets  Papers

Year











Number Percentage

Number Percentage

Number Percentage

Number Percentage

Number Percentage

Quantity and percentage of materials-based essay questions

 .%

 .%

 .%

 .%

 .%

 .%

 .%

– –

 .%  .%

Fables and tales

Hot topics in current politics, advertising slogans

– –

 .%

– –

 .%

– –

Poetry and prose

 .%

 .%

– –

 .%

– –

Cartoon diagrams

 .%

 .%

 .%

 .%

 .%

Ordinary prepared materials

– –

– –

– –

– –

 .%

Song lyrics

 .%

 .%

 .%

 .%

– –

Well-known sayings by famous figures

Table 4.1: Statistical summary of test material sources for the essay question in the College Entrance Examination in 2009–2013 (2009–2013 年高 考作文试题测试材料来源统计一览表). 4 changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination

45

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Guan Xianqiang (管贤强) et al.

Table 4.2: Statistical summary of essay test formats in the College Entrance Examination in 2009–2013 (2009–2013 年高考作文测试形式统计一览表). Year Question Format











Qty.

Pct.

Qty.

Pct.

Qty.

Pct.

Qty.

Pct.

Qty.

Pct.

Title-based essay



.%



.%



.%



.%



.%

Materialsbased essay



%



.%



.%



.%



.%

Topical essay



.%



.%



.%











%



%



%



%



%

Total

Note: The 2013 Tianjin examination paper adopted the format of a semi-assigned essay topic with provided materials.

both style and substance. However, since 2006, the percentage of topical essays has experienced a continual decline, from 41.2% in 2006 to 22.2% in 2007, 11.1% in 2008, and 5.6% in both 2009 and 2010, with a slight uptick to 17.6% in 2011. By 2012 and 2013, the topical essay was no longer making an appearance. For the specific data, see Table 4.3.

2.3.2 Decline of the title-based essay In the title-based essay, the topic preparer directly provides the title, requiring the examinee to conceptualize an essay on this basis. In recent years, the titlebased essay has experienced a decreasing trend among the essays in the College Entrance Examination. There were 7 examples in 2006, increasing to 9 in 2007, with 8 in both 2008 and 2009, and 7 in both 2010 and 2011; in 2012, this fell sharply to 1 example (Jiangsu examination paper, in the “materials + topic” format), and in 2013, there was again only 1 example (Tianjin examination paper, in the “materials + semi-assigned topic” format), see Table 4.4.

2.3.3 Evolution of the materials-based essay into the primary question model The New Curriculum Standards calls for essays to “observe life from multiple perspectives, with the rich experiences of life and emotional experiences; to state one’s own opinion with a responsible attitude; and to strive for individual,

–

–

–

–

–

Zhuge Liang borrows just under  thousand arrows / Geduo arrived today / leaving a space open (诸葛 亮 借 箭不足十万支/戈 多今天已经来了/ 留一点空白)

National New Curriculum Standards examination paper

Fujian examination paper

–

–

–

National Outline examination paper







Examination Paper

–

–

–



–

–

–



–

–

–



–

–

–



(continued)

–

–

–



Table 4.3: Statistical summary of changes to the topical essay in the College Entrance Examination in 2006–2013 (2006–2013 年高考话题作文变化 统计一览表). 4 changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination

47

–

–

–

–

–

–

Life rests / life never rests (生有 所息/生无 所息)

Moving and halting (走与停)

The angel engraved in one’s heart (雕刻心中 的天使)

Zhejiang examination paper

Chongqing examination paper

Guangdong examination paper

Communication (传递)

Joys and sorrows of life: on the College Entrance Examination (酸 甜 苦 辣 说高考)

Walking amidst evanescence (行 走 在 消逝中)

–

–

–

The swift loses weight (雨燕减肥)

Jiangxi examination paper

–

–

–

–



Hu’nan examination paper







Examination Paper

Table 4.3 (continued)

–

–

–

–

–



–

Focusing on one’s passion (情有独钟)

–

A gentleman’s three pleasures (君子三乐)

–



–

–

–

–

–



–

–

–

–

–



48 Guan Xianqiang (管贤强) et al.

Time will not erode memory (时间不会使记 忆风化)

–

–

 sets,  questions

.%

–

–

–

 sets,  questions

.%

Shandong examination paper

Tianjin examination paper

Shanghai examination paper

Frequency in examination papers

Percentage

.%

 sets,  questions

–

–

Spring arrives, and the grass grows green (春来草自青)

Strength (坚强)

–

Questioning (问)

Sichuan examination paper

–

–

Reading (读)

Anhui examination paper

–

–

–

Jiangsu examination paper

.%

 sets,  question

–

My view of the post-s (我说  后)

–

–

–

–

.%

 sets,  question

–

The world I live in (我生 活 的世界)

–

–

–

–

.%

 sets,  questions

–

Mirror (镜子)

–

–

–

–



 sets,  questions

–

–

–

–

–

–



 sets,  questions

–

–

–

–

–

– 4 changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination

49

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Table 4.4: Statistical survey of changes to the title-based essay in the College Entrance Examination in 2009–2011 (2009–2011 年高考标题作文变化统计一览表). Examination





Beijing examination paper

I have a pair of invisible wings (我有 一双隐 形的翅膀)

Liaoning examination paper







Looking to the – starry skies for guidance while planting our feet on the ground (仰望星 空与脚踏实地)

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Fujian examination paper

This is also __ (这也 是__)

–

–

–

–

Hu’nan examination paper

Standing on tiptoe (踮起 脚尖)

Morning (早)

–

–

–

Jiangxi examination paper

–

Finding childhood again (找回童年)

–

–

–

Shanghai examination paper

–

–

–

–

–

Hubei examination paper

Standing at the doorway to __ (站在 __的门口)

–

Old books (旧书)

–

–

Zhejiang examination paper

–

Changing roles (角色转化之间)

My time (我的时间)

–

–

Chongqing examination paper

Stories and I (我与故事)

Difficult problem (难题)

–

–

–

Guangdong examination paper

–

As your neighbor (与你 为邻)

Returning to the origin (回到原点)

–

–

4 changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination

51

Table 4.4 (continued) Examination











Jiangsu examination paper

Taste and fashion (品 味时尚)

Green living (绿色生活)

Rejecting mediocrity (拒绝平庸)

Worry and love: materials + assigned topic (忧与爱 材料+命题)

–

Anhui examination paper

–

–

Time is passing by (时间 在流逝)

–

–

Tianjin examination paper

–

–

–

–

“___ and knowing it”: materials + assigned topic (“___而知之” 材料+半命题)

Sichuan examination paper

Familiarity (熟悉)

–

Always a kind of expectation (总有一种 期待)

–

–

Shandong examination paper

Witnessing (见证)

–

The world needs you (这世 界需要你)

–

–

 sets,  questions

 sets,  questions

 sets,  question

 sets,  question

.%

.%

.%

.%

Frequency in  sets,  examination questions papers Percentage

.%

creative expression.” Through the momentum of gradual increases over the years, the materials-based essay has established a firm foothold among the essay prompts in the College Entrance Examination, and is rapidly developing into the primary question model for the essay question in the College Entrance Examination. As a proportion of all question models, it has seen gains year after year, from 22.2% in 2006 and 27.8% in 2007, to 44.4% in 2008, and 50% in 2009, climbing further to 55.6% in 2010, displaying a strong rising trend. It

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declined to 41.2% in 2011, but in 2012 and 2013, the materials-based essay was peerless as a question format for College Entrance Examinations nation-wide, holding an absolute advantage, see Table 4.5. In 2011, the essay questions for 17 College Entrance Examinations nationwide included 7 materials-based essays; in 2012, aside from the Jiangsu examination paper, which used a topical essay, the remaining 16 examinations all featured materials-based essays. In 2013, aside from the Tianjin examination paper, which adopted a semi-assigned topic format, the remaining examinations all featured materials-based essays. Even the Tianjin examination paper provided a famous quote as materials, providing prompting and guidance with respect to the selection of materials and the approach, to increase the openness of the assigned topic, and inspire examinees to open wide their avenues of thought; by no means was the prompt merely supported by a “title.”

3 Certain considerations 3.1 Encouraging attention to the era and society “Essays should be written for the times”: this is an ancient precept, as well as a concentrated generalization of the historical sense of calling felt by generation after generation of literati. “Written for the times” implies a focus on the era and on reality, with a sense of responsibility and a mission to transform society and promote social progress. To achieve this point, it is necessary to listen to the sound of the era’s footsteps, breathe the air of one’s times, and put a finger to the pulse of the times. The College Entrance Examination essay must play the role of a conductor’s baton, guiding students to take an interest in their times, pay attention to society, and take notice of life.

3.2 Encouraging individual, creative expression The essay is, in essence, a kind of externalization of one’s life experiences and the inspirations of life. It uses the written language to unfurl the landscape of the heart and soul, and cultivate individual personality; it is the process by which the writer understands the self, understands the world, and engages in creative expression. The College Entrance Examination essay must encourage students to engage in individual, creative expression, because only by this

The past and what will not be past Changing forms of address –

Achievements of famous A discussion of “light figures reading”

Achievements of famous A Dane goes fishing figures Conversation with Mencius –

–

–

Zodiac Heads auction incident

National New Curriculum Standards examination paper

Shanghai examination paper

Hu’nan examination paper

Jiangxi examination paper

–

“Why would you catch mice Buying lottery when we have fish?” tickets and cartoon integrity

Fables and tales



National Outline examination paper





Examination paper

“Greed” and “compassion”



Thoughts on two paragraphs of dialogue

Associations and considerations on the hand

Shimmer of the soul

(continued)

The three fears of high school students

Considerations on human lifestyles from enjoyment of nature to love

“Important matters” and “more important matters”

Solving problems as Thoughts inspired by they arise cutting diamonds Tensions of classmate relations and friendship

Excessive worries



Table 4.5: Statistical summary of changes to the new materials-based essay in the College Entrance Examination from 2009–2013 (2009–2013 年高考新材料作文变化统计一览表). 4 changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination

53

– –

–

Common sense

Chongqing examination paper

Guangdong examination paper

–

–

Stories published in Grimms’ Fairy Tales

–

Fujian examination paper

Jiangsu examination – paper

–

Tony’s growing up story

Celebrity endorsements

Liaoning examination paper

Opinions on letters



–

Yuan Longping discusses work

Inspiration and associations of the poems of Gu Cheng

A conversation between young people and the elderly on pearls and the sand

Different functions of square and round implements



–

Associations of two sets of materials

Butterfly in a cave

Differing responses by different families to a wealthy man’s passion for philanthropy

Security guards save Thoughts inspired by tofu people

Famous quotes by Feng Jicai

Story of the fake Thoughts on the apple words of the pianist

–

Fantasy and reality, life, and happiness. . .

–

Hubei examination paper







Examination paper

Table 4.5 (continued)

54 Guan Xianqiang (管贤强) et al.

–

Relationships between points, lines, surfaces and figures in geometry Famous quote by Leo Tolstoy

The development of talent has a certain pattern –

–

–

–

Girls begging in the streets

–

Beijing examination paper

Sichuan examination paper

Shandong examination paper

Ningxia-Hainan examination paper

Tianjin examination paper

–

The rise of China

–

–

China has become the world champion in table tennis

Science, technology and the humanities

Pondering life through three writers’ narratives for children

Thoughts on a famous saying by George Bernard Shaw

Response to a famous author’s criticism of “Pedantry”

Views on “what water is like”

(continued)

Thoughts on the pathways and methods for gaining knowledge, mastering skills, or understanding principles

Solving problems as Thoughts inspired by they arise cutting diamonds

The tide and views of life

Thoughts on holding Thoughts on “A balanced water in your hands life”

Laoji makes his rounds

Different views on heroes

–

–

Song lyrics: The green leaf’s affection for the roots

Zhejiang examination paper

Please lay the ladder flat when not in use

Assorted Poems on the Rise – of Wu

Moving ahead at the curve

Anhui examination paper

4 changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination

55

 sets,  questions .%

 sets,  questions

.%

Frequency in examination papers

Percentage

.%

 sets,  questions



.%

 sets,  questions



.%

 sets,  questions



Note 1: The 2013 Tianjin examination paper adopted the format of a semi-assigned essay topic with provided materials. Note 2: From 2009–2012, the national examination papers included both the national Outline examination paper and the national New Curriculum Standards examination paper. On this foundation, in 2013, the national New Curriculum Standards examination paper was split into National New Curriculum Standards Examination Paper I and National New Curriculum Standards Examination Paper II; the language arts test question on the Hainan Province College Entrance Examination was selected from National New Curriculum Standards Examination Paper II. In the row for the national New Curriculum Standards examination paper, “Thoughts inspired by cutting diamonds” represents the materials from National New Curriculum Standards Examination Paper I, while “Tensions of classmate relations and friendship” represents the materials from National New Curriculum Standards Examination Paper II.





Examination paper

Table 4.5 (continued)

56 Guan Xianqiang (管贤强) et al.

4 changes to essay questions in the National College Entrance Examination

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means it can guide students to discover issues and analyze issues on the basis of their personal experiences, and from their own perspectives.

3.3 Emphasizing internal harmony In 2013, “A balanced life” (平衡的生活) in the Sichuan examination paper, “More important matters” (更重要的事情) in the Shanghai examination paper, “A conversation between father and son” (父子的对话) in the Hu’nan examination paper, and other prompts all emphasized a focus on people’s internal harmony. “Internal harmony” refers to the moderation of a person’s internal desires for fame, fortune, power, influence, romance and so on, approaching difficulties, setbacks and honors with a proper attitude that is neither obsequious or supercilious, and thereby expressing mutually friendly relationships with other people, society, nature, and so on. Internal harmony for the individual is the higher plane that must be reached for a harmonious society, consisting of harmony in one’s mental outlook, and harmony in one’s moral virtues. Reflections and interest in harmonious relationships between the self and the external, the self and the other, the self and society, and the self and the nation have the potential to become a trend for essay questions in the future.

3.4 Focusing on the ability to think Under the curriculum objective of “expression and communication,” the General High School Language Arts Curriculum Standards (普通高中语文课程 标准) include the requirements of “developing logical thinking in the practice of expression,” “stating personal opinions with a responsible attitude,” and “cultivating the spirit of scientific rationality.” These objectives are achieved primarily through a reliance upon reason-based, expository writing. High school students are situated in a golden period for the development and maturation of formal logical thinking and dialectical logical thinking. The College Entrance Examination bears the important responsibility of selecting talented individuals for university: consequently, an emphasis on exercising and testing rational thinking will be a trend for essay questions in the future.

Li Jia (李佳)

5 New trends in the protection of dialects In 2013, the craze for the protection of dialects not only continued to heat up, but also exhibited new trends of development, as actions was put into motion to protect the dialects of the Eastern region, and awareness for the protection of dialects in the Western and Central regions was continuously strengthened.1

1 Implementing actions for the protection of dialects in the Eastern region In 2013, in contrast with the previous pattern of public appeals and disunited campaigns for the protection of dialects in the Eastern region, in which linguists and other relevant figures predominated, government departments and public service organizations increasingly began taking the lead in the work for the protection of dialects, in the fields of basic education, the construction of language resource databases, public transportation, and even literary writing, et cetera, with a gradual surge in various normalized and institutionalized protection measures.

1.1 The focus by responsible departments on introducing dialects into basic education In late October 2013, at the “Exchange Activity for Working Reports on the Scientific Protection of Shanghai Language Resources in Townships (Communities),”

1 According to the National Outline for Urban System Planning (2005–2020) (全国城镇体系规划 纲要 [2005–2020年]) compiled by the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, the Eastern region comprises 10 provincial-level administrative areas, including Beijing (北京), Tianjin (天津), Hebei (河北), Shandong (山东), Jiangsu (江苏), Shanghai (上海), Zhejiang (浙江), Fujian (福建), Guangdong (广东), and Hainan (海南), as well as the Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan regions; the Central region includes the 6 provinces of Shanxi (山西), He’nan (河南), Anhui (安徽), Jiangxi (江西), Hubei (湖北), and Hu’nan (湖南); the Western region comprises 12 provincial-level administrative areas, including Shaanxi (陕西), Gansu (甘肃), Ningxia (宁夏), Inner Mongolia, Qinghai (青海), Tibet, Chongqing (重庆), Sichuan (四川), Guizhou (贵州), Yunnan (云南), Guangxi (广西), and Xinjiang (新疆); and the Northeastern region encompasses the three provincial-level administrative areas of Heilongjiang (黑龙江), Jilin (吉林), and Liaoning (辽宁). https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-005

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representatives of the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission explicitly declared that Shanghai will correctly, comprehensively, and appropriately handle the relationship between Putonghua and the Shanghai dialect, in accordance with national guidelines and policies; the residents of Shanghai are not to abandon the use of the Shanghai dialect when engaging in home education for their children, and can even make a conscious effort to speak the Shanghai dialect more often, to allow children to practice the dialect more; each township can also provide language services to those community residents who require it, to optimize the native language environment for the Shanghai dialect (Lu & Jiao 2013). The Shanghai Municipal Education Commission has already implemented a trial program to incorporate education in the Shanghai dialect into the recreational play, living and sports modules at kindergartens, allowing and encouraging teachers to appropriately use the Shanghai dialect in their interactions with the children, to establish the children’s language sensitivity for the Shanghai dialect, enabling them to listen and understand, open their mouths to speak, and be willing to speak, while continuing to use Putonghua during the learning modules. The trial program does not set any quantitative indices, and each kindergarten may participate under the principle of “voluntarism” depending on its respective circumstances; readers and tutorial texts in the Shanghai dialect have also been provided by the responsible departments of education, to provide recommendations in an appropriate manner, without instituting rigid guidelines. At the same time, Shanghai will also offer training in the Shanghai dialect for kindergarten teachers, incorporating dialect training into on-the-job training content for kindergarten teachers in the city, and establishing specialized training courses. In addition, Shanghai already has more than 100 primary and secondary schools offering education in the Shanghai dialect in the form of study courses, expanded courses, and other school-based curricula (Li, R. N. 2013). In another key bastion for Wu dialect, Suzhou (苏州), symbolic gains have been achieved with respect to the establishment of dialect teaching materials and teacher resources. In June 2013, the Suzhou Municipal Language Commission issued teaching materials for the Suzhou dialect, Learning and Speaking the Suzhou Dialect (学说苏州话) (Huang 2013). The text is divided into 42 lessons with a total of 800 phrases: each lesson includes six elements, comprising the source text, annotations, explanation of terms, grammar, cultural knowledge, and practice drills, comprehensively exhibiting the charm of Suzhou language and culture, and injecting a “shot in the arm” for the protection of the Suzhou dialect. The Publicity Department of the Suzhou Municipal Committee, the Municipal Language Commission, the Culture Office and the Bureau of Education jointly sponsored the first training course for “Tutors in the Suzhou Dialect” (苏州话辅导 师), with classes beginning in November 2013; the 54 educators who received

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training will serve as specialized instructors for Suzhou dialect courses at the city’s primary and secondary schools, teaching children to speak the standard Suzhou dialect.

1.2 Preliminary achievements in the construction of language resource databases In 2008, the State Language Commission initiated the construction of the “China Language Resource Audio Database” (中国语言资源有声数据库); over the last few years, some preliminary results have already been achieved. In September 2013, the “Jiangsu Province Language and Cultural Resource Database” (江苏省语言与文化资源库) officially came online. The system collected more than 320 hours of individual words, phrases, stories, and day-to-day conversation spoken aloud by dialect speakers from various regions in Jiangsu Province, representing the first such collection nationwide. The resource database also established a special program for “jointly building up resources,” through which netizens can engage in “commentary on resources,” expressing opinions as to the accuracy and authoritativeness of the data; they can also record and upload their own pronunciations, which can be permanently preserved in the resource database once reviewed and verified (Liu, B. Y. 2013). The trial programs in Xicheng (西城) District and Pinggu (平谷) District for the “China Language Resource Audio Database-Beijing Database” (中国语言资源有声 数据库—北京库), sponsored by the Institute of Linguistics at Beijing Language and Culture University, have already essentially completed their collections work; Mentougou (门头沟) District, Fangshan (房山) District, Tongzhou (通州) District, Shunyi (顺义) District, Changping (昌平) District, and other districts and counties have initiated the work of registering speakers to collect recordings, and the preliminary collection of materials is expected to be completed in September 2013 (Fan & Li 2013). The Shandong Province Language Commission initiated a “Project for the construction of the China Language Resource Audio Database – Shandong Database” (中国语言资源有声数据库山东库建设工程), and has established a specialized team of experts and a leadership team. 120 Shandong dialect survey sites have been preselected for the project as a whole, encompassing each district and county province-wide. The project will collect audio and video recording data for dialect pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, et cetera, and complete technical processing; it is expected to essentially be completed by 2018 (Shandong Province Department of Education website 2013).

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1.3 Use of dialects for station announcements on public transportation The actions by the city of Shanghai to comprehensively promote dialect services in the sphere of public transportation have been the most prominent. Prior to 2013, the city had implemented a trial program for station announcements in the Shanghai dialect on only seven public transportation lines. Starting in October 2013, the Shanghai Municipal Transportation Management Office began comprehensively extending station announcements in the Shanghai dialect to all public transportation lines. “Hello passengers, please hold tight to the handrail, and take care not to stumble. The next station is. . ..” When city residents ride on any transportation line in Shanghai, they will hear the sound of station announcements in the Shanghai dialect (Wang 2013). Many city residents have also made appeals through the media or letters to the mayor to increase station announcements in the Shanghai dialect on the Metro; netizens have also carried out field testing of technical problems broached by operators, arguing that the addition of station announcements in the Shanghai dialect will not present any technical problems whatsoever. Operators responded that they are currently considering the implementation of a trial program for broadcasting in huyu (沪语, ‘Shanghai dialect’), initially at select stations (Xu 2013). At year-end 2013, station announcements in the Shanghai dialect were added for the first time on the newly opened Metro Line 16 (Li & He 2013). Dialect services have not only seen continuous expansion within the sphere of intracity transportation: they have also started bursting into the limelight in air and railway services. Beginning on March 20, 2013, announcements in the Shanghai dialect were trialed at the boarding gates for two scheduled flights to Hong Kong and Wuhan (武汉) from Shanghai Pudong International Airport, smashing the convention of only using Putonghua and English for flight announcements. Pudong Airport stated that the trial promotion of announcements in the Shanghai dialect could serve to exhibit the characteristics of Shanghai’s indigenous culture: if the results of the trial and travelers’ experiences were relatively positive, there would be hope in the future to extend the announcements to more flights at the airport (Wang, Ma, & Shi 2013). Operations have also been set in motion with respect to the railways. Beginning on June 1, 2013, the Joint Inspection Hall of the Shanghai Railway Station officially added reminders in huyu on the foundation of Putonghua, Cantonese and English: after completing the exit formalities, passengers riding on the T99 Shanghai-Kowloon through train to Hong Kong could hear voice reminders and announcements alternately broadcast in Putonghua, Cantonese, the Shanghai dialect, and English, giving notice on the time of train departures,

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the documents required for boarding, and matters for attention while proceeding to Hong Kong (Liu, C. X. 2013). Station announcement services in Jiangsu dialects have spread from Suzhou to Nanjing (南京). On New Year’s Day in 2013, Nanjing Bus Line 2 began adopting station announcements in Putonghua plus the Nanjing dialect: the content included not only the station names, but also reminders such as yielding seats to elderly, infirm, disabled and pregnant persons. The Department of Public Transportation stated that this addition of the Nanjing dialect to station announcements was primarily in preparation for the Youth Olympic Games, as a display of Nanjing culture; the announcements were made first in Putonghua, and then repeated in the Nanjing dialect, thus promoting Nanjing culture without leaving out-of-towners unable to understand (Shen & Ge 2013). The scope of coverage for station announcements in Fujian dialects has also expanded from southern Fujian to eastern Fujian and the area of Puxian (莆仙). In July 2013, Bus Line 153 became the first route in Fuzhou City to implement a trial for station announcements in Putonghua and the Fuzhou dialect: this commencement garnered widespread praise from elderly passengers, and riders visiting Fuzhou from elsewhere were also able to learn the Fuzhou dialect from the place names (Fuzhou Daily 2013). As of the end of August in the same year, Fuzhou had already initiated trials for these station announcements on three public transportation routes, Line 310, Line 321, and Line 153 (Zheng 2013). In Putian (莆田) City, which is situated between southern Fujian and eastern Fujian, beginning on October 25, 2013, the Public Transportation Company officially implemented Putonghua and dialect station announcements on the urban-rural public transportation Line 20, which has a relatively high number of rural passengers; this was widely welcomed by rural passengers, and the Public Transportation Company stated that it would consider a gradual expansion in the future (Wu 2013).

1.4 The sudden rise of writings in dialect In the year 2013, Shanghai again led the entire nation with respect to dialect literary arts, as two grand literary events attracted the public’s gaze, with special coverage featured in Guangming Daily (光明日报) (Liu, X. D. 2013). The first was the novel Blossoms (繁花) written by Shanghai author Jin Yucheng (金宇澄) in huyu (沪语, ‘Shanghai dialect’), which was not only honored by reaching the top of the list for novels in that year, but also triggered a passionate discussion in critical circles on “how to introduce dialects into fiction”; the second was the staging

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of the huyu play “The Eternal Snow Beauty” (永远的尹雪艳), which was warmly received by the public. The guifanhua (规范化, ‘standardization’) of the characters used in the Shanghai dialect provided the conditions for the meteoric rise of writing in the Shanghai dialect. As early as March 2010, the local Shanghai newspaper Xinmin Evening News (新民晚报) launched a special column entitled “Shanghainese” (上海闲话), becoming the sole newspaper nationwide to convey the Shanghai dialect in the written form, lasting nearly four years to date. Below is an extract from a report in that column on “International Mother Language Day” (国际母语日) dated February 20, 2013 (Putonghua translations added in parentheses by the author) (Qi 2013):

具体讲到阿拉(咱们)上海闲话(上海话)个(的)情况,大家侪(都)能够看到, ‘Specifically, let’s address the situation of our Shanghainese, everyone can all see that,’ 近一抢(一阵儿),勿(不)管是辣辣(在)平面媒体,还是辣辣网络空间, ‘in the last little while, no matter if it’s in print media, or in online spaces,’ 上海闲话个出镜率侪比以往有所增加。 ‘the rate of appearance of Shanghainese has increased somewhat over the past.’ 特别值得注意个是,方言教材个编写、出版、使用, ‘It is particularly worth noting that the compiling, publication and use of dialect teaching materials,’ 目前有得一轮复苏个趋势。 ‘are currently experiencing a trend of resurgence.’ 方言是我伲(我们)每一个人内心深处最最亲近个闲话。 ‘For each one of us, dialect is the most intimate of speech at a deep place in our hearts.’ 我伲现在之所以要辣辣推广普通话个同时提倡科学传承方言文化, ‘The reason why we must currently popularize Putonghua while also promoting the scientific inheritance of dialect culture,’ 是因为和谐个社会离勿开繁荣个文化, ‘is because a harmonious society is inseparable from a flourishing culture,’ 包括薪火相传个乡土文化, ‘including passing down the torch of indigenous culture,’ 也离勿开新老上海人之间个互相理解搭仔(和)包容, ‘and is also inseparable from mutual understanding and inclusiveness between the people of Shanghai, young and old,’ 葛咾(所以)大家也要相互了解勿同个语言文化背景。 ‘so everyone must interactively learn about different linguistic and cultural backgrounds.’

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2 Strengthening awareness for the protection of dialects in the Central and Western regions In the Central and Western regions, past discourses on the protection of dialects have mostly revolved around the development of local film and television works. In 2013, discourses on the protection of dialects began moving into the sphere of public entertainment, as represented by variety shows; dialect education has also seen a meteoric rise at primary schools in Jiangxi, Hubei and other regions. Relatively influential, provincial-level media outlets in Shanxi, He’nan, Chongqing and other regions have published a series of reports, editorials and commentaries on the issue of protection of dialects, amply reflecting the beginnings of a significant boost to awareness of the protection of dialects in the Central and Western regions, close on the heels of the Eastern region.

2.1 Focus on the protection of dialects in variety shows In 2013, inspired by the Chinese Character Dictation Contest (汉字听写大会), which was wildly popular nation-wide, the famous variety show More Talk More Happy (越策越开心) on Hu’nan eTV produced a special segment, the “Dialect dictation contest” (方言听写大赛), which had strong reverberations for a time: Changsha Evening News (长沙晚报) produced a report in the Changsha (长沙) dialect, entitled “Wang Han can really speak the Hu’nan dialect, quite delightful” (汪涵马可开 策湖南方言, 蛮有味). In a discussion of the significance of the protection of dialects, the program’s producers stated that Hu’nan opera and Kunqu opera represent an intangible cultural heritage, but that their most important vehicles, the Changsha dialect and the Suzhou dialect, are not intangible cultural legacies: if the Changsha dialect were removed from Hu’nan opera, or if the Suzhou dialect were eliminated from Kunqu opera, all that would remain would be expression through rhythm, operating singing and dance; these forms would lose their essence, and could no longer be called opera, but merely “music” (Li & Tan 2013).

2.2 Attempts to introduce dialects into primary school curricula Although efforts to introduce dialects into the sphere of basic education at kindergartens, primary schools, secondary schools and so on in the Central and Western regions lag behind the Eastern region, a number of attempts were initiated in 2013.

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Beginning in the new spring term, a primary school music teacher wrote about preparing the Nanchang dialect song “Chinese mugwort and fried bacon” (藜蒿炒腊肉) as teaching materials for primary school music in a post on Weibo, drawing widespread attention for a period of time. Netizens commented that, although there is currently a need to popularize Putonghua, we also cannot let our dialects fade away: if Cantonese can be sung, then the Nanchang dialect can be sung, too. Yang Jianbao (杨建葆), an expert on folk customs, stated that the gradually increasing popularity of art in Nanchang dialect has quite a connection to the economic development of the city of Nanchang in recent years: with the proliferation of Nanchang yuansu (南昌元素, ‘Nanchang elements’) in the cultural sphere, he believes that more and more young people will consider it fashionable to speak the Nanchang dialect and sing ganyu (赣语, ‘Gan Chinese’) songs. Li Chuanxu (黎传绪), an expert in the study of local Nanchang culture, also believes that the inclusion of songs with local characteristics in teaching materials can allow more young people to come in contact with the Nanchang dialect, aiding in the popularization of the Nanchang dialect (Chen 2013). Jindongfang (金东方) Elementary School in Yichang (宜昌), Hubei Province, also began instructing students in the Yichang dialect in the 2013 spring and fall semesters, becoming the province’s first primary school to offer courses in dialect education. A school representative stated that, as a dialect with pronounced regional characteristics, it can sometimes perform functions which are difficult to achieve in Putonghua, and is a valuable cultural treasure. Beginning in April, the school selects one day per month as Yichang Dialect Day, on which teachers instruct children in the local dialect in the classroom, allowing them to better understand Yichang’s regional cultural characteristics (Hubei Daily 2013).

2.3 Focus on the protection of dialects in provincial-level media In 2013, media outlets focusing attention on the issue of the protection of dialects included not only civil newspapers, such as evening papers and metropolitan papers, but also various local daily papers; there were not only exclusive stories and interviews, but also editorials and commentaries, fully reflected the strengthened awareness for the protection of dialects. In mid-July 2013, Shanxi Evening News (山西晚报) launched a special column entitled, “Let’s talk about dialects” (方言大家谈), publishing a series of long reports and interviews, including “Will you teach your children to speak the Shanxi language?” (你会教孩子说山西话吗?) (Guo 2013a); “Are dialects incompatible

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with Putonghua?” (方言和普通话势不两立吗?) (Guo 2013b); “To speak or not to speak, that is the question” (说与不说, 是个问题) (Bai 2013), incisively combing through the various aspects and factors in the protection of the Shanxi dialect from the perspectives of children’s education, the relationship between dialects and Putonghua, linguistic context, and so on. The Shanxi Daily (山西日报) of August 7 featured a special commentary entitled “Protecting the Shanxi dialect is a responsibility” (保护山西方言是种责任) (Li, R. F. 2013), which expressed grave concerns for the rapid decline of the Shanxi dialect, and argued that, “The Shanxi dialect is the most beautiful of dialects, the most valuable of dialects, the dialect with the highest percentage of gold in terms of its cultural value.” The article called for an end to disdain for the Shanxi dialect, and emphatically declared that, “Protecting the Shanxi dialect is not only a necessity, it is a responsibility.” In late February 2013, Dahe Daily (大河报) published a series of reports, including “The ‘old native languages’ that we still speak together today” (今天, 我们还在一起说的那些‘老土话’) (Lu & Zhu 2013a) and “Who can correctly write down the ‘old native languages’ hanging around in our mouths?” (挂在嘴边的 ‘老土话’ 谁能准确写下来?) (Lu & Zhu 2013b), which successively focused on the issue of passing down the He’nan dialect. The “Micro Survey” (微调查) by @SinaHenan, cited in the report, shows that many netizens support the establishment of He’nan dialect courses in primary and secondary school classrooms; some enterprises have also declared a position, with thoughts of joining hands with Dahe Daily to publish books, thus inheriting the He’nan dialect and promoting traditional culture. The Chongqing Daily (重庆日报) of April 16, 2013, featured a long report entitled, “Speaking dialect, or Putonghua?” (说方言, 还是普通话?): on the one hand, the article compiled a detailed review of the relationship between Putonghua and dialects as well as the state of the protection of dialects in Shanghai, Guangzhou (广州), Xiamen (厦门) and other places; on the other hand, it analyzed the current evolving situation in the gradual decline of the Chongqing dialect, and appealed for the harmonious coexistence of the Chongqing dialect and Putonghua (Li & Huang 2013). Popularizing Putonghua while simultaneously protecting and inheriting dialects has gradually become a mainstream idea in contemporary society: it is necessary to interpose the issue of the protection of dialects into the current broad vision for our country’s political, economic, scientific, technological and cultural development, examining it from the overarching height of narrowing the gap between the Eastern and Western regions, reducing rural-urban disparity, achieving common prosperity, and so on.

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References Bai, Jie (白洁). 2013. Let’s talk about dialects, part III: To speak or not to speak, that is the question (方言大家谈之三: 说与不说, 是个问题). Retrieved from sxrb.com (山西新闻网), http://www.daynews.com.cn/culture/whdk/1838548.html, Jul. 23, 2013. Chen, Long (陈龙). 2013. The dialect song “Chinese mugwort and fried bacon” prepared as teaching materials, inciting a passionate discussion (方言歌曲‘ 藜蒿炒腊肉’入编教材引 热议). NCnews.com (南昌新闻网), http://www.ncnews.com.cn/ncxw/jrnc/t20130226_ 984537.htm, Feb. 26, 2013. Fan, Jiangyun (樊江云) & Li, Tianji (李天际). 2013. Beijing launches dialect cataloguing to establish audio database (北京启动方言整理建有声数据库). Beijing Youth Daily (北京青 年报), http://bjyouth.ynet.com/3.1/1306/26/8098218.html, Jun. 26, 2013. Fuzhou Daily (福州日报). 2013. Fuzhou Public Transportation Line 153 to implement trial for bilingual station announcements in Putonghua and the Fuzhou dialect (福州 153 路公交 试行普通话福州话双语报站). Retrieved from http://www.fj.xinhuanet.com/news/201307/30/c_116741744.htm, Jul. 30, 2013. Guo, Zhiying (郭志英). 2013a. Let’s talk about dialects, part I: Will you teach your children to speak the Shanxi language? (方言大家谈之一: 你会教孩子说山西话吗?). Retrieved from sxrb.com (山西新闻网), http://www.sxrb.com/sxwb/aban/18/1833758.html, Jul. 16, 2013. Guo, Zhiying (郭志英). 2013b. Let’s talk about dialects, part II: Are dialects incompatible with Putonghua? (方言大家谈之二: 方言和普通话势不两立吗?). Retrieved from sxrb.com (山西 新闻网), http://www.daynews.com.cn/culture/whkd/1836440.html, Jul. 19, 2013. Huang, Mei (黄梅). 2013. Gradual decline of the Wu dialect: Suzhou wins the first round in the “war for the defense” of language (吴方言日渐衰落 苏州打响语言‘保卫战’). Chinanews. com (中国新闻网), http://www.chinanews.com/cul/2013/06-28/4981816.shtml, Jun. 28, 2013. Hubei Daily (湖北日报). 2013. Yichang offers first dialect class (宜昌首开方言课). Apr. 2, 2013, p. 9. Li, Jicheng (李继成) & He, Yinghan (何颖晗). 2013. Subway Line 2 opened Line No. 16 yesterday to a bustling crowd. DongfengDaily.com (东方早报网), http://www.dfdaily. com/html/3/2013/12/30/1098417.shtml, Dec. 30, 2013. Li, Qian (李倩) & Tan, Qian (谭倩). 2013. Wang Han can really speak the Hu’nan dialect, quite delightful (涵马可开策湖南方言, 蛮有味). Changsha Evening News (长沙晚报), Nov. 5, 2013, p. A6. Li, Ruifeng (李锐锋). 2013. Protecting the Shanxi dialect is a responsibility (保护山西方言是种 责任). Shanxi Daily (山西日报), Aug. 7, 2013, p. C1. Li, Ruonan (李若楠). 2013. Shanghai kindergartens launch pilot program for Huyu education to pass down the dialect (上海幼儿园试点沪语教育传承方言). Xinmin Online (新民网), http://shanghai.xinmin.cn/msrx/2013/05/23/20403281.html, May 23, 2013. Li, Zhifeng (李志峰) & Huang, Qi’ao (黄琪奥). 2013. Speaking dialect, or Putonghua?” (说方言, 还是普通话?). Chongqing Daily (重庆日报), Apr. 16, 2013, p. 14. Liu, Beiyang (刘北洋). 2013. Jiangsu opens the country’s first language and cultural resource database, allowing more people to understand the local dialect (江苏开通全国首个语言 与文化资源库 让更多人了解当地方言). JSChina.com (中国江苏网), http://news.jschina. com.cn/system/2013/09/11/018566391.shtml, Sept. 11, 2013.

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Liu, Chunxia (刘春霞). 2013. Shanghai Railway port of entry adds Huyu boarding reminders, announcing notices in four languages (沪铁路口岸本月增沪语登车提示 四种语言告知注 意事项). Eastday.com (东方网), http://sh.eastday.com/m/20130605/u1a7438051.html, Jun. 5, 2013. Liu, Xunda (刘巽达). 2013. The charm of dialect behind the ‘Huyu literary arts’ (‘沪语文艺’背后 的方言魅力). Guangming Daily (光明日报), http://guancha.gmw.cn/2013-05/22/content_ 7709408.htm, May 22, 2013. Lu, Hong (路红) & Zhu Kun (朱琨). 2013a. The ‘old native languages’ that we still speak together today (今天, 我们还在一起说的那些‘老土话’). Dahe Daily (大河报), Feb. 18, 2013, p. A9. Lu, Hong (路红) & Zhu Kun (朱琨). 2013b. Who can correctly write down the ‘old native languages’ hanging around in our mouths? (挂在嘴边的‘老土话’ 谁能准确写下来?). Dahe Daily (大河报), Feb. 20, 2013, p. A10. Lu, Zihua (陆梓华) & Jiao, Wei (焦苇). 2013. Representative of the Municipal Language Commission issues a proposal for city residents to speak more “Shanghainese” at home and with children (市语委负责人向市民发出倡议 在家和小孩多讲讲‘上海闲话’). Xinmin Evening News (新民晚报), Oct. 30, 2013, p. A7. Qi, Qinglai (祁清籁). 2013. Tomorrow is “International Mother Language Day” (明天是‘国际母 语日’). Xinmin Evening News (新民晚报), Feb. 20, 2013, p. B4. Shandong Province Department of Education website (山东省教育厅网站). 2013. Notice on the launch of the project for the construction of the China Language Resource Audio Database – Shandong Database (关于启动中国语言资源有声数据库山东库建设工程的通 知). Shanghai Education–Language [2013] No. 7 (鲁教语字 [2013] 7 号), http://www. sdedu.gov.cn/jyt/zcwj/webinfo/2013/07/1387592474153150.htm, Jul. 19, 2013. Shen, Jiazhen (沈家珍) & Ge, Yan (葛妍). 2013. Public Transportation Line 2 adopts “bilingual” station announcements (2 路公交线采用‘双语’报站). Nanjing Daily (南京日报), Jan. 5, 2013, p. A4. Xu, Yun (徐运). 2013. Certain subway stations may use the Shanghai language in announcements (部分地铁站广播或用上海话). Shanghai Morning Post (新闻晨报), Sept. 12, 2013, p. A7. Wang, Jianhui (王建慧). 2013. All public buses to add Huyu station announcements beginning next month (公交车下月起全部增沪语报站). Shanghai Evening Post (新闻晚报), Sept. 12, 2013, p. 12. Wang, Wei (王蔚), Ma, Xinhua (马新华), & Shi, Yuqin (施玉琴). 2013. Pudong Airport tests the waters for announcements in Huyu (浦东机场试水沪语广播). Wenhui Daily (文汇报), May 28, 2013, p. 2. Wu, Weifeng (吴伟锋). 2013. Putian Bus Line 20 is first to implement dialect station announcements, welcomed by rural passengers (莆田 20 路公交车首推方言报站 受农村 乘客欢迎). FJsen.com (东南网), http://pt.fjsen.com/xw/2013-10/28/content_12851324. htm, Oct. 28, 2013. Zheng, Shuai (郑帅). 2013. Post-80s youth establish website to popularize the Fuzhou dialect, promoting bilingual station announcements on Fuzhou public transportation (80 后小伙 建网站推广福州话 推动榕公交双语报站). Fznews.com (福州新闻网), http://news.fznews. com.cn/shehui/2013-8-30/2013830pk7vk9pChh225756.shtml, Aug. 30, 2013.

Zhang Ripei (张日培)

6 Passionate discussions of the “Shanghai dialect” by the Shanghainese people In recent years, all sectors of society in Shanghai have continuously voiced appeals and calls for the “protection of the Shanghai dialect”; with ongoing attention and reporting by various major news media outlets, the “protection of the Shanghai dialect” has continuously heated up as a part of Shanghai linguistic life.

1 Public appeals 1.1 Relevant appeals presented by various sectors of society Appeals by linguists have gradually evolved into collective action. On December 25, 2011, the Shanghai Language Institute convened its 12th Member Conference and 2011 Annual Academic Meeting, at which 82 linguists jointly issued a “Proposal regarding the scientific protection of the Shanghai dialect” (关于科学 保护上海话的倡议书); on January 5, 2012, the full text was published in the Oriental Morning Post (东方早报). Representatives of the Municipal People’s Congress and members of the CPPCC committee have repeatedly proposed relevant recommendations through the “Two Sessions” (两会). In 2011–2013, the Municipal Language Commission a total of 14 “Two Sessions” proposals (or written suggestions) calling for the protection of the Shanghai dialect,1 representing more than 90% of the total number of proposals processed by the Municipal Language Commission in that threeyear period. The public has continuously raised relevant appeals through written letters sent to the government. In 2011–2013, the Municipal Language Commission received a total of 44 letters from the public addressing the issue of the Shanghai dialect, of which 37 called for the protection and promotion of the Shanghai dialect, while seven opposed the protection of the Shanghai dialect; these

1 This included 5 proposals in 2011, 6 proposals in 2013, and 3 proposals in 2013. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-006

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represented more than 85% of the total number of petition letters processed by the Municipal Language Commission in that three-year period. The majority of the letter-writers were ordinary residents, as well as one elderly Shanghainese person residing abroad.2 Prior to 2011, similar petition letters had appeared only sporadically, but they rapidly multiplied beginning in 2011.3 The positions they reflected primarily included: (1) Launching instruction in the Shanghai dialect between kindergarten and elementary and middle school; in order to improve the quality of instruction, there was even advocacy for teachers to hold a certificate of proficiency in the Shanghai dialect to take up positions; (2) Increased broadcasting in the Shanghai dialect by public media outlets, and even advocacy for the establishment of special channels and frequencies for the Shanghai dialect; (3) Increased transmissions in the Shanghai dialect for public services, such as public buses, the Metro, and other public transportation; (4) Elimination of regulations prohibiting dialect use on school campuses, along with advocacy for encouraging, promoting and even mandating dialect use during after-class periods on school campuses; (5) Standardization of dialect pronunciation and written characters, and creation of literary works using dialect.

1.2 Continued media interest in related topics Each of Shanghai’s media outlets, other domestic media outlets, and even the Shanghai offices of overseas media outlets have all shown unprecedented interest and enthusiasm regarding the “protection of the Shanghai dialect,” with an unending stream of relevant reports. Liberation Daily (解放日报), Wenhui Daily (文汇报), Xinmin Evening News (新民晚报), Shanghai Evening Post (新闻晚报), Youth Daily (青年报), Labor Daily (劳动报), Oriental Morning Post (东方早报), Radio and Television Station of Shanghai (上海广播电视台), Eastday.com (东方网), and other outlets have all issued numerous news reports on the “protection of the Shanghai dialect.” ChinaNews.com (中新网), ifeng.com (凤凰网), the Global Times (环球时报), Guangzhou Daily (广州日报), and other domestic media outlets have completed special reports. Issue No. 12, 2012, of China Newsweek (中国新闻周刊) published “A youth experiment for protecting the old Shanghai dialect” (保护老上海话的青年实验), and Issue No. 30, 2012, of Xinmin Weekly (新民周刊) featured “The Shanghai

2 This letter was included under the purview of the municipal government under special instructions by municipal leaders. 3 This included 19 letters in 2011, 12 letters in 2012, and 13 letters in 2013.

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dialect” (上海话), while Issue No. 44 published “The charm of dialects” (方言 的神味儿), respectively presenting incisive reports on the issue of the protection of the Shanghai dialect. The Daily Telegraph of the United Kingdom and other overseas media outlets have also issued relevant reports.

2 Government actions In accordance with national requirements for the “scientific protection of language resources,” the Shanghai Municipal Language Commission has adopted a series of measures for the protection of the Shanghai dialect.

2.1 Establishment of the Shanghai language resource audio database In accordance with the general directive of the State Language Commission on the establishment of language audio databases, Shanghai established 12 survey sites to carry out phonetic notation and Chinese character transliteration. The work was formally initiated in March 2011, and by year-end 2013, the survey and interview work had already been completed at 10 sites. The media produced tracking reports, in which the public expressed continuing interest. In particular, during the open recruitment period for speakers, the two survey sites in the central city districts sought to recruit 14 speakers, ultimately drawing registration by more than 1,000 city residents. However, recruitment efforts for survey sites in the outer suburbs were generally met with indifference, primarily for two reasons: first, the accelerated course of urbanization has sharply reduced the number of people who qualify; second, the dialects in the outer suburbs show a marked divergence from the urban dialect, and moreover, the residents of the outer suburbs do not feel a high degree of mental identification with the dialects they speak.

2.2 Reinforcing scientific research on acquisition and inheritance of the Shanghai dialect Guidance has been provided in six research projects, including the 2012 key research topic “The status and role of native languages and the construction of harmonious language policies” (母语的地位作用及和谐语言政策构建) of the State Language Commission, undertaken by the Shanghai Academy of Educational Science; the organization of an interscholastic joint task group to

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pursue a “Study of language development in preschool children in multilingual environments” (多语环境下学龄前儿童语言发展研究); the special establishment of a section for “Research on the protection of language resources” within the Guide to the “12th Five-Year” scientific research projects of the Shanghai Municipal Language Commission (上海市语委“十二五”科研项目指 南); as well as the launch of the “Study on the construction of Shanghai’s linguistic and cultural ecology” (上海语言文化生态建设研究) and the “Survey on the usage of the Shanghai dialect in the Shanghai region and public attitudes toward language” (上海地区上海话使用状况及社会语言心理调查), to comprehensively engage in relevant research.

2.3 Launching exploration and practices for the perpetuation and protection of the Shanghai dialect Family and community are the primary channels for the acquisition of native dialects: in conjunction with the Institute for Lifelong Education of the Municipal Education Commission, the Municipal Language Commission supervised the launch of a pilot program for the establishment of special subdistricts for the protection and perpetuation of the Shanghai dialect in the Nanjing West Road (南京 西路) Subdistrict in Jing’an (静安) District and Jinhui (金汇) Town in Fengxian (奉贤) District, combined with the establishment of a community system for lifelong education, to build community platforms for the transmission and use of the Shanghai dialect.

2.4 Launching activities for experiential education in the Shanghai dialect In 2005, kindergartens across Shanghai universally offered a course on “Indigenous Shanghainese culture” (上海乡土文化), with content including nursery rhymes in the Shanghai dialect. On this foundation, in 2013, the Municipal Language Commission and Municipal Education Commission selected a number of kindergartens in the city center to conduct a pilot program in which instructors were allowed to use the Shanghai dialect to interact with children during the “recreational play,” “sports” and “living” modules, to increase the children’s opportunities to practice listening and speaking; however, it was stipulated that Putonghua must continue to be used during the “learning” modules. This event attracted interest on a national scale, becoming one of the candidate events for the “Top Ten National Language Events in 2013” jointly selected by the Institute of

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Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education and Sina.com. In relevant surveys conducted by the Municipal Language Commission and the Municipal Bureau of Statistics on a city-wide scale, the percentage of those who approved reach 86.7%, and the majority of new Shanghai residents also held an approving attitude.

2.5 Offering training courses in the Shanghai dialect On September 7, 2012, the Shanghai Office of the China News Service (中新社) published a report entitled “The rise of the ‘Shanghai language inheritance craze’ in Shanghai; seeking to regain the vitality of years past” (上海兴起 ‘沪语 传承热’, 欲找回当年生机) on the first-ever Shanghai dialect training course offered by the Shanghai Superior Court, in the hope of thus strengthening communication between security cadres, police and the public, and narrowing the mental distance between them.

3 Public actions 3.1 Academic circles For many years, the Shanghai University professor and linguist Qian Nairong (钱乃荣) has campaigned for the “protection of the Shanghai dialect,” successively announcing the “Shanghai dialect phoneticization plan” (上海话拼音方案), “Computer input method for the Shanghai dialect” (上海话电脑输入法), and other achievements; Elementary school students speaking Shanghai dialect (小学生 学说上海话), which he wrote and published in 2012, became a focus of the media. On February 8, 2012, Shanghai Morning Post (新闻晨报) reported that several post80s IT guys in Shanghai had created their own mobile phone input method for Huyu (沪语, ‘Shanghai language’). While taking a supportive attitude, Qian Nairong also expressed his concerns regarding the use of non-standard characters in this input method, and organized graduate students to correct the characters used in more than one thousand lexical entries. Qian Nairong believes that the Shanghai dialect has a severe case of confusion in character usage, which must be standardized as soon as possible, lest it give rise to never-ending troubles. Qian Cheng (钱程), the deputy director of the Shanghai Farce Troupe and a folk vocal arts performer, wrote Learning to speak the Shanghai dialect (学说上 海话), Studying Shanghainese with Qian Cheng (跟钱程学上海闲话), and Qian Cheng’s Shanghai accent (钱程的上海腔调), which were published as a collection

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in 2012. In 2013, he recorded and distributed a CD-ROM of classic children’s stories from around the world narrated in the Shanghai dialect. During a survey on the daily lives of elementary and middle school students in the city, the Institute of Urban and Demographic Studies of the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences specially added a survey on the state of their proficiency in the Shanghai dialect, concluding that more than 40% of local Shanghai students were unable to speak the Shanghai dialect. This sparked reports by media outlets. A joint study by the biologist Li Hui (李辉), the linguist Tao Huan (陶寰) and other figures at Fudan University found that Dônđäc (偒傣话, Dangdai hua), the dialect of Jinhui Town, Fengxian District, is the “language” with the world’s highest number of vowels; their results were published in the journal Science in 2012, attracting media attention. Li Hui and the other figures issued certain proposals for the protection of Dônđäc, and compiled and published a dialect textbook entitled Dônđäc (偒傣话). Between 2011 and 2013, the Shanghai Association of Language Workers (上海 市语言文字工作者协会) held a series of special academic activities on the issue of the “scientific protection of the Shanghai dialect.”

3.2 Media As far back as March 7, 2010, Xinmin Evening News (新民晚报) established a special column entitled “Shanghainese” (上海闲话). 2012 ushered in the 100th issue since its founding, and a highly influential commemorative seminar was held in April of that year. The human-interest program News Town (新闻坊) of the Radio and Television Station of Shanghai was broadcast in the Shanghai dialect every Saturday and Sunday following its introduction on June 23, 2012. The host presided using the Shanghai dialect, but the video footage was still captioned in Putonghua. In September 2013, broadcasting in Putonghua was resumed, but a separate program entitled Let’s All Help Out (大家帮侬忙) was created, with broadcasting in the Shanghai dialect. In addition, the number of Shanghai dialect programs offered on all the channels and frequencies of the Radio and Television Station of Shanghai has increased to some extent: some programs captioned in Putonghua have also specially created segments for “Learning to speak the Shanghai dialect” (学说上海话). The hosts of many of the entertainment programs captioned in Putonghua frequently mix in the use of the Shanghai dialect to express a specific meaning or clown around and make wisecracks during the broadcasting process.

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3.3 Schools Many elementary and middle schools have spontaneously begun offering classes in the Shanghai dialect as part of their expanded curricula and school-based curricula. In 2013, the Municipal Language Commission organized the “City-wide survey on the state of language course offerings at elementary and middle schools and kindergartens” (全市中小学幼儿园语言类课程设置情况普查); the results showed that a total of 268 elementary and middle schools offered classes in the Shanghai dialect, with the offering rate reaching 25.4%.

3.4 Organizations Folk Opera Radio of Shanghai Radio Station and other organizations put together the Grand Shanghai Dialect Contest (上海话大奖赛); the Shanghai Association of Language Workers and other groups organized the “Charming Chinese” (魅力 汉语) competition, the content of which included a Shanghai nursery rhymes contest; Shanghai Morning Post (新闻晨报) organized prize competition activities for the Shanghai dialect, and so on. The city residents enthusiastically participated in these activities, including not only Shanghai elders and Shanghai youths, but also new Shanghai residents, and even some foreigners.

3.5 Communities Nanjing West Road Subdistrict in Jing’an District has thoroughly mined and integrated the community’s cultural resources, and has committed to holding “Chat Club” (嘎三胡俱乐部) activities, providing community residents with a community platform for learning and exchanges in the Shanghai dialect; Jinhui Town in Fengxian District organized experts to establish a Dônđäc Pronunciation Database and comprehensively collect information on the local Jinhui language and culture for inclusion in a local gazette, to comprehensively archive and preserve Jinhui’s language resources; Changfeng (长风) Subdistrict in Putuo (普陀) District has committed to holding the study program “Shanghai language and life for little minds” (小脑袋的沪语生活) during the winter and summer vacations, providing the children of new Shanghai residents with instruction in the Shanghai dialect and other language services; Huayang (华阳) Subdistrict in Changning (长宁) District has incorporated activities for the protection and inheritance of the Shanghai dialect into the construction of community culture, and has established a community troupe for Shanghai opera; Xujiahui (徐家汇) Subdistrict in Xuhui

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(徐汇) District established the program “Huang Yongsheng’s folk opera singalong” (黄永生曲艺大家唱) at the Community Cultural Center, regularly holding Shanghai story-singing and other activities to pass down the folk vocal arts.

3.6 The cultural sphere Between April and May 2012, “Shanghai: Love-Shanghainese nursery rhymes children’s chorus concert” (上海:·爱浓—沪语童谣童声合唱音乐会) was performed at the Opera Hall of the Shanghai Oriental Art Center, creating a popular hit among the city residents and drawing a tide of favorable comments. The vocal recital included a handpicked selection of 18 Shanghai nursery rhymes, a number of Jiangnan folk songs, as well as segments from “Spring Morning” (春晓), “Autumn Evening in the Mountains” (山居秋暝), and other Tang and Song poems, performed by the Shanghai Radio Children’s Chorus in the Shanghai dialect, with symphonic accompaniment. It was praised by all sectors of Shanghai society as a brilliant cultural work displaying Shanghai’s local characteristics, such as had been rarely seen in recent years.

3.7 The public services sector By year-end 2011, relevant departments in Shanghai had already implemented a pilot program adding station announcements in the Shanghai dialect for three public bus lines in Pudong (浦东). In 2012–2013, relevant departments conducted an extensive survey study on how to resolve relevant technical issues such as “concurrent broadcasting of a large amount of content in Putonghua, English, and the Shanghai dialect with a short intervening distance between stations,” forming a plan to expand the pilot program. The plan specified that, apart from public bus lines, the pilot program would also be implemented on rail transit lines; for stations with a short intervening distance, announcements would be made only in Putonghua and the Shanghai dialect, and no announcements would be made in English. Metro Line 16 opened at year-end 2013, implementing a pilot program for broadcasting in the Shanghai language. In March 2012, Shanghai Airlines began adding broadcasting services in the Shanghai dialect to its scheduled flights. Beginning in May 2013, Pudong Airport added announcements in the Shanghai dialect at the boarding gates for two flights from Shanghai to Hong Kong and to Wuhan (武汉). During the 2014 Spring Festival transportation rush, the Shanghai Airport services hotline

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96990 presented special inquiry services with phone operators speaking the Shanghai dialect for any difficulties.

4 Different viewpoints There are many viewpoints regarding the issue of the protection of the Shanghai dialect: (1) Advocating the protection of the Shanghai dialect without denying the importance of tuipu (推普, ‘promoting Putonghua’), on the foundation that Putonghua has already been popularized and the dialect barrier to social interactions has already been eliminated. (2) In daily linguistic interactions between people aged 30–40 and in local communities, the Shanghai dialect still holds an absolute advantage. Children and adolescents lack channels for learning the Shanghai dialect, a situation that has caused concerns. (3) Putonghua and dialect should each play their own role at different levels of language usage: Putonghua should be used in high-level settings for language usage, such as government affairs, school education and teaching, and media communications, while the Shanghai dialect should be used in low-level settings for language usage, such as interactions in family and community life. (4) It is necessary to rethink the regulations prohibiting the use of dialect in daily after-school interactions between teachers and students and among students at school. To a certain extent, regulations “prohibiting the use of dialect at schools” and requiring “the use of Putonghua as the language of school campuses, without exception” have altered the language usage habits of children and adolescents. (5) Opposing the promotion of Putonghua, and arguing that the government’s promotion of Putonghua has given rise to a crisis for the Shanghai dialect.

5 Considerations and proposals In Shanghai, “protecting and inheriting the Shanghai dialect” is an old topic: as early as 2004, many relevant proposals by members of the municipal CPPCC committee had appeared, accompanied by the thoughts of relevant experts and scholars. In 2005, the China Democratic League also passed a related party resolution. The reasons why such a high tide emerged after 2012 primarily include the following:

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First, low proficiency in the Shanghai dialect among adolescents provoked concerns. At present, among students in Shanghai’s basic education stage, the number of migrant children has already surpassed the number of children of original residents; within the permanent resident population of 23.47 million, the non-native population already accounts for 40%. Within Shanghai society, concerns for the future fate of the Shanghai dialect are pervasive. Second, the city residents seek cultural uniqueness. Dialects are a symbol of regional culture, and within the context of increasing uniformity in the hard development of domestic cities, the Shanghai dialect has become a cultural identifier for the Shanghainese people. This is the fundamental reason why the incoming permanent resident population (new Shanghai residents) also approve of the protection of the Shanghai dialect. For this reason, it is critical to strengthen research on the following issues: First, education policies and usage policies with respect to dialect (the Shanghai dialect) must be clarified; they should also have operability, and cannot linger within the sweeping formulation of “promoting Putonghua without eliminating dialects.” Second, the government should provide guidance for actions to protect the Shanghai dialect. Third, many academic issues in relation to the Shanghai dialect still await further research, including whether the Shanghai dialect actually has standards; whether the Shanghai dialect is necessary; whether the standardization of pronunciation and written characters is possible; whether the Shanghai dialect encompasses a written language; and so on.

Li Xianle (李现乐), Gong Yujuan (龚余娟) and Liu Song (刘松)

7 The state of language services in the healthcare industry Doctor-patient disputes have occasionally arisen in recent years, and in some cases, conflict and friction between doctors and patients have given rise to serious consequences. According to relevant media reports, language and communication have been problems in more than 80% of cases involving tensions in the doctor-patient relationship and conflict or clashes between doctors and patients. This survey study was conducted to examine what role is played by language in doctor-patient communications, and how language usage should be improved.

1 Survey design The members of the task group conducted this survey study between December 2013 and January 2014. The scope of the survey encompassed 10 cities, including Nanjing (南京), Hefei (合肥), Heze (菏泽), Urumqi, et cetera, in the 4 provinces or regions of Jiangsu (江苏), Anhui (安徽), Shandong (山东) and Xinjiang (新疆), involving more than 50 administrative offices or work stations in over 30 hospitals, and including several categories, from general to specialized, and from Grade III-A to ordinary community hospitals, et cetera. The emphasis during the survey period was the completion of survey questionnaires: one section was directed toward medical personnel, primarily including doctors, nurses, and hospital administrative staff, as well as window attendants, et cetera (generally referred to below as “medical personnel”); the other section was directed toward patients and family members (generally referred to below as “patients”). The survey collected a total of 950 valid questionnaires, including 560 samples from medical personnel, and 390 samples from patients and family members. At the same time, the members of the task group also conducted interviews at several hospitals,

Note: This study is one of the phase achievements under the project “Studies on language services in the context of the service economy: perspectives on the language resource outlook and the economics of language” (服务经济背景下的语言服务研究: 语言资源观与语言经济学 的视角) (Project No.: 12YSC 740050) of the Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Foundation of the Ministry of Education. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-007

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engaging in profound exchanges with many medical personnel and patients, and obtaining a number of interview transcripts. In addition, during the field investigations, the survey personnel also collected some archival documents and materials, primarily including regulatory texts for hospital administration related to spoken and written language, audiovisual materials, and so on. This report was completed on the basis of analysis of the results of the above survey.

2 Survey results 2.1 Language services by medical personnel Language services by medical personnel comprise two aspects, spoken language and written language. With respect to spoken language, we primarily examined the use of courteous language and specialized terminology by medical personnel; with respect to written language, we primarily examined the issue of writing in medical records, prescriptions, and other medical documentation.

2.1.1 Spoken language services The primary channel for doctor-patient communications is through face-to-face spoken conversations. As shown in Table 7.1, among the surveyed medical personnel, 70.9% of individuals indicated that they frequently used courteous language, while only 6.6% of individuals indicated that they rarely or never used courteous language; 93.8% of individuals indicated that they rarely or never used offensive language.

Table 7.1: Usage of courteous language and offensive language. Courteous language Always used Frequently used Sometimes used Rarely used Never used Total

Number of people

Percentage

  

. . .

  

. . .

Offensive language Always used Frequently used Sometimes used Rarely used Never used Total

Number of people

Percentage

  

. . .

  

. . .

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Regarding the use of specialized terminology, as shown in Table 7.2, among the surveyed medical personnel, 32.3% of individuals indicated that they frequently used specialized terminology in exchanges with patients. One doctor stated: “Modern science and technology are so advanced that, once patients are aware of their medical condition, they will generally conduct a search online; therefore, if one uses specialized terminology when communicating with them, they will generally be able to understand; after all, everyone is extremely concerned about their own state of health.” In addition, 25% of individuals indicated that they would decide whether to use specialized terminology based on the patient’s level of education. One doctor stated: “For patients with a high level of education, when discussing their medical condition, I use more specialized terminology, and I design several treatment plans for them to choose from; but for those with a relatively low level of education, particularly when treating rural residents, I try to use specialized terminology as little as possible; sometimes I will even use visual analogies, so that they can understand their medical condition.” Table 7.2: Usage of specialized terminology. Use of specialized terminology Always used Frequently used Sometimes used Rarely used Never used Determined on the basis of patient’s level of education Total

Number of people

Percentage

      

. . . . . . .

The survey found that specialized terminology not suited to local usage caused perplexities or even difficulties among patients. For instance, while questioning family members about the patient’s medical history, one doctor said: “Has the patient experienced auditory hallucinations, delusions of reference, or persecutory delusions?” The family members were dumbfounded and did not know how to answer. The doctor immediately adapted the phrasing: “Has the patient ever heard someone speaking to him, when no one is there? Has he ever felt, when someone else does something or says something, that it is aimed at him or related to him? Does he express anxiety or fear, tightly close the doors and windows when in a room, or carry self-defense products with him?” On hearing these words, the family members were finally able to truthfully report the patient’s condition.

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2.1.2 Written language services The use of written language primarily involves medical records, prescriptions, medical certificates, doctors’ instructions, and so on. The phenomenon of “scrawled” medical records with illegible written content has been met with universal criticism by society. As shown in Table 7.3, among the surveyed medical personnel, 27.1% of individuals believed that they used neat handwriting when writing out medical records and prescriptions; 49.3% of individuals believed that their handwriting was relatively neat; 19.3% of individuals believed that their handwriting was somewhat illegible; and only 1.1% of individuals believed that their handwriting was very illegible. Table 7.3: Neatness of handwriting when writing out medical records. Neatness Very neat Relatively neat Somewhat illegible Very illegible Computer input Total

Number of people

Percentage

     

. . . . . .

The surveyed doctors believed that there were several reasons for the presence of illegible handwriting in medical records and prescriptions. For instance, some individuals stated that medical records were written for patients to read, but were provided more for the doctor to review during the next medical visit; other individuals believed that, at the point when medical records are written, an oral explanation has already been given, thus the medical records themselves have little significance for the patient; other individuals stated that they had a large number of patients, so their energy was chiefly directed toward listening attentively to the patient’s condition and giving a diagnosis, and they had no time to attend to issues of writing in medical records and prescriptions. However, as shown in Table 7.4, when encountering situations where the patient cannot understand the medical records, more than 90% of medical personnel believed that it was necessary to provide a clear explanation to the patient; only 8.4% of medical personnel believed that the patient does not need to understand the medical records, and that it was unnecessary to provide an explanation.

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Table 7.4: Attitudes to situations where patients cannot read medical records. View

Number of people

Percentage



.



.



.



.

The patient need not understand; it is acceptable as long as medical personnel can understand, and there is no need for explanation It is necessary to provide a clear explanation to the patient, but medical personnel need not rewrite it Not only is it necessary to provide a clear explanation to the patient, medical personnel must also rewrite medical records and prescriptions Total

2.2 Language services in hospital administration Language services in hospital administration primarily refer to the formulation and implementation of rules and standards for hospital language, as well as the use of spoken and written language in public areas.

2.2.1 Formulation and implementation of language rules and standards The majority of hospitals had instituted regulatory systems related to spoken and written language. Examples include requirements for doctors regarding “civilized language and cordial service,” “use of standard, coherent and clear diction in reports, completely filling out all items,” as well as “regular handwriting and clear signature or seal in reports.” Among the surveyed hospitals, nearly one half (45.4%) of hospitals had instituted language rules and standards; however, just under one quarter (22.9%) of hospitals had implemented a regulatory system as part of day-to-day administration, accompanied by corresponding measures for reward and punishment (see Table 7.5).

2.2.2 Use of spoken and written language in public areas The use of spoken and written language in hospitals’ public areas is primarily reflected in directional signs, public service announcements, creation of the healthcare atmosphere, and other aspects.

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Table 7.5: Formulation and implementation of language regulations. Language regulations in place

Frequency

Percentage

In place Not in place Unknown

  

. . .

Total



.

Implementation status Implemented Not implemented Unknown No formulation of relevant regulations Total

Frequency

Percentage

   

. . . .



.

Many hospitals use a high number of directional signs. In particular, largescale general hospitals, administrative offices, and complex, multistory buildings are in greater need of such language services. Directional signs include plane text, a combination of text and images, a combination of text and symbols, and other forms (As shown in Figure 7.1). Some posters and notices (such as “Hospital admission instructions” or “Safety instructions”) also provide information that patients need to understand or pay attention to.

(DISCOVERY HD CT ROOM)

(18 Ward Area, Emergency Ward)

(IV Room Observation Room)

Figure 7.1: Examples of directional signs.

Public service posters are also a type of language services provided in many hospitals. Their content varies widely: some disseminate basic medical knowledge, such as: “How mental health patients maintain a proper attitude,” or “Sleep and health”; some introduce the symptoms and methods of prevention for common diseases, for instance: “What is chronic bronchitis” or “How to prevent chronic bronchitis”; and some draw attention to the core personnel in healthcare or publicize good people and good deeds, et cetera. Such language services are often placed at prominent locations in hospitals in the form of

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billboards, to draw more attention from patients and influence their understanding of the hospital. Spoken and written language also plays a role in the construction of the healthcare environment. For instance, the wording of encouraging and suggestive reminders on hospital posters can create a hospital ambience of harmoniously striving to do better, producing a positive impact on patients’ moods during medical visits. One Grade III specialized psychiatric hospital posted the following words of encouragement: If the ocean had no reefs, the beautiful spray could not surge upward; a life without twists and turns would have no flashes of resplendence. Life is like the string of a violin: if it is wound too tightly, it cannot pluck forth the vivid tone; if it is strung too loosely, it cannot give forth the exquisite poetry of music. On the path of life, people who experience setbacks will not necessarily achieve success; but those who do achieve success have certainly experienced many setbacks.

However, similar reminders are not often seen. Some hospitals also use textual works of art (such as calligraphy) to create a tranquil and elegant atmosphere. In comparison with the ice-cold medical equipment and the bustling doctors and nurses, to a certain extent, these works of art can alleviate patients’ feelings of nervousness or anxiety during medical visits. However, such language services are also relatively rare. Many hospitals put up posters on hospital regulations, et cetera, thus emphasizing hospital administration as well as the working attitude and sense of responsibility among medical personnel; this also helps patients form a positive opinion toward the hospital.

2.3 Patient evaluations and responses to language services 2.3.1 Evaluations of spoken language services by medical personnel Among the surveyed patients, 52.8% of individuals believed that medical personnel frequently used courteous language (see Table 7.6). However, as shown in Table 7.1, 70.9% of medical personnel believed that they always or frequently used courteous language; the difference between the two is nearly 20 percentage points. This indicates that medical personnel and patients have different experiences and evaluations when faced with the same language behavior. This may be one reason for the emergence of problems in doctor-patient communications. Furthermore, with respect to the courteous language used by doctors, 67.2% of the surveyed patients expressed high or moderate satisfaction, while 7.7% of individuals stated that they were somewhat dissatisfied or very dissatisfied.

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Table 7.6: Patient ratings and evaluations on use of courteous language by medical personnel. Usage

Number of people

Always used Frequently used

 

Sometimes used Rarely used

 

Never used Total

 

Percentage Evaluation . Very satisfied . Somewhat satisfied . Normal . Somewhat dissatisfied . Very dissatisfied . Total

Number of people

Percentage

 

. .

 

. .

 

. .

10% of the surveyed patients stated that they always or frequently encountered use of offensive language by medical personnel, while 11.8% of individuals stated that they sometimes encountered such circumstances (see Table 7.7). However, as shown in Table 7.1, only 6.2% of medical personnel believed that they sometimes or frequently used offensive language: this differs fairly widely from patients’ perceptions. When faced with circumstances of the use of offensive language by medical personnel, 35.9% of patients would immediately put a halt to it; 29.5% of individuals would choose to passively endure it; 28.5% of individuals stated that they could understand it; and only 6.2% of individuals held an indifferent attitude (see Table 7.7). 96.7% of the surveyed patients believed that the tone and attitude of medical personnel played an important role in easing doctor-patient disputes. Table 7.8 shows that, under equivalent healthcare conditions, 81.5% of people would be willing to spend more money to go to hospitals with better language usage and doctor attitudes for medical visits. One patient stated: “I think that language services are really necessary-patients are already really suffering from physical pain, and if offensive or indifferent language is added on top, it adds insult to injury. I hope that medical workers can truly be a little gentler, a little more patient, and smile a little more! Social harmony would move a step further!”

2.3.2 Responses to written language services by medical personnel In response to the issue of being unable to clearly read or understand medical records and prescriptions, 64.1% of the surveyed patients stated that they always or frequently encounter such circumstances, while 27.2% of individuals stated

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Table 7.7: Situations of use of offensive language by medical personnel and patient responses. Use of offensive language

Number of Percentage Patient response people

Always encountered



Frequently encountered



Sometimes encountered



Rarely encountered Never encountered Total

  

Number of Percentage people

. High impact on mood, immediately put a halt to it . Impact on mood, but no choice but to endure it . Understandable given that so many patients are seen every day . Indifferent, acceptable as long as the illness . can be treated . Total



.



.



.



.



.

Table 7.8: Patient selection of hospitals with differing service attitudes. View Hospitals with relatively good language usage and doctor attitudes Hospitals with ordinary language usage and doctor attitudes Any hospital is acceptable Total

Number of people

Percentage



.



.

 

. .

that they sometimes encounter this issue (see Table 7.9). In patients’ views, the principal reasons for illegibility and unintelligibility in medical records and prescriptions were illegible handwriting and use of specialized terminology; use of foreign-language acronyms, non-standard simplified characters, and miswritten characters also gave rise to this problem (see Table 7.10). When unable to understand medical records and prescriptions, 57.2% of individuals would request a clear explanation by medical personnel; 9.5% of patients would also request that medical personnel rewrite the documents; and 27.4% of individuals stated that they would not make inquiries with medical personnel (see Table 7.9).

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Table 7.9: Patient experiences and responses on being unable to understand medical records. Experience

Number of Percentage Response people

Always encountered



Frequently encountered



Sometimes encountered



Rarely encountered Never encountered Total

  

Number of Percentage people

. Would request not only that medical personnel give a clear explanation but also that they rewrite it . Would request merely that medical personnel give a clear explanation . Would not inquire of medical personnel; acceptable as long as hospital doctors, nurses and staff can understand it . No comment



.



.



.



.



.

. . Total

Table 7.10: Reasons why patients could not understand medical records*. Reason Illegible handwriting Use of specialized terminology Use of foreign-language acronyms Use of non-standard simplified characters Use of miswritten characters

Frequency

Percentage

    

.% .% .% .% .%

* This question was multiple choice with multiple selection, thus the cumulative percentages exceed 100%.

2.3.3 Evaluation of language services in hospital administration The survey shows that patients had very high approval for language services in the category of directional signs, with 92.6% of individuals believing that they were very useful or useful; patients also placed a relatively high emphasis on language services in the category of public service posters, with 40.3% of

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individuals stated that they were always or frequently interested, and 40.0% of individuals stating that they were sometimes interested (see Table 7.11).

Table 7.11: Evaluations and responses to written language in hospital administration. Directional signs category

Number of people

Very useful Useful

 

Normal



Essentially useless Completely useless Total

  

Percentage Public service poster category . Always interested . Frequently interested . Sometimes interested . Occasionally interested . Never interested . Total

Number of people

Percentage

 

. .



.



.



.



.

3 Reflections and recommendations 3.1 Strengthening awareness of language services among medical personnel Within the specific environment of hospitals, while providing core healthcare services, medical personnel also provide accompanying language services. The survey shows that there is a relatively large difference between doctors and patients regarding their understanding and evaluations of courteous language and poor language behavior among medical personnel. Some language behavior viewed as unproblematic from a doctor’s perspective may be conduct that produces a negative impact on patients. Therefore, medical personnel should strengthen their awareness of language services and their communication skills, to show patients greater concern through language. Hospitals and relevant administrative departments should also actively publicize and enforce the Standards for language and conduct in healthcare services (医疗服务语言行 为规范), Standards for writing medical records and prescriptions (病历处方书写 规范), and other industry standards and codes of conduct, and offer relevant training in speech communications strategies where appropriate.

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3.2 Creating a good healthcare environment as part of hospital administration Directional signs and public service posters in hospitals are extremely important to patients: however, there are currently many problems with these two categories of language services, such as nonsensical phrases, ambiguous meaning, improper use of punctuation, lack of necessary foreign language translations, and so on. Regarding the example of foreign language translations, some hospitals provide translations next to the “High-Voltage Room,” while common signs such as “Emergency Room” have no corresponding foreign language translation. In addition, hospitals should also actively develop new forms of language services, striving to create a relaxed and harmonious healthcare environment for patients, to alleviate patients’ feelings of nervousness and anxiety with respect to medical visits as far as possible.

3.3 Increasing understanding and tolerance between doctors and patients Language-based interactions are the primary channel for doctor-patient communications. When seeking a doctor’s advice, patients are physically ill and anxious for a cure: they are experiencing relatively heavy physical and mental pressure, and thus are fairly sensitive to language usage by medical personnel. Medical personnel also universally experience relatively heavy work pressure and high intensity of labor, which can easily give rise to expression of fatigue in their language and neglect of the quality of language services. Therefore, both doctors and patients should increase their mutual understanding and tolerance: medical personnel must improve their understanding of the secondary mental impact of language in healthcare, while patients must maintain a good attitude in their communications with medical personnel, as far as possible.

Wu Xiaojun (武小军)

8 Linguistic life for migrant workers of Sichuan origin Population flow is an important social phenomenon in our country. As an accompaniment to the continuous push for industrialization and urbanization in our country, the influx and reflux of people pervading the Eastern, Central and Western regions have become increasingly frequent, exhibiting the characteristics of multi-destination flow, conflict, and assimilated coexistence. Population flow has given rise to intense clashes between dialects and Putonghua, not only impacting the language of the migrants themselves, but also causing changes to the language environment within social groups, and leading to a diversity of changes in contemporary Chinese society and language.

1 Basic state of affairs In the period from 2010–2012, we conducted three language surveys, examining the situation of language usage by migrant workers of Sichuan origin in Beijing (北京); Shanghai (上海); Ningbo (宁波) and Cixi (慈溪) in Zhejiang (浙江); Guangzhou (广州), Zhuhai (珠海), Shenzhen (深圳), and Zhongshan (中山) in Guangdong (广东); Chengdu (成都), Chongqing (重庆) in Sichuan (四川); Xi’an (西安) in Shaanxi (陕西); and several other important influx regions in the Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, Bohai Bay industrial zone, and the Central and Western regions by means of questionnaires, interviews, and so on, obtaining a total of 716 valid samples. At the same time, we carried out recording and analysis of the situation of changes to dialect pronunciation within the returning population of Sichuan origin in 13 regions of Sichuan where dialects feature checked tones, including Chongzhou (崇州), Qionglai (邛崃), Qianwei (犍为), Cuiping (翠 屏) District of Yibin (宜宾) City, Changning (长宁), Nanxi (南溪), Jiang’an (江安), Yibin County (宜宾县), Luzhou (泸州) City, Lu County (泸县), Meishan (眉山), Hejiang (合江), and Xichong (西充) in Sichuan (四川), with 815 valid samples. The targets of the survey primarily included young, able-bodied adults between the ages of 20–50, the majority of whom had received a junior secondary school education; the workers’ main directions of flow were into the Eastern and

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Western regions, and they were chiefly engaged in manufacturing, transportation, commercial services and other work; they had worked away from home for three years or more, and had primarily used their native dialect prior to migration.

2 The language situation in places of influx 2.1 Language environment The migrant workers of Sichuan origin displayed different language usage characteristics at their jobs, homes, public places, and other environments at the place of influx. Table 8.1 shows that the migrant workers exhibited relatively complex linguistic features at the place of influx. Putonghua and dialects were in close contact, leading to the emergence of a multilingual pastiche. Within the language environment of places of employment, the rate of use of Putonghua was 39.3%, forming a language environment dominated by Putonghua; within the language environment of places of residence, use of dialects (native dialects and dialects of the place of influx) was relatively prominent, and Putonghua did not have an obvious advantage; while public places saw language usage consisting of the juxtaposition of multiple languages, dominated by Putonghua.

Table 8.1: Situation of language usage in different environments. Language environment at place of employment

Language environment at place of residence

Language environment in public places

Frequency

Valid percentage

Frequency

Valid percentage

Frequency

Valid percentage

Use of Putonghua Use of native dialect Use of dialect of place of influx Use of all three languages



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.

Total



.



.



.

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2.2 Language identification The migrant workers of Sichuan origin expressed varying cognitive appraisals of Putonghua and their native dialects. Table 8.2 shows that 75.3% of individuals believed that use of Putonghua enabled everyone to understand and facilitated interactions in day-to-day work, life, and so on; 24.2% of individuals believed that Putonghua is pleasant to hear; 21.4% of individuals believed that speaking Putonghua represented a kind of fashion or trend of development. 75.6% of individuals believed that, when using their native dialect, other people could not easily understand them, and it was inconvenient for interactions; use of a native dialect also appeared rustic and was not pleasant to hear, and when speaking it in places away from home, they would be subjected to discrimination and ridicule, et cetera.

2.3 Language usage trends Due to changes in the social environment and the requirements for communication, the language usage characteristics of migrant workers of Sichuan origin in places of influx differed completely from the circumstances when at their place of residence registration. Table 8.3 shows that, in external communications, dialect usage was significantly reduced exhibiting a situation of convergent evolution toward Putonghua. 34.2% of individuals began learning and speaking Putonghua very soon after arriving at the place of influx, and 18.4% of individuals learned to speak Putonghua “after a period of time”; in contrast, the proportions of individuals who “continued to speak their native dialect” and “used the dialect of the place of influx” were very low, demonstrating a relatively strong trend toward use of Putonghua.

2.4 Language selection Before migrating elsewhere, 89.4% of individuals among the migrant workers of Sichuan origin primarily used a dialect when in their original place of residence registration, and 68% of individuals had never learned Putonghua. During the survey, through various types of spaces for language communication, such as setting up a job, asking directions, answering the telephone, waiting for and riding transportation, dining out, shopping, et cetera, we were able to observe the circumstances of language selection when they interacted with different targets.

Frequency Valid percentage

Easy to understand, easy to interact  .

Pleasant to hear

 .

 .

Fashionable

Putonghua

Table 8.2: Appraisals of Putonghua and native dialect (N = 716).

 .

Other

 .

Rustic

 .

Difficult to understand, difficult to interact  .

Subject to discrimination

Native Dialect

 .

Other

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Table 8.3: Language usage trends at place of influx. Frequency

Valid percentage

Very soon spoke Putonghua Very soon spoke dialect of place of influx Spoke Putonghua after a period of time Spoke dialect of place of influx after a period of time Spoke Putonghua and dialect of place of influx after a period of time Spoke Putonghua and native dialect after a period of time Continued to speak native dialect

   

. . . .



.



.



.

Total



.

Table 8.4 shows that the migrant workers of Sichuan origin would often treat Putonghua as an important standard for speech selection in external interactions in the place of influx. It maintained a relatively high percentage in interactions with other individuals not local to the place of influx as well as local individuals in the place of influx. Native dialects were generally limited to use in dialogue exchanges with the community from their native place, and did not experience a phenomenon of widespread diffusion. In addition, some individuals consciously learned to speak the dialect of the place of influx, to engage in effective communications with people native to the place of influx. At present, a relatively high number of migrant workers are not only able to use their native dialect, Putonghua, and the dialect of the place of influx with comparative fluency, but are also able to flexibly select between language categories based on different targets of communication: in order to adapt to special social environments, they have developed the awareness for self-initiated code-switching, improving their linguistic competence, and shifting in the direction of being bilingual (multilingual) speakers.

2.5 Language proficiency Apart from their own dialect, 79.5% of the migrant workers of Sichuan origin believed that Putonghua had become a language that they used with relative fluency, while 20.5% of individuals believed that the dialect of the place of influx had become a language that they used with relative fluency.

. .

.

.

.

. .

.

.

.

.

.

.

. .

Other non-local individuals

Note: The data in the table are all valid percentages.

Job Asking Directions Answering the telephone Waiting for and riding transportation Dining out and shopping

Individuals from native place

Locals

Putonghua

.

.

.

. .

Locals

Table 8.4: Target of communication and language selection (5).

.

.

.

. .

Individuals from native place

.

.

.

. .

Other non-local individuals

Native dialect

.

.

.

. .

Locals

.

.

.

. .

Individuals from native place

.

.

.

. .

Other non-local individuals

Dialect of place of influx

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Table 8.5 shows that nearly one half of the migrant workers of Sichuan origin believed that, although they were able to speak Putonghua, their proficiency in Putonghua was still low, and it carried something of their native accent; 27.7% of individuals believed that their Putonghua carried a relatively heavy native accent; only 20.9% of individuals believed that they spoke Putonghua passably.

Table 8.5: Evaluation of proficiency in Putonghua.

Frequency Valid percentage

Relatively standard

Slight native accent

Relatively heavy native accent

Slightly impacted by dialect in place of work

Total

 .

 .

 .

 .

 .

Table 8.6 shows that 51.9% of the migrant workers believed that they had not truly mastered the dialect of the place of influx, and could only engage in simple dialect-based communications; 23.7% believed that they spoke it passably, while only 7.1% believed that they spoke it very well; another 17.3% of individuals essentially could not speak it.

Table 8.6: Evaluation of proficiency in the dialect of the place of influx.

Frequency Valid percentage

Cannot speak

Can speak a little

Can speak passably

Can speak very well

Total

 .

 .

 .

 .

 .

3 Post-reflux language situation 3.1 Changes to dialect and language On the basis of the Dialect Survey Character Table (方言调查字表) (2006) compiled by the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, we comprehensively reviewed the characteristics of checked tone characters in

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Wu Xiaojun (武小军)

Sichuan dialects, and selected 47 checked tone characters with distinctive features as well as general characteristics, embedded in 17 phrases. In selecting the checked tone characters, we comprehensively considered frequency of use, a certain universality, relatively strong functionality for word formation, and other factors, taking into account the checked finals /a/, /o/, /e/, /u/, and /ə/, as well as the finals /i/ and /ɿ/, which can carry a checked tone; we also closely examined the varying pronunciations of checked tone characters in different dialects. The survey results show that, aside from the character 落 (‘fall’), the remaining 46 characters all exhibited varying degrees of pronunciation (vowel) shift. Table 8.7 shows that population flow and language contact lead to changes in dialect pronunciation: changes in pronunciation exhibit a trend toward unequal distribution, with an inconsistent number of pronunciation shifts; the changes also do not eliminate the original phonetic framework. The characteristics of pronunciation shifts in checked tone characters primarily include: centralization of medial and high vowels; a tendency toward the alveolar vowel /ɿ/ in checked tone vowels in the zhi (知) and zhang (章) initial groups; most of the individuals with the most pronunciation shifts had worked in provinces, cities or regions with retroflex consonants, but they had not yet been influenced to shift to the retroflex vowel /ɩ/, as in the characters 十 (‘ten’), 尺 (‘scale’), 直 (‘straight’), 吃 (‘eat’), and 执 (‘hold’), et cetera; a shift toward the upper tone in medial and low vowels, with a shift toward corresponding non-nasal finals, as in the characters 发 (‘issue’), 法 (‘law’), 八 (‘eight’), 鸭 (‘duck’) and 藿 (‘bean leaf’), et cetera; borrowing of the non-nasal final /ʉ/, and addition of a checked tone pronunciation of /ʉ/, causing checked tone finals to become non-nasal finals, as in the characters 族 (‘race’), 烛 (‘candle’), et cetera; expansion of the scope of the final sound /ə/, as in the characters 折 (‘break’), 喝 (‘drink’), 克 (‘gram’), 客 (‘guest’), 舌 (‘tongue’), 热 (‘hot’), et cetera; development toward monophthongization in diphthong checked tone characters, as in the characters 率 (‘rate’), 肉 (‘meat’), and 局 (‘office’), et cetera; as well as the transplantation of the final sound /ye/ from Putonghua, as in the characters 觉 (‘feel’), 月 (‘month’), and 雪 (‘snow’), et cetera. Overall, the dialects exhibited unstable phonetic changes, with the characteristics of sudden, rather than gradual, mutations: the pronunciation of some characters had no transitional sounds, directly leaping from the original dialect pronunciation to the new pronunciation (similar to the Putonghua pronunciation); the pronunciation of some characters concurrently featured both the new and old pronunciations, and so on. Internal adjustments within the dialect were the primary means and model for change, with the checked tone system gradually nearing the upper tone system, thus more closely approaching Putonghua.

English translation Frequency Percentage

English translation Frequency Percentage

English translation Frequency Percentage

English translation Frequency Percentage

率

‘rate’

 .

吃

‘eat’

 .

没

‘none’

 .

作

‘do’

 .

觉

‘feel’

 .

得

‘gain’

 .

北

‘north’

 .

折

‘break’

 .

 .

‘work’

业

 .

‘law’

法

 .

‘gram’

克

 .

‘suitable’

适

合

 .

‘hold’

执

 .

‘ten’

十

 .

‘not’

不

 .

 .

‘holiday’

节

 .

‘issue’ ‘combine’

发

 .

‘power’

力

 .

‘six’

六

药

 .

‘one’

一

 .

‘month’

月

 .

‘meat’

肉

 .

‘medicine’

Table 8.7: Pronunciation changes in checked tone characters (N = 815).

 .

‘bone’

骨

 .

‘seven’

七

 .

‘day’

日

 .

‘scale’

尺

 .

‘duck’

鸭

 .

‘eight’

八

 .

‘bean leaf’

藿

 .

‘straight’

直

舌

 .

‘drink’

喝

 .

‘hot’

热

 .

‘jerky’

腊

 .

烛

 .

‘or’

或

 .

‘juice’

汁

 .

‘evil’

恶

 .

 .

‘wax’ ‘candle’

蜡

 .

‘include’ ‘tongue’

括

 .

‘office’

局

 .

‘race’

族

 .

‘guest’

客

 .

‘snow’

雪

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3.2 Correlation of pronunciation changes Through statistical analysis of sex, age, level of education received, region of employment, number of years away from home, occupation, and other variables, we observed the relevant influencing factors in pronunciation changes within the returning population of Sichuan origin. Table 8.8: Pronunciation changes versus sex and age. Sex

Age ≤  – – – – –

Male Female Number of pronunciation change samples Percentage

,

.

, ,

.

.

≥ 

,

,

,







.

.

.

.

.

.

Within the pronunciation change statistics for the 46 characters (see Table 8.8), the average rate of pronunciation changes was 23.4% among males and 18.1% among female, with the rate of pronunciation changes among males being 5.3 percentage points higher than among females. Based on the tiered statistics for the seven age groups, the rate of pronunciation changes for the given age groups were respectively 23.0%, 19.6%, 25.5%, 22.2%, 17.7%, 22.4%, and 17.1% of the total sample size. The age groups with a high number of pronunciation changes primarily occurred in the group aged 26 to 30 and the group aged 20 or younger, while the group aged 46 or older showed a relative decline in the rate of pronunciation changes. Table 8.9: Pronunciation changes versus education and region of employment. Education

Number of pronunciation change samples Percentage

Place of employment

Primary school

Junior secondary school

Senior secondary school

Technical Eastern Central secondary region region school or higher

,

,



,

,



,

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Western region

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In terms of education, pronunciation changes presented an “inverse relationship” to the education structure (refer to Table 8.9): namely, the rate of pronunciation changes among the returning population with a primary school, junior secondary school, or senior secondary school education exceeded that of individuals with technical secondary school or higher education. These results may be related to the returnees’ mentality toward language usage when returning to their hometown, et cetera. The place of employment did not show a strong correlation for pronunciation changes (refer to Table 8.9): the Eastern, Central, and Western regions essentially maintained a relatively balanced trend. Comparatively speaking, among the three regions of Eastern, Central, and Western, those whose place of employment was in the Eastern region had the lowest number of individuals with pronunciation changes. With regard to the segmented statistics for four groupings by years away from home (see Table 8.10), the rate of pronunciation changes for the given number of years away from home were respectively 20.7%, 22.4%, 29.2%, and 17.4% of the total sample size. The group of individuals who had worked elsewhere for 11 to 15 years had the highest number of pronunciation changes, while the group of individuals who had worked elsewhere for 16 or more years instead saw a decline in the number of pronunciation changes. Any length of time working elsewhere could cause the dialect to experience changes, and the pronunciation changes were roughly equivalent across groups, and the changes tended to exhibit the characteristic of relatively high uniformity within a dialect’s phonetic system. Table 8.10: Pronunciation changes versus years away from home.

Number of pronunciation change samples Percentage

≤  years

– years

– years

≥  years

,

,





.

.

.

.

There were also certain relationships between occupation and pronunciation changes. Open occupations (referring to occupations involving a relatively high degree of contact with highly educated groups, and wide-ranging audiences and sources in various dialect zones, or which are situated in a Putonghua environment, et cetera) had the most pronunciation changes, and were not subject to limitations with respect to the region of migration or the length of time working elsewhere; in contrast, some semi-open occupations (referring to occupations involving contact with a small range of audiences, groups and sources

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Wu Xiaojun (武小军)

in various dialect zones, and relatively homogeneous language, or which are situated in a dialect environment, et cetera) and closed occupations (referring to occupations involving contact primarily with groups from the dialect zone of one’s place of residence registration, and homogeneous language, or which are situated in a dialect environment) experienced relatively few pronunciation changes.

3.3 “Internal-external differentiation” in the selection and use of language The selection and use of language by the migrant workers of Sichuan origin after returning home reflected a distinctive characteristic of “internal-external differentiation.” Figure 8.1 shows that, after returning, Putonghua is generally used more often in exchanges with non-local individuals, while Putonghua is generally not spoken or rarely spoken among family members and fellow villagers who migrated together for work. Among non-local individuals, there were disparities between individuals from the original place of employment and other non-local individuals in terms of speech choices. The returning population had the highest rate of use of Putonghua in conversation with other non-local individuals: within the four types of interactive spaces, including face-to-face conversation, answering the telephone, waiting for and riding transportation, dining out and shopping, the rates for selection and usage of Putonghua were respectively 75.2%, 72.6%, 73.9%, and 74.6%. In contrast, with respect to individuals from

Face-to-face conversation Answering the telephone Waiting for and riding transportation Dining out and shopping

Family members

Fellow villagers who migrated together

Other individuals from native place

Individuals from the original place of employment

Figure 8.1: Selection of Putonghua by the returning population (%).

Other non-local individuals

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105

the original place of employment, although the proportion of those using Putonghua amounted to one half of the total survey size, the rates declined in comparison with the former group, respectively reaching 49.8%, 53.1%, 52.2%, and 52.7% in the above four interactive spaces. Relatively large disparities also emerged among fellow villagers with respect to interactions in Putonghua: in interactions among fellow villagers who had not migrated together, the rate of usage of Putonghua significantly increased in comparison with fellow villagers who had migrated together. In interactions among fellow villagers who had not migrated together, the rates were respectively 26.4%, 27.2%, 28%, and 29.3%; whereas in interactions among fellow villagers who had migrated together, they were reduced to 6.6%, 8.2%, 13.5% and 11.4%. Within the various types of categorical relationships, including family members and non-family members, fellow villagers and non-fellow villagers, fellow villagers who migrated together and those who did not migrate together, et cetera, language selection and use displayed a clear characteristic of “internal-external differentiation.” It could be said that, the closer the kinship and regional ties, the higher the rate of use of the native dialect; and the more distant the kinship and regional ties, the higher the rate of application of Putonghua.

3.4 Linguistic influence Population flow leads to closer contact between Putonghua and dialects, and also causes natural language permeation alongside the “flow” of people. Table 8.11 shows that, although 45.8% of the returning population believed that their language use following their return was not influenced by Putonghua, 50.5% of people still believed that they occasionally used Putonghua in spoken exchanges following their return. Under the circumstances of the return, there was not shown to be a strong impact wherein Putonghua was frequently used by dialect speakers. Table 8.11: Influence of Putonghua following return.

Frequency Valid percentage

No influence, always use native dialect

Some influence, occasionally speak Putonghua

High influence, often use some Putonghua

Total

 .

 .

 .

 .

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Wu Xiaojun (武小军)

Table 8.12 shows that 48.2% of the returning population believed that their language use following their return was not influenced by the dialect of the place of influx, while individuals approaching one half (48.5%) of the total survey size believed that their language use following their return was influenced to some extent by the dialect of the place of influx, and that they occasionally used it in social interactions. The results of the survey indicate that the dialect of the place of influx did not have a significant impact on the returning population.

Table 8.12: Influence of the dialect of the place of influx following return. No influence, always use native dialect

Some influence, occasionally speak dialect of place of influx

High influence, often use some dialect of place of influx

Total

 .

 .

 .

 .

Frequency Valid percentage

Table 8.13 shows the mentality toward language usage among the returning population upon re-migrating: 79.8% of individuals believed that, upon remigrating, they would use Putonghua more, while only 20.2% of individuals would persist in using their native dialect, showing that Putonghua would become an important language option.

Table 8.13: Language selection upon re-migration.

Frequency Valid percentage

Speak Putonghua

Still speak native dialect

Total

 .

 .

 .

4 Consideration of issues Population flow involves not only the importing of labor forces, but also the influx of various local dialects, causing cities of influx to experience significant language conflict and encounters; population flow thus gives rise to several important issues of language change.

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4.1 The trend toward “quantitative changes” in Putonghua and the weakening of dialects The survey indicates that the current linguistic features of the returning population exhibit important characteristics of impermanence and irregularity. Although they changed their dialect pronunciation to approach more closely to Putonghua, such changes were primarily in response to the needs of interpersonal interactions when assimilating into urban work and life, and were subject to a type of language mentality strongly governed by their internal psychology and thinking. If urban assimilation were arduous, or the interactive environment in the place of influx changed, or they returned to the dialect group or the respective dialect region, then the trend of the widespread evolution of Putonghua would be significantly curtailed. Although the migrant population used Putonghua pronunciation, issues of non-standard pronunciation, low proficiency in Putonghua, and so on were pervasive, the result of using a dialect to emulate Putonghua. Consequently, the selection and application of Putonghua among the migrant population are currently confined to “quantitative” differences, and have not experienced “qualitative” changes. The trend toward uniform use of Putonghua has weakened dialects: whether among the migrant population or residents of cities of influx, a relatively high number of people are no longer entrenched in dialect pronunciation, and some public settings, formal occasions, and so on have begun using Putonghua. Under this trend, dialects are currently experiencing gradual changes. First, some weaker dialects are gradually drawing closer to stronger dialects; and second, “dialectized” imitations of Putonghua have given rise to new dialects. The popularization of Putonghua and the emergence of new dialects may exacerbate the decay of original dialects (genuine dialects). Therefore, language guidance in cities of influx, as well as language services directed toward the migrant population, linguistic and cultural protection for regional dialects, and so on should be regarded as crucial efforts at present.

4.2 Imbalanced regional language development The survey also confirms that population flow has led to great improvements in the Putonghua language environments in the Eastern, Central and Western regions: whether as a language used on the job, a language used in public places, or a language used at home, the use of Putonghua has seen relatively substantial improvements in comparison with the past. However, the Putonghua language environments forming in the Eastern, Central and Western regions are imbalanced. The Eastern region has essentially formed a language environment

108

Wu Xiaojun (武小军)

dominated by Putonghua, but the Western region is a language environment dominated by dialects: in the context of national language planning strategies and the promotion of Putonghua, how to strengthen and improve the Putonghua environment in the Western region is an important, practical language issue.

4.3 The binary conflict between language awareness and urban assimilation Improvements in language awareness and linguistic competence within the migrant population demonstrate that they are making changes to their own thinking and language behavior in order to achieve assimilation into urban society, and that they have at least made preparations for urban assimilation, and are striving to attain general linguistic equality with urban residents. This requires that urban society simultaneously makes progress in resolving the issue of the social assimilation of the migrant population: only through social assimilation will it be possible to form true linguistic assimilation. At present, the migrant population is faced with a binary conflict between improving their own language awareness and skills, and social rejection in their efforts to “become city residents”: this conflict urgently requires a harmonious resolution.

Liu Housheng (刘厚生)

9 Reclamation, perpetuation and application of the Manchu language Efforts to salvage, perpetuate and cultivate the Manchu language and culture in our country have always drawn a high degree of interest and concern from the Chinese Communist Party and the government. As early as the 1960s, Premier Zhou Enlai (周恩来) represented the government in adopting a recommendation by numerous experts to hold the first course on the Manchu script since the founding of People’s Republic of China at the Central University for Nationalities (now Minzu University of China). 21 scholars were enrolled in a five-year training program, becoming the first generation of workers for Manchu language and culture in People’s Republic of China, bearing the heavy responsibility of reclaiming, cultivating and applying the language; I was one of them. Over the last fifty years, this group of talented experts has made outstanding contributions to reclaiming and studying Manchu history and culture, as well as its language and script. In 1980, the Department of History at Northeast Normal University established the Institute for Ming and Qing Studies, offering courses in the Manchu language for graduate students: I took a teaching post there, and set about compiling Manchu-language teaching materials and dictionaries. After the “Cultural Revolution” ended, Northeast Normal University was the first to raise the banner of reclaiming, perpetuating and cultivating Manchu language and culture: thus far, it has trained more than one hundred Master’s and doctoral students fluent in the Manchu language. Following in the wake of Northeast Normal University, Nankai University, Liaoning University, Renmin University of China, and other institutions of higher education also began offering Manchu language courses, and the Institute of Manchu Studies was founded in Heilongjiang Province. In the 21st century, Manchu language and culture began moving into ordinary households with a new appearance and attitude, allowing vast numbers of people of Manchu and other ethnicities to develop an understanding of the Manchu language and begin consciously protecting and perpetuating the Manchu language.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-009

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1 Remarkable achievements in reclaiming and perpetuating the Manchu language On September 29, 2003, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) held its 32nd conference in Paris, France; on October 17, it passed the “Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage,” in another significant move following the adoption of the “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage” at UNESCO’s 17th conference on November 21, 1972; the protection and reclamation of the world’s cultural heritage drew attention from the peoples of every country around the world. In August 2004, China formally acceded to the United Nations’ “Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.” On March 31, 2005, the Office of the State Council issued the Recommendations on strengthening efforts for the protection of China’s intangible cultural heritage (关了加强我国非物质文化 遗产保护工作的意见) (State Council Office [2005] No. 18). On December 22 of the same year, the Office of the State Council also issued the Notice of the State Council on strengthening the protection of cultural heritage (国务院关于加强文化 遗产保护的通知) (State Council Office [2005] No. 42), requiring governments at all levels to “fully recognize the importance of protecting cultural heritage at the level of safeguarding national cultural security, further increasing the sense of responsibility and sense of urgency, to effectively perform efforts for the protection of cultural heritage.” At the same time, it explicitly noted the need to implement a policy of “focusing on protection and prioritizing reclamation, with rational utilization, perpetuation and development.” With respect to the subjects of protection, the Notice placed traditional oral literature and spoken and written languages at the top of the list.

1.1 The need for reclamation of the Manchu language The Manchu language has drawn universal attention as a critically endangered intangible cultural heritage, with comprehensive reports issued by a number of domestic media outlets. On December 29, 1999, China Youth Daily (中国青年报) published “Save the Manchu language” (救救满语); on October 27, 2007, Jilin Daily News (吉林日报) published “Promoting research and protection of Manchu language and culture” (推动满语言文化的研究和保护); on the same day, New Culture Daily (新文化报) also published “We must speak out to save the Manchu language in our province” (抢救满语我省要动口);

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on October 29, Xinhua Daily Telegraph (新华每日电讯) published “There are already less than 100 Manchu speakers nation-wide” (全国会说满语者已经不 足 100 人), and New Culture Daily (新文化报) published “Less than 10 people can read materials in the Manchu script province-wide” (全省能读懂满文资料 的不超过 10 人); on March 16, 2007, the Ten-Day Press Digest (文摘旬刊) published “Less than one hundred people in China can speak the Manchu language” (中国人会说满语的人已经不到百人); and on October 18, 2008, New Century Weekly (新世纪周刊) published “The Manchu language: struggling for survival” (满语: 在存亡间挣扎). On December 10, 2007, Jiangcheng Daily (江城日报) published “Paving the way to the living perpetuation of the Manchu language” (开拓满语活态传承之 路), and on December 3, 2008, it published the interview article “Why we learn the Manchu language” (我们为什么学满语); on October 3, 2008, Jilin Daily News (吉林日报) published “Cataloguing studies to pass down the torch of learning” (整理研究, 薪火相传), and other interview transcripts. Over the last few years, a number of domestic television stations have produced TV specials on the Manchu language: the programs by Jilin TV Station have seen outstanding results. In 2007, I was interviewed in Episode 12 of Cultural Interviews (文化访谈录) on Jilin TV Station, on the topic of “For lost civilizations” (为了失落的文明): I gave a comprehensive explanation of the history and current state of the Manchu language, with visual images and text materials. In August 2012, Jilin TV Station again publicized the significance and value of reclaiming the Manchu language under the topic of “Save the Manchu language without a moment’s delay” (抢救满语刻不容缓). In September 2012, Jilin TV Station produced a sprawling documentary, Discovering Longtan Mountain (发现 龙潭山), which revealed the ties between Manchu language and culture and the history of Jilin (吉林).

1.2 Establishing Manchu language courses and cultivating talents Over the last decade, academic circles have made great efforts to reclaim the Manchu language and train experts, establishing relevant academic research institutions and allowing the Manchu language to be perpetuated and rationally put to use. In 2002, Northeast Normal University founded the Center for Research on Northeastern Ethnic Groups and Territories, offering courses on the Manchu language for graduate students; the center has also compiled educational

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resources, including A curriculum of the Manchu language (满语文教程), A simple Manchu-Chinese dictionary (简明满汉词典), Chinese-Manchu dictionary (汉满词典), and A Manchu conversational reader (满语口语读本). It has held two Manchu language study programs, with a requirement to accept several dozen college students from other schools as well as members of the community to take part in the lessons. The Center for Research on Manchu Language and Culture at the Northeast Ethnic and Folk Museum at Northeast Normal University was founded on October 12, 2008. After the center was founded, it held a variety of Manchu language study programs in Changchun (长春), as well as establishing Cultural-Ecological Protected Areas for Intangible Cultural Heritage in Jilin City, Yitong (伊通) Manchu Autonomous County, and Jiangyuan (江源) District in Baishan (白山) City, founding bases for education and scientific research in these areas. In 2009, the Manchu language was listed in the Jilin Province Catalogue for Intangible Cultural Heritage; two years later, I was awarded the title of “Perpetuator of the Manchu language in Jilin Province” (吉林省满语文传承人). After the Institute of Manchu Studies in Heilongjiang Province was approved by the Heilongjiang provincial government, it was officially founded in March 1986, under the management of the Heilongjiang Provincial Communist Party School; in November 1999, it was transferred under the leadership of Heilongjiang University. The institute has offered a number of study programs in the city of Harbin, making contributions to training talented individuals and popularizing the Manchu language; it also publishes the journal Manchu Studies (满语研究), which is widely influential in China and overseas. Since entering the 21st century, many institutions of higher education in Jilin Province have also established relevant research institutes. Beihua University joined hands with Northeast Normal University to establish the Intangible Cultural Heritage (Manchu Language and Culture) Research Institute at the East Asian Center at Beihua University on October 26, 2007. The institute offers Manchu language courses for graduate students and holds community-oriented Manchu language study programs. In April 2012, with the assistance of the Jilin City Research Association for Manchu Culture, Beihua University Teacher’s College held another Manchu language study program which attracted more than seventy students, playing an enormous promotional role in the popularization and application of Manchu language and culture in Jilin City. Jilin Normal University established the Manchu Culture Research Institute in 2001, and began offering Manchu language courses for graduate and undergraduate students in 2002. The school has now established a doctoral station in the Manchu language.

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The Manchu Culture Research Institute at Changchun Normal University was established on December 26, 2008. It recruits graduate students with an orientation toward Manchu culture, offering Manchu language courses; these courses are also made available for undergraduate students at the School of History and Culture. Thus far, three classes of graduate students and three classes of undergraduate students have been through the program, providing a total of more than one hundred people with a rudimentary grasp of the Manchu language.

2 The “Benxi model” for reclaiming the Manchu language Reclaiming the Manchu language and perpetuating Manchu language and culture should start from childhood. Over the last few years, Liaoning (辽宁) Province has held a variety of study programs, and has also begun popularizing pilot programs for the Manchu language at primary schools: Benxi Manchu Autonomous County has been the most remarkable, achieving significant results and forming a set of practical and effective teaching and talent training models, referred to as the “Benxi model.”

2.1 Training qualified teachers In order to save the Manchu language and perpetuate Manchu culture, Benxi (本溪) Manchu Autonomous County in Liaoning Province established the Manchu ethnicity as a distinguishing trait for the county: the County Party Committee and country government convened a special conference, and decided to train teachers for the Manchu language starting in September 2010. The County Bureau of Education selected nearly thirty outstanding young teachers from primary schools across the county to participate in a Manchu language study program, with the County Training College concretely organizing and planning the study program and living arrangements for the students. After a systematic program of more than four months, the students graduated at the level of an intermediate program, having mastered Manchu pronunciation and basic grammatical knowledge; they were also provided with reference books and basic skills in Manchu typing, et cetera, and learned to sing Manchu folk songs in the Manchu language. After completing the course, the students were qualified to teach primary school Manchu language classes.

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2.2 Compiling teaching materials In early 2011, under the organization and guidance of principal Bai Wenge (白文 阁) and the educator Xie Wenxiang (谢文香), the teachers who participated in the study program used their winter vacation time to collectively compile and publish the primary school textbook Manchu history, culture, language and script (满族历史文化与语言文字). When the school term began in March, Manchu courses were offered for the fifth and sixth grades at primary schools countywide, and 1000 of the county’s primary school students received a copy of the new textbook. Benxi Manchu Autonomous County incorporated the Manchu language into the scope of bilingual education for the first time, with far-reaching significance. The County Bureau of Education adopted a number of measures to ensure the quality of education. The County Training College established the Manchu Language Teaching and Research Center, focusing on pedagogical research and supervision, and regularly providing training and assessment of teachers. In spring 2012, the county’s first Manchu primary school was established. During the 2012 summer vacation, a revised textbook was also published.

2.3 Training talented individuals Benxi Manchu Autonomous County is currently planning to establish a Manchu middle school, for the continued study of the Manchu language in the freshman and sophomore stages, focusing on the study of Manchu grammar and conversation. In the high school phase, for students aiming to enroll in the Humanities section of the College Entrance Examination who have a certain foundation in the Manchu language, suitable revision and advancement of knowledge on the Manchu language will be provided, allowing some students to register for specialization in Manchu language and culture in the College Entrance Examination. Changchun Normal University, Jilin Normal University, Heilongjiang University and other universities are all available for selection. In Fall 2011, the Bureau of Education of Benxi Manchu Autonomous County formed a partnership with Changchun Normal University for education and scientific research, jointly serving as a teaching and research base. Changchun Normal University offers priority enrollment for high school graduates who have studied the Manchu language and have exceeded the minimum passing score for admissions.

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2.4 Public popularization Benxi Manchu Autonomous County has also required that the signs for all government departments and all shops county-wide be converted into bilingual Chinese and Manchu, amplifying its atmosphere of a minority region, improving Manchu proficiency across the county, and making the language familiar to every household. Learning Manchu folk songs has been another move by the study program to improve students’ proficiency and interest in the Manchu language. On September 6, 2012, Shenyang (沈阳) held the 8th Liaoning Province Ethnic Minority Art and Literature Performance – “Our Homeland” (我们的家园). The province settled upon the Manchu folk song “Toasting Song” (祝酒歌), which the teachers Wang Xiaodan (王晓丹) and Shi Changjun (史长军) had learned at the study program: they represented Benxi City in displaying their elegant style on the stage, and won the silver prize. This was the first high-level, formal stage performance of a Manchu folk song. With the support of the municipal Party Committee and municipal government of Jilin City, the Yadong (亚东) Group is seeking to establish a special industrial park for Manchu culture -Tianyiyuan (天颐园) Mountain Village. The palace in the village would be responsible for putting on Man-Han quan xi (满 汉全席, ‘complete Manchu and Chinese banquet’) to promote Manchu culinary culture, and training in Manchu ethnic culture would be provided for employees: the staff members would wear Manchu dress, speak the Manchu language and sing Manchu songs. All of the menus for the Man-Han quan xi would be translated into the Manchu language. Benxi Manchu Autonomous County has played a distinctive role with respect to the reclamation of Manchu language and culture. In August 2013, the Chinese Communist Committee of Benxi Manchu Autonomous County and the County People’s Government jointly issued the Plan for the Perpetuation, Protection and Development of Manchu Culture in Benxi Manchu Autonomous County (2013–2017) (本溪满族自治县满族文化传承保护发展规划[2013–2017 年]), symbolizing that the efforts in Benxi for reclamation, promotion and perpetuation will see further profound development in the future. Huanren (桓仁) Manchu Autonomous County and Xiuyan (岫岩) Manchu Autonomous County have also taken actions to follow suit. In recent years, a number of domestic leaders, experts and scholars, along with international and Taiwanese scholars, have visited Benxi to observe and to learn.

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3 Various inspirations The practices in Benxi Manchu Autonomous County offer many useful inspirations: (1) To save the Manchu language and promote Manchu ethnic culture, it is necessary to obtain the support of government departments, along with relaxed policies and efforts for financial aid. (2) It is necessary to have a long-term, scientific, and practical plan, laying the foundation at primary schools before transitioning to secondary schools and the pursuit of advanced studies at universities, sketching out a roadmap for the reclamation, promotion and perpetuation of the Manchu language. People fluent in the Manchu language must begin learning in childhood, but if they linger at that level without a long-term plan, their primary school education may be miscarried. It is only possible to cultivate talented people in this generation through the continuous training model of primary school – secondary school – university. (3) It is necessary to expand efforts for the application of the Manchu language. The key reason why a language may be on the brink of extinction is because it has lost its utilitarian value: if no one uses it, it will naturally be eliminated by history. The Qing Dynasty left behind millions of documents and archives in the Manchu language: these are treasures of the Chinese people which will require a great many individuals who understand the Manchu language and understand history to translate, catalogue and study them. The Qing Dynasty lasted for nearly three hundred years, and the lifestyle and customs of Manchu culture permeated all aspects of Chinese society; without understanding the Manchu language, these cannot be explained clearly. Studying and applying the Manchu language is not only necessary in the perpetuation of the culture, but is also necessary in practical life.

Wang Zhijuan (王志娟) and Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵)

10 The state of minority language websites of China China is a unified, multi-ethnic country: its 55 ethnic minorities currently use a total of 33 written minority languages. In 1998, the first Uyghur script website was created in Xinjiang (新疆) – the Taklamakan website; in December 1999, the first Tibetan script website was established by Northwest University for Nationalities; on December 18, 2006, the first Mongolian script website was created by Menksoft Co., Ltd., of Inner Mongolia, achieving a left-to-right column format for Mongolian script for the first time in our country. Following the development of the Internet and information technology for written minority languages, as of October 2013, 12 of Chinese ethnic groups and 13 written minority languages were on the Internet, including the Mongolian script, Tibetan script, Uyghurl script, Kazakh script, Korean language, Yi script, Zhuang script, Kyrgyz script, Russian script, Xishuangbanna (西双版纳) Dai script, Lisu script, Jingpo script, and Zaiwa script, with a total of 1,031 minority language websites in China. The domain names for minority language websites in China can be secondlevel domain names, third-level domain names, or subdirectories of second-level domain names: the websites have stable directories of two levels or more, and the webpages they contain account for more than 90% as a percentage of a given written minority language in China. A website is regarded as a Chinese minority language website where the website’s top-level domain is .cn, the country of application for the website domain name is “China,” or the website has ICP registration information under the Chinese Ministry of Industry and Information Technology.

1 Basic state of affairs We examined six areas, including the quantity and distribution of minority language websites, state of languages, domain name structure, the state of ICP registration, website content, and the website’s global ranking and daily average visits

Note: This study was supported by a Key Program (61331013) under the National Natural Science Foundation of China. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-010

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by IP, to demonstrate the basic state of affairs for minority language websites in our country.

1.1 Quantity and distribution of websites As of October 2013, our country’s minority language websites encompassed 12 ethnic groups and 13 minority scripts, with a total of 1,031 websites; for the state of website distribution, see Table 10.1. Table 10.1: Composition of minority language websites in China. No. Ethnicity / script

Number of Percentage (%) websites



Mongol ethnic group / Mongolian script



.



Tibetan ethnic group / Tibetan script



.



Uyghur ethnic group / Uyghur script



.



Kazakh ethnic group / Kazakh script



.



Korean ethnic group / Korean script



.



Yi ethnic group / Yi script



.



Zhuang ethnic group / Zhuang script



.



Russian ethnic group / Russian script



.



Kyrgyz ethnic group / Kyrgyz script



.



Dai ethnic group

 

. .



Lisu ethnic group / Lisu script



.



Jingpo ethnic group

 

. .

,

.

Total

New Xishuangbanna Dai script Old Xishuangbanna Dai script

Jingpo script Zaiwa script

Note: This report categorizes the new and old Xishuangbanna Dai scripts as forms of writing under the Xishuangbanna Dai script.

The minority language websites all employ cross-border minority languages. The northern cross-border minority ethnic groups include the Mongolians, Tibetans, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Russians, Kyrgyz, and Koreans, all of which have traditional oral and written minority languages. The southern cross-border

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10 The state of minority language websites of China

ethnic groups include the Zhuang, Yi, Dai, Lisu, and Jingpo: apart from websites using the Yi and Dai scripts, which are also classified as traditional scripts, the remaining websites are classified as using newly created scripts. The number of traditional minority language websites accounts for a higher proportion than the number of websites using newly created minority languages, which have very limited online applications.

1.2 State of website languages China’s minority language websites include multilingual websites as well as monolingual websites. The minority language versions of multilingual websites are often subdomains (or subdirectories) for Chinese-language websites with secondlevel domain names, and their content is often a translation of the Chinese version. The monolingual websites are websites with independent domain names, and their content is independently created by the website. Figure 10.1 shows the state of languages for China’s 1,031 minority language websites. Among the minority language websites in our country, websites employing a single script represent the majority, accounting for 83% of the total number of websites; bilingual minority language–Chinese websites rank second, accounting for approximately 7%; while trilingual minority language–Chinese–English websites, multilingual websites, and websites with other language configurations account for approximately 10% of the total.

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Pct.

Monolingual websites 83%

Minority/Chinese Minority/Chinese/ English 7%

4%

Multilingual

Other

4%

2%

Figure 10.1: Composition of languages in minority language websites in China.

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Wang Zhijuan (王志娟) and Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵)

1.3 Website domain name structure The state of domain name structure for minority language websites in our country is as shown in Figure 10.2. Minority language websites with a second-level domain name structure represent the majority, accounting for approximately 82% of the minority language websites in our country, indicating that the content of minority language websites is largely created and maintained by the minority ethnic groups, as important media outlets and formats for contemporary online exchanges within minority ethnic groups. Minority language websites with a third-level domain name structure ranked second at approximately 11%. 90%

82%

80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%

11%

6% 1%

0% 2nd-level domain 3rd-level domain Subdirectory of name name 2nd-level domain name

Other

Figure 10.2: State of domain name structures for minority language websites in China.

1.4 State of website ICP registration At present, Internet administration in China is primarily carried out through website registration: website registration involves the website owner submitting an application for registration to the relevant national departments in accordance with the requirements of national laws and regulations; there are currently two formats, ICP registration1 and Public Security Bureau registration. As

1 The Internet Content Provider Registration Record refers to the filing and registration that must be completed by information services and Internet websites within the territory of the People’s Republic of China.

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of the present, more than 81% of the minority language websites in China have completed ICP registration. The regional distribution of ICP registration for minority language websites in China is as shown in Figure 10.3. Approximately 81% of minority language websites are registered in minority regions, while approximately 18% of websites are registered in Beijing and other non-minority regions. 100% 81% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0%

Minority region

7%

11%

Beijing

Other

Figure 10.3: Regional distribution of registration for minority language websites in China.

The details on the sponsors completing ICP registration for minority language websites in China are as shown in Figure 10.4. At present, among the minority language websites in our country, the number of websites sponsored by an individual represent the majority, accounting for approximately 66% of the total number of websites; the proportion of those sponsored by an enterprise, institution, or government organization accounts for approximately 33% of the total number of websites; while only 1% were established by social organizations.

1.5 Website content Based on the website content, minority language websites in China can be divided into a total of nine categories, including: news/comprehensive, ethnic culture, local government portal, commercial advertising, education, videos/entertainment, information services, blog/forum, and other. The composition of the categories of minority language websites in China is as shown in Figure 10.5. At present, among minority language websites, the news/comprehensive category represents the majority, accounting for approximately 34% of the total number of websites; websites in the video/entertainment category rank second at 17%; while those in the ethnic culture category account for approximately 14%.

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70%

66%

60% 50% 40% 30% 18%

20% 10%

5%

10%

1% 0%

Government organization

State-run institution

Enterprise

Social organization

Individual

Figure 10.4: Composition of sponsors of minority language websites in China.

34%

17%

14%

4%

4% Other

Information services

7% Video/ entertainment

Commercial advertising

Local government

Ethnic culture

Education

7%

Blog/forum

9% 4% News/ comprehensive

40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0%

Figure 10.5: Categories of minority language websites in China.

Table 10.2 provides the distribution of the content categories for minority language websites in China. Among the websites for the 13 written minority languages, 100% of the websites have resources in the news/comprehensive category; 62% of websites have resources in the ethnic culture category; and 46% of websites have resources in the commercial advertising, video/entertainment, and information services categories. From the table, it can be seen that the

%

Kyrgyz script

%

%

Russian script

Zaiwa script

%

%

Zhuang script

%

%

%

Yi script

Jingpo script

%

%

Korean script

%

%

%

Kazakh script

Lisu script

%

%

Uyghur script

%

%

%

Tibetan script

Xishuangbanna Dai script

%

%

Mongolian script

%

Ethnic culture

News/ comprehensive

%

%

%

Local government portal

%

%

%

%

%

%

Commercial advertising

Table 10.2: Categories of the 13 variants of minority language websites in China.

%

%

%

%

%

Education

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

%

Video/ Information entertainment services

%

%

%

%

%

Blog/ forum

%

%

%

%

%

Other

10 The state of minority language websites of China

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Wang Zhijuan (王志娟) and Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵)

minority language websites have diverse content, but there is unbalanced development among websites using different written languages.

1.6 Website ranking and number of visits Alexa is a specialized website that announces the global ranking of websites: the ranking is primarily based on the number of visits, and it is currently a commonly used indicator for evaluating the state of website visits. Alexa ranking information only targets a website’s second-level domain name, thus it cannot reflect minority language websites with a third-level domain name or which are named as the subdirectory of a second-level domain name. Table 10.3 provides the ranking, daily average number of visits by IP, website language, website name, and other basic information for the top 10 websites in Alexa’s global ranking among the 13 variants of minority language websites in China. The Uyghur version, Kazakh version, and Russian version of Tian Shan Net (天山网) (ts.cn) have the same global ranking, and the Jingpo version and Zaiwa version of Dehong Unity News (德宏团结报) (dhtjb.com) also an identical global ranking. From Table 10.3, it can be seen that there are great disparities between the Alexa global rankings of minority language websites in China: the global ranking of “NAVER Services Net” (NAVER服务网) (Korean) sits at a position in the hundreds; “North News Net” (北方新闻网) (Mongolian, Chinese and English) sits at a position in the thousands; “Tian Shan Net” (天山网) and China Tibet Online (中国西藏网) both sit at a position in the ten thousands; and the global rankings for all the remaining websites all fall after the rank of one hundred thousand. Searches cannot be conducted for “New Xishuangbanna Dai Script Net” (新西双版纳傣文网), “China Nujiang Grand Canyon Net” (中国怒江大峡 谷网), “Dehong Unity News Net” (德宏团结报网) and so on because their rankings are too low. On the whole, the global rankings and daily average number of visits by IP for the minority language websites fall at a relatively low level.

2 Characteristics (1) The number of websites is small, and their development is uneven. The number of minority language websites on the Internet in China is proportionally very low relative to the number of Chinese- and English-language websites. The websites for a given minority language at most number in the hundreds, and may be no more than 1.

Global ranking



,

,

,

No.









,

,

,

,,

Daily average visits by IP

Chinese, Mongolian, English, German, French

 languages incl. Chinese, Uyghur, Kazakh, Russian, & English

Mongolian, Chinese, English

Korean

Website language(s)

Website sponsor

News

News

State-run institution

Enterprise

Website sponsor type

United Front Work Department of CPC Central Committee (中央统战部)

Government organization

Internet News State-run Center of Xinjiang institution Uyghur Autonomous Region (新疆维吾尔 自治区互联网新闻 中心)

Inner Mongolia Daily News Agency (内蒙古日报社)

Comprehensive NAVER China (北京 世联互动网络有限 公司)

Website category

China Tibet Online News (中国西藏网) www.tibet.cn

Tian Shan Net (天山网) www.ts.cn

North News Net (北方新闻网) www.northnew.cn

NAVER Services (NAVER服务) www.naver.com

Website name/ address

Table 10.3: Global ranking and daily average visits by IP for minority language websites.

(continued)

Beijing

Xinjiang

Inner Mongolia

Beijing

Place of website registration

10 The state of minority language websites of China

125

,, N/A

,, N/A

N/A







N/A



,



Daily average visits by IP

Global ranking

No.

Table 10.3 (continued )

Chinese, New/Old Xishuangbanna Dai script, English, Thai

Kyrgyz

Chinese, Zhuang

Chinese, Yi, English

Website language(s)

New Xishuangbanna Dai Script Net (新西双版纳 傣文网) www.dw.com

Kyrgyz Online (柯尔克孜在线) www.kokjal.net

Guangxi Minorities Newspaper Net (广西民族报网) www.gxmzb.net

Yi Ethnic Culture Network (彝族人网) www.yizuren.com

Website name/ address

News

Forum

Ethnic culture

Ethnic culture

Website category

Xishuangbanna News Agency (西双版纳报社)

Tolibai Mamatihar (托日巴依·马买 提哈日)

Guangxi Minorities Press (广西民族报社)

Huang Pingshan (黄平山)

Website sponsor

State-run institution

Individual

State-run institution

Individual

Website sponsor type

Yunnan

Xinjiang

Guangxi

Beijing

Place of website registration

126 Wang Zhijuan (王志娟) and Zhao Xiaobing (赵小兵)

N/A



N/A

N/A

Chinese, Jingpo, Zaiwa

Chinese, Lisu, English, Burmese

Dehong Unity News Net (德宏团结报网) www.dhtjb.com

China Nujiang Grand Canyon Net (中国怒 江大峡谷网) www.nujiang.cn News Dehong Unity News (德宏团结报)

Comprehensive Nujiang News Agency (怒江报社)

Note: This data and information is the Alexa information as of October 30, 2013.

N/A



State-run institution

State-run institution

Yunnan

Yunnan

10 The state of minority language websites of China

127

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(2) The website domain names are complex. Generally speaking, a website should have an independent second-level domain name, but the domain names for minority language websites in China involve the following three circumstances: 1. Second-level domain names, such as the official Uyghur-language website for Ethnic Groups Unity Publishing House (民族团结杂志社), seltenet.com; 2. Third-level domain names, such as the Tibetan version of China Tibet Online (中国西藏网), tb.tibet.cn; the second-level domain name, tibet. cn, is in Chinese; 3. Subdirectories of second-level domain name, such as the Tibetan version of the website of Qinghai Red Cross Hospital, qhrch.com/zw; the secondlevel domain name, qhrch.com, is in Chinese. (3) The website coding is also diverse, rather than being uniform. The coding for minority language websites in China is complex, and the number of coding symbols and coding methods can vary rather widely even within the same language. For instance, the Tibetan-language websites use Unicode, Pandit, Tongyuan, Founder, and other different coding methods; the Mongolianlanguage websites use Unicode, Menksoft, Saiyin, Mingantu, and other coding methods. (4) Frequent changes to websites. Websites sponsored by individuals account for a fairly high percentage of minority language websites in China, and the quantity and content of the websites present the characteristics of instability and rapid change. (5) At present, the ethnic groups involved in the 13 variants of minority language websites in China are all cross-border ethnic groups. (6) After 15 years of development, China’s minority language websites have already achieved a certain scale: these websites provide minority ethnic communities at large with information services using the native ethnic script as a vehicle; at the same time, they have also become the primary channels for promotion of Chinese Communist Party and national programs and policies by the Party and the government, particularly ethnic policies. In addition, minority language websites in China have also become an important platform for minority ethnic communities to use their native ethnic scripts, providing a broad stage for perpetuating and developing outstanding minority ethnic cultures. The minority language websites in our country serve as a window to the people of the world: in the new era, and with new media, minority ethnic scripts in our country are achieving better protection, perpetuation, and development.

Liu Yanhong (刘艳虹), Gu Dingqian (顾定倩), Cheng Li (程黎) and Wei Dan (魏丹)

11 Survey study of the use of sign language 1

In China, there are tens of millions of hearing-impaired people (referred to below as deaf people) and visually-impaired people (referred to below as blind people): sign language and Braille, the special language and writing systems that they use, are important components of the national spoken and written language. Promoting the universalization and standardization of sign language and Braille has become an urgent task in China’s efforts regarding spoken and written language and handicapped people.2 Since the founding of People’s Republic of China, with respect to the standardization of sign language, the state has successively organized, compiled and published General Illustrated Sign Language for Deaf-Mutes (聋哑人通用手 语图), Chinese Sign Language (中国手语), volumes 1 and 2, as well as the revised edition of Chinese Sign Language (collectively referred to below as Chinese Sign Language), and so on, to serve as general vocabulary reference books for sign language. However, there are still enormous disparities between the field of special education and local sign languages used by deaf people in various parts of the country (referred to below as local sign languages). In November 2011, the Department of Education and Employment at the China Disabled Persons’ Federation, the Department of Language Application and Administration at the Ministry of Education, and the Department of Basic

1 This survey received strong support from the departments of education (education commissions) and language commissions of relevant provinces (autonomous regions, direct-controlled municipalities), the Disabled Persons’ Federation, and special education schools, to which we would like to extend our thanks. The members of the Survey Study Task Group on the Use of Sign Language and Braille in China included: Wei Dan (魏丹), Zhou Demao (周德茂), Huang Wei (黄伟), Xie Junying (谢俊英), Gu Dingqian (顾定倩), Liu Yanhong (刘艳虹), Cheng Li (程黎), Han Ping (韩萍), and Zhong Jinghua (钟经华). 2 On January 20, 2011, Comrade Liu Yandong (刘延东) gave a speech at the Forum for the 10th Anniversary of the issuance of the Law of the People‘s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法), calling for “comprehensive planning, strengthened guidance, and engagement in efforts for the study, standardization, and popularization of general sign language and general Braille.” In May of the same year, the State Council approved the Outline of the “12th Five-Year” Plan for the Development of Disabled Persons’ in China (中国残疾人事业“十二五”发展纲要), proposing “strengthened efforts to support sign language and Braille.” https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-011

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Education II at the Ministry of Education commissioned the National Center for Sign Language and Braille to conduct a survey study of the use of sign language and Braille nation-wide. This survey was listed as an authorized scientific research task under the “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” for national language in 2012. This represents the first time that a survey of the use of sign language was conducted in China.

1 Survey methods 1.1 Survey audience The audience for this survey included six categories: hearing-impaired students (referred to below as deaf students) and visually-impaired students (referred to below as blind students) at special education schools at all levels and of all categories; teachers who use sign language to teach and teachers who use Braille to teach (collectively referred to below as teachers); as well as hearing-impaired adults (referred to below as deaf adults) and visually-impaired adults (referred to below as blind adults) who have already graduated.

1.2 Sampling method This survey adopted a hybrid sampling method combining stratified sampling and cluster sampling. The stratified sampling referred to data from the 2006 2nd National Survey of Disabled Persons, collecting samples in 18 provinces (autonomous regions, direct-controlled municipalities) including Beijing (北京), Hebei (河北), Henan (河南), Hunan (湖南), Fujian (福建), Gansu (甘肃), Guangdong (广东), Jilin (吉林), Jiangsu (江苏), Inner Mongolia, Liaoning (辽宁), Shandong (山东), Shaanxi (陕西), Shanghai (上海), Sichuan (四川), Xinjiang (新疆), Yunnan (云南), and Zhejiang (浙江); in each province (autonomous region, directcontrolled municipality), samples were collected from 3–4 local- or county-level cities (including provincial capital cities). In each sampled province (autonomous region, direct-controlled municipality) and in each sampled city, samples were collected from one school for the deaf (blind) or special education school providing education for the blind or education for the deaf. With respect to the sampled schools, the cluster sampling included deaf students in fifth grade or higher and blind students in third grade or higher in the compulsory education stage, as well as all teachers who used sign language

11 Survey study of the use of sign language

131

or Braille to teach; it also included deaf students and blind students at full-time schools and university for higher special education and secondary vocational schools for disabled persons affiliated with the Disabled Persons’ Federation System, as well as teachers who used sign language or Braille to teach. With respect to adult disabled persons, the cluster sampling primarily collected samples from local deaf people or blind people, centering on employment centers or activity centers. Since it was relatively difficult to sample deaf and blind adults, the subjects were supplemented in nine provinces and cities, including Hubei (湖北), Anhui (安徽) and Jiangxi (江西). The retrieval rate for questionnaires was above 90% in all six categories.

1.3 Questionnaire preparation, distribution and retrieval In the process of preparing the questionnaires for the sign language survey, first, experts discussed the basic framework for the questionnaires, and decided to collect data on four dimensions, including the principal categories of sign language use, as well as proficiency; sign language learning environments and channels; effects of the use of sign language; and attitudes toward the formulation of a general sign language. At the same time, natural information was collected from the subjects in the various categories. The experts then compiled questions based on each dimension of the questionnaire, to prepare the “Survey Questionnaire for Deaf Students on the Use of Sign Language” (聋生使用手语状况调查问卷), “Survey Questionnaire for Teachers on the Use of Sign Language” (教师使用手语状况调查 问卷), “Survey Questionnaire for Deaf Adults on the Use of Sign Language” (成年 聋人使用手语状况调查问卷), and so on. After completing the initial draft for the questionnaires, a small-scale pretest was conducted, and a frequency analysis was completed for each question in the questionnaire: unsuitable questions were removed, and suitable questions were retained. The modified questionnaires had relatively good reliability and validity. Table 11.1: Questionnaire distribution and retrieval statistics.

Distributed Questionnaires Retrieved Questionnaires Retrieval Rate (%)

Deaf Students

Teachers

Deaf Adults

Total

, , .

, , .

,  .

, , .

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1.4 Data statistics The results of the survey were tabulated using SPSS18.0 statistical software, and descriptive analysis and variance testing for influencing factors were completed for the survey data from the different groups (see Table 11.1).

2 Categories of sign language use At present, there are three categories of sign language use among the different groups, including Chinese Sign Language, local sign languages, and co-use of Chinese Sign Language and local sign language (abbreviated as dual sign language). In terms of the usage rates for Chinese Sign Language and dual sign language, teachers have the highest rate, followed by deaf students, and deaf adults have the lowest rate; in terms of the usage rates for local sign languages, deaf adults have the highest rate, followed by deaf students, and teachers have the lowest rate (see Table 11.2). Further analysis shows that the rate of use of “local sign languages” and couse of “dual sign language” is significantly higher among deaf students who become deaf prior to language acquisition (at or less than 4 years of age) in comparison with deaf students who became deaf after language acquisition (more than 4 years of age), and the rate of use of “Chinese Sign Language” was also significantly lower in comparison to deaf students who became deaf after language acquisition (P < 0.01). Having a deaf person in the family had a non-significant impact on the sign language category selected for use by deaf students.

3 Proficiency in the use of sign language The different groups showed variation in proficiency in the use of sign language. In terms of proficiency in the use of local sign languages, deaf adults received the highest score, followed by teachers, and students received the lowest score. (A score of 1 indicated “Completely non-proficient,” a score of 2 indicated “Able to sign and understand a little,” and a score of 3 indicated “Able to sign and understand a large amount.” A higher average score indicated better mastery and proficiency in the sign language). In terms of proficiency in the use of Chinese Sign Language, teachers received the highest score, followed by deaf students, and deaf adults received the lowest score. Teachers had a higher proficiency in the use of Chinese Sign Language

.

.

.

,





Teachers

Deaf adults

Deaf students

%

N

Local sign languages





,

N

%

.

.

.

Chinese Sign Language



,

,

N

%

.

.

.

Dual sign language



,

,

N

.

.

.

%

Total questions answered

Table 11.2: Frequency statistics for the principal categories of sign language use in different groups.







N

%

.

.

.

Unanswered questions



,

,

N

Total

.

.

.

%

11 Survey study of the use of sign language

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Liu Yanhong (刘艳虹) et al.

compared to local sign languages, while deaf students and deaf adults had a higher proficiency in the use of local sign languages compared to Chinese Sign Language (see Table 11.3).

Table 11.3: Comparison of sign language proficiency in different groups.

Deaf students Teachers Deaf adults

Local sign languages (M ± SD)

Chinese Sign Language (M ± SD)

. ± . . ± . . ± .

. ± . . ± . . ± .

Further analysis shows that deaf students who have a deaf person in the family have a significantly higher proficiency in the use of “local sign languages” in comparison with deaf students who do not have a deaf person in the family (P < 0.05). As their years of involvement in education increased, the teachers’ scores for proficiency in the use of “local sign languages” and “Chinese Sign Language” presented a rising trend. Among deaf adults, proficiency in the use of “Chinese Sign Language” was influenced by the state of their hearing ability: deaf adults with average hearing ability (able to hear sounds when wearing hearing aids) had significantly higher proficiency compared to deaf adults with relatively good hearing ability (able to hear sounds without wearing hearing aids) and relatively poor hearing ability (unable to hear sounds even when wearing hearing aids) (P < 0.05).

4 Teachers’ channels for learning sign language Teachers at special education schools are the primary group teaching and disseminating sign language. The results of the survey show that teachers’ channels for learning sign language, ranked from high to low by frequency, are: taught by a colleague after work; self-taught without a teacher; studied at a school before work; and studied through participation in a training course (see Table 11.4). Based on their teaching section, the teachers were divided into three groups: the preschool education group (abbreviated as the preschool group), the compulsory education group (abbreviated as the compulsory group), and the high school/vocational high school/technical secondary school group (abbreviated as the high school group). As the level of their teaching section rose, the proportion

11 Survey study of the use of sign language

135

Table 11.4: Frequency statistics for the primary channels by which special education school teachers learn sign language (multiple choice). Studied at Taught by a school a colleague before work after work Frequency (N) Percentage (%)

 .

, .

Studied through participation in a training course

Self-taught Unanswered without questions a teacher

 .

 .

 .

of teachers who “studied at a school before work” gradually declined, and the proportion who “participated in a training course” or were “self-taught” gradually rose; the proportion who selected “taught by a colleague after work” presented a trend of decline followed by a rise. Among teachers with less than 10 years of experience in teaching, the proportion who studied sign language “at a school before work” was significantly higher compared to teachers with more than 10 years of experience in teaching; while the proportion who were “taught by a colleague after work” was significantly lower compared to teachers with more than 10 years of experience in teaching (P < 0.01).

5 Situation of studying the book Chinese Sign Language (中国手语) among different groups Chinese Sign Language (中国手语), volumes 1 and 2, was published nearly 20 years ago, and the revised edition of Chinese Sign Language was published almost a decade ago: more than one hundred thousand copies are in circulation. The results of this survey show that more than 99% of teachers, 90% of deaf students, and nearly 80% of deaf adults have read Chinese Sign Language (see Table 11.5).

6 Effects of signed news programming More than 90% of deaf students and deaf adults had seen signed news programming on a television channel, but less than 10% “could understand a large amount”: 27.0% of deaf students and 44.9% of deaf adults “essentially could not understand” signed news programming (see Table 11.6). Further analysis shows that, among deaf adults under the age of 30, the proportion who “could understand a large amount” and “could understand

Deaf adults

Teachers

Deaf students

%

.

.

.

N



,



Read entire book



,

,

N

.

.

.

%

Read some of the book







N

.

.

.

%

Have not read the book



,

,

N

.

.

.

%

Total questions answered

Table 11.5: Frequency statistics for the study of Chinese Sign Language (中国手语) among different groups.







N

.

.

.

%

Unanswered questions



,

,

N

%

.

.

.

Total

136 Liu Yanhong (刘艳虹) et al.

Total

Deaf adults

Deaf students

%

.

.

.

N







Could understand a large amount

,



,

N

.

.

.

%

Could understand a little

,



,

N

.

.

.

%

Essentially could not understand

,



,

N

%

.

.

.

Total questions answered







N

Unanswered questions

.

.

.

%

N

Total

.



,

Table 11.6: Frequency statistics for the level of understanding of signed news programming on television channels among deaf people.

.

.

.

%

11 Survey study of the use of sign language

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Liu Yanhong (刘艳虹) et al.

a little” of signed news programming was higher in comparison with deaf adults over the age of 30. Among deaf adults over the age of 30, more than half “essentially could not understand” signed news programming.

7 The impact of inconsistency in sign language The phenomenon of inconsistency in sign language is omnipresent. The results of the survey show that 77.3% of teachers believed that sign language as used by teachers at the different special education schools in their respective province (autonomous region, direct-controlled municipality) “varied somewhat” or “varied significantly.” 76.9% of deaf students and deaf adults believed that sign language as used by school counselors, kitchen staff, school doctors, and teachers in class was “somewhat different” or “different.” When conversing with other deaf people, approximately 80% of deaf students and 90% of deaf adults “occasionally encountered” or “frequently encountered” situations of different sign language movements. Inconsistency in sign language causes certain difficulties in interactions among deaf people and teaching at schools for the deaf. The results of this survey show that approximately 80% of teachers and students at schools for the deaf all believe that the use of different sign languages has already impacted their day-to-day interactions and the effects of teaching and studying. Similarly, deaf people using inconsistent sign languages also feel that interactions are difficult (see Table 11.7).

8 The key problems present in sign language Teachers and deaf adults all believe that, at present, sign language in China has two major problems: inadequate vocabulary, and inconsistency in sign language movements. In addition, there is a phenomenon of inconsistent word order between sign language and spoken language expression. Herein, teachers at schools for the deaf place greater emphasis on inadequate vocabulary, while deaf adults focus more on inconsistency in sign language movements (see Table 11.8). Further analysis shows that, as the level of their teaching section rose, the proportion of teachers at schools for the deaf who selected “inadequate vocabulary” gradually rose. Among deaf adults under the age of 30, the proportion who selected “inadequate vocabulary” was higher in comparison with deaf adults over the age of 30.

Deaf adults

Deaf students

%

.

.

N





Great difficulties



,

N

.

.

%

Some difficulties



,

N

%

.

.

No difficulties



,

N

%

.

.

Total questions answered





N

Unanswered questions

Table 11.7: Frequency statistics for difficulties in interactions caused by inconsistent sign languages among deaf people.

.

.

%



.

N

%

.

.

Total

11 Survey study of the use of sign language

139

Deaf adults

Teachers

.

.

,





%

.

.

N

%

N

,

Inadequate vocabulary

Inconsistency in sign language movements



,

N

.

.

%

Inconsistency with the sequence of expression in spoken language





N

Other

.

.

%



,

N

.

.

%

Total questions answered

Table 11.8: Frequency statistics for problems present in the use of sign language (multiple choice).





N

%

.

.

Unanswered questions



,

N

%

.

.

Total

140 Liu Yanhong (刘艳虹) et al.

.

.

.

,

,



Deaf students

Teachers

Deaf adults

N

%

N







Not desired

Desired

.

.

.

%





,

N

%

.

.

.

Uncertain how to answer



,

,

N

%

.

.

.

Total questions answered







N

Unanswered questions

Table 11.9: Frequency statistics for attitudes toward the formulation of a general sign language among different groups.

.

.

.

%



,

,

N

Total

.

.

.

%

11 Survey study of the use of sign language

141

142

Liu Yanhong (刘艳虹) et al.

9 Attitudes toward the formulation of a general sign language This survey examined the attitudes in different groups from the two perspectives of the necessity and the desire for the formulation of a general sign language. The results show that more than 80% of teachers and more than half of deaf adults believed that it is necessary for China to research the formulation of a general sign language. The vast majority of deaf students, teachers and deaf adults expressed a desire for the formulation of a general sign language (see Table 11.9). Further analysis shows that, the proportion of deaf students who became deaf prior to language acquisition who selected “desired” was significantly higher in comparison with deaf students who became deaf after language acquisition (P < 0.01). As the level of their teaching section rose, the proportion of teachers at schools for the deaf who selected “desired” presented a declining trend; the proportion of teachers with less than 5 years of experience in teaching who selected “desired” was higher in comparison with those who had more than 5 years of experience in teaching. The proportion of deaf adults under the age of 40 who selected “desired” with regard to the formulation of a general sign language was higher in comparison with those over the age of 40.

Wei Xiangqing (魏向清)

12 National plans for the compilation and publication of lexicographical works Lexicographical works serve as guidance for language use and a major carrier for the dissemination of assorted knowledge and culture, thus directly or indirectly reflecting the state of national language situation. Since the founding of People’s Republic of China (PRC), three successive national plans have been formulated for the compilation and publication of lexicographical works. In the following, we will provide a brief review of the first two national plans, followed by a focused analysis of the content and features of the third national plan formulated in 2013.

1 The first national plan for the compilation and publication of lexicographical works Between May 23 and June 17, 1975, with the approval of the PRC State Council, the Ministry of Education and the State Publishing Administration (国家出版事业管理 局) organized the “Conference for the Planning of the Compilation and Publication of Chinese and Foreign-Language Dictionaries” (中外语文词典编写出版规划座谈 会) in Guangzhou (广州). There were altogether 115 participants, including experts and other representatives, who came from different parts of mainland China and worked in distinct but related fields. At the conference, the 1975–1985 Plan for the Compilation and Publication of Chinese and Foreign-Language Dictionaries (Draft) (1975 年至 1985 年中外语文词典编写出版规划（草案）) was formulated. A total of 160 Chinese and foreign-language dictionaries were planned to be published, including 31 Chinese dictionaries, and 129 foreign-language dictionaries. The implementation of the plan consisted of “two steps”: “In the first step, between 1975 and 1980, 78 foreign-language dictionaries shall be published. . . . The first priority shall be given to the compilation of dictionaries of foreign languages such as English, Japanese, Russian, French, German, Spanish, and Arabic. In the second step, between 1981 and 1985, 51 foreign-language dictionaries shall be published. Efforts shall be put into the compilation and publication of bilingual dictionaries within about ten years and all major foreign languages are involved” (State Publishing Administration, 1975). It was also proposed that, “In order to meet the needs for our country’s socialist revolution and construction, certain significant https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-012

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foreign dictionaries may also be imported for internal use” (State Publishing Administration, 1975). This period coincided with the dying days of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976): like others, lexicography was almost stagnant during the 10 years of social upheaval, and consequently it was simply impossible to satisfy the society’s basic needs for lexicographical works. As a type of general dictionaries, linguistic dictionaries form the foundation of the lexicographical taxonomy, and their compilation and publication concern a society’s most basic needs regarding language use. The first national plan is centred on Chinese dictionaries and foreign-language dictionaries and no other types of lexicographical works are involved. The formulation of the first national plan established a fundamental framework for China’s modern lexicographical system. The number of languages involved in foreign-language dictionaries was greatly enlarged, and the subcategories of Chinese dictionaries (such as general-purpose and special-purpose dictionaries, and dictionaries of classical Chinese and modern Chinese) were almost full and complete. The plan featured two key points. The first put an emphasis on foreign-language dictionaries: the number of planned dictionaries in this category exceeded that of Chinese dictionaries threefold, accounting for 80% of the total. Examples included Ying-Han Da Cidian (英汉大词典, ‘An EnglishChinese Dictionary’), Ri-Han Da Cidian (日汉大词典, ‘A Japanese-Chinese Dictionary’), E-Han Da Cidian (俄汉大词典, ‘A Russian-Chinese Dictionary’), FaHan Da Cidian (法汉大词典, ‘A French-Chinese Dictionary’), De-Han Da Cidian (德汉大词典, ‘A German-Chinese Dictionary’), Xi-Han Cidian (西汉词典, ‘A Spanish-Chinese Dictionary’), Alaboyu Hanyu Cidian (阿拉伯语汉语词典, ‘An Arabic-Chinese Dictionary’), and so forth. The second stressed the publication of modern Chinese dictionaries: such dictionaries accounted for 70% of the total number of planned Chinese dictionaries. Examples included Xinhua Zidian (新华 字典, ‘The New China Character Dictionary’), Xiandai Hanyu Cidian (现 代 汉 语 词 典, ‘A Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese’), Hanyu Da Zidian (汉 语 大 字 典, ‘An Encyclopedic Character Dictionary of the Chinese Language’), Hanyu Da Cidian (汉语大词典, ‘An Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language’), Xiandai Hanyu Chengyu Cidian (现代汉语成语词典, ‘A Modern Dictionary of Chinese Idioms’), Cihai (Yuci Fengce) (辞海(语词分册), ‘Sea of Words (Words and Expressions Volume)’) and so forth. This arrangement was primarily intended to meet the society’s pressing needs for Chinese and foreign-language dictionaries under the language situation at that time. Overall, the dictionaries in the first national plan were rather small in size, chiefly consisting of small-andmedium-sized works. The first national plan laid the foundation for the later development of Chinese lexicography.

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2 The second national plan for the compilation and publication of lexicographical works In 1988, the State Administration of Press and Publication of PRC (国家新闻出 版 署) convened the “National Conference for the Planning of the Compilation and Publication of Lexicographical Works” (全 国 辞 书 编 写 出 版 规 划 座 谈 会) in Chengdu (成都). At the conference, the 1988–2000 National Plan for the Compilation and Publication of Lexicographical Works (Draft) (1988–2000 年全国 辞书编写出版 规划（草案）) was formulated after much discussion. On April 17, 1990, with the approval of the PRC State Council, the State Administration of Press and Publication of PRC (国家新闻出版署) released the Report on the National Plan for the Compilation and Publication of Lexicographical Works (1988–2000) (关于全国辞书 编写出版规划（1988–2000 年）的报告) (Publishers Association of China et al. 1991: 473). A total of 169 lexicographical works were listed in this plan, including 100 Chinese lexicographical works, 66 foreignlanguage lexicographical works, and 3 lexicographical works of minority languages (Korean, Mongolian, and Uyghur). The second national plan was divided into two stages for completion: the first stage ran from 1988 to 1993, while the second stage ran from 1994 to 2000. For Chinese dictionaries, the plan emphasized a wide range of variety, gap filling, and dictionary series. For specialized dictionaries, the plan stressed the compilation of large-scale, comprehensive ones for fundamental disciplines, and it also allowed for those with Chinese characteristics. For encyclopedias, the plan highlighted the principle of compiling a small quantity of encyclopedias with high quality. The second national plan reflected a comprehensive view of the overall situation, scientific principle and professionalization. The general composition of lexicographical types was more rational and comprehensive. With respect to Chinese lexicographical works, apart from specialized dictionaries, encyclopedic dictionaries and encyclopedias, the plan also incorporated the CFLs (Chinese as a foreign language dictionaries). Examples included Jingji Da Cidian (经济大辞典, ‘A Dictionary of Economics’), Zhongguo Kexue Jishu Da Cidian (中国科学技术大词典, ‘A Chinese Dictionary of Science and Technology), Zhongguo Da Baike Quanshu (中国大百科全书, ‘The Encyclopedia of China’), Duiwai Hanyu Jiaoxue Cidian (对外汉语教学词典, ‘A Dictionary for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language’), and so forth. Concerning foreignlanguage dictionaries, the most conspicuous change was that the type of specialized dictionaries was added to the plan: the compiling formats were further expanded, and the bilingualized sub-category was included. Examples were Hanyu Alaboyu Shuangjie Keji Cidian (汉语阿拉伯语科技词典, ‘A Chinese-Arabic

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Dictionary of Science and Technology’), Ying-Han Qiye Guanli Cidian (英汉企业 管理词典, ‘An English-Chinese Dictionary of Business Management’), Yingyu Yuyanxue Da Cidian (英语语言学大词典, ‘An Dictionary of English Linguistics’), E-Han Junshi Da Cidian (俄汉军事大词典, ‘A Russian-Chinese Military Dictionary’), Ying-Han Shuangjie Tongyici Cidian (英汉双解同义词词典, ‘An English-Chinese Dictionary of Synonyms’), E-Han Shuangjie Cidian (俄汉双解辞 典, ‘A Russian-Chinese Bilingualized Dictionary’), Fayu Guanyongyu Shuangjie Cidian (法语惯用语双解词典, ‘A Bilingualized Dictionary of French Idioms’), and so forth. Such arrangement accorded with the requirement that foreign-language dictionaries should be compiled and published to meet the special needs of international communication. The second plan displayed a more scientific lexicographical hierarchy, primarily reflected in the planning for foreign-language dictionaries. Among them, there were 35 works with 50,000 or more entries, accounting for 53.03% of the total (66 works), and 7 works containing more than 100,000 entries, such as the Zonghe Ying-Han Da Cidian (综合英汉大词典, ‘A Comprehensive English-Chinese Dictionary’) (250,000 entries), Da Ri-Han Cidian (大日汉词典, ‘A Comprehensive Japanese-Chinese Dictionary’) (200,000 entries), De-Han Da Cidian (德汉大词典, ‘A German-Chinese Dictionary’) (200,000 entries), Xibanyayu Hanyu Da Cidian (西班牙语汉语大词典, ‘A Spanish-Chinese Dictionary) (140,000 entries), and so forth. In contrast, the first national plan also included 35 foreign-language dictionaries with 50,000 or more entries, but they only accounted for 27.13% of the total number of works (129 works). There were only 5 works with more than 100,000 entries. The compilation and publication of dictionaries became more professionalized. An increasing number of college and university presses as well as specialized foreign language publishing houses started to publish foreign-language dictionaries, which significantly enhanced the level of professionalization in the publication of such dictionaries. In addition to independent, original lexicographical research and compilation, new models were introduced where Chinese and foreign lexicographers can collaborate in compilation and publication. For instance, E-Han Shuangjie Cidian (俄汉双解词典, ‘A Russian-Chinese Bilingualized Dictionary’) was a joint effort between the Commercial Press (商务印书馆) and the Publishing House “Russian Language”, while Xin Han-Ri Cidian (新 汉 日 词 典, ‘A New Chinese-Japanese Dictionary’) was jointly published by the Commercial Press (商务印书馆) and Japan’s Shogakukan. The second national plan served as a transition between the first and the third national plans, further optimizing the structure of the compilation and publication of lexicographical works in China. In addition, it helped promote the comprehensive, balanced development of lexicography in China.

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3 The third national plan for the compilation and publication of lexicographical works On October 30, 2013, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television (SAPPRFT) released the “Notice about the Issuance of the National Plan for the Compilation and Publication of lexicographical works (2013–2025)” (关于印发 2013–2025 年国家辞书编纂出版规划的通知) (abbreviated below as “the Plan”), marking the commencement of the implementation of the third national lexicography development planning of China. The guidelines of this national plan chiefly highlighted the following four key points: (1) to make a resolution to promote the development of dictionary-making and publishing industry nationwide, and serve the social construction; (2) to put prominence to the features of the lexicography, and demonstrate the academic achievements; (3) to stress the standardized usages of language, and improve the practical functions of dictionaries; (4) to promote the digital publication, and strengthen the power of communication (SAPPRFT 2013). There were 189 Chinese and Foreignlanguage dictionaries in total on the planning list, surpassing the two previous plans both in scale and quantity. Specifically, 123 Chinese dictionaries (106 new works and 17 revised editions), 50 foreign-language dictionaries (22 English dictionaries, 17 non-common language dictionaries, 6 multilingual dictionaries, and 5 serial lexicographical works), and 16 minority-language dictionaries (used by China’s ethnic minority) were included.

3.1 Pursuing the strategy for boosting the development of national culture The employment of the word “national” in the title of the Plan reflected the national consciousness and nation-positioned strategy. The objectives and features of the Plan have provided a clear description: “Through the implementation of the third Plan, the lexicographical community should adopt the state policy of laying more efforts on the publication of selected lexicographical works; improve the running mechanism of publishing high-quality dictionaries; boost the development of Chinese lexicography; enhance the national cultural soft power, and promote the great prosperity in the development of socialist culture” (SAPPRFT 2013).

Besides, the Plan should also “make a resolution to promote the development of dictionary-making and publishing industry nationwide, and serve the social construction. The large-sized encyclopedic dictionaries should keep pace with the

148

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new age and uphold tradition while pursuing innovation so as to better adapt to the needs of scientific and cultural development and present the latest achievements in terms of Chinese socialist cultural construction” (SAPPRFT 2013). Therefore, in the third national Plan, the large-sized Chinese dictionaries of high quality have attracted a great deal of attention, with several key Chinese dictionaries which can serve as models across the country being high on the list of priorities, such as Cihai (辞海, ‘Sea of Words’, the 7th edition), Ciyuan (辞 源, ‘The Chinese Etymology Dictionary’, the 3rd edition), as well as Da Cihai (大 辞海, ‘The Great Ocean of Word’), Zihai (字海, ‘The Ocean of Chinese Characters’), Jinxiandai Hanyu Da Ciyuan (近现代汉语大辞源, ‘An Etymology Dictionary of Early Modern and Contemporary Chinese’,) Quanqiu Huayu Da Cidian (全球华语大词典, ‘A Global Chinese Dictionary’), Xiandai Hanyu Da Cidian (现代汉语大词典, ‘A Modern Chinese Dictionary’), Gudai Hanyu Da Cidian (古 代 汉 语 大 词 典, ‘The Ancient Chinese Dictionary’), Zhonghua Yuwen Da Cidian (中华语文大词典, ‘A Dictionary of the Chinese Language’), and so on. Besides, some lexicographical publishing projects concerning the series of brand dictionary products were also appreciated, including the Xinhua (新华, ‘The New China’) dictionary series, Shangwuguan (商务馆, ‘The Commercial Press’) dictionary series, Waijiaoshe (外教社, ‘The Foreign Language Education Press’) bilingual (bilingulised) dictionary series, Xin Shiji (新 世纪, ‘The New Century’) dictionary series, and so on, all of which were inseparably bound up with the goal of boosting the development of Chinese lexicography and making China become the nation with a highly-developed dictionary-making industry. Moreover, great importance was also attached to the future publication plans in terms of the large-sized Chinese-foreign dictionaries and translation dictionaries, in which a higher number of languages were involved. Except for such dictionary types as Chinese-English dictionary, Chinese-Japanese dictionary, Chinese-German dictionary, and Chinese-French dictionary, other types were Chinese-Azerbaijani dictionary, Chinese-Dutch dictionary, Chinese-Hindi dictionary, and Chinese-Vietnamese dictionary, etc. Overall, the number of the dictionaries belonging to the categories of Chinese-foreign dictionaries and translation dictionaries was 21, which accounted for 42% of foreign-language dictionaries with a total number of 50. Finally, a new scheme regarding the development of electronic dictionaries was also launched. For instance, Quan Meiti Xiandai Hanyu Da Cidian (全媒体现 代汉语大词典, ‘An Omnimedia Modern Chinese Dictionary’, print and electronic editions), Zhongguo Yueqi Da Cidian (中国乐器大词典, ‘A Dictionary of the

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Chinese Musical Instruments’, electronic edition), Zhongguo Gaodeng Zhiwu Dianzi Baike Quanshu (中国高等植物电子百科全书, ‘An Electronic Encyclopedia of Chinese Higher Plants’, electronic), Zhongwai Tielu Cidian (中外铁路词典, ‘A Chinese and Foreign Railway Dictionary’, print and electronic editions), Hanying Shuangjie Shijie Minsu Wenhua Bijiao Cidian (汉英双解世界民俗文化比较辞典, ‘A Chinese-English Dictionary of World Folk Culture’, electronic edition), and so on. These projects presented the innovative features of Omnimedia dictionary planning, which conformed to the lexicographical development trends across the world.

3.2 Improving the Chinese lexicography planning system nationwide Since the implementation of reform and opening up policy in 1978, 14,090 dictionaries of various categories have been published in China (Wei et al. 2014), earning it the name of a great country for dictionary publication, but there is still a long way to go when considering the objectives of becoming a nation with ample lexicographical works in good qualities. The third Plan has made an attempt to further optimize the existing dictionary producing system of China, i.e., apart from valuing the basic categories of both general dictionary and special dictionary, extra efforts are also put into how to develop specialized dictionaries, encyclopedic dictionaries, and other encyclopedias, especially digital dictionaries and minority language dictionaries.

3.3 Underlining the need for services to the Chinese language situation The third Plan gives China a full guarantee of lexicographical resources for a harmonious and healthy language situation in the future. First, with respect to emphasizing the normative use of language and intensifying the practical function of Chinese dictionaries, the lexicographers need to pay due attention to the research findings relating to the Chinese learner’s dictionaries, such as Dangdai Hanyu Cidian (当代汉语词典, ‘The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary’), Shangwuguan Xuexi Cishu Xilie (商务馆学习辞书系列, ‘The Commercial Press Learner’s Dictionary Series’), Guoji Hanyu Xuexi Cidian (国 际汉语学习词典, ‘The International Chinese Learner’s Dictionary’), and so

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on. Second, with regard to the key lexicographical projects of general dictionaries, which mainly include Chinese dictionaries, foreign-language dictionaries, and minority-language dictionaries, lexicographers should implement strictly the normative standards of Chinese, and try to expand the coverage of different languages so as to improve the general applicability of the Chinese dictionaries (Wei et al. 2014), e.g., Zangwen Da Cidian (藏文大辞典, ‘A Dictionary of the Tibetan Language’), Mengguyu Da Cidian (蒙 古 语 大 辞 典, ‘A Dictionary of the Mongolian Language’), Chaoxianyu Da Cidian (朝鲜语大辞典, ‘A Dictionary of the Korean Language’), Xiandai Weiwueryu Xiangjie Cidian (现代维吾尔语详解词典, ‘A Dictionary of Modern Uyghur’), Zhuangwen Cishu Xilie (壮文辞书系列, ‘The Zhuang Language Dictionary Series’), Hasakeyu Cidian Xilie (哈萨克语辞典系列, ‘The Kazakh Language Dictionary Series’), and so on.

4 Suggestions 4.1 The construction of lexicographical talent team According to the third national lexicographical development planning of China, the publishing project of large-sized dictionaries account for a fairly high proportion, a task that can prove quite challenging and that requires close teamwork between each member of the large dictionary-making team. Therefore, apart from the lexicographical research guidance and the strict quality control by the leading figures in the field of lexicography, urgent action is needed to promote the construction of dictionary-making talent team. The crux of the matter is whether the team members could grapple with the lengthy publication cycle while maintaining their initial enthusiasm high. To ensure the long-term stability of a large-scale dictionary compiling team, a free academic atmosphere and rational institutions’ guarantee are indispensable except for the individual efforts of each member staff.

4.2 The construction of the digitalized lexicographical resources In the age of digitalization, the traditional dictionary-making and publishing model is facing enormous challenges, and relevant innovation should be encouraged if the traditional dictionary-making industry is to remain competitive.

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Among the future challenges, the construction of the digitalized resources of Chinese dictionaries is high on the list of priorities, because there is still a huge gap between China and its counterparts. Generally speaking, the construction of dictionary-database resources and the development of dictionary-making platforms serve as two prerequisites for the digitization of dictionary-making in the near future. Accordingly, principles of taking the lead by the state, cooperating and sharing with each other, rather than research protectionism, should be followed so as to increase the level of resources utilization. Besides, it is also necessary to draw on the successful experience of dictionary-making from the European countries on the basis of a consideration of the domestic users’ needs.

4.3 The innovation of lexicographical research The sustainable development of the industry of dictionary compilation and publication relies heavily on the constantly emerging researching findings regarding applied linguistics as well as other related studies. The applied linguistic research has been proved to have a direct connection to the publishing quality of lexicographical works. To make full use of the cutting-edge research findings from applied linguistics, and to count on the advanced lexicographical theories are two key factors which play significant roles in producing high-quality dictionaries and building the nation with a highlydeveloped dictionary-making industry. Meanwhile, the new emerging things, phenomenon, and the problems in the Chinese language situation should also be the focus of the dictionary compilation and relevant lexicographical studies, because the innovation of dictionary-making and publishing is on the one hand deriving from the practical needs of the national language situation, while on the other hand it gives positive feedback on the normalization of language and writing so that a favorable mutual mechanism could be formed between the compilation and publication of dictionaries and the social language situation.

The first plan () The second plan () The third plan ()

Dictionary plan

Specific dictionary   

General dictionary

  

  

Specialized dictionary   

Encyclopedic dictionary   

Encyclopedia

  

CFL dictionary

  

Serial dictionary

  

Minoritylanguage dictionary

Table 12.1: The comparison of the planned number of dictionaries between the Chinese dictionaries and the minority- language dictionaries under the three national plans.

Appendix

152 Wei Xiangqing (魏向清)

Specific dictionary   

General dictionary

  

* This work was a multilingual specialized dictionary.

The first plan () The second plan () The third plan ()

Dictionary plan   

Specialized dictionary   

Encyclopedic dictionary   

Encyclopedia   

CFL dictionary   

Serial dictionary

 * 

Multilingual dictionary

Table 12.2: The Comparison of the planned number of dictionaries between the Chinese and foreign-language dictionaries under the three national plans.

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Wei Xiangqing (魏向清)

References State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television (国家新闻出版广电总 局). 2013. The Notice about the Issuance of the National Planning for the Compilation and Publication of Lexicographical Works (2013–2025) (关于印发《2013–2025 年国家辞书编 纂出版规划》的通 知), XinChuZhengFa (新出政发) [2013] No. 9, Oct. 30, 2013. State Publishing Administration (国家出版事业管理局). 1975. Report on the Planning Forum for the Compilation and Publication of the Chinese and Foreign-language Dictionaries (关 于中外语 文词典编写出版规划座谈会的报告), Jul. 16, 1975. The Publishers Association of China (中国出版工作者协会) & Chinese Academy of Press and Publication (中国出版科学研究所). 1991. The Report on the National Plan for the Compilation and Publication of Lexicographical Works (1988–2000) released by the General Administration of Press and Publication (1988–2000) (新闻出版署关于全国辞书 编写出版规划[1988–2000]的报 告). In the Publishers Association of China & Chinese Academy of Press and Publication (ed.), China Publishers’ Yearbook (1989) (中国出版年 鉴[1989 年]). China Book Press (中国书籍出版 社). Wei, Xiangqing (魏向清) et al. 2014. Lexicography in China (1978–2008) (中国辞书发展状况报 告: 1978–2008). Beijing: The Commercial Press (商务印书馆).

Su Xinchun (苏新春) and Qiu Yanlin (邱燕林)

13 Studies on linguistic life among the projects of the National Social Science Fund The National Social Science Fund is China’s most important scientific research foundation for research in the field of the social sciences. Through the studies approved and funded by the National Social Science Fund, we can see that research on sociolinguistic life is increasingly drawing the attention and support of the government and the academic mainstream, and attracting increasing participation by scientific research personnel.

1 Overall circumstances 1.1 State of project approval in the subject of “linguistics” In the six-year period from 2008 to 2013, the National Social Science Fund approved a total of 1,424 projects in the subject of “linguistics” (see Table 13.1); their distribution by year is below.1 Project funding is divided into a total of 8 categories (see Table 13.2): “General projects” (一般项目), “Youth projects” (青年项目), “Western region projects” (西部项目), “Key projects” (重点项目), “Major projects’ (重大项目), “Achievement libraries” (成果文库), “Late-stage funded projects” (后期资助项 目), and “Projects for the foreign translation of Chinese scholarship” (中华学术外 译项目). The number of projects approved under each category is as follows: “General projects” are the most numerous, accounting for one half, while “Youth projects” account for 24.72%. “Western region projects” account for 11.52%. “Key” and “Major” combined reach 6.74%. For the “Achievement libraries,” only the data from 2010–2013 was available. For “Projects for the foreign

1 The source of the data in this study is: Office of the National Philosophy and Social Science Fund (国家哲学社会科学基金办公室), http://www.npopss-cn.gov.cn, “National Social Science Fund Project Database” (国家社科基金项目数据库). The author retrieved this data on March 1, 2014. Some projects may have been approved but not yet listed in the database: these are not included in the scope of the statistics. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-013

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Table 13.1: Number of projects approved annually in the subject of linguistics. Year Number of projects approved

























,

translation of Chinese scholarship,” only the data from 2012 and 2013 was available, amounting to 3 projects.

1.2 Distribution of “linguistics” studies by field The 1,424 studies were distributed across three major categories, including “Ontology of language and historical changes” (语言本体与历史变迁), “Sociolinguistic life” (社会语言生活), and the “Foreign languages category” (外语类), with 12 subcategories. The specific details are as follows: As seen in Table 13.3, the category “Ontology of language and historical changes” includes 778 projects in all, accounting for 54.64% of the total. This is the traditional field of research for studies in the subject of linguistics, and still maintains relatively ample research efforts directed at the current state and history of the Chinese language. The subcategory “Chinese characters” includes a total of 68 projects, the majority of which concentrate on oracle bones, inscriptions, bamboo and silk manuscripts, minority ethnic scripts, and other ancient writings. The content of the “Minority languages” subcategory has extensive coverage, including monolingual studies as well as comparative studies on the relationships between and types of languages, involving Mongolian, Uyghur, Tibetan, Zhuang, Hui, Naxi, Sibe, Korean, Salar, Yi, Kazakh, Manchu, Kyrgyz, Tujia, Li, Miao, Lahu, Dai, Dong, Dongxiang, and so on, for a total of more than 20 languages. The “Foreign languages category” includes 375 projects in all, representing 26.33% of the total: approximately two thirds of the projects are ontological studies of foreign languages as well as studies of teaching and education, while the remaining one third are studies under the subcategory of translation.

2 Distribution of studies The studies under the category of “Sociolinguistic life” include 271 projects in all, representing 19.03% of the total, distributed across subcategories 6 through 10, which are, respectively, “Use of language” (语言使用), “Language policies”



Number Percentage (%)

.

General

Project category

.



Youth

.



Western region

.



Key

Table 13.2: Number of projects approved by category in the subject of linguistics.

.



Major

.



Libraries

.



Late-stage

.



Foreign translation



,

Total

13 Studies on linguistic life among the projects

157

Foreign languages category

Sociolinguistic life

Ontology of language and historical changes

Major Category

Total





 

  

 

  

Subcategory

Foreign language teaching and research Translations

Use of language Language policies Computational linguistics and new disciplines Dictionaries Chinese language education

Mandarin Chinese Dialects History of the Chinese language Chinese characters Minority languages

Name of Category

Table 13.3: Division of “linguistics” studies by field of research.

. 

,

.

. .

. . .

. .

. . .

Percentage (%)





 

  

 

  

Number

, / 

 / .

 / .

 / .

Number (Projects) / Percentage (%)

158 Su Xinchun (苏新春) and Qiu Yanlin (邱燕林)

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(语言政策), “Computational linguistics and new disciplines” (计算语言学及新 学科), “Dictionaries” (辞书), and “Chinese language education” (汉语教育). Their shared characteristic is that they are closely connected to linguistic life, and intimately associated with society, people and culture.

2.1 Use of language Subcategory 6, “Use of language” (语言使用) includes 62 projects, most of which address neologisms, regional languages, sector languages, media and language, sociolinguistic change, and other areas. The area of neologisms includes examples such as: “Study of motivations in neologisms and rhetorical word formation and their historical origins and development” (新词语修辞造词的理据及其历史源流 研究), “Study of morphological capabilities and derivation mechanisms in contemporary Chinese neological word families and their theoretical constructs” (当代 汉语新生词族的构词能量、衍生机制及其理论建构研究), and “Study of mechanisms for the construction of neologisms in the modern Chinese language” (现代 汉语新词语构造机理研究). Examples in the area of regional languages include: “Survey study of the state of the Uyghur language in Xinjiang” (新疆维吾尔语言态 度调查研究), “Case study of strategies for the use of minority languages in the multilingual environment of the Northwestern region” (多语环境下的西北地区少 数民族语言使用策略个案研究), and “Survey and study of usage of minority languages in Guangxi” (广西少数民族语言使用情况调查与研究). In the area of sector languages, examples include: “Study of social cognition in relation to courtroom discourse” (庭审话语的社会认知研究), “Study of the state of language in the contemporary Chinese military sector” (我国当代军事领域语言状况研究), and “Corpus-based comparative study of Chinese and Western political discourses” (基 于语料库的中西政治话语比较研究). Examples in the area of media language include: “Comparative study of discursive methods in mainstream Chinese and American periodicals” (中美主流报刊话语方式对比研究), “Quantified study of media influence on popular opinion regarding hot topics in language and construction of a popular opinion bank for language” (自媒体影响下语言文字热点舆 情量化研究及语言舆情库建设), and “Multi-perspective study of the influence of online language communication on real linguistic life” (网络语言传播对现实语言 生活影响的多视角研究). The area of sociolinguistic change includes studies such as: “Study of language issues in cross-border population flow and their impact on sociolinguistic life” (人口跨域流动中的语言问题及对社会语言生活的影响研究), “Study of certain divergences and blending of modern Chinese across the straits and in the four regions” (两岸四地若干现代汉语差异与融合研究), “Study of social stratification in rural dialects in the context of urbanization: in the example of

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10 villages in Zhejiang” (城镇化背景下农村方言的社会分层研究: 以浙江的 10 个村庄为例), and so on. The studies in this category include a sizeable number examining the use of language in minority regions, particularly Xinjiang, which accounts for as many as 11 projects. Among these, four projects are classified as “Western region projects,” including: “Survey study of language contact and cultural identity in the multiethnic region of southern Xinjiang” (南疆多民族地区语言接触与文化认同 调查研究), “Social variable analysis of language contact between the Uyghur and Chinese languages in Xinjiang” (新疆维汉语语言接触的社会变量分析), “Survey of changes in contact between the Chinese language and multiple dialects in the Xinjiang Corps and study of the Corps’ linguistic culture” (新疆兵团 汉语多方言接触演变情况调查及兵团语言文化研究), and “Survey of the construction of a harmonious minority regional culture and the current state of public sign translation in Xinjiang in the context of the Olympics, and study of countermeasures” (建和谐民族地域文化与奥运背景下的新疆公示语翻译现状调 查与对策研究). Five of the projects are classified as “Youth projects,” including: “Survey study of the state of the Uyghur language in Xinjiang” (新疆维吾尔语言 态度调查研究), “Survey study of the state of language use and language adaptation by Xinjiang minority ethnic groups in the course of urbanization” (城镇化进 程中新疆少数民族语言使用与语言适应情况调查研究), “Study of linguistic and cultural ecologies and the ethnic identities of Xinjiang minority college students” (语言文化生态与新疆少数民族大学生的民族认同研究), “Study of linguistic identity of minority college students in Xinjiang’s plurilingual culture” (新疆多元语 言文化中少数民族大学生语言认同研究), and “Survey study of foreign language education and multicultural identity within the Uyghur ethnic group of Xinjiang” (外语教育与新疆维吾尔族多元文化认同调查研究). One project, “A sociolinguistic study of the use of the Chinese language within the Uyghur ethnic group of Xinjiang” (新疆维吾尔族汉语使用的社会语言学研究), was classified as a “General project”; and the final project, “Survey study of linguistic life in Xinjiang” (新疆语言生活调查研究), was classified as a “Key project.”

2.2 Language policies 25 projects fall under Subcategory 7, “Language policies” (语言政策), encompassing language planning, language policies, language standards, and so on. 13 projects examine norms and standards in contemporary linguistic life, with examples such as: “Study of changes to the state of language in cities in the Yangtze River Delta and urban language planning” (长三角地区城市语言状况 变化与城市语言规划研究); “Study of standards for neologisms and standards

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for scientific language” (新词语规范及科学语言规范观研究), “Study of online public opinion regarding spoken and written language and relevant language policies” (语言文字网络舆情及相关语言政策研究), and so on. These include three major studies approved in 2012: “Study of linguistic life-styles in the Internet environment and the construction of harmonious online linguistic life” (互联网环境下的语言生活方式与建设和谐的网络语言生活研究); “Study of issues in the standardization of new-era spoken and written language” (新时期语 言文字规范化问题研究), and “Study of trends and standards in new-era spoken and written language” (新时期语言文字动态规范研究). In addition, 4 projects address language standards and norms in minority ethnic regions, including: “Survey of the state of character usage in Tibetan society and a study of standardization countermeasures” (西藏社会用字现状调查与规范化对策研究), “Study on the influence of the evolution of language policies under New China on linguistic life in Xinjiang” (新中国语言政策演变对新疆语言生活的影 响研究), “Study on plans for the promotion of standard Mongolian pronunciation” (推广蒙古语标准音方略研究), and so on. 2 projects examine historical language standards and policies: “Study of Romanization and pinyin systems for the Chinese language created by Westerners since the late Ming Dynasty” (明末以来西方人创制的汉语罗马字拼音方案研究), and “Historical study of language policies in the Qing Dynasty” (清代语言政策史研究). Another 6 projects address overseas language standards and policies, including: “ Study of language policies in Turkmenistan” (土库曼斯坦语言政策研究), “Study of national defense language planning in the United States” (美国国防语言规划研究), “Study of competition with foreign languages under Thailand’s language policies and its inspirations for the international dissemination of the Chinese language” (泰国语言政策外语竞争及其对汉语国际传播的启示研究), and so on.

2.3 Computational linguistics and new disciplines Subcategory 6, “Computational linguistics and new disciplines” (计算语言学及新 学科), includes 40 projects. Among these, 27 projects address computational linguistics, including 3 major studies: “Study of logical semantics in natural linguistic information processing” (自然语言信息处理的逻辑语义学研究), “Study of methods for multi-view semantic analysis oriented toward online texts, linguistic knowledge banks, and the construction of platforms” (面向网络文本的多视角语 义分析方法、 语言知识库及平台建设研究), and “Quantitative linguistic study of the modern Chinese language” (现代汉语计量语言学研究). This category also includes 1 key study: “Study of the system of applied techniques for the Semantic Web and strategies for development” (语义网应用技术体系和发展战略研究).

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11 projects fall under the new discipline of applied linguistics, with examples such as, “Linguistic study of diseases of the cranial nerve system and language impairments” (脑神经系统疾病及语言障碍的语言学研究), “Study of the cognitive and neural mechanisms of compound words in the Chinese language” (汉语复合词的 认知神经机制研究), “Study of neurolinguistics and study for the construction of the discipline” (神经语言学研究及学科建设研究), “Study of the cognitive and neural mechanisms of metaphors in the Chinese language from the perspective of functional brain imaging” (脑功能成像视角下的汉语隐喻认知神经机制研究), and so on. 2 projects examine minority language information processing: “Principles and applications of recognition of Tibetan writing” (藏文识别原理与应用) and “Semantic study of compound words in the Mongolian language oriented toward information processing” (面向信息处理的蒙古语复合词语义研究).

2.4 Dictionaries 43 projects fall under Subcategory 9, “Dictionaries” (辞书). This category encompasses a fairly wide range of content, including projects for the compiling of actual dictionaries, such as: “Dictionary of Mongolian and Chinese proverbs” (蒙汉 俗谚大辞典), “Dictionary of the Wucheng dialect in Jiangxi” (江西吴城方言 词典), and “Tujia-Chinese dictionary” (土家汉词典). The category also includes projects on lexicographical theory and compiling methods, such as: “Study of outward-oriented learner’s dictionaries” (外向型学习词典研究), “Study of the history of lexicographical theory for the Chinese language” (汉语辞书理论史 研究), and “Study of descriptive adequacy in dictionary definitions” (词典释义的 完备性描述研究). Some projects are monolingual, such as, “Research and compiling of a learner’s dictionary for business English” (商务英语学习词典研编), “Dictionary of Turpan writing customs” (吐鲁番文书俗字典), and “Comparative dictionary of ancient and modern pronunciations in the Chinese language” (汉语 古今音对照词典), while others are bilingual, such as “Study of lexicology and the compiling of a Uyghur-Chinese bilingual dictionary” (词汇学与维汉双语词典 编纂研究), “Chinese-Mongolian dictionary of common expressions” (汉蒙常用词 词典), and “Modern English-Chinese legal dictionary” (现代英汉法律大词典).

2.5 Chinese language education Subcategory 10, “Chinese language education” (汉语教育), includes 101 projects. Among the studies on sociolinguistic life, Chinese language education represents the most numerous subcategory. These projects are rich in

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content, with a broad array of fields, such as, “International Chinese language education” (国际汉语教育), “Linguistic competence and language testing” (语言能力、 语言测试), “Minority language education” (少数民族语 言教育), “Language acquisition in children” (儿童语言习得), “Language impairments and special education” (语言障碍、 特殊教育) and so on. The above fields respectively encompass 39, 22, 7, 15 and 18 studies, with “International Chinese language education” being the most numerous subset, demonstrating that this field is experiencing flourishing development. 18 studies address the area of “Language impairments and special education,” revealing the state’s high degree of interest in designated disadvantaged groups in society. These 18 studies include: “Survey of verbs in Chinese Sign Language and study of sign language verb classification” (中国 手语动词调查及手语动词分类研究); “Study of the neural mechanisms of language comprehension following artificial cochlear implants” (人工耳蜗移植 后语言理解的神经机制研究), “Study of extemporaneous discourse competence in elderly dementia patients” (老年性痴呆患者即席话语能力研究), “A study of grammatical deficits in Chinese-speaking children with specific language impairment” (汉语特殊型语言障碍儿童的语法缺损研究), “Study of classifiers and classifier-predicates in Chinese Sign Language” (中国手语类 标记与类标记谓语研究), “Study of the development of conversational skills in Chinese-speaking autistic children” (汉语自闭症儿童会话技能发展研究), “Study of neural mechanisms of Chinese Sign Language comprehension in prelingual deaf individuals” (语言前耳聋者中国手语理解的神经机制研究), “Study of natural language learning in hearing-impaired students” (听障学 生自然语言学习研究), “Study of issues in hidden tone markings in current Braille” (现行盲文隐性标调问题研究), “Reexamining the linguistic status of sign language for deaf persons: an empirical study based on symbolic arbitrariness in sign language” (再论聋人手语的语言地位: 基于手语符号任意性 的实验研究), “Study of the phonetic system of Shanghai sign language” (上海手 语音系研究), “Study of classification methods and interpretive analysis in Chinese Sign Language” (中国手语分类方法及释义分析研究), “Study of the construction of sign language corpuses based on the Chinese language and certain minority languages” (基于汉语和部分少数民族语言的手语语料库建设研究), “Study of the psychological foundation and interventions for Chinese-speaking dyslexic children” (汉语阅读障碍儿童的心理基础与干预研究), “Study of standards for Chinese speech-language pathology in preschool-aged exceptional children” (学前特殊儿童汉语语言治疗标准研究), “Corpus-based study of written Chinese language among deaf individuals” (基于语料库的聋人汉语书面语研究), “Study of the development of early reading and writing skills among autistic children and the environmental influence of family reading and writing” (自闭症儿

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童早期读写能力发展及家庭读写环境影响因素研究), and “Principles and methods for evaluation and training for language rehabilitation in cerebral palsy” (脑 瘫语言康复评估与训练的原理与方法).

3 Study characteristics The 271 studies in the category of “Sociolinguistic life” display the following few characteristics:

3.1 Addressing important, practical issues in linguistic life The focus on linguistic life and usage is the most prominent characteristic of studies in this category. Some involve important fields in practical linguistic life, and have broad and influential coverage which directly impacts the state’s handling of relevant matters, or which concerns the construction of fundamental theories, fundamental methods, and fundamental data in the discipline. Examples include: “Study on the influence of the evolution of language policies under New China on linguistic life in Xinjiang” (新中国语言政策演变对新疆语 言生活的影响研究), “Scale for testing language (Putonghua) ability in children” (儿童语言[普通话]能力检测量表), “Study of standards for Chinese speech-language pathology in preschool-aged exceptional children” (学前特殊 儿童汉语语言治疗标准研究), “Study of a theoretical system, practices, regulations, techniques and criteria for the construction of audio archives for critically endangered languages” (濒危语言有声语档建设的理论体系、 实践规程和技术 准则研究), and so on. Some projects appear to be studies on a certain, specific field, but in fact have very good scalability and exemplariness, such as, “Study of the state of language in the contemporary Chinese military sector” (我国当代 军事领域语言状况研究), “Comparative study of gender and language based on the Online Media Monitoring Corpus (Chinese language)” (基于网络媒体监测语 料库[汉语] 的性别语言比较研究), and so on. In addition, some projects focus on specific, practical, case-by-case issues, such as, “Study of language issues in cross-border population flow and their impact on sociolinguistic life” (人口跨域 流动中的语言问题及对社会语言生活的影响研究), “Study of social stratification in rural dialects in the context of urbanization: in the example of 10 villages in Zhejiang” (城镇化背景下农村方言的社会分层研究: 以浙江的 10 个村庄为例), “Internationalized urban foreign language planning: a comparative study of Shanghai, New York and Tokyo” (国际化城市的外语规划: 上海与纽约、东京的

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比较研究), and so on. Studies in this category play a fairly expansive role as guides and examples, and can ably lead researchers’ vision toward the future, focusing on society, and emphasizing the resolution of practical issues.

3.2 Focusing on the collection of linguistic data, and emphasizing the construction of fundamental databases and large platforms In their focus on the study of sociolinguistic issues, an emphasis on the description of linguistic facts, the collection of linguistic data, and the construction of fundamental databases and research platforms is another major characteristic of studies in this category. Among the 271 studies, a total of 35 projects contain the terms “database” (数据库 shuju ku), “corpus” (语料库 yuliao ku) and “resource bank” (资源库 ziyuan ku). Examples of projects containing the term “database” include: “Study of the construction of a descriptive database of language ability and the formulation of criteria for Chinese language ability” (语言能力描述语数 据库建设和汉语能力标准制定研究), “Construction of a Chinese character learning difficulty database oriented toward teaching Chinese as a foreign language” (面向对外汉语教学的汉字学习难度数据库的建设), “Construction of a database of contemporary Chinese criminal slang and applied study of criminal slang in criminal investigations” (中国当代犯罪隐语数据库建设及犯罪隐语在刑事侦查中 的应用研究), and so on. Examples of projects containing the term “corpus” include: “Study of the construction of sign language corpuses based on the Chinese language and certain minority languages” (基于汉语和部分少数民族语 言的手语语料库建设研究), “Model study and applied study of corpus-based legal information mining” (于语料库的法律信息挖掘模式研究及应用研究), and “Corpus-based study of written Chinese language among deaf individuals” (基于 语料库的聋人汉语书面语研究). Examples of projects containing the term “resource bank” or similar terms include: “Survey of the state of overseas Chinese linguistic life and construction of a multimedia linguistic resource bank” (海外华 语语言生活状况调查及多媒体语言资源库建设), “Quantified study of media influence on popular opinion regarding hot topics in language and construction of a popular opinion bank for language” (自媒体影响下语言文字热点舆情量化研究 及语言舆情库建设), “Construction of an information bank and exam question bank for China’s Chinese Proficiency Test” (中国汉语水平考试信息库与题库建设), and so on. Some studies also integrate the electronic and digitalized approaches: these are quite numerous, with examples such as, “Theoretical study and digitalized construction for the compiling of large-scale dictionaries for Chinese dialect

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studies” (汉语方言学大型辞书编纂的理论研究与数字化建设), “Construction and study of a Chinese/English bilingual parallel corpus for legal documents in the three cross-straits regions of Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macao, and Taiwan” (台湾海峡两岸三地法律文本汉/英双语平行语料库建设和研究), and so on.

3.3 A high number of key projects and strong funding support The category of “Sociolinguistic life” (社会语言生活) includes 13 key projects as well as 13 major projects, for a total of 26 projects, accounting for 9.59% of the total number of 271 projects. As shown in Table 13.2, the discipline of linguistics as a whole contains a total of 96 major and key studies, representing 6.74% of the total number of projects. If the major and key studies under the category of “Sociolinguistic life” were omitted, this figure would be only 6.1%: it is clear that the funding program places a considerable emphasis on studies in the category of “Sociolinguistic life.” If the factor of the year is considered, we find that the number of major and key studies approved under the category of “Sociolinguistic life” has increased year by year, with 3 projects in 2008, 3 projects in 2010, 5 projects in 2011, 8 projects in 2012, and 7 projects in 2013. Among the 7 projects in 2013, two addressed the subject of “Language impairments and special education” (语言障碍、 特殊教育), and two examined linguistic issues in Xinjiang, respectively including: “Study of standards for Chinese speechlanguage pathology in preschool-aged exceptional children” (学前特殊儿童汉 语语言治疗标准研究), “Principles and methods for evaluation and training for language rehabilitation in cerebral palsy” (脑瘫语言康复评估与训练的原理与 方法), “Survey study of linguistic life in Xinjiang” (新疆语言生活调查研究), and “Study on the influence of the evolution of language policies under New China on linguistic life in Xinjiang” (新中国语言政策演变对新疆语言生活的影 响研究). This demonstrates fairly concentrated attention on the focal points and popular topics for sociolinguistic issues. In comparison with book publication and achievement awards, studies by scientific research planning foundations have a greater capacity for forwardthinking leadership, embodying the trends of mainstream development in society and in academia.

Zheng Mengjuan (郑梦娟), Luo Qingping (罗清平) and Shang Ya (尚娅)

14 International dissemination of the Chinese language The field of the international dissemination of the Chinese language is continuing to present good trends of development. The number of registered students at the Confucius Institutes has reached 850,000, while the number of overseas students studying in China is approaching 330,000 (Ministry of Education website 2010). During his 2009 visit to China, Barack Obama proposed the United States’ “100,000 Strong” campaign for study abroad in China: as of 2013, 68,000 American students had studied abroad in China, primarily distributed in Beijing (北京), Shanghai (上海), Guangzhou (广州), Tianjin (天津), Chengdu (成都), Wuhan (武汉) and other cities (Lin 2013).

1 Confucius Institutes In 2013, still more countries introduced courses offered by the Confucius Institutes into their national education systems: some Confucius Institutes also initiated the creation of websites or distance education to adapt to the trend of informatization. The total number of Confucius Institutes and Classrooms worldwide reached 1,006 refer to Table 14.1 (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2012; China Education News web 2013). The scale of education at the institutes was further expanded: the area of rooms dedicated to teaching reached 420,000 square meters, an increase of 40% in comparison with 2012 (Yang & Huangjin 2013).

1.1 Formal announcement of development plan In February 2013, the Confucius Institute Headquarters formally released the Confucius Institute Development Plan (2012–2020) (孔子学院发展规划[2012–2020]). The plan proposed the overall requirements for the future development of the Confucius Institutes, including the guiding ideas, fundamental principles, and development objectives. The primary tasks and focal points of development included quality and standards of education, management of teaching and human

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Table 14.1: Number of Confucius Institutes on each continent. Confucius Institutes

Asia Africa Europe Americas Oceania Total

Confucius Classrooms

Countries and regions

Confucius Institutes

Countries and Regions

Confucius Classrooms

     

     

  a   

     

Source of Data: Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website, On the Confucius Institutes/Classrooms (关于孔子学院/课堂), retrieved on Jan. 23, 2014, http://www.hanban. edu.cn/confuciousinstitutes/node_10961.htm. a The original data shows 18 countries and regions in Europe, but according to the author’s statistics for this paper, the actual number should be 19.

resources, teaching materials and educational resources, Chinese-language examination services, cultural exchanges, and so on. The key projects involve the construction of teacher preparation and training bases, the establishment of volunteer talent pools, and so on, while the safeguard measures include the expansion of funding support efforts, strengthened planning and coordination, full utilization of the roles of each party, and so on.

1.2 A clearer educational administration system As of 2013, the educational functions of the Confucius Institutes have been preliminarily shaped into four categories: a focus on Chinese language education, a focus on Chinese studies, a focus on East-West cultural exchanges, and a focus on professional skill training for the Chinese language (Song 2013). Construction has begun on the Confucius Institute for Traditional Chinese Medicine jointly sponsored by Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Georgia Regents University (now Augusta University) of the United States, becoming the fourth Confucius Institute for Traditional Chinese Medicine in the world, and the first in the United States (Liu & Xia 2013). The world’s first Tourism Confucius Institute, which was jointly constructed by China University of Mining and Technology and Australia’s Griffith University, is now officially open for classes (Miao 2013).

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1.3 Courses gradually rising in prestige In 2012, seven countries including the United Kingdom, Sweden, Ireland, and Serbia adopted and issued decrees, laws and other instruments incorporating Chinese language education into their national education systems: at present, the total number of countries which have introduced the Chinese language into their national education systems has already risen to more than 40 (Liu Fei 2013). In 2013, Canada’s Carleton University officially offered its first course for university credits in the category of Chinese culture, “Topics on Chinese Culture and Society”: following the comprehensive offering of the course series “Hand-in -hand with China” (携手中国) formulated under the development plan of the Confucius Institute at Carleton University and the establishment of a Master’s degree orientation toward Sino-Canada cultural exchanges and administration, the Confucius Institute will further merge into the main education system at Carleton University (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013a).

1.4 Education adapting to professional requirements In 2013, the Confucius Institute at Kathmandu University in Nepal initiated an approximately three-month-long Chinese language training program for 35 editors and reporters from various major media outlets stationed in Nepal (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013b). In April, the Confucius Classroom at Taesung Middle and High School in South Korea opened the doors to its first “China Expert” (中国通) advanced Chinese language class: it drew more than 20 students, the majority of whom were civil servants, university instructors, and high-ranking public figures in South Korea with an intermediate or higher proficiency in Chinese; the instructional content focused on advanced Chinese and Chinese culture (Hanban/ Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013c). In August, the first written Chinese training course for South African police officers, which was jointly sponsored by the Embassy of China in South Africa, the Chinese Ministry of Public Security, and the Head Office of the South African Police Service, with support by the Chinese Community Police Forum in South Africa, was offered in the conference room of the Community Police Forum: its 18 students became the first group of police officers on the African continent to study Chinese (Ni & Zhang 2013). In the Philippines, the Angeles University Foundation signed a school-enterprise cooperative agreement with Hong Kong Superl Limited: over the next five years, the school’s Confucius Institute will train managerial talents of

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Filipino origin to learn the Chinese language, on behalf of the Superl Company (Chinanews.com 2013a).

1.5 Increasing application of information technology In 2013, the website of the Confucius Institute at Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat University in Thailand became the first independently constructed website belonging to a Confucius Institute under the network of the Office of Chinese Language Council International (国家汉语国际推广领导小组办公室, abbreviated as汉办, ‘Hanban’). As of November 2013, the website had received a total of 15,730 visitors, successfully achieving autonomous website operation (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013d). In February, the Confucius Institute at Luhansk National University in Ukraine officially initiated a distance learning program for Chinese language education by video, established on behalf of students in small and medium cities that do not offer Chinese language classes, or Chinese language learners who do not have an opportunity for direct exchanges with Chinese instructors (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013e). In June, police officers from across Thailand completed an intensive course in beginner’s Chinese speaking held by the Confucius Institute at Chulalongkorn University on behalf of the Thai Immigration Bureau (Chinanews.com 2013b).

2 Teaching faculty At present, the Confucius Institutes and Classrooms scattered across each country have 28,670 full- and part-time teachers of Chinese and foreign nationality, an increase of 43% in comparison with 2012; among them, 30% are instructors of Chinese origin, while 70% are instructors native to the various countries. The Confucius Institute Headquarters also selected 300 individuals from among 4,000 outstanding Chinese-language teachers and volunteers to form China’s first full-time teaching faculty; in addition, 14,400 Chinese institute directors, teachers and volunteers were trained, an increase of 3,400 people in comparison with 2012 (Yang & Huangjin 2013).

2.1 Training native teachers In 2013, the Confucius Institute Headquarters supported 10 institutions of higher education in 8 countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom,

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Germany, Mongolia, Hungary, and Tanzania, in establishing majors in Chinese language pedagogy, and provided funding to more than 80 Confucius Institutes to establish core instructor positions. 5,700 teachers were trained in 57 countries (Yang & Huangjin 2013), and students selected for the “Confucius Institute Scholarship” (孔子学院奖学金) to study abroad in China also returned to their countries to take up teaching positions (China Education News web 2013). In June 2013, the Confucius Institute at the University of Geneva in Switzerland held the first teacher training course for Swiss natives, drawing participation by a total of 42 teachers on the front lines of education, from Geneva, Zurich and Lausanne in Switzerland, as well as France, Germany and other places (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013f). The Confucius Institute at the University of Manchester worked in concert with a famous international publishing house – Macmillan Publishers Ltd. of the United Kingdom – to hold another Chineselanguage teacher training course for British nationals in June 2013 (Hanban/ Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013g). The Confucius Institute at San Francisco State University in the United States organized the Summer Institute for Chinese Language Teachers in June, focusing on “knowledge of the Chinese language and classroom teaching methods”: more than 40 Chinese language instructors and student teachers of American origin from the Northern California region participated in the training course (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013h).

2.2 Training institute directors for Confucius Institutes In 2013, the summer program at the Confucius Institute Headquarters trained 200 foreign institute directors (Yang & Huangjin 2013). In 2013, courses for the second session of the Confucius Institute advanced course series for foreign institute directors, sponsored by Fudan University, were held in Shanghai: 54 foreign institute directors from Confucius Institutes all around the world received intensive, advanced training in the Chinese language, Chinese philosophy, and Chinese culture at Fudan University (Li 2013). At the 8th Confucius Institute Conference (孔子学院大会), Liu Yandong (刘延东), the Vice Premier of the State Council and the Chair of the Confucius Institute Headquarters Council, formally announced that the Academy for Confucius Institute Directors (孔子学院院长学院) would be established at Xiamen University: upon its completion, it is hoped that the Academy will train 3,600 Chinese and foreign directors and core instructors each year (Chinanews.com 2013c).

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3 Teaching materials and teaching aids 3.1 Development of teaching materials The key products and latest offerings released by the Beijing Language and Culture University Press in 2013 included Easy Steps to Chinese (轻松学中文), New Concept Chinese (新概念汉语), Developing Chinese (发展汉语) (2nd Edition), the cultural courseware Experience China (感知中国), and so on (Wang 2013). A number of Confucius Institutes have also begun developing teaching materials in new formats: for instance, the two learning software programs released by the Confucius Institute at the University of Poitiers in France and the French National Center for Distance Education in 2012, “Koo Chinese” (酷中文) and “Chinois Évasion” (中文漫步, ‘Chinese excursions’), were welcomed by users; as of June 2013, the total number of users had already exceeded 5,000 people (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013i). The same institute also collaborated with the French National Center for Distance Education to release a premium edition of “Chinois Évasion” (Chinanews.com 2013d). Owing to their rich flavor of Chinese social life, a number of highlypraised domestic television programs, including Beijing Love Story (北京爱情 故事), Qian Duoduo Gets Married (钱多多嫁人记), and so on, have been used by certain Chinese language training institutes as audiovisual teaching materials (Yan 2013).

3.2 Training in teaching materials The Chinese language teaching materials training program held by the Confucius Institute at Webster University in the United States in March 2013 attracted 31 Chinese language instructors from 23 universities, elementary schools, middle schools and high schools (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013j). In June, 19 Chinese language instructors and various figures devoted to Chinese language education in Slovakia participated in a Chinese language teaching materials training course at the Bratislava Confucius Institute (Hanban/ Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013k). In April, the Confucius Institute at Tajikistan Nationality University sponsored the first teaching materials training seminar for native instructors, with 15 attendees from five different universities (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013l).

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3.3 Exhibitions on teaching materials In March 2013, the Confucius Classroom at Novosibirsk State University participated in the Siberia International Exhibition for the first time, displaying 57 Chinese language learning aids provided by the Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013m). In June, the Confucius Classroom at China Radio International Nairobi in Kenya held the “Chinese Book Exhibition” (中华图书展), displaying Chinese language teaching materials, dictionaries, and books on traditional Chinese holidays, clothing, food, tourism, economy, literature, martial arts, and other cultural categories (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013n). In September, the Confucius Institute at the University of Khartoum participated in the Khartoum International Book Fair, displaying various types of Chinese books, bronzeware, and visual materials, along with performances of tai chi shadow-boxing, hulusi flute, and other programs. The Sudan Minister of Culture and Information and several other officials personally toured the display hall at the Confucius Institute, and reporters from the local television station specially interviewed the volunteers regarding the Confucius Institute at the University of Khartoum and its participation in the fair (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013o).

3.4 Publications by Confucius Institutes The English-language magazine Global China Insights (全球中国洞察), which was compiled and published by the Groningen Confucius Institute in the Netherlands, was founded in 2013 and successfully published two issues: readers from European institutions of higher education, business circles, the government, and the media industry all gave high praise to the magazine (Hanban/ Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013p). The Confucius Institute in Medellin, Columbia, relied on its own educational advantages and development characteristics to found the Chinese-Spanish bilingual publication Revista Instituto Confucio Medellin (麦德林孔子学院院刊, ‘Review of the Confucius Institute in Medellin’). The Chinese and foreign teachers and students at the Confucius Institute comprised the team behind the founding of the Revista: the publication of the first issue was closely followed by the Chinese and Columbian national embassies (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013q).

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4 Chinese language examinations As of 2013, the number of Chinese language testing sites worldwide had exceeded 800, distributed across 108 countries and regions. In 2013 alone, the number of examinees sitting for various Chinese language examinations worldwide exceeded 5,000,000: among them, 700,000 examinees were accommodated by the Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms. The number of examinees who participated in the Chinese Proficiency Test (汉语水平 考试, abbreviated as ‘HSK’) reached 370,000, while the cumulative total participants reached 1,880,000 (Yuan 2013). In 2013, the HSK Toronto Centre in Canada released an online examination based on the traditional paper-and-pen examination: as of November, more than 40 examinees had already taken part in the “online test” (网考 wangkao) for the Chinese language. It is expected that the number of participants in the “online test” for Chinese will continue to rise, gradually replacing the “paperand-pen examination” (Fan 2013). In the United States, the Confucius Institute of the State of Washington, the Confucius Institute at the University of Rhode Island and other organizations successfully proctored online versions of the Chinese Proficiency Test (HSK) for the first time (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013r). The Confucius Institute at Fukuyama University in Japan also held its first online HSK Speaking Test (汉语水平口语考试, abbreviated as ‘HSKK’) (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2014a). In 2013, the Confucius Institutes at Ural Federal University in Russia, the University of São Paulo in Brazil, and Philadelphia University Jordan implemented the HSK Speaking Test for the first time (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013s; Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013t; Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013u). In May, the largest-scale Youth Chinese Test (青少年汉语水平考试, abbreviated as ‘YCT’) in Spain’s history, overseen by the Confucius Institute in Madrid, was held at the Autonomous University of Madrid: the number of examinees reached 1,416, a threefold increase over the previous year (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013v). The South Korea Business Chinese Test Department has entered into cooperation with the Office of Sightseeing, Translation, Tourism and Testing: examinees need only obtain a score of 601 or higher in the Level 4 Listening and Reading portion of the Business Chinese Test (商务汉语考试, abbreviated as ‘BCT’) to qualify to take part in the examination for South Korea’s Chinese sightseeing, translation and tourism license (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013w).

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5 Programs and activities In 2013, the Confucius Institutes held more than 20,000 cultural activities, including 5,364 cultural and academic lectures; more than 100 Confucius Institutes together put on 260 seminars on Chinese studies in 49 countries (Yang & Huangjin 2013).

5.1 Confucius China Studies Program The “Confucius China Studies Program” (孔子新汉学计划) is a key program implemented by the Confucius Institute Headquarters in 2013 to help young people around the world gain a profound understanding of China and Chinese culture, and improve the educational standards and influence of the Confucius Institutes. It has recruited 70 young people from 30 countries to pursue doctoral degrees in China in the humanities and social sciences: the students can select their tutors and courses in related fields from institutions of higher education across the country, and the credits will be recognized between Chinese universities as well as between Chinese and foreign universities. In addition, overseas friends will be provided with funding to launch interview and research projects on topics such as “Understanding China” (理解中国), “Young leaders” (青年领袖), and so on, and Confucius Institutes and their host universities will be supported in translating and publishing books on Chinese culture, with focused support for a group of research-oriented Confucius Institutes, to encourage profound engagement in research on Chinese culture (Liu Yandong 2013). The first group of 23 scholars who participated in the program’s “Young leaders” project made their way to Beijing, Shanghai and Chengdu on two-week interview and study tours, to engage in study and observation revolving around the themes of Chinese politics, economics, society and culture (Yu 2013).

5.2 The 8th Confucius Institute Conference From December 7–8, 2013, the “8th Confucius Institute Conference” (第八届孔 子学院大会) was held at the China National Convention Center in Beijing. The theme of the conference was “Looking back on the past, and looking forward to the future.” A total of more than 400 presidents of Confucius Institute host universities and Confucius Institute directors from more than 110 countries were in attendance, along with more than 2,200 representatives of Chinese sponsoring universities and other figures. Liu Yandong, the Vice Premier of

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the State Council and the Chair of the Confucius Institute Headquarters Council, attended the opening ceremony and gave a keynote speech with the title, “Holding hands to promote the development of the Confucius Institutes, and together composing a new chapter in Chinese-foreign personal and cultural exchanges” (携手促进孔子学院事业发展, 共同谱写中外人文交流的新 篇章) (Liu Yandong 2013). A forum for outstanding case studies in educational administration and a forum for school presidents were held, to exchange experiences regarding Chinese language education, special cultural brand activities, Confucius Institutes and “massive open online courses” (MOOC, referred to in Chinese as muke/慕课), preparations for “Confucius Institute Day,” implementation of the “Confucius China Studies Program,” achievements in the translation and publication of Chinese-foreign cultural readers, and other special topics. A Chinese teaching materials and cultural reader exhibition was created, along with a traditional Chinese medicine experience zone, displaying everything from traditional print educational materials to educational software designed using modern touch-screen technology, and various other forms of educational tools (Zhao 2013).

5.3 Chinese language education seminars In March 2013, the Confucius Institute at Mongolian State University of Education held a large-scale academic lecture course on the foreign language teaching method of “Vocabulary modules and association” (词汇模块联想): more than 200 instructors and students of 7 different languages school-wide participated in the lecture course (International Society for Chinese Language Teaching website 2013). In November, the Confucius Institute at Cairo University and the university’s Chinese Department successfully held a “Seminar on methods for Chinese language teaching in Egypt” (埃及汉语教 学法研讨会) (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2014b). In September, the “International symposium on the history of the international dissemination of the Chinese language” (汉语国际传播历史国际学术研讨会) and the “5th Annual Conference of the Institute for the History of Chinese Language Education in the World” (世界汉语教育史研究学会第五届年会) were held at Tianjin Foreign Studies University: more than 150 expert scholars and graduate student representatives of 54 famous universities, colleges and research institutes in China, the United States, Italy and other countries were in attendance (People.com – Tianjin Channel website 2013). In October, Beijing Language and Culture University, East China Normal University, Beijing Foreign Studies University, and Shanghai International Studies

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University jointly hosted the “2013 National Higher Education Symposium for international Chinese language education/overseas construction of the Chinese undergraduate major” (2013 年全国高校汉语国际教育/对外汉语本科 专业建设研讨会): nearly 200 instructors and representatives from 92 institutions of higher education nation-wide attended the conference (Mandarin House: Overseas Chinese language teaching website 2013).

6 Cultural exchanges Each year, the Confucius Institutes actively hold multiple kinds of cultural exchange activities, to help Chinese language learners strengthen their mastery of the Chinese language and their understanding of China, and promote Chineseforeign cultural interaction and blending. In 2013 alone, more than 20,000 cultural activities were held (Yang & Huangjin 2013).

6.1 “Chinese Bridge” In 2013, the 12th “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) Chinese Contest for Global College Students was hosted by the Confucius Institute Headquarters/Office of Chinese Language Council International and the Hunan Provincial People’s Government: 123 outstanding college students from 96 competition areas in 77 countries were selected to display their remarkable Chinese language abilities on the stage.1 The 6th “Chinese Bridge” Chinese Contest for Global High School Students was sponsored by the Confucius Institute Headquarters/Office of Chinese Language Council International and the Yunnan (云南) Provincial People’s Government: 124 contestants from 80 competition areas in 62 countries came to China to take part in the competition, along with 150 observers and 79 team leaders and instructors (Zhang & Luo 2013). The 6th “Chinese Bridge” Chinese Language Contest for Students Studying Abroad in China was hosted by the Confucius Institute Headquarters/Office of Chinese Language Council International along with China Central Television (CCTV), and sponsored by the “Chinese International Channel” (中文国际频道) (CCTV-4): more than 10,000 students from over 100 countries took part in the contest (CCTV.com 2014).

1 See the website for “Chinese Bridge” (汉语桥) at http://bridge.chinese.cn/.

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6.2 Chinese-foreign cultural exchanges In 2013, the Confucius Institute Headquarters launched a pilot program for “Confucius Institute Day” activities in Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, Slovenia and other countries, which were warmly welcomed by the local people (Liu Yandong 2013). In June, Christchurch International Airport in New Zealand took the initiative domestically by unveiling public signs in Chinese, Japanese and Korean, to adapt to changes in the sources of tourists (Zhang 2013). In August, the Confucius Institute at Phuket, Prince of Songkla University, held the first Chinese character input contest in the southern Thailand region, “Chinese characters at your fingertips” (指尖上的汉字), to cultivate students’ ability to communicate in the Chinese language in the Internet age (Huang & Ma 2013). In the same month, the Confucius Classroom at Falkenbergs High School in Sweden held its second Chinese summer camp: at the end of the camp, nearly 200 family members and friends of the students enjoyed an exhibition of the skills in the Chinese language, calligraphy, martial arts, and musical instruments learned by the children (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013x). In September 2013, the Confucius Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles, launched the “Chinese Alive” (活力中国) program, in an attempt to introduce Chinese culture into social life through language and art, allowing more American students to understand China’s long history and rich culture (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013y).

6.3 Forums on the topic of China In January, the Confucius Institute for Business London and the China Development Society of the London School of Economics and Political Science jointly held the 5th “China Development Forum” (中国发展论坛): Nat Wei, a member of the United Kingdom’s House of Lords; Kevin Rudd, the former Prime Minister of Australia; Gerard Lyons, the Chief Economist at Standard Chartered Bank, and other figures took part, exploring the challenges and opportunities faced by China in its transitional period. The audience included more than 400 undergraduate students and graduate students, as well as London finance and business figures, and the major media outlets (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013z). In September, the Confucius Institute at the University of Graz in Austria held its third “China Forum” (中国论坛): top-level German and Austrian experts and professors from different fields gave talks at the forum (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013aa). In November, the Confucius Institute at Rutgers University in the United States joined hands

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with the university’s Medical School and East Asian Library to hold an international conference with the title, “Traditional Chinese Medicine and Contemporary Society: Theory and Practice in the Global Age” (中国传统医学与当代社会: 全球 化时代的理论与实践): 20 well-known experts from Germany, Australia, China, North America and other regions were invited to attend (Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website 2013bb).

References CCTV.com (央视网). 2014. 6th “Chinese Bridge” Chinese language contest for students studying abroad in China (第六届 “汉语桥” 在华留学生汉语大赛). http://tv.cntv.cn/video set/VSET100169835024/, Feb. 21, 2014. China Education News web (中国教育新闻网). 2013. Keynote speech by Liu Yandong at the 8th Global Confucius Institute Conference (刘延东在第八届全球孔子学院大会上的主旨演讲). http://www.jyb.cn/world/zyyj/201312/t20131211_562975.html, Dec. 11, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013a. Confucius Institute draws on “school-enterprise cooperation” in the Philippines to promote Chinese language education (孔子学院在菲律 宾借“校企合作” 推广汉语教学). http://www.chinanews.com/hwjy/2013/10-24/5419403. shtml, Oct. 24, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013b. First online distance intensive course in Chinese speaking at the Confucius Institute at Chulalongkorn University is completed (朱拉隆功大 学孔子学院首次网络远程汉语口语速成班结业). http://www.chinanews.com/hwjy/2013/ 06-21/4954695.shtml, Jun. 21, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013c. Xiamen University obtains approval for the establishment of the Academy for Confucius Institute Directors (厦门大学获准建立孔子学 院院长学院). http://www.chinanews.com/edu/2013/12-07/5592733.shtml, Dec. 7, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013d. Confucius Institute at the University of Poitiers cooperates to release “Chinois Évasion” Chinese learning software (普瓦提埃大学孔子学 院合作推出 “中文漫步” 汉语学习软件). http://www.chinanews.com/hwjy/2013/03-11/ 4631103.shtml, Mar. 11, 2013. Fan, Chao (范超) (ed.). 2013. “Online test” released by the HSK Toronto Centre is well-received (多伦多汉语水平考试中心推 “网考” 受欢迎). Chinanews.com (中国新闻网), http://www. chinanews.com/hwjy/2013/11-13/5496816.shtml, Nov. 13, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2012. Jointly promoting the merging of Confucius Institutes with universities and communities: keynote speech given by Liu Yandong at the 7th Global Confucius Institute Conference (共同推动 孔子学院融入大学和社区: 刘延东在第七届全球孔子学院大会上发表主旨演讲). http:// www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2012-12/18/content_478639, Dec. 18, 2012. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013a. Confucius Institute at Carleton University takes new measures to merge with the university and the community (卡尔顿大学孔子学院融入大学和社区再出新举). http:// www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-02/07/content_483069.htm, Feb. 7, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013b. China holds Chinese language course for media figures in Nepal for the first time

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(中国首次为尼泊尔媒体人士开汉语课). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-03/12/ content_487993.htm, Mar. 12, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013c. Remarkable results of the “China Expert” advanced Chinese language class at the Confucius Classroom at Taesung Middle and High School in South Korea (韩国泰成中高等 学校孔子课堂“中国通” 高级汉语班效果显著). http://www.hanban.org/article/2013-12/ 23/content_519406.htm, Dec. 23, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013d. Website of the Bansomdejchaopraya Confucius Institute becomes a model for independent website construction by Confucius Institutes online (曼松德孔院网站成为网 络孔子学院自建站典范). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-12/18/content_ 518780.htm, Dec. 18, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013e. Confucius Institute at Luhansk National University in Ukraine initiates distance education with online video (乌克兰卢甘斯克国立大学孔子学院启动远程网络视频教学). http:// www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-03/01/content_486526.htm, Mar. 1, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013f. Confucius Institute in Geneva successfully holds first training course for native instructors (日内瓦孔院首次本土师资培训成功举办). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-06/ 27/content_501836.htm, Jun. 27, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013g. Confucius Institute at the University of Manchester successfully holds 2013 training course for Chinese language instructors native to the United Kingdom (曼彻斯特大学孔子 学院成功举办 2013 年英国本土汉语教师培训). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/201307/15/content_504279.htm, Jul. 15, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013h. Confucius Institute at San Francisco State University successfully holds “2013 Hanban Summer Institute for Native Chinese Language Teachers” (旧金山州立大学孔子学院成功 举办“2013 汉办暑期本土中文教师培训班”). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-06/ 20/content_499357.htm, Jun. 20, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013i. Users of the learning software “Koo Chinese” and “Chinois Évasion” of the Confucius Institute at the University of Poitiers exceed 5,000 people (普瓦提埃大学孔子学院 “酷中文” “中文漫 步”学习软件用户超过 5000 人). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-06/25/content_ 500940.htm, Jun. 25, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013j. Confucius Institute at Webster University successfully holds Chinese language teaching materials training program (韦伯斯特大学孔子学院成功举办汉语教材培训). http://www. hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-03/14/content_488648.htm, Mar. 14, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013k. Second Chinese language teaching materials training course and education seminar held in Slovakia (斯洛伐克第二期汉语教材培训班暨教学研讨会召开). http:// www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-07/17/content_504902.htm, Jul. 17, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013l. First teaching materials training course for native instructors is successfully held at Tajikistan University (首届塔吉克斯坦大学本土教师教材培训圆满举行). http://www.hanban.edu. cn/article/2013-05/14/content_495227.htm, May 14, 2013.

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Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013m. Confucius Classroom at Novosibirsk State University promotes Chinese language teaching materials at International Exhibition (新西伯利亚国立大学孔子课堂在国际展览 会推广汉语教材). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-04/02/content_491110.htm, Apr. 2, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013n. Confucius Classroom at China Radio International Nairobi in Kenya holds Chinese Book Exhibition (肯尼亚内罗毕广播孔子课堂举办中华图书展). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/arti cle/2013-06/18/content_499045.htm, Jun. 18, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013o. Confucius Institute at the University of Khartoum in Sudan participates in African International Book Fair (苏丹喀土穆大学孔子学院参加非洲国际图书展). http://www.han ban.edu.cn/article/2013-09/04/content_508822.htm, Sep. 4, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013p. The magazine ‘Global China Insights’ of the Groningen Confucius Institute in the Netherlands begins publication in Europe (荷兰格罗宁根孔子学院《 全球中国洞察》 杂志在欧洲 创刊). http://www.hanban.org/article/2013-12/31/content_520283.htm, Dec. 31, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013q. Special institute publication established by the Confucius Institute in Medellin draws attention (麦德林孔院创办特色院刊引关注). http://www.hanban.org/article/2013-11/10/ content_518405.htm, Nov. 10, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013r. Confucius Institute of the State of Washington successfully holds the new online Chinese Proficiency Test (HSK) for the first time (华盛顿州孔子学院首次网络新汉语水平考试 [HSK] 成功举办). http://www.hanban.org/article/2013-05/08/content_493963.htm, May 8, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013s. Confucius Institute at the University of São Paulo in Brazil successfully holds the HSK for the first half of 2013 and the first HSKK Chinese language test (巴西圣保罗州立大学孔子 学院成功举行 2013 年上半年 HSK 和首次 HSKK 汉语考试). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/ar ticle/2013-06/18/content_499119.htm, Jun. 18, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013t. Confucius Institute at Ural Federal University in Russia smoothly holds the HSK test in May 2013 and serves as examination site for first HSKK test (俄罗斯乌拉尔联邦大学孔 子学院顺利举办 2013 年 5 月的 HSK 考试和考点的首次 HSKK 考试). http://www.hanban. edu.cn/article/2013-06/06/content_498231.htm, Jun. 6, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013u. Confucius Institute at Philadelphia University Jordan successfully holds the Chinese Proficiency Test HSK and the first HSK Speaking Test HSKK (约旦费城大学孔子学院成功举 办汉语水平考试 HSK 和首次汉语水平口语考试 HSKK). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/arti cle/2013-04/24/content_493241.htm, Apr. 24, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013v. Confucius Institute in Madrid organizes the YCT test with the most number of people in Spain’s history (马德里孔子学院组织西班牙历史上人数最多的 YCT 考试). http://www. hanban.org/article/2013-06/03/content_497640.htm, Jun. 3, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013w. The BCT test helps you pass the exam for a South Korean sightseeing, translation and tourism

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license (BCT 考试助您考取韩国观光翻译导游证). http://www.hanban.org/article/201307/02/content_502329.htm, Jul. 2, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013x. New experiences in the summer: a Chinese summer camp by the Confucius Classroom at Falkenbergs High School in Sweden during the summer vacation (暑期新体验: 瑞典法尔 肯贝里高中孔子课堂暑期中文夏令营). http://www.hanban.org/article/2013-08/21/con tent_507836.htm, Aug. 21, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013y. Confucius Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) initiates the “Chinese Alive” program (洛杉矶加州大学[UCLA] 孔子学院启动 “活力中国” 项目). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/article/2013-10/23/content_511677.htm, Oct. 23, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013z. The 5th LSE China Development Forum is successfully held (第五届 LSE 中国发展论坛成功举办). http://www.hanban.org/article/2013-03/08/content_487585.htm, Mar. 8, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013aa. Confucius Institute at the University of Graz in Austria holds summit dialogue at “China Forum” (奥地利格拉茨大学孔子学院 “中国论坛” 高峰对话). http://www.hanban.org/arti cle/2013-09/11/content_509299.htm, Sep. 11, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2013bb. Confucius Institute at Rutgers University holds international conference on “Traditional Chinese Medicine and Contemporary Society: Theory and Practice in the Global Age” (罗格斯大学孔子学院举办 “中国传统医学与当代社会: 全球化时代的理论与实践” 国际学术 研讨会). http://www.hanban.org/article/2013-11/27/content_516739.htm, Nov. 27, 2013. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2014a. Confucius Institute at Fukuyama University successively holds the 4th Chinese Knowledge Contest and the first online HSKK (福山大学孔子学院相继举办第四届中国知识竞赛和首次 HSKK 网考). http://www.hanban.edu.cn/news/node_257.htm, Jan. 23, 2014. Hanban/Confucius Institute Headquarters website (国家汉办/孔子学院总部网站). 2014b. 2013 Seminar on methods for Chinese language teaching in Egypt is smoothly held (2013 年埃 及汉语教学法研讨会顺利举行). http://uk.hanban.org/article/2013-12/23/content_ 519449.htm, Dec. 23, 2014. Huang, Qingqing (黄清青) & Ma, Chengliang (马成亮). 2013. First Chinese character input contest in the southern Thailand region held in Phuket (首届泰南地区汉字输入大赛在普 吉举行). Xinhua Online (新华网), http://news.xinhuanet.com/2013-09/01/c_117175450. htm, Sep. 2, 2013. International Society for Chinese Language Teaching website (世界汉语教学学会网站). 2013. Educating people through virtue, and teaching by words and by example: Confucius Institute at Mongolian State University of Education holds a large-scale academic lecture course on the foreign language teaching method of “Vocabulary modules and association” (以德育人, 言传身教: 蒙古国立教育大学孔子课堂举行“词汇模块联想”外语 教学法大型学术讲座). http://www.shihan.org.cn/articles/103770, Apr. 11, 2013. Li, Yu (李玉). 2013. 54 foreign Confucius Institute directors come to Shanghai for advanced studies on Chinese culture (54 位孔子学院外方院长来沪研修中国文化). Chinese Social Sciences Today (中国社会科学报), Oct. 14, 2013, p. A01. Lin, Lu (林露). 2013. Ministry of Education announces that the number of students studying abroad in China has reached 500,000 (教育部称 2020 年来华留学生将达 50 万). People. com (人民网), http://edu.people.com.cn/n/2013/1125/c1053-23650782.html, Nov. 25, 2013.

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Yang Wanbing (杨万兵)

15 The state of development of overseas Chinese language education In 2013, efforts for overseas Chinese language education closely revolved around the state’s overall strategic objectives with respect to overseas Chinese affairs, achieving important progress. Previously, overseas Chinese language education had primarily focused on part-time studies of the mother tongue for the children of overseas Chinese people, and the number of domestic schools devoted to overseas Chinese language education was still rather low. Relevant departments have proposed new ideas with respect to overseas Chinese language education, and various efforts have seen dramatic advancement.

1 Proposal of an agenda for the transformation and upgrading of overseas Chinese language education In China, overseas Chinese language education has historically been a focal point in the efforts of departments at all levels with respect to overseas Chinese affairs. On October 13, Li Keqiang (李克强), the Premier of the State Council, visited Chongfahsinseung Chinese School in Chiang Mai, Thailand, which dates back more than 110 years (Xinhua Online 2013). The visit reflected the high value placed on overseas Chinese language education by the national leaders, greatly stimulating the enthusiasm of overseas Chinese language education workers. The understanding of the significance of overseas Chinese language education among the national departments in charge of overseas Chinese affairs has seen further development and deepening. Qiu Yuanping (裘援平), the director of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office, has clearly stated that overseas Chinese language education is an important foundation for preserving the ethnic Chinese roots of overseas Chinese people, which affects social harmony and sustainable development among the Chinese people, impacts the overseas perpetuation of Chinese culture, benefits the promotion of the country’s cultural soft power, and furthers the great rejuvenation of the Chinese people. These efforts have long-term strategic significance, and should be accorded long-term

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-015

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attention (Chinanews.com 2013a). The sons and daughters of China in the country and overseas must all join hands to promote overseas Chinese language education, while the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office shall support overseas Chinese language education on multiple levels, from funding and teaching materials to instructors, and so on. The year 2013 coincided with the 60th anniversary of the founding of the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University and Chinese Language and Culture College at Huaqiao University, two domestic bastions of overseas Chinese language education. Qiu Yuanping (裘援平), the director of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office, took part in the ceremonies for the celebration of the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University and the International Symposium on Chinese Language Education (华文教育国际学术研讨会), affirming the achievements by Jinan University in the areas of overseas Chinese language education, the pool of instructors, scientific research, the compiling of teaching materials, services for overseas Chinese people, and so on. Qiu further explained the important significance of overseas Chinese language education, emphasizing the concept of service in overseas Chinese language education, and expressing her hopes that the College of Chinese Language and Culture can seize this historical moment for the great development of overseas Chinese language education, dynamically devoting itself to this lofty undertaking involving “service in the present, and benefits in a thousand years,” endeavoring to promote the regularized, standardized and professionalized construction of overseas Chinese language education, and making efforts to achieve fresh progress in the work of overseas Chinese language education, to offer new contributions to the national cause of overseas Chinese affairs and the great rejuvenation of the Chinese people (College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University, official website 2013a). On August 25, Ma Rupei (马儒沛), the deputy director of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office, put forward three proposals at the “3rd Cross-Strait Chinese Teacher Symposium” (第三届两岸华文教师论坛), calling for crossstrait overseas Chinese language education circles to strengthen exchanges, for joint exploration of the patterns of development in overseas Chinese language education; to join hands in cooperation, for mutual dedication to the great development of overseas Chinese language education; and to consolidate general knowledge, to form a powerful impetus for the promotion of cross-strait cooperation in overseas Chinese language education (Chinanews. com 2013b).

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2 Increasing support for overseas Chinese language education from the government and various sectors of society 2.1 Teacher training In 2013, through the two channels of qing jinlai (请进来, ‘inviting in’) and zou chuqu (走出去, ‘going out’), the China Overseas Exchange Association trained ten thousand Chinese language instructors and administrative personnel for Chinese schools from more than a dozen countries and regions, including Indonesia, Thailand, and Australia. The content of the training primarily consisted of knowledge of the Chinese language itself, teaching methods, methods for using teaching materials, educational administration, and other highly practical courses. Among the trainees, more than 4,000 Chinese language instructors were “invited in” to receive training in Chinese language education services at domestic institutions of higher education, chiefly including Jinan University, Huaqiao University, Hunan Normal University, Shanghai Normal University, Central China Normal University, and so on. The mingshi jiangshi tuan (名师讲师团, ‘master teacher-training groups’) that “went out” trained more than 8,600 Chinese language instructors overseas. Outstanding domestic instructors were selected to take up teaching posts overseas, not only mitigating the difficulty of the severe shortage of local Chinese language instructors and ensuring the regular proceedings of Chinese language teaching, but also playing the role of “model education” for local Chinese language instructors, effectively helping overseas Chinese schools improve their quality of education.

2.2 Certification program for overseas Chinese language teachers The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office commissioned Jinan University to engage in research and development for “Overseas Chinese language teacher certification.” The project was launched in February 2011: the Review Committee for Certification Standards for “Overseas Chinese Language Teacher Certificates” was convened in September 2012, and in December 2013, the “Preparation of standards for ‘Overseas Chinese Language Teacher Certificates’ by grade” (《华文教师 证书》等级标准研制) were appraised and approved by a team of experts organized by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office (Chinanews.com 2013c). The project’s

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research achievements included the “Program for the implementation of ‘Overseas Chinese Language Teacher Certificates’” (《华文教师证书》实施方案), “Sample examination papers and answer sheets for ‘Overseas Chinese Language Teacher Certificates’” (《华文教师证书》考试样卷及答题卡), “Report on examination trials for ‘Overseas Chinese Language Teacher Certificates’” (《华文教师证书》考试 试测报告), and “Survey study and report on examinations for ‘Overseas Chinese Language Teacher Certificates’” (《华文教师证书》考试调研报告). The approval of the “Prepared standards for ‘Overseas Chinese Language Teacher Certificates’ by grade” was regarded as one of the top ten news items in overseas Chinese language education in 2013. The construction of an examination question bank for overseas Chinese language teacher certificates has also been formally initiated.

2.3 New products in the localization of overseas Chinese language teaching materials In 2013, Jinan University was commissioned by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office to compile teaching materials for Chinese schools in Cambodia under the title The Chinese Language (华文) (Junior Secondary School Edition): these will be provided for trial use by Chinese schools in Cambodia in early 2014 (College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University, official website 2013b). In preparing this set of teaching materials, the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University is also exploring reference standards for Chinese language teaching materials, in the hope of gradually forming references to serve as a basis in the compiling of Chinese language teaching materials. July 2013 marked the official release of the first localized educational primer, Wenzhou Nursery Rhymes (温州童谣), which was published by the Wenzhou Municipal Overseas Chinese Affairs Office on behalf of overseas Chinese youths of Wenzhou origin: its aim is to help young overseas Chinese originating from Wenzhou to understand the rich and colorful culture of their hometown by reading local nursery rhymes, piquing their interest in studying Chinese language and culture and improving their ability to understand Chinese culture.

2.4 Standards for expatriate teachers The Administrative Measures of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region for Expatriate Chinese Language Teachers (广西壮族自治区外派华文教师管理办法), which were jointly formulated by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office and Department of Education of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, were officially

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implemented beginning on July 1. The Administrative Measures laid out clear regulations for the assignment and management of expatriate Chinese language instructors, their work duties, file management, and other matters, providing institutional guarantees for the administration of Guangxi Chinese language teachers assigned overseas (Chinanews.com 2013d).

2.5 Financial support by overseas Chinese enterprises In May 2013, the China-Australia Entrepreneurs Association donated RMB 20 million to the Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China, strongly promoting the development of overseas Chinese language education (Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China, official website 2013). On May 20, the Perfect Company (完美公司) again donated RMB 10 million to the Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China for use in supporting the fund’s engagement in programs related to overseas Chinese language education (Chinanews.com 2013e).

2.6 Winter and summer camps Winter and summer camps, with a primary audience of overseas Chinese youths, have gradually formed a brand effect. In 2013, several thousand overseas Chinese youths participated in various winter and summer camps in China. The success of the winter and summer camps provides young overseas Chinese with good platforms and opportunities to personally become acquainted with the development and achievements of their ancestral home: “Returning to attend school and pursue advanced studies” has become a common aspiration among the majority of overseas Chinese youths, who seek to understand the history and current state of their homeland. This is also of great benefit to their future perpetuation of Chinese culture and promotion of omnidirectional exchanges between China and their countries of residence.

2.7 Chinese Culture Lands In 2013, overseas winter and summer camp activities using the vehicle of “Chinese Culture Lands” (中华文化大乐园) were further expanded, with outstanding results. The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office and various provincial and municipal offices for overseas Chinese affairs organized “Chinese Culture

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Lands” hosted by 14 countries, attracting more than 6,000 participants. “Chinese Culture Lands” satisfy the needs of the vast majority of students who are unable to attend winter and summer camps in China, allowing them to economically and efficiently experience Chinese culture; the events have been warmly welcomed by overseas Chinese communities (Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, official website 2013a).

2.8 The Second Chinese Cultural Competition for Overseas Chinese Youths On December 26, the curtains closed on the finals in Xiamen (厦门) for the Second Chinese Cultural Competition for Overseas Chinese Youths, which was jointly sponsored by the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the Chinese State Council and the China Overseas Exchange Association. This time, the Myanmar team was crowned as the champions of the competition, while the Brazil team and Italy team took second and third place. A total of 14 national teams took part in this round of the competition. The contest further increased the interest in studying the Chinese language and Chinese culture among overseas Chinese youths, and improved their understanding and familiarity with their homeland (Chinese Language and Culture Education Online of Huaqiao University 2013).

3 Formation of a teaching and discipline system for overseas Chinese language education In 2013, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office further increased the scholarship quota for the undergraduate major of overseas Chinese language education. The annual scholarship quota for the undergraduate major of overseas Chinese language education at Jinan University is 150 students: the school admits 1,300 international undergraduate students, with priority enrollment for san qiao sheng zinü (三侨生子女, ‘three overseas students and children’).1 Admissions have also begun for a Master’s program in overseas Chinese language education as well as doctoral degree orientations in overseas Chinese languages and overseas Chinese language education, forming a complete system for the discipline of overseas Chinese

1 Sanqiao (三侨, ‘three overseas’) refers to an examinee who is a youth who returned from overseas, the child of parents who returned from overseas, or the domestically born child of overseas Chinese parents.

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language education and an integrated talent training system at the three levels of undergraduate, Master’s and doctoral degrees. The Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China has also established scholarships to provide support. The College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University and Chinese Language and Culture College at Huaqiao University, two research institutes dedicated to overseas Chinese language education, are conscientiously engaging in efforts for the study of overseas Chinese language education.

4 Further expansion of online overseas Chinese language education The introduction of Internet technology has revolutionized the methods for the dissemination of the Chinese language: offering distance teacher training through the use of modern, advanced technological methods has become an important strategy in pursuing efforts to train overseas Chinese language instructors. On the mornings of March 28 and 30, the course inauguration ceremonies for the “2014 ‘Perfect China’ Overseas Chinese Language Instructor Distance Training Program of the Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China” (2014 年中国华文教育基金会 ‘完美中国’ 海外华文教师 远程培训) were respectively held at the Travel Mongolia Overseas Chinese Friendship School in Mongolia and the South Sulawesi Foundation for Harmony and Cultural Education in Indonesia, via the online platform of Beijing 4th Online Secondary School. On September 22, the website of the China Overseas Exchange Association (www.coea.org.cn) was officially opened: the establishment of this website served to improve the public’s understanding of the China Overseas Exchange Association, increase the organization’s prestige and influence, and promote interaction and communication between the domestic and international board members (Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, official website 2013b).

5 Further expansion of overseas model schools and camps In 2013, the third batch of “Model schools (institutions) for overseas Chinese language education” (华文教育示范学校[单位]) was announced: a total of 88 overseas Chinese language schools were selected. As of now, there are already

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192 “Model schools (institutions) for overseas Chinese language education.” Through increased support for the compiling and provision of teaching materials, teacher training and preparation, the organization of activities for overseas Chinese students, and other areas, the educational standards, scale and influence of model schools have all seen significant improvement. At the same time, the model schools fully engage in their role as exemplars, driving other Chinese schools to improve their educational standards, and further promoting the development of Chinese language education in their host countries and regions, garnering widespread praise from overseas Chinese schools and the students and teachers at large.

6 Frequent academic exchanges and cooperation activities 6.1 Academic exchanges From January 19–21, the 5th Graduate Student Forum on Global Chinese Language Teaching (第五届世界华语文教学研究生论坛) was held at Huaqiao University, attended by more than 150 expert scholars from over 40 institutions of higher education in South Korea, Thailand, Japan, mainland China, Taiwan, Macao, and so on, to engage in discussions and exchanges revolving around the theme of “Global Chinese language teaching and the dissemination of Chinese culture in the era of globalization” (全球化时代的世界华语文教学与中 华文化传播) (Fujian Daily 2013). From May 22–26, the “2013 Cross-Strait Overseas Chinese Language Education Forum” (2013 两岸海外华文教育论坛), which was jointly sponsored by Huaqiao University and the World Chinese Language Association of Taiwan, was held at National Taiwan Normal University. The forum featured profound exchanges on issues such as innovations in cooperation between cross-strait Chinese language education circles and the application of Internet technology in Chinese language education, achieving the forum’s objectives of increasing cross-strait trust, academic leadership, innovation in cooperation, and positive action (Journal of Huaqiao University 2013). From August 25–30, Xiamen played host to the “3rd Cross-Strait Chinese Teacher Symposium” (第三届两岸华文教师论坛), which was jointly sponsored by Huaqiao University and the World Chinese Language Association of Taiwan. Nearly one hundred Chinese language education experts from across the two straits as well as from several schools in Thailand engaged in

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exchanges revolving around the theme of “Practical studies on Chinese language teaching” (华文教学实践研究), through the publication of group papers, lesson plan appraisal, the study of teaching models, and other formats (Social Sciences in China Online 2013). From November 16–18, on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of its founding, the College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University hosted the “International Symposium on Chinese Language Education” (华文教育国际学术 研讨会) with the theme of “The future development of Chinese language education” (华文教育未来发展). 140 expert scholars from 23 countries and regions around the world attended the symposium, and over 10 prestigious experts gave brilliant thematic speeches at the conference. The participating scholars engaged in profound, multi-perspective, and comprehensive discussions revolving around the history and current state of overseas Chinese language education, education for vocabulary and pronunciation, Chinese character education, spoken language and listening comprehension education, overseas Chinese language research, studies on overseas Chinese teaching materials, research on acquisition and errors, Chinese language instructors and teaching methods, grammar education and acquisition, and other topics (Chinanews.com 2013f).

6.2 Cooperation On September 13, Jinan University and Sultan Zainal Abidin University in Malaysia signed on an international exchange student program and a “Memorandum of Understanding” (谅解备忘录): through this agreement, Sultan Zainal Abidin University hopes that an increased number of instructors of Chinese origin will come to Malaysia to engage in teaching activities. On November 16, Jinan University signed memoranda for education and scientific research cooperation with Hanoi University of Education No. 2 in Vietnam and Kunming Chinese School for Interscholastic Exchanges and Cooperation, broadening the channels for cooperation between Jinan University and institutions of higher education in Vietnam, as well as domestic institutions for Chinese language education (College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University, official website 2013c). On November 6, the Guangdong (广东) Provincial Office for Overseas Chinese Affairs and the Provincial Department of Education jointly held the Symposium for International Friendship Schools (海内外友好学校座谈会) and Agreement Signing Ceremony on the theme of “Guangdong overseas Chinese are one family, and Chinese language education links heart to heart” (粤侨一家亲, 华教心连心). 29 pairs of domestic and overseas friendship schools signed agreements establishing their ties as friendship schools (Chinanews.com 2013g).

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7 Expectations of leaders of overseas Chinese communities and personnel in overseas Chinese language education In order to promote the great development of overseas Chinese language education, through various channels, the leaders of overseas Chinese communities and personnel in overseas Chinese language education have put forward the following key proposals.

7.1 Offering Master’s degree programs in Chinese language education overseas After several years of development, undergraduate distance programs for overseas Chinese language education have now produced a large number of graduates working on the front lines in overseas Chinese language education, who urgently need to further improve their theoretical training and teaching standards. They hold a universal wish to take part in localized Master’s degree programs; ideally, they would also be provided with a certain amount of scholarship funding to lighten their burdens. Improving the theoretical education and professional skills of overseas Chinese language instructors is a key factor in improving the quality of overseas Chinese language education, and offering overseas Master’s programs is a viable option to be considered.

7.2 Systematized and standardized Chinese language teacher training programs, and the establishment of a Chinese language teacher training database At present, there are a number of host institutions for qing jinlai, zou chuqu (请进来, 走出去, ‘inviting in and going out’) Chinese language instructor and administrative personnel training programs: in terms of the content, each program has its own distinctive features, but issues such as unclear levels of difficulty in the training programs and duplicate content are also objectively present. It has been proposed that key departments take the lead in compiling a training outline with clear levels of training and rational links, which would be treated as core, required content; individual host institutions would also be able to add a few elective courses. The establishment of a database of trained personnel would avoid the issue of personnel participating in training

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programs at the same level and with the same content in different regions, and would also encourage more Chinese language instructors to come to China to receive training. The establishment of the “Seed Chinese Language Instructor Training Program” (种子华文教师培养计划) has also been proposed. Under the program, senior domestic teachers would work with a select group at an overseas site for approximately one month, to supervise teaching and train the teachers, collectively prepare lessons alongside the core local teachers, give trial lectures, and determine a rational lesson plan, thus forming mature Chinese language teaching concepts and models suited to the local characteristics, and gradually extending into the region by means of the zhongzi jiaoshi (种子教师, ‘seed teachers’) under the model of xinghuo liaoyuan (星火燎原, ‘a single spark can light a prairie fire’).

7.3 Presenting the “Overseas Chinese Proficiency Test” at an early date Since the HSK is primarily aimed at Chinese language learners of non-Chinese origin, it is hoped that an “Overseas Chinese Proficiency Test” (华文水平测试) developed and designed primarily for the children of overseas Chinese people will be presented at an early date, to test and guide overseas Chinese language education.

References Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013a. Qiu Yuanping: Overseas Chinese language education affects the harmony and sustainable development of overseas Chinese communities (裘援平: 华文教育关系华人社会和谐及可持续发展). http://www.chinanews.com/hwjy/ 2013/08-03/5119637.shtml, Aug. 13, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013b. 3rd Cross-Strait Chinese Teacher Symposium is held (第三届两岸华文教师论坛举行). http://www.chinanews.com/tw/2013/08-26/5206728. shtml, Aug. 26, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013c. Project for the “Preparation of standards for ‘Overseas Chinese Language Teacher Certificates’ by grade” is approved (“华文教师证书等级标准 研制”项目通过验收). http://www.chinanews.com/hwjy/2013/12-25/5659799.shtml, Dec. 25, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013d. Guangxi presents its ‘Administrative Measures for Expatriate Chinese Language Teachers’ (广西出台《外派华文教师管理办法》). http://www.chinanews.com/zgqj/2013/06-14/4929324.shtml, Jun. 14, 2013.

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Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013e. Malaysian Chinese businessman Gu Runjin again donates 10 million to Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation (马来西亚华商 古润金再向华文教育基金会捐款千万). http://www.chinanews.com, Mar. 06, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013f. College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University holds “International Symposium on Chinese Language Education” (暨大华文学 院举办“华文教育国际学术研讨会”). http://www.Chinanews.com/hwjy/2013/11-18/ 5514757.shtml, Nov. 18, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013g. 29 overseas Chinese schools form ties with friendship schools in Guangdong (29所海外华校在粤结友好学校). http://www.chinanews.com/hr/ 2013/11-06/5472226.shtml, Nov. 06, 2013. Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China, official website (中国华文教育 基金会官方网站). 2013. Donation ceremony for funding of the Chinese Language and Culture Education Foundation of China by the China-Australia Entrepreneurs Association is held in Beijing (中澳企业家联合会资助中国华文教育基金会捐赠仪式在京举行). http://www.clef.org.cn/news/2013/0514/5/1210.shtml, May 14, 2013. Chinese Language and Culture Education Online of Huaqiao University (华侨大学华文教育网). 2013. Finals are held for the Second Chinese Cultural Competition for Overseas Chinese Youths, Ma Rupei attends and presents the award to the winning team (第二届海外华裔 青少年中华文化大赛总决赛举行 马儒沛出席并为状元队颁奖). http://hjw.hqu.edu.cn/ newsdetail.php?id=258, 12-27-2013. College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University, official website (暨南大学华文学 院官方网站). 2013a. College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University welcomes its 60th anniversary: Director Qiu Yuanping of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office and others attend to offer congratulations (暨大华文学院迎 60 华诞, 国侨办裘援平 主任等莅院祝贺). http://hwy.jnu.edu.cn/hwxy/publish/funonews.aspx?IDX=4825, Nov. 18, 2013. College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University, official website (暨南大学华文学 院官方网站). 2013b. College of Chinese Language and Culture / Center for Research on Chinese Language Teaching Materials at Chinese Language and Culture College hold seminar for the compiling of ‘The Chinese Language’ (Junior Secondary School Edition) for Cambodia (华文学院/华文教育研究院华文教材研发中心召开柬埔寨《华文》 [初中版] 编写座谈会). http://hwy.jnu.edu.cn/hwxy/publish/funonews.aspx?IDX=4833, Nov. 19, 2013. College of Chinese Language and Culture at Jinan University, official website (暨南大学华文学 院官方网站). 2013c. Our school signs cooperative agreements for engagement in Chinese language education and international Chinese language teaching with Kunming Chinese School and Hanoi University of Education No. 2 in Vietnam (我校与昆明华文学校、越南河 内第二师范大学签署合作开展华文教育、 国际汉语教学协议). http://hwy.jnu.edu.cn/ hwxy/publish/funonews.aspx?IDX=4826, Nov. 18, 2013. Fujian Daily (福建日报). 2013. Graduate Student Forum on Global Chinese Language Teaching is held (世界华语文教学研究生论坛举办). http://fjrb.fjsen.com/fjrb/html/2013-01/21/ content_385209, Jan. 21, 2013. Journal of Huaqiao University (华侨大学报). 2013. 2013 Cross-Strait Overseas Chinese Language Education Forum is held in Taiwan (2013 两岸海外华文教育论坛在台召开). http://hqdxb.cuepa.cn/index.php?release_id=42668&paper_id=154323, May 28, 2013, No. 715.

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Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, official website (国务院侨务办公室官方 网站). 2013a. “Chinese Culture Lands” to appear in 14 overseas countries in 2013 (2013 年 “中华文化大乐园” 将走进海外 14 个国家). http://www.gqb.gov.cn/news/2013/0922/ 31159.shtml, Sept. 22, 2013. Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council, official website (国务院侨务办公室官方 网站). 2013b. Website of the China Overseas Exchange Association is opened, building a network for the “Family of the Overseas Association” (中国海外交流协会网站开通 构筑 网络“海协之家”). http://www.gqb.gov.cn/news/2013/0922/31167.shtml, Sept. 22, 2013. Social Sciences in China Online (中国社会科学在线). 2013. 3rd Cross-Strait Chinese Teacher Symposium is convened (第三届两岸华文教师论坛召开). http://www.csstoday.net/xue shuzixun/jishizixun/84175.html, Aug. 28, 2013. Xinhua Online (新华网). 2013. Li Keqiang visits Chongfahsinseung Chinese School in Chiang Mai (李克强参观清迈崇华新生华立学校). http://news.xinhuanet.com/2013-10/14/ c_117697655.htm, Oct. 14, 2013.

Part III: Hot topics

Li Delong (李德龙)

16 The focus on “stylistic improvement” in the media In 2013, the new generation of national leaders placed further emphasis on gaijiao wenfeng (改进文风, ‘stylistic improvement’), practicing a qinmin wushi (亲民 务实, ‘approachable and pragmatic’) style, drawing media attention and garnering public praise: ‘Laohu’ ‘cangying’ yiqi da (‘老虎’ ‘苍蝇’一起打, ‘fighting both ‘tigers’ and ‘flies’’); Ba quanli guanjin zhidu de longzi li (把权力关进制度的笼子里, ‘confining power in a regulatory cage’); Xiaokang bu xiaokang, guanjian kan laoxiang (小康不小康, 关键看老乡, ‘In defining moderate prosperity, the key is to look at the farmers’); Xiezi he bu he jiao, ziji chuan le cai zhidao (鞋子合不合脚, 自己穿了才 知道, ‘one doesn’t know if the shoe fits until one tries it on’); Zhao jingzi, zheng yiguan, xixi zao, zhizhi bing (照镜子、正衣冠、洗洗 澡、治治病, ‘take a look in the mirror, make yourself presentable, take a bath and cure what ails you’); ... On December 31, 2013, Xi Jinping (习近平) delivered the “2014 New Year’s Address” (2014 年新年贺词) on CCTV: the entire speech numbered 778 characters, and its length was 4 minutes and 8 seconds. The style was concise, with sincere emotion. The speech fully embodied the qinmin wushi (亲民务实, ‘approachable and pragmatic’) style, and can be regarded as a classic New Year’s address. That night, the Weibo “Headlines” (头条新闻) of “Sina News Center” (新浪新闻中心) published a blog article entitled, “The Xi version of the New Year’s address: no main title, more compact paragraphs” (习版新年贺词: 没有主标题段落更简洁). Within one hour, the blog article had been forwarded 2,769 times and commented on 217 times; more than 100 domestic and international media outlets reported on it, and it was dianzan (点赞, ‘liked’) on the Internet more than 1 million persontimes.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-016

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1 Level of attention Since the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued the “EightPoint Regulation” (八项规定), gaijiao wenfeng (改进文风, ‘stylistic improvement’) has drawn sustained attention and high-frequency focus among domestic and international media outlets.

1.1 Domestic media outlets In 2013, the central media outlets and the principal media outlets of each province, city and autonomous region all followed and reported on the issue of stylistic improvement in different formats: there were news articles and bulletins, special reports and in-depth reports, editorials and commentaries, and so on. Special reports on the topic of stylistic improvement represented a relatively high proportion of news reports. Throughout the year, the People’s Daily (人民日报) published a total of 172 reports related to wenfeng (文风, ‘linguistic style/style’),1 106 of which addressed the topic of “stylistic improvement,” amounting to 62%; In 2013, Guangming Daily (光明日报) issued 202 articles related to “wenfeng (文风, ‘style’),2 175 of which took the topic of gaijiao wenfeng (改进文风, ‘stylistic improvement’) as their theme, standing at 87%; Figure 16.1 shows the number of reports on wenfeng (文风, ‘style’) month-tomonth by these two newspapers. The distributions basically coincide: From January – March, the reports were relatively concentrated, with an amplification of reporting efforts; thereafter, the average monthly number of reports evened out, displaying sustained attention for the issue of gaijiao wenfeng (改进 文风, ‘stylistic improvement’). Online media also displayed a formidable dissemination effect. Data from the Sina Weibo Index (新浪微指数) shows that, in the three-month period from October 1 to December 31, 2013, the popularity of the term wenfeng (文风, ‘style’) hit 1,386 at its lowest, and climbed to 25,518 at its highest. A total of 37,904 blog articles on Sina Weibo contain the term wenfeng (文风, ‘style’). Online media and netizens have shown unprecedented interest and enthusiasm with regard to wenfeng (文风, ‘style’).

1 This data stems from a search on People.cn (人民网) at http://search.people.com.cn/rmw/ GB/bkzzsearch/dj_index.jsp. 2 This data stems from a search on GMW.cn (光明网) at http://search.gmw.cn/advepaper.htm.

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13

9

11

11

6

7

8

10 9

6

7

Guangming Daily (Articles)

8

9

13 12 16

15 11

10 5 10

11

12

People’s Daily (Articles)

Figure 16.1: Quantitative distribution of articles on wenfeng (文风, ‘style’) in the People’s Daily (人民日报) and Guangming Daily (光明日报).

1.2 International media outlets In the year 2013, 37 international media outlets released a total of 78 news articles on the topic of wenfeng (文风, ‘style’), lingdao ren yuyan meili (领导人语言 魅力, ‘leaders’ language charisma’) and other key words. Among these, The China Press (侨报) of the United States produced 27 articles, while ChinaMinutes. com (欧洲时报网) produced 6 articles. During the period of the national Lianghui (两会, ‘Two Sessions’) in 2013, Reuters published a total of around 300 reports on the content of the Two Sessions, taking the lead among international media outlets of various countries. These included 36 reports on wenfeng (文风, ‘style’) and gaijiao wenfeng (改进 文风, ‘stylistic improvement’), or leaders’ idiosyncratic speech, representing 12.3%. Singapore’s Lianhe Zaobao (联合早报) has shown sustained interest in the improvement of style in China: news reports by the paper in the year 2013 include a total of 80 articles related to wenfeng (文风, ‘style’) (see Figure 16.2).3 Among these, 13 articles or 16% address wenfeng (文风, ‘style’) as their main theme. The month with the highest number of reports was March, with 14 articles, while the low points were April and August, with 2 articles each. The monthly average was 6.7 articles. On March 23, 2013, President Xi Jinping gave an important speech entitled “Following the trend of the times and promoting peace and development in the world” (顺应时代前进潮流 促进世界和平发展) at the Moscow State Institute of International Relations. In discussing the paths to national development, Xi

3 This data stems from the search statistics for news articles by Singapore’s Lianhe Zaobao (联合早报) in the year 2013, at http://www.zaobao.com/search/.

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14

12

11 9

Jan.

Feb.

2 Mar.

Apr.

7

5

5

4

2 May

Jun. Jul. Aug. Number of articles

5

4 Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Figure 16.2: Quantitative distribution of reports on “style” in Lianhe Zaobao (联合早报).

Jinping said, “‘One doesn’t know if the shoe fits until one tries it on.’ Only the people of a country have the best right to say whether the country’s path of development is suitable or not.” This speech was dubbed the xiezi lilun (鞋子理论, ‘shoe theory’) by the media, and was quoted in reports by international media outlets from 23 countries, including Russia, the United States, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Singapore, and so on, praising China’s new leader for his “sincere,” “novel,” “magnanimous,” and “confident” speech, embodying the new style of pragmatism.

2 Focal points In 2013, the high degree of attention on gaijiao wenfeng (改进文风, ‘stylistic improvement’) among domestic and international media outlets primarily focused on three aspects, including qinmin wushi (亲民务实, ‘approachability and pragmatism’), zhidu baozheng (制度保证, ‘regulatory guarantees’), and minzhong qidai (民众期待, ‘popular expectations’).

2.1 Approachability and pragmatism On March 17, 2013, Xi Jinping was elected as the country’s president: his jiuzhi yanjiang (就职演讲, ‘inaugural address’) was “brimming with human interest” (Xinhua News Agency 2013). Since the new generation of leaders took office, their embodiment of the qinmin wushi (亲民务实, ‘approachable and pragmatic’) style has offered a refreshing new perspective to domestic and international media outlets, becoming a focus of attention. Cable News Network (CNN) of the United States commented that the language in Xi Jinping’s address was clear and concise, “in relatively plain language. . .drop [ping] the jargon traditionally sprinkled through official speeches and text” (Elite Reference 2013). The New York Times described the newly elected Xi as “forthright

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and candid,” “more open and more approachable.” The Washington Post deemed Xi Jinping to be “less revolutionary in his speech, and more plainspoken.” The Wall Street Journal of the United States and Spain’s Agencia EFE reported that people-oriented terms such as Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘China dream’) have already become the words that newly elected Chinese President Xi Jinping is “fondest of saying.” Correspondingly, the qinmin (亲民, ‘approachable’) language of the nation’s new generation of leaders in a series of diplomatic activities have also drawn attention and favorable commentary from domestic and international media outlets: “In great friendships, ten thousand li is no great distance” (ancient Chinese saying): describing the traditional friendship between China and the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (Beijing Evening News 2013); “Great ships can cross distant seas” (Russian proverb): expressing the fine prospects of the friendship between China and Russia (Chinanews.com 2013a); “In moving forward, Africa, let us hear the rhythm of your voices in songs of victory!” (line from an African poem): glowing praise of Africa’s vitality and hope (People’s Daily 2013a); “The aging of friends is like the mellowing of fine wine” (Latin American proverb): explaining the profound friendship between China and Mexico (CCTV.com 2013); “The netizens of China have invented a new online language on the Internet, referring to the friendship between China and Pakistan as ‘iron Pakistan.’ To use a Chinese saying, we may say: ‘iron brothers’” (Chinese colloquialism): a vivid and humorous expression of the profound friendship between the people of China and Pakistan (CNR.cn 2013); “Friendship is like fine wine: wine becomes more fragrant as it mellows, and affection becomes deeper as time passes” (Romanian proverb): expressing the beautiful aspirations for friendship between China and Romania (Outlook Weekly 2013). Why has the media’s attention on gaijiao wenfeng (改进文风, ‘stylistic improvement’) focused on qinmin wushi (亲民务实, ‘approachability and pragmatism’)? The series of commentaries successively published by the People’s Daily (人民 日报) between January and April 2013 provide an answer. In January 2013, the People’s Daily successively published 6 commentaries, including “What is good style?” (何谓好文风) (Jan. 23) and “Where does good style come from?” (好文风哪里来) (Jan. 23); in April, the paper again published articles such as “Leaving a mark in transforming working styles” (踏石留印转作风)

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(Apr. 10), “The key to ‘stylistic improvement’ lies in cultivating morality in government” (‘改文风’要害在于修政德) (Apr. 11), “Seeking truth, seeking facts, and improving style” (求真求实改文风) (Apr. 12) and so on as part of its “Commentary series on the implementation of the Central Committee’s Eight-Point Regulation” (执行中央八项规定系列述评), which provided a profound elucidation of the traditions, substance, and practical value of stylistic improvement. The articles argue that linguistic style reflects Party style and government style; style affects the image of the Party, and the success and failure of undertakings by the Party and the state. The substance of stylistic improvement is that it is necessary to be approachable and pragmatic, shifting toward new styles to get results, mobilize the people, and win over the public. The practical significance of stylistic improvement lies in “regarding governance on behalf of the people and real action to rejuvenate the country as the height of politics, striving to mold pilots for the China dream with public spirit and popular support” (People’s Daily 2013b). Only in this way is it possible to aid in the accelerated achievement of the China dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese people.

2.2 Regulatory guarantees In January 2013, local governments at all levels quickly introduced rules and regulations to implement the Eight-Point Regulation of the Central Committee. Within one month, 32 provinces, autonomous regions, and direct-controlled municipalities nation-wide had successively introduced supporting measures and detailed regulations. In comparison with the Central Committee’s EightPoint Regulation, the various local “detailed regulations” were stricter and more specific. In terms of their actual provisions, some regulations had as many as 30 provisions, as in Shanghai (上海) and Guangdong (广东); while some had as few as 10 provisions, as in Yunnan (云南) and Tibet. Among these, a total of 220 regulatory provisions included content addressing gaijiao wenfeng (改进文风, ‘stylistic improvement’), averaging 7 provisions in each locality. In their “detailed regulations,” nearly all of the local governments included content related to quantifying the duration of meetings, the length of speeches, and the number of characters in official documents and bulletins, drawing the full attention of the media. Shortest bulletins: Hubei (湖北) Province stipulated that bulletins generally were not to exceed 1,000 characters; Shortest reports: In requests for instructions submitted to provincial party committees and provincial governments, the character count for reports and so

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on generally was not to exceed 1,500 characters; examples included Hubei, Guangdong, Qinghai (青海) and so on. Shortest documents: In Anhui (安徽), Sichuan (四川) and other places, the character count for documents issued by the provincial party committee generally was not to exceed 3,000 characters. Shortest meetings: In Hebei (河北), province-wide conferences convened by the provincial party committee or the provincial government were not to exceed 2 days; Shortest speeches: In Hainan (海南), Shaanxi (陕西) and other places, the length of speeches at province-wide conferences was generally not to exceed 5 minutes; ... Chinanews.com published a commentary on these regulations, remarking that, “These are no longer abstract and sweeping guidelines lacking in operability. . .the details are the most spectacular” (Chinanews.com 2013b). The Economic Daily (经济日报) stated in its commentary, “These concrete and richly practicable measures show the resolve of party cadres at all levels to transform styles, strengthening the public’s confidence in the comprehensive construction of a moderately prosperous society, and giving the people new anticipation.” The article further noted that, “The value of the improvement of working styles is that it is driven by the leaders; the difficulty lies in long-term perseverance; and the important thing is the formation of mechanisms.” It was therefore “even more necessary to ‘move forward despite knowing the difficulty’” (Economic Daily 2013). The introduction of regulations had a restrictive effect. The Two Sessions convened by each province (region, city) in 2013 offered a preliminary view of the effect of the regulations. In the Two Sessions for the city of Beijing (北京), reports had a “significantly condensed character count,” while documents “strove for compactness.” “No opinion, experiential or summary-style speeches were made, nor were the speeches lengthy” (Beijing Morning Post 2013). The representatives “cut down on empty talk and stock phrases” (Xinhua Online 2013). At the Two Sessions for the city of Shanghai, the “30 Regulations” (30 条) were implemented, strictly controlling the conference speeches within 8 minutes. The length of the work report by the Standing Committee was condensed to a little over 8,500 characters, the shortest in recent years (Eastday. com 2013). The Two Sessions for the city of Wuhan (武汉) only lasted for 4 days, and the mayor’s work report took only 55 minutes: it was labeled by the mass media as “history’s shortest Two Sessions” (The Voice of China: News Review 2013).

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In an appraisal by the People’s Daily (人民日报), the style and mood of the local Two Sessions presented a moment for “new views”: “They spoke less about achievements, with more discussion of problems, and practical suggestions for reforms” (People’s Daily 2013c). Xinhua Online described them as “streamlined and pragmatic” (Xinhua Online, Anhui Weibo Channel 2013).

2.3 Public expectations The media has widely observed the public’s abhorrence of the harmful styles of “falseness, grandness and emptiness.” In January to September 2013, a total of 4 relatively influential surveys were conducted. On the evening of January 7, 2013, the People’s Daily (人民日报) released its survey, “The bureaucratic jargon and stock phrases you hate the most” (你最反感 的官话套话). The report on the paper’s official Weibo was simultaneously accompanied by the publication of a survey of readers’ letters: the blog post was forwarded more than 10,000 times, and netizens left more than 4,300 comments, assembling a collection of over 100,000 entries for guanhua taohua (官话套话, ‘bureaucratic jargon and stock phrases’).4 Phrases such as gaodu zhongshi (高度 重视, ‘highly valued’), qinzi guowen (亲自过问, ‘personally inquired’), jiji (积极, ‘dynamic’), jishi (及时, ‘prompt’), liji (立即, ‘immediate’), and quebao (确保, ‘ensure’) were all rated by netizens as the bureaucratic stock phrases that they “hated the most,” and published in the People’s Daily (人民日报). Singapore’s Lianhe Zaobao (联合早报) also issued a report on the survey (Reference News 2013). On January 22, 2013, Modern Jinbao (现代金报) released a survey on the “Top ten bureaucratic stock phrases most detested by city residents” (十句市民最讨厌 的官话套话) (Modern Jinbao 2013). The results of the voting by netizens were: 1. Henzhua (狠抓, ‘Conscientious’). . . henpi (狠批, ‘severely criticize’). . . luoshi (落实, ‘implement’). . .. tuchu (突出, ‘highlight’). . .. 2. “Sorry, the leader is holding a meeting, I don’t know when [he/she] will return.” 3. [After an accident occurs] “Such-and-such leader regards this as highly important, and will immediately give instructions.” 4. “Under the leadership of. . .,” “Under the support of. . .,” “Under the efforts of. . ..”

4 This data stems from the official Weibo of the People’s Daily (人民日报) at http://weibo. com/2803301701/zdpuPmSf5?mod=weibotime.

16 The focus on “stylistic improvement” in the media

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

209

“The important speeches of the leader [. . .] must be carefully studied and profoundly understood.” “In order to [. . .], we must. . .,” “To strengthen [. . .], we must strengthen. . .,” “To profoundly [. . .], we must profoundly. . ..” “Your suggestion has been submitted to the relevant department.” “The leader is personally taking the initiative on the front lines to serve as a model.” “This meeting is very important, and has particularly special significance.” “This matter is still under investigation.”

In July 2013, Zhejiang Daily (浙江日报) joined forces with ZJ.QQ.com (腾讯大 浙网) to present the online survey “The bureaucratic jargon and official grandstanding you detest” (你厌烦的官腔、官场秀) (Zhejiang Daily 2013). The results showed that the “most revolting bureaucratic jargon” was respectively: “This matter is not under our charge, go find. . ..” “The relevant departments will handle your matter.” “Next, I’ll add a couple words. . ..” “This [. . .] is provided under law.” “We have stipulated above that. . ..” “In accordance with laws and procedures, however it should be done is how it will be done.” “You wait for news – as for when that will be specifically, I don’t know. . ..” ... Between August 10 and September 13, 2013, the People’s Tribune (人民论坛) conducted a more professional sample survey study of bureaucratic formalism through various means, including an online survey, written questionnaires, reporter interviews, and so on; the total sample size was 9,197 people. In response to the question, “Among the common types of bureaucratic formalism, which type do you hate the most?” (在常见的官场形式主义中, 您最反感的是哪 一种?), the report statistically ranked the top ten most hated phenomena (see Table 16.1): Among the rankings in the top ten, four entries involved linguistic style, including #1, #4, #8 and #9: among these, “Falseness, grandness and emptiness in leaders’ speeches” (领导讲话假、大、空) ranked first. The People’s Tribune compiled the statistical results in an article entitled “Media inventory: the ten forms people hate the most - a survey of the state of bureaucratic formalism” (媒体盘 点: 最令人反感的十种形式—官场形式主义状况调查) (People’s Tribune 2013). The

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Table 16.1: Ranking of the most common types of bureaucratic formalism. Rank

Bureaucratic formalism

Percentage of votes



Falseness, grandness and emptiness in leaders’ speeches

.%



Fraud and deception when welcoming superiors for inspections

.%



Bragging about achievements for image engineering

.%



Flashy but superficial rules and regulations

.%



Cursory observations in investigations of subordinates

.%



Focusing on the surface instead of real results in taking on work

.%



Policies above and counter-policies below

.%



Summary reports showing only the good and not the bad

.%



Endless paperwork and meetings devoid of content

.%



Extravagant and wasteful celebrations and parties

.%

article notes that, “The disgust with bureaucratic formalism obliquely reflects the public’s appeal for the benefits of ‘real results,’ while the dislike of ‘falseness, grandness and emptiness in leaders’ speeches’ is actually the hope of hearing about the achievement of practical improvements and content that benefits the people’s livelihoods in speeches.”

3 Vision 3.1 Stylistic improvement is not “for show” The results of a survey in the first half of 2013 by the National Bureau of Statistics show that more than 70-80% of the public approves of the improvements to working style and social conduct among the local party members and leading cadres. However, at the same time, more than 50% of the public believes that a rebound to former conditions has been seen to varying extents in the process of implementing the Eight-Point Regulation (The Legal Evening News 2013). On September 28, 2013, the websites of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection and the Ministry of Supervision centrally published relevant information on the areas under inspection by 10 central inspection teams

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and the state of unit feedback (China Youth Daily 2013). Among these, 3 of the regions under inspection still had significant issues with wenshan huihai (文山 会海, ‘endless paperwork and meetings’), sixiang songxie (思想松懈, ‘lax thinking’), xingshi zhuyi (形式主义, ‘formalism’) and so on. The above statistical data shows that the general public fully approves of the results of stylistic improvement, but is also concerned that stylistic improvement is merely a passing fad, putting on a show under the spotlights. If stylistic improvement becomes a T-tai zuoxiu (T台走秀, ‘runway show’), it will undermine the party’s working style, and damage the government’s image. Stylistic improvement must “persevere in meeting ‘strictness’ head-on, without going through the motions” (People’s Daily 2013d).

3.2 Preventing the rise of a “New Eight-Part Essay” in stylistic improvement According to a survey by People.com (人民网), in response to the question “Do you worry that measures to combat formalism will ultimately often be reduced to a formality?” (您是否担忧反对形式主义的措施最终往往又流于形式?), 72.1% of respondents selected “extremely worried” or “worried,” expressing their apprehensions on the hazards of “replacing the old formalism with a new formalism” (People’s Tribune 2013). The detailed regulations issued by each province, autonomous region and direct-controlled municipality regarding the implementation of the Eight-Point Regulation have imposed strict restrictions on the length of meetings and speeches, and the character count of documents and reports: this represents a refinement of stylistic improvement, but the rise of a xin bagu (新八股, ‘new eight-part essay’) must also be prevented. If “uniformity” is imposed in all matters, with brevity for the sake of brevity, and conciseness for the sake of conciseness, that would lead to the opposite situation, contrary to the original intentions of stylistic improvement; the so-called regulations would then become rigid dogma, ultimately forming a “new eight-part essay.”

References Beijing Evening News (北京晚报). 2013. ‘In great friendships, ten thousand li is no great distance’ (‘相知者, 不以万里为远’), Jun. 2, 2013. Beijing Morning Post (北京晨报). 2013. Speeches by party and government leaders are not lengthy (党政领导发言不长篇大论), Jan. 18, 2013.

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CCTV.com (央视网). 2013. Xi Jinping delivers a speech to the Mexican Congress: the aging of friends is like the mellowing of fine wine (习近平在墨国会发表演讲: 朋友要老, 好酒要陈), Jun. 6, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013a. Xi Jinping discusses China-Russia relations, quotes the Russian proverb ‘Great ships can cross distant seas’ (习近平谈中俄关系: 引用俄罗斯谚语 ‘大船必能远航’), Mar. 23, 2013. Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013b. Each locality drafts detailed rules for the implementation of the Eight-Point Regulations, emphasizing details aimed at the three types of official spending (各地制定细则落实八项规定 注重细节直指三公消费), Jan. 4, 2013. China Youth Daily (中国青年报). 2013. Ten central inspection teams issue problem lists (十个 中央巡视组发布问题清单), Sep. 29, 2013. CNR.cn (中国广播网). 2013. Li Keqiang refers to China-Pakistan relations as iron Pakistan, Pakistani parliamentarians pound on the table and cheer in approval (李克强将中巴关系 称为巴铁 巴议员拍桌喝彩赞同), May 24, 2013. Eastday.com (东方网). 2013. New measures to improve meeting style: Shanghai CPPCC speeches place more emphasis on brevity, substance, and novelty (改进会风新举措: 上海 市政协发言更加注重短实新), Jan. 25, 2013. Economic Daily (经济日报). 2013. Emphasizing practical action in transforming working styles (转作风重在实际行动), Jan. 5, 2013. Elite Reference (青年参考). 2013. Foreign media: ‘The new era of Xi and Li,’ China ‘must move forward (外媒: ‘习李新时代’, 中国‘必须前进’), Mar. 20, 2013. Modern Jinbao (现代金报). 2013. Introducing the top ten most hated bureaucratic stock phrases (十句最反感官话套话出炉), Jan. 22, 2013, p. A4. Outlook Weekly (瞭望周刊). 2013. Hoisting the sails for cooperation between China and Central and Eastern Europe (扬帆中国与中东欧合作), Dec. 3, 2013. People’s Daily (人民日报). 2013a. Truly moving, a successful beginning: the international community continues to follow President Xi’s first visit abroad (真情感人 开局成功 国际 社会持续关注习主席首次出访), Apr. 2, 2013. People’s Daily (人民日报). 2013b. The key to ‘stylistic improvement’ lies in cultivating morality in government: the three of transforming working styles, correcting learning styles, and improving linguistic styles (‘改文风’要害在于修政德: 转作风、 正学风、 改文风之三), Apr. 11, 2013. People’s Daily (人民日报). 2013c. At the local Two Sessions, new viewpoints apart from meeting style (地方两会, 会风之外新看点), Feb. 1, 2013. People’s Daily (人民日报). 2013d. Meeting ‘strictness’ head-on, abiding by strict requirements (严字当头 从严要求), Oct. 16, 2013. People’s Tribune (人民论坛). 2013. Media inventory: the ten forms people hate the most – a survey of the state of bureaucratic formalism (媒体盘点: 最令人反感的十种形式—官场 形式主义状况调查), Sep. 24, 2013. Reference News (参考消息). 2013. Foreign media attention for reports of ‘most hated bureaucratic stock phrases’ by Chinese netizens (外媒关注中国网民检举‘最反感官话套话’), official website, Jan. 12, 2013. The Legal Evening News (法制晚报). 2013. 8 months without a drop in temperature: this certainly isn’t a fad (8 个月不降温, 绝不是一阵风), Aug. 10, 2013. The Voice of China: News Review (中国之声· 新闻纵横). 2013. Focusing on ‘new meeting styles’ at the local Two Sessions: more pragmatism and less formality (聚焦地方两会‘新会风’: 多 了务实少了客套), Jan. 8, 2013.

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Xinhua News Agency (新华社). 2013. Address by Xi Jinping at the First Meeting of the 12th National People’s Congress (习近平在第十二届全国人民代表大会第一次会议上的讲话), Mar. 17, 2013. Xinhua Online (新华网). 2013. The improvement of social style deepens and continues: all sectors of society approve of the improvements to meeting style at the local ‘Two Sessions’ (让会风改变深入持续下去: 社会各界肯定地方“两会”改进会风), Jan. 28, 2013. Xinhua Online, Anhui Weibo Channel (新华网安徽频道). 2013. China’s local ‘Two Sessions’ play in the new ‘skinny’ meeting style (中国地方‘两会’吹来‘瘦身’新会风), Jan. 7, 2013. Zhejiang Daily (浙江日报). 2013. Bureaucratic stock phrases, have you changed? (官话套话, 你改了吗?), Jul. 9, 2013.

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Xu Nianyi (许念一)

17 The quiet rise of a new annual linguistic custom Gua Fu zi (挂福字, ‘Hanging Fu characters’),1 tie chunlian (贴春联, ‘pasting Spring Festival couplets’), cai deng mi (猜灯谜, ‘guessing lantern riddles’), and so on are among China’s traditional linguistic customs surrounding the New Year. Sending electronic New Year’s greeting cards, New Year’s greetings by mobile text message, online audio and video New Year’s greetings, Weibo and WeChat New Year’s greetings, and so on are the development and evolution of the traditional custom of bainian (拜年, ‘New Year’s greetings’) in the Information Age. Niandu yuyan pandian (年度语言盘点, ‘annual language inventories’), which have been in vogue in China for the last few years, and are also rather popular in certain countries and regions in Europe, the Americas, and Asia, represent the quiet rise of a new annual linguistic custom.

1 The annual inventory of words and characters in mainland China 1.1 The rise of the annual inventory of words and characters Mainland China’s annual inventory of words and characters originated from studies and tracking reports on popular words and phrases completed by academic circles and the media beginning in the 1990s. Academic circles began taking an interest in popular words in society in the late 80s; by the early 90s, the yanjiu re (研究热, ‘research craze’) for popular Chinese words and the chuban re (出版热, ‘publication craze’) for lexicons of popular Chinese words had gradually formed into trends. The activity “University students rate the public’s top ten popular words” (大学生评选大众十大流行语) put on by the magazine China Campus (大学生) in 1993 can be regarded as the spark that triggered the public’s interest in linguistic life. The online rating activity “Top ten popular words among Chinese youths in 2001” (2001 年中国青年十大流行语) organized by the China Youth & Children Research Center, China Youth Study Press, and other organizations in 2002 and the “Top ten popular words in Chinese 1 Translator’s note: The character fu (福) signifies ‘good fortune.’ https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-017

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newspapers in 2002” (2002 年中国报纸十大流行语) jointly published by Beijing Language and Culture University, the China Association of Press Technicians, the Chinese Information Processing Society of China, and other organizations in January 2003 were the harbingers for the launch of the “annual language inventory.” In recent years, the annual word and character inventories have presented a trend toward diversification, with both official and private, both mainstream media and zi meiti (自媒体, ‘self-media’), both a focus on national development, and an interest in particular industries or even personal growth, and so on. The “Chinese language inventory” (汉语盘点) jointly sponsored by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, and other organizations, the “Top ten hot words on the Internet and Chinese character of the year” (互联网十大热词和年度汉字) jointly sponsored by Baike.com in coalition with several media outlets, the “Xinhua Online hot word of the year” (新华网年度热词) held by Xinhua Online (新华网), the “Top ten popular words in China” (中国十大流行语) regularly published by the News Information Center of Xinmin United Press Group, the “Top ten popular phrases of the year” (年度十 大流行语) published by the Editorial Board of Verbalism (咬文嚼字), and so on have generated an enormous impact, forming a new annual linguistic custom that delights the general public. Among these, the annual “Chinese language inventory” is the most influential, with relatively high brand value.

1.2 Development of the “Chinese language inventory” The annual “Chinese language inventory” is jointly sponsored by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, Sina.com, and other organizations. Its aim is to allow the public to use a single character or a single word to describe China and the world in the past year, to display the charm of the Chinese language, and record changes in society. The activity began in 2006, and has been successfully held 8 times; it can be roughly divided into the following three stages. 2006-2007 was the “initial stage,” characterized by a “high starting point, and great influence.” Joint sponsorship by relevant government research institutions and a number of press and media organizations increased the authoritativeness and social impact of the activity, and also heightened the public’s enthusiasm for participation; a “three-step” model involving netizen nominations, expert appraisal, and online voting was preliminarily formed. 2008-2011 was the “development stage,” characterized by “important standards and massive scale.” Exercising the role of the various branch centers

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of the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the publication of the annual “Top ten popular words” (十大流行语), “Top ten neologisms” (十大新词语), and “Top ten Internet slang terms” (十大网络用语) was incorporated into the “Chinese language inventory,” forming new scenes and new models for the Chinese language inventory, combining public rating and collection from specialized, trend-based corpora; these were important symbols of the “development stage.” Important innovations in this period included special invitations for participation by senior overseas media figures, on-site splash-ink painting by famous calligraphers and painters, and so on. 2012-2013 was the “perfecting stage,” characterized by the “formation of systems and formation of a brand.” CCTV.com, China Network Television, and Shandong TV were invited to join the alliance, and linguists, sociologists, historians, international relations experts, economics, senior media figures, and so on were engaged to fill out the review teams, et cetera; this was an important change in this period. The participation of new media formed a relatively perfected “announcement system,” while the support of television stations formed a broadly influential “promotion system”; and the participation of experts and experienced figures in various fields led to the formation of a more standardized, more representative “review system.” The formation of these three overarching systems further enhanced the influence and brand value of the Chinese language inventory. Key reporting on News Simulcast (新闻联播), Focus Interviews (焦点访谈), and other CCTV programs served as an important symbol of the formation of brand value.

1.3 A new bright point in the “Chinese language inventory” The 2013 “Interpretation” activity for the words and characters of the year under the “Chinese language inventory” was a combination of “evaluation” and “interpretation.” The widespread participation in the voting and rating activities reflected the national popular appeal of this new annual linguistic custom, while personal interpretations from different perspectives displayed the cultural charm of the new custom. On December 20, 2013, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, and other organizations jointly published the “Chinese Language Inventory (2013)” (汉语盘点[2013]). In this round, fang (房, ‘house’) and zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’) were respectively voted as the national character of the year and the national word of the year. Professor Li Yuming (李宇明) represented the Expert Team in interpreting fang (房, ‘house’): being warm and well-fed is the basis of the people’s

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livelihood, while having a house is the most practical lifelong aspiration of the Chinese people, and a matter of perpetual concern in the minds of the Chinese people. The continuing high housing prices mean that a person’s lifetime savings have been devalued as less important than having a few houses, and also signify that recent college graduates have become fangnu (房奴, ‘mortgage slaves’). “Such a bubble in building prices has led countless ordinary people to compete to go all in.” The selection of the character fang (房, ‘house’) expresses the public’s expectation that the government will introduce bullish policies. Yu Dianli (于殿利), the President of the Commercial Press, represented the Evaluation Team in interpreting zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’): nengliang (能量, ‘energy’) is innately a neutral word leaning toward the positive. The selection of the term zheng nengliang (正能量, ‘positive energy’) highlights the people’s esteem for positive progress, and reflects the concern for being considerate in every way. Furthermore, spreading positive energy requires the efforts of every member of society. The 2013 “Chinese language inventory” was praised by the media for “using popular words and characters to describe the linguistic ecology of the Chinese people”; it was a “banquet of the Chinese language, a cultural panorama,” while also allowing people to “treasure the annual memories of the Chinese people and experience a new type of annual linguistic custom” (Zhou 2013; The Commercial Press News Center 2013).

2 The “Chinese character inventories” of Hong Kong and Taiwan 2.1 Hong Kong’s “Chinese character inventory” The Hong Kong “Chinese character inventory” (汉字盘点) began in 2012. The Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong, the biggest political group under the Legislative Council of Hong Kong held the activity “Selection of the Chinese character of the year” (年度汉字评选) for the first time in 2012: the character he (和, ‘peace’) was selected as the Chinese character of the year, expressing the expectations for the New Year among the people of Hong Kong. In the 2013 activity for the selection of the Chinese character of the year in Hong Kong, not only did the organizers provide a list of ten candidate characters to the Hong Kong public, including zheng (争, ‘debate’), la (辣, ‘spicy’), ji (激, ‘excite’), jing (净, ‘clean’), wen (稳, ‘stable’),

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you (忧, ‘concern’), xin (信, ‘information’), rong (融, ‘fusion’), lian (廉, ‘honest’), and an (安, ‘safety’), inviting the public to vote for the selection; they also added a “self-selection” segment, allowing the city residents to write in what they thought of as the “Chinese character of the year” (年度 汉字) on the ballot form. This new segment helped invigorate the public’s thinking, conveying public opinion and embodying the characteristic of openness. Ultimately, the character rong (融, ‘fusion’), with its happy implications of flourishing and thriving, was voted as the Chinese character of the year. Representatives of the activity’s sponsors stated their hopes of promoting Chinese culture through this activity, and allowing the city residents to express their opinions and reflect on society, enlivening the social atmosphere.

2.2 Taiwan’s “Chinese character inventory” Taiwan’s “Annual Chinese character selection” (年度汉字评选) activity is jointly sponsored by the Taipei Department of Cultural Affairs and United Daily News (联 合报). Six rounds have successfully been held from 2008 until the present. Taiwan’s “Chinese character of the year” (年度汉字) in the first five rounds were respectively: luan (乱, ‘chaos’) (2008), pan (盼, ‘expectation’) (2009), dan (淡, ‘bland’) (2009), zan (赞, ‘approve’) (2010), and you (忧, ‘concern’) (2012). In 2013, the character jia (假, ‘fake’) came to the forefront among a number of other characters with relatively high vote tallies, including hei (黑, ‘black’), du (毒, ‘toxic’), luan (乱, ‘chaos’), huang (谎, ‘lies’), men (闷, ‘depressed’), hun (混, ‘adulterated’), zhen (真, ‘genuine’), xing (醒, ‘awakening’), an (安, ‘safety’), and shi (食, ‘food’), earning the privilege of being named Taiwan’s 2013 “Chinese character of the year” (年度汉字). According to Taiwanese media reports, since the first half of 2013, Taiwan had experienced several food safety incidents, and the October incident of oil product falsification by Chang Chi Foodstuff Factory had shocked the island. The media estimated that, since the 2011 “plasticizer” incident, the Taiwanese food industry had suffered losses of more than 100 billion NT$. The selection of the character jia (假, ‘fake’) truly reflects the Taiwanese people’s concern for food safety.

2.3 The Cross-straits “Chinese character of the year” The Cross-straits “Chinese character of the year” (年度汉字) rating activity is jointly sponsored by Taiwan’s Want Daily (旺报) and mainland China’s Haixi

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Morning Post (海西晨报) (formerly Xiamen Business [厦门商报]), and other organizations. The Cross-straits “Chinese character of the year” selection activity was held for the first time in 2008, and the character zhen (震, ‘earthquake’) was selected as the Chinese character of the year. Thereafter, sheng (生, ‘life’) (2009), zhang (涨, ‘rise’) (2010), wei (微, ‘micro’) (2011), and ping (平, ‘fair’) (2012) were respectively selected as the Cross-straits Chinese characters of the year for the given years. In 2013, the character jin (进, ‘progress’) surpassed meng (梦, ‘dream’), fu (福, ‘good fortune’), xin (信, ‘information’), ai (爱, ‘love’), zao (躁, ‘impetuous), kong (控, ‘control’), kai (开, ‘open’), ge (革, ‘revolution’), you (忧, ‘concern’), and other Chinese characters to be elected as the 2013 Cross-straits Chinese character of the year. The character jin (进, ‘progress’) was nominated by Lin Join-sane (林中森), the Chairman of the Taiwan Straits Exchange Foundation. At the announcement ceremony for the Cross-straits Chinese character of the year, he stated that he pondered for a long time before submitting the character jin (进, ‘progress’). The character jin (进, ‘progress’) received an enthusiastic response and ultimately won the vote, conveying the sincere feelings and positive expectations of the people on both sides of the Straits, and suggesting peaceful development and continuous progress in cross-strait relations.

3 International “language inventories” 3.1 United States The United States’ highly influential language inventory activity is published by the website Global Language Monitor (http://www.languagemonitor.com/). Since the website was founded in 2003, it has used computer programs to track the frequency of the use of English words by thousands upon thousands of media organizations, blogs, and social media websites. Each year, it selects the “Word of the Year.” In 2013, the top ten popular words were: “404” (the webpage error code), “fail,” “Hashtag,” “@Pontifex” (the pope’s twitter handle), “The Optic,” “Surveillance,” “Drones,” “Deficit,” “Sequestration,” and “Emancipate.” The Top Phrases of 2013 included “Toxic Politics,” “Federal Shutdown” (the shutdown of the United States federal government), “Global Warming/Climate Change,” “Federal Deficit,” “Tread Lightly,” “Boston Strong,” “Marathon Bombing,” “Chemical Weapons,” “All Time High” (the 007 theme song), and “Rogue Nukes.”

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The Top Names of 2013 included “Pope Francis,” “ObamaCare” (Obama’s medical reform act), “NSA” (the United States National Security Agency), “Edward Snowden,” “Kate Middleton,” “IRS” (the United States Internal Revenue Service), “Ted Cruz” (Tea Party supporter and Texas senator), “Chris Christie” (the governor of New Jersey), “Tea Party,” and “Marathon Bombers.” 2013 also witnessed the selection of the “Top Words of the Decade” (the most popular words over the last ten years), “Top Trending Words,” and “Most Common Words.”

3.2 United Kingdom The “Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year” is the United Kingdom’s most famous “language inventory.” Oxford University Press began presenting its Word of the Year in 2004, to track the changes in the English lexicon in the given year. The Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year is produced through voting by the editors: the selected word is the one that best reflects the social atmosphere and the public mood in the given year. It often stems from the following word categories: The first category is neologisms, such as “hypermiling” (super fuel efficiency) in 2008; the second category is old words with new meanings, such as “selfie” in 2013; and the third category is phrases, such as “squeezed middle” (the squeezed middle class) in 2011. Over the years, the Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year has included “podcast” (2005), “carbon neutral” (2006), “locavore” (people who only eat locally produced food) (2007), “hypermiling” (2008), “unfriend” (2009), “big society” (2010), “squeezed middle” (2011), and “omnishambles” (total disorder) (2012). The 2013 Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year is “selfie.” The nomination statement on the official website of the Oxford University Press notes that the word “selfie” (translated into Chinese as zipai自拍) first appeared in 2002 on an Australian Internet forum: at the time, it was merely a common Internet slang term. Since 2010, the term has not only come to the fore in social jargon, but has also become a favorite of the mainstream media.

3.3 Japan Japan was the first country to launch activities for the selection of a “Kanji of the Year” (今年の漢字 Kotoshi no kanji). The Japanese Kanji Proficiency

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Society began organizing ballots for the “Kanji of the Year” in 1995, to express the state of the world and people’s experiences in the given year. Over the years, Japan’s “Kanji of the Year” have included: shin (震, ‘earthquake’) (1995), shoku (食, ‘food’) (1996), tō (倒, ‘collapse’) (1997), doku (毒, ‘poison’) (1998), sue (末, ‘end’) (1999), kin (金, ‘gold’) (2000), sen (戦, ‘war’) (2001), ki (帰, ‘return’) (2002), tora (虎, ‘tiger’) (2003), sai (災, ‘disaster’) (2004), ai (愛, ‘love’) (2005), inochi (命, ‘life’) (2006), nise (偽, ‘deception’) (2007), hen (変, ‘change’) (2008), shin (新, ‘new’) (2009), sho (暑, ‘hot’) (2010), kizuna (絆, ‘bonds’) (2011), and kin (金, ‘gold’) (2012). In 2013, rin (輪, ‘ring’) was selected as Japan’s “Kanji of the Year.” In September 2013, Tokyo was selected as the host city for the 2020 Summer Olympics. Since the Olympics are referred to in Japanese as gorin (五輪, ‘Five Rings’), the character rin (輪, ‘ring’) represents the people’s feelings of joy at Tokyo’s successful bid to host the Olympics.

3.4 South Korea Beginning in 2001, South Korea has annually held selection activities for the “Idiom of the Year.” This activity not only displays the ancient origins of Korean culture, but also embodies the organizers’ goals of reflecting current events, expressing aspirations, and conveying emotion through the year-end selection of the “Idiom of the Year.” Over the years, South Korea’s “Idiom of the Year” has included: oli mujung (Korean: 오리무중, Mandarin: wuli wuzhong 五里雾中, ‘lost in the fog’; a metaphor for a state of confused bewilderment and being kept in the dark) (2001); ihab jibsan (Korean:이합집산, Mandarin: lihe jisan 离合集散, ‘meeting and parting by turns’; signifying the constant union and division of various political forces in pursuit of power and benefit) (2002); uwang jwawang (Korean: 우왕좌왕, Mandarin: youwang zuowang 右往左往, ‘turning from left to right’; a metaphor for sinking into indecision, unable to determine the way forward) (2003); dingdong beol-i (Korean: 당동벌이, Mandarin: dangtong fayi 党同伐异, ‘cleaving to allies and striking against foes’; signifying partisan affirmation or partiality for one’s own party and rejection or vilification of the other party) (2004); sanghwa hataeg (Korean: 상화하택, Mandarin: shanghuo xiaze 上火下泽, ‘fire above and marshes below’; expressing separate and discrete phenomena) (2005); mil-un bul-u (Korean: 밀운불우, Mandarin: miyun buyu 密云不雨, ‘dense clouds without rain’; a metaphor for brewing troubles that have not yet erupted) (2006); jaga gain (Korean: 자가가인, Mandarin: ziqian qianren 自欺欺人, ‘deceiving oneself and others’; referring to a series of

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scandals including falsified academic records, plagiarized papers, government-business collusion, and so on) (2007); hojil giui (Korean: 호질기의, Mandarin: huji jiyi 护疾忌医, ‘concealing illness for fear of the doctor’; suggesting that government circles should abandon reserve and accept citizens’ criticism and advice) (2008); bang-gi goggyeong (Korean: 방기곡경, Mandarin: pangqi qujing 旁歧曲径, ‘the winding path’; referring to the failure of national policies to address the people’s concerns and arbitrary conduct) (2009); jangdu nomi (Korean: 장두노미, Mandarin: cangtou luwei 藏头露尾, ‘hiding the head and revealing the tail’; referring to the government’s approach to the Four Major Rivers controversy, its silence regarding ROKS Cheonan, the U.S.Korea Free Trade Agreement, and other issues) (2010); eom-i dojong (Korean: 엄이도종, Mandarin: yan’er daozhong 掩耳盗钟, ‘stopping one’s ears as the bell is stolen’; referring to the South Korean government’s handling of affairs in that year) (2011); geose gaetag (Korean: 거세개탁, Mandarin: jushi jiezhuo 举世皆浊, ‘while all the world is corrupted’; a metaphor for troubled times: ‘Whilst everyone else fails to distinguish right from wrong, I alone see the situation clearly’) (2012). In 2013, following a questionnaire survey of 622 professors, South Korea’s Professors Newspaper (교수신문 Kyosu sinmun) announced that doheng-yeogsi (Korean: 도헹역시, Mandarin: daoxing nishi 倒行逆施, ‘going against the tide’) had been selected as the “Idiom of the Year,” with a support rate of 32.7%. According to South Korean media reports, the idiom of the year doheng-yeogsi (Korean: 도헹역시, Mandarin: daoxing nishi 倒行逆施, ‘going against the tide’) expressed the public’s attitude toward the government.

3.5 Singapore The selection activity for Chinese character of the year in Singapore has been sponsored by Singapore’s Lianhe Zaobao (联合早报) since 2011. Each year, Lianhe Zaobao (联合早报) sends out a call across Singapore for a representative Chinese character, and holds the annual Chinese character voting activity “A character tells the story of the year” (字述一年). Readers are invited to select the character that best describes the past year in their eyes. In 2011 and 2012, Singapore’s “Chinese character of the year” (年度汉字) were respectively zhang (涨, ‘rise’) and se (色, ‘sex’). In 2013, mai (霾, ‘haze’) was the winner, with more than 40,000 votes. Lianhe Zaobao (联合早报) noted that air pollution caused by dust, sulfides and other suspended particles had enveloped Singapore in its most severe smog in recent years, with no small impact on people’s day-to-day lives.

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3.6 Malaysia The selection of Chinese character of the year in Malaysia is jointly sponsored by the Federation of Chinese Associations Malaysia, Editors’ Association of Chinese Medium Malaysia, Han Culture Centre Malaysia, Chinese Language Standardisation Council of Malaysia, the Malaysian radio station Ai FM, the Calligraphy Society of Malaysia, Popular Holdings, and other organizations. The activity was launched in 2011, with the aim of popularizing Chinese characters, and summarizing major news events and popular experiences of the world in that year. In 2011 and 2012, Malaysia’s “Chinese character of the year” (年度 汉字) was respectively zhuan (转, ‘transform’) and gai (改, ‘change’). In 2013, zhang (涨, ‘rise’) was selected as Malaysia’s Chinese character of the year. The media noted that, over the past year, soaring commodity prices have redoubled the pressure on the public and on businesses. The sponsors hoped that the government would take heed of the public’s heartfelt wishes by adopting effective measures to put prices in check. The new linguistic custom characterized by annual language inventories is not only flourishing in China, but is also popular in other countries around the world. It relies on new media and Internet technology, boosted by active participation by the general public, to achieve the engagement of the entire society; it not only facilitates our record of society’s pulse, but also helps us observe the progress of history and the development of the world. The global engagement in this new linguistic custom is an inevitable development of the Information Age, while also opening an informative window allowing us to understand the trends of development in the world. It is China’s annual custom to engage in a series of New Year’s activities to bid farewell to the old year and welcome in the new: it is a joyous celebration of culture and a reunion of culture. The new annual linguistic customs represented by annual language inventories draw on new media to effectively perpetuate and innovate the culture of annual customs. New annual linguistic traditions are both a delight of language and a sumptuous feast of culture. Exercising the aggregating effect of annual linguistic customs allows Chinese people, including overseas Chinese, to enthusiastically participate in annual language inventories and jointly interpret the words and characters of the year, promoting cultural confidence, and strengthening the centripetal force of the Chinese people; this is the core goal of the new annual linguistic custom.

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References The Commercial Press News Center (商务印书馆新闻中心). 2013. Treasuring citizens’ memories of the year, experiencing a different annual linguistic custom (珍藏公民年度记 忆 感受别样语言年俗). http://www.cnpubg.com/news/2013/1220/18947.shtml, Dec. 20, 2013. Zhou, Jinxiang (周劲翔). 2013. ‘Chinese language inventory’ 2013 is launched today, using a popular word to describe compatriots’ linguistic life (‘汉语盘点’2013 今日启动 用流行字 词描绘国人语言生态). Sina News Center International Online (新浪新闻中心国际在线), http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2013-11-21/144728772902.shtml, Dec. 21, 2013.

Wang Yubo (王宇波)

18 The gradual rise of emoticons The term “Emoticon,” translated into Chinese as biaoqing fuhao (表情符号, ‘emotion symbol’) is a portmanteau of “emotion” and “icon”; in Japanese, the term is translated as kaomoji (顏文字, ‘expression character’) or emoji (絵文字, ‘picture character’). Emoticons are an emerging sign system composed of character symbols, emoji icons and so on, used online and on various instant messaging platforms, which are widely popular among young students. In recent years, they have experienced a gradual rising trend.

1 Older emoticons 1.1 The first smiley face, 32 years ago “: -) ” On September 19, 1982, on an electronic message board, Professor Scott Fahlman of Carnegie Mellon University in the United States input a string of characters in American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) for the first time: “: -) ”. Thus the first computer smiley face in human history was born. With the popularization of the Internet in the 1990s, emoticons evolved from text expressions which could be read by tilting the head sideways, such as “:-) ” . Emoji quickly became and “:- D ” to 12×12-pixel pictorial emoji, such as a “sign of victory” for the text input method of the early instant messaging tools (including “OICQ,” “MSN,” and so on). By year-end 2011, emoji and emoticons had been added by the Apple Company to the iOS5 system keyboard, and had sprouted up on various online self-media platforms, including Twitter, Instagram, and Tumblr (microblogging), allowing emoji to begin genuinely ascending to the international stage. At present, emoji icons have been universally adopted in mobile communications and online chat software.

1.2 Four years later, the smiley face was able to “stand up”: “^_^” Emoticons spread very quickly into Japan. On June 20, 1986, on a commercial messaging network in Japan (ASCLLnet), Yasushi Wakabayashi (若林泰志), the

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moderator for the “Disabled Persons’ Forum” (残疾人论坛) sent a smiley face: ^_^, in a vertical rendering of the American smiley face. Aside from replacing the sideways face with an upright face, Japanese emoticons also upended the Western tradition of using depictions of the mouth to change the expression of emotion, placing the focus on the eyes, allowing Japanese-style emoticons to develop the characteristics of “speaking through the eyes.” For instance, “ * ”, “ ^ ”, “ - ”, “ ◎ ”, “ Φ ”, “ @ ”, “ ● ” and other symbols served as eyes, while “ _ ”, “ . ”, “ o ”, “ ε ”, “ з ”, “ ▽ ”, “ ∀ ” and other symbols were placed in the middle to serve as the mouth, creating faces representing different characteristics: ^_^ : Beaming with smiles; *_* : Laughing eyes; ^o^ : Smiling adorably; ^_~ : Smiling mischievously. Auxiliary symbols were also added alongside the smiley faces to serve as embellishments, and express richer and more complex emotions and concepts, such as: -_- | | | : Expressing an embarrassed face similar to Japanese manga; - _- b : Expressing perspiration dripping down a person’s face; ^^o_o^^ : Depicting a bat; C= :- ) : Depicting a chef at a restaurant; ≡[°°]≡ : Depicting a crab. Japan’s improvement and enrichment of emoticons allowed them to present livelier images with greater power of expression, accelerating the pace of their global popularization.

1.3 Following closely behind, Russia’s “Sea Monster” In Russia, netizens incorporated indigenous culture to create online emoticons imbued with Russian characteristics. One example involves an entity from a famous science fiction novel: the sea monster Cthulhu, with tentacles sprouting from its head, which netizens vividly depicted in the form of “ {: € ”. This innovative method of integrating national characteristics and fusing ethnic cultural elements has been a major feature of the international dissemination and development of emoticons. The “grounding” of emoticons not only enriches their symbolic content, but also accelerates and propels their international dissemination and acceptance by local netizens. Similar examples include:

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= | :) = : Representing President Abraham Lincoln of the United States; C= :- ) : Depicting a chef at a restaurant; [:| | | :] : Depicting an accordion, signifying criticism for playing the same old tune again or telling a joke that is out of date.

1.4 The unique style of China’s jiong (囧) series Following the introduction of emoticons into China, an array of emoticons with Chinese elements emerged, among which the most unique style was found in the jiong (囧) series. The jiong (囧) series of emoticons was a series of variant symbols formed by Chinese netizens on the foundation of the original form “Orz,” fused with Chinese character elements, to express the significance jiong de wuti toudi (囧得五体投地, ‘so embarrassed that I prostrate myself before you’). “Orz” was initially created by Japanese netizens to express the significance of a resounding defeat or kneeling in surrender, which became wildly popular among netizens as soon as it emerged. Chinese netizens used the popular Internet word jiong (囧) or graphically similar Chinese characters to replace the head (“O”) in the original format, expressing different emotions through variations in the Chinese character forms. For instance, jiong rz (囧 rz) expressed “so embarrassed that I prostrate myself before you”; the jiong (囧) series of emojis, with their unique style, was developed on this foundation. jiong rz (冏 rz): Depiction of dropping one’s jaw in shock; gu rz (崮 rz): Depicting the king of jiongguo (囧国, ‘awkward country’); ying rz (莔 rz): Depicting the queen of jiongguo (囧国, ‘awkward country’); shang rz (商 rz): Depicting a jiong (囧, ‘awkward face’) wearing a bamboo hat; jiong rz=З (囧 rz=З): Depicting very awkward buttocks. . . Related jiong (囧) emojis also include: ╭囧╮, ╰囧╯, ╮ 囧╭, ╔囧╗, ╔囧╝, ╚囧╝. . . The visually lifelike and ingenious jiong (囧) series of symbols was widely disseminated and adopted very quickly following its emergence, and it is now included in the emoticon databases for the Sogou Pinyin Method (搜狗输入法), QQ Input Method (腾讯输入法), Baidu Input Method (百度输入法), and other popular input methods.

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2 Popular methods of expression 2.1 What are the refu (热符, ‘hot emoticons’)? On instant messaging and self-media platforms, when people make and reply to comments, the most beloved symbols are no longer mood particles like hehe (呵呵, ‘hehe’), o (哦, ‘oh’) and so on, but rather an array of simple, convenient and have gradually replaced the comand yet lifelike emoticons::-), ^_^, mon mood particles. The official Weibo of New Weekly (新周刊) posted statistical data indicating that the top ten emoticons most commonly used on Weibo and QQ are: ziya (龇牙, ‘baring one’s teeth’), touxiao (偷笑, ‘laughing up one’s sleeve’), fadai (发呆, ‘staring blankly’), koubi (抠鼻, ‘picking one’s nose’), weixiao (微笑, ‘smile’), liulei (流泪, ‘shedding tears’), piezui (撇嘴, ‘snarl’), liuhan (流汗, ‘sweating’), qinqin (亲亲, ‘kiss’), and huaixiao (坏笑, ‘smirk’); the top ten hottest emoticons on Sina Weibo are: haha (哈哈, ‘haha’), xin (心, ‘heart’), lei (泪, ‘teardrop’), geili (给力, ‘awesome’), xixi (嘻嘻, ‘heehee’), aini (爱你, ‘love you’), touxiao (偷笑, ‘laughing up one’s sleeve’), liwu (礼物, ‘present’), huaxin (花心, ‘flower’), and guzhang (鼓掌, ‘applause’) (NetEase News 2013). Some of the “hot emoticons” exhibit stability, with continuous high-frequency use, such as哈哈 (haha, ‘haha’), 龇牙 (ziya, ‘baring one’s teeth’), 亲亲 (qinqin, ‘kiss’), and so on; while some of the refu (热符, ‘hot emoticons’) exhibit temporariness, cooling in temperature and fading away following hot events, such as hold zhu (hold 住, ‘hold fast’), geili (给力, ‘awesome’), and so on. The biggest characteristic of Internet language is that it changes rapidly and flares up randomly, but the rate of replacement for alternatives to the common emojis is still far lower than netizens’ rate of “fickleness,” thus leading to increasing demand for “privately customized” emoticons.

2.2 Who rezhong (热衷, ‘loves’) them the most? A recent study by Rice University of the United States found that women are more fond of using emoticons when sending text messages. Among the 124,000 text messages sent by the respondents, a total of 74 different emoticons were used. Among these, the emoticons with the highest frequency of use were “smiling,” “laughing,” and “sad”; the likelihood of emoticon use by women was twice that of men, amply exhibiting the theme of emotionalization in women. Meanwhile, men used a wider variety of emoticons, in an effort to display more diversified emotions (NetEase News 2012).

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A domestic survey showed that usage rates for emoticons were highest when chatting or expressing emotions, with both approaching 70%; when sending greetings and general jokes, the usage rates reached 30.8% and 20.6%, respectively; but when addressing serious matters, the usage rate was only 9.3%. In terms of the usage counterparty, emoticon usage rates between friends held the absolute advantage at 96.3%; between colleagues, the rate was 77.6%; and when sending messages to parents and elders or teachers, the usage rates were only 16.8% and 7.5%, respectively (Wang & Liu 2007).

2.3 Emerging remen (热门, ‘vogues’) Domestically, the large-scale network companies all have their own specialized emoji design teams, introducing a number of popular emoji series, such as Tusiji (兔斯基, ‘Tuzki’), Lengtu (冷兔, ‘Lengtoo’), baozou manhua (暴走漫画, ‘rage comic’), and so on. Based on user requirements, the Sina Weibo User Research and Experience Design Center (UDC) designed various symbol categories for the Weibo emoticon Lang xiaohua (浪小花, ‘Sina flower’), including: functional emojis, such as zhuanfa (转发, ‘repost’) and qiu guanzhu (求关注, ‘seeking follows’); interactive emojis, such as xianghu mobai (相互膜拜, ‘mutual prostration in worship’), shejian (射箭, ‘shooting arrow’), and zhongjian (中箭, ‘hit by arrow’); conventional emojis, including the diversification of haha (哈哈, ‘ha-ha’), ku (哭, ‘cry’), han (汗, ‘sweat’) and other traditional emojis; popular word emojis, such as luguo (路过, ‘passing by’), zouni (走你, ‘walk your own way’), and Jiangnan Style (江南 Style, ‘Gangnam Style’); as well as non-Lang xiaohua (浪小花, ‘Sina flower’) emojis, such as zan (赞, ‘approve’) . The emoji functions in WeChat software also irregularly provide users with new and emerging emoticons, such as niuniu (妞妞, ‘NueNue’), Tiantian sifang mao (甜甜私房猫, ‘Chi’s Sweet Home’), Haimian baobao (海绵宝宝, ‘SpongeBob’), and other popular series.

3 New favorite sets by input method 3.1 Sogou emojis Sogou Pinyin is an input method with a relatively high popularity index: its rapid emoticon input function provides greater convenience for users. In the status panel for the Sogou Pinyin Method (see Figure 18.1), by successively

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Recently Used Sogou Emojis Special Symbols Text Pictures Date and Time

Figure 18.1: Emoticons in the Sogou Pinyin Method. Source: Rising.com (瑞星网), Personal emoticon show: competition between the three Chinese input methods (个性表情符号秀: 三款中文输入法大比拼), http://it.rising.com.cn/use/software/2010-04-21/7336.html.

clicking on Menu/Quick Input/Sogou Emojis, the emoji interface pops up, reducing the laborious steps for users to input DIY emoticons. Its emoticons have two principal characteristics: First, they include Chinese characters to provide explanations; and second, they include Chinese characters to convey emotions.

3.2 QQ emojis The text emoji input function under the Tencent QQ Input Method is similar to the Sogou input method, but the shapes formed by the symbols are not entirely identical (see Figure 18.2). The distinctive features of the QQ emoticons are that the forms often use fullwidth, and the emojis focus on the eyes.

3.3 Baidu Emojis Version 1.6.1beta of the Baidu Input Method added chat emoji and symbol functions, with a total of 121 emojis (see Figure 18.3). Its distinctive feature is

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Figure 18.2: Emoticons in the QQ Pinyin Input Method. Source: Baidu Experience (百度经验), Built-in emoji usage method for QQ Pinyin Input Method (QQ 拼音输入法自带表情使用方法), http://jingyan.baidu.com/article/6d704a13fb471828db51ca11.html.

a wealth of auxiliary symbols for the faces. For instance, ヾ ^_^ ♪ expresses nin hao (您好, ‘hello’), whileヾ (@ ^▽ ^@) ノ expresses zaijian (再见, ‘goodbye’).

3.4 Google emojis The emoticon function of the Google Pinyin Input Method can only be used with the mobile phone input method: tap on “? 123” in the lower left corner to open the symbol input interface, with a total of 120 emoticons (see Figure 18.4).

3.5 iFlytek emojis The iFlytek Input Method added nine keys for Chinese and English symbol and emoji input in 2010 (see Figure 18.5): emoticons can be directly input using its quick phrase input and pinyin input; for instance, on inputting “haha,” the

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Symbols

Emojis

Text Pictures

Recently Used

Figure 18.3: Emoticons in the Baidu Input Method. Source: Newhua.com (牛华网), Are emoticons very cute? Experiences of the new version of the Baidu Input Method (表情符号很萌吗? 百度输入法新版体验), http://www.newhua.com/2012/0208/144574.shtml.

Figure 18.4: Emoticons in the Google Pinyin Input Method. Source: Screenshot of Google Input Method from Android mobile system.

resulting opinions include ^_^. The new version of the iFlytek Input Method also allows for quick input of emoticons, repeated words, and other quick phrases: for instance, if you are fond of using haha (哈哈, ‘ha-ha’), xixi (嘻嘻, ‘heehee’), hehe (呵呵, ‘hehe’) and other emoticons in chats, by directly

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1. Frequently Used

2. Chinese

3. English

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5. Website

Figure 18.5: Emoticons in the iFlytek Input Method. Source: Screenshot of iFlytek Input Method from Android mobile system.

inputting the pinyin for the given word into the messaging input interface, the options menu will list “^_^”, “(*∩ _∩ *)” and other symbols, allowing you to avoid repeatedly switching over to the symbol panel.

4 Emoji styles with no national boundaries 4.1 Traditional style The structural form of emoticons in the traditional style is fairly simple, consisting only of eyes and a mouth, or using “ - ” to represent a nose. There was only one original prototype, “:) ”; later, as the number of users increased and the need to express emotions grew, other simple forms of emoticons were created. For instance: :- ) : smiling; :- ( : unhappy; ; - ) : winking; :- D : happy; :- P : tongue sticking out; :- O : astonishment; 8- ) : smiling, wearing glasses; xc= = : vomiting; ^-^: smiling.

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4.2 Animated style Animated emoticons first appeared in Japan in the form of horizontal emoticons: their primary characteristic is the expression of emotions by using symbols to represent physical movement or through the anthropomorphized movements of other objects, limited to localized areas on the body: the face, hands, feet, small objects, and so on. Animated emoticons chiefly include the following few forms:

Basic forms ◎_◎? : question; =_= ": helpless; T_T: sad crying; = = b: in a cold sweat; $_$ : greedy for money.

Complex forms ≧ ◇≦ : moved; ~ () ~ !: wanting to laugh but unable to laugh; (^o^) 哈~ ~ (^0^) 哈~ ~ (^○^) 哈~ ~ : three big shouts of laughter. Ha Ha Ha

Physical poses _(:з”∠) _: a listless and depressed reclining pose; Orz: prostrated on the ground. Other derivative forms include: O|￣| _ , Or2, srO, OTZ, 570, and so on.

Other depictions : angry; : shedding tears. The above two examples contain the latest symbols in the animated style, blending in elements of Lao script, Tibetan writing, and traditional Japanese opera.

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4.3 East Asian style Since many regions of East Asia generally use fullwidth characters when writing text on computers, a number of emoticons with unique characteristics were created. The distinctive features of the East Asian style of emoticons is that the symbols are generally fullwidth, with an emphasis on the depiction of the eyes and the use of auxiliary elements, of which the most representative is the Chinese style, with its inclusion of Chinese character elements. For instance: \ (@ ^0^@) /★: good night; o(*≥▽ ≤) ツ ┏┓ : slapping the table and laughing wildly; O 口 O!: extreme astonishment; (*^__^*) 嘻嘻 (xixi, ‘heehee’) : smiling and giggling; T^T"/// : shedding tears; ~>_< ~ : sobbing; ╭∩ ╮ (￣▽￣) ╭∩ ╮ : disdain.

5 Considerations and recommendations 5.1 Chinese elements in emoticons Emoticons are symbols used in online instant messaging, and also a part of popular Internet culture. In terms of the emoticons popular in China, Japanese kaomoji (顏文字, ‘expression character’) have had a relatively large impact, with clear signs of Japanese moe bunka (萌文化, ‘cute culture’), while there are few original, popular creations similar to the jiong (囧) series. Efforts for the creation and related development of Chinese emoticons should fully consider how to reflect Chinese elements. Chinese characters, as an ideographic system, should and can become an important source for the creation of emoticons.

5.2 The commercial value of emoticons Emoticons have cultural significance as well as commercial value. The greatest success story in the use of emoticons to generate economic benefits is the Japanese mobile messaging tool “Line,” which stands at first in the download rankings for more than 40 countries. The Line Emoji Store opened in Japan at the end of April 2012, and within four short months, its virtual emojis had brought it approximately 300 million yen (around 23 million yuan RMB) in

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revenue.1 Compared to Line’s successful commercial emoji model, the emoticon economy in China is just starting out, with a lack of copyright awareness among both creators and users; the popular images are merely individual cases, such as the jiong (囧) series of images; and there is a lack of earmarked support from specialized organizations and commercial groups, no way to develop peripheral industries, and so on. Highly emphasizing and actively promoting the development of the “language economy,” including “emoticons,” is also an important channel for improving the country’s linguistic soft power.

References NetEase News (网易新闻). 2012. Latest research shows: Women prefer to use emoticons when sending text messages (最新研究发现: 女人发短信, 爱用表情符号). http://news.163. com/12/1031/16/8F5K0IL700014AEE.html, Oct. 31, 2012. NetEase News (网易新闻). 2013. Emoticons that netizens prefer to use when posting on Weibo (网民发微博爱用表情符号). http://news.163.com/13/0920/06/996Q19SS00014AEE. html, Sept. 20, 2013. Wang, Fuying (王付英) & Liu, Lili (刘丽丽). 2007. Survey study report on symbolic language in mobile phone text messaging (手机短信符号语言调查研究报告). Times Literary (时代文学), bimonthly edition, 2007, No. 1.

1 See http://money.163.com/13/0315/08/8Q0CJOMH00253G87.html.

Part IV: Words and passages

Hou Min (侯敏), Liang Linlin (梁琳琳), Zou Yu (邹煜), Teng Yonglin (滕永林), and He Wei (何伟)

19 Hot topics in society among the neologisms of 2013 The vivid mélange of social life in 2013 gave rise to a colorful diversity of neologisms. We used the National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus to sift through 1.25 million texts and 1.2 billion words layer by layer, extracting a total of 364 neologisms. These 364 neologisms provide us with a lens through which to examine social life in China and in the world in 2013, as well as the characteristics and style of language usage.

1 Interpretation of the “Top 10 Neologisms” On December 20, 2013, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, and the Commercial Press, and other organizations jointly published the “Top 10 Neologisms in Chinese Media in 2013” (2013 年度中国媒体十大新词语): Zhongyang baxiang guiding (中央八项规定, ‘Central Eight-Point Regulation’), Lengjing men (棱镜门, ‘PRISM-gate’), H7N9 qin liugan (H7N9 禽流感, ‘H7N9 bird flu’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’), zimao shiyan qu (自贸试验区, ‘Free Trade Pilot Zone’), dandu ertai (单独二胎, ‘Two Children for One Only Child’), Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’), guangpan xingdong (光盘行动, ‘Clean Your Plate campaign’), nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’), and shimian maifu (十面霾伏, ‘haze on all sides’). Among the 364 entries, these top 10 neologisms had a relatively high frequency of use, reflecting the major events of social life in 2013, as well as key points of interest for the media and for ordinary people.

1.1 Zhongyang baxiang guiding (中央八项规定, ‘Central Eight-Point Regulation’): a solemn promise for achieving the China dream At year-end 2012, General Secretary Xi Jinping (习近平) presided over a meeting of the Central Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party to deliberate on and pass the Politburo’s “Central Eight-Point Regulation” (中央八项规定), which addresses improvements to working style, intimately affecting the people; in https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-019

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2013, the regulation was comprehensively and zealously promoted. From the meticulous candidness of dictates such as “traveling with a minimum of pomp,” “not arranging receptions by the people,” and “not laying out carpets to receive visitors,” and the steadfast sincerity of “when asking others to do something, do it yourself first,” the requirements all indicate that the new central leaders’ collective has taken up the style of practicing what they preach, taking the lead as good examples for the improvement of Party style and government style. The “Central Eight-Point Regulation” unquestionably represents a solemn promise to all the Chinese people laid down by the new generation of leaders, to achieve the China dream.

1.2 Society’s labor pains amidst shimian maifu (十面霾伏, ‘haze on all sides’) Another indelible memory for everyone in 2013 was the wumai (雾霾, ‘haze’) which swept in at the beginning of the year, drifting across the north and the south, and lasting until the end of the year. Amidst worsening air pollution, a constant stream of haze warnings emerged. Netizens joked that, when walking the dog, if you couldn’t see the dog, you just held the dog’s leash in your hand; and if you could see the leash but couldn’t see your hand, you just followed the dog’s barks. After several decades of high-speed economic growth, environmental pollution has become an inescapable concern and a kind of “labor pains” for our generation. Amidst the shimian maifu (十面霾伏, ‘haze on all sides’), the tingqu kesheng yipian (听取咳声一片, ‘sounds of constant coughing’) reminded us that the kind of development we choose determines the nature of our lives, our skies, and our future.

1.3 Zimao shiyan qu (自贸试验区, ‘Free Trade Pilot Zone’): an exploration of an upgraded version of the Chinese economy As China’s economic reforms are continuously deepened, the zimao shiyan qu (自贸试验区, ‘Free Trade Pilot Zone’) serves as a representative of an audacious attempt to sally forth and explore an upgraded version of the Chinese economy, as well as a new focal point in government policies seeking to unleash the dividends of thirty years of Opening and Reforms. However, the questions of how to ensure that the Free Trade Pilot Zone does not become another kind of

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bonded area, and how to popularize the successful experiences of the Free Trade Pilot Zone nation-wide in the future all affect whether or not this trial undertaking of the Free Trade Pilot Zone will be able to bear the rich fruits of reforms.

1.4 Dandu ertai (单独二胎, ‘Two Children for One Only Child’): a good policy benefiting the people and benefiting the nation In any country, the demographic structure is a pillar for maintaining social balance. For more than 30 years, the One-Child Policy (独生子女政策) played an important role in restraining the overly rapid growth of the Chinese population, but it also brought about a series of social problems: aging, an imbalanced ratio of men and women, an inverted triangle demographic structure, and more than one million families who lost their only child. The 3rd Plenary Session of the Party’s 18th Central Committee proposed that “where one party in a married couple is an only child, they may bear two children”; this is unquestionably a good policy which will affect the future of the Chinese people, benefiting the people as well as the nation. However, facing the new social environment of “being allowed to bear children but not daring or not wishing to bear children,” the implementation of dandu ertai (单独二胎, ‘Two Children for One Only Child’) will require the joint efforts of all sides of society.

1.5 Voluntarily participating in the guangpan xingdong (光盘行动, ‘Clean Your Plate campaign’) “Cleaning your plate is a kind of economizing, and cleaning your plate is a kind of public good! Cleaning your plate means eating all the food on your place. Reject waste, and cherish food! It starts with me, today – are you willing?” The guangpan xingdong (光盘行动, ‘Clean Your Plate campaign’) for public welfare, which was launched in early 2013 through a civil initiative, asked everyone the question: after solving the problems of being warmly dressed and well-fed, how should we enjoy our affluent material lives? How do we change the national habit of showy, ostentatious banquets for guests? Increasing numbers of people have answered by voluntarily taking action: Starting with me, today, food will not be left behind, and the guangpan (光盘, ‘clean plate’) will be seen through to the end!

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1.6 The global shock of Lengjing men (棱镜门, ‘PRISM-gate’) In June 2013, Edward Snowden, a former employee of a United States intelligence organization, revealed the “PRISM program,” a top-secret electronic surveillance program pursued by the United States government: Lengjing men (棱镜门, ‘PRISM-gate’) immediately caused a global uproar. Communications by everyone from national presidents to ordinary people had all been surveilled under PRISM. For a period of time, as facts and rumors flew, the boundaries between true and false were blurred. That a country which professed to uphold the freedom of the Internet and protect its citizens’ individual privacy would secretly engage in such antithetical activities! It was clear that, to understand a country, an organization or an individual, one not only had to “listen to their words,” but also had to “look at their actions.”

1.7 The tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) of the new era Who is a tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’)? Older people know that this term was used during the period of the Land Revolution in reference to the wealthy and powerful landlords and despots of the rural villages. Today, people sigh about the Chinese nouveau riche who squander money in luxury shops in Paris and New York: they have become the tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrants’) of the new era. In 2013, identifying the local tyrants was no longer so important: the focus of attention was instead the people who loudly cried, “local tyrant, let’s be friends.” These people consciously “marked a boundary line” between themselves and the local tyrants, using a self-deprecating style to place themselves on the bottom rungs of life: this was a kind of self-defense, and moreover was a kind of helplessness in the face of the increasingly severe wealth gap in society.

1.8 The Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’) in the eyes of foreign media This year, the middle-aged women of China who were accustomed to carrying vegetable baskets through the markets to haggle over prices were crowned with a new title by the United States media: Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’). With the air of buying radishes and cabbages, they went “bottom fishing” in the global gold market, sweeping away “Bitcoins,” and collectively raising eyebrows among the high-and-mighty financial elite of Wall Street. This series of events undoubtedly came about on the one hand because the damas’

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purses have swelled, and on the other hand because the domestic stock market and property market have seen unpredictable variations in recent years, constricting the already narrow channels for individual investment. Guiding the Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese damas’) and ensuring that their purses flow rationally toward a healthy investment market has become an important task faced by the Chinese government.

1.9 The nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’) created by society From ta liliang (她力量, ‘she power’) to the nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girls’), women’s role in contemporary society seems to be increasingly important. If “she power” refers more to successful career women, then the “tough girls” are the women and girls next door, who are transforming the gentleness and delicacy of traditional femininity to stand strong and independent, daring to play a part, and using their actions to infuse a different kind of virility into this era, with its deficiency of manly spirit. This calls for consideration of the meaning of maleness and society.

1.10 Calmness in the face of H7N9 qin liugan (H7N9 禽流感, ‘H7N9 bird flu’) We still remember the eruption of feidian (非典, ‘SARS’) ten years ago, which caused the entire country to sink into panic; ten years later, the government and ordinary people have met the coming of H7N9 qin liugan (H7N9 禽流感, ‘H7N9 bird flu’) with a little less panic, and a little more calmness. This was benefited by the establishment of the National Public Health Emergency Response System, and was also attributed to the continuous fine-tuning of the Public Epidemic Prevention System. The facts show that, no matter what kind of infectious disease we face, transparent response mechanisms and scientific publicizing of treatments are the best medicine.

2 An overview of hot topics in society If language is a mirror of society, then neologisms are a kaleidoscope of contemporary social life. Through the array of neologisms, we can more clearly perceive the diverse and colorful focal points of society in 2013.

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2.1 New style 2013 was a key year in our country’s journey toward modernization: it was the inaugural year in which the new generation of central leaders took up their posts, bringing a refreshing breeze that swept from high to low, reshaping dangfeng (党风, ‘Party style’), zhengfeng (政风, ‘government style’), wenfeng (文风, ‘writing style’), shefeng (社风, ‘social style’) and guofeng (国风, ‘national style’), all of which were reflected among the neologisms. The Zhongyang baxiang guiding (中 央八项规定, ‘Central Eight-Point Regulation’) expressed the “hard promise” that the Party must manage the Party, with strict Party governance. The san xing zhengdang (三型政党, ‘three-model governing party’), that is, the learning model, service model, and innovation model of the Marxist governing party was a clear objective for building up the Party proposed at the 18th National Congress. There were also calls to better exercise the role of the government by transforming its functions and working style, withdrawing from yuewei dian (越位点, ‘outof-bounds positions’), and shoring up the quewei dian (缺位点, ‘vacant positions’). The central authorities took the lead, followed by leaders at all levels, in speaking practically, speaking truthfully, speaking concisely, and speaking usefully, heralding a new era for wenfeng (文风, ‘writing style’) and huifeng (会风, ‘meeting style’). A series of “theories” such as the kuaizi lun (筷子论, ‘Chopstick theory’), longzi lun (笼子论, ‘Basket theory’) and xiezi lun (鞋子论, ‘Shoe theory’), all stemming from oral folk tales, along with lively and vivid language such as, zhuangshi duanwan (壮士断腕, ‘like a warrior snapping a wrist’), tashi liuyin (踏 石留印, ‘treading on stone and leaving a footprint’), zhuatie youhen (抓铁有痕, ‘scratching iron and leaving a scar’) and laohu cangying yiqi da (老虎苍蝇一起打, ‘striking both the tigers and the flies’) left a deep impression on people, creating indelible memories. The foolhardy wangluo dayao (网络大谣, ‘online rumormongers’) who sought to dictate public opinion and sway society were punished by the law, allowing for improvements in our social style. The establishment of the “East China Sea Air Defense Identification Zone” (东海防空识别区) displayed the awe-inspiring style of the Chinese government in defending national territories and upholding national sovereignty.

2.2 Anti-corruption Corruption is a cancer which erodes the fabric of society, and it is currently one of the largest social problems faced in China’s social development. Anticorruption therefore became a major theme of 2013, and the surge in new words specifically expressing anti-corruption concepts was a major feature of the

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neologisms of 2013. Guanshe (官赊, ‘officials buying on credit’), chiguan (吃官, ‘living off officialdom’), chi song feng (吃送风, ‘living off blowing hot air’), huangdi qiu (皇帝球, ‘the emperor’s ball’), and du zhuo cai (独桌菜, ‘a table of food’) all illustrate that avarice and the lust for power are the roots of corruption. Xunshi fanfu (巡视反腐, ‘anti-corruption circuit inspections’) and xunhu zhaoying (寻虎找蝇, ‘looking for tigers and seeking flies’) became highly effective methods in the struggle against corruption. Amidst the anti-corruption activities to dahu paiying (打虎拍蝇, ‘strike tigers and swat flies’), not only were group after group of officials like the ba shizhang (扒市长, ‘mayor of tearing down’), Ji wawa (季挖 挖, ‘Excavations Ji’), hongdou juzhang (红豆局长, ‘Red bean director’), and hongjiu ge (红酒哥, ‘red wine brother’) successively eliminated, the harmful practices and corruption that had risen up next to the people, such as zhao piaomen (招嫖 门, ‘visiting prostitutes’), heijin chi (黑金池, ‘organized crime pools’), yingzi kuilei (影子傀儡, ‘shadow puppets’), biao chuanchuan (标串串, ‘stringing bids’), yonglan sanshe (庸懒散奢, ‘indolence and extravagance’), yuyan huilu (语言贿赂, ‘verbal bribery’), zheng fu (证腐, ‘passport corruption’) and hao fu (号腐, ‘license plate corruption’), were all revealed one after another, demonstrating the resolve and actions of the Party Central Committee in “striking both the tigers and the flies.” In the meantime, the slogan chang chang (常长, ‘constant and long’) declared that the campaign to oppose corruption and advocate honesty should “constantly seize hold, with untiring efforts,” while the alarm bells to reject corruption and guard against degeneration should ring “long,” with tenacity and confidence. Moreover, the qingka (清卡, ‘card clean-up’) campaign to clean up various types of membership cards received by disciplinary supervisory cadres; qianzi beishu (签字背书, ‘signature endorsement’), under which whoever signs is responsible; as well as the gongzhai zhi (公宅制, ‘public housing system’), lianjie nianjin (廉洁年金, ‘integrity annuity’) and other actions forwarded by the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection were all efforts to block the institutional and regulatory loopholes for corruption, and gave people a clear and bright country. Among the various forms of corruption, housing corruption was a key disaster area. The domestic character of the year under the “2013 Chinese Language Inventory” (2013 汉语盘点) was fang (房, ‘house’), demonstrating the weight that housing has in the hearts of the Chinese people. Since the latter half of 2012, housing has become a point of entry for seeking traces of corruption in person and online: the Fang shi jiazu (房氏家族, ‘House clan’) composed of individuals involved in housing corruption emerged one by one to play a role, with a fangge (房哥, ‘big brother of housing’), fangsao (房嫂, ‘sister-inlaw of housing’), fangjie (房姐, ‘big sister of housing’), fangmei (房妹, ‘little sister of housing’), fangshu (房叔, ‘uncle of housing’), fangshen (房婶, ‘aunt of

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housing’), fangxi (房媳, ‘daughter-in-law of housing’), fangye (房爷, ‘grandfather of housing’), and even an fang zuzong (房祖宗, ‘ancestor of housing’) all entering the field of public discourse. In 2013, a new branch was added to the “house clan,” with Gong Aiai (龚爱爱), the “big sister of housing,” at the top of the list: a large group of “multi-household, multi-property” individuals with multiple registered households and multiple real estate properties leapt into the public’s view, giving rise not only to specific appellations like the fangba (房爸, ‘father of housing’), fangma (房妈, ‘mother of housing’), fangdie (房爹, ‘daddy of housing’), fangdi (房弟, ‘little brother of housing’), fangdi (房帝, ‘emperor of housing’), fangjing (房警, ‘cop of housing’), fangshen (房神, ‘god of housing’), and fangyi (房姨, ‘aunt of housing’), but also to general terms such as fangqin (房亲, ‘relatives of housing’), fangzu (房族, ‘house clan’), fang zi bei (房字辈, ‘generation of housing’) and other near relations to the Fang (房, ‘House’) family, while the pushu (铺叔, ‘uncle of shops’), who illegally owned multiple shop-fronts, also emerged from the depths. At this point, the seats in the ancestral hall of the Fang (房, ‘House’) family are already full, and we hope that no new relatives are added in the future.

2.3 Clean Your Plate Among the “List of Top Ten Media Focal Points in 2013” (2013 媒体关注度十大 榜单) published by the Broadcast Media Language Monitoring and Research Center of Communications University of China, the Guangpan xingdong (光盘行 动, ‘Clean Your Plate campaign’) impressively stood at first place in the “Top Ten Public Welfare Activities” (十大公益活动). In early January 2013, a public welfare organization by the name of “IN_33” launched the “Clean Your Plate campaign,” calling for city residents to pack up leftover food when dining out, leaving a guangpan (光盘, ‘clean plate’), and putting an end to “waste at the tip of our tongues.” Media outlets, ordinary people, restaurants, schools, universities and so on in various regions all responded, while the Quanguo lianghui (全国两会, ‘National Two Sessions’), international media outlets and the United Nations all took part and lent their support; a number of celebrities and food & beverage enterprises also joined the “Clean Your Plate campaign,” and opposing waste is now becoming a society-wide campaign. A series of neologisms were coined in relation to “Clean Your Plate”: to respond to the call to “clean your plate,” a number of food & beverage enterprises successively instituted guangpan jihua (光盘计划, ‘clean plate plans’); to consolidate forces and influence the public, Guangpan jie (光盘节, ‘Clean Plate Day’) was established; netizens went online

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to soak up the guangpan zhao (光盘照, ‘reflections of a clean plate’); while the effects of the public welfare campaign were expressed through the guangpan lü (光盘率, ‘clean plate rate’), and those who volunteered to join the campaign were referred to as the guangpan zu (光盘族, ‘clean plate clan’). The slogan “clean plate” has helped people redevelop the traditional virtue of jiejian (节俭, ‘frugality’), bringing positive energy to all of society.

2.4 WeChat This era has changed so quickly! Traditional media served as the ties that bound together the members of a society, and its transformation is now transforming all of society, as well as transforming people’s lifestyles. These changes are taking shape at an almost frenzied pace. In 2004, blogs were the hot article, but 2010 became the “Year of Microblogging” (微博元年); WeChat emerged in 2011, and as of year-end 2013, the number of WeChat users had already surpassed 600 million. It is no wonder that people have called 2013 the “Year of WeChat for Government Affairs” (政务微信元年), while others have called it the “Year of Enterprise WeChat Marketing” (企业微信营销元年); regardless of what it is called, 2013 has been a year of remarkable achievements for WeChat. In the wake of the widespread use of Weixin (微信, ‘WeChat’), many new members have been added to the wei-(微~) family of words: unlike in 2011 and 2012, which saw the rise of wei jizhe (微记者, ‘micro-reporter’), wei lüyou (微旅游, ‘micro-tourism’), wei zhibo (微直播, ‘micro-live broadcasting’), wei weiquan (微维权, ‘micro-rights defense’), wei shizheng (微施政, ‘micro-governance’), and so on, in 2013, the character wei (微) now refers more often to weixin (微信, ‘WeChat’) than to weibo (微博, ‘microblogging’). Examples include mutual greetings such as wei bainian (微拜年, ‘WeChat New Year’s greetings’) sent through WeChat as a substitute for text messaging; wei licai (微理财, ‘WeChat Finance’), the financial services platform offered by WeChat; weishang (微商, ‘WeChat business’), or engaging in product marketing on the WeChat platform; and Wei yinhang (微银行, ‘WeChat banking’), or the payment services offered by WeChat and other platforms. Weixin (微信, ‘WeChat’) is also used more directly to form words such as weixin quan (微信圈, ‘WeChat circle’), weixin Wo ka (微信沃卡, ‘WeChat Wo card’), and weixin zu (微信族, ‘WeChat clan’), as well as weixin fanfu (微信反腐, ‘WeChat anti-corruption’), weixin pengyou quan (微信朋友圈, ‘WeChat friend circle’), weixin xiaoshuo (微信小说, ‘WeChat fiction’), weixin yinhang (微信银行, ‘WeChat banking’), and so on. These also indicate that WeChat’s role is not solely limited to communications: it has already become a part of our lives, giving rise to

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the WiFi zu (WiFi 族, ‘WiFi clan’) and xuan shi zu (炫食族, ‘food sharing clan’), who are inseparable from WeChat, as well as the pain of WiFi jiaolü zheng (WiFi焦 虑症, ‘WiFi anxiety syndrome’) when unable to sign on to WeChat.

2.5 Chinese characters Following the release of the programs Chinese Character Hero (汉字英雄) on Henan (河南) Television and the Chinese Character Dictation Contest (汉字听写 大会) on China Central Television, “Chinese character” (汉字 Hanzi) became one of the most popular words in summer 2013. The Chinese Character Dictation Contest, which has no sumptuous stage or lineup of celebrities, and has a junior high school student as the lead, gave rise to a society-wide Chinese character craze, and the program attracted thousands upon thousands of Hanzi fen (汉字粉, ‘Chinese character fans’), while also spurring profound reflections on the current state and future trends of language and writing among academic circles. Li Weihong (李卫红), the director of the State Language Commission and the Vice Minister for Education, therefore proposed “the establishment of long-acting mechanisms, to strive to hold such activities once per year.” Guan Zhengwen (关正文), the head director for the Chinese Character Dictation Contest also called for efforts to help minorities maintain their Chinese character handwriting skills through innovative methods; he hoped that the Chinese Character Dictation Contest would serve as an attempt at such innovation. If the program is still as influential as it is today fifty years from now, it will be like an annual holiday on which the entire population can feel a kinship with Chinese characters, rather than being just a television program (Jia 2013). 2013 also featured another noteworthy neologism closely related to education, the globally popular muke (慕课, ‘massive open online courses’). The Chinese term is a phonetic transliteration of the English acronym MOOC, which stands for “massive open online courses.” The MOOC storm swept through the United States in fall 2011, and The New York Times proclaimed 2012 “The Year of the MOOC.” China’s “Year of the MOOC” was 2013. During this year, Tsinghua University, Peking University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Fudan University, and other institutions of higher education successively formed ties with the MOOC providers edX and the Coursera Platform, which are part of what has been referred to as the muke san jia mache (慕课三驾马车, ‘MOOC triumvirate’). Chongqing University sponsored the establishment of the East-West University Course Sharing Alliance (东西部高校课程共享联盟), known as “WEMOOC”: by October 2013, 97 universities had already joined the alliance. Of course, “MOOCs” are still a new thing: as the humane see humanity and the

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wise see wisdom, this trend has given rise to the ting mu pai (挺慕派, ‘pro MOOC faction’) as well as the shen mu pai (慎慕派, ‘cautious MOOC faction’). “MOOCs” are here, so what will our universities do about them? This is a question that must be faced by China’s university presidents (Cao & Yan 2013).

2.6 Haze Wumai (雾霾, ‘haze’) was another theme which permeated the entire year of 2013. Beginning with the Beijing ke (北京咳, ‘Beijing cough’) of early January, terms like “PM 1.0,” “PM 0.5,” “PM 0.1,” maisha (霾沙, ‘sand haze’), du keli (毒颗粒, ‘toxic particles’), xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’), and shimian maifu (十面霾伏, ‘haze on all sides’) emerged one after another; the maiqing (霾情, ‘haze forecast’) was continuously baobiao (爆表, ‘off the charts’), to the point that netizens suggested taking a wumai jia (雾霾假, ‘haze furlough’). The data shows that Taobao shoppers spent a total of 870 million yuan on the maidan (霾单, ‘haze bill’) this year, including surgical masks, air purifiers, indoor treadmills, and other products to resist the haze, fueling the wumai jingji (雾霾经济, ‘haze economy’). In order to resolve the haze problem, the Chinese government has not only opened wide the gates to advocacy for environmentally friendly power generation through qidian (企电, ‘corporate power’) and sidian (私电, ‘private power’), but has also formulated the “Ten Climate Regulations” (大气十条), to win the huxi baowei zhan (呼吸保卫战, ‘war to defend breathing’). Beijing published the “Meteorological Index for Setting Off Fireworks” (烟花燃放气象指数) for the first time, while Shanghai proposed the establishment of feng zoulang (风走廊, ‘wind corridors’). Increasing numbers of people have joined the ranks of the qi pao zu (弃炮族, ‘give up fireworks clan’) and lü V ke (绿 V 客, ‘Green Week’), and various regions have set hu lan, zeng lü (护蓝、增绿, ‘protecting blue, and growing green’) as their objectives for environmental protection. Ordinary people have used kongqi you (空气游, ‘air tourism’) and qingfei you (清肺游, ‘clean lung tourism’) to escape the haze, finding temporary healthy environments.

2.7 Reeducation through labor While focusing on new words and new phrases, we should also pay attention to the words and phrases which will soon retire from public life, such as laojiao (劳教, ‘labor reeducation’), laodong jiaoyang (劳动教养, ‘reeducation through labor’), and laojiao suo (劳教所, ‘labor reeducation center’), as well as the piaosu younü zui (嫖宿幼女罪, ‘crime of patronizing underage prostitutes’). Following

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the thorough abolishment of the laodong jiaoyang zhidu (劳动教养制度, ‘reeducation through labor system’) at year-end 2013, it can be predicted that “labor reeducation,” “reeducation through labor,” “labor reeducation center” and other words and phrases will gradually be retired from the modern Chinese vocabulary, becoming historical phrases. In order to increase protections for the interests of minor girls, following persistent proposals by representatives of the People’s Congress, the “crime of patronizing underage prostitutes” will also be reformed to the qiangjian zui (强奸罪, ‘crime of rape’), and will finally be abolished and banished to the category of historical phrases.

3 The unique charm of neologisms The unique charm of the 2013 neologisms finds concentrated expression in the following few word and phrase groups.

3.1 Xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’) Xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’) is an Internet neologism of 2013, and a representative of the multi-character abbreviation. A suolüe duozi ge (缩略多字格, ‘multi-character abbreviation’) refers to shortening a given phrase into a four-character or three-character format: for instance, xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’) is an abridged form of the phrases, xichu wangwai (喜出望外, ‘great exhilaration’), dakuai renxin (大快人心, ‘general delight’), putian tongqing (普天 同庆, ‘universal jubilation’), and benzou xianggao (奔走相告, ‘running around telling everyone’). The significance is generally rendered in English as, “news so exhilarating that everyone is celebrating and spreading it around the world.” This multi-character abbreviation was a distinguishing feature of online language and communication in 2013, and has already had an impact on print, broadcast and other traditional mass media. In fact, this format for phrase abbreviations emerged some time ago: the July 27, 2011, edition of The Beijing News (新京报) contained the passage, “saying goodbye to that era of male silence and female tears.” Here, the phrase nanmo nülei (男默女泪, ‘male silence and female tears’) is an abbreviation of the saying, “Men see it and are silent, and women see it and shed tears.” However, this passage did not attract widespread attention. The first phrase to draw wider interest was shi dong ran ju (十动然拒, ‘extremely moved, then rejection’), an

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abbreviation of shifen gandong, ranhou jujue (十分感动, 然后拒绝), which appeared in the context of a tragic love story. This led to a craze for imitative word formation among netizens, giving rise to a series multi-character abbreviated phrases. Examples include buming jueli (不明觉厉, ‘don’t understand, but think it’s great’); budong ran po (不动然泼, ‘unmoved, and then splashed’; describes being “splashed” with cold water in an unreciprocated crush); lei jue bu ai (累觉 不爱, ‘tired, feeling no love’); ren jian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’); shuo nao jue yu (说闹觉余, ‘talking and noise feels like too much’); xisi kongji (细思恐极, ‘horrible when you think about it’), and so on. A three-character format also emerged, with examples such as he qi liao (何弃疗, ‘why give up treatment’), qing yun bei (请允悲, ‘please let [me] be sad’), wo huo dai (我伙呆, ‘my friends and I are shocked’), xiruan pao (细软跑, ‘take the valuables and run’), and so on. In addition, there were some similar phrases, such as a tong wu la (啊痛悟 蜡, ‘ah, how painful it is to comprehend’), shi qi ran ying (十气然应, ‘very angry, then agreed’), huo qian Liu Ming (火钳刘明, ‘fire tongs Liu Ming’; a typo for huoqian liu ming [火前留名, ‘leave your name on a fiery thread’]), buyue er tong (不约 而同, ‘coincidentally the same’), jing na gun (经拿滚, ‘get XP and skedaddle’), lai xin kan (来信砍, ‘message came in, hack to death’), leng wu que (冷无缺, ‘indifferent, no ideals, no beliefs’), ren gan shi (人干事, ‘something people do[?]’), xing gong zhuan (醒工砖, ‘wake up, brick worker’), yu si zao (语死早, ‘language teacher died early’), and so on, the significance of which is more obscure, and which saw a narrower scope of dissemination. These terms satisfied netizens’ desire for linguistic creativity, reflecting the amusing function of language, but time will tell whether they can sink into the modern Chinese language.

3.2 Qipa (奇葩, ‘exotic flowers’) Qipa (奇葩, ‘exotic flowers’) was originally a commendatory term expressing a high degree of admiration, which was only used for something special that stood out from the crowd. However, over the last year or two, its significance and overtones have gradually experienced, and it not often carries a sense of mockery and ridicule. In 2013, the term experienced a surge in usage, leading to it being listed among the top ten popular words as announced by the Editorial Board of Verbalism (咬文嚼字). If someone, particularly a young person, says that you are yi duo qipa (一朵奇葩, ‘a bouquet of exotic flowers’), you certainly should not think that it’s flattery, but rather that you have done something with which the crowd does not identify. At the same time, the usage of qipa (奇葩, ‘exotic flowers’) is still experiencing changes. Not only can one say, hen qipa (很奇葩, ‘very exotic’) or feichang

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qipa (非常奇葩, ‘extremely exotic’), the term is also frequently placed before nouns, forming a series of new words and phrases: qipa cai (奇葩菜, ‘exotic dish’), qipa ti (奇葩题, ‘exotic subject’), qipa xiaogui (奇葩校规, ‘exotic school regulations’), qipa zhibiao (奇葩指标, ‘exotic quotas’), qipa xisu (奇葩习俗, ‘exotic customs’), qipa zhaopin (奇葩招聘, ‘exotic job recruitment’), and so on. The backdrops to these phrases are unheard-of in some cases: have you seen tofu and roast peaches, or chili-fried moon cakes? Have you heard of school regulations such as “banning references to male students as ge (哥, ‘older brother’)”, or quotas from the campaign against the four pests, such as “If someone sits quietly at the construction site with calves exposed for 30 minutes, they may only be bitten by one mosquito”? When enterprises recruit senior managers, they may require that your first-born is a girl. Other than qipa (奇葩, ‘exotic flowers’), is there any more suitable word we can use to describe the above foods, school regulations, quotas, and job recruitment?!

3.3 Shenqi (神器, ‘divine implement’) Shen (神, ‘divine’) and shenqi (神器, ‘divine implement’) are very ancient words in the Chinese language. But in recent years, in online usage, the significance of shen (神, ‘divine’) has experienced some changes, and its morphological functions have exceeded the normal range. Any person or thing which netizens feel is novel or unusual can be described using the word shen (神, ‘divine’), regardless of whether it is good or bad. Examples include shen ti (神题, ‘divine question’), shen qu (神曲, ‘divine song’), shen ju (神剧, ‘divine play’), shen zuo (神作, ‘divine work’), shen bian (神编, ‘divine writing’), shen dao (神导, ‘divine directing’), shen huifu (神回复, ‘divine reply’), shen da’an (神答案, ‘divine answer’), shen bianpai (神编排, ‘divine arrangement’), shen peiyin (神配音, ‘divine dubbing’), shen zimu (神字幕, ‘divine subtitles’), shen luoji (神逻辑, ‘divine logic’), and so on. Shenqi (神器, ‘divine implement’) originally referred to articles used in ancient sacrifices; now, the term generally refers to practical and useful tools or actions, and its significance in English is more aptly rendered as “magical.” As long as it is convenient or useful, with reference to anything from Spring festival transportation, grabbing a ticket, getting a taxi, squeezing onto a train, finance, going online, combatting haze, combatting greed, getting away for the summer, washing one’s face, preserving one’s youthful looks, amusing a baby, picking a number, wrapping dumplings, to finding a job, and so on, the term shenqi (神器, ‘magical’) frequently appears. Even if it is neither convenient nor useful, but merely novel or unusual, it can still be referred to as shenqi (神器, ‘magical’): college students

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attending class can be shenqi (神器, ‘magical’), but truancy is also shenqi (神器, ‘magical’); primary and secondary school students responding to teachers confiscating cell phones by secretly replacing them is shenqi (神器, ‘magical’) too. These references to anything and everything as shen (神, ‘divine’) or shenqi (神器, ‘magical’) can imply either admiration or ridicule: in this era when nothing is taken too seriously, shen (神, ‘divine’) and shenqi (神器, ‘magical’) express the joy and delight that people find in wordplay. Like the neologisms of previous years, the neologisms of 2013 include some high-frequency terms, such as the “Top Ten Neologisms” (十大新词语) mentioned above, which reflect the hot topics of social life; and they also include some relatively low-frequency terms, such as 383 fang’an (383 方案, ‘383 plan’), which is a reference to the comprehensive report on the reform plan submitted by the Development Research Center of the State Council to the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee; nanzihan ke (男子汉课, ‘he-man classes’), a course specially offer to cultivate men’s manly spirit; ziran siwang fa (自然死亡法, ‘natural death’), expressing a dignified death, and so on. Among these, some may flower only briefly, while others may gradually develop and experience a relatively long lifespan, even entering the Chinese lexicon: but no matter what happens, they are all recorded in the history of the year 2013, reflecting the thought processes of the public.

References Cao, Jijun (曹继军) & Yan, Weiqi (颜维琦). 2013. “MOOCs” are here, what will Chinese universities do? (“慕课”来了, 中国大学怎么办?). Guangming Daily (光明日报), Jul. 16, 2013. Jia, Yu (贾宇). 2013. Chinese Character Dictation Contest triggers reflections on culture: inspiration is not extinguished, and the beauty of Chinese writing has not aged (“中国汉 字听写大会”引发文化思考 灵感不灭 美丽中文不老). Guangming Daily (光明日报), Oct. 19, 2013.

Yang Erhong (杨尔弘), Li Yanyan (李彦燕), and Wang Lei (王磊)

20 China and the world in popular phrases in 2013 Written by Yang Erhong (杨尔弘), Li Yanyan (李彦燕), and Wang Lei (王磊); print media data provided by Liu Dongming (刘冬明) et al; broadcast media data provided by Hou Min (侯敏) et al; online media data provided by He Tingting (何婷婷) et al. In recent years, at the end of each year, various inventories use their own methods to reexamine events big and small, changes and developments in society over the past year. On December 20, 2013, the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, China Network Television, and several other organizations held a press conference for the “2013 Chinese Language Inventory” (2013 汉语盘点), to announce the “Top 10 Popular Phrases in Chinese Media in 2013” (2013 年度 中国媒体十大流行语). The top ten popular phrases in Chinese media in 2013 were extracted from a corpus at the scale of approximately 1.2 billion characters, including China’s mainstream newspapers,1 radio and television,2 and portals and

1 Sources included all text from 18 domestic newspapers in the period from January 1 to December 10, 2013, with a total of 650 million character instances, listed phonetically by the Chinese characters below: Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报), Beijing Daily (北京日报), Beijing Evening News (北京晚报), Legal Daily (法制日报), Guangming Daily (光明日报), Guangzhou Daily (广州日报), Western China Metropolitan Daily (华西都市报), Tonight News (今晚报), Southern Weekly (南方周末), Qianjiang Evening News (钱江晚报), Qilu Evening News (齐鲁晚 报), People’s Daily (人民日报), Shenzhen Special Zone Daily (深圳特区报), The Beijing News (新 京报), Xinmin Evening News (新民晚报), Yangcheng Evening News (羊城晚报), Yangtse Evening Post (扬子晚报), and China Youth Daily (中国青年报). 2 A total of approximately 110 million character instances were sourced from programs on 23 domestic television and radio stations in the period from January 1 to December 10, 2013, respectively including China National Radio (中央人民广播电台), Beijing Media Network (北京 电视台), Radio Beijing Corporation (北京人民广播电台), Radio and Television Station of Shanghai (上海广播电视台), Tianjin Radio and Television Station (天津人民广播电台), Anhui Television (安徽电视台), Shandong Television (山东广播电视台), Qingdao Television (青岛电 视台), Shanxi Television (山西广播电视台), Jilin Television (吉林电视台), Fujian Television (福 建电视台), Hunan People’s Radio Station (湖南人民广播电台), Jiangsu Broadcasting Corporation (江苏人民广播电台), Qinghai Radio & TV Station (青海人民广播电台), Xiamen People’s Broadcasting Station (厦门人民广播电台), Ningbo Television (宁波电视台), People’s Broadcasting Station of Ningbo (宁波人民广播电台), ZZTV (漳州电视台), Shenzhen TV (深圳电 https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-020

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websites,3 with a total of 10 major categories, comprising the general category, domestic current politics category, international current politics category, economy category, science and technology category, education category, culture and sports category, entertainment category, social life category, and the special topic of the people’s livelihoods. 10 popular words and phrases were extracted from each category, providing vignettes of the diversity of social life and the constant changes of the world.

1 Top 10 popular phrases in the general category: a vividly colorful depiction of the times San zhong quanhui (三中全会, ‘Third Plenary Session’), quanmian shenhua gaige (全面深 化改革, ‘comprehensively deepening reforms’), Sinuodeng (斯诺登, ‘Snowden’), Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘China dream’), zimao qu (自贸区, ‘free trade zone’), fangkong shibie qu (防 空识别区, ‘air defense identification zone’), Mandela (曼德拉, ‘Mandela’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’), wumai (雾霾, ‘haze’), Chang’e san hao (嫦娥三号, ‘Chang’e 3’)

If popular phrases in the media are like a scroll recording the times, then the top ten popular phrases in the general category are a vividly colorful painting, providing a concentrated outline of China and the world from the media’s perspective during this year.

1.1 San zhong quanhui (三中全会, ‘Third Plenary Session’) From November 9–12, 2013, the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party was convened in Beijing, and the peak usage of the term san zhong quanhui (三中全会, ‘Third Plenary Session’) also appeared during this timeframe. In thinking back over the years, the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee swept open the curtains of history for China’s Opening and Reforms, while the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee similarly had epochal significance, coinciding with a key moment in China’s Opening and Reforms and social transformation, thus drawing a surplus of attention at home and overseas (refer to Figure 20.1).

视台), Dalian Television (大连电视台), Shijiazhuang TV (石家庄电视台), HRBTV (哈尔滨电 视台), and so on. 3 Approximately 430 million character instances were sourced from news webpages on Sina and Tencent.

20 China and the world in popular phrases in 2013

San zhong quanhui ( , ‘Third Plenary Session’) 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr. Jul. Oct. Jan. 2013 Apr. Jul. Oct.

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Figure 20.1: Usage of san zhong quanhui (三中全会, ‘Third Plenary Session’) in 2012–2013.

1.2 Quanmian shenhua gaige (全面深化改革, ‘comprehensively deepening reforms’) Sharing an equal spotlight with san zhongquanhui (三中全会, ‘Third Plenary Session’) was the guiding document passed during the session, the Decision of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party Regarding Certain Major Issues in Comprehensively Deepening Reforms (中共中央关于全面深化改革若干重 大问题的决定). The document delineated the general roadmap for future Chinese reforms in broad strokes. The fields involved in quanmian shenhua gaige (全面深 化改革, ‘comprehensively deepening reforms’), how such reforms were to be implemented, and what results the future would bring became the focus of public

Quanmian shenhua gaige ( , ‘comprehensively deepening reforms’) 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

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Figure 20.2: Usage of quanmian shenhua gaige (全面深化改革, ‘comprehensively deepening reforms’) in 2012–2013.

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speculation and social interest from all sides. In late December 2013, the Leading Group for “Comprehensively Deepening Reforms” was established, and began taking steps and laying plans to initiate, promote and implement quanmian shenhua gaige (全面深化改革, ‘comprehensively deepening reforms’) (refer to Figure 20.2).

1.3 Sinuodeng (斯诺登, ‘Snowden’) In June 2013, the global shock of Lengjing men (棱镜门, ‘PRISM-gate’) made Edward Snowden into a news-maker drawing worldwide attention, and the staggering information which he subsequently revealed with regards to the Tempora surveillance program of the United Kingdom and other areas sent no small reverberations around the world. For the general public, such incidents eventually fade away, but the actions taken by Snowden in the manner of a knight-errant served as a warning for us regarding the individualistic mindset of democracy and freedom (refer to Figure 20.3).

Sinuodeng ( 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

, ‘Snowden’)

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Figure 20.3: Usage of Sinuodeng (斯诺登, ‘Snowden’) in 2012–2013.

1.4 Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘China dream’) Following in the footsteps of meng (梦, ‘dream’), the 2012 Chinese character of the year, there was no doubt that the Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘China dream’), which serves as the repository for the boundless hopes and expectations of the Chinese people, would become a popular phrase in the year 2013. In his inaugural speech in March 2013, President Xi Jinping (习近平) made nine references to the “China dream,” a concept which had been proposed in the report of the

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18th National Congress, thus firmly cementing it in the minds of the millions of sons and daughters of China. The “China dream” is an amalgam of many glorious ideals: at the national level, the “China dream” represents the dream of being a strong nation, the dream of being a wealthy nation, the dream of harmony, and so on. In different sectors, the “China dream” represents the dream of spaceflight, the dream of a strong military, the ecological dream, the soccer dream, the dream of the oceans, the dream of urbanization, and so on. For ordinary people, the “China dream” also represents the dream of living a peaceful life, the dream of becoming wealthy, the dream of reunion, the dream of health, and so on. These dreams all serve as a driving force and a direction for progress. The strong response generated by the “China dream” on all levels of society is an important reason for the upward trend in the phrase’s popularity (refer to Figure 20.4).

Zhongguo meng ( 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

, ‘China dream’)

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Figure 20.4: Usage of Zhongguo meng (中国梦, ‘China dream’) in 2012–2013.

1.5 Zimao qu (自贸区, ‘free trade zone’) As a weather vane for the new round of reforms, the “Shanghai Free Trade Zone” (上海自贸区) has attracted close attention from domestic and international media outlets since it was approved in late August 2013. The reports and discussions on the zimao qu (自贸区, ‘free trade zone’) reached their most intensive phase once it formally opened for operations in September 2013. Questions like what a free trade zone is, why free trade zones should be established, and how free trade zones affect ordinary citizens, as well as intelligence on the Shanghai Free Trade Zone itself, became focal points of attention by the media and the general public. As the concept of a “free trade zone” was popularized and the understanding of it was

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Zimao qu ( 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

, ‘free trade zone’)

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Figure 5: Usage of zimao qu (自贸区, ‘free trade zone’) in 2012–2013.

deepened, the term zimao qu (自贸区, ‘free trade zone’) gradually faded once more as a focal topic in public discourses (refer to Figure 20.5).

1.6 Fangkong shibie qu (防空识别区, ‘air defense identification zone’) In 2013, the territorial disputes between China, Japan and other neighboring countries continued to escalate: Diaoyu dao (钓鱼岛, ‘Diaoyu Islands’) and other such phrases have been prevalent for some time, but new incidents and sonorous

Fangkong shibi equ ( , ‘air defense identification zone’) 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

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Figure 20.6: Usage of fangkong shibie qu (防空识别区, ‘air defense identification zone’) in 2012–2013.

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names are better able to serve as a vehicle for public concern and hopes with respect to the national defense situation. China announced the establishment of the “East China Sea Air Defense Identification Zone” (东海防空识别区) in November 2013, and various domestic sectors successively announced their support. A strong backlash was seen from Japan, the United States and other countries, while several other nations adopted a “wait-and-see” attitude. For a period of time, the fangkong shibie qu (防空识别区, ‘air defense identification zone’) thus became a topic of passionate discussion which played on the nerves of all sides. The demarcation of the fangkong shibie qu (防空识别区, ‘air defense identification zone’) was a necessary measure for safeguarding national sovereignty, as well as a strategic breakthrough in the defense of maritime rights and interests (refer to Figure 20.6).

1.7 Mandela (曼德拉, ‘Mandela’) This name tugged at the heartstrings of people around the world throughout the year 2013. Nelson Mandela, the former President of South Africa, relied on his own thirst for freedom and his indomitable fighting spirit in unimaginably trying times to ultimately smash the barriers of racial apartheid in South Africa, thus becoming a household name around the world. In late June 2013, the news that Mandela was critically ill drew global attention: the popularity curve for the name Mandela (曼德拉, ‘Mandela’) shows a small hump in June and July, reflecting people’s concern and apprehensions regarding his illness. The passing of Nelson Mandela on December 5 was met with a tidal wave of remembrance and commemoration which swept across the entire world, and the popularity curve subsequently reached its peak. Mandela leaves behind the era that he shaped, and his spirit will be forever immortal (refer to Figure 20.7).

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

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, ‘Mandela’)

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Figure 20.7: Usage of Mandela (曼德拉, ‘Mandela’) in 2012–2013.

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1.8 Tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) In the contemporary age of omnimedia, the interactions between media outlets are like a magnetic field: as a case in point, the term tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) became popular in the online world before moving into the mainstream media. In September 2013, the phrase tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’), which had lain dormant for many years and which bears the mark of the democratic revolution, heated up on Weibo before rapidly spreading to every corner of the mainstream media and social life. The new tower for the People’s Daily (人民日报) was labeled as tuhao jin (土豪金, ‘the local tyrant’s gold’), while the release of the iPhone 5S provided an accessory for tuhao jin (土豪金, ‘the local tyrant’s gold’). The term tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) even flared when Guangzhou Evergrande Football Club won the league championship, with many media outlets dubbing it the victory of the “local tyrant.” This term, which was originally quite derogatory, has now taken on an aspect of dark humor, as many of the groups now labeled as tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrants’) are the subject of feelings of admiration and envy to the point of hatred. It is a product of the public’s revelry in language, while also reflecting certain unresolved class conflicts in contemporary society (refer to Figure 20.8).

Tuhao ( 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

, ‘local tyrant’)

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Figure 20.8: Usage of tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) in 2012–2013.

1.9 Wumai (雾霾, ‘haze’) At the start of 2013, wumai (雾霾, ‘haze’) became the most discussed topic on everyone’s lips, as the widespread haze which blanketed Beijing and several other regions continuously for nearly one month gave rise to grave concerns. Many people were beset by fear in the face of the wumai (雾霾, ‘haze’), while some stepped forward to make strong appeals for governance, and others

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engaged in satirical wordplay, producing slogans such as houde zai wu (厚德载雾, ‘embrace the haze with virtue and tolerance’) and ziqiang bu xi (自强不吸, ‘strive for self-improvement without breathing’).4 In late 2013, with the onset of winter, China experienced its most widespread “haze,” again eliciting concern from all of society: classes were suspended at elementary and middle schools, airplanes were grounded, and so on. “Haze” governance and response measures were placed on the agenda without a moment’s delay. Various localities successively introduced emergency response plans for heavy pollution days, haze early warning systems, and so on. In 2013, the average number of haze days nationwide was the most in the last half century, and how to approach comprehensive governance has already become the “haze” which brooks no delay (refer to Figure 20.9).5

Wumai ( 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

, ‘haze’)

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Figure 20.9: Usage of wumai (雾霾, ‘haze’) in 2012–2013.

1.10 Chang’e san hao (嫦娥三号, ‘Chang’e 3ʹ) Major scientific and technological achievements are often the major driving force giving rise to popular phrases. In late November 2013, China announced the imminent launch of its first lunar lander, Chang’e san hao (嫦娥三号, ‘Chang’e 3ʹ), which also carried a lunar rover,: this immediately elicited fervent interest from the media and the public. On December 2, Chang’e san hao (嫦娥三号, ‘Chang’e 3ʹ)

4 Translator’s note: Houde zai wu (厚德载雾, ‘embrace the haze with virtue and tolerance’) is a play on the slogan houde zai wu (厚德载物, ‘embrace everything with virtue and tolerance’), while ziqiang bu xi (自强不吸, ‘strive for self-improvement without breathing’) is a play on ziqiang bu xi (自强不息, ‘strive for self-improvement without ceasing’). 5 Translator’s note: “‘Haze’ which brooks no delay” (当‘雾’之急 dang ‘wu’ zhi ji) is a play on the phrase “matter which brooks no delay” (当务之急 dang wu zhi ji).

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launched from the Xichang (西昌) Satellite Launch Center, and successfully achieved a soft landing, commencing its exploratory tour. The Chang’e san hao (嫦 娥三号, ‘Chang’e 3ʹ) lander involved breakthroughs on many key technologies, and set many “firsts” in the history of humanity’s moon landings. She bore heavy responsibilities on her shoulders, and laid the foundation for the next step of achieving China’s plans for a crewed moon landing (refer to Figure 20.10).

Chang’e san hao ( 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

, ‘Chang’e 3’)

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Figure 20.10: Usage of Chang’e san hao (嫦娥三号, ‘Chang’e 3ʹ) in 2012–2013.

2 Categorizing popular phrases—simple vignettes of life in different spheres The “annual popular phrases in the media” (年度媒体流行语) automatically extracted from large-scale corpuses include more than one hundred entries every year: based on their content, these phrases are divided into different spheres, including politics, the economy, science and technology, entertainment, social life, and so on. This division by sector facilitates understanding, analysis and dissemination of popular phrases, while also better exercising the role of popular phrases in providing categorized vignettes of life in different spheres.

2.1 Domestic current politics category Dang de qunzhong luxian jiaoyu shijian huodong (党的群众路线教育实践活动, ‘“Party’s mass line education and practice movement’), Diaoyu dao (钓鱼岛, ‘Diaoyu Islands’), dang nei fagui (党内法规, ‘internal party regulations’), zhuanti minzhu shenghuo hui (专题 民主生活会, ‘special democratic life meeting’), Baxiang guiding (八项规定, ‘Eight-Point

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Regulation’), xinxing chengzhenhua (新型城镇化, ‘new-style urbanization’), chegai (车改, ‘vehicle reform’), zhoubian waijiao (周边外交, ‘neighboring diplomacy’), zheng sifeng (正 ‘四风’, ‘rectification of the four styles’), laohu cangying yiqi da (老虎苍蝇一起打, ‘striking both tigers and flies’)

Among the top ten popular phrases, Dang de qunzhong luxian jiaoyu shijian huodong (党的群众路线教育实践活动, ‘“Party’s mass line education and practice movement’), dang nei fagui (党内法规, ‘internal party regulations’), zhuanti minzhu shenghuo hui (专题民主生活会, ‘special democratic life meeting’), Baxiang guiding (八项规定, ‘Eight-Point Regulation’), chegai (车改, ‘vehicle reform’), zheng sifeng (正 ‘四风’, ‘rectification of the four styles’) and so on serve as a concentrated expression of the industrious and honest Party-government style of 2013. Following the Central Committee’s call for an anti-corruption campaign laohu cangying yiqi da (老虎苍蝇一起打, ‘striking both tigers and flies’), corrupt officials high and low were successively eliminated; and as the dispute over the Diaoyu dao (钓鱼岛, ‘Diaoyu Islands’) continued to escalate in 2013, zhoubian waijiao (周边外交, ‘neighboring diplomacy’) rapidly gained in dynamism as the diplomatic approach of China’s new generation of leaders.

2.2 International current politics category Xuliya wenti (叙利亚问题, ‘Syria problem’), Taifeng ‘Haiyan’ (台风‘海燕’, ‘Typhoon Haiyan’), Boshidun baozha an (波士顿爆炸案, ‘Boston bombing’), Saqie’er furen shishi (撒 切尔夫人逝世, ‘death of Madame Thatcher’), Mei zhengfu guanmen (美政府关门, ‘US government shutdown’), Hanya kongnan (韩亚空难, ‘Asiana Airlines disaster’), Ditelü pochan (底特律破产, ‘Detroit bankruptcy’), Mu’erxi xiatai (穆尔西下台, ‘Morsi’s fall from power’), Kaicheng shijian (开城事件, ‘Kaesong Incident’), Taiguo jushi (泰国局势, ‘Thai situation’)

On the global stage, events are constantly in flux, and international situations emerge one after another: the Xuliya wenti (叙利亚问题, ‘Syria problem’) has again drawn attention from all sides, and the chemical weapons crisis has a long and hard road ahead; the Philippines was devastated by Haiyan (海燕, ‘Haiyan’), the strongest typhoon in history, and the international community stepped forward to provide aid; the shock of the Boshidun baozha an (波士顿爆 炸案, ‘Boston bombing’) still lingers, while the Hanya kongnan (韩亚空难, ‘Asiana Airlines disaster’) left us heartbroken; since the Kaicheng shijian (开城 事件, ‘Kaesong Incident’), the North Korea – South Korea situation has gradually escalated; with Mu’erxi xiatai (穆尔西下台, ‘Morsi’s fall from power’), Egyptian society is facing a new round of upheaval; the Mei zhengfu guanmen (美政府关门, ‘US government shutdown’) disrupted healthcare reforms and

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threw foreign trade into chaos; the Ditelü pochan (底特律破产, ‘Detroit bankruptcy’) caused an uproar, as the “Motor City” becomes obsolete; the chaos of the Taiguo jushi (泰国局势, ‘Thai situation’) has led to endless clashes between the red-shirts, yellow-shirts, and the military; and despite the Saqie’er furen shishi (撒切尔夫人逝世, ‘death of Madame Thatcher’), the legend of this “Iron Lady” will reverberate through history.

2.3 Economy category Minying yinhang (民营银行, ‘private bank’), yichan shui (遗产税, ‘inheritance tax’), Hulianwang jinrong (互联网金融, ‘Internet finance’), bite bi (比特币, ‘Bitcoin’), qianhuang (钱荒, ‘money shortage’), Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’), xinxi xiaofei (信息消 费, ‘information consumption’), Yu’e bao (余额宝, ‘Yu’eBao’), zizhu xing shangpin fang (自 住型商品房, ‘owner-occupied commercial housing’), cunkuan shui (存款税, ‘deposit tax’)

Bite bi (比特币, ‘Bitcoin’) and Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’) provide glimpses of the investment and finance environment in 2013, and minying yinhang (民营银行, ‘private bank’), Hulianwang jinrong (互联网金融, ‘Internet finance’), and xinxi xiaofei (信息消费, ‘information consumption’) reflect the latest developments in the economic sphere this year, while qianhuang (钱荒, ‘money shortage’), cunkuan shui (存款税, ‘deposit tax’) and Yu’e bao (余额宝, ‘Yu’eBao’) are a faithful record of several extreme incidents which took place in the economic sphere.

2.4 Science and technology category Shen shi (神十, ‘Shenzhou 10’), “4G” (4th-generation mobile communications technology), 3D dayin (3D 打印, ‘3D printing’), wurenji (无人机, ‘drone’), Lüxingzhe 1 hao (旅行者 1 号, ‘Voyager 1’), Yun-20 (运-20, ‘Y-20’), Tianhe er hao (天河二号, ‘Tianhe-2’), keran bing (可燃冰, ‘flammable ice’), Yutu hao (玉兔号, ‘Yutu’), shimoxi (石墨烯, ‘graphene’)

Shen shi (神十, ‘Shenzhou 10ʹ), Yun-20 (运-20, ‘Y-20ʹ), Tianhe er hao (天河二号, ‘Tianhe-2ʹ) and so on were all major achievements for China in the fields of spaceflight, national defense, and information science and technology, while “4G,” keran bing (可燃冰, ‘flammable ice’), and shimoxi (石墨烯, ‘graphene’) are upstarts in the fields of applying new technologies, new surveying, and new materials; although 3D dayin (3D 打印, ‘3D printing’) and Lüxingzhe 1 hao (旅行者 1 号, ‘Voyager 1ʹ) are somewhat set apart from ordinary life, they have

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already become hot topics; and as China’s first lunar rover, Yutu hao (玉兔号, ‘Yutu’) is known by young and old, and from moment to moment, people are interested in her every move in outer space.

2.5 Education category Taikong shouke (太空授课, ‘lessons from space’), Hanzi tingxie dahui (汉字听写大会, ‘Chinese Character Dictation Contest’), gaokao gaige (高考改革 college entrance exam reforms), zuimei xiaozhang (最美校长, ‘prettiest principal’), Tongyong guifan Hanzi biao (通 用规范汉字表, ‘Table of General Standard Chinese Characters’), youxue tuan (游学团, ‘study tour group’), jifen ruxue (积分入学, ‘enrollment by points’), jianfu shitiao (减负十 条, ‘Ten Regulations for Alleviating Burdens’), muke (慕课, ‘MOOC’), daxue zhangcheng (大学章程, ‘university charter’)

Taikong shouke (太空授课, ‘lessons from space’) kindled the dream of outer space in countless children; the Hanzi tingxie dahui (汉字听写大会, ‘Chinese Character Dictation Contest’) spelled out the edifying message of traditional culture, displaying the inexhaustible charm of Chinese characters; with the gaokao gaige (高考 改革 college entrance exam reforms), the situation of one test determining one’s entire life became history; the publication of the Tongyong guifan Hanzi biao (通用 规范汉字表, ‘Table of General Standard Chinese Characters’) explained the standards for Chinese characters in the Information Age, as well as their new connotations of their cultural inheritance; and jifen ruxue (积分入学, ‘enrollment by points’) raised the question of whether it could truly help achieve equality in education.6 The jianfu shitiao (减负十条, ‘Ten Regulations for Alleviating Burdens’) are a stopgap measure, but it is still necessary to resolve the roots of the problem; muke (慕课, ‘MOOC’) opened a new era for the sharing of educational resources; and the formulation of daxue zhangcheng (大学章程, ‘university charters’) has major significance for the positive development of institutions of higher education.

2.6 Culture and sports category Lüyou fa (旅游法, ‘Tourism Law’), da huang ya (大黄鸭, ‘Rubber Duck’), hengda duoguan (恒大夺冠, ‘Evergrande championship victory’), zuimei xiangcun (最美乡村, ‘prettiest

6 Translator’s note: Jifen ruxue (积分入学, ‘enrollment by points’) is a school enrollment system for the children of migrant workers.

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village’), wangluo wenxue (网络文学, ‘electronic literature’), Kamaqiao (卡马乔, ‘Camacho’), Sun Yang (孙杨, ‘Sun Yang’), yuan bo hui (园博会, ‘garden expo’), wenming chuyou (文明出游, ‘civilized tourism’), Tianshan (天山, ‘Tianshan Mountains’), Hani titian (哈尼梯田, ‘Hani Rice Terraces’), zhusuan shenyi (珠算申遗, ‘the abacus is listed as a heritage’)

2013 witnessed the issuance and implementation of the Lüyou fa (旅游法, ‘Tourism Law’), while wenming chuyou (文明出游, ‘civilized tourism’) followed on the heels of daoci yiyou (到此一游, ‘I was here’) in the earlier half of the year, as the state, society and the public unanimously called for moral standards and behavioral standards. The da huang ya (大黄鸭, ‘Rubber Duck’) began its fantastic drifting journey, earning the public’s affection wherever it went; hengda duoguan (恒大夺冠, ‘Evergrande championship victory’) finally gave a little encouragement to Chinese soccer fans; public ratings of the zuimei xiangcun (最美乡村, ‘prettiest village’) appeared on the stage; wangluo wenxue (网络文学, ‘electronic literature’) saw flourishing development, entering the stage of “professional” writing; Kamaqiao (卡马乔, ‘Camacho’) was relieved of his position and sought to claim damages, suggesting that the phenomenon of having foreign coaches deserves reconsideration; Sun Yang (孙杨, ‘Sun Yang’) produced remarkable achievements and obvious errors in equal measure, both of which made him the most talked-about athlete in the media; the yuan bohui (园博会, ‘garden expo’) dressed up the city of Beijing; and the Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang, Hani Rice Terraces and the abacus were successfully shenyi (申遗, ‘listed as a heritage’), respectively becoming a World Heritage Site, World Cultural Heritage, and World Intangible Cultural Heritage.

2.7 Entertainment category Xiao shidai (小时代, ‘tiny times’), xiao huoban (小伙伴, ‘little companions’), nü hanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’), Baba qu nar (爸爸去哪儿, ‘Where are we going, dad?’), feiji dazhan (飞机大战, ‘plane wars’), gaoduan daqi shang dangci (高端大气上档次, ‘luxurious, grand, upgraded’), shang toutiao (上头条, ‘make the headlines’), wuren yuebing (五仁 月饼, ‘moon-cake with five-nut filling’), wangluo xin chengyu (网络新成语, ‘new online idioms’), xiong haizi (熊孩子, ‘maverick child’)

In 2013, Xiao shidai (小时代, ‘tiny times’) described the most beautiful moments in each person’s life, worth recollecting together with the xiao huoban (小伙伴, ‘little companions’) and jointly striving for; nü hanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girls’) roared into view, while “he-men” engaged in some soul-searching; Baba qu nar

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(爸爸去哪儿, ‘Where are we going, dad?’) triggered a fever over the parentchild relationship, and it turned out that not all children are xiong haizi (熊孩 子, ‘maverick children’); feiji dazhan (飞机大战, ‘plane wars’) certainly was not a gaoduan daqi shang dangci (高端大气上档次, ‘luxurious, grand, upgraded’) game, but it attracted many players. Everyone helped Wang Feng (汪峰) shang toutiao (上头条, ‘make the headlines’), as affairs in entertainment circles are always able to attract the public’s gaze; but wuren yuebing (五仁月饼, ‘moon-cakes with five-nut filling’) were driven out of moon-cake circles during the joyous time of the Mid-Autumn Festival. Xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’), ren jian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’), buming jueli (不明觉厉, ‘don’t understand, but think it’s great’) and other wangluo xin chengyu (网络新成语, ‘new online idioms’) presented a splendid sight this year, but will they cause scientists to be shi dong ran ju (十动然拒, ‘extremely moved, then rejection’)?

2.8 Social life category Shuang shi yi (双十一, ‘November 11’), H7N9 qin liugan (H7N9 禽流感, ‘H7N9 bird flu’), zhuan jiyin (转基因, ‘genetic modification’), Zheng Yilong (郑益龙, ‘Zheng Yilong’), guangpan xingdong (光盘行动, ‘Clean Your Plate campaign’), shehui fuyang fei (社会抚养费, ‘social support fee’), guangchang wu (广场舞, ‘plaza dancing’), erwei ma (二维码, ‘2D barcode’), chaoxi chedao (潮汐车道, ‘reversible lane’), dache ruanjian (打车软件, ‘taxihailing software’)

The top ten popular phrases in the social life category provide a simple snapshot of the social lives of ordinary people: ubiquitous erwei ma (二维码, ‘2D barcodes’) became the intimate companions of mobile phones; the negative impact of H7N9 qin liugan (H7N9 禽流感, ‘H7N9 bird flu’), zhuan jiyin (转基因, ‘genetic modification’), and so on waxed and waned; the guangchang wu (广场舞, ‘plaza dancing’) of Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese damas’) repeated incited controversies, while incidents involving celebrities exceeding the birth rate quota and other events caused the shehui fuyang fei (社会抚养费, ‘social support fee’) to rise to the surface; the guangpan xingdong (光盘行动, ‘Clean Your Plate campaign’) brought positive energy to life, while chaoxi chedao (潮 汐车道, ‘reversible lanes’) and dache ruanjian (打车软件, ‘taxi-hailing software’) provided new shortcuts in the day-to-day lives of ordinary people; Shuang shi yi (双十一, ‘November 11ʹ) was transformed from a “Singles’ Day” for self-amusement and pleasure into a carnival of excited e-shopping, inescapably becoming a special day for the online shopping crowd. The details big and

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small which had an impact on us and quietly changed our lives are all placed on display here one by one.

2.9 Special topic of the people’s livelihoods Yifang yanglao (以房养老, ‘using a house as a pension’), qiche san bao (汽车三包, ‘three guarantees for automobiles’), kuandai Zhongguo (宽带中国, ‘Broadband China’), chang huijia kankan (常回家看看, ‘return home often to take a look’), penghu qu gaizao (棚户区改造, ‘shantytown renovation’), ‘sanjiu’ gaizao (‘三旧’ 改造, ‘renovation of the Three Olds’), dingzhi gongjiao (定制公交, ‘customized public transport’), Qingjie kongqi xingdong jihua (清洁空气行动计划, ‘Clean Air Action Plan’), xin xiao fa (新消法, ‘new consumer law’), Qiying dao (弃婴岛, ‘Foundling Island’) The qiche san bao (汽车三包, ‘three guarantees for automobiles’) guaranteed consumers’ interests; kuandai Zhongguo (宽带中国, ‘Broadband China’) will promote the mutual development of the people’s livelihoods and the economy; chang huijia kankan (常回家看看, ‘return home often to take a look’) and penghu qu gaizao (棚户区改造, ‘shantytown renovation’) served as an objective record of those warm moments; dingzhi gongjiao (定制公交, ‘customized public transport’) is an effort to provide new fast lanes for jammed traffic, which will undoubtedly bring greater convenience to everyone’s commute; the Qingjie kongqi xingdong jihua (清洁空气行动计划, ‘Clean Air Action Plan’) is a pledge to drive away the haze, while the xin xiao fa (新消法, ‘new consumer law’) lays the legal foundation for comprehensively building a consumer-friendly society; the establishment of Qiying dao (弃婴岛, ‘Foundling Island’) was quite controversial, but it does embody the principles of revering life and prioritizing children’s interests. The popular phrases in Chinese media in the year 2013 serve as an inventory of events big and small in the media that year, and a record of China and the world amidst tumultuous change in 100 succinct phrases. In the form of the ten big categories, they jointly take the temperature of the era, facing toward the world, sticking close to life, and outlining a scroll of the era, with distinctive words and highlighted bright points. Here, you can read and understand China and the world in the media.

Li Bo (李波) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

21 Grassroots diversity within Internet slang in 2013 Internet slang is the crystallization of netizens’ wisdom, as well as a direct and effective vehicle for us to understand the online ecosystem and even the social ecosystem. The “Top 10 Internet Slang Terms” (十大网络用语) of 2013 jointly published by the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, Commercial Press, and several other organizations, used the state of online language as its primary basis, collecting data from representative domestic websites with a high level of current activity and large user communities with a certain degree of influence,1 combined with language usage, popularity and other indicators, to comb through and extensively analyze popular Internet language in the year 2013, to reveal the social and cultural factors which serve as the backdrop to popular Internet phrases.

1 Top ten Internet slang terms Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’), gaoduan daqi shang dangci (高端大气上档次, ‘luxurious, grand, upgraded’), Baba qu nar (爸爸去哪儿, ‘Where are we going, dad?’), xiao huobanmen dou jingdai le (小伙伴们都惊呆了, ‘friends were all amazed’), dai wo changfa ji yao (待我长发及腰, ‘once my long hair reaches my waist’), xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’), nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) / tujin (土金, ‘local nouveau riche’), tanshang da shi le (摊上大事了, ‘stirred up trouble’), zhang zishi (涨姿势, ‘gaining experience’)

These ten frequently heard and oft-repeated Internet slang terms represent the most distinctive characteristics of online language usage in the year 2013, while also displaying the focal points of online popular opinion.

1 The data for this paper is collected from posts on the Tianya (天涯) online forum throughout the year 2013; the original file size was approximately 27 GB, containing 77,000 posts and approximately 6.0 billion characters. The website of the Tianya forum can be visited at: http:// www.tianya.cn. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-021

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1.1 Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’) It is a name of a community. This community represents a subset of Chinese consumers today who are keenly aware of financial issues and have fervent demand for investment, but no professional qualifications. In April 2013, the international price of gold experienced a shocking slump, and a group of Chinese housewives primarily composed of middle-aged women or dama (大妈, ‘dama’) rushed to purchase gold: the gold sales counters in many cities were “swept clean,” thus causing the international price of gold to set its highest single-day increase in 2013. These actions spurred the rise of the term Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’), which surged in popularity online beginning in April, reaching its highest level of usage in May (Figure 21.1).

Zhongguo dama (

, ‘Chinese dama’)

Normalized usage rate (*10–6)

14 12 10 8 6 4 2

0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2013 Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 21.1: Usage of Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’) in 2012–2013.

1.2 Gaoduan daqi shang dangci (高端大气上档次, ‘luxurious, grand, upgraded’) This term first emerged in a TV drama, and is often abbreviated as gao da shang (高大上, ‘luxurious, grand, upgraded’). In 2013, it frequently appeared in various kinds of online posts and entertainment programs, describing highgrade, high-class things; it is occasionally also used satirically, and its counterparts include phrases such as didiao shehua you neihan (低调奢华有内涵, ‘low-key sumptuous overtones). It remained in neutral for the first half of the year before heating up in the summer; near the end of the year, the term’s

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usage rate quickly surged upward, maintaining a relatively high usage rate throughout October and November (Figure 21.2). This phenomenon also applies to the majority of the popular Internet phrases described below: China’s traditional holiday and festival system leads to a boom in cultural activity at the end of the year, and usage rates for popular Internet phrases also tend toward the high side near the end of the year.

Gaoduan daqi shang dangci (

, ‘luxurious, grand, upgraded’)

Normalized usage rate (*10–6)

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Jan. 2012 Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Jan. 2013 Apr.

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Figure 21.2: Usage of gaoduan daqi shang dangci (高端大气上档次, ‘luxurious, grand, upgraded’) in 2012–2013.

1.3 Baba qu nar (爸爸去哪儿, ‘Where Are We Going, Dad?’) This phrase is the title of a reality show about parent-child interactions on Hunan (湖南) Television in 2013, patterned after the South Korean show Dad! Where Are We Going? (아빠! 어디가?) on MBC. In the show, celebrity fathers and their children went together to a remote village or other difficult environment to survive for several days, getting along together in the course of their journey and experiences. In front of the high-definition camera, ordinary parent-child activities became a spectacle and entertainment. After the television station had plundered its celebrity resources, it began plundering and exploiting xing erdai (星二代, ‘second-generation celebrities’) who could similarly bring in high viewership. The program began broadcasting in October: thereafter, the phrase Baba qu nar (爸爸去哪儿, ‘Where are we going, dad?’) rapidly attracted widespread attention from society, and its usage rate experienced a “blowout” (Figure 21.3).

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, ‘Where are we going, dad?’)

Baba qu nar ( Normalized usage rate (*10–6)

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

0 Jan. 2012

Apr.

Jul.

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Jan. 2013

Apr.

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Figure 21.3: Usage of Baba qu nar (爸爸去哪儿, ‘Where are we going, dad?’) in 2012–2013.

1.4 Xiao huobanmen dou jingdai le (小伙伴们都惊呆了, ‘friends were all amazed’) In June 2013, a screenshot from an elementary school student’s essay describing the Dragon Boat Festival went viral on the Internet, and the phrase wo he xiao huobanmen dou jingdai le (我和小伙伴们都惊呆了, ‘my friends and I were all amazed’) from the essay quickly spread on the Weibo platform, becoming a hot topic in a very short period of time. “My friends and I were all amazed” or “friends were all amazed” was frequently used to express astonishment or sarcasm. As time passed, the phrase’s usage rate experienced a gradually declining trend, and it could be said to have experienced a swift surge with insufficient staying power (Figure 21.4).

1.5 Dai wo changfa ji yao (待我长发及腰, ‘once my hair reaches my waist’) As verified by netizens, this phrase stems from a love story by Ye Mi (叶迷), Ten-Mile Red Dowry (十里红妆): “Once my long hair reaches my waist, a young man shall marry me. Once your black hair is neatly coiled, your red dowry shall extend for ten miles, as you desire.” It tells a moving love story, and netizens used the opportunity to exercise their creativity in coining phrases: “Once my long hair reaches my waist, the birthday gifts will have fattened your waist”;

21 Grassroots diversity within Internet slang in 2013

Normalized usage rate (*10–6)

Xiao huobanmen dou jingdai le ( 18

277

, ‘friends were all amazed’)

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Jan. 2012

Apr.

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Oct.

Jan. 2013

Apr.

Jul.

Oct.

Figure 21.4: Usage of xiao huobanmen dou jingdai le (小伙伴们都惊呆了, ‘friends were all amazed’) in 2012–2013.

Dai wo changfa ji yao (

, ‘once my hair reaches my waist’)

Normalized usage rate (*10–6)

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Jan. 2012

Apr.

Jul.

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Apr.

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Figure 21.5: Usage of dai wo changfa ji yao (待我长发及腰, ‘once my hair reaches my waist’) in 2012–2013.

“Once my long hair reaches my waist, it can be used to mop the floor”. . ..The uproariously funny phrases imbued dai wo changfa ji yao (待我长发及腰, ‘once my hair reaches my waist’) with mockery and laughter, banishing the tender appeal and romantic sentiments of the original work (Figure 21.5).

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1.6 Xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’) This is an abridged form of the phrases xichu wangwai (喜出望外, ‘great exhilaration’), dakuai renxin (大快人心, ‘general delight’), putian tongqing (普天同庆, ‘universal jubilation’), and benzou xianggao (奔走相告, ‘running around telling everyone’). The original, slightly hyperbolic phrase often appears in a stylized narrative format in journalistic writing, describing an event inspiring great joy, which everyone must share and tell each other about. In its frequent usage by netizens today, it often carries the significance of gloating at the misfortunes of others. The phrase came into vogue at the beginning of the year, and maintained a relatively high level of usage throughout the year, with fairly strong vitality (Figure 21.6).

Normalized usage rate (*10–6)

Xida puben ( 14

, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’)

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Jan. 2012

Apr.

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Figure 21.6: Usage of xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’) in 2012–2013.

1.7 Nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’) Nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’) is used as a label for women whose behavior and personality tend toward the masculine side. In the workplace, nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girls’) eschew coquettishness and show expansive, casual personalities; they get along well with the opposite sex, referring to men as their “brothers”; their speech is “dirty,” and they have a strong fighting spirit. In life, nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girls’) dislike makeup; they might not use hair dryers, instead just wringing their hair dry; and they are naturals in playing massive games. With their masculine spirit of independence, strength and forthrightness, they

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are seen as having unfeminine qualities, but in contemporary society, nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girls’) are gradually becoming a normal state of femininity. To a certain extent, this explains why the phrase maintained a high level of usage throughout the year 2013 (Figure 21.7).

Nühanzi (

, ‘tough girl’)

Normalized usage rate (*10–6)

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Jan. 2012

Apr.

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Figure 21.7: Usage of nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’) in 2012–2013.

1.8 Tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) / tujin (土金, ‘local nouveau riche’) Tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) originally referred to evildoers who relied on their wealth and power to tyrannize the countryside: well-known to the Chinese people, they were associated with the efforts to “strike down local tyrants and divide up farmland” during the land reforms and the revolutionary period. On the Internet, tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) refers to people who have knowledge but no culture, wealth but no spirit, success but no pursuits, extravagance but no substance, an external appearance with no soul. End-of-year consumer behavior has become more frequent among the Chinese people, and the phenomenon of nearby tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrants’) has also become increasingly common; the phrase saw a significant upwelling in interest at the end of the year (Figure 21.8).

1.9 Tanshang da shi le (摊上大事了, ‘stirred up trouble’) The skit “You Stirred Up Trouble” (你摊上事儿了) in the Spring Festival Gala for the Year of the Snake drew a lot of laughs, causing this phrase to rapidly become

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Tuhao (

, ‘local tyrant’)

Normalized usage rate (*10–6)

12 10 8 6 4 2

0 Jan. 2012

Apr.

Jul.

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Figure 21.8: Usage of tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) in 2012–2013.

popular slang: beginning in February, its usage leapt upward, reaching its zenith for the entire year (Figure 21.9). The phrase tanshang da shi le (摊上大事了, ‘stirred up trouble’) naturally does not involve anything good, or happy, or joyous, instead referring to someone causing trouble. If someone breaks the law, violates discipline, and commits all kinds of outrages, sooner or later they will have tanshang da shi le (摊上大事了, ‘stirred up trouble’). By criticizing what must be criticized, punishing what must be punished, arresting those who must be arrested, and convicting those who must be convicted, the people who make shir (事儿, ‘trouble’) are taught the lesson they deserve.

Tanshang da shi le (

, ‘stirred up trouble’)

Normalized usage rate (*10–6)

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Jan. 2012

Apr.

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Figure 21.9: Usage of tanshang da shi le (摊上大事了, ‘stirred up trouble’) in 2012–2013.

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1.10 Zhang zishi (涨姿势, ‘gaining experience’) A near homophone to zhang zhishi (长知识, ‘growing in knowledge’), this phrase has the significance of increasing one’s experience and expanding one’s horizons. Initially, zhang zishi (涨姿势, ‘gaining experience’) was only used on seeing something novel or unusual, and often referred to its bad or negative aspects, expressing a tone of astonishment, with dissemination on a small scale among netizens. The phrase later moved into general use to describe an increase in knowledge or as a moderate exaggeration of one’s feelings of astonishment. The usage of the phrase experienced a gradual rise throughout the year 2013, indicating that netizens were increasingly zhang zishi (涨姿势, ‘gaining experience’) on the Internet (Figure 21.10).

Zhang zishi (

, ‘gaining experience’)

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8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Figure 21.10: Usage of zhang zishi (涨姿势, ‘gaining experience’) in 2012–2013.

2 Grassroots diversity within popular Internet slang On the surface, popular Internet phrases display netizens’ creativity in the use of language, but they also reflect a deeper significance which goes far beyond the linguistic phenomenon itself. Analyzing the reasons behind the formation of Internet slang can vividly reveal the concerns and interests of ordinary people in social life, presenting grassroots diversity in a simple and clear form.

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2.1 Chasing stars and chasing drama Baba qu nar (爸爸去哪儿, ‘Where are we going, dad?’), chenqie zuo bu dao (臣妾做不到, ‘this concubine cannot do it’), jian feizao (捡肥皂, ‘pick up the soap’), tangzhe ye zhong qiang (躺着也中枪, ‘get shot even when lying down’), gaoduan daqi shang dangci (高端大 气上档次, ‘luxurious, grand, upgraded’), tanshang da shi le (摊上大事了, ‘stirred up trouble’), wo shi geshou (我是歌手, ‘I am a singer’), zhongjiang shiqu de qingchun (终将逝去的 青春, ‘so young’), qiang toutiao (抢头条, ‘snatch the headlines’)

Many of the phrases in this category are closely related to movies and television programs. As a program on parent-child interactions, Where are we going, dad? (爸爸去哪儿) became a household word not long after it began broadcasting in 2013. The innocent purity of the celebrity children and their real-life journeys and experiences in front of the camera brought infinite joy to audiences. The line chenqie zuo bu dao a (臣妾做不到啊, ‘this concubine cannot do it’) spoken by the empress in the popular TV drama Empresses in the Palace (后宫甄嬛传) drew on the vivid expression and tragic image of the actress Ada Choi Siu Fun (蔡少芬) to swiftly go viral online, becoming the subject of widespread ridicule among netizens. Jian feizao (捡肥皂, ‘pick up the soap’), tangzhe ye zhong qiang (躺着也中枪, ‘get shot even when lying down’), and gaoduan daqi shang dangci (高端大气上档次, ‘luxurious, grand, upgraded’) all originated from movies and television, but quickly moved into the day-to-day lives of the public. Due to their original creativity, both I am a singer (我是歌手) and so young (终将逝去 的青春) attracted the gaze of thousands upon thousands of people; while incidents which qiang toutiao (抢头条, ‘snatch the headlines’) allow countless silently lurking netizens to personally take part in events involving celebrities in the entertainment world.

2.2 Watching and ridiculing Xue Xi fensi tuan (学习粉丝团, ‘Xi Study Fan Group’), jie diqi (接地气, ‘locally grounded’), Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’), cha shuibiao (查水表, ‘check the water meter’)

Most of the phrases in this category are associated with current politics and news. The Xue Xi fensi tuan (学习粉丝团, ‘Xi Study Fan Group’) amply reflects the public’s interest in the country’s leaders, and their concern about China’s current state and future development; the country’s leaders also seek to live up to expectations by being extremely jie diqi (接地气, ‘locally grounded’) in their words and deeds. The Zhongguo dama (中国大妈, ‘Chinese dama’) phenomenon

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revealed the keen awareness of financial matters among certain groups in our country, but also allowed us to witness the state of me-tooism among a subset of people who have demand for investment but no professional qualifications. Cha shuibiao (查水表, ‘check the water meter’) is a calmly humorous format which reflects netizens’ pressing need to establish a harmonious online environment. Naocan fen (脑残粉, ‘braindead fans’), lücha biao (绿茶婊, ‘green tea bitch’), xueba (学霸, ‘scholar-tyrant’), xuezha (学渣, ‘last-minute student’), tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’) / tujin (土金, ‘local nouveau riche’), diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair’), bai fu mei (白富美, ‘white, rich, and beautiful’), nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’), naocan (脑残, ‘braindead’), shamate (杀马特, ‘smart / fashionable’), qipa (奇葩, ‘exotic’), ai qiong cuo (矮穷挫, ‘short, poor, and frustrated’), doubi (逗比, ‘hilariously stupid’), Zhongguo hao shiyou (中国好室友, ‘China’s best roommate’)

Phrases in this category are often related to grassroots images and labels. Does the lack of intellect among naocan fen (脑残粉, ‘braindead fans’) stem from their herd mentality or true fanaticism? A lücha biao (绿茶婊, ‘green tea bitch’) sells her youth for money, as the accelerated degeneration of society’s purity makes people sad; those striving to be the xueba (学霸, ‘scholar-tyrant’) are far from the xuezha (学渣, ‘last-minute students’), showing the extreme humor of self-deprecation and self-mockery by student cliques. Who doesn’t understand the anxieties of the ai qiong cuo (矮穷挫, ‘short, poor, and frustrated’) and the diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair’), whose greatest dream is to become friends with the tuhao (土豪, ‘local tyrant’). Post-90s kids do not want to be naocan (脑残, ‘braindead’) or qipa (奇葩, ‘exotic’), and they refuse to be shamate (杀马特, ‘smart / fashionable’): they are developing into a richly creative new generation. Even if you are not bai fu mei (白富美, ‘white, rich, and beautiful’) or a nühanzi (女汉子, ‘tough girl’), you can still hold up half the sky; and Zhongguo hao shiyou (中国好室友, ‘China’s best roommate’) embodies the idea of mutual help and mutual aid in collective life. Guitian (跪舔, ‘kneel and lick’), jiecao sui le yi di (节操碎了一地, ‘smashing moral integrity on the ground’), wo qunian mai le ge biao (我去年买了个表, ‘I bought a watch last year’), shang bu qi (伤不起, ‘can’t stand being hurt’), yaome ren (要么忍, ‘[put up or] shut up’), xiao huobanmen dou jingdai le (小伙伴们都惊呆了, ‘friends were all amazed’)

The majority of the phrases in this category are closely bound up with grassroots daily life. Guitian (跪舔, ‘kneel and lick’) is an hyperbolic phenomenon and an exaggerated movement demonstrating the lowly status of diaosi (屌丝, ‘dick hair’), which truly makes people sigh about jiecao sui le yi di (节操碎了一地, ‘smashing moral integrity on the ground’) or lament that they shang bu qi (伤不起, ‘can’t stand being hurt’). In grassroots life, they have gradually realized that one has to

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yaome ren, yaome hen (要么忍, 要么狠, ‘put up or shut up’): this has also become a principle for ordinary people on the bottom rungs of society to deal with things. The meaning of wo qunian mai le ge biao (我去年买了个表, ‘I bought a watch last year’) seems to be clear at first glance, but on closer inspection. . ..This also demonstrates the compromises that have been made between building a harmonious Internet culture and netizens venting their ego. Although xiao huobanmen dou jingdai le (小伙伴们都惊呆了, ‘friends were all amazed’) was an expression of amazement in an elementary school student’s essay, it spread like wildfire in the world of adults, going viral across the Internet.

2.3 Gossiping and coining phrases Zhang zishi (涨姿势, ‘gaining experience’), zhen zhuoji (真捉急, ‘really anxious’), wuxie (无鞋, ‘shoeless’), maoxian guanxi (毛线关系, ‘thread of a relationship’), ni hei wo (你黑我, ‘you’re teasing me’), ehuo (饿货, ‘hungry idiot’), hao ji you (好基友, ‘good gay friend’)

This phrases in this category primarily stem from various local dialects and non-standard Mandarin Chinese, or even pronunciations in English or other foreign languages. On seeing these Internet slang terms with seemingly miswritten characters, does everyone feel like they are zhang zishi (涨姿势, ‘gaining experience’)? When you first encounter these terms, you may find it rather difficult to guess the meaning literally, which might make you zhen zhuoji (真捉急, ‘really anxious’), but once you get the gist, you will often have a feeling of sudden realization. The term wuxie (无鞋, ‘shoeless’) humorously expresses the naiveté of a child, while maoxian guanxi (毛线关系, ‘thread of a relationship’) actually serves to indicate that there is no relationship at all. Doesn’t ehuo (饿货, ‘hungry idiot’) demonstrate the delight of erhuo (二货, ‘second-hand goods’)? Hao ji you (好基友, ‘good gay friend’) is an expression of expectations regarding same-sex friendship, placing both love and friendship in the limelight. Dai wo changfa ji yao (待我长发及腰, ‘once my long hair reaches my waist’), shenme jiezou (什么节奏, ‘what’s the rhythm’)

The phrases in this category are generally used by netizens to form a diverse array of phrases and sentence structures. The passage “Once my long hair reaches my waist, a young man shall marry me,” was originally a description of a beautiful romantic love, but netizens borrowed it to form hilarious phrases like, “Once my long hair reaches my waist, I’ll climb on top of your family’s television; “Once my long hair reaches my waist, send me Sassoon,” and so on. The word jiezou (节奏, ‘rhythm’) was originally used in very limited contexts,

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but through netizens’ creativity, it could be arbitrarily pair with all sorts of scenes, such as the “rhythm” of eating food, the “rhythm” of failing a subject, and so on.

2.4 Abbreviations and acronyms Xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’), buming jueli (不明觉厉, ‘don’t understand, but think it’s great’), lei jue bu ai (累觉不爱, ‘tired, feeling no love’), he qi liao (何弃疗, ‘why give up treatment’), ren jian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’), shi dong ran ju (十动然拒, ‘extremely moved, then rejection’), jing na gun (经拿滚, ‘get XP and skedaddle’), lai xin kan (来信砍, ‘message came in, hack to death’)

The phrases in this category generally consist of netizens’ abbreviations of phrases and sentences, thus creating four-character or three-character xinci (新词, ‘neologisms’) similar to the traditional structure of idioms and set phrases. In life, whether we are happily xida puben (喜大普奔, ‘spreading around the world with great exhilaration’) on a joyous occasion, or have encountered shi dong ran ju (十动然拒, ‘extremely moved, then rejection’), causing us to be lei jue bu ai (累觉 不爱, ‘tired, feeling no love’), we should face things calmly; and if the people around us have a spell of bad luck, we should understand that ren jian bu chai (人艰不拆, ‘life is hard, cut some slack’). There are many similar examples, all seizing the moment to bring scene after scene of linguistic revelry to Chinese netizens, while providing us with a depiction of the grassroots diversity of the present myriad of living things.

Zou Yu (邹煜) and Hou Min (侯敏)

22 “PM2.5” amidst the haze on all sides In recent years, hazes have frequently developed in certain medium and large cities in China, and out of concern for their health, people are paying more attention to air quality standards. A word composed of English letters and numbers – PM2.5 – has therefore made its way out of the noise of debate and into our linguistic lives.

1 The previous life of “PM2.5” 1.1 The origins of “PM2.5” Under general circumstances, larger particulate matter suspended in the air will subside to the Earth’s surface within a relatively short period of time under the effects of gravity, while the particulate matter which is able to remain suspended in the air for longer periods of time is generally relatively small in size. Therefore, the scope of monitoring by departments of environmental protection generally includes particulate matter in the air with a diameter of 100 micrometers or less, referred to as zong xuanfu keli wu (总悬浮颗粒物, ‘Total Suspended Particulate,’ or ‘TSP’), also referred to as PM100. “PM” is an abbreviation of keli wu (颗粒物, ‘particulate matter’) in English. As explained by experts (Zhang 2013), the Environmental Protection Agency of the United States formulated its air and environmental quality standards in 1971, requiring the monitoring of 6 harmful substances in the air, including particulate matter with a particle diameter of 25–45 micrometers suspended in the air. In 1979, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency revised the original standards, proposing the concept of ke xiru keli wu (可吸入颗粒物, ‘inhalable particles’): this term was used to describe particulate matter with a particle diameter of ≤10 micrometers suspended in the air, recorded as PM10. Thereafter, medical research and studies on aerosolized chemicals further demonstrated that the size of “inhalable particles” varies, as does the depth to which they can penetrate the human respiratory system: most larger particles are deposited in the upper respiratory tract, while smaller particles can make their way into the bronchi or even the pulmonary alveoli. In 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency therefore set 2.5 micrometers as the cutoff line in dividing “inhalable particles” into two categories: the first was cu keli wu (粗颗 https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-022

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粒物, ‘coarse particulate matter’) with a diameter of 2.5–10 micrometers, recorded as PM10; while the second was xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) with a particle diameter of ≤ 2.5 micrometers, recorded as PM2.5 (Figure 22.1).

Strand of human hair Average diameter of less than 70 micrometers

PM2.5 Diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers

PM10 Diameter of less than 10 micrometers A grain of sand Diameter of 90 micrometers

Figure 22.1: Diagram of PM2.5. Source: Anonymous, “Is it harmful to health to drink the northwestern wind?” (喝西北风也有 害健康?), China Business Morning Post (华商晨报), p. A03, http://news.liao1.com/epaper/ hscb/html/2012-03/03/node_4.htm, Mar. 3, 2012.

Of course, apart from PM100, PM10 and PM2.5 mentioned above, other types of suspended particles graduated by diameter size have incrementally entered the scope of popular concern, including PM1, PM0.5, PM0.1, and so on. A study by the School of Public Health at Fudan University and the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention proved that, “Atmospheric particulate matter with a particle diameter of less than 0.5 micrometers is more harmful to human health, and the smaller the particle diameter, the greater the harm” (Cao & Yan 2013) (Figure 22.2).

1.2 The national introduction of “PM2.5” Initially, the term PM2.5 generally appeared in specialized research fields, and was not known to the general public domestically. In 2003, at the first “Green China” Forum (“绿色中国”论坛) convened in Beijing (北京), Professor Tang Xiaoyan (唐孝炎) of the Environmental Center at Peking University mentioned in a discussion of air quality that there are two types of substances impacting air quality standards, gases and particulate

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Can enter the nasal passages Can reach the pharynx Can reach the trachea Can reach the bronchi Can reach the ends of the bronchi Can reach the alveoli Can be deposited in the alveoli Figure 22.2: Diagram of particles harmful to human health in the PM2.5 family. Source: Anonymous, “PM0.5 ascends to the stage as PM2.5 fades; most cigarette smoke particles are PM0.5” (PM0.5 登场 PM2.5 弱爆 香烟烟气颗粒多属于 PM0.5), Changjiang Daily (长江日报), p. 21, Oct. 30, 2013.

matter: “PM10 and PM2.5 are particulate matter, and it is PM2.5 that impacts visibility” (Sina.com 2013). This is the earliest example discovered thus far of a report referencing PM2.5 to be found in domestic media. PM2.5 comprehensively arrived in mass media and the public’s field of vision, and entered our linguistic lives, in late fall and early winter 2011, when the United States Embassy in China began publishing its PM2.5 monitoring data. This also attracted the attention of the entire nation, regardless of class, and PM2.5 entered the sphere of air quality monitoring amidst a clamor of debate. On February 29, 2012, the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection and the General Administration of Quality Supervision and Quarantine jointly issued the Environmental Air Quality Standards (环境空气质量标准) (GB30952012), adding PM2.5 as a monitoring index. In January 2013, four bouts of haze enshrouded 30 provinces, regions and cities in China: in Beijing, only 5 days were haze-free that month. On January 12, the real-time concentration of PM2.5 at the North and South 3rd Ring Roads at Xizhimen (西直门), the Olympic Sports Center, and other monitoring points in Beijing exceeded 900 micrograms/cubic meter, while the peak at the Xizhimen North monitoring point reached 993 micrograms/cubic meter (Yue & Jia 2013). On September 10, 2013, the State Council issued the Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution (大气污染防治行动计划); on November 4, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and the China Meteorological Administration jointly published the Greenbook on Climate Change: Report on

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Responding to Climate Change (2013) (气候变化绿皮书: 应对气候变化报告 [2013]) (Wang & Zheng 2013). The report noted that hazy weather in China had generally presented a rising trend in China over the last 50 years. During this period, the number of foggy days had significantly declined, while the number of hazy days had significantly increased: 2013 had seen an average of 29.9 days of hazy weather nationwide, an increase of 10.3 over the same period in the previous year, and a historical high since 1961; in addition, the number of hazy days had already outstripped the number of foggy days. The haze had not experienced any resulting alleviation by the end of the year. On December 25, Christmas day, Shandong (山东), Hebei (河北), Anhui (安徽) and other provinces issued provincial-level haze warnings, and as many as 25 local municipalities issued warnings as well. The PM2.5 index was baobiao (爆表, ‘off the charts’): daytime visibility was no more than a few dozen meters, elementary and middle schools suspended classes, flights were grounded, expressways were shut down, and public transportation routes suspended operations. . ..Netizens remarked sardonically that, “The furthest distance in the world is not that between life and death, but when I’m holding your hand on the street, and I can’t see you.” As the haze became a widespread concern and a topic of heated debate, PM2.5 was also transformed into a viral word in the Chinese language. The PM family, composed of the related “PM100, PM10, PM1, PM0.5, PM0.1” and so on also gradually gained in popular familiarity.

2 “PM2.5” and its family On December 20, 2013, at a news conference for the announcement of the “2013 Chinese Language Inventory” (汉语盘点 2013), the National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, Communication University of China, Beijing Language and Culture University, and the Commercial Press published the “Top 10 Neologisms in Chinese Media in 2013” (2013 年度中国媒 体十大新词语), including shimian maifu (十面霾伏, ‘haze on all sides’), which was closely associated with PM2.5. Moreover, 2013 also witnessed the rise of neologisms like maidan (霾单, ‘haze bill’), maiqing (霾情, ‘haze forecast’), maisha (霾沙, ‘sand haze’), Beijing ke (北京咳, ‘Beijing cough’), “PM1,” “PM0.5,” “PM0.1,” and so on, intensively reflecting the characteristics of social life in 2013. Below, we will focus our examination on the usage of PM2.5 and its family members in linguistic life.

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2.1 “PM2.5” in mainstream media

Frequency

China’s language monitoring began in 2006. We sampled all the data in the National Language Resources Monitoring Corpus on the People’s Daily (人民日 报), Guangming Daily (光明日报), Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报), China Youth Daily (中国青年报) and broadcast media from 2006 to 2013. The data averaged approximately 250 million character instances per year, with a total of 2.0 billion character instances and 1,300,000 texts. Our objective was to survey the usage of all members of the PM family during this eight-year period, along with the Chinese terms for PM100, PM10, PM2.5 and PM0.1, that is, zong xuanfu keli wu (总悬浮颗粒物, ‘Total Suspended Particulate’), ke xiru keli wu (可吸入颗粒物, ‘inhalable particles’), ke rufei keli wu (可入肺颗粒物, ‘particles capable of reaching the lungs’), xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’), chaoxi keli wu (超细颗 粒物, ‘ultrafine particulate matter’), and so on. Figure 22.3 shows the usage of PM2.5 and its family members in the media, while Figure 22.4 shows the usage of the Chinese terms (or translations) of PM100, PM10, PM2.5, and PM0.1 in the media.

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Figure 22.3: Usage of PM2.5 and its family members in the media.

As shown in Figure 22.3, PM10 and PM2.5 are the mingxing (明星, ‘stars’) of the PM family, and PM2.5 is particularly danghong (当红, ‘viral’), while the other members are rarely seen in mass media. Prior to 2011, PM2.5 had not yet drawn widespread attention from mass media, not to mention entering the public’s field of vision, thus its frequency of appearance was extremely low: in both 2006 and 2007, the frequency was 0; it finally reached 5 instances in 2008,

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2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

zong xuanfu keli wu ke xiru keli wu ke rufei keli wu xi keli wu chaoxi keli wu

Figure 22.4: Usage of the Chinese terms (or translations) for PM100, PM10, PM2.5, and PM0.1 in the media.

while 2009 and 2010 respectively saw 19 and 18 instances. But in 2011, the frequency of appearance of PM2.5 experienced a sudden surge, increasing by a factor of more than 60 in comparison with the previous year; in 2012, it also saw a year-over-year increase of nearly fourfold, reaching the peak value in 2013. These details in the usage of PM2.5 directly correlated with two issues: the first was the publication of PM2.5 monitoring data by the United States Embassy in China in late fall and early winter 2011; and the second was the addition of the PM2.5 monitoring index under the Environmental Air Quality Standards (环境空气质量标准) issued by China in early 2012. Figure 22.4 shows that, although the frequency of use of the Chinese term for PM10, ke xiru keli wu (可吸入颗粒物, ‘inhalable particles’), was not particularly high during this eight-year period, vacillating between 93 and 257, it did continuously command the attention of relevant figures; and prior to 2011, the frequency of use of ke xiru keli wu (可吸入颗粒物, ‘inhalable particles’) was far higher than “PM10,” while the two terms were evenly matched in their frequency of use after 2011. As the public’s interest in PM2.5 steadily climbed, the usage of its Chinese term, xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’), also gradually increased, reaching 432 instances in 2013. However, in comparison with the 4,775 instances of “PM2.5” in the same year, this was a far inferior showing, amounting to no more than one tenth.

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2.2 The Chinese term for “PM2.5” PM2.5 swept into the public’s field of vision with the coming of the haze, achieving swift and widespread dissemination in our linguistic lives, but it was ultimately a loanword and zimuci (字母词, ‘alphabetic word’), and like other alphabetic words, it required indigenization. In January 2012, with the approval of the State Council and under the charge of the State Language Commission, the Central Compilation & Translation Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Civil Affairs, State Administration of Radio, Film and Television, General Administration of Press and Publication, Information Office, Xinhua News Agency, and Chinese Academy of Sciences jointly formed a discussion and coordination agency, the “Interministerial Joint Conference on Chinese Translation and Writing Standards for Foreign Languages” (外语中文译写规范部际联席会议). Its principal functions consisted of planning and coordinating the work of translating foreign personal names, place names, things, and other special nouns; organizing and formulating translation and writing regulations; standardizing existing Chinese translations of foreign words and their abbreviations; and reviewing newly emerging Chinese translations of foreign words and their abbreviations. In February 2013, after consulting with relevant departments and gathering expert opinions, the National Committee for the Review of Scientific and Technical Terms proposed that the Chinese term for PM2.5 be set as xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’), and solicited public opinions via the media. On April 19, the National Committee for the Review of Scientific and Technical Terms and the Expert Committee of the Interministerial Joint Conference on Chinese Translation and Writing Standards for Foreign Languages jointly announced that the Chinese term for PM2.5 would be xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’), and gave a recommendation and guidance for its use by the public (Department of Language Application and Administration 2013).

2.3 The competition between “PM2.5” and xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) As the recommended Chinese term for PM2.5, xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) was the first Chinese translation to pass review and be announced following the establishment of the Interministerial Joint Conference on Chinese Translation and Writing Standards for Foreign Languages. So what were the results of this recommendation and guidance?

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We set the date of the announcement of xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) as the Chinese term for PM2.5 – April 2013 – as the boundary line, extracting data for the preceding and subsequent eight-month periods of August 2012 to March 2013 and May to December 2013 from the survey corpus used above, and respectively examining the state of usage in the earlier and later periods. The specific data is as shown in Figure 22.5.

1 200

Frequency

1 000 800 600 400 200 0

2012/ 2012/ 2012/ 2012/ 2012/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 2013/ 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

PM2.5 48 xi keliwu 3

159 274 175 223 1 219 496 561 6 8 15 20 78 30 43 PM2.5

175 12

127 252 252 166 320 439 431 338 10 19 23 6 103 45 32 30

xi keli wu

Figure 22.5: Usage of “PM2.5” and its Chinese term xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) in the media in the 8-month periods before/after the announcement.

As shown in Figure 22.5, both “PM2.5” and its Chinese term xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) experienced very high frequency in January–March 2013, peaking in January; this directly correlated with the emergence of severe hazy weather on a nationwide scale in the same time period. However, generally speaking, apart from a relative increase in the frequency of use of xi keli wu (细颗 粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) in September 2013, in nearly all of the remaining months, the frequency of use of “PM2.5” outnumbered xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) more than tenfold. However, in examining the earlier and later periods as a whole, the ratio of use did experience some changes. In the period from August 2012 to March 2013, xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) appeared in a total of 203 instances, while “PM2.5” appeared in 3,155 instances, at a ratio of 1: 15.54; in the period from May to December 2013, xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) appeared a total of 269 times, while “PM2.5” appeared a total of 2,325 times, at a ratio of 1: 8.64. It is clear that the ratio of use of the two terms fell by nearly one half in comparing the periods before and after the announcement.

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In addition, another type of situation appeared in the corpus, wherein PM2.5 and the Chinese term appeared side-by-side, in formats such as “PM2.5 (xi keli wu [细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’])” or “xi keli wu [细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’] (PM2.5).” The frequency of co-occurrence was 32 instances prior to the formal announcement of the Chinese term, and 61 instances after the formal announcement. Among these, the primary format of co-occurrence was “xi keli wu [细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’] (PM2.5),” with a total of 91 instances, while “PM2.5 (xi keli wu [细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’])” appeared in only 2 instances, once before and once after the announcement.

3 Thoughts on the rise of “PM2.5” and its Chinese term The facts on the usage of “PM2.5” and its family in linguistic life are enlightening, while also impelling us to ponder relevant considerations.

3.1 Language planning should emphasize patterns and good guidance Language is itself a biological system, with its own patterns of birth, development and change; and language is also an instrument of communication involving all households, and even every individual in society. Therefore, when pursuing language planning, one cannot rely on a single administrative order to resolve the problem as a whole, and language planning cannot succeed at the first try. When making policy, careful and meticulous research should serve as the guide, to adhere to the patterns of language development; in concrete operations, it is also necessary to complete a large amount of detailed work, so as to develop beneficial measures and highly effective methods. The process of language planning should be a process of active guidance, not only involving the scientific formulation of relevant standards, but also adeptness in actively guiding the people to abide by them. 10 years ago, in 2003, feidian (非典, ‘SARS’) devastated our country. Initially, the media tended to use the term “SARS,” and ordinary people were also able to understand the term “SARS.” At the time, a discussion arose as to whether the term “SARS” or feidian (非典, ‘SARS’) should be used, and thereafter everyone began to call it feidian (非典, ‘SARS’). Was the situation of “PM2.5” similar to “SARS”?

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Zou Yu (邹煜) and Hou Min (侯敏)

In theory, it was a good thing that relevant national organizations formally announced the Chinese term for PM2.5, xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’), allowing this foreign code of “PM2.5” to finally have a suitable indigenized name, and it was right that people should use this indigenized term conforming to our national psychology and cognitive habits. However, the results of the survey show that, after the announcement of the Chinese term, the use of the two terms in the media did not experience any substantive changes, while “PM2.5” also appeared much more frequently than xi keli wu (细颗粒物, ‘fine particulate matter’) in popular colloquial usage. The reasons behind these circumstances merit further study, as we can only produce scientific and correct policies on the basis of a genuinely clear understanding of the patterns of language usage.

3.2 Continuously improving the public’s language consciousness In implementing language planning, the public’s language consciousness is extremely important. Li Yuming (李宇明) has noted that language consciousness, language policies, and language behavior are the “triangle” supporting language planning. Language consciousness means being aware of the significance of language in life, in the workplace, in society, and in the country. Without language consciousness, and without scientific language consciousness in touch with the national situation and leading the times, it is not possible to have scientific language policies in touch with the national situation and leading the times, thus it is not possible to have language behavior benefiting the nation and benefiting the people, and fully exercising the role of language in society, in politics, in culture, and in the economy (Li 2013). We have previously placed a greater emphasis on the latter two factors of language policies and language behavior, but we should now place the primary emphasis on the first factor, to emphasize the establishment of language consciousness across society. For instance, in February 2013, the National Committee for the Review of Scientific and Technical Terms widely solicited opinions regarding the determination of the Chinese term for PM2.5, and this news unexpectedly triggered a viral online discussion for a period of time. Many netizens argued that giving it a name was unimportant, and that the key point should be how to bring it under control; some netizens even indignantly criticized experts for failing to perform their proper duties. It was clear that a fair portion of people in society did not recognize the importance of language for the people and for the nation, and were lacking in language consciousness. Therefore, only by awakening the

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language consciousness of all of society will we be able to smoothly implement language planning and policies, and smoothly achieve the objectives of language standards.

References Cao, Jijun (曹继军) & Yan, Weiqi (颜维琦). 2013. Study by Fudan University shows that particulate matter smaller than PM2.5 is more harmful to the human body (复旦大学研究 表明 比 PM2.5 更小的颗粒物对人体危害更大). Guangming Daily (光明日报), p. 01, Oct. 28, 2013. Department of Language Application and Administration (语用司). 2013. Expert Committee of the Interministerial Joint Conference on Chinese Translation and Writing Standards for Foreign Languages announces the first batch of Chinese translations of foreign-language terms for recommended use (外语中文译写规范部际联席会议专家委员会发布第一批推荐 使用外语词中文译名). http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/ moe_807/201310/158698.html Li, Yuming (李宇明). 2013. Awakening language consciousness across society (唤起全社会的 语言意识). The Language Situation in China (2013) (中国语言生活状况报告[2013]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. Sina.com (新浪网). 2013. First “Green China” Forum is held in Beijing (首届‘绿色中国’论坛在京 召开). http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2003-10-29/15152026694.html, Oct. 29, 2013. Wang, Weiguang (王伟光) & Zheng, Guoguang (郑国光) (eds). 2013. Greenbook on Climate Change: Report on Responding to Climate Change (2013) (气候变化绿皮书: 应对气候变化 报告[2013]). Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press. Yue, Tingting (越婷婷) & Jia, Ting (贾婷). 2013. PM2.5 surpasses 900 at multiple locations in the city (城区多处 PM2.5 突破 900). Beijing Youth Daily (北京青年报), p. A03, Jan. 13, 2013. Zhang, Lei (张蕾). 2013. What should the Chinese name of PM2.5 be? (PM2.5 该起怎样 的中文名). Guangming Daily (光明日报), p. 003, Mar. 4, 2013.

Feng Xuefeng (冯学锋) and Chen Xi (陈熹)

23 Terms which have “proceeded out the national gate” In 2013, a number of Chinese terms, represented by “dama” (dama 大妈, ‘dama’) and “tuhao” (tuhao 土豪, ‘local tyrant’) loftily zouchu guomen (走出国门, ‘proceeded out the national gate’) to strike up poses in authoritative foreign media outlets, drawing widespread public attention. For a period of time, domestic and international media outlets vied with one another to produce reports, giving rise to far-reaching discussions amongst Chinese people around the world, and forming hot topics for attention.

1 Terms which have anjia luohu (安家落户, ‘settled down to make a home’) The Oxford English Dictionary (abbreviated below as the Oxford) has a reputation as the most authoritative English-language dictionary; in the year 2000, it moved online for the first time, introducing an online edition of the Oxford.1 Its data is updated once every three months or so, further expanding the dictionary’s influence. We used the online edition of the Oxford as a basis for statistical analysis of the Chinese loanwords which have anjia luohu (安家落户, ‘settled down to make a home’) overseas.

1.1 The number which have luohu (安家落户, ‘made a home’) Given the varying standards for the definition of jieci (借词, ‘loanwords’) and the diversity of statistical methods, opinions differ as to the specific number of Chinese loanwords. As of year-end 2010, the Oxford University Press stated that the Oxford included 245 entries for Chinese loanwords.2 The specific word list

1 The website of the Oxford English Dictionary (online edition) is: http://www.oed.com/, and the search time was Mar. 3, 2014, 1:30 Beijing time. Unless otherwise indicated in this paper, the results of this search were used as the sole basis. 2 Fiona McPherson, a senior editor with Oxford University Press for the new words group, stated that: “The Oxford English Dictionary currently includes 245 entries for Chinese words, https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-023

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was not concurrently published alongside this statement, so we conducted an online search of the Oxford (online edition) for terms with the qiyuan (起源, ‘origin’) of Zhongguo (中国, ‘Chinese’). The number of Chinese loanwords we obtained matched precisely to the data announced by the Oxford, with 245 entries (Chen 2013).3 In 2008, the foreign scholar Isabel De La Cruz-Cabanillas argued that the Oxford contains 345 Chinese loanwords (De La Cruz-Cabanillas 2008). Apart from directly borrowed yinyici (音译词, ‘transliterations’), these also included transliterations which had been indirectly borrowed by way of other languages. Another scholar argued that the Oxford contains 394 Chinese loanwords (Chen 2013): apart from the 245 direct transliterations, these also included a number of yiyici (意译词, ‘semantic loans’), as well as transliterations which had been omitted due to differing search methods. Another argument states that the number of Chinese loanwords is likely more than 1,000 (Chen 2013): this refers to borrowing in its broadest sense, including transliterations as well as semantic loans, and ci (词, ‘words’) as well as a number of duanyu (短语, ‘phrases’).

1.2 Dates of luohu (安家落户, ‘making a home’) Among the 245 Chinese loanwords in the Oxford, a total of 3 terms anjia luohu (安 家落户, ‘settled down to make a home’) in the 16th century: “li (1)” (li 里, ‘half kilometer’), “litchi” (lizhi 荔枝, ‘lychee’), and “China” (Zhongguo 中国, ‘China’). 16 terms stem from the 17th century, such as “cha/chah” (cha, 茶, ‘tea’) and “chen shu” (zhenshu 真书/zhengshu 正书, ‘regular script’). 33 terms arrived in the 18th century, including “Bohea” (Wuyi cha 武夷茶, ‘Wuyi tea’) and “chin chin” (qingqing 请请, ‘please’), while 80 emerged in the 19th century, including “bok choy” (baicai 白菜, ‘cabbage’) and “campoi” (jianbei cha 拣焙茶, ‘sorted and roasted tea’). 112 terms originate from the 20th century, such as “cheongsam”

far below 1,000.” See Wang, Yan (王燕), “Oxford Dictionary denies having more than one thousand Chinese loanwords” (牛津词典否认收上千汉语外来词), Legal Evening News (法制晚 报), Jan. 5, 2011. 3 Another scholar created a list of the 245 Chinese loanword entries, and noted that they were “directly borrowed transliterations.” The term list and conclusions of this study differed from the listed lexical entries and analysis in this paper. See Chen, Shengli (陈胜利), “Study of the number of Chinese loanwords in the Oxford English Dictionary” (《牛津英语词典》中的汉语借 词数量研究), Journal of Yancheng Teachers University (盐城师范学院学报) (Humanities and social sciences edition), 2013, no. 3.

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(changshan 长衫, ‘long gown’; associated with “qipao” [qipao 旗袍, ‘woman’s long gown’]) and “chow mein” (chaomian 炒面, ‘fried noodles’); and 1 term has appeared in the 21st century: “goji” (gouqi 枸杞, ‘Chinese wolfberry’). Between the 16th and the 20th centuries, the number of Chinese loanwords in the English language gradually increased (as shown in Figure 23.1). This demonstrates that the emergence of loanwords and the changes to their quantity correlate with the dealings between nations and the direct and indirect contact between peoples, and are closely tied to the breadth and depth of linguistic and cultural exchanges.

120 100 80 Number of loanwords

60 40 20 0

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

2000

Figure 23.1: Chronology of Chinese loanwords.

1.3 Categories of luohu (安家落户, ‘making a home’) The 245 Chinese loanwords in the Oxford can be roughly divided into eighteen categories (see Table 23.1): 1.3.1. Food and drinks category: “cha/chah” (cha 茶, ‘tea’) (1616)4; “chop-stick” (kuaizi 筷子, ‘chop-stick’); “Bohea” (Wuyi cha 武夷茶, ‘Wuyi tea’) (1701); “Bing” (ming 茗, ‘tender tea leaves’) (1702); “ketchup” (fanqie jiang 番茄酱, ‘tomato sauce’) (1711); “pekoe” (baihao cha 白毫茶, ‘white down tea’) (1713); “congou” (gongfu cha 功夫茶, ‘skilled tea-making’) (1725); “hyson” (xichun cha 熙春茶, ‘bright spring tea’; < xichun 喜春, ‘joyous spring’)5 (1740); “souchong” (xiaozhong

4 The figure in parentheses represents the year of borrowing; same below. 5 “ < ” provides further explanation of the loanword’s origin: for instance, “hyson” is similar to the pronunciation of xichun (喜春, ‘joyous spring’) in Cantonese.

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Table 23.1: Statistical table of 245 Chinese loanwords in the Oxford English Dictionary by category (Unit: word). Category

Number of words

Category

Number of words

Food and drink



Ethnography



Art



Status and occupation



Biomes



Dress and adornment



Spoken and written language



Martial arts



Weights, measurements, and currency



Entertainment



Religion and philosophy



(Secret) organizations



Government and politics



Medicines



Geography



Economy



Dynasties



Other



cha 小种茶, ‘coarse-leaf tea’) (1761); “Twankay” (Tunxi cha 屯溪茶, ‘Tunxi tea’) (1840); “campoi” (jianbei cha 拣焙茶, ‘sorted and roasted tea’) (1842); “oolong” (wulong cha 乌龙茶, ‘black dragon tea’) (1845); “oopack” (Hubei [hongcha] 湖北 [红茶], ‘Hubei [red tea]’; < “Wubeg” [Hubei 湖北, ‘Hubei’]) (1855); “pi” (bi 匕, ‘spoon’ [ancient utensil]) (1871); “chop-suey” (za chao huicai 杂炒烩菜, ‘mixed fried meat and vegetables’) (1888); “mien” (mian [tiao] 面[条], ‘noodles’) (1890); “tou” (dou 豆, ‘stemmed vessel’ [ancient utensil]) (1899); “moo goo gai pan” (mogu jipian 蘑菇鸡片, ‘mushrooms and sliced chicken’) (1902); “subgum” (shijin 什锦, ‘mixture’) (1902); “chow mein” (chaomian 炒面, ‘fried noodles’) (1903); “kaoliang” (gaoliang [jiu] 高粱[酒], ‘sorghum liquor) (1904); “p’an” (pan[zi] 盘[子], ‘plate’) (1904); “fu yung” (furong[dan] 芙蓉[蛋], ‘hibiscus [egg]’); “pao-tzu” (baozi 包子, ‘steamed stuffed bun’) (1927); “lei (2)” (lei 罍, ‘jar’ [ancient utensil for holding wine or water]) (1929); “mee” (mian[tiao]/mian[fen] 面[条] /面[粉], ‘noodles/wheat flour’) (1935); “choy sum” (cai xin 菜心, ‘cabbage heart’) (1939); “li (5)” (li 鬲, ‘cooking tripod’ [ancient utensil]) (1945); “dim sum” (dianxin 点心, ‘light refreshments’) (1948); “won ton” (huntun 馄饨, ‘dumpling soup’) (1948); “wok” (huo 镬, ‘pot’) (1952); “man t’ou” (mantou 馒头, ‘steamed bun’) (1955); “yuan hsiao” (yuanxiao 元宵, ‘sweet rice dumplings’) (1956); “hoisin” (haixian [jiang] 海鲜[酱],

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‘seafood sauce’) (1957); “ve-tsin” (weijing 味精, ‘monosodium glutamate’) (1958); “Mao-tai” (maotai [jiu] 茅台[酒], ‘Maotai [liquor]) (1962); “moo shu” (muxu [rou] 木 须[肉], ‘sweet osmanthus [pork]’) (1962); “jiaozi” (jiaozi 饺子, ‘dumplings’) (1978). 1.3.2. Art category: “lü” (lü律, ‘melody’) (1655); “petuntse” (bai dunzi 白墩子, ‘white briquette’/baicitu 白瓷土, ‘white porcelain clay’) (1728); “sheng (1)” (sheng 笙, ‘reed pipe’) (1795); “pipa” (pipa 琵琶, ‘four-stringed lute’) (1839); “qin” (qin 琴, ‘zither’) (1839); “san hsien” (san xian三弦, ‘three-stringed lute’) (1839); “yüeh ch’in” (yueqin月琴, ‘plucked lute’) (1839); “wei ch’i” (weiqi 围棋, ‘encirclement chess’) (1856); “pan” ([zhu]pan [竹]板, ‘[bamboo] board’ [percussion instrument]) (1874); “se” (se 瑟, ‘25-stringed zither’) (1874); “t-i tzu” (dizi 笛子, ‘bamboo flute’) (1874); “yang ch’in” (yangqin 扬琴, ‘dulcimer’) (1876); “Ko (2)” (Geyao ci 哥窑瓷, ‘Geyao porcelain’) (1882); “paiban” (paiban 拍板, ‘clappers’) (1884); “sheng (2)” (sheng 生, ‘male role’ [in Chinese opera]) (1886); “tan (5)” (tan 旦, ‘female role’) (1886); “san ts’ai” (san cai 三彩, ‘three glazes’ [porcelain ware]) (1901); “ting” (ding 鼎, ‘three-legged tripod’) (1904); “tsung” (cong 琮, ‘square jade cup’) (1904); “wu ts’ai” (wucai 五彩, ‘five colors’ [porcelain ware]) (1904); “yu” (yu盂, ‘wide-mouthed jar’ [ancient household utensil for holding wine or cooked rice) (1904); “erh hu” (erhu 二胡, ‘two-stringed fiddle’) (1908); “so-na” (suona 唢呐, ‘double-reeded horn’) (1908); “Tz’u Chou” (Cizhou [ci] 瓷州[瓷], ‘Cizhou [porcelain]’) (1910); “mei ping” (meiping 梅瓶, ‘prunus vase’) (1915); “po shan lu” (baoshan [xiang]lu 宝山[香]炉, ‘Baoshan censer’) (1915); “ying ch’ing” (yingqing [ci] 影青[瓷], ‘shadowy blue [porcelain]’) (1922); “kuei” (gui 簋, ‘square bamboo basket’ [ancient utensil or ritual vessel]) (1935); “tou ts’ai” (duocai 多彩, ‘colorful’ [porcelain ware]) (1953); “yüeh (4)” (yue 钺, ‘broad-axe’ [ancient weapon]) (1956); “li ting” (liding 鬲鼎, ‘tripod’ [ancient cooking vessel]) (1958); “tsun” (zhong 盅, ‘cup without a handle’) (1958). 1.3.3. Biome category: “litchi” (lizhi 荔枝, ‘lychee’) (1588); “ginseng” (rensheng 人 参, ‘ginseng’) (1654); “kumquat/cumquat” (jinju 金橘, ‘kumquat’) (1699); “longan” (longyan 龙眼, ‘longan’) (1732); “pela” (baila 白蜡, ‘Chinese ash’) (1754); “pe-tsai” (baicai 白菜, ‘cabbage’) (1788); “whangee” (huangli[zhu] 黄篱[竹], ‘yellow bamboo’) (1790); “moutan” (mudan 牡丹, ‘peony’) (1808); “fum” (feng[huang] 凤[凰], ‘male [/female] phoenix’) (1820); “loquat” (pipa 枇杷, ‘loquat’) (1820); “yulan” (yulan 玉兰, ‘magnolia’) (1822); “wampee” (huangpi [guo] 黄皮[果], ‘wampee [fruit]’) (1830); “bok choy” (baicai白菜, ‘cabbage’) (1847); “kylin” (qilin 麒麟, ‘Chinese unicorn’) (1857); “moc-main” (mumian 木棉, ‘silk-cotton’) (1857); “ling” (ling[jiao] 菱[角], ‘water chestnut’) (1860); “towcok” (doujiao 豆角, ‘string bean’) (1866); “tung” (tong[you] 桐[油], ‘tung [oil]’) (1889); “wonk” (huanggou 黄狗, ‘yellow dog’) (1900); “ho-ho” (fenghuang 凤凰, ‘phoenix’); “ling chih” (lingzhi 灵芝,

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‘lingzhi mushroom’) (1904); “shih-tzu” (shizi [gou] 狮子[狗], ‘lion [dog]’) (1921); “Shar-pei” (shapi [gou] 沙皮[狗], ‘sand-skinned [dog]’) (1976); “goji” (gouqi 枸杞, ‘Chinese wolfberry’) (2002). 1.3.4. Spoken and written language category: “chen shu” (zhenshu 真书/zhengshu 正书, ‘regular script’) (1655); “chin chin” (qingqing 请请, ‘please’ [an invitation to drink]) (1795); “li shu” (lishu 隶书, ‘clerical script’) (1824); “Hokkien” (Minnan [hua] 闽南[话], ‘Southern Fujian [dialect]’) (1832); “Hakka” (kejia [hua] 客家[话], ‘Hakka [dialect]’) (1867); “no can do” (bu neng zuo不能做, ‘cannot do it’/bu keyi 不 可以, ‘cannot’) (1868); “k’ai shu” (kaishu 楷书, ‘model script’) (1876); “ts’ao shu” (caoshu 草书, ‘cursive script’) (1876); “wen li” (wenli 文理, ‘literary grace’ [classical]) (1887); “ta chuan” (da zhuan 大篆, ‘great seal’) (1894); “Min” (Min 闽, ‘Fujian’ [region, dialect]) (1902); “Wu” (Wu[yu] 吴[语], ‘Wu [dialect]’) (1908); “pa-i hua” (baihua 白话, ‘vernacular’) (1923); “Kuo-yü” (Guoyu 国语, ‘National Language’) (1932); “wen yen” (wenyan 文言, ‘classical language’) (1936); “Latinxua” (ladinghua 拉丁化, ‘Latinization’) (1937); “zhuyin zimu” (zhuyin zimu 注音字母, ‘phonetic alphabet’) (1938); “putonghua” (putonghua 普通话, ‘Mandarin Chinese’) (1950); “Yüeh (3)” (Yue[yu] 粤[语], ‘Cantonese’) (1954); “Pinyin” (pinyin 拼音, ‘Pinyin’) (1963). 1.3.5. Weights, measurements, and currency category: “li (1)” (li 里, ‘half kilometer’) (1588); “dotchin” (dengzi 戥子, ‘steelyard’/tuocheng 拖称, ‘balance’) (1696); “sycee” (yinding 银锭, ‘silver ingot; < xisi 细丝, ‘fine thread’) (1711); “paitung” (baitong 白铜, ‘white copper’) (1736); “li (2)” (li 厘, ‘li’ [unit of weight equal to one thousandth of a silver tael]) (1771); “paktong” (baitong 白铜, ‘white copper’) (1776); “liang” (liang两, ‘[silver] tael) (1827); “mou (2)” (mu 亩, ‘one sixth of an acre’) (1836); “fen” (fen 分, ‘penny’ [monetary unit]) (1852); “likin” (lijin 厘金, ‘provincial transit duty’ [tax]) (1876), “yen (2)” (yuan 元, ‘yuan’ [Japanese currency]) (1876); “tiao” (diao 吊, ‘string of 1000 cash’) (1883); “shang” (shang 垧, ‘15 mu’) (1887); “tan (6)” (dan 担, ’50 kilograms’ [unit of weight]) (1911); “yuan (2)” (yuan 元, ‘yuan’ [monetary unit]) (1912); “jiao” (jiao 角, ‘dime’ [monetary unit]) (1949); “renminbi” (renminbi 人民币, ‘RMB”) (1957). 1.3.6. Religion and philosophy category: “t’ien” (tian 天, ‘Heaven’) (1613); “yang” (yang 阳, ‘masculine principle’) (1671); “yin (1)” (yin 阴, ‘feminine principle’) (1671); “tao” (dao[jiao] 道[教], ‘Dao[ism]’) (1704); “feng-shui” (fengshui 风水, ‘geomancy’) (1797); “shen” (shen 神, ‘divinity’ [holiness, God]) (1847); “p’o” (po 魄, ‘soul’) (1850); “qi” (qi 气, ‘[philosophical] energy’) (1850); “wu-wei” (wuwei 无为, ‘non-action’ [Daoist doctrine]) (1859); “I Ching” (Yijing 易经, ‘Book of Changes’) (1876); “Lohan” (luohan 罗汉, ‘arhat’) (1878); “te” (de 德, ‘virtue’) (1895); “li (3)” (li 礼, ‘rites’) (1912); “ming” (ming 命, ‘fate’) (1937).

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1.3.7. Government and politics category: “yamun/yamen” (yamen 衙门, ‘government office’) (1747); “Kuan/Kwan” (guan[hua] 官[话], ‘official language’) (1814); “war-lord” (junfa 军阀, ‘warlord’) (1856); “Wufan” (wufan [yundong] 五反[运动], ‘five oppositions [movement]’) (1956); “pakapoo” (baige piao 白鸽票, ‘pigeon ticket’ [lottery ticket]) (1886); “Kuomintang” (Guomingdang 国民党, ‘Nationalist Party’) (1912); “tuchun” (dujun 督军, ‘provincial governor-general’) (1917); “paochia” (baojia 保甲, ‘civil self-defense [system]’) (1931); “gung ho” (gonghe 工合, ‘industrial cooperative/working together’ [by extension: overzealousness]) (1942); “Min Yuen” (minyun 民运, ‘people’s movement’/min yuan 民援, ‘people’s aid’) (1951); “Sanfan” (sanfan 三反, ‘Three oppositions [movement]’) (1956); “ta tzupao” (dazi bao 大字报, ‘big-character poster’) (1960); “splittism” (fenlie zhuyi 分裂 主义, ‘separatism’) (1962). 1.3.8. Geography category: “China” (Zhongguo 中国, ‘China’) (1555); “kang” (kang 炕, ‘heated brick bed’) (1772); “pailou” (pailou 牌楼, ‘decorated archway’/paifang 牌坊, ‘memorial archway’) (1836); “hien/hsien” (xian 县, ‘county’) (1837); “yuan (3)” (yuan 院, ‘compound’ [government office]) (1928); “Kiangsi” (Jiangxi 江西, ‘Jiangxi’; Suqu 苏区, ‘Chinese Soviet area’ [1929–1934]) (1937); “Gan” (Gan 赣, ‘Gan [dialect]’) (1943); “Nanyang” (Nanyang 南洋, ‘South Seas’) (1946); “Yenan” (Ya’nan 延安, ‘Yanan [period]’) (1949); “Szechuan” (Sichuan 四川, ‘Sichuan’) (1956); “Sze Yap” (Siyi [hua] 四邑[话], ‘[Guangdong] Siyi [dialect]’) (1964). 1.3.9. Dynasties category: “Shang” (Shang 商, ‘Shang [Dynasty]’) (1669); “Tang” (Tang 唐, ‘Tang [Dynasty]’) (1669); “Song” (Song 宋, ‘Song [Dynasty]’) (1673); “Yuan (1)” (Yuan 元, ‘Yuan [Dynasty]’) (1673); “Sui” (Sui 隋, ‘Sui [Dynasty]’) (1738); “Qin” (Qin 秦, ‘Qin [Dynasty]’) (1790); “Qing” (Qing 清, ‘Qing [Dynasty]’) (1790); “Ming” (Ming 明, ‘Ming [Dynasty]’) (1795); ‘nien hao” (nianhao 年号, ‘reign title’) (1824); “Yin (2)” (Yin 殷, ‘Shang [Dynasty]’ [alternate name]) (1846). 1.3.10. Ethnography category: “Miaotse” (Miaozi 苗子, ‘Hmong’ [derogatory name]/Miaozu 苗族, ‘Hmong’) (1810); “Miao” (Miao 苗, ‘Hmong [people, language]’) (1834); “Yao” (Yao[zu] 瑶[族], ‘Yao [ethnic group]’) (1834); “Nung” (Nong[ren] 侬[人], ‘Nung [people]’) (1887); “Teochew/Teo-chew” (Chaozhou 潮州, ‘Chaozhou [people, language]’) (1893); “Yüeh (2)” (Yue 越, ‘Yue [people]’) (1901); “Mien” (Yao 瑶, ‘lu Mien [people, language]” [subset of Yao ethnic group]) (1902); “tsu” (zu 族, ‘clan’) (1939); “Yi” (Yi 彝, ‘Yi [ethnic group]’) (1960). 1.3.11. Status and occupation category: “tutang” (dutang 督堂, ‘viceroy’) (1613); “taotai” (daotai 道台, ‘district magistrate’) (1747); “taipan” (daban 大班, ‘manager [of a foreign firm in China]’) (1834); “Tanka” (danjia 疍家, ‘boat people’) (1839); “mafoo” (mafu 马夫, ‘groom’) (1863); “Pong” (Zhongguo lao 中国佬, ‘Chinese devil’ [derogatory]) (1910); “tupan” (duban 督办, ‘governor-general’)

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(1925); “ganbu” (ganbu 干部, ‘cadre’) (1956); “kwa-i lo” (guilao 鬼佬, ‘foreign devil’) (1969). 1.3.12. Dress and adornment category: “pongee” (jianchou 茧绸, ‘tussah silk’; < ben ji/zhi 本机/织, ‘pongee’) (1711); “senshaw” (shuliang chou 薯莨绸, ‘gambiered silk’; < xiansha 线纱, ‘yarn’) (1848); “tsatlee” (qili [si] 七里[丝], ‘seven-li [thread]’) (1848); “t’ao t’ieh” (taotie [wen] 饕餮[纹], ‘fiend [motif]’ [animal head pattern used in ancient Chinese art and utensils]) (1915); “le-i wen” (leiwen 雷纹, ‘thunder pattern’ [decorative pattern on ancient bronzeware and earthenware]) (1922); “samfu” (shanku 衫裤, ‘shirt and pants’) (1955); “cheongsam” (changshan 长衫, ‘long gown’) (1957); “qipao” (qipao旗袍, ‘woman’s long gown’) (1965). 1.3.13. Martial arts category: “T’ai Chi” (taiji [quan] 太极[拳], ‘tai chi [boxing]’) (1736); “wuxia” (wuxia 武侠, ‘knight-errant’) (1936); “kung-fu” (gongfu 功夫, ‘kung fu’) (1966); “qigong” (qigong 气功, ‘deep breathing’) (1966); “Wing Chun” (yongchun [quan] 咏春[拳], ‘Spring Chant [boxing]’) (1967); “wushu” (wushu 武术, ‘martial arts’) (1973); “Shaolin” (Shaolin 少林, ‘Shaolin [martial arts, style, school]’). 1.3.14. Entertainment category: “fan-tan” (fantan 蕃摊, ‘repeated divisions’; fandan 翻单, ‘overturned sheet’ [gambling game]) (1878); “pai gow” (paijiu 牌九, ‘Chinese dominoes’) (1906); “mahjong” (majiang 麻将, ‘mahjong’ [tile game]) (1922); “punging” (peng 碰, ‘knock’ [mahjong term]) (1922); “pung (n4)” (peng 碰, ‘knock’ [mahjong term]); “pung (v)” (peng 碰, ‘knock’ [mahjong term]); “yang-ko” (yangge 秧歌, ‘Rice Sprout Song’ [folk dance]) (1954). 1.3.15 (Secret) organization category: “Gormogon” (gongjihui 共济会, ‘Freemasons’ [pseudo-translation]) (1725); “Ta-i ping” (Taiping [tianguo yundong] 太平[天国 运动], ‘Taiping [Heavenly Kingdom movement]’) (1853); “hoey” (hui 会, ‘association’) (1865); “tong” (tang 堂, ‘hall’ [a type of secret organization or fraternal association]) (1883). 1.3.16. Medicines category: “yen (3)” (yin 瘾, ‘addiction’) (1882), “yen-yen” (yanyin 烟瘾, ‘tobacco/opium addiction’) (1886); “gow” (yapian 鸦片, ‘opium’; < [yao] gao [药]膏, ‘[medical] ointment’) (1922), “qinghaosu” (qinghaosu 青蒿素, ‘artemisinin’ [malaria drug]) (1979). 1.3.17. Economy category: “hong” ([shang]hang [商]行, ‘trading company’) (1726); “kongsi” (gongsi 公司, ‘company’) (1839); “tangpu” (dangpu当铺, ‘pawnshop) (1941). 1.3.18. Other category: “sampan” (shanban 舢板, ‘three-plank boat’ [traditional flat-bottomed boat]) (1620); “suan-pan” (suanpan 算盘, ‘abacus’) (1736); “kowtow/kotow” (ketou 磕头, ‘knock the head’) (1804); “t’ing” (ting 亭, ‘pavilion’)

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(1853); “yulo” (yaolu 摇橹, ‘sculling’) (1878); “hutung” (hutong 胡同, ‘lane’) (1922); “ko (3)” (ge 戈, ‘dagger-axe’ [ancient weapon]) (1923); “ganbei” (ganbei 干杯, ‘empty the glass’ [a toast]) (1940); “ming chi” (mingqi 冥器, ‘funerary objects’) (1958); “wên jên” (wenren 文人, ‘literati’) (1958); “Nei kuan” (neiguan 内关, ‘acupoint’ [acupuncture]) (1959); “pak pai” (baipai [che] 白牌[车], ‘blank label [car]’ [illegal taxis in Hong Kong]) (1972); “kiasu” (zisi 自私, ‘selfish’; < pashu 怕输, ‘afraid to lose’) (1978); “tui na” (tuina 推拿, ‘massage’) (1979); “taikonaut” (taikong ren 太空人, ‘astronaut’ [Chinese astronaut]) (1998). The food and drinks category accounts for 15.5% (including utensils associated with food), ranking in first place. This category includes a number of terms describing types of tea, such as “Bohea” (Wuyi cha武夷茶, ‘Wuyi tea’) (1701), “campoi” (jianbei cha 拣焙茶, ‘sorted and roasted tea’) (1842), “oopack” (Hubei [hongcha] 湖北[红茶], ‘Hubei [red tea]’) (1855), and so on, reflecting Westerners’ fondness for Chinese tea in that period. The art category accounts for 13.1% of the entries, ranking in second place. These primarily include Chinese musical instruments and porcelain, with examples such as “erh hu” (erhu 二胡, ‘two-stringed fiddle’) (1908), “yang ch’in” (yangqin 扬琴, ‘dulcimer’) (1876), “so-na” (suona 唢呐, ‘double-reeded horn’) (1908), “ting” (ding 鼎, ‘three-legged tripod’) (1904), “kuei” (gui 簋, ‘square bamboo basket’ [ancient utensil or ritual vessel]) (1935), “tou ts’ai” (duocai 多彩, ‘colorful’ [porcelain ware]) (1953), “ying ch’ing” (yingqing [ci] 影青 [瓷], ‘shadowy blue [porcelain]’) (1922), and so on. The biome category also has numerous entries, primarily consisting of plants exclusive to China, such as “litchi” (lizhi 荔枝, ‘lychee’) (1588), “ginseng” (rensheng 人参, ‘ginseng’) (1654), “ling chih” (lingzhi 灵芝, ‘lingzhi mushroom’) (1904), and “goji” (gouqi 枸杞, ‘Chinese wolfberry’) (2002). In terms of their classification, a preponderance of the terms which have anjia luohu (安家落户, ‘settled down to make a home’) fall under the category of tu te chan (土特产, ‘special indigenous products).

2 Terms which are currently haipiao (海漂, ‘drifting across the sea’) Terms which are haipiao (海漂, ‘drifting across the sea’) primarily appear in various types of media and verbal interactions, and have not been included in a standard dictionary. Examples include: “chengguan” (chengguan 城管, ‘city management’); “ziyou xing” (ziyou xing 自由行, ‘free individual travel’); “guanggun” (guanggun 光棍, ‘bachelor’); “Lianghui” (Lianghui 两会, ‘Two Sessions’

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[National People’s Congress and National Committee of the CPPCC]); “guanxi” (guanxi 关系, ‘connections’); “mianzi” (mianzi 面子, ‘face’ [reputation]); “hukou” (hukou 户口, ‘household registration’); “fenqing” (fenqing 愤青, ‘angry youth’); “chinsumer” (Zhongguo xiaofeizhe 中国消费者, ‘Chinese consumer’); “geili” (geili 给力, ‘awesome’); “buzheteng” (bu zheteng 不折腾, ‘don’t rock the boat’); “renrou sousuo” (renrou sousuo 人肉搜索, ‘human flesh search’); “three vulgarities” (san su 三俗, ‘three vulgarities’ [yongsu, disu, meisu 庸俗, 低俗, 媚俗, ‘vulgar, low, and in poor taste’]); “Chinese dream” (Zhongguo meng 中国梦, ‘Chinese dream’); “The Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee” (shiba jie san zhongquanhui 十八届三中全会, ‘The Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee’); “guangchangwu” (guangchang wu 广场舞, ‘plaza dancing’); “shuanggui” (shuanggui 双规, ‘double designated’ [disciplinary process with a ‘designated’ time and place]); “don’train” (dongche 动车, ‘bullet train’); “jiujielity” (jiujie 纠结, ‘perplexed confusion’); “Chimerica” (Zhong Mei guo 中美国, ‘China–U.S. [economic] relations’); “shanzhai” (shanzhai 山寨, ‘knock-off’); “shengnu” (shengnü 剩女, ‘spinsters/leftover women’); “fangnu” (fangnu 房奴, ‘mortgage slave’); “jiayou” (jiayou 加油, ‘add oil/Go!’); “online shoppers” (taoke 淘客, ‘Taobao visitor’); “digit head” (jisuanji mi 计算机迷, ‘computer fan’); “dama” (dama 大妈, ‘dama’); “tuhao” (tuhao 土豪, ‘local tyrant’), and so on.6

2.1 Categories of haipiao (海漂, ‘drifting across the sea’) The foreign scholar Helena Juřicová completed a statistical study of Chinese loanwords appearing in The Economist in the year 2011 (Juřicová 2012). The subject matter included 210 articles involving China, containing 91 Chinese loanwords. These 91 Chinese loanwords can chiefly be classified under 9 categories.7 2.1.1. History and politics category (17 entries): “neibu” (neibu 内部, ‘internal’); “taizidang” (taizidang 太子党, ‘Party princelings’); “capitalist roaders” (zouzi pai 走资派, ‘capitalist roaders’); “China model” (Zhongguo moshi 中国模式,

6 The listed terms primarily originate from United States newspapers (such as the Los Angeles Times, http://www.latimes.com; and the Washington Post, http://www.washingtonpost.com/), United Kingdom newspapers (such as The Times, http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/; Financial Times, http://www.ft.com/home/asia; Daily Mail, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/ index.html), ChinaDaily.com (中国日报网) (U. S. edition) (http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/), and People.com (人民网) (English edition) (http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/), and so on. 7 The original paper by Juřicová listed 11 categories: the categories were simplified for this paper, placing the “weather” and “media” categories under the “other” category.

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‘China model’); “cultural revolution” (wenhua dageming 文化大革命, “Cultural Revolution’); “going out policy” (zou chuqu zhanlüe 走出去战略, ‘going out strategy’); “harmonious world” (hexie shijie 和谐世界, ‘harmonious world’); “harmonious socialist society” (hexie shehui zhuyi shehui 和谐社会主义社会, ‘harmonious socialist society’); “little red book” (Mao zhuxi yulu 毛主席语录, ‘Quotations from Chairman Mao’); “Mao-era” (Mao Zedong shidai 毛泽东时代, ‘Mao Zedong era’); “Maoist” (Mao Zedong zhuyi zhe 毛泽东主义者, ‘Maoist’); “princelings” (taizi 太子, ‘princelings’); “Red Guards” (hongwei bing 红卫兵, ‘Red Guards’); “stroll” (sanbu 散步, ‘take a walk’); “strolling” (sanbu 散步, ‘taking a walk’); “warlordism” (junfa 军阀, ‘warlord’); “ping-pong politics” (pingpang waijiao 乒乓外交, ‘ping-pong diplomacy’). 2.1.2. Proper noun category (15 entries): “Baidu” (Baidu 百度, ‘Baidu’); “Caixin” (Caixin 财新, ‘Caixin’); “Confucius” (Kongzi 孔子, ‘Confucius’); “Dangdang” (Dangdang[wang] 当当[网], ‘Dangdang[.com]’); “Han Chinese” (Hanren 汉人, ‘Han people’); “Huawei” (Huawei 华为, ‘Huawei’); “Qiao-ke-li Cheng” (Qiao-ke-li Cheng 巧克力城, ‘Chocolate City’ [Guangdong]); “Renren” (Renren [wang] 人人[网], ‘Renren [Network]’); “Shanghai Bailian” (Shanghai Bailian上海百联, ‘Shanghai Bailian’ [supermarket chain]); “Sina Weibo” (Xinlang weibo 新浪微博, ‘Sina Weibo’); “Tsinghua University” (Qinghua daxue 清华大学, ‘Tsinghua University’); “Wumart” (Wumei物美, ‘Wumart’ [Wumart Stores, Inc.]); “Xinhua” (Xinhua [she] 新华[社], ‘Xinhua [News Agency]’); “Youku” (Youku 优酷, ‘Youku’); “The People’s Daily” (Renmin ribao 人民日报, ‘The People’s Daily’). 2.1.3. Economy category (13 entries): “dipiao” (dipiao 地票, ‘land ticket’); “gaizhi” (gaizhi 改制, ‘changing the system’); “ju’e” (ju’e 巨鳄, ‘big crocodile’); “Wenzhou rate” (Wenzhou lilü 温州利率, ‘Wenzhou interest rate’); “Sina model” (Xinlang moshi 新浪模式, ‘Sina model’); “special economic zone” (jingji tequ 经济特区, ‘special economic zone’); “India’s Guangdong” (Yindu de Guangdong 印度的广东, ‘India’s Guangdong’); “the Chongqing model” (Chongqing moshi 重庆模式, ‘the Chongqing model’); “China price” (Zhongguo jiage 中国价格, ‘China price’ [signifying a cheap price]); “guojin mintui” (guojin mintui 国进民退, ‘the state advances while the private sector retreats’); “dim sum” (dianxin [zhaiquan] 点心[债券], ‘dim sum [bonds]’); “yuanify” (放开中国金融市场, ‘open up the Chinese financial market’); “huaweians” (Huawei yuangong 华为员工, ‘Huawei employees’). 2.1.4. Social status category (13 entries): “fangshi” (fangshi 房事, ‘sex life’); “gaokao” (gaokao 高考, ‘college entrance examination’); “guanggun” (guanggun 光棍, ‘bachelor’); “guanxi” (guanxi 关系, ‘connections’); “hukou” (hukou 户口, ‘household registration’); “jiu” (jiu 酒, ‘liquor’); “laowai” (laowai 老外, ‘foreigner’); “luohou” (luohou 落后, ‘backward’); “qingqu yongpin” (qingqu yongpin 情趣用品,

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‘interesting products’); “shengnu” (shengnü 剩女, ‘spinsters/leftover women’); “yan” (yan 烟, ‘smoke’); “iron rice bowl” (tie fanwan 铁饭碗, ‘iron rice bowl’); “tycoon” (daheng 大亨, ‘tycoon’). 2.1.5. Religion and philosophy category (12 entries): “fengshui” (fengshui 风水, ‘geomancy’); “fengshui compliant” (fengshui hao 风水好, ‘good geomancy’); “bad fengshui” (fengshuo bu hao 风水不好, ‘bad geomancy’); “luohan” (luohan 罗汉, ‘arhat’); “shengshi” (shengshi 盛世, ‘age of prosperity’); “tianxia” (tianxia 天下, ‘all under Heaven’); “xiaokang society” (xiaokang shehui 小康社会, ‘moderately prosperous society’); “xiushen” (xiushen 修身, ‘self-improvement’); “the yang” (yang 阳, ‘masculine principle’); “the yin” (yin 阴, ‘feminine principle’); “Sun Tzu” (Sun Zi 孙子, ‘Sun Tzu’ [military strategist]); “Confucianism” (Kongzi xueshuo 孔子学说, ‘Confucian teachings’). 2.1.6. Entertainment category (10 entries): “anmo” (anmo 按摩, ‘massage’); “cuju” (cuju 蹴鞠, ‘kick ball’); “dajiaqiu” (da jiaqiu 打假球, ‘striking producers of counterfeit products’); “falang” (falang 发廊, ‘hair salon’); “hei shao” (hei shao 黑哨, ‘black whistle’); “weiqi” (weiqi 围棋, ‘encirclement chess’); “zuyu zhongxin” (zuyu zhongxin 足浴中心, ‘foot massage parlor’); “kungfu actor” (gongfu yanyuan 功夫演员, ‘kung fu actor’); “kungfu propaganda” (gongfu xuanchuan 功夫宣传, ‘kung fu propaganda’); “ping-pong” (pingpang 乒乓, ‘ping-pong’). 2.1.7. Food category (3 entries): “three cups chicken” (san bei ji 三杯鸡, ‘three cups chicken’); “Shanghainese dumplings” (Shanghai xiaolong bao 上海小笼 包, ‘Shanghainese dumplings’); “chop suey” (菜za chao huicai 杂炒烩菜, ‘mixed fried meat and vegetables’). 2.1.8. Science category (3 entries): “Jiaolong” (Jiaolong 蛟龙, ‘Jiaolong’ [a crewed submersible, literally translating as ‘Flood Dragon’]); “Tiangong” (Tiangong 天宫, ‘Tiangong’ [target vehicle and space laboratory, literally translating as ‘Heavenly Palace’]); “taikonaut” (taikong ren 太空人, ‘astronaut’ [Chinese astronaut]). 2.1.9. Other category (5 entries): “bufangbian” (bu fangbian 不方便, ‘inconvenient’); “buqingqu” (bu qingchu 不清楚, ‘unclear’); “yanjiu” (yanjiu 研究, ‘research’); “typhoons” (taifeng 台风, ‘typhoons’); “weibo” (weibo 微博, ‘weibo’ [microblog]).8

8 This category is not entirely rational, and the individual translations require further consideration.

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As China’s economic power has grown and its international status has risen, the focal points of foreign media attention have experienced a quiet transformation. Foreign media outlets are no longer merely directing their gaze toward traditional Chinese culture: instead, they are paying more attention to trends in contemporary Chinese politics, economy and society, focusing on the living China of the Information Age. It is clear that the contemporary terms zouchu guomen (走出国门, ‘proceeding out the national gate’) are imbued with lively elements.

2.2 Methods of haipiao (海漂, ‘drifting across the sea’) The terms which are haipiao (海漂, ‘drifting across the sea’) enter the English language through two methods: the first is transliteration, and the second is transliteration plus semantic translation.

Transliteration The vast majority of the contemporary Chinese terms which have been borrowed into English are formed through the transliteration of Chinese pinyin, such as “mianzi” (mianzi面子, ‘face’ [reputation]) and “guanxi” (guanxi 关系, ‘connections’); some also add an English gloss. This method involves three general scenarios. The first scenario involves proper nouns, such as: “Jiaolong” (Jiaolong 蛟龙, ‘Jiaolong’) (China’s latest crewed deep-submersible vehicle); “Dangdang” (Dangdang[wang] 当当[网], ‘Dangdang[.com]’) (an online retailer and firm resembling Amazon); “Huawei” (Huawei 华为, ‘Huawei’) (China’s largest telecom firm); “Renren” (Renren [wang] 人人[网], ‘Renren [Network]’) (China’s biggest social networking site, sometimes called the Chinese Facebook); “Shanghai Bailian” (Shanghai Bailian上海百联, ‘Shanghai Bailian’) (China’s largest supermarket chain); “Youku” ” (Youku 优酷, ‘Youku’) (a video-sharing website/ Chinese Youtube); “Xinhua” (Xinhua [she] 新华[社], ‘Xinhua [News Agency]’) (an official news agency); “Tiangong” (Tiangong 天宫, ‘Tiangong’ [target vehicle and space laboratory])(China’s newly launched space station), and so on. The second scenario involves Chinese terms which describe concepts with no corresponding word in the English language, such as: “hukou” (hukou 户 口, ‘household registration’) (China’s system of household registration); “geili” (geili 给力, ‘awesome’) (itself a new cyber expression, signifying ‘awesome,’ ‘amazing,’ ‘powerful,’ ‘cool,’ ‘exciting’); “dama” (dama 大妈, ‘dama’) (bargain-hunting middle-aged women); and “tuhao” (tuhao 土豪, ‘local tyrant’) (In Chinese, tu [土] signifies ‘earth’ while hao [豪] signifies ‘rich.’ To say

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someone is “tuhao” is to imply that they come from a poor peasant background, and have made it rich quick – but do not quite have the manners or sophistication to match their wealth. An analogue term is “nouveau riche”). Other examples include “gaokao” (gaokao 高考, ‘college entrance examination’); “xiaokang” (xiaokang 小康, ‘moderately prosperous/modest comfort’); “cuju” (cuju 蹴鞠, ‘kick ball’) (a “kick ball” game involving a single elevated net and two teams of 12), and so on. The third scenario involves terms with a corresponding word (or phrase) in the English language, but which have highly disparate cultural associative meanings, such as “falang” (falang 发廊, ‘hair salon’), “shengnu” (shengnü 剩女, ‘spinsters/leftover women’); “anmo” (anmo 按摩, ‘massage’); “luohou” (luohou 落后, ‘backward/fall behind’), and so on.

Transliteration plus semantic translation Two scenarios are seen for transliteration plus semantic translation. The first scenario involves the use of Chinese pinyin for the first half of the term, and the use of an English word for the latter half of the term, such as: “kungfu actor” (gongfu yanyuan 功夫演员, ‘kung fu actor’); “Mao-era” (Mao Zedong shidai 毛泽东时代, ‘Mao Zedong era’); “xiaokang society” (xiaokang shehui 小康社会, ‘moderately prosperous society’), and so on. “Don’train” (dongche 动车, ‘bullet train’) differs slightly from the above examples, in that “don’train” = “don’t” + “train”: both “don’t” and “train” are English words, but here “don” is similar to the pronunciation of the Chinese word dong (动, ‘move,’ or ‘bullet [train]’ in context). The second scenario involves Chinese pinyin plus an English affix, as seen in “huaweians” (Huawei yuangong 华为员工, ‘Huawei employees’). “Huawei” (Huawei 华为, ‘Huawei’) is a transliteration, while “-ian” is a suffix used in the English language to form nouns or adjectives, signifying “of the class of. . .,” and “-s” expresses the concept of a plural number. There is also the example of “jiujielity” (jiujie 纠结, ‘perplexed confusion’), in which “jiujie” is a transliteration, while “-lity” is a noun suffix. In addition, some terms reflecting new things or new concepts in China are directly translated into English, such as “going out policy” (zou chuqu zhanlüe 走出去战略, ‘going out strategy’); “harmonious socialist society” (hexie shehui zhuyi shehui 和谐社会主义社会, ‘harmonious socialist society’); “iron rice bowl” (tie fanwan 铁饭碗, ‘iron rice bowl’); “little red book” (Mao zhuxi yulu 毛 主席语录, ‘Quotations from Chairman Mao’); “three cups chicken” (san bei ji 三 杯鸡, ‘three cups chicken’); “Chinese dream” (Zhongguo meng 中国梦, ‘Chinese

23 Terms which have “proceeded out the national gate”

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dream’); “free individual travel” (ziyou xing 自由行, ‘free individual travel’); “three vulgarities” (san su 三俗, ‘three vulgarities’); “online shoppers” (taoke 淘客, ‘Taobao visitor’); “mortgage slave” (fangnu 房奴, ‘mortgage slave’); “special economic zone” (jingji tequ 经济特区, ‘special economic zone’); “The People’s Daily” (Renmin ribao 人民日报, ‘The People’s Daily’), and so on. Most of the terms which are currently haipiao (海漂, ‘drifting across the sea’) express new things, new concepts, et cetera emerging in contemporary China.

3 Considerations and recommendations 3.1 From one perspective, the terms which have anjia luohu (安家落户, ‘settled down to make a home’) reflect the history of Chinese-foreign exchanges The jie (借, ‘borrowed’) Chinese terms are a product of opening the gates to the country, while the Chinese terms which have anjia luohu (安家落户, ‘settled down to make a home’) overseas have left profound historical impressions. The contributions to world culture made by China’s advanced Silk Road culture, porcelain culture, tea culture, and so on are corroborated by these Chinese loanwords; and the series of major historical events occurring in China’s early modern and modern periods, drawing ample attention from the Western nations, also find confirmation among the Chinese loanwords. Chinese loanwords are deserving of our attention as a mirror reflecting a perspective on the history of Chinese-foreign exchanges, as well as China’s global status and influence.

3.2 The terms which are haipiao (海漂, ‘drifting across the sea’) have benefited from China’s opening and development Since China’s opening and reforms, Chinese terms involving politics, the economy, culture, education, and various other fields have increasingly flowed into the English language. According to statistics, the number of Chinese terms borrowed into English ranks 11th among loanwords in the English language (Huang 2005). “Tuhao” (tuhao 土豪, ‘local tyrant’), “dama” (dama 大妈, ‘dama’) and other terms which are currently haipiao (海漂, ‘drifting across the sea’) have repeatedly struck up poses in foreign media, and are now undergoing a process of unconscious fusion with international life, allowing Westerners to perceive different layers of Chinese social life. In the several decades since the Opening and

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Reforms, Westerners’ views on China have experienced a quiet transformation. Chinese loanwords demonstrate that the West has developed a greater interest and takes delight in discussing Chinese affairs. This transformation has benefited from China’s Opening and Reforms, and has also been facilitated by China’s growing influence in the wake of its rapid development and peaceful rise.

3.3 Improving tracking and research on terms which have zouchu guomen (走出国门, ‘proceeded out the national gate’) The terms which have zouchu guomen (走出国门, ‘proceeded out the national gate’) are a cultural export, as well as a symbol of the nation’s soft power. The Chinese terms which have zouchu guomen (走出国门, ‘proceeded out the national gate’) have already become an extremely important means of cultural dissemination, which should be accorded a high degree of attention. The progress of the Chinese language in zouchu guomen (走出国门, ‘proceeding out the national gate’) is an important element of the zou chuqu (走出去, ‘going out’) strategy for Chinese culture, and tracking and research of the terms which have zouchu guomen (走出国门, ‘proceeded out the national gate’) must be improved without a moment’s delay. It is worth noting that our studies in the past have placed greater emphasis on wailaici (外来词, ‘foreign loanwords’) brought into the Chinese language: a number of dictionaries and lexicons on loanwords borrowed into Chinese have been published, along with various relevant studies, but thus far, there has been no dictionary dedicated to collecting the Chinese loanwords which have gone overseas, which one must say is quite a shortcoming.

References Chen, Shengli (陈胜利). 2013. Study of the number of Chinese loanwords in the Oxford English Dictionary (《牛津英语词典》 中的汉语借词数量研究). Journal of Yancheng Teachers University (盐城师范学院学报) (Humanities and social sciences edition), 3. De La Cruz-Cabanillas, Isabel. 2008. Chinese Loanwords in the OED. Studia Anglica Posnaniensia, 44. Huang, Yanjie (黄焰结). 2005. From ‘silk’ (888) to ‘taikonaut’ (2003) – a sociocultural study of Chinese loanwords in the English language (从silk [888] 到 taikonaut [2003] – 英语中汉 语借词的社会文化研究). Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University (天津外国语学 院学报), 4. Juřicová, Helena. 2012. Chinese Loans in English. Bachelor thesis, Masaryk University Brno, Brno.

Tu Xinhui (涂新辉) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

24 Survey of Weibo language usage In the wake of the popularization and widespread application of smartphones and mobile Internet, Weibo (微博, ‘micro-blogging’) has become an important means of disseminating and obtaining information in contemporary Chinese society. A large-scale empirical survey of Weibo language was conducted to help us more accurately understand language usage and language behaviors by Weibo users. The corpus for this survey was entirely sourced from Tencent Weibo (腾讯 微博), we randomly selected 45,000 Weibo users and collected all Weibo posts published by these users throughout the year. On the basis of the first massive textual data analysis, from the perspective of the users’ posting details, use of hashtags, use of Chinese characters, and so on, we analyzed the characteristics of Weibo linguistic life, so as to better understand the linguistic ecology of micro-blogging media.

1 Basic details 1.1 Composition of Weibo posts The 45,000 Weibo users surveyed in this study published a total of 20,307,537 Weibo posts throughout the year. The original posts, no-comment reposts, and reposts with comments were respectively tabulated: for details on the aggregate totals and ratios, see Figure 24.1 and Table 24.1. From the above data, we can see that original posts exceed 58%, while reposts account for approximately 42%; among these, posts with comments stand at approximately 11%. The original posts added to the reposts with comments therefore amount to approximately 70%. This data indicates that the active participation rate among Weibo users is relatively high.

1.2 Length of Weibo posts The length of a Weibo post refers to the number of characters and letters contained in the post. On the Tencent Weibo platform, a given Weibo post can have a maximum of 140 Chinese characters or 280 English letters. We compiled https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-024

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Original posts 58.24%

No-comment reposts 30.92%

Figure 24.1: Distribution of the various categories of Weibo posts.

Table 24.1: Statistical distribution of the various categories of Weibo posts. Category

Quantity

Percentage

,,

.%

No-comment reposts

,,

.%

Reposts with comments

,,

.%

,,

.%

Original posts

Total

Quantitative percentage

statistics on the distribution details for the length of original Weibo posts, and separately tabulated the number of posts in each quantitative length segment; for details, see Figure 24.2 and Table 24.2. 2.50% 2.00% 1.50% 1.00% 0.50% 0.00% 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Figure 24.2: Distribution diagram of original Weibo post length (Length between 1–200 characters/letters).

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Table 24.2: Distribution of original Weibo posts by length. Length range

Number of Weibo posts

Individual percentage (%)

Cumulative percentage (%)

–

,,

.%

.%

–

,,

.%

.%

–

,,

.%

.%

–

,

.%

.%

–

,

.%

.%

–

,,

.%

.%

–

,,

.%

.%

–

,

.%

.%

The statistical results show that the average length for all original posts was 54.8 characters/letters; original posts with a length of less than 50 characters/letters accounted for approximately 60% of the total, and those with less than 100 characters/letters accounted for approximately 80% of the total, while those with a length greater than 100 characters/letters amounted to only 20% of the total. To a certain extent, these data reflect users’ writing patterns in publishing posts.

2 Hashtags On Weibo, huati biaoqian (话题标签, ‘hashtags,’ lit. ‘topic labels’) are generally used to identify topics of discussion in Weibo posts. These hashtags can be divided into the following few categories: first, hashtags self-designed by Weibo users; second, hashtags automatically added by the system as Weibo users participate in a particular topic of discussion; and third, hashtags automatically added by third-party software when such software is used by Weibo users.

2.1 Hashtag format A total of 2,872,348 hashtags appeared in the original posts, and after eliminating duplicates, there were a total of 156,304 entries; for details on the distribution of the use of hashtags by frequency, see Figure 24.3 and Table 24.3.

Quantitative percentage

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80.00% 60.00% 40.00% 20.00% 0.00% 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 24.3: Distribution of the use of hashtags by frequency (frequency between 0–20 instances).

Table 24.3: Distribution of use of hashtags by frequency. Frequency of use of hashtags

Number of hashtags

Percentage (%)

,

.%

–

,

.%

–

,

.%

–

,

.%

≥ 

,

.%



From Table 24.3, we can see that 68% of hashtags were only used once, while the hashtags used 100 times or more represented only approximately 2% of the total number. There are two general causes for this phenomenon: first, the range of content addressed in Weibo is very broad, and the different hashtags correspond to different subjects; second, the level of individualization among Weibo users is extremely high, and some Weibo users tend to use or define hashtags which are out of the ordinary so as to demonstrate their individual personality. Hashtag length refers to the number of characters or letters contained within a hashtag. The average length of all hashtags was 11.8; Figure 24.4 shows the distribution of hashtags with a length of less than 60 characters/letters. We can see that the number of hashtags with a length of 4 to 10 characters is relatively high; among these, four-character hashtags have the highest quantity. To a certain extent, this reflects the linguistic habits of Weibo users in defining topic content: the four-character format may be said to be most beloved by Chinese people.

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Quantitative percentage

24 Survey of Weibo language usage

14.00% 12.00% 10.00% 8.00% 6.00% 4.00% 2.00% 0.00% 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

Figure 24.4: Distribution diagram of hashtag length (length between 0–60 characters/letters).

2.2 Hashtag content The number of hashtag users refers to the number of users who employed a given hashtag, expressing users’ level of interest in the topic corresponding to the given hashtag. Relative to hashtag frequency, it can better reflect users’ interest in the subject represented by the hashtag. In analyzing the top 100 hashtags with the highest number of users, we found that, in comparison with blog corpuses, the range of subjects embodied in Weibo hashtags was more dispersed; to a certain extent, this also reflects that the information carried by Weibo is closer to life and more diversified. The content addressed by these 100 hashtags primarily involves the following three areas.

Viral incidents This area includes the Li Tianyi an (李天一案, ‘Li Tianyi case’), Wang Fei Li Yapeng lihun (王菲李亚鹏离婚, ‘divorce of Wang Fei and Li Yapeng’), Bo Xilai an (薄熙来 案, ‘Bo Xilai case’), Fang Zhouzi dajia Lin Zhiying (方舟子打假林志颖, ‘Fang Zhouzi accuses Jimmy Lin of fraud’), Meiguo zhengfu guanmen (美国政府关门, ‘U.S. government shutdown’), Chang’e san hao benyue (嫦娥三号奔月, ‘Chang’e 3 heads to the moon’), 4 sui nantong matui kongbufenzi (4 岁男童骂退恐怖分子, ‘4year-old boy tells off terrorist’), Feite (菲特, ‘[Typhoon] Fitow’), daye xunchi chengguan (大爷训斥城管, ‘old uncle reprimands city management’), jiefei 60 miao qiang 150 ke zuanshi (劫匪 60 秒抢 150 颗钻石, ‘robbers steal 150 diamonds in 60 seconds’), 3 ming xiaoxuesheng zao bangjia yuhai (3 名小学生遭绑架遇害, ‘3 elementary school students kidnapped and murdered’), fuqi chaojia ying’er niwang (夫妻吵架婴儿溺亡, ‘husband and wife argue as baby drowns to death’),

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Tu Xinhui (涂新辉) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

tiaolouzhe zaisi laoren hou taoyi (跳楼者砸死老人后逃逸, ‘building-jumper hits and kills elderly person, then runs away’), lao fuqi Zhongqiu jie gudu lishi (老夫妻 中秋节孤独离世, ‘elderly couple departs this world from loneliness on MidAutumn Festival’).

Discussions, investigations, or advocacy of a particular topic Based on the topic content, this category can be further divided into the following few sub-categories: Emotional life: zui xiang dui shinian qian de ziji shuo shenme (最想对十年前的自 己说什么, ‘what you most want to say to yourself 10 years ago’), shuoshuo rang ni zui ganga de yi jian shi (说说让你最尴尬的一件事, ‘talk about the thing that makes you most embarrassed’), ni yuanyi you didi meimei ma (你愿意有弟弟妹 妹吗, ‘do you want to have a little brother or sister’), renlei 25 sui cai chengnian (人类 25 岁才成年?, ‘are humans not adults until age 25?’), ai zuocai de nanren zhishang gao (爱做菜的男人智商高, ‘men who love to cook have high IQ’), congxiao dao da du ni yingxiang zui shen de ren (从小到大对你影响最深的人, ‘person who had the most profound influence on you growing up’), ni meitian he shei zai yiqi shijian zui chang (你每天和谁在一起时间最长, ‘who you spend the most time with each day’), yi ren shuo yi shou dai ai zi de geming (一人说一首带爱字的 歌名, ‘each person say the name of a song with the character love in the title’), ni wei naxie shiqing ao guo ye (你为哪些事情熬过夜, ‘what things have you stayed up all night for’), zui shunjian (最瞬间, ‘most transitory’), guanggun bili (光棍 比例, ‘bachelor ratio’), lian’ai ketang (恋爱课堂, ‘love classroom’), weishenme ni hai danshen (为什么你还单身, ‘why you’re still single’), ni yanli de aiqing shi shenme yangzi de (你眼里的爱情是什么样子的, ‘what love is like in your eyes’), women kaishi lao le (我们开始老了, ‘we’re starting to get old’), ni hai xiangxin gou xiaozhi de chengnuo ma (你还相信勾小指的承诺吗, ‘do you still believe in pinkyswear promises’), gujia ba nuan dai huijia (顾家把暖带回家, ‘taking care of your family means taking warmth home’), jiangwen (降温, ‘lower the temperature’), Zhongqiu jie (中秋节, ‘Mid-Autumn Festival’), shen yong mianfei xishou ye (慎用免 费洗手液, ‘be careful using free hand soap’), linghuaqian yong bu wan hui aima (零花钱用不完会挨骂, ‘getting a scolding for not using up pocket money’), and other examples which well deserve to be called rich and colorful. Issues in society: xiang huanwei gongren zhijing (向环卫工人致敬, ‘paying respects to environmental sanitation workers’), shenme shi aiguo (什么是爱国, ‘what is patriotism’), pandian 2013 (盘点 2013, ‘2013 inventory’), song liwu (送礼物, ‘sending gifts’), Taiwan ren zheyang kan women (台湾人这样看我们, ‘this is how Taiwanese

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people see us’), qingxin zheng nengliang xingfu da zhongguo (清新正能量幸福大 中国, ‘refreshing positive energy brings happiness to vast China’), san ge zi shuoming ni de jiaxiang (三个字说明你的家乡, ‘describe your hometown in three characters’), huyou women de ‘yang pinpai’ (忽悠我们的 ‘洋品牌’, ‘bragging about our ‘foreign brands’’), juzai (拒载, ‘refuse to take [passengers]’), gongjiao bu rangzuo jiang quzhu (公交不让座将驱逐, ‘expelled for not giving up seat on the bus’), yin tianqi tai hao tingke yi tian (因天气太好停课一天, ‘suspend classes for a day because the weather is too good’), jiaoshi jie huo jiang gaiqi (教师节或将改期, ‘Teachers Day, or will the date be changed’), kanbing bian pianyi (看病变便宜, ‘seeing the doctor becomes cheap’), and yinhang feika neng cun bu neng qu? (银行 废卡能存不能取?, ‘after the bank deactivates a card, you can make deposits but can’t make withdrawals?’), encompassing all subjects. Delicious food and travel: ni you meiyou meizhou bi chi de lingshi? (你有没有每周 必吃的零食?, ‘do you have a snack you have to eat every weekend?’), tongyi naicha dahao xinqing chuchu zhanfang (统一奶茶大好心情处处绽放, ‘with Tongyi Milk Tea, excellent moods blossom everywhere’), shiyi qu na wan (十一去哪玩, ‘where to go have fun on October 1ʹ), Guoqing paidui zhao (国庆排队照, ‘pictures of queueing on National Day’), Guoqing jie zhangdan (国庆节账单, ‘National Day bills’), and jiaqi dao jishi (假期倒计时, ‘countdown to vacation’), xiujia anpai (休 假安排, ‘holiday arrangements’) fully serve as guides to being a netizen. Entertainment gossip: cece ni ling yiban zhang shenme yang (测测你另一半长什 么样, ‘guess what your other half will look like’), gei Han Han zhaopian pei ju hua (给韩寒照片配句话, ‘pair a caption with a picture of Han Han’), ni de QQ haoma zhi duoshao qian (你的 QQ 号码值多少钱, ‘how much money is your QQ number worth’), diqiu zui shuai nanren (地球最帅男人, ‘handsomest man on Earth’), xiao guanggun jie (小光棍节, ‘little bachelor’s day’), wanneng de kefu jie (万能的客服姐, ‘all-powerful customer service lady’), ruguo you suiyi men ni xiang qu nali (如果有随意门你想去哪里, ‘if you had a door to anywhere, where would you want to go’), ni zai gudai de minzi he shenfen (你在古代的名字和身份, ‘your name and status in ancient times’), you yizhong hanleng jiao wang chuan qiuku (有一种寒冷叫忘穿秋裤, ‘there is a frigidity called forgetting to wear thermal pants’), wo de shi da cuojue (我的十大错觉, ‘my ten biggest misconceptions’), yong fangyan shuo: Baba qu nar (用方言说: 爸爸去哪儿, ‘using dialect to say: Where Are We Going, Dad’), and so on can show people the leisurely and brisk rhythms of metropolitan life. Television programs: Baba qu nar (爸爸去哪儿, ‘Where are we going, dad’), Zhongguo hao shengyin (中国好声音, ‘Sing! China’), Kuaile nansheng (快乐男声, ‘Super Boy’).

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Tu Xinhui (涂新辉) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

Sports and games: guozu (国足, ‘national football team’), wo de QQ feiche chengjiu (我的 QQ 飞车成就, ‘my QQ Fly Car achievements’), QQ nongchang si zhounian (QQ 农场四周年, ‘four-year anniversary of QQ Farm’). Work and study: shi da duoluo biaoxian (十大堕落表现, ‘ten big signs of degeneration’), du Zhongwen xi shi langfei? (读中文系是浪费?, ‘is it a waste to major in Chinese?’), chenggong renshi yu shibai renshi de chabie (成功人士与失败人士的 差别, ‘the differences between successful people and failures’), chenggong renshi wu jian shi (成功人士五件事, ‘five things successful people do’), xia yi ge qi nian ni shi shei (下一个七年你是谁, ‘who will you be seven years from now’), ni neng wu zhang’ai Yingyu jiaoliu ma? (你能无障碍英语交流吗?, ‘can you interact in English with no barrier?’), xueba lüli (学霸履历, ‘curriculum vitae of the scholartyrant’), gun qu xuexi (滚去学习, ‘roll in to study’), and so on, reflecting to a certain extent the learning-oriented society that we live in today.

Actions and activities exclusive to the Weibo platform Shai touxiang (晒头像, ‘show off a headshot’), fenxiang tupian (分享图片, ‘share pictures’), fenxiang yinyue (分享音乐, ‘share music’), kongjian zhaopian (空间照 片, ‘pictures of spaces’), piaoliu ping (漂流瓶, ‘message in a bottle’), jiejing Weibo (街景微博, ‘street scenes Weibo’), chang Weibo (长微博, ‘long Weibo’), QQ quanzi (QQ 圈子, ‘QQ circles’), yunyou sihai (云游四海, ‘roaming the four seas’), lu ge lian (露个脸, ‘reveal a face’), Wei dianming (微点名, ‘Weibo roll call’), chang ba (唱吧, ‘let’s sing’), wo de Q dengji (我的 Q 等级, ‘my Q grade’), fenxiang gaoqing MV (分 享高清 MV, ‘share high-definition MV [movie]’), yuyue QQ shoujiban v4.6 xin ban (预约 QQ 手机版 v4.6 新版, ‘pre-book the new QQ mobile verion v. 4.6ʹ), WeixinTengxun xinwen (微信-腾讯新闻, ‘WeChat-Tencent news’), wo zai kan xinwen (我 在看新闻, ‘I’m watching news’), Weixin (微信, ‘WeChat’), Weibo san zhounian wo xiang shuo (微博三周年我想说, ‘what I want to say at the third anniversary of Weibo’), and so on. Here, we can discover the reasons why Weibo attracts such a large group of netizens.

3 Posting behavior 3.1 Volume of posts published by users This survey tabulated the volume of posts published by each user (including original posts, and reposts with comments). Based on the number of posts, the number

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Percentage of users

of users in each quantitative segment was tabulated, to obtain the distribution of users by the annual number of published posts; for details, see Figure 24.5 and Table 24.4. From the above data, we can see that approximately 88% of Weibo users account for 54% of the total posting volume, while the remaining 46% of Weibo posts are published by 12% of users. Among these, the highest volume of posts was 24,853 posts, while the median volume of posts was 238 posts; of the top 10 users publishing the most posts, 9 were ordinary individual users, who were by no means famous; currently, this class of users is generally referred to as Weibo

0.50% 0.40% 0.30% 0.20% 0.10% 0.00% 0

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800

Figure 24.5: Distribution of the number of Weibo users in each quantitative segment for volume of posts, with posting volumes between 0–800.

Table 24.4: Distribution chart for Weibo users in each quantitative segment for volume of posts. Segment by number of posts

Number of users

User Cumulative percentage percentage (%) (%)

Number of Percentage posts of posts (%)

Cumulative percentage (%)

–

,

.%

.%

,

.%

.%

–

,

.%

.%

,

.%

.%

–

,

.%

.%

,

.%

.%

–

,

.%

.%

,,

.%

.%

–

,

.%

.%

,,

.%

.%

–,

,

.%

.%

,,

.%

.%

,– ,

,

.%

.%

,,

.%

.%



.%

.%

,

.%

.%

≥ ,

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Tu Xinhui (涂新辉) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

kong (微博控, ‘Weibo controllers’). The remaining 1 user was an organization’s Weibo account, the primary purpose of which was Weibo marketing. In order to better understand the posting behavior of different Weibo communities, we divided the users into three different groups based on volume of posts: the first was active users, that is, the top 9,000 users with the highest volume of posts, representing approximately 20% of the total number of users; the second was inactive users, or the 9,000 users with the lowest volume of posts, representing approximately 20% of the total number of users; and the third was ordinary users, encompassing the remaining 27,000 users. The statistical data shows that active users published an average of 3.8 Weibo posts per day, ordinary users published an average of 0.8 Weibo posts per day, and inactive users published an average of 2.7 Weibo posts per month.

3.2 Posting times

Quantitative percentage

On the basis of the posting times for Weibo posts (including original posts and posts with comments), we obtained the distribution of the volume of posts across the 24 hours in a day; for details, see Figure 24.6.

7.00% 6.00% 5.00% 4.00% 3.00% 2.00% 1.00% 0.00% 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Figure 24.6: Distribution of user posting time.

From the statistical graph, we can see that, apart from the relatively low volume of posts in the pre-dawn time interval, the level of user activity in the other time intervals was fairly uniform, with two small peak intervals appearing at 12:00 PM noon and 21:00–22:00 in the evening. Weibo is temporally and spatially ubiquitous: the characteristic that users can obtain news and share information on the Weibo platform anytime and anywhere is verified by the statistical data.

24 Survey of Weibo language usage

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4 Use of Chinese characters on Weibo 4.1 Use of Chinese characters by users

20.00% 18.00% 16.00% 14.00% 12.00% 10.00% 8.00% 6.00% 4.00% 2.00% 0.00% 20 0 40 0 60 0 80 0 10 00 12 0 14 0 0 16 0 0 18 0 0 20 0 0 22 0 0 24 0 0 26 0 0 28 0 0 30 0 0 32 0 0 34 0 0 36 0 0 38 0 0 40 0 00

Percentage of users

The targets of the survey on the use of Chinese characters by Weibo users included all Weibo users whose volume of posts was greater than or equal to 100, a total of 27,036 individuals, representing approximately 60% of the total number of users. The following distribution diagram and table were obtained on the basis of quantitative segments for the number of unique characters used by each user (Figure 24.7).

Figure 24.7: Distribution of the number of unique Chinese characters used (number of unique characters between 0–4,000).

From Table 24.5, we can see that approximately 36% of users used less than 1,000 unique Chinese characters, while approximately 98% of users used less

Table 24.5: Distribution of the number of unique Chinese characters used. Segment for the number of unique Chinese characters used

Number of users

Percentage of users (%)

Cumulative percentage (%)

–

,

.%

.%

–,

,

.%

.%

,–,

,

.%

.%

,–,



.%

.%



.%

.%

≥ ,

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Tu Xinhui (涂新辉) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

than 3,000 unique Chinese characters. These data demonstrate that netizens generally use less than 3,000 Chinese characters in day-to-day interactions and expression. In combination with previous statistics on coverage, which have shown that the top 2,723 Chinese characters cover 99% of an entire corpus, we can infer that 3,000 Chinese characters are sufficient to support and satisfy the basic applications of Chinese characters.

4.2 Coverage in Chinese character usage The number of unique Chinese characters used in all original Weibo posts was 13,640, and the total number of characters was 440,579,131. The statistical data shows that the top 593 Chinese characters with the highest frequency represented 4.35% of the number of unique characters, while covering 80% of the entire corpus; the top 1,043 Chinese characters represented approximately 7.65% of the number of unique Chinese characters, while covering 90% of the entire corpus; and the top 2,723 Chinese characters represented 19.96% of the number of unique Chinese characters, while covering 99% of the entire corpus. The survey studies on character usage in The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况报告) over the years have shown that approximately 600 high-frequency Chinese characters can cover 80% of an entire corpus, while a little over 900 Chinese characters can cover 90% of an entire corpus. The circumstances of Chinese character coverage in original Weibo posts in this survey essentially conformed to this pattern.

4.3 Comparison of character usage Comparison of online media and blogs With the aid of data from The Language Situation in China (2013) (中国语言生活状 况报告 [2013]), we conducted a preliminary comparison between character usage in the Weibo corpus and various types of media (including newspapers, radio and television, and online news) and blog corpuses in the year 2012. Table 24.6 lists the respective circumstances of Chinese character coverage in the various corpuses. From the table, we can see that, in comparison with other media, the range of characters used on Weibo was broader, and the circumstances of Chinese character coverage in the Weibo corpus were very similar to blogs. The media generally involves a relatively small-scale creator community, while Weibo, blogs and other zi meiti (自媒体, ‘self-media’) have a comparatively large user base, with

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24 Survey of Weibo language usage

Table 24.6: Comparison of Chinese character coverage. Corpus category

Unique characters reaching % coverage

Unique characters reaching % coverage

Unique characters reaching % coverage

Number of unique characters

 media





,

,

 blogs



,

,

,

 Weibo



,

,

,

Table 24.7: Shared characters and exclusive characters among the top 50 high-frequency Chinese characters. Category

Number

Chinese characters

Shared characters



de (的, ‘of’), yi (一, ‘one’), shi (是, ‘is’), bu (不, ‘not’), le (了, ‘finished’ [particle]), ren (人, ‘person’), zai (在, ‘at’), you (有, ‘have’), wo (我, ‘I’), zhong (中, ‘center / China’), da (大, ‘big’), ge (个, ‘individual’ [measure word]), shang (上, ‘above’), wei (为, ‘be / become’), zhe (这, ‘this’), hui (会, ‘will’), lai (来, ‘come’), shi (时, ‘time’), dao (到, ‘arrive’), yao (要, ‘want / must’), sheng (生, ‘life’), jiu (就, ‘then’), yi (以, ‘use’), neng (能,’ can’), duo (多, ‘many’), men (们, [pluralizing suffix]), ye (也, ‘also’)

Characters exclusive to Weibo



ni (你, ‘you’), hao (好, ‘good’), zi (自, ‘self’), xin (心, ‘heart’), tian (天, ‘sky / day’), kan (看, ‘see’), me (么, [interrogative suffix]), ai (爱, ‘love’), dou (都, ‘all’), ke (可, ‘can’), guo (过, ‘pass by’ / [past tense suffix]), de (得, ‘get’), xiang (想, ‘want’), zi (子, ‘son’ / [noun suffix]), mei (没, ‘not have’), qu (去, ‘go’), yi (己, ‘already’), qing (情, ‘feeling’), shuo (说, ‘say’), zui (最, ‘most’), fen (分, ‘share, divide’), na (那, ‘that’), xia (下, ‘below, next’)

Characters exclusive to the media



guo (国, ‘country’), nian (年, ‘year’), he (和, ‘and / harmony’), chu (出, ‘exit’), fa (发, ‘issue’), xing / hang (行, ‘action’ / ‘industry’), shi (市, ‘city, market’), dui (对, ‘toward’), ri (日, ‘day’), ye (业, ‘business, trade’), jia (家, ‘home’; in guojia国家, ‘nation’), gong (公, ‘public’), ta (他, ‘he, they’), cheng (成, ‘become, succeed’), di (地, ‘land’), hou (后, ‘after’), zhe (者, ‘one who. . .’), jing (经, ‘pass through’; in jingji 经济, ‘economy’), xin (新, ‘new’), xian (现, ‘now’), zuo (作, ‘do’), yu (于, ‘at’), chang (场, ‘site’)

328

Tu Xinhui (涂新辉) and He Tingting (何婷婷)

relatively large variations between users in terms of their mode and habits of linguistic expression, and an extremely high degree of individualization.

Comparison of high-frequency Chinese characters in online media Drawing on the data in The Language Situation in China (2013) (中国语言生活状 况报告 [2013]), we conducted a simple comparative analysis of the top 50 highfrequency Chinese characters in the Weibo corpus and various types of media (including newspapers, radio and television, and online news) in the year 2012. Table 24.7 lists the number of shared characters and exclusive characters among the top 50 high-frequency Chinese characters for the two corpuses: we can see that the majority of the characters exclusive to Weibo are associated with the description of personal lives, emotions and behaviors, while the majority of the characters exclusive to the media are related to reports on politics, the economy, and incidents in society.

Part V: Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan

Ma Maopeng (马毛朋) and Li Fei (李斐)

25 Hong Kong language associations *Hong Kong boasts a diverse assortment of associations large and small, many of which are related to language education and research. Some associations have a small number of members and few activities, flowering briefly before fading, while others are continuously growing and developing, becoming language organizations with a certain degree of prestige and influence in Hong Kong society.

1 Associations and their activities Hong Kong has no official language research institute, all of its language associations are civil organizations of a collegial nature. Owing to differences in their aims, member composition, and so on, these associations each have their own characteristics in terms of their activities, matters of interest, and other areas. Fairly distinctive associations include the Chinese Language Society of Hong Kong (香港中国语文学会), Hong Kong Association for Chinese Language in Education (香港中文教育学会), Linguistic Society of Hong Kong (香港语言学 学会), Xianggang Putonghua Yanxishe (香港普通话研习社, ‘Mandarin Research and Study Association of Hong Kong’), and the Chinese Language Education Research Association (中国语文教育研究学会).

1.1 Chinese Language Society of Hong Kong The Chinese Language Society of Hong Kong is a cultural and academic organization which promotes the development of Chinese language affairs through the form of research, publication, education, exchanges, and so on.1 The society was registered as a nonprofit corporation in 1979, and it is also a tax-exempt public charity recognized by the Inland Revenue Department of Hong Kong. The society

1 Chinese Language Society of Hong Kong (香港中国语文学会) website, http://www.huayu qiao.org/. Notes: Our thanks and gratitude to Tin Siu-lam (田小琳), Zao Zin (周荐), Si Chung Mou (施仲谋), Yao Te Hwai (姚德怀), Liu Hsiao-Ling (刘筱玲), and Tsoi Sin Man (蔡倩文), who graciously assisted in the writing of this paper. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-025

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Ma Maopeng (马毛朋) and Li Fei (李斐)

is registered in the form of a non-stock corporation: all of its assets are owned by the plenary body of members, and the directors do not receive compensation. The society members are divided into two categories, basic members and general members, of whom basic members have voting rights. The members enjoy the privileges of participating in society activities, using society facilities, and applying to take part in society research programs. Mr. Yao Te Hwai (姚德怀) has served as both the first and current president of the society. The Chinese Language Society of Hong Kong holds one general assembly each year. The theme of the assembly is usually related to current language issues in Hong Kong society. In recent years, the society has actively participated in studies on the state of linguistic life in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau and mainland China, particularly with respect to research on linguistic life in Hong Kong, coordinating or jointly hosting linguistics seminars sponsored by various Hong Kong universities. In terms of language studies, the society has conducted analysis on the state of language usage in Hong Kong society, with significance for social linguistics, and its research on shequ ci (社区词, ‘community expressions’) has also provided a great deal of insight into various overseas Chinese communities. In addition, the society advocates Cross-Strait shutongwen (书同文, ‘uniformity of script’), in an endeavor to eliminate the barriers posed by traditional and simplified characters in cultural exchanges across the straits in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau and mainland China, and has created the hexieti (和 谐体, ‘harmonious style’) computer font. President Yao Te Hwai is personally involved in handling the society’s day-to-day affairs and directing the society’s efforts, and has played an important role in the society’s thriving development. He has also produced a number of linguistics papers and research essays for the journal published by the society, addressing all aspects of spoken and written language, and is quite highly renowned in Chinese language studies circles in Hong Kong. Among the society’s members, the research by Professor Tin Siu-lam (田小琳) on Hong Kong language policies, Hong Kong-style Chinese, shequ ci, and Mandarin education and testing, and the research by Mr. Wong Wai Tik (汪 惠迪) on language in Hong Kong and Singapore have played an extremely dynamic role in forwarding efforts in Hong Kong for research on spoken and written Chinese. In addition, the society has successively published five periodicals as well as a number of books. These include the quarterly publication Chinese Language Review (语文建设通讯), founded in 1981, which had published a total of 105 issues as of year-end 2013, and serves as the society’s most important language periodical. The Journal of Chinese Literary Studies (文学论衡) is a biannual journal established in 2002: to date, it has published 23 issues, serving as a periodical for the society’s publication of literary studies. Chinese Language

25 Hong Kong language associations

333

Education (中文教育) began publication in 2001 before going on hiatus in 2002, publishing a total of 4 issues. Ciku jianshe tongxun (词库建设通讯, ‘Lexicon Review’) published a total of 22 issues between 1993 and 2000. Language Forum (语文杂志) was distributed between 1979 and 1986, releasing a total of 13 issues. The society has also compiled and published a number of books, the most significant of which include: The Etymological Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Neologisms (近现代汉语新词词源词典) (Hanyu Dacidian Publishing House, 2001); Formation of the Modern Chinese Lexicon: A Study of 19th Century Loanwords in the Chinese Language (现代汉语词汇的形成 — 十九世纪汉语外来 词研究) (a translation of The Formation of Modern Chinese Lexicon and Its Evolution Toward a National Language: The Period from 1840 to 1898 by Federico Masini, translated by Wong Ho Ching [黄河清], Hanyu Dacidian Publishing House, 1997); Commemorative Anthology of Essays by Mr. Wang Li (王力先生纪念 论文集) (Joint Publishing [H.K.], 1987); Collection of Essays from the Symposium on “1997 and the Chinese Language in Hong Kong” (“一九九七与香港中国语文”研 讨会论文集) (jointly published by the Chinese Language Society of Hong Kong and the T. T. Ng Chinese Language Research Centre of The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1996); Let the Chinese Language Stand on the Shoulders of Giants – Collected Essays on Issues in the Chinese Language (让汉语文站在巨人的肩膀上: 汉语文问题讨论集) (The Commercial Press [Hong Kong], 1997).

1.2 Hong Kong Association for Chinese Language in Education The Hong Kong Association for Chinese Language in Education was established in September 1986. The aims of the association are to promote the development of Chinese language education in Hong Kong, strengthen understanding of the significance and importance of Chinese language education among the members of society, improve the level of professionalism of research on Chinese language education, engage in exchanges with relevant organizations and professionals on experiences and views regarding Chinese language education, explore and study the issues currently faced in Chinese language education and seek solutions, et cetera. The association’s first president was Professor Yu Nae-Wing (余迺永); AuYeung Yu-wing (欧阳汝颖), Tin Siu-lam (田小琳), and Si Chung Mou (施仲谋) have all subsequently served as president or vice-president over several sessions of the board of directors (Tin, Lee & Chung 1994). As an association composed of expert scholars in the field of Chinese language education, the Hong Kong Association for Chinese Language in Education has made many forays into research. Since holding the “Symposium on Chinese Language Courses, Teaching Materials and Pedagogy” in July 1988, the

334

Ma Maopeng (马毛朋) and Li Fei (李斐)

association has held a number of conference exploring curriculum design, the compiling of teaching materials, and pedagogy, as well as relevant issues in Mandarin education and teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The collected papers from each conference are officially published under the Special Issue of the Hong Kong Association for Chinese Language in Education (香港中文教育学会 学术专刊). The Hong Kong Association for Chinese Language in Education has played an important role in promoting Chinese language and Mandarin education efforts. Beginning in 1988, the association has jointly sponsored a series of Mandarin teaching certificate courses alongside the School of Continuing and Professional Studies of The Chinese University of Hong Kong; the instructors have included Tin Siu-lam (田小琳) and other expert scholars, while the students attending the courses have included teachers at university colleges of education, civil servants from the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, and so on, with wide-ranging influence on society.

1.3 Linguistic Society of Hong Kong The Linguistic Society of Hong Kong was founded in March 1986.2 The society’s aims are to promote teaching and research on linguistics in the Hong Kong region; to assist in promoting exchanges between Chinese linguistics circles and international linguistics circles; to encourage and assist local Hong Kong linguists exchange their views on recent developments in linguistics research, and strengthen the dissemination of relevant information; to establish and develop ties with other linguistics organizations or organizations with an interest in linguists or similar aims; to hold relevant conferences and other academic activities; to provide recommendations and relevant services to public and private institutions with regard to language and linguistics training, policy planning, evaluations, and so on; and to promote the publication of periodicals corresponding to the above objectives. The society’s first president was Professor Tsou Kayin (邹嘉彦), and its current president is Professor Lai Bong-yeung (黎邦洋). The Linguistic Society of Hong Kong holds regular annual research forums to discuss various issues related to linguistics, and make a selection for the “Linguistic Society of Hong Kong Outstanding Thesis Award” (香港语言学学会 杰出论文奖). The society also holds a “Workshop on Cantonese” (粤语工作坊)

2 Linguistic Society of Hong Kong (香港语言学学会) website, http://www.lshk.org/.

25 Hong Kong language associations

335

once or twice a year, to discuss issues related to the Cantonese language. With respect to research on the Cantonese language, the society formulated a simple, easy-to-understand Cantonese Romanisation scheme: at year-end 1993, the scheme was designated as the “The Linguistic Society of Hong Kong Cantonese Romanisation Scheme” (香港语言学学会粤语拼音方案), abbreviated as Jyutping (粤拼, ‘Cantonese Romanisation’). On the basis of this scheme, the society also designed Jyutping input software, available for free download; this software has played an important role in promoting Cantonese language education and research efforts. In addition, the society established the “Language Policy Work Group” (语言政策小组) to study and discuss language policy issues in the four Cross-Strait regions of Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and mainland China, as well as the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and other regions; a dedicated page was created on the society’s website to collect relevant sources and research papers on language policies, for convenient consultation by researchers. The society has also published a number of essay anthologies, including Studies in Chinese Linguistics (中国语言学研究) (edited by Gu Yang [顾阳], 1998); Studies in Chinese Linguistics (中国语言学研究), Volume II (edited by Pan Haihua [潘海华], 2001); Studies in Cantonese Linguistics (粤语语言学研究) (edited by Stephen Matthews, 1998); Studies in Cantonese Linguistics (粤语语言 学研究), Volume II (edited by Sio Ut-seong [萧月嫦] & Tang Sze-Wing [邓思颖], 2007), and so on.

1.4 Xianggang Putonghua Yanxishe The Xianggang Putonghua Yanxishe (香港普通话研习社, ‘Mandarin Research and Study Association of Hong Kong’) was established in 1976 as the first civil organization in Hong Kong dedicated to the popularization of Putonghua.3 In 1995, it obtained recognition from the Inland Revenue Department of Hong Kong as a tax-exempt public charity. The association’s aim is to promote Putonghua by means of teaching, publication, research, exchanges, and other methods. The association’s first president was Hui Yiu-chi (许耀赐), and the current president is Mak Kam-kui (麦淦渠). The Xianggang Putonghua Yanxishe has offered a Mandarin study program since October 1975, and a total of more than 400,000 people have participated in the association’s training courses. The association was officially registered with the Education Bureau as the “Putonghua Yanxishe School” (普通话研习社

3 Xianggang Putonghua Yanxishe (香港普通话研习社) website, http://mandarin.edu.hk/.

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Ma Maopeng (马毛朋) and Li Fei (李斐)

学校, ‘School of the Mandarin Research and Study Association’), providing a variety of specialized Mandarin training courses for all members of society. In 2001, the association founded the “Xianggang Putonghua Yanxishe Primary School of Science and Creativity” (香港普通话研习社科技创意小学); aside from offering English classes, the school’s courses are entirely taught in Putonghua, serving as a model for the use of Putonghua as the language of instruction. The association also held a “Conference on Putonghua Teaching” (普通话教学 研讨会), inviting Tin Siu-lam (田小琳), Tsang Chi-fan (曾子凡) and other scholars to share their experiences in Putonghua teaching. In addition, the Putonghua Yanxishe publishes the periodical Xianggang Putonghua Bao (香港普通话报, ‘Hong Kong Mandarin Bulletin’) (biannual publication). The periodical has released 89 issues, consisting of academic papers as well as teachers’ sharing of experiences and outstanding student essays. The Yanxishe has made noteworthy contributions to efforts for the popularization of Putonghua in Hong Kong.

1.5 Chinese Language Education Research Association The predecessor of the Chinese Language Education Research Association was the “Primary School Chinese Language Education Research Association” (小学中 国语文教育研究学会), founded in 1999.4 Moved by the lack of an organization in Hong Kong which could provide language instructors with a forum for mutual exchanges and learning, Dr. Liu Hsiao-Ling (刘筱玲) founded this association together with several like-minded primary school principals, Chinese language instructors, language education experts, and other education workers. In September 2009, it was renamed as the “Chinese Language Education Research Association” (中国语文教育研究学会). The association’s aims are to improve the quality of primary and secondary school Chinese language teaching in Hong Kong, promote the professional development of primary and secondary school teachers in the Chinese language faculty, encourage ties between domestic and international primary and secondary school language education workers or organizations, and promote research on primary and secondary school language education. The association has more than one thousand members, including professional members composed of primary and secondary school language

4 Chinese Language Education Research Association (中国语文教育研究学会) website, http:// www.pclera.org.hk/.

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instructors, as well as school members. Dr. Liu Hsiao-Ling (刘筱玲) has served as the first and current president of the association. The Chinese Language Education Research Association publishes two society journals, including Language Instructors (语文教师) (quarterly publication) and Primary School Chinese Language Instructors (小学中文教师) (quarterly publication), which serve as spaces for exchanges between association members on their teaching experiences. The association also sponsors the “Chinese Language Elite Programme” (中国语文菁英计划), which puts on contests to select primary and middle school students with outstanding language proficiency to participate in extracurricular language training, expanding the students’ field of vision. The association is deserving of attention for its contributions to the promotion of Chinese language education efforts in primary and secondary schools.

2 Matters for consideration Owing to its special history, Hong Kong has a unique linguistic ecosystem. In terms of spoken language, Cantonese is the primary lingua franca of the people of Hong Kong. In terms of written language, English served as the only official language for a long period of time, and all documents had to be written in English to be legally valid; the language is still in a strong position even today. Following the return of Hong Kong and the implementation of ziyou xing (自由行, ‘free travel’) and other policies, the interactions between Hong Kong and mainland China grew more frequent, and Putonghua gradually developed important significance. Given this highly animated and lively linguistic ecosystem, the following language issues merit the attention of language associations.

2.1 Language policy matters Chapter I, Article 9 of The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People‘s Republic of China (中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法) states that, “In addition to the Chinese language, English may also be used as an official language by the executive authorities, legislature and judiciary of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.5 In the conception of the ordinary

5 The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People‘s Republic of China (中华人民共和国香港特别行政区基本法), http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/tc/basiclawtext/ chapter_1.html.

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Ma Maopeng (马毛朋) and Li Fei (李斐)

people of Hong Kong, both speaking and writing are generally referred to as wen (文, ‘language’): when the people of Hong Kong say Women jiang Zhongwen (我们讲中文, ‘Let’s speak Chinese’) or Shi bu shi Yingwen (识不识英文, ‘Do you know English’), wen (文, ‘language’) refers both to spoken and written language. In October 1997, Tung Chee-hwa (董建华), the first Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region stated in his first policy address: “Our ideal is that secondary school graduates will be able to write fluently in Chinese and English, and will have the confidence to use Cantonese, English and Putonghua to communicate with others”.6 In the 1999 policy address, this formulation was encapsulated as liangwen sanyu (两文三语, ‘two written languages and three spoken languages’): “The consistent aim of the government of the Special Region has been to foster talents capable of masterfully using the two written languages and three spoken languages”.7 The status of Putonghua was thus affirmed in the form of official policy. At present, proficiency in the liangwen sanyu (两文三语, ‘two written languages and three spoken languages’) has become a basic requirement for civil servants and in personnel hiring by commercial organizations. However, because the spoken form of Zhongwen (中文, ‘Chinese language’) as a fading yuwen (法定语文, ‘legal language’) or zhengshi yuwen (正式语文, ‘official language’) is not clearly specified in the Hong Kong legal code, occasional controversies have emerged in society of late regarding the status of Cantonese and Putonghua. As private think tanks, the language associations of Hong Kong can provide recommendations regarding language policy matters; for instance, they could recommend that the liangwen sanyu (两文三 语, ‘two written languages and three spoken languages’) policy be written into the legal code, to establish the status of Cantonese and Putonghua as fading yuwen (法定语文, ‘legal languages’), thus avoiding unnecessary disputes, and contributing efforts to building harmonious linguistic life.

2.2 Chinese language education issues As of September 2009, commencing with the 4th year of secondary school, Hong Kong senior secondary schools began eliminating preparatory courses, amending the length of schooling from the original four years to three years. The Hong Kong Education Bureau also formulated new “Curriculum and Assessment 6 1997 Policy Address (一九九七年施政报告), http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/pa97/chi nese/cpaindex.htm. 7 1999 Policy Address (一九九九年施政报告), http://www.policyaddress.gov.hk/pa99/chi nese/highlightc.htm.

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Guidance” (课程及评估指引) for the subject of Zhongguo yuwen (中国语文, ‘Chinese language arts’), which serves as a hexin kemu (核心科目, ‘core subject’). This represented another round of curriculum reforms following the 2002 implementation of the “New Chinese Language Arts Curriculum” (中国语文新课程) revised by the former Hong Kong Education Department. The state of affairs for primary and secondary school curricula and teaching in Hong Kong first involves the formulation of curriculum and assessment guidance by the Education Bureau; each publisher then organizes experts and scholars to compile teaching materials in accordance with the guidance, and schools are free to choose the materials suited to the given school. This is also the case for education in the subject of Chinese language arts. Among these three links, the compiling of “Guidance” is the most crucial. The “Guidance” plays an important role in determining teaching content and the effects of education. In recent years, secondary school students have received less than ideal scores in Chinese language arts examinations, indicating that secondary school language arts education is still deficient in certain areas; it is worth considering whether the “Curriculum and Assessment Guidance” (课程及评估指引), as a guideline document, has any areas which could be improved. For instance, the current secondary school language arts curriculum does not include fanwen jiaoxue (范文教学, ‘model essay education’), instead adopting the approach of danyuan jiaoxue (单元教学, ‘unit education’). Does fanwen jiaoxue (范文教学, ‘model essay education’) still have any saving graces? Could it be integrated with danyuan jiaoxue (单元教学, ‘unit education’)? How could fanwen (范文, ‘model essays’) be used to cultivate students’ independent thinking, rather than their capacity for rote memorization? The language associations of Hong Kong could contribute new and better ideas with regard to these issues. In an interview with Sing Tao Daily (星岛日报), Si Chung Mou (施仲谋), the former president of the Hong Kong Association for Chinese Language in Education and current head of the School of Chinese of The University of Hong Kong, proposed recommendations for the number of classical Chinese fanwen (范文, ‘model essays’) in the new senior secondary school curriculum for Chinese language arts.

2.3 Issues in Putonghua education In Hong Kong, native language education refers to Cantonese language education: the Chinese language arts curriculum at Hong Kong primary and secondary schools usually takes the form of Cantonese language education, and the general public also understand Zhongwen (中文, ‘Chinese language’) as the Cantonese language, while the Putonghua curriculum is separately established

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Ma Maopeng (马毛朋) and Li Fei (李斐)

as an independent subject. In recent years, some scholars have advocated the integration of Putonghua into the Chinese language curriculum, proposing the educational concept of Putonghua jiao Zhongwen (普通话教中文, ‘teaching Chinese in Mandarin’), abbreviated as Pu jiao Zhong (普教中). Tin Siu-lam (田 小琳), Ho Kwok-cheung (何国祥), Hui Yiu-chi (许耀赐), Lam Kin Ping (林建平) and other figures are all representative scholars advocating Pu jiao Zhong. Prior to 1997, only Kiangsu and Chekiang Primary School and a small minority of other schools had adopted Putonghua jiao Zhongwen (普通话教中文, ‘teaching Chinese in Mandarin’). In September 199, 13 primary schools and 14 secondary schools were using Putonghua to teach the Chinese language. In July 2000, The Chinese University of Hong Kong proposed the “Program for the Use of Putonghua to Teach the Chinese Language” (用普通话教中文计划): 17 primary schools and 14 secondary schools took part in the program, while an additional 40 primary schools and 65 secondary schools proposed requirements for participation. In November 2000, the Curriculum Development Council issued Learning to Learn: Advisory Document on Chinese Language Arts Education (学 会学习: 中国语文教学咨询文件), which addressed “issues related to the relationship between Putonghua and the subject of Chinese language arts, use of Putonghua to teach the Chinese language, and so on.” On October 30, 2007, the Standing Committee on Language Education and Research announced an appropriation of HKD 200 million for a program beginning in the 2008–2009 school year, which would annually support 30 primary schools and 10 secondary schools in implementing the use of Putonghua to teach Chinese language courses. Language associations could also engage in further research and discussion on the topic of Putonghua jiao Zhongwen (普通话教中文, ‘teaching Chinese in Mandarin’).

References Gu, Yang. 1998. Studies in Chinese Linguistics. Linguistic Society of Hong Kong. Mathews, Steven. 1998. Studies in Cantonese Linguistics. Linguistic Society of Hong Kong. Pan, Haihua. 2001. Studies in Chinese Linguistics II. Linguistic Society of Hong Kong. Sio, Joanna Ut-Seong and Sze-Wing Tang. 2007. Studies in Cantonese Linguistics 2. Linguistic Society of Hong Kong. Tin, Siu-lam (田小琳), Lee, Hok-Ming (李学铭) & Chung, Ling-Sung (钟岭崇). 1994. Comprehensive analysis of language education (语文教学面面观). Hong Kong Cultural and Educational Publisher Limited.

Su Jinzhi (苏金智)

26 Survey on the use of Putonghua in Macao The scope of this survey includes the Macao Peninsula, Taipa, Coloane, and departments and institutions related to the use of Putonghua; the targets primarily consist of students in standard education (not including vocational education and special education), employees in public-facing service industries, and ordinary residents. The survey methodology primarily adopted the methods of survey by questionnaire, sound recordings, interviews, and observations. For the survey questionnaires, the method of random sampling was primarily adopted. The survey questionnaires were chiefly divided into two large sections. The first section consisted of a survey questionnaire for university, secondary, and primary school students: the survey work for this section was primarily completed by sampling and organizing students to fill out the questionnaires on the basis of a sampling plan, by liaising with staff members at Macao language and cultural centers, and with the aid of relevant school administrators. The personnel in the project team were chiefly responsible for the allocation of sample sizes, concrete sampling work, and the distribution and recovery of the questionnaires. The second section consisted of a survey questionnaire for public sites, and was chiefly completed through personal surveying by the project team members in the field. The results of the data tabulation show that 595 primary and secondary school students and 684 university students were involved in this survey, for a total of 1,279; the number for the public sites was 675 individuals and the number involved in observations was 469 individuals. The total number of individuals involved in the two-part survey was 2,616.

1 Analysis of survey results for primary, secondary and university students 1.1 Language use in different settings This survey examined language use by the survey targets in 5 settings: at home, at school, at shops and restaurants, at banks and post offices, and at government offices (See Table 26.1). In general, in the 5 different settings, the

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-026

Home School Shop or restaurant Bank or post office Government office

Setting Cantonese . . . . .

Putonghua

. . . . .

. . . . .

English

Primary and secondary students

. . . . .

Portuguese . . . . .

Putonghua . . . . .

Cantonese . . . . .

English

University students

Table 26.1: Language (including dialect) usage by primary, secondary and university students in different settings (%).

. . . . .

Portuguese

342 Su Jinzhi (苏金智)

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343

first choice for the vast majority of the survey targets was to use Cantonese; although Putonghua ranked slightly lower than English, the difference was not significant; and under general circumstances, Portuguese saw the least usage, but its usage was ranked in second place at government offices. At home, language usage among primary and secondary students and university students was essentially consistent, ranking as: Cantonese, Putonghua, English, Portuguese, with Putonghua ranking in second place. At school, the ranking for primary and secondary students was: Cantonese (72.6%), English (65.2%), Putonghua (64.7%), and Portuguese (24.4%), with Putonghua ranking in third place; for university students, the ranking was: Putonghua (65.6%), English (58.5%), Cantonese (40.9%), and Portuguese (24.7%), with Putonghua ranking in first place. At shops, restaurants, banks, post offices, and other public settings, the rankings among primary and secondary students and university students were generally consistent, namely: Cantonese, English, Putonghua, Portuguese, with Putonghua ranking in third place. At government offices, the ranking for primary and secondary students was: Cantonese (26.9%), Portuguese (15.8%), English (5.0%), and Putonghua (2.9%), with Putonghua ranking in 4th place; university students had Cantonese (28.5%), Portuguese (11.3%), Putonghua (7.5%), and English (5.8%), with Putonghua ranking in third place. As an official language, usage of Portuguese ranked in second place in Macao government offices.

1.2 Language competence Bilingual or multilingual competence The results of this survey show that Macao university and secondary students are generally able to use 2 to 4 languages or dialects, and a minority of individuals are able to speak 5 languages or dialects. 50% of university students were able to speak 3 languages, and 15% were able to speak 4 languages or dialects; 38% of secondary students were able to speak 2 languages or dialects, and approximately 30% were able to speak 3 languages or dialects. In their day-to-day lives, the languages or dialects generally spoken by Macao students include Cantonese, Putonghua, English, and Portuguese. Some individuals are also able to speak Min dialect (including Teochew dialect), Hakka dialect, and other dialects; in addition, some individuals are able to speak the Filipino language, Japanese, Spanish, and other foreign languages.

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Language fluency Table 26.2 shows that the vast majority of students believe that the language (including dialects) they speak most fluently is Cantonese, followed by Putonghua and English, with Portuguese ranking last. University students from mainland China speak Putonghua most fluently. In terms of the level of language fluency, the majority of university students and secondary students have proficiently mastered Cantonese and Putonghua. 76.5% of university self-reported that they were most fluent in Cantonese, and 7.4% ranked it as second most fluent, amounting to 83.9% for the two items; 89.1% of secondary students reported being most fluent in Cantonese, and 7.3% ranked it as second most fluent, amounting to 96.4% for the two items; 20.0% of university students self-reported that they were most fluent in Putonghua, and 65.6% ranked it as second most fluent, amounting to 85.6% for the two items; 6.7% of primary and secondary students reported being most fluent in Putonghua, and 76.2% ranked it as second most fluent, amounting to 82.9% for the two items. The statistical results for those selfreporting as most fluent in English and Portuguese were far below Cantonese and Putonghua. More than 94% of primary, secondary and university students had studied Putonghua, and 20% of university students ranked it in the first level of fluency, among whom more than half were not born in Macao; less than 10% of university students native to Macao reached the first level of fluency, while only 6.7% of primary and secondary students reached the first level of fluency; therefore, on the whole, fluency in Putonghua among Macao students still has a fair amount of room for improvement.

1.3 State of Putonghua State of acquisition The survey results show that more than 94% of primary, secondary and university students had studied Putonghua; the differences between students at different levels and students who had grown up in different regions were not very large. For the specific details, see the following Table 26.3:

Second most fluent . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . .

.

.



Putonghua Cantonese English Portuguese Filipino language Min dialect Hakka dialect Teochew dialect Other foreign languages Other dialects

n



.

.

. . . . . . .

Third most fluent



.

. . . . . . . . .

Fourth most fluent

Primary and secondary students (n = )

Most fluent

Current competent languages



.

.

. .

. . .

Most fluent

Table 26.2: Level of fluency in different languages (including dialects) used by the survey targets (%).



.

.

.

. . . .

Second most fluent



.

. . . .

. . . .

Third most fluent

University students (n = )



.

.

. .

. . . .

Fourth most fluent

26 Survey on the use of Putonghua in Macao

345

n

Has studied Has not studied

Has or has not studied Putonghua

Junior secondary school . . 

Primary school

. .





. .

Senior secondary school

Born in Macao

Table 26.3: Studies of Putonghua among the survey targets.



. .

University



. .

Total



. .

Primary school



. .

Junior secondary school



. .

Senior secondary school



. .

University

Not born in Macao



. .

Total

346 Su Jinzhi (苏金智)

26 Survey on the use of Putonghua in Macao

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Place of acquisition The following table demonstrates that schools are the primary setting for acquisition of Putonghua. Table 26.4 shows that students born in Macao and not born in Macao had certain commonalities as well as differences with respect to the settings for acquisition of Putonghua. The commonality was that schools were the primary setting, and the difference was that primary schools were the chief setting for the former group, while primary schools and kindergartens were the chief settings for the latter group; the home also accounted for a certain percentage. In Macao, properly handling Putonghua teaching in primary schools is currently a very important element of efforts to improve competence in Putonghua.

Attitudes toward Putonghua In the survey of primary, secondary, and university students, the results regarding the survey targets’ “willingness to learn Putonghua” show that students’ enthusiasm for studying Putonghua is relatively high: 69.7% of students indicated that they were willing or very willing to study Putonghua, 26.6% of students indicated indifference toward studying Putonghua, and only 3.7% of the survey targets indicated that they were unwilling or very unwilling to study Putonghua. In terms of language usage at schools and students’ willingness to study Putonghua, Putonghua already has a relatively important status among students in Macao, which is an important foundation for improving language competence in Putonghua. Macao students’ views regarding the implementation of Putonghua testing and their willingness to participate in Putonghua testing also reflect their attitudes toward Putonghua. In the surveys of both university students and primary and secondary students, when asked whether or not they planned to participate in the Putonghua Proficiency Test (普通话水平测试), those who selected “have not considered it” and “will wait and see” both represented the two items with the highest proportions. A slight difference is that the university students who selected “have not considered it” stood at a proportion of 30.57%, while the primary and secondary students who selected “will wait and see” stood at a proportion of 36.93%. The total percentage for these two items exceeded 50% in both groups, at 60.24% for university students and 65.76% for primary and secondary students. This coincides with the results of the survey, Views of Macao Students on the Implementation of the Putonghua Proficiency Test in Macao (澳门学生对澳 门实行普通话水平测试的看法), demonstrating that the majority of students are

n

Home Kindergarten Primary school Secondary school University Other

Setting

Junior secondary school

. . . .



Primary school

. . .





. . . .

Senior secondary school

Born in Macao



. . . . . .

University

Table 26.4: Settings where survey targets learned Putonghua.



. . . . . .

Total



. . .

Primary school



. . . .

Junior secondary school



.

. . . .

Senior secondary school



. . . . . .

University

Not born in Macao



. . . . . .

Total

348 Su Jinzhi (苏金智)

26 Survey on the use of Putonghua in Macao

349

not familiar with, do not understand, or are not particularly interested in the Putonghua Proficiency Test, and thus do not have a strong willingness to participate in the test.

2 Analysis of survey results for public settings A total of 13 occupations were selected to conduct a survey of public settings, including: security guards, chauffeurs, clerks, office workers, specialized technical personnel, civil servants, general administrative personnel, teachers, managers, police officers, retailers, commercial service industry personnel, and social workers. Among the 13 occupations, the top 5 in terms of survey sample size were commercial service industry personnel, clerks, specialized technical personnel, civil servants, and retailers; these occupations involve the most public-facing use of language.

2.1 Language usage in various settings Table 26.5 shows that Cantonese saw the highest usage in the 6 types of settings, with Putonghua ranking in second place, English ranking in third place, other Chinese dialects excluding Cantonese ranking in fourth place, and Portuguese ranking in fifth place.

2.2 Language competence From the results of the survey, it can be seen that the survey respondents employed in public settings in Macao have relatively strong bilingual or multilingual competence. There were 124 monolingual individuals, standing at 18.4%, and 551 bilingual and multilingual individuals, standing at 81.6%. In other words, more than 80% of individuals among the personnel employed in public settings in Macao are able to use at least 2 languages or dialects to communicate with people. Among these, 2 individuals were able to use 5 languages (including dialects) to communicate with people. Among the 4 groups having mastered 2 to 5 languages (including dialects), the language (including dialect) groupings with the highest proportions all included Putonghua. In this survey, as high as 99.4% of survey respondents were able to use Cantonese to engage in conversations; 77.6% of the total number of people

Putonghua Portuguese Cantonese English Min dialect Hakka dialect Teochew dialect Other foreign languages Other dialects No such circumstances

Pct.

 

. .

 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .

Personinstance

Home

Pct.

 

. .

 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .

Personinstance

Shop

Pct.

 

. .

 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .

Personinstance

Restaurant

Pct.

 

. .

 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .

Personinstance

Bank

Pct.

 

. .

 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .

Personinstance

Government Office Pct.

 

. .

 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .

Personinstance

Work

Table 26.5: Person-instances and percentages for the various languages (including dialects) used in different settings (%) (N = 675).

Pct.

 

. .

 .  . , .  .  .  .  .  .

Personinstance

Total

350 Su Jinzhi (苏金智)

26 Survey on the use of Putonghua in Macao

351

surveyed were able to use Putonghua to engage in conversations with people; and the proportions able to use English and Portuguese were respectively 36.3% and 3.4%.

2.3 Level of Putonghua One principal aim of this survey was to understand the state of proficiency in Putonghua in Macao. The survey for proficiency in Putonghua included selfreported data, as well as data from our observations. From the perspective of the information self-reported by the survey respondents, the level of Putonghua among personnel employed in public settings in Macao clustered around the 3 levels of “Able to use proficiently, but with some incorrect pronunciation” (30.7%), “Able to use fluently and accurately” (24.9%), and “Basically able to engage in conversations, but not particularly proficient” (22.7%). However, from the perspective of the information observed by the surveyors, the level of Putonghua among the survey respondents clustered around the 2 levels of “Able to use proficiently, but with a relatively heavy accent” (37.6%) and “Basically able to engage in conversations, but not particularly proficient” (24.4%). Nevertheless, on the whole, in adding together the top 4 levels, the self-reported levels were at 87.9%, while the observed levels were at 85.1%, with a difference of only 2.8%. Table 26.6 is a detailed comparison of the data collected using these two survey methods.

2.4 Attitudes toward Putonghua Attitudes toward Putonghua play an important role in the study and use of Putonghua. Table 26.7 shows that 52.9% of individuals like Putonghua, and only 7.5% of individuals dislike it or do not particularly like it. Table 26.8 and Table 26.9 show that 61.3 of individuals hope that Putonghua will become one of the languages taught in primary school, and 62.8% of individuals hope that Putonghua will become one of the languages taught in secondary school. With respect to its importance, the survey respondents believed that the importance of Putonghua in social interactions was second only to Cantonese. 72.5% of the survey respondents believed that the most important language in social interactions in Macao is Cantonese, while those who believed that Putonghua and English are the most important respectively stood at 16.1% and 11.2%, and only 0.3% believed that Portuguese is the most important.

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Su Jinzhi (苏金智)

Table 26.6: Comparison of sample sizes and percentages for the self-reported and observed levels of Putonghua. Self-reported levels

Able to use fluently and accurately Able to use proficiently, but with some incorrect pronunciation Able to use proficiently, but with a relatively heavy accent Basically able to engage in conversations, but not particularly proficient Able to understand, but not particularly able to speak Able to understand a little, but unable to speak Unable to understand or speak Total

Observed levels

Sample size n

Pct. (%)

Sample size n

Pct. (%)



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.



.

Table 26.7: Person-instances and percentages of the various options for partiality for speaking Putonghua.

Sample size n Pct. (%)

Really like

Like

Ordinary

Do not particularly like

Dislike

Indifferent

Total















.

.

.

.

.

.

.

3 Principal conclusions Through analysis of the above survey data, the following conclusions can preliminarily be reached:

353

26 Survey on the use of Putonghua in Macao

Table 26.8: Person-instances and percentages for selection of languages to be taught in Macao primary schools. Putonghua Portuguese Cantonese

English

Sample Size n

Single selection

Person-instance Pct. (%)

 .

 .

 .

 .



Multiple selections

Person-instance Pct. (%)

 .

 .

 .

 .



Total

Person-instance Pct. (%)

 .

 .

 .

 .



Table 26.9: Person-instances and percentages for selection of languages to be taught in Macao secondary schools. Putonghua Portuguese Cantonese

English

Sample Size n

Single selection

Person-instance Pct. (%)

 .

 .

 .

 .



Multiple selections

Person-instance Pct. (%)

 .

 .

 .

 .



Total

Person-instance Pct. (%)

 .

 .

 .

 .



3.1 Macao society has relatively good bilingual or multilingual competence The results of this survey show that secondary and university students and the general population in Macao are able to use 2 to 4 languages or dialects, and a minority of individuals are able to speak 5 languages or dialects.

3.2 Putonghua is widely used in Macao, representing a certain percentage in each setting The state of use of Putonghua is: at home, 35.6% among primary and secondary students, 24.9% among university students, and 15.1% among the public; at

354

Su Jinzhi (苏金智)

schools, 64.7% among primary and secondary students, and 65.5% among university students; at shops and restaurants, 11.9% among primary and secondary students, and 18.9% among university students; for the public, 11.1% at shops and 10.5% at restaurants; at government offices, 2.9% among primary and secondary students, 7.5% among university students, and 7.9% among the public. The use of Putonghua at government offices also has a fair amount of room for improvement.

3.3 The majority of individuals believe that their level of fluency in Putonghua needs improvement The majority of individuals have studied Putonghua (more than 94% of primary, secondary and university students), and have enthusiasm for it, but few believe that they have good proficiency, and the majority believe that their level of fluency in Putonghua needs improvement. The avenues for studying Putonghua primarily consist of school education, followed by broadcast television. Therefore, properly handling education in Putonghua at schools, particularly Putonghua education in the primary school phase, is an important link in improving the quality of Putonghua; creating an environment for learning and using Putonghua through broadcast television is also an indispensable link in the popularization of Putonghua.

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

27 The state of linguistic life in China Taiwan (2013) In 2013, there were many noteworthy aspects of linguistic life in Taiwan, primarily expressed through the promotion of nationwide reading, the preservation of linguistic and cultural diversity, the “Dictionary Woodpecker” (辞典啄木鸟), voting for the Character of the Year, and other areas.

1 Multilateral promotion of nationwide reading 1.1 The current state of nationwide reading evokes concern In January 2013, the Taiwan Ministry of Culture noted in its report on Strategies for the Development of the Taiwanese Publishing Industry (台湾出版产业发展策略) that each person in Taiwan reads an average of 2 books each year, far lower than South Korea at 10.8 books, France at 10 books, and Japan at 8.4 books. In response to this situation, Jiang Yi-huah (江宜桦), the executive leader of Taiwan, expressed his concern regarding the unpopularity of the practice of reading books in Taiwan, and called on the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Culture to make concerted efforts to improve reading habits by fundamentally expanding the reading population. Chiang Wei-ling (蒋伟宁), the Taiwanese Minister of Education stated that the reason why adults had no fondness for reading books was due to failure to cultivate the habit during childhood; on growing up, they became busy, and reading was neglected. The education authorities were therefore duty-bound to make great efforts in the area of reading education, to establish a foundation for the next generation, and thus transform the current situation.

1.2 Various localities adopt measures to encourage reading New Taipei City provided a family library card service. In order to promote family reading, the New Taipei Public Library began implementing a family library card service in 2013: each family library card could be used to borrow 20 books. Relevant staff members stated that the home is the first library for children, and https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-027

356

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

parents are the helping hands guiding children to enter the world of reading; if the parents like books, then the children will be influenced to have a passion for reading as well. Lin Chien-chi (林倩绮), the director of the New Taipei Cultural Affairs Bureau, noted that parents now make enormous investments in education, but few spend the time to read books with their children; the amount of time children spend watching television and going online each day is increasing, causing their reading abilities to lag behind. She suggested that building a good home environment for reading is more effective than the provision of costly study tools in prompting children’s passion for learning. Taipei City instituted “FastBook Automatic Book Stops” (FastBook 全自动借 书站). On January 15, the Taipei Bureau of Cultural Affairs formally implemented “FastBook Automatic Book Stops” and book collection boxes, making 402 new books of various categories available on a 24-hour basis, and providing book exchanges for the public. Director Horng Shih-chang (洪世昌) of the Taipei Public Library stated that the “FastBook Automatic Book Stops” provided 402 popular new books in various categories, including travel, finance and economics, novels, reference books, and so on; the public could borrow and return books as long as they held a library card from the municipal public library, with a borrowing limit of 10 books for individual cards and 20 books for family cards; the borrowing period was 30 days, and books could also be renewed. At the same time, searches of the library collection and other diversified reading services were also made available at the book stops. Chiayi City held a book giveaway ceremony. On March 18, Wen-Tsai Palace1 in Chiayi City held the book giveaway ceremony “Grateful you’re here in the literary utopia” (书香桃城、感恩有您) at Lantan Elementary School. Wen-Tsai Palace upholds the ideals of social welfare and support for the disadvantaged by actively investing in philanthropic causes: this year, it used more than NT$ 2 million yuan in donations to give away books to various primary and secondary schools in Chiayi City. At the book giveaway ceremony, Mayor Huang Min-hui (黄敏惠) of Chiayi City thanked Wen-Tsai Palace for its philanthropy in the promotion of literary society as well as its concern and support for education, emphasizing that this intangible wealth is the best present one can give to schools, parents, and children. The mayor also expressed his belief that, if everyone used this gift well, each person could become the yeast for promoting reading, building Chiayi into

1 Wen-Tsai Palace (文财殿) is the main temple of the God of Wealth in Taiwan, and often holds charitable and philanthropic activities.

27 The state of linguistic life in China Taiwan (2013)

357

the city with the most love for reading; through reading, children would be able to accumulate knowledge, expand their energies, and improve their social competitiveness.

1.3 Holding activities to welcome “World Book Day” On April 20, Taiwan National Central Library held a “Literary Parade” (书香大游 行) event wending through the East District of Taipei City, encouraging the public to take to the streets to share in the happy reading experience (see Figure 27.1). This activity organized the public to come out dressed as characters from their favorite books and stories, with Pi from the then-most popular book Life of Pi, sundry animals, Alice of Wonderland, Peter Pan, and other fairy-tale figures acting as the main characters. In addition, there were teams handing out guavas (bale [芭乐], a near homophone for “library” in Chinese) and telling the public, “Eat guavas to aid in digestion, read good books to promote progress.” In the parade, there were also adorable shuyiren (书衣人, ‘book jacket people’) dressed in exquisite book covers walking around throughout the city, and mobile libraries were arranged as well, in the hope of increasing the public’s enthusiasm for and practice of reading good books. On April 22, in order to promote reading at remote rural schools, Mayor Chu Li-lun (朱立伦) of New Taipei City held a flag presentation ceremony to commend the volunteer mothers of the Storytelling Theatrical Troupe (故事剧团) for their performances, and praising the volunteer group for fascinating children and encouraging children to read more through storytelling theatre. A Bureau of Education official who participated in the ceremony stated that New Taipei City had as many as 420 professionally trained reading volunteers, who traveled far and wide to reach remote schools, telling and acting out stories to accompany the students’ morning reading, creating an atmosphere of shared reading between parents and children. On April 23, the Taiwan Ministry of Education held a press conference on the “Action Plan to Promote Morning Reading at Junior High Schools” (国民中 学推动晨读运动计划), announcing three separate plans for gradually popularizing chendu (晨读, ‘morning reading’) at junior high schools (i.e., junior secondary schools). Plan 1 called for morning reading in the form of free reading at least one day a week; Plan 2 called for morning reading in the form of dedicated book reading and reading clubs at least two days a week; and Plan 3 called for the addition of theme reading, inter-class exchanges, and other models at least three days a week. Minister for Education Chiang Wei-ling (蒋伟宁) stated that,

358

Yu Guilin (余桂林)

(Happy Reading Literary Parade) Figure 27.1: “Literary Parade” event in Taipei city. Source: Xiamen Online (厦门网), http://www.xmnn.cn/DZBK/XMRB/20130421/201304/ t20130421_3264654.htm, Apr. 21, 2013.

as the conditions and resources at each school varied, it was hoped that all schools could reach the level of “Plan 3” by year-end 2014, with at least three days of morning reading each week.

2 Preservation of linguistic and cultural diversity 2.1 Promoting Hakka-English bilingual teaching experiences On January 11, the Taiwan Ministry of Education held a press conference on the “Junior High School Flexible Teaching Train” (国中活化教学列车), and Huang

27 The state of linguistic life in China Taiwan (2013)

359

Shu-mei (黄淑玫), the English instructor at Meinong Junior High School in Kaohsiung City, was invited to share her teaching experiences (Li 2013a). Meinong District is a bastion of Hakka culture, and 90% of the students at Meinong Junior High School are Hakka children. Huang Shu-mei, whose family originated in southern Fujian, could not speak a word of the Hakka dialect, but she unexpectedly got a job teaching in Meinong, Kaohsiung, which is famed for its Hakka culture. Seeing the students speaking fluently in the Hakka dialect, Huang Shu-mei felt envious, and asked the students to teach her, but she was surprised to find that the students considered it shameful to speak the Hakka dialect, and instead admired her for teaching English. Huang Shu-mei recounted how, in response to the students’ troubling disdain for Hakka culture, she decided to engage in bilingual teaching combining Hakka and English, allowing the students to learn English while also gaining an understanding of Hakka culture. She invited elders in the community to visit the school and explain Hakka culture and historical scenes, and the students and elders engaged in questionsand-answers using the Hakka dialect. She also invited teachers of foreign nationality to engage in questions-and-answers with the students in English, in which the teachers asked questions about Hakka culture, and the students responded in English. Finally, she led the students into the community, allowing them to become volunteer bilingual tour guides. In this way, the students who initially dared not open their mouths slowly began to develop a habit of giving bilingual introductions to Hakka culture, while increasing their own understanding of Hakka culture and their confidence in speaking their native language by taking on the role of narrators.

2.2 Creating the first radio program for new residents On January 10, Radio Taiwan International (中央广播电台, also known as the Central Broadcasting System) held a new-release press conference for the radio program My Home, Taiwan (台湾我的家), created for new residents. The program began broadcasting on the same day, airing content on headline news, cultural discussions, welfare policies, and so on in the 5 languages of Chinese, English, Indonesian, Thai, and Vietnamese, becoming a new channel for new residents to learn about current events and other information. Chairman Chang Jung-kung (张荣恭) of Radio Taiwan International stated that he hoped the special multilingual programming would help new residents take the pulse of Taiwan, while also allowing the public to learn more about the cultures of other countries, to build a harmonious society in Taiwan (Jiang 2013).

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Yu Guilin (余桂林)

According to reports, Taiwan currently has a population of nearly 500,000 new residents, as well as more than 400,000 foreign national workers, so the audience for this program could reach 1,000,000 people.

2.3 Twelve-year “National Education” to strengthen education in indigenous languages and new resident languages In May, the Taiwan Ministry of Education announced the latest collection of micro movies for the twelve-year “National Education” (国教). Wang Chunghsien (王崇宪), a teacher at Wufu Junior High School in Kaohsiung City, who provides complete education in the Southern Min dialect, with listening, speaking, reading and writing, has become a model for active teaching. Wang Chung-hsien stated that many schools treat the Southern Min dialect as a fuke (副科, ‘minor subject’), with a casual and haphazard approach to teaching, but he believes that the Southern Min dialect should be like English, with attention for listening and speaking as well as reading and writing, so that it can genuinely be applied in life. His Southern Min dialect classes are quite lively: the students first learn how to introduce themselves, and then divide into groups to perform cross talk, sing songs, tell stories, put on talent shows, and so on; he also encourages the students to have the bravery to speak Southern Min dialect in class, and express opinions in Southern Min dialect. Education officials stated that the Southern Min dialect is not easy to learn, as each locality features different accents, and even the same character can have differences in its literary and colloquial pronunciation. The key point in native language education is to quietly influence the children to speak their native language more often and identify with indigenous culture, achieving the purpose of cultural perpetuation (Li 2013b). On October 2, Minister for Education Chiang Wei-ling (蒋伟宁) stated during a hearing with the legislative body that the incorporation of “Vietnamese, Indonesian” and other new resident languages into the bentu yuyan (本土语言, ‘indigenous language’) classes at elementary schools could be considered, and curricula were being prepared for submission to the committee (Li 2013c). On October 31, Chiang Wei-ling stated that, under the twelve-year “National Education,” he supported indigenous language courses at junior high schools shifting from the current “elective” status to “required” courses, and their inclusion as formal courses, as at elementary schools. Teacher training would also be strengthened, providing qualified teachers with the capacity for indigenous language education (Li 2013d).

27 The state of linguistic life in China Taiwan (2013)

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3 Engagement in the “Dictionary Woodpecker” activity 3.1 Launching the activity Taiwan’s Revised Mandarin Chinese Dictionary (重编国语辞典), published in 1994, is already nearly 20 years old. Society has experienced immense changes over these 20 years, along with the rise of the Internet, and many new popular phrases and new vocabulary words have emerged, while some old information and term definitions no longer conform to the status quo. Common practices have changed as well, and many terms and expression no longer fit in with current concepts. In 2013, the Taiwan Ministry of Education delivered the Mandarin Chinese Dictionary (国语辞典) to the National Academy for Educational Research for revisions. On August 1, the National Academy for Educational Research held the “Dictionary Woodpecker” (辞典啄木鸟) activity, widely recruiting the public to eliminate errors and provide suggestions for revision, and offering 95 book gift cards ranging as high as NT$ 1,500 yuan as prizes. The activity was divided into 5 groups including elementary schools, junior high schools, high schools, universities and colleges, and members of the public: everyone could offer different opinions regarding the words in the dictionary, or propose sections that they believed should be supplemented, with a deadline of October 15. The compiling organization would then organize experts and scholars to sort through the collected suggestions as a reference in revising the dictionary (Li 2013e).

3.2 Results of the activity On November 23, the National Academy for Educational Research held a tea party to express gratitude and commend the groups with the most outstanding “Woodpecker” (啄木鸟) contributions. The Mengdian (萌典, ‘Moedict’) Team organized by Tang Feng (唐凤), Kirby, ETBlue and other figures took home the top prize for the members of the public group. The “Woodpecker” activity uncovered a total of more than 5,000 errors, with the Mengdian (萌典, ‘Moedict’) Team contributing more than 4,000 of the errors. The Mengdian (萌典, ‘Moedict’) Team integrated Mandarin Chinese, Southern Min dialect, and Hakka dialect dictionaries and other resources to write a program comparing discrepancies between different entries in the dictionary, and thus discovering errors in the Revised Mandarin Chinese Dictionary (重编国语 辞典). Tang Feng gave the example of different entries citing the same source

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passages: if there were differences in the passages, they might have been miswritten. For instance, the entries for biaolun (猋轮, ‘whirlwind’) and mingdi (鸣镝, ‘whistling arrow’) both cited the passage, “Recalling the whistling arrows flying through the sky, and the whirlwind chasing the waves, it was truly miraculous to have escaped danger” (回忆鸣镝飞空,猋轮逐浪,脱险真奇绝), but in one of the entries, the passage contained the error tulian (脱脸, ‘escape the face’) in place of tuoxian (脱险, ‘escape danger’). The team also wrote a program to compare synonyms and antonyms in the dictionary, successfully discovering more than one thousand errors (Li 2013f). Tsou Ching-tsung (邹庆宗), a teacher for the subjects of nature and physical education at Yutian Elementary School in Pingdong County, focused on entries related to sports, weather and astronomy to review issues in the Revised Mandarin Chinese Dictionary (重编国语辞典) one by one. For instance, the term baoqiu (抱球, ‘hold a ball’) was explained in the dictionary as a foul in dodgeball games, but that rule had been abolished more than a decade earlier. In another example, the term Mingwangxing (冥王星, ‘Pluto’) was also listed by the dictionary among jiuda xingxing (九大行星, ‘the nine planets’), but astronomy circles had recently rejected its planetary status, and only bada xingxing (八大 行星, ‘eight planets’) now remain in the Solar System (Li 2013g).

4 Voting for Character of the Year 4.1 Launch of voting The “General Election for Taiwan’s Representative Character in 2013” (台湾 2013 代表字大选) was launched on November 14 (see Figure 27.2), with celebrities and experts nominating a total of 57 representative characters as candidates, including jia (假, ‘fake’), an (安, ‘safety’), du (毒, ‘toxic’), wei (危, ‘crisis’), and luan (乱, ‘luan’), which reflected the food safety crisis; diu (丢, ‘lose’), which represented the political disorder; xing (醒, ‘awaken’), which symbolized the rise of citizens’ power; and so on. Huang Ching-wen (黄晴雯), a representative of Taiwan’s Far Eastern Group, who served as one of the hosts, noted that 29, or more than half, of this year’s 57 candidate characters were negative characters. In addition, the characters zhen (真, ‘true’) and jia (假, ‘fake’), which symbolize feelings of distrust, were appearing on the list for the first time, along with the venting of popular feeling in diu (丢, ‘lose’), which merited careful introspection. Huang Ching-wen stated that the most lovable aspect of the Taiwanese people is their

27 The state of linguistic life in China Taiwan (2013)

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Figure 27.2: General election for Taiwan’s representative character in 2013. Source: United Daily News (联合报), Taiwan, Nov. 14, 2013.

positive attitude in the face of darkness: words with connotations of positive forces, such as xing (醒, ‘awaken’), an (安, ‘safety’), ai (爱, ‘love’) and so on also appeared on this year’s list of representative characters. The activity of the “General Election for Taiwan’s Representative Character in 2013” (台湾 2013 代表字大选) will end on December 5, and the election results will be announced on December 9 (Chinanews.com 2013).

References Chinanews.com (中国新闻网). 2013. 57 candidate characters in voting for 2013 Taiwan Chinese Character of the Year include 29 negative ones (台湾 2013 年度汉字投票 57 个候选字有 29 个负面), Nov. 14, 2013. Jiang, Lang (江浪). 2013. RTI creates first program for new residents; Chang Jung-kung: expressing multilingual characteristics (央广打造首支新住民节目 张荣恭: 发挥多语特色). Central Daily News (中央日报) (Online Edition) (Taiwan), Jan. 10, 2013. Li, Hanyang (李汉扬). 2013a. Hakka-English bilingual education; Hakka culture is also international (客英双语教学 客家文化也国际). Central Daily News (中央日报) (Online Edition) (Taiwan), Jan. 11, 2013. Li, Hanyang (李汉扬). 2013b. Systematized education in Southern Min dialect, recorded in National Education micro movies (系统化教闽南语 登国教微电影). Central Daily News (中 央日报) (Online Edition) (Taiwan), Feb. 22, 2013.

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Li, Hanyang (李汉扬). 2013c. Plans to incorporate new resident languages into indigenous language curriculum (新住民语 拟纳本土语言课程). Central Daily News (中央日报) (Online Edition) (Taiwan), Oct. 2, 2013. Li, Hanyang (李汉扬). 2013d. Indigenous languages to be included as junior high school required courses, supported by the Minister for Education (本土语言纳国中必选 教长支 持). Central Daily News (中央日报) (Online Edition) (Taiwan), Oct. 31, 2013. Li, Hanyang (李汉扬). 2013e. Removing errors in the Mandarin Chinese Dictionary, “National Academy for Educational Research” calls for “woodpeckers” (国语辞典除错“国教院”征 “啄木鸟”). Central Daily News (中央日报) (Online Edition) (Taiwan), Aug. 14, 2013. Li, Hanyang (李汉扬). 2013f. Netizen power discovers more than a thousand errors in the Ministry of Education dictionary (网友力量大 揪教部辞典上千错). Central Daily News (中 央日报) (Online Edition) (Taiwan), Nov. 23, 2013. Li, Hanyang (李汉扬). 2013g. Planetary error in “Ministry of Education” dictionary discovered by elementary school teacher (“教部”辞典行星错误 国小师揪出). Central Daily News (中 央日报) (Online Edition) (Taiwan), Nov. 23, 2013.

Appendices

He Lin (赫琳) and Huang Xiaochun (黄晓春)

28 Chronology of major events in linguistic life 2013 On January 4, more than 40 public buses for Nanjing Bus Line 2 began implementing bilingual station announcements in the Nanjing (南京) dialect and Putonghua. On January 6, the Rules for the Evaluation of Chinese Character Input Systems with Universal Keyboard for Literacy Education (识字教学用通用键盘汉 字字形输入系统评测规则) (GF 0017–2013) were approved and issued by the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission, for implementation beginning on May 1, 2013. On January 18, the Ministry of Education issued the Guidelines for Calligraphy Education at Primary and Secondary Schools (中小学书法教育指导纲要), which stipulated that calligraphy education would be incorporated into the primary and secondary school teaching system beginning with the spring term; students would study pen and brush calligraphy, with divisions by age and by grade. On January 18–19, the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission convened the 2013 National Conference on Language Work and Language Planning Outline Publicity Training Seminar. On January 24, the 2013 Adult and Youth Linguists’ Salon sponsored by the Commercial Press was held at the Commercial Press, on the topic of “Linguistics in the Digital Age” (数字化时代的语言学). On January 24, the curtains closed on the activities for the Year of the French Language in China and the Year of the Chinese Language in France: several hundred Chinese and French government officials and figures from education circles attended the closing ceremony. On February 6, the Training and Testing Center for Putonghua and Written Language Applications of the State Language Commission and the Putonghua Proficiency Test Research Association jointly held the “5th National Academic Symposium on Putonghua Training and Testing” (第五届全国普通话培训测试 学术研讨会) in Beijing (北京). On February 25, the inclusion of the Nanchang (南昌) dialect song “Chinese mugwort and fried bacon” (藜蒿炒腊肉) in the textbook Music (10) (音乐[10]) by the People’s Music Publishing House triggered a passionate online debate. On March 8–9, the 7th Cross-Straits Academic Symposium on Issues in the Modern Chinese Language was convened in Beijing; the theme of the conference

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-028

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was, “Issues of spoken and written language based on Chinese language education” (基于华语教学的语言文字问题). On March 21, the National Language Policy Research Center was founded at the Shanghai Academy of Educational Sciences. On March 28, the 2nd Conference of the Standing Committee of the 12th People’s Congress of Yunnan (云南) Province deliberated on and passed the Yunnan Province Regulations on Minority Language Work (云南省少数民族语言 文字工作条例), for implementation beginning on May 1, 2013. On March 28–30, the “2013 International Academic Symposium on Language Education Policies” (2013 年语言教育政策国际学术研讨会) sponsored by the Research Center for Foreign Language Strategies at Shanghai International Studies University and the Scientific Research Office at Shanghai International Studies University, with support from the Shanghai Office of the University of Wisconsin–Madison of the United States, was held at Shanghai International Studies University, on the theme of “Language Education Policies: International Comparisons and Indigenous Practices” (语言教育政策: 国际比较与本土实践). On April 8, a press conference to announce the first English edition of The Language Situation in China (中国语言生活状况), jointly held by the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education, Beijing Language and Culture University, De Gruyter Publishing of Germany, and the Commercial Press, was convened in Beijing. On May 20, the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education issued the Notice on the Implementation of the ‘China Exchange Program for International Senior Language Experts’ of the State Language Commission (关于实施国家语委“语言文字国际高端专家来华交流项 目”的通知), with plans to irregularly invite groups of senior international experts engaged in applied linguistic research to visit China to hold exchange activities. On May 31, the China language services industry participated in the 2nd China Beijing International Fair for Trade in Services, representing the entire industry for the first time. On June 5, the State Council released the Notice on the Issuance of the ‘Table of General Standard Chinese Characters’ (关于公布《通用规范汉字表》>的通知). The Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) is an important Chinese character standard for the implementation of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字法), suited to the requirements of various sectors of society for the application of Chinese characters in the wake of new trends. The formulation and implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) has important significance in improving the level of the standardization, regularization, and

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informatization for the national standard spoken and written Chinese language, and promoting the development of the national economy, society, culture and education. On June 5, the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission released their report on the state of linguistic life in China in the year 2012. On June 8, the Master’s dissertation (网络会话中“呵呵”的功能研究) submitted to East China Normal University triggered a passionate debate. On June 19, implementation began for the “Confucius China Studies Program” (孔子新汉学计划) presented by the Office of Chinese Language Council International (Hanban) in conjunction with well-known domestic institutions of higher education. On June 28, a new-release press conference for Learning and Speaking the Suzhou Dialect (学说苏州话) was convened in Suzhou; the book was a dialect study primer published and distributed by Soochow University Press. On June 28–30, the “High-Level Forum on Studies in Linguistic Competence and the Founding of the Collaborative Innovation Center for Language Ability” (语言能力研究与语言能力协同创新中心建设高峰论坛) jointly sponsored by the Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education and Jiangsu Normal University was held at Jiangsu Normal University; the theme was, “The founding of the Collaborative Innovation Center for Language Ability and building linguistic competence among citizens” (语言能力协同创新中心建设及国民语言能力建设). On July 2, the National Putonghua Proficiency Test for the Visually Impaired was instituted in Nanjing, Jiangsu (江苏) Province. On July 5, the Group for Cross-Strait Language Exchanges, Cooperation and Coordination was established in Beijing, adopting a private format to actively promote cross-strait language exchanges and cooperation. On July 6, the curtains were raised on the 12th “Chinese Bridge” Chinese Contest for Global College Students at the Hunan Base for Promotion of Chinese International at Hunan Mass Media College. On July 10–11, the 8th round of talks on cooperative efforts for the compiling of cross-strait Chinese language reference books was held in Beijing: on the foundation of existing work, the two sides of the straits jointly released a report on cross-strait language, and jointly established the Cross-Strait Corpus. On July 11, the country’s first cross-platform, large-scale Chinese character knowledge contest program Chinese Character Hero (汉字英雄), jointly produced by Henan (河南) Television and iQiyi, was officially released on the three big platforms of Henan Television, iQiyi and PPS. In mid-July, comments by the Hong Kong actor Wong Chau-sang (黄秋生) regarding simplified and traditional characters gave rise to heated debate.

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On July 27, the “2013 Gathering of International Scholars of the Chinese Language – 4th Academic Forum” (2013 海内外中国语言学者联谊会: 第四届 学术论坛) jointly sponsored by the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing Language and Culture University, Chinese Languages College, and the Commercial Press was convened at the Commercial Press, with the theme of “The state of China’s neighboring languages” (中国周边语言状况). On July 30, the “Translation Cloud Project” (译云工程), a key program under the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, was officially declared open online. This online project has the potential to achieve multilingual exchanges in real time. On August 2, the Science and Education Channel of China Central Television presenting a special summer program, the Chinese Character Dictation Contest (汉字听写大会), drawing widespread public attention. 32 teams of representatives took part in the competition, composed of students from 31 provinces, autonomous regions, and direct-controlled municipalities, as well as Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwanese students attending school in mainland China. On August 3–4, the Department of Chinese Language and Literature at Peking University and the Commercial Press jointly held a “Celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the Publication of Modern Chinese and Academic Symposium on Modern Chinese Language Education” (《 现代汉语》出版 50 周年纪念会暨 现代汉语教学学术研讨会): 47 modern Chinese educators from more than 30 institutions of higher education nation-wide participated in the conference. On August 11, the State Language Commission issued a response to the China National Committee for Terms in Sciences and Technologies approving the two characters fu ( , ‘flerovium’) and li ( , ‘livermorium’) as the Chinese names for elements 114 and 116, respectively, and their inclusion as national standard characters. On August 13–26, the Chinese Dialect Society, the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and the Research Center for Language and Language Education of Central China Normal University jointly held the “2013 Advanced Study Course for Dialect Surveys” (2013 届方言调查高级研修班) in Wuhan (武汉), Hubei (湖北) Province, to help scholars and associations use modernized scientific and technological methods to carry out surveys of dialects of the Chinese language, in an effort to develop a talent pool for surveys and studies of dialects of the Chinese language. On August 30, the Department of Language Application and Administration of the Ministry of Education convened a seminar on “improving students’ applied language abilities”; several members of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference present in the capital took part in the discussions.

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On September 4–5, the “Academic Forum on Dictionary Editing – 1st Dictionary Editing Training Course and Scholars’ Salon” (辞书编辑学术论坛: 首 届辞书编辑培训班学员沙龙), sponsored by the Special Committee for Dictionary Compiling and Publication of the China Association for Lexicography, was convened in Changchun (长春), Jilin (吉林) Province, with the theme of “The implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters” 《 ( 通用规范汉字 表》的贯彻实施). On September 6, Beijing was host to the “1st High-Level Forum on Chinese Character Writing and Perpetuation” (首届中国汉字书写和传承高峰论坛), sponsored by China Central Television, and jointly organized by the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing Language and Culture University, and the Commercial Press. On September 8, Wang Xuming (王旭明), the former spokesman of the Ministry of Education and the Director of Language & Culture Press, posted an appeal on his verified, real-name Weibo account calling for the abolishment of primary school English classes, and the addition of national studies education, giving rise to heated debate among netizens. On September 11, the opening ceremony activities for the 16th National Publicity Week for the Promotion of Putonghua, sponsored by the Ministry of Education, the State Language Commission and the provincial government of Hainan, were held in Sanya (三亚), Hainan (海南) Province. On September 13, the “14th Academic Symposium on Chinese Minority Language Information Processing,” sponsored by the Chinese Information Processing Society of China, was held at Northwest University for Nationalities. On September 13, the Expert Committee of the Interministerial Joint Conference on Standards for Chinese Translation and Transcription of Foreign Languages held a deliberative meeting to review and approve the first group of Chinese transliterations for foreign-language terms, to be announced and recommended for public use. On September 22, the app Crazy Dialect (疯狂的方言) developed by the company 7K7K made the outstanding achievements of reaching 1st place in the App Store in the list of educational games for the iPhone, 2nd place in the list of adventure games, and 3rd place in both the overall list and the games list. On September 25, the founding conference of the Review Committee for Terms in Journalism and Communication Studies was convened at the Institute of Journalism and Communication Studies of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. On October 9, 12 departments, including the Ministry of Education, issued the Notice on the Implementation of the ‘Table of General Standard Chinese Characters’ (关于贯彻实施《通用规范汉字表》的通知).

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On October 12, CCTV News Simulcast (新闻联播) reported that Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf (喜羊羊), Boonie Bears (熊出没), and other cartoon programs had issues with excessive violence, coarse language, and so on. On October 16, Beijing Founder Electronics Co., Ltd., held a media briefing on the Founder General Standard Character Database (方正通用规范字库), making a formal public announcement on the character database and its input method. On October 16–17, the “Academic Symposium on Issues in Language Services in the Context of Multiculturalism” (多元文化背景下的语言服务问题学 术研讨会), sponsored by the Language and Culture Research Center of Macao at the Macao Polytechnic Institute, was held in Macao. On October 21, the Beijing Municipal Education Commission issued the 2014–2016 Framework Proposal for Reforms to Senior Secondary School Entrance Examinations and Admissions (2014–2016 年中考中招改革框架方案) (Draft for public comments), proposing that the total score value for the language & literature section be increased from 120 points to 150 points beginning in 2016, while the total score value for the English section would be reduced from 120 points to 100 points (50 points for listening comprehension). On October 22–25, the first Special Training Course on the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) was held at Nanjing Agricultural University. October 25 marked the official start to the 6th “Chinese Bridge” Chinese Contest for Global High School Students, sponsored by the Confucius Institute Headquarters / Office of Chinese Language Council International and the Yunnan Provincial People’s Government; the theme of the event was, “Learning the Chinese language, making friends all over the world” (学会中国话, 朋友遍天下). On October 26, the “Academic Seminar Commemorating the 120th Anniversary of the Chinese Phoneticization Movement” (纪念切音字运动 120 周年 学术座谈会), jointly sponsored by six institutions, including the Institute for Chinese Language Policies and Standards at Beijing Language and Culture University, Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education, Society for the Modernization of the Chinese Language, Commercial Press, National Language Policy Research Center, and Beijing Research Center for Language Industries, was held in Beijing; the topics under discussion at the conference included, “Language reforms in the course of the history of national modernization,” “National language policies in the context of multiculturalism,” “Language strategies as part of national security,” and so on. On November 1–2, the “8th National Academic Symposium on Applied Linguistics,” sponsored by the Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education, was held in Jinhua (金华), Zhejiang (浙江) Province; the theme of

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the conference was “Building legal institutionalization, standardization, regularization, and informatization in language” (语言文字法制化、规范化、标准 化、信息化建设). On November 2, More Talk More Happy (越策越开心) on Hunan Economic Television produced a special segment, the “Dialect dictation contest” (方言听 写大赛), presenting the Hunan (湖南) dialect. On November 2–3, the “2nd Academic Symposium on the Comparative Study of the Modern Chinese Language in Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan and Mainland China,” jointly sponsored by the Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education, Beijing Normal University, Mainland Editing Committee for the Cross-Straits Language Dictionary, and Huaqiao University, was held at Huaqiao University. The topics of discussion at the conference included “Differentiation and fusion in language and vocabulary, and related lexicographical issues,” “Differentiation and fusion in grammar,” and “Current state, evolution and trends of language policies.” On November 7–8, a field survey conference on the implementation of the Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言 文字法) was convened in Harbin City, Heilongjiang (黑龙江) Province. In November, the School of Liberal Arts and the School of Foreign Languages at Renmin University of China completed the preparation of the General Table of Eight Hundred Frequently Used Chinese Characters for China, Japan and South Korea (日韩共同常用八百汉字表). On November 11, the “Collaborative Innovation Center for China’s Neighboring Languages and Cultures” was unveiled at Beijing Language and Culture University. On November 13, the “14th Academic Symposium on Chinese Minority Language Information Processing,” sponsored by the Chinese Information Processing Society of China, was held at Northwest University for Nationalities; the theme of the conference was “Development of information processing technology for each minority language in the country” (国内各民族语言文字信息处 理技术的发展). On November 13, the school authorities at Renmin University of China responded to the passionate debate among netizens regarding the issue of “Renmin University of China changing college Chinese language courses from a requirement to an elective.” The university argued that college Chinese language courses were not equivalent to native language education, that the shift from a required course to an elective was not tantamount to weakening education, and that the reforms to the university’s language and literature education would further improve native language education. Renmin University of China

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had previously changed the required college Chinese language courses into elective courses, thus triggering heated public debate. On November 18–21, the second Special Training Course on the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) was held at Sichuan University. On November 21, Baise University played host to the “7th National Academic Symposium on Sociolinguistics and 1st Forum on the Study of Trans-border Languages” (第七届全国社会语言学学术研讨会暨首届跨境语言研究论坛), jointly sponsored by the Institute of Applied Linguistics of the Ministry of Education, Association of Chinese Sociolinguistics, China Federation of Societies for Ethnic Studies, Chinese Association of Ethnolinguistics, and Baise University; the theme was “Research on trans-border languages” (跨境语言研究). On November 22, the “National Forum on the Standardization and Informatization of Minority Languages” (全国少数民族语言文字规范标准建设 及信息化座谈会), sponsored by the Department of Language Information Management of the Ministry of Education, was convened in Chengdu (成都), Sichuan (四川); the theme of the conference was “The current state of efforts for standardization and informatization of minority languages in various regions” (各地少数民族语言文字规范标准建设及信息化工作状况). On December 1, the first high-level forum on “Language and the Future” (语言与未来), sponsored by the Research Center for Foreign Language Strategies at Shanghai International Studies University, was held at Shanghai International Studies University; the theme was “New perspectives on national strategies and foreign language education” (国家战略与外语教育的新视角). On December 7, the Ministry of Education announced on its website that the formulation of the general plans for the reform of examinations and admissions had been completed, and proposed the overall reform objective of the basic establishment of a modern education system for examinations and admissions with Chinese characteristics by 2020. Herein, the proposal for reforms to “implement socialization of the foreign language subject, with multiple examinations in a given year” became the focus of attention in society. On December 7, the “8th Confucius Institute Conference” (第八届孔子学院 大会), sponsored by the Confucius Institute Headquarters/Hanban was held at the China National Convention Center in Beijing; more than 2000 Chinese and foreign representatives from around the world attended the conference. On December 8, the High-Level Forum on Chinese and German Language and Cultural Policies held by the Ministry of Education, the State Language Commission, and the German Embassy to China was convened at Beijing Foreign Studies University; the theme of the forum was “Language – the bridge between the Chinese and German cultures” (语言: 中德文化之桥).

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On December 12, the activity “Calligraphy Masters Enter School Campuses” (书法名家进校园), jointly organized by the State Language Commission and the China Calligraphers Association, commenced at Beijing Language and Culture University. On December 13, the “1st Academic Forum on Building Language and Culture” (首届语言文化建设学术论坛), sponsored by Beijing Language and Culture University under commission by the Beijing Municipal Committee on Language Work, was held at Beijing Language and Culture University. On December 13–15, the “17th Annual Academic Meeting of the Chinese Dialect Society and International Academic Symposium on Dialects of the Chinese Language,” sponsored by the Chinese Dialect Society, was held at Jinan University; the topics of discussion included “Studies of dialect pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar,” “Theory and methods of dialect studies,” “Dialect protection and the relationship between ethnic languages and dialects of the Chinese language,” and so on. On December 18, the ASEAN–China Center for Language and Culture was founded at Beijing Language and Culture University. The center was established in accordance with the requirements of the Memorandum of Understanding Between the Government of the People’s Republic of China and the Governments of the Member States of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations on the Establishment of an ASEAN-China Center (中华人民共和国政府和 东南亚国家联盟成员国政府关于建立中国 – 东盟中心的谅解备忘录); its aim is to strengthen civil exchanges, and improve mutual understanding between the people and societies of China and ASEAN. On December 19, the State Ethnic Affairs Commission held a press conference and presentation ceremony for achievements in assisted translation software for minority languages at Jingxi Hotel in Beijing. On December 20, the results of the “Chinese Language Inventory 2013” (汉 语盘点 2013) jointly conducted by National Language Resources Monitoring and Research Center, the Commercial Press, China Network Television, Shandong Television, Beijing Language and Culture University, and other organizations were announced in Beijing: fang (房, ‘house’), zheng nengliang (正 能量, ‘positive energy’), zheng (争, ‘debate’), and Mandela (曼德拉, ‘Mandela’) respectively headed the lists for domestic character, domestic word, international character, and international word. On December 30, the “Forum on the Publication of the General Standard Chinese Character Dictionary for Students” (《 学生通用规范汉字字典》出版座 谈会). This dictionary was China’s first standard Chinese character dictionary for students paired with the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用 规范汉字表).

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On December 31, the national criteria Standards for English Translation and Writing in the Public Service Sector, Part 1: General Principles (公共服务领域英文译 写规范 第 1 部分: 通则) were approved and issued by the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine and the Standardization Administration of China, for implementation beginning on July 15, 2014. On December 31, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television issued a notice requiring the use of general, standard language by radio and television programs, with a driving demonstration effect in the promotion and popularization of Putonghua. On December 31, President Xi Jinping (习近平) delivered the 2014 New Year’s Address via China Radio International, China National Radio, and China Central Television.

The State Council

29 Notice of the State Council on the Publication of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (Guo Fa [2013] No. 23)

To the People’s Governments of each province, autonomous region, and directcontrolled municipality, and all departments, commissions, and directly subordinate organizations of the State Council: The State Council has approved the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) organized and formulated by the Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission, and it is hereby published. The Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) is an important Chinese character standard for the implementation of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法), suited to the requirements of various sectors of society for the application of Chinese characters in the wake of new trends. The formulation and implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) has important significance in improving the level of the standardization, regularization, and informatization for the national standard spoken and written Chinese language, and promoting the development of the national economy, society, culture and education. Following the publication of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表), the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) shall prevail for the use of Chinese characters in general fields of application in society, and the use of relevant preexisting character tables shall cease. State Council June 5, 2013

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Ministry of Education, et al.

30 Notice of 12 departments, including the Ministry of Education, on the implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (Jiao Yu Xin [2013] No. 2)

To the education department (education commission), department in charge of industry and informatization, ethnic affairs (language) commissions, public security departments (bureaus), civil affairs departments (bureaus), culture departments (bureaus), bureaus for administration of industry and commerce, quality and technology supervision bureaus, radio, film and television bureaus, press and publication bureaus, and language commissions of each province, autonomous region and direct-controlled municipality: The Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) was published by the State Council on August 19. The Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) is an important Chinese character standard for the implementation of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (中华人民共和国国家通用 语言文字法), suited to the requirements of various sectors of society for the application of Chinese characters in the information age. In order to achieve the implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用 规范汉字表), notice on relevant matters is hereby given as follows:

1 Profoundly recognize and understand the important significance of the issuance and implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters Our country is a multiethnic, multilingual, multicultural, and multidialectal state with a large population. Promoting and standardizing the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language is a necessary prerequisite in enhancing exchanges between ethnic groups and between regions, and spurring the development of politics, the economy, education, culture, informatization, https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-030

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and various other sectors. Standard Chinese characters serve as the general national written language, and the standardization of Chinese characters is an important premise in promoting and standardizing the use of the standard spoken and written Chinese language, as well as fundamental work in the cause of education and culture and the establishment of informatization. The Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) is another major Chinese character standard following the State Council’s approval and reissuance of the General Table of Simplified Characters (简化字总表) in 1986; it is the latest achievement in the wake of the integration and optimization of Chinese character standards over the last 50 years or more; it is a summarization, perpetuation and improvement upon the Chinese character standards since the founding of People’s Republic of China; and it is a new starting point and new development for Chinese character standards in the information age. The Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (国家通用语言文字法) stipulates: “The state shall promote Putonghua, and implement the standardization of Chinese characters”; the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范 汉字表) is the supporting Chinese character standard for the implementation of this law. The publication and implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) provides scientifically applied Chinese character standards for each sector of society, with important significance in improving the level of standardization and regularization for the national standard spoken and written Chinese language, and promoting the development of the national economy, society, culture and education.

2 Conscientiously organize and carry out publicity and training work Culture and education, the information industry, press and publication, radio, film and television, the public services sector, and so on are key fields for the standardization and regularization of the spoken and written language. The national language work system and relevant industry systems shall fully recognize the important significance of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表), improve awareness of spoken and written language standards, actively utilize the media to strengthen publicity, especially new media, and organize training efforts through multiple channels, on multiple levels, and in multiple formats, to ensure the proactive, prudent, and orderly implementation of the character table. The Ministry of Education and the State Language Commission will organize national-level special training courses on the Table of

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General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) prior to year-end 2013, and will coordinate with relevant experts from the Character Table Preparation Team to assist and guide each region in carrying out training as needed.

3 Vigorously promote the implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters in relevant sectors Following the publication of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表), the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范 汉字表) shall prevail for the use of Chinese characters in general fields of application in society, and the use of relevant preexisting character tables shall cease. Each relevant competent department may formulate supporting regulations on the basis of practical circumstances in the given field, for proactive, prudent, gradual and orderly promotion of its use.

3.1 Basic education sector The Grade One Character Table for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) lists 3,500 frequently-used characters: Appendix 4, “Table of Basic Characters for Literacy and Writing Education” (识字、写字教学 基本字表) in the Language and Literature Curriculum Criteria for Compulsory Education (2011) (义务教育语文课程标准[2011]) was formulated on the basis of the Grade One Character Table for the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表). Each region shall organize instructors and teaching and research staff to study and master the contents of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表), and implement it in each area of the curriculum for the basic education sector.

3.2 Information industry sector Chinese character information processing standards shall be revised without delay on the basis of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规 范汉字表), and Chinese character information processing products shall implement the revised standards; there may be a certain transitional period.

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3.3 Press, publication and other sectors Following the publication of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表), the characters used in Chinese-language publications, radio, films, television, public facilities, signage, advertisements, the Internet, and so on shall all apply the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表).

3.4 Language dictionary compiling sector The Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) is an important basis for the compiling of standard, modern Chinese language dictionaries. Following the publication of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表), the publication, revision or republication of relevant language dictionaries shall comply with the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表); on the basis of differences in the service sector or the audience of use, some or all of the characters from the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) may be included, and additional characters may also be added as a reference where appropriate. For characters not included in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表), the prevailing historical character forms shall generally be adopted; new simplified characters which have not been used previously shall not be independently created.

3.5 Science and technology sector Relevant departments in the field of popular science must lead in the use of general standard Chinese characters: in compiling and publishing specialized dictionaries, specialized teaching materials, and scientific or technical monographs, characters outside of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范 汉字表) may be used, but the prevailing historical character forms shall generally be adopted, avoiding the independent creation of new characters.

3.6 Census registration and civil administration sector In accordance with the Regulations on Household Registration of the People’s Republic of China (中华人民共和国户口登记条例), Law of the People’s Republic of China on Resident Identity Cards (中华人民共和国居民身份证法), and other

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regulations, when citizens report for household registration or apply for resident identity cards, the name registration entry shall be filled out using standard Chinese characters. Following the publication of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表), the characters in the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) shall be applied for the characters used in personal names for new names and name changes. With respect to the characters used in place names, the use of general standard Chinese characters shall be guided. If the characters used in surnames and place names require additional entries in the character table, the language commission and ethnic language commission in each locality shall be responsible for collecting the character form, pronunciation, origin, usage, and other detailed attribute information for these characters, and regularly reporting to the State Language Commission, so that appropriate additions may be made when the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表) is revised. Other sectors shall adopt effective measures to proactively implement the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表). Language commissions at all levels must actively assist the relevant departments, and complete publicity, consulting and services work for the implementation of the Table of General Standard Chinese Characters (通用规范汉字表). Ministry of Education, Ministry of Industry and Informatization, State Ethnic Affairs Commission, Ministry of Public Security, Ministry of Civil Affairs, Ministry of Culture, State Administration for Industry and Commerce, General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine, State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, State Language Commission, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences October 9, 2013

Contents (Chinese version 2014) Language situation in China: 2013 Part I Special report Push Forward the Reform and Innovation of Chinese Language and Characters

Part II Special focuses Table of Standardized Chinese Characters for General Usage: An Important Infrastructure for the Country and the People Table of Standardized Chinese Characters for General Usage－Application in Various Fields Table of Standardized Chinese Characters for General Usage－The Process of Research and Development Attachments: Notice of the State Council on Issuance of the Table of Standardized Chinese Characters for General Usage (File No.［2013］23) Notice of the Ministry of Education and 11 Other Departments on Implementation of the Table of Standardized Chinese Characters for General Usage (File No.［2013］2)

Part III Language work Chinese Language and Characters Used in Official Documents of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council Language Work of the State Language Affairs Commission Language Work of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission on Ethnic Languages Chinese Language and Characters Used in Official Documents of Other Ministries and Commissions Language Work of the Local Authorities

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Contents (Chinese version 2014)

Part IV Special fields Survey of Languages Used in China’s Neighboring Countries Trends of Essay Writing in College Entrance Examinations of Recent Years Comparing the Use of Words and Characters in Textbooks during the Republican Period vs. Those Published by PEP New Situation in the Protection of Dialects Heated Debate among Shanghainese about the Shanghai Dialect Language Situation in the Medical Field Language Situation of Migrant Labourers from Sichuan Rescue, Inheritance and Application of the Manchurian Language Situation of Ethnic Minority Language Websites Sign Language Usage Situation National Plan for Dictionary Compilation and Publication Projects Concerning the Language Situation Granted by the National Fund of Social Sciences Worldwide Spread of the Chinese Language The Situation of Overseas Chinese Education

Part V Hot topics Media’s Focus on Improving the Writing Styles “Chinese Characters Dictation” Draws Nationwide Attention Recent Popular Culture of Language Use during New Year Celebrations Language Situation of WeChat Multi-word Style of Website Talk: Both Good and Bad Emotional Icon Gradually Getting Popular

Part VI Words and passages Survey of Standard Chinese Characters for General Usage Hot Social Issues Reflected in New Words in 2013 China and the World Reflected in Popular Words in 2013 Popular Culture Reflected in Internet Language Smog and Pollution in PM2.5 Chinese Words Known Outside China Survey of Microblogging Language

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Part VII Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan Language Groups and Associations in Hong Kong Language Situation in Macau (2013) Language Situation in Taiwan (2013)

Part VIII International experience Intensifying Language Conflicts in Ukraine English Education Policy in Japan English Education Policy in South Korea Portuguese Orthography Reform A Scan of International Journals on Language Planning and Policy Events in Brief, Concerning Language Planning and Policy in the World (2013)

Appendices Guidelines of Calligraphy Education in Primary and Middle Schools National Plan for Dictionary Compilation and Publication, 2013–2025 A Chronology of Language Events

Content of Tables and Figures Index of Terms Content of CD Glossary of Chinese Words Used in the Media 2013 Glossary of High Frequency Words Used in the Media 2013 Glossary of Chinese Idioms Used in the Media 2013 Glossary of New Words Used in the Media 2013 Guidelines for the Use of English in Public Service Areas－Part 1: General Rules Nomenclature of Undersea Feature Names

Postscript

Editorial Teams of the English Edition Editor

Li Yuming (李宇明) Beijing Language and Culture University liyum@.net

English Editor

Li Wei (李嵬) University College London [email protected]

Associate Editors

Guo Xi (郭熙) Jinan University guoxi@.com Zhou Hongbo (周洪波) The Commercial Press [email protected] Zhou Qingsheng (周庆生) Chinese Academy of Social Sciences [email protected]

Editorial Assistants

Xu Xiaoying (许小颖) Beijing Normal University xuxiaoying@bnu.edu.cn Dai Wenying (戴文颖) The Commercial Press [email protected]

Translation

Fletcher Translations, Inc. Contact person: Carissa Fletcher cfletcher@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501511721-032

Index annual 213–222 approachability 202–204 bilingual v, vi, vii, ix, x, xi bilingual life v, vi, vii, ix, x, xi border security 32–34 border trade 31 Cantonese 336–337 character table 22–24 China studies 166–167, 169, 173–175 Chinese character 214, 216–218, 221–222 Chinese language education 165–177, 183–193, 329–332, 334–338 Chinese media, 2013 255, 270 Chinese Sign Language 127, 130, 132–133 College Entrance Examination 37–55 Confucius Institute 165–177 coverage 324 cultural exchanges 166–167, 174–177 deaf adults 128–130, 132–133, 136, 140 deaf students 128–130, 132–133, 136, 140 dialect v, vi, vii, x dialect education 57, 63–64 dialect protection 57–65, 69–75, 77–78 dictionary 142–151 diglossia v, vi, ix, x, xi distance education 189, 192 distribution 314–317, 321–323 doctor-patient relationship 79 domain name 115, 117–118, 122, 126

gaokao 37 haze 285–295 healthcare industry 79–90 Hong Kong 329–338 HSK 172 input method 225, 227, 229–233 Internet culture 282 Internet slang 271–283 language 154, 157–164, 357–358 language association 329–338 language environment 91–92, 105–106 language inventory 213–219, 222 language planning 1 language reclamation 107–115 language resource database 57, 59 language resources 5, 8 language services 79–90 language standardization 1–4 linguistic competence 95, 106 linguistic custom 213–222 loanword 297–300, 306, 311–312 Macao 339–352 Manchu culture 110–111, 113–114 Manchu language 107–115 media 239, 242, 246–247, 250 migrant workers 91–106 minority language 115–126

education 71–73, 77–78, 353–356, 358–360 Eight-Point Regulation 200, 204, 208–209 emoji 225, 227, 228–231, 233–236 emoticon 225–236 encyclopedia 143, 147 essay question 37–55 ethnic script 126

national plan 141–151 National Social Science Fund 153–164 native dialect 92–93, 95, 103–104 Neighboring countries 27–35 neighboring diplomacy 27–28 neologism 239–253 netizens 240, 246, 249, 251–252, 271, 274, 276, 279–283 New Curriculum Standards 37, 39, 40, 44

fine particulate matter 286, 289–294

overseas Chinese 183–193

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Index

PM2.5 285–295 popular 213–216, 218–219, 222 popular phrases 255–270 post 313, 320, 322 pragmatism 199, 202–204, 206 project 153–164 publishing 141–142, 144, 149 Putonghua 329, 333–338, 339–352 reading 353–356, 358 repost 313, 320 semantic translation 298, 309–311 Shanghai dialect 69–78 sign language 127–140 social life 239, 243, 253 sociolinguistics 153–154, 157–158, 160, 162–164

special education 127–129, 132, 136 standard characters 16, 23 stylistic improvement 199–209 survey 339–352 Taiwan 353–361 teacher training 185, 189–190, 192–193 trans-border languages 27, 32–33 transliteration 298, 309–310 variant characters 22–24 website 115–126 Weibo 313–326 word 213–216, 218–219