The Illusion of Riches: Scale, resolution and explanation in Tasmanian Pleistocene human behaviour 9780860547877, 9781407349121

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The illusion of Riches Scale, resolution and explanation in Tasmanian Pleistocene human behaviour

Richard Cosgrove

BAR International Series 608 1995

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 608 The Illusion of Riches © Richard Cosgrove and the Publisher 1995 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547877 paperback ISBN 9781407349121 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547877 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1995. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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Tab le o f Con ten ts Abstract Acknow ledgements C hap te r 1 T he P rob lem T he S tudy T he S ign if icance S u mmary C hap te r 2 P rev ious A rchaeo log ica l R esea rch C hap te r 3 R eg iona l Me thodo logy P hy s ica l S e t t ing o f t he S tudy A rea s C hap te r 4 S i te F o rma t ion C hap te r 5 S tone Me thodo logy C hap te r 6 Nunam i ra c ave : S tone Ana lys is C hap te r 7 ORS 7 : S tone A na ly s is C hap te r 8 B one Me thodo logy C hap te r 9 Nunam i ra c ave : F auna l A na lys is C hap te r 1 0 ORS 7 : F auna l A na lys is C hap te r 1 C ompa r isons a nd C on t ra s t s C hap te r 1 2 P le i s tocene P e r spec t ives C hap te r 1 3 E p i logue

x x i 1 1 2 3 5 6 6 1 4 1 4 1 5 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 9 3 9 5 3 5 3 6 4 6 4 6 7 6 7 8 4 8 4 8 9 8 9 9 4 9 4 1 08 1 08

F igures F igu re 1 . 1 : D is t r ibu t ion o f s i te s d i scussed i n t he t e x t . Rec tang le s d eno te s t udy a rea s 1 33 F igu re 3 . 1 : D is t r ibu t ion o f s e lec ted P le is tocene i n land s i te s i n S ou thea s t a nd S ou thwes t T a sman ia . B iogeograph ic r eg ions s uper i mposed 1 34 F igu re 3 .2 : P lan a nd c ro ss s ec t ion o f t he F loren t ine v a l ley w i th l o ca t ion o f s i te s d i scu ssed i n t he t ex t 1 35 F igu re 3 . 3 : L oca t ion o f s i te ORS 7 a nd h ornfe ls a r tefac t q uar ry 1 36 F igu re 3 . 4 : S i te ORS 7 1 37 F igu re 3 . 5 : S i te ORS 7 e xcava t ion s qua res , A l , B 1 a nd B 2 . N o te d i sc re te h earths 1 37 F igu re 3 . 6 : P lan a nd s ec t ion o f s i te ORS 7 . 1 38 F igu re 3 .7 : T he e nv irons o f Nunam ira c ave 1 39 F igu re 3 .8 : N unam ira c ave s how ing t he ma in c hambe r a nd s qua re A l 1 40 F igu re 3 . 9 : Nunam ira c ave s qua re A l . No te t he b o t tom c obb le l aye r a nd t he t op moonm i lk l aye r 1 40 F igure s 3 . 10 a -d : Nunam i ra c ave p lan a nd s ec t ion s 1 41 F igu re 4 . 1 : S t ra t ig raphy o f s qua re A l . C e l ls W t o Z a r e i nd ica ted 1 42 F igu re 4 .2 : S t ra t ig raphy o f s qua re B l . C e l ls W t o Z a re i nd ica ted 1 43 F igu re 4 .4 : S qua re A l s how ing t he l oca t ion o f t he t h ree m icromorpho log ica l s amp les . 1 44 F igu re 4 .3 M ic romorpho log ica l l aye r MM 1 ( f . 1 .= 1 . 1cm ) 1 44 F igu re 4 .5 M ic romorpho log ica l l aye r MM 2 ( f . l . = 1 1) 1 44 F igu re 4 .6 M ic romorpho log ica l l aye r MM 3 ( f . l . = 1 . 1cm ) 1 45 F igu re 4 .7 M ic romorpho log ica l l aye r MM 4 ( f . l . = 1 . 1cm ) 1 45 F igu re 4 .8 M ic romorpho log ica l l aye r MM 5 ( f . l . = 1 . 1 c m ) 1 45 F igu re 4 .9 M ic romorpho log ica l l a ye r MM 6 ( f . l . = 1 . 1 c m ) 1 45 F igu re 4 . 10 : C ave a nd r i ve r c obb le s i ze s c ompa red 1 46 F igu re 4 .11 : S qua re A l r egress ion a na lys is o f r ad ioca rbon d a te s e xc lud ing t he a noma lous d a te , B e ta -25382 , a s d i scu ssed i n t he t ex t . 1 46 F igu re 4 .12 : S qua re B i c or re la t ion a na lys is o f r ad ioca rbon d a te s a nd d ep th 1 47 F igu re 4 . 13 : S ou th -ea s t s e c t ion o f s i te ORS 7 1 48 F igu re 4 . 14 : N or thwe s t s e c t ion o f s i te ORS 7 1 49 F igu re 4 . 15 : T h in s ec t ion o f r oof f a l l . C lay p a r t ic le s i nd ica ted b y a r row . 1 50 F igu re 4 . 16 : X -ray d i f f rac t ion t r ace o f s a mp le CRF 3 . 1 50 F igu re 4 .17 : R egress ion a na lys is o f r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om ORS 7 , e xc lud ing B e ta -27054 , a s d i scussed i n t he t e x t 1 51 F igu re 6 . 1 : C e l l Z A r tefac t s < 1 cm a nd > 1 cm p e r k i log ram o f s ed imen t p e r s p i t 1 51 F igu re 6 . 2 : C e l l W A r tefac t s < l cm a nd > 1 cm p e r k i log ram o f s ed imen t p e r s p i t 1 52 F igu re 6 . 3 : C e l l Z R aw ma te r ia l d i s t r ibu t ion p e r s p i t p e r k i log ram o f s ed imen t o f < 1 cm a r tefac t s 1 52 F igu re 6 .4 : C e l l W R aw ma te r ia l d i s tr ibu t ion p e r s p i t p e r k i log ram o f s ed imen t o f < 1 cm a r tefac t s 1 53 F igu re 6 . 5 : C e l l Z R aw ma te r ia l d i s t r ibu t ion p e r s p i t p e r k i log ram o f s ed imen t o f > 1 cm a r tefac t s 1 53

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F igu re 6 .6 : C e l l W R aw ma ter ia l d i s t r ibu t ion p e r s p i t p e r k i log ram o f s ed imen t o f > 1 cm a r tefa c t s 1 54 F igu re 6 .7a : P e rcen tages o f t he f i ve d om inan t r aw ma te r ia ls i n c e l l Z p e r s p i t 1 54 F igu re 6 .7b : P e rcen tages o f t he f i ve d om inan t r aw ma te r ia ls i n c e l l W p e r s p i t 1 55 F igu re 6 .8 : D a rw in g lass a r tefac t s how ing b ipo la r work ing a nd g a s v es ic le s 1 55 F igu re 6 .9 :Qua r tz t humbna i l s c rape r a nd F igu re 6 . 10 : Che r t t humbna i l s c rape r 1 55 F igu re 6 . 11 :Che r t t humbna i l s c rape r a nd F igure 6 . 12 :Broken c he r t s c rape r 1 56 F igu re 6 . 13 : C her t c ore a nd F igu re 6 . 14 : B ipo la r q ua r tz p iece 1 56 F igu re 6 . 15 : Numbe rs o f t humbna i l s c rape r s p e r s p i t f r om a l l c e l ls r e la t ive t o t he a ppea rance o f a r tefac t r etouching 1 57 F igure 6 . 16 : T humbna i l s crape r s hape e xpressed a s w id th / th ickness x l ength/width 1 57 F igu re 6 . 17 : C or re la t ion b e tween t humbna i l s c rapers a nd a l l o the r r e touched a r tefac t s 1 58 F igu re 6 . 18 : S ize r ange o f c her t d eb i tage b e low 1 c en t ime t re 1 58 F igu re 6 . 19 : S ize r ange o f q ua r tz i te d eb i tage b e low 1 c en t ime t re 1 59 F igu re 6 .20 : Hornfe ls s hape , c ross s ec t ion a nd p rof i le 1 59 F igu re 6 .21 : Hornfe ls s hape , e xpan s ion a nd e l onga t ion 1 60 F igu re 7 . 1 :Sp i t 1R e juvena t ion f l ake s F igu re 7 .2 :Sp i t 5 R e juvena t ion f l ake s 1 60 F igu re 7 . 3 : S p i t 8 R e juvena t ion f l ake s 1 61 F igu re 7 . 5 :Sp i t 1F lake d e ta i l ( mm ) a nd F igu re 7 . 6 : S p i t 5 F lake d e ta i l ( mm ) 1 61 F igu re 7 .7 : S p i t 8F lake d e ta i l ( mm ) 1 62 F igu re 7 .4 : P e rcen tage o f h o rnf e ls d eb i tage b y s i ze 1 62 F igu re 7 .8 : C ross s ec t ion a nd p rof i le o f h ornf e ls f l akes ( t h ree l e f t h and g raphs ) 1 63 F igu re 7 .9 : C ross s ec t ion a nd p rof i le o f c omp le te q ua r tz i te f l ake s i n u n i t 1 1 63 F igu re 7 . 10 : C ross s ec t ion a nd p rof i le o f c omp le te q ua r tz i te f l ake s i n u n i t 3 1 64 F igu re 7 . 11 : E longa t ion a nd e xpan s ion o f c omp le te q ua r tz i te f l ake s i n u n i t 1 1 64 F igu re 7 . 12 : E longa t ion a nd e xpans ion o f c omp le te q ua r tz i te f l ake s i n u n i t 3 1 65 F igu re 9 . 1 : D is t r ibu t ion o f b one w e igh t p e r k i logram o f s ed imen t p e r s p i t i n c e l l Z , s qua re A l 1 65 F igu re 9 .2 : D is t r ibu t ion o f b one n umbe r s p e r k i logram o f s ed imen t p e r s p i t i n c e l l Z , s qua re A l 1 66 F igu re 9 . 3 : D is t r ibu t ion o f b one w e igh t p e r k i log ram o f s ed imen t p e r s p i t i n c e l l W , s qua re B l 1 66 F igu re 9 .4 : D is t r ibu t ion o f b one n umbe r s p e r k i logram o f s ed imen t p e r s p i t i n c e l l W, s qua re B 1 1 67 F igu re 9 .5 : Average we igh t o f b u rn t a nd u nbu rn t b one i n c e l l Z p e r s p i t a nd a na ly t ica l u n i t 1 67 F igu re 9 .6 : B enne t t 's wa l laby d i s t r ibu t ion p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t b y n umbe r a nd we igh t ( gm ) 1 68 F igu re 9 .7 : R eg ress ion o f MN I a nd N ISP f o r M . r uf ogr iseus 1 69 F igu re 9 .8 : R egre ss ion o f N ISP /MN I f o r A ntech inus s pp 1 69 F igu re 9 . 9 : Mund d i s t r ibu t ion b y w e igh t ( gm ) a nd n umbe r p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t p e r c e l l 1 70

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F igure 9 . 10 : R eg ress ion a na lys is o f mu r idae MN Is a ga ins t N ISP s . 1 71 F igu re 9 . 11 : R eg re ss ion a na ly s is o f M . f uscus MN I s a ga ins t N ISP s . 1 71 F igu re 9 . 12 : R egre ss ion a na lys is o f R . l u treo lus v e lu t inus MN Is a ga in s t N ISP s 1 72 F igu re 9 . 13 : N umbe r a nd w e igh t o f emu e gg s he l l i n c e l l Z , s qua re A l . 1 73 F igu re 9 . 14 : B enne t t 's w a l laby b ody p a r t s i nden t if ied i n t he t wo c e l ls , Z a nd W 1 74 F igu re 9 . 15 : N ISP d iv ided b y MN I f o r w a l laby s ke le ta l p a r t s p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t i n c e l l Z 1 75 b y MN I f o r w a l l a b y s k e l e t a l p a r t s p e r F igu re 9 . 16 : N ISP d iv ided 1 76 a na ly t ica l u n i t i n c e l l W w a l l a b y t i b i a l e n g t h s c om p a r e d t o W a r r e e n F igu re 9 . 17 : B ox p lo t s f or r om S . h arr is i i s ca ts 1 77 c ave a nd l ong b one d e r ived f l laby me ta ta r sa l I V l eng ths F igu re 9 . 18 : B ox p lo t s f or wa nd l ong b one d er ived f r om c ompa red t o Wa r reen c ave a 1 77 S . h arr is i i s ca t s a l laby me ta ta r sa l V l eng ths F igu re 9 . 19 : B ox p lo t s f o r w nd l ong b one d e r ived f r om c ompa red t o War reen c ave a 1 78 S . h ar r is i i s ca t s 78 F igu re 1 0 .1 : N umbe r a nd w e igh t o f b one p e r k i logram o f s ed imen t . 1 F igu re 1 2 .1 : C en t res o f l oca l p lan t e ndem is m ( a f te r K irkpa t r ick 1 79 a nd B rown 1 984a ) . F igu re 1 2 .2 : T u l laba rd ine D am p o l len c ore ( af te r C o lhoun 1 80 a nd v an d e G ee r 1 986 ) F igu re 1 2 .3 : A lp ine r eg ion s 2 2 ,000 BP w i th l a te P le is tocene s i te s 1 81 s uper imposed ( a f te r K irkpa t r ick 1 986 ) F igure 1 2 .4 : A s ugge s ted p a laeoeco log ica l mode l f o r 1 82 S ou thwes t a nd S ou thea s t T a sman ia . F igure 1 2 .5 : Hypo the t ica l mode l o f macropod p opu la t ion 83 d ynam ics d u r ing 3 0 ,000 t o 1 0 ,000 BP i n C en tra l S ou the rn T a sman ia . 1 F igure 1 2 .6 : P a laeoeco log ica l a t t r ibu tes o f S ou thwes t 1 83 a nd S ou thea s t T a sman ia

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Tables T ab le 4 . 1 :S qua re A l , r ad ioca rbon d a tes T ab le 4 .2 : S qua re B i , r ad ioca rbon d a te s T ab le 4 .3 : N unam ira c ave a na ly t ica l u n i t s T ab le 4 .4 : R e su l t s o f t he c lay a na lys is f r om s amp les 2 , 5a nd 9 T ab le 4 .5 : ORS 7 R ad ioca rbon d a te s . T ab le 4 .6 : S i te ORS 7 a na ly t ica l u n i t s . T ab le 5 . 1 : L i tho log ies r ecove red f r om t he F loren t ine R ive r T ab le 6 . 1 . C e l l Z : A r tefac t n umbe r s d i sca rded p e r u n i t t ime a nd p e r k i logram o f s ed imen t . T ab le 6 .2 . C e l l Z : A r tefac t w e igh ts d i sca rded p e r u n i t t ime a nd p e r k i logram o f s ed imen t . T ab le 6 . 3 . C e l l W: A r tefac t n umbe r s d i sca rded p e r u n i t t ime a nd p e r k i logram o f s ed imen t . T ab le 6 .4 . C e l l W : A r tefac t w e igh ts d i sca rded p e r u n i t t ime a nd p e r k i log ram o f s ed imen t o f a l l a r tef ac t s T ab le 6 . 5 : C e l l Z A r tefac t n umbe r s p e r s i ze c a tego ry . T ab le 6 .6 : C e l l W A r tefac t n umber s p e r s i ze c a tegory T ab le 6 . 7 : C e l l ZR a t io o f < 1 cm t o > 1c m a r tefac t s b y r aw ma te r ia l i n e ach a na ly t ica l u n i t T ab le 6 . 8 : C e l l W R a t io o f < 1 cm t o > 1 cm a r tefac t s b y r aw ma ter ia l i n e ach a na ly t ica l u n i t T ab le 6 .9 : C o r re la t ion ma t r ix o f a r tef ac t s < 1 cm a nd > 1 cm i n c e l l Z b y r aw ma te r ia l T ab le 6 . 10 : C o r re la t ion ma t r ix o f a r tefac t s < 1c m a nd > 1 cm i n c e l l W b y r aw ma ter ia l T ab le 6 . 11 : N umbe r s o f e ach r aw ma ter ia l i n c e l l Z p er s p i t . T ab le 6 . 12 : N umbe rs o f e ach r aw ma te r ia l i n c e l l W p e r s p i t T ab le 6 . 13 : S tone t o ta ls , c e l l Z , p e r s i ze , p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t . T ab le 6 . 14 : S tone p ercen tage s , c e l l Z , p e r s i ze , p e r a na ly t ica l u n it T ab le 6 . 15 : S tone w e igh t ( gm ) , c e l l Z , p e r s i ze , p e r a na ly t ica l u nit T ab le 6 . 16 : P e rcen tage s t one w e igh t , c e l l Z , p e r s i ze , p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t T ab le 6 . 17 : S tone t o ta ls , c e l l W, p e r s i ze , p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t . T ab le 6 . 18 : S tone p e rcen tage s , c e l l W , p e r s i ze , p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t T ab le 6 . 19 : S tone w e igh t ( gm ) , c e l l W , p e r s i ze , p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t T ab le 6 .20 : P e rcen tage s t one w e igh t , c e l l W , p e r s i ze , p e r a na lyt ica l u n i t T ab le 6 .21 : C e l l Z F lake s w i th c obb le c o r tex . T ab le 6 .22 : C e l l Z F lake s w i th n on -cobb le c o r tex T ab le 6 .23 : C e l l W F lakes w i th c obb le c or tex T ab le 6 .24 : C e l l W F lake s w i th n on -cobb le c or tex T ab le 6 .25 : T humbna i l s c rape rs f r om a l l c e l ls b y s p i t , r aw ma te r ia l a nd d imens ions . T ab le 6 .26 : T humbna i l s c rape r r aw ma te r ia l T ab le 6 .27 : S ize o f f l akes w i th f u l l c or t ica l s u rface s T ab le 6 .28 : C o res f r om c e l l Z T ab le 6 . 29 : C o re s f r om c e l l W T ab le 6 . 30 : R e touched f l ake s i n c e l l Z T ab le 6 . 31 : R e touched f l akes i n c e l l W T ab le 6 . 32 : Raked p iece s i n c e l l Z

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1 84 1 84 1 84 1 85 1 85 1 85 1 85 1 86 1 86 1 86 1 87 1 87 1 87 1 87 1 88 1 88 1 89 1 90 1 91 1 91 1 92 1 92 1 93 1 93 1 94 1 94 1 95 1 95 1 95 1 95 1 96 1 96 1 97 1 97 1 97 1 98 1 98 1 98 1 99

T ab le 6 . 33 : F laked p ieces i n c e l l W 1 99 T ab le 6 .34 : Numbe r o f b ipo la r p iece s p er a na ly t ica l u n i t p e r r aw ma ter ia l 1 99 T ab le 6 .35 : Numbe r a nd p e rcen tage o f b roken f l akes p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 00 T ab le 6 .36 : Numbe r o f b roken f l ake s d i sca rded p e r 1 000 y ea rs p er r aw ma te r ia l 2 00 T ab le 6 .37 : Comb ined t o ta ls f r om b o th c e l ls o f e dge -damaged f l akes p e r r aw ma ter ia l 2 00 T ab le 6 . 38 : Comb ined t o ta ls f r om b o th c e l ls o f e dge d amage p e r 1 000 y ea rs 2 00 T ab le 6 .39 : S ize o f c omp le te f l akes p e r r aw ma te r ia l p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 01 T ab le 6 .40 : S hape o f c omp le te f l akes p e r r aw ma te r ia l p e r a na ly t ica l 2 01 u n it 2 02 T ab le 6 .41 : P ercen tage o ve rhang r emova l o n c omp le te f l ake s . T ab le 6 .42 : P e rcen tage o f t e rm ina t ion t ypes p e r r aw 2 02 ma ter ia l p er a na ly t ica l u n i t . T ab le 6 .43 : P la tform s i ze o f f l ake s p e r r aw ma te r ia l p e r 2 03 a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 03 T ab le 7 .1 : T o ta l n umbe r o f a r tefac t s i n e ach s qua re p er s p i t . T ab le 7 .2 : T o ta l w e igh t ( gm ) o f a r tefac t s i n e ach s qua re 2 04 p e r s p i t T ab le 7 .3 : Numbe r a nd w e igh t ( gm ) o f a r tefac t s d i sca rded 2 04 p e r 1 00 y ea rs i n s qua re A l T ab le 7 .4 : Numbe r a nd w e igh t ( gm ) o f a r tefac t s d i sca rded 2 04 p e r 1 00 y ea r s i n s qua re B i T ab le 7 .5 : Numbe r a nd w e igh t ( gm ) o f a r tefac t s d i sca rded 2 04 p e r 1 00 y ea r s i n s qua re B 2 gm ) o f a r tefac t s d i sca rded T ab le 7 .6 : Numbe r a nd w e igh t ( p e r 1 00 y ea r s i n s qua re Z 1. 2 04 T ab le 7 .7 : Numbe r o f r aw ma te r ia ls p e r a na ly t ica l u n it . 2 05 T ab le 7 .8 : P ercen tage o f r aw ma te r ia ls p e r a na lyt ica l u n i t . 2 05 T ab le 7 .9 : Ch i -squa re t e s t o f t he d if fe rence b e tween r aw ma ter ia ls p er a na ly t ica l u n i t . 2 05 T ab le 7 .10 : Ra t io o f h o rnfe ls a r tefac t s t o a l l o the r r aw ma ter ia ls 2 05 T ab le 7 . 11 : T o ta l w e igh t ( gm ) o f a r tefac ts p er r aw ma te r ia l p er a na ly t ica l u n it 2 05 T ab le 7 . 12 : P e rcen tage o f w e igh t p e r r aw ma te r ia l p er a na lyt ica l u n i t 2 06 T ab le 7 .13 : P e rcen tage o f r aw ma te r ia ls f ound i n o the r C en t ra l H igh land H o locene s i te s 2 06 T ab le 7 . 14 : D is t r ibu t ion o f c o re s p e r r aw ma te r ia l p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 06 T ab le 7 .15 : D is t r ibu t ion o f r e touched a r tefac t s p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 06 T ab le 7 . 16 : D is t r ibu t ion o f f l aked p iece s p e r r aw ma te r ia l p e r a na ly t ica l u n it 2 07 T ab le 7 . 17 : Ave rage w e igh t ( gm ) o f h ornfe ls < 1 cm p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 07 T ab le 7 . 18 : Ave rage w e igh t ( gm ) o f q ua r tz i te < 1 cm p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 07 T ab le 7 . 19 : R esu l t s o f h o rnf e ls c o re r educ t ion 2 08 T ab le 7 .20 : P e rcen tage o f p la tforms a nd b u lbs o n a rchaeo log ica l s amp le 2 08 T ab le 7 .21 : S ize o f c omp le te f l ake s p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t p e r r aw ma ter ia l . 2 09

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T ab le 7 .22 : S hape s o f c omp le te f l akes p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t p e r r aw ma ter ia l 2 09 T ab le 7 .23 : P la tform s i ze o f f l akes p e r r aw ma te r ia l p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 09 T ab le 7 .24 : T echno log ica l c ha rac ter is t ics o f h ornfe ls f l akes p e r a na ly t ica l u n it . 2 10 T ab le 7 .25 : T echno log ica l c ha rac te r is t ics o f c omp le te q ua r tz i te f l akes . 2 11 T ab le 9 . 1 : T o ta l n umbe r , we igh t , a ve rage w e igh t a nd p ropor t ion o f b one i den t if ied i n e ach c e l l p er s p i t . 2 12 T ab le 9 .2 : Numbe r o f i nd iv idua l s pec imen s p re sen t i n c e l l Z . C oun t s i nc ludes t e e th , v e r tebrae a nd r i bs . 2 13 T ab le 9 . 3 : Numbe r o f i nd iv idua l s pec imens p re sen t i n c e l l W . C oun t s i nc ludes t e e th , v er tebrae a nd r i bs 2 13 T ab le 9 .4 : B one n umbe r a nd w e igh t d i sca rd i n c e l l Z p e r u n i t t ime a nd n umbe r a nd w e igh t p e r k i logram o f s ed imen t 2 14 T ab le 9 . 5 : B one n umbe r a nd we igh t d i sca rd i n c e l l W p er u n i t t ime a nd n umbe r a nd we igh t p e r k i logram o f s ed imen t 2 14 T ab le 9 .6 : Numbe r a nd w e igh t o f b urn t b one i n b o th c e l ls 2 15 T ab le 9 .7 : Numbe r o f s pec ies a nd u n iden t if ied b u rn t b one i n c e l l s Z a nd W 2 15 T ab le 9 . 8 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r M . r uf ogr i seus 2 16 T ab le 9 .9 : MN Is , N ISPs a nd w e igh t f o r P o torous t r idac ty lus a p ica l is 2 16 T ab le 9 . 10 : MN Is , N ISPs a nd w e igh t f o r T hy loga le b i l lard ier i i 2 16 T ab le 9 . 11 : MN Is , N ISPs a nd w e igh t f o r O rnithorhynchus a na t inus 2 16 T ab le 9 . 12 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r Dasyurus s pp 2 17 T ab le 9 . 13 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r A n tech inus s pp 2 17 T ab le 9 . 14 : MN I s , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r V omba tus u r s inus 2 17 T ab le 9 . 15 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r I soodon o besu lus 2 17 T ab le 9 . 16 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r T r ichosurus v u lpecu la 2 18 T ab le 9 . 17 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r P seudoche irus p eregrinus 2 18 T ab le 9 . 18 : MN Is , N ISPs a nd w e igh t f o r Mur idae . 2 18 T ab le 9 . 19 : N ISPs o f mur id s i n c e l ls Z a nd W 2 19 T ab le 9 .20 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r Mas tacomys f uscus . 2 19 T ab le 9 .21 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r R . l u treo lus v e lu t inus 2 20 T ab le 9 .22 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r P seudomys s pp 2 20 T ab le 9 .23 : MN Is , N ISP s a nd w e igh t f o r C ercar te tus s pp 2 20 T ab le 9 .24 : D is t r ibu t ion o f emu e gg s he l l i n a l l c e l ls i n s qua re A l 2 20 T ab le 9 .25 : N umbe r a nd we igh t o f a l l e l emen t s a t t r ibu ted t o s ma l l mamma l s pec ie s . 2 21 T ab le 9 .26 : N ISP s i den t if ied t o s ma l l mamma ls i n c e l l Z a nd W p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 21 T ab le 9 .27 : N ISP s i d en t if ied t o med ium s i zed mamma ls i n c e l l Z a nd W p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 22 T ab le 9 .28 : Numbe r a nd we igh t o f a l l e l emen t s a t t r ibu ted t o l a rge mamma l s pec ie s . 2 22 T ab le 9 .29 : N ISPs a nd MN Is i den t if ied b y e l emen t s t o M . r uf ogr iseus i n c e l l Z p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t . 2 23 T ab le 9 . 30 : N ISPs a nd MN Is i den t if ied b y e l emen t s t o M . r uf ogr iseus i n c e l l W p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 24 T ab le 9 . 31 : P e rcen tage o f a r t icu la ted e nd s p re sen t o n t h ree wa l laby l ong b ones . 2 24 T ab le 9 . 32 : R ed k anga roo me t r ica l d a ta f r om O 'Conne l l a nd Ma r sha l l ( 1989 ) 2 25

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T ab le 9 .33 : Ma r row v o lumes ( m l ) f o r s e lec ted k anga roo b ones 2 25 T ab le 1 0 .1 : Numbe r o f b one s i n e ach s qua re p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 25 T ab le 1 0 .2 : We igh t o f b one s i n e ach s qua re p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 25 T ab le 1 0 .3 : T o ta l N ISP s i nc lud ing t e e th , v e r tebrae a nd r i bs p er a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 26 T ab le 1 0 .4 : Ave rage w e igh t ( gm ) o f b one p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 26 T ab le 1 0 .5 : B urn t b one p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 27 T ab le 1 0 .6 : S pec ies b urn t b y n umbe r a nd we igh t ( gm ) p er a na ly t ica l u n it 2 27 T ab le 1 0 .7 : D isca rd r a te s b y n umbe r a nd w e igh t p e r u n i t t ime .. . . . 2 28 T ab le 1 0 .8 : N ISP s , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r M . r uf ogr iseus p e r a na ly t ica l u n it 2 28 T ab le 1 0 .9 : N ISPs , MN I s a nd w e igh t f o r Macropus g iganteus p e r a na ly t ica l u n it . 2 28 T ab le 1 0 .10 : N ISP s , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r B e t tong ia g a imard i p e r a na ly t ica l u n it . 2 29 T ab le 1 0 .11 : N ISP s , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r Ornithorhynchus a na t inus p er a na ly t ica l u n i t . 2 29 T ab le 1 0 .12 : N ISP s , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r Dasyurus s pp . p e r a na ly t ica l u nit 2 29 T ab le 1 0 .13 : N ISPs , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r A ntech inus s pp . p e r a na ly t ica l u nit 2 29 T ab le 1 0 .14 : N ISP s , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r I soodon o besu lus p e r a na ly t ica l u nit 2 29 Is a nd w e igh t f o r P erame les g unn i i p e r T ab le 1 0 .15 : N ISP s , MN a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 30 T ab le 1 0 .16 : N ISP s , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r P seudoche irus p eregr inus p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 30 T ab le 1 0 .17 : N ISPs , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r mu r idae p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t . 2 30 T ab le 1 0 .18 : N ISP s , MN I s a nd w e igh t f o r Mas tacomys f uscus p er a na ly t ica l u n i t 2 30 T ab le 1 0 .19 : N ISP s , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r R a t tus l u treo lus 2 30 v e lut inus p er a na ly t ica l u n i t . T ab le 1 0 .20 : N ISP s , MN I s a nd w e igh t f o r H ydromys c hrysogas ter p er a na ly t ica l u n i t . 2 31 T ab le 1 0 .21 : N ISPs , MN Is a nd w e igh t f o r C ercar te tus s pp . p e r a na ly t ica l u nit 2 31 T ab le 1 0 .22 : Numbe r o f e l emen t s i den t if ied t o s ma l l 2 31 mamma l p er a na ly t ica l u n i t . T ab le 1 0 .23 : Numbe r o f e lemen t s i den t if ied t o med ium 2 32 mamma l p er a na ly t ica l u n i t . 2 32 T ab le 1 0 .24 : E lemen t s a t tr ibu ted t o wa l laby p e r a na ly t ica l u n i t T ab le 1 0 .25 : We igh t ( gm ) o f e l emen t s a t t r ibu ted t o wa l laby p er 2 33 a na ly t ica l u n i t T ab le 1 .1 : C ompa ra t ive d i sca rd r a te s p e r u n i t t ime p e r a na ly t ica l 2 33 u nit T ab le 1 .2 : C ompa ra t ive s t one d i sca rd p e r u n i t t ime p e r a na ly t ica l 2 33 u nit T ab le 1 .3 : Hornfe ls t echno log ica l c ompa r isons p e r a na ly t ica l 2 34 u n i t b y s i te T ab le 1 .4 : Qua r tz i te t e chno log ica l c ompa r isons p er a na ly t ica l 2 34 u n i t b y s i te T ab le 1 .5 : C ompa r ison o f f auna l d i sca rd p e r u n i t t ime b e tween 2 34 t he t wo s i tes .

i x

Abstract T h i s monog raph i sa bou t r eg iona l v ar iab i l i ty i n l a te P l e i s tocene h uman b ehav iou rw i th s pec if i cr e f e rence t o T a sman ia . T he monograph e xam ine s p r io r n o t ion s o f t h e u n ifo rm b ehav iou r o fl a t e P le i s tocene h uman s a nd c onc lude s t ha tt h e a r chaeo log ica ld a ta f r om S ou thwe s t T a sman ia c ha l lenge t h i s r ece ived v i ew . T he n o t ion i s e xam ined f u r the rb y ad e ta i led c ompa ra t ive a na ly s i s o f t wo c ave s i te sl o ca ted i ns ou th c en t ra lT a sman ia . T he r e su l t s f r om t h ea na ly se sc l ea r ly i nd ica te as t rong a r chaeo log ica l d icho tomy b e tween t h e t wo c l ose ly r e la ted g eog raph ic r eg ion s . T he ma in d i s t ingu i sh ing f e a tu re sa r et h ed i f f e ren ts t ruc tu ra lp rope r t ie so ft h et wo a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd s . T he mo s t o bv ious i s t he q uan t i ty o fr e s idue sd i sca rded .S tone a r te fac tr educ t ion , r aw ma te r ia l a cqu i s i t ion , i t s movemen t a nd a r tefac t t ypes c l ea r ly v a ry a te a ch s i te . F u r the r , a l though many o f t he s ame a n ima l s pec ie s a r e e xp lo i ted , t h e re a re v a r ious b u tche r ing a nd p roce ss ing s i gna ture s . I ti s c onc luded t ha tt h ey r e f lec td if e ren t f unc t iona l a nd /o r s oc ia la spec t so f ar e la ted l ong t e rm h uman b ehav iou ra l s ys tem .

I n t h e a bsence o fe t hnog raph ic , a r chaeo log ica l a nd /o r t heo re t ica l b ehav iou ra l mode l s t o i nves t iga te t h is d i cho tomy f u r the r , ap a laeoe co log ica l f r amework i s a dvanced t o f u r the r e xam ine t h e b a ses f o r t h is v a r iab i l i ty . T he mode l s ugges t s t ha t S ou thwes t T a sman ia c anno tb er e ga rded a s ag l a c ia lh uman r e fuge , b u t r e f lec t s i n s t ead t h e d i s t inc t ive h uman b ehav iou ra l e co logy i nt h e t wo r e g ion s a tt h i s t ime . F ina l ly t h e monog raph e xam ine s t h e r e fuge c oncep t a nd c u l tu ra l e vo lu t iona ry mode l s i n aw ide rA us t ra l ian c on tex ti nl i gh to ft h eT a sman ian d a ta . I ti sa r gued t ha t t h ese mode ls a r e i n app rop r ia te a se xp lana to ry d ev ice s f o rt h eT a sman ian d a tab a se b ecause t h e i ra r cha eo log ica l c o r re la t e s a r e i n con s i s t en t a nd e qu ivoca l . I ti sa r gued t ha t t h i s r e f lec t s t h e u nde r -deve loped t h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk s i n A u s t ra l ian P le i s tocene a rchaeo logy g ene ra l ly . A s ac on sequence t h e n ew T a sman ian d a ta c ha l lenge t h e l i nea r e vo lu t iona ry v i ew o f " s imp le t o " comp lex " s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s . T he a r gumen t ma in ta ins t ha t v iews o f A us t ra l ian l a te P le is tocene h uman b ehav iou rn eed t oe mb race n on l inea rs y s tem so fs oc ia l t r ansfo rma t ions i n s tead o f t hose w h ich c ha rac ter ise A bo r ig ina ls oc ie ty a sc u l tu ra le vo lu t iona ry i nc ha ra c te r .

A cknow ledge ments

R udy F rank d e se rve s s pec ia l men t ion f o rh i s l o g i s t ica l s uppo r t a nd h e lp t h roughou t t he f i e ldwork a nd

T h i s monog raph i sd ed ica ted t o t h e m emory o f my b ro the r M ichae l , 1 951-1993 . I ti s as l igh t ly mod if ied v e r s ion o f my P h Dt h e s i s w r i t ten i n1 991 .

l a bo ra to ry a na lys i s . Anne McConnel p roduc ed av e ry d e ta i led r epo r t o n t h e m ic ros t ra t ig raphy o f Nunam i ra c ave . A l l p ho tog raphs f o r t h i s a na lys i s w e re t a ken b y

T he re a r em any p eop le , i n s t i tu t ion s a nd o rgan i sa t ion s t ow hom Io we ag rea td ea lo ft h ank s . F i r s ta nd f o remo s t Iwou ld l i ke t ot h ank J im A l len f o r h i s c on t inua l s uppor t , e ncou ragemen ta nd i n telec tua l s t imu la t ion d ur ing my r esea rch . I wou ld a l so p a r t icu la r ly l i ke t oa cknow ledge t h e g rea t s uppo r t o f T im Mu r ray a nd t h el i ve ly d eba te sa bou tt h en a tu re o f P l e i s tocene h uman b ehav iou r . Hope fuly t h er ubbe rh a s h i t t h e r oad , w i thou t t h e c a r , a nd i t s o ccupan t , g o ing i n to as p in . A l lt h ef i e ldwo rk a nd a na lys is o u t l ined h e re w as c a r r ied o u t w h i le I h e ld a C ommonwea l th P o s tg radua te S cho la r sh ip i n t h e D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , L a T robe U n ive r s i ty .T he f i e ld e xcava t ion sa nd r ad ioca rbon d a t ing w e re f unded b y t he A us t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o f A bo r ig ina la nd T o r re sS t ra i tI s lande rS tud ie s ,C anbe r ra . Ia cknow ledge t h i s a s s is tance w i th g ra t i tude . Ia l so t h ank A u s t ra l ian N ew sp r in tM il s , Maydena f o ra cces s t o t h e F lo ren t ine v a l ley a nd f und ing a dd i t iona l r ad ioca rbon d a te s . It hank D r a nd Mr s B radf ie ld f o r p e rm i s s ion t os urvey a nd e xcava te o n t h e i r p roper ty , " He rm i tage " a nd S teve B rown f o r g u id ing me t o t h e s i te o f ORS 7 . It h ank m yf i e ld c r ew so fD ecembe r 1 987 a nd 1 988 f o r t h e l o ng h ou r so ve rt h e s i eve s , wh ich i nt h ee nd , made t h e b u rden o f l abo ra tory a na ly s is much e a s ie r ; C a the r ine B uchcanan , C a thy K och , F ran C osg rove , K a r en I z a rd , M ichae l J one s , P e te r Mo rgan , L ynne t te R us sel , A l is ta i r S herw in , R ob in S im a nd Chr is T homp son .

A nne McConnel a nd r ep roduced b y R udy F rank .T he i r c on t r ibu t ions a r e a ck now ledged w i th g ra t i tude . Ia l so t h ank B rendan Ma r sha l l f o rh i s g u idance i nt h e f auna l i d en t if ica t ion a nd a na lys is . It hank J ohn Webb , G eo logy D epa r tmen t ,L aT robe Un ive r s i ty ,f o rh i sh e lp i n t he s ed imen t , X -ray d if f rac t ion a na lys is a nd p e t rograph ic i den t if ica t ion s . Ia l so t hank G if fo rd M i l le r , Un ive r s i ty o f C o lo rado , f o r h i s am ino a c id a na ly s i s o f t h e e mu e gg s hel . Iam a l so i ndeb ted t o R udy F rank , We i M ing a nd C e l ia P e rk ins f o r t h e i lus t ra t ion s . It h ank A lber t Goede f o r h i s h e lp i n t h e f i e ld a nd s ha r ing h i s c on s ide rab le k now ledge o ft h e F lo ren t ine v a l ley l imes tone a nd i t s c aves . F o r h i s c on t inua l a s s i s tance a nd f r iend sh ip i na l lw ea the r s , It h ank D a r r el We s t , w i thou t w hom , l i f e w ou ld h ave b een v e ry d u l l i n de ed . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t o a cknow ledge t he i n te l lec tua l c on t r ibu t ions o f my d epa r tmen ta lc o l league sa nd p eop le f r om o the r i n s t i tu t ions ; K ev in K ie rnan , G eof fB a i ley , C l ive G amb le , C h r i s Gosden , N ikk i S te rn , P h i ll ip " P lugge r " E dwa rd s , Dav id F ranke l , R ob in T o r rence , P e te r H iscock , I an McN iven , J ack Go lson , P e te r Wh i te , R hy s J one s , P au l O s sa , Nancy S ha rpe , A l i son Wyl ie a nd R icha rd F u l laga r . I nT a sman ia Iw ou ld e spec ia l ly l i ke t ot hank E r ic a nd T an ia S tad le r , B a r ry B la in a nd Don R an son f o r t h e i r s uppor t . K ry s ta l B uck ley , A ng ie McGowan , S ue K ee a nd B ra in P r ince a r ea l so t h ank ed . F ina l ly Ih ave o ne v ery s pec ia l t h ank y ou , t oF ran , f o r h e rs uppo r ta nd e ncou ragemen tt h roughou t my w o rk .

P a r t 1 :I n t roduc t ion

C hap te r 1 :T he P rob lem

C hap te r 1 The P rob le m T o c ommence a c hap ter o n P le i s tocene man b y a n a ccoun to f ar e cen tr ace m igh tw e l ls e em aw i lf u l( s ic ) a nachron i sm ; t h eT a sman ians , h owever , t h ough r ecen t , w ere a tt h e s ame t i me a P a leo l i th ic o r e ven , i th as b een a s se r t ed ,a n " e o l i th ic" r ace ;a nd t h ey t h us a f ord u s a no ppor tun i ty o fi n t erpr e t ing t h ep as tb yt h ep r esen tas av ing p rocedure i n as ub jec t w her ef an ta sy i so n ly t oo l i k e ly t op lay al e ad ing p ar t ( Sola s 1 911 :70 ) . S o o pened S ola s 's c hap te r o n t h e T a sman ians a s r ep res en ta t ive so fP l e i s tocene h uman s .I ti lu s t ra tes t h e v iew , a tt h a t t ime , o f t h e c on t inu i ty a nd u nchanged c ha ra c te ro fh un t e r -ga the re r s b e tween t h e p resen t a nd t h ed eep p a s t , e spec ia l ly t h ose o fc on t inen ta lA us t ra l ia . T o s ome e x ten t t h ese p e rcep t ions , a l though o f a d i f fe ren t i n te l lec tua l g en re a nd f o r v ery d i f fe ren t r e a son s ,h ave c a r r ied o ve ri n to c on tempo ra ry d ep ic t ion s o fl i f ea sr ep re sen ted i nt h e P le i s tocene a r chaeo log ica l r ecord o f Aus tra l ia . J one s , f olow ing e a rl ie r i dea s e xp re ssed b y E dgewor th -Dav id ( 1923 :118 ,126 ,145 ) , a sk ed , C an w e n ow l o ok a tt h e T asman ian s , n o t s o much a s t h e r epr esen ta t ives o fP a laeo l i th ic m an , b u t o f l a te P l e is tocene A us tra l ian m an? ( 1971 :630 ) .

a c ro ss t ime a nd s pace ,a nd i mpo r tan t ly t ot h ee x ten s ion o f t h ese mode l s i n to a p an -Aus t ra l ian t hea t re o f P le i s tocene A bo r ig ina l b ehav iou r ( eg B owd le r 1 977 , 1 979 ; V e th 1 989 ) . As t rong d i s t inc t ion h a s b een made b e tween w ha tw a ss e en a st h ei mpove r i shed P le is toc ene /e a r ly H o locene a r cha eo logy a nd t h ep e rce ived d ynam ic c hange s wh ich o ccu r red i nt h em idd le t ol a te Ho loc ene . T h i s d i cho tomy h a s b een f u r ther r educed t or ep re sen t s imp le v e r su s c omp lex s oc ia l s t ruc tu re . T he n o t ion o f v a r ia t ion h a sb e en a vo ided . T h i s , Ib e l ieve , h a s i mbued t h e Au s t ra l ian P le i s tocene a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd a nd o u ru nde r s tand ing o fi t ,w i th a d i rec t iona l f l avou r b ecom ing ' mo re t e chno log icaly c omp lex ' a l ong a h i s to r ica l s ca le ( Lo rb lanche t a nd J ones 1 979 ) . I t h a s a l so r e info rced a p a r t icu la r e xpec ta t ion o f t h e P le i s tocene r eco rd ; o ne i n wh ich t h e re s hou ld b e l i t t le s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l c hange , a ccompan ied b y h omogeneou s s e ts o f s t one a r tefac t s a nd s pec ia l ised e conom ie s ( Lou rando s 1 985 :397 ) . A ny s ub t le d i f f e rence s i n d a ta s e t s b e tween r eg ion s h ave b een g ene ra l ly i n co rpo ra ted o r i gno red r a the r t han i s o la ted a nd r e cogn ised . E xcep t ion s wh ich p rove t h e r u le h ave o f ten n o t b een h igh l igh ted n or s een a s p ar t icu la r ly t r oub lesome t o k now ledge c la ims ( eg B owd le r 1 977 :235 ,1981a101 ; J one s 1 990 : 2 91) . T h i s p a t te rn h a sb e en f u r the ri n te rp re ted t or e f lec tt h eg ene ra l n a tu re o f P le is toc ene A u s t ra l ia a s s ma l l , s ca t te red g roup s o f h umans w i th l ow p opu la t ion d ens i t ie s a nd l i t t le s oc ia li n te rac t ion w i th c on serva t ive t e chno log ie s . T he v iews o f h uman b ehav iour f r om s imp le t o c omp lex h a s b een as t rong o rgan i s ing p r inc ip le i nt h e d i scu ss ion o fd i cho tom ie s b e tween t h e Ho locene a nd t h el a te P l e i s tocene i nA u s t ra l ian a r chaeo logy .T he w ay i nw h ich a na ly t ica lc a t ego r ie sh ave b een e s tabl i shed t o i lu s t ra te t h ei n c rea s ing t empo ra l v a r iab i l i ty b u ts pa t ia l c on t inu i ty o f h uman b ehav iou r , p ar t icu la r ly s t one a r tefa c t s a nd s e t t lemen th i s to r ies , h a s c l ea r ly f olowed t h i s a genda ( H i scock 1 988 :269 ; T o rrence 1 989 :57 ) . T he i mpo r tan t p o in t t on o te i st ha t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd o ve r a tl e a s t t h e l a s t 3 0 ,000 r ad ioca rbon y ea r s h ave b een d epo s i ted b ya na tom ica l ly mode rn h umans .

T h is monog raph i sa bou tt he v i ew o fu n i fo rm i ty o ft h e l a te P le i s tocene a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd w i th s pec if ic r e f e rence t oT a sman ia . Aus t ra l ian P le i s to cene p opu la t ion sh ave b een d e sc r ibed a sl ow d en s i ty ,w ide sp read w i th l i t t le r e g iona lv a r ia t ion (Wh i te a nd O 'Connel 1 982 :72 ) . T h i s " r ece ived v i ew" i n p a r t h a s b een s uppor ted b y t h e n a tu re o f t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta b a se , n o rma l ly p re serv ing f ew ma te r ia lr ema in s ,g eog raph ica l ly d i ve r se ,w i th al im i ted n umbe r o fw el d a ted P le i s tocene s i te t ype s w i th in a c on t inen ta l a r ea o f -7 . 6 m i l l ion s qua re k i lome t res . I n t h ep a s t ,c on tempo ra ry d emog raph ic mode l ss ugge s ted t ha t P le i s tocene A bor ig ina l p opu la t ions e xh ib i ted c u l tu ra lc on t inu i ty o ve rl a rge a r ea so fA u s t ra l ia . I tw a s s ugge s ted t ha t t h e re w a s r e la t ive ly l i t t le r eg iona l v a r ia t ion t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h em r e la t ive t o t h e c u l tu ra l c hange s t h a t o ccu r red d u r ing t h e Ho locene ( Mu lvaney 1 987 :87 ,88 ,101 ) . T he P l e i s tocene w a s ( and i s ) e xp r e ssed i nt e rm so fn ega t ive s ; s pa r se p opu la t ion s , l ow i n tens i ty mo re t r ans i tory e conom ic p a t terns , s imp le r s oc ia l n e two rk s a nd c e remon ia l o rgan iza t ion . T here was a c l ea r t r a jec tory o f i ncreas ing s oc ioeconom ic c omp lex i ty f r om P l e i s to cene f o rage r st o Ho loc ene c olec to r s ( Lou rando s 1 987 :158 ; Mu lvaney 1 987 :101 ) .

S . J . G ou ld ( 1989 :27 ) h a s r ecen t ly e xposed a s im i la r p ro se ly t ized v i ew o f i n c rea s ing t a xonom ic v a r iab i l i ty i np a laeon to logy .T he r e ana lys i so ft h ef amous B u rge s s S ha le i nt h e C anad ian R ock ie s d i rec t ly c ha l lenged t h e p r io r n o t ion o f s t aged , e vo lu t ionary p rog re ss u p t h e l a dde ro fa n e ve r inc rea s ing d ive r s i ty a nd v a r ia t ion i n l i f e f o rm s t o t h e p re sen t d ay . Gou ld a rgued t ha t t h e f o ss i l s i nt h eB u rge s s S ha le p rov ide e v idence o f av a s t a r ray o fd ive r s i ty i n a5 30 -m i l l ion -yea r -o ld c o l lec t ion o fa n ima l s w h ich e c l ipse s a l l t h e v a r iab i l i ty i nt oday s a n ima l k ingdom . H e s ugge s ted t h e r ea son t ha t i t c ha l lenge s u s i sb ecause o fo u r p re jud ices o f o rde r ly p rog re s s ion f r om s imp le t oc omp lex , w i th t h e i n c rease i n d i ve r s i ty o f f o rm s o n ly e xpec ted t o o ccu r i n t h e r e cen t g eo log ica l r e co rd ( 1989 :35 ) . T he b a ses o f o u r p re jud ice s , h e a rgue s , a r e t h e n ine teen th c en tu ry v i ew e ncap su la ted i nt h e m e tapho r s o ft h e c one o fd ive r s i ty a nd t h el a dde ro fl i f e . G ou ld s ugge s t s ,

T hese i n te rp re ta t ions h ave l e d t o an eg lec t o f t he p o ss ib il i ty o f i nhe r en t v ar iab i l i ty i n t h e P le is tocene r e co rd . T h is h a s b een d one t h rough t h e b l end ing a nd b lu r r ing o fp o ten t ia l r eg iona l b ehav iou ra l d i f f e rence s

1

P a r t 1 :I n t roduc t ion

C hap te r 1 :T he P rob lem c on t inen t w a s p opu la ted b y a na tom ica l ly modern h umans , a ny v a r ia t ions i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd c an b e v i ewed a s a d jus tmen t s t o e co log ica l a nd s oc ia l f a c to r so pe ra t ing w i th in G rea te rP le i s tocene A u s t ra l ia . T he e x is tence o f n on l inea r s ys tems o f h uman b ehav iou ri nt h i sc a se may n eed t ob ec onf ron t ed .

I ni t sc onven t iona li n terpr e ta t ion , t h e c one o fd i ver s i ty p ropaga t es a n i n tere s t ing c onf la t ion o fm ean ings . T he h or i zon ta l d imens ion s hows d iver s i ty -f i shes p lus i n sec t s p lus s na i l s p lus s t arf i shes a t t h e t o p t ak e u p m uch m ore l a tera l r oom t han j us tf l a tworms a t t h e b o t tom . B u t w ha t d oes t he v er t ica l d imens ion r epresen t? I n al i t era l r ead ing , u p a nd d own s hou ld r ecord o n ly y ounger a nd o lder i n g eo log ica l t ime : o rgan i sms a tt h e n eck o ft h ef unne l a r e a nc ien t ; t h ose a tt h e l i p , r ecen t . B u tw e a l so r ead u pward m ovemen t a s s imp le t o c omp lex , o r p r im i t ive t o a dvanced . P lacemen ti nt ime i sc ol la ted w i th j udgmen to fw or th ( 1989 :39 e mpha s i s i no r ig ina l ) .

T he S tudy T he p resen t s t udy g rows o u t o f t h e e n t renched p e rcep t ion o f t h e r e la t ive ly c onserva t ive c ha rac te r o f l a te P le i s tocene Au s t ra l ian h uman b ehav iou r a nd t h e p a radox ica ln a tu re o ft h e a r cha eo log ica ld a taba se n ow e merg ing f r om l imes tone c ave s i t es i n S ou thwes t T a sman ia . P r inc ipa l ly i t a dd resses t h e p uzz l ing c i rcum s tance t h a tw i th in S ou thwe s t T a sman ia o ve r4 0 c ave a nd o pen s i te s o fP le is tocene a ge h ave n ow b een d i scove red w h ich o s tens ib ly d emon s t ra te ad egr ee o f a r chaeo log ica l r i chnes s a nd v a r iab i l i ty n o t p rev iou s ly r epor ted a nywhe re i n A us t ra l ian P le i s tocene s i tes ( Goede a nd Mu r ray 1 977 ; G oede e ta l . 1 978 ; Mu r ray e t a l . 1 980 , J one s 1 984 , K ie rnan e ta l . 1 983 , B la in e ta l . 1 982 , J one s a nd A l len 1 984 , J one s e ta l . 1 988 , A l len e ta l . 1 988 , C osgrove 1 989 , C osgrove a nd J one s 1 989 , A l len 1 989a ; A l len a nd C o sg rove 1 989 ; B row n e ta l . 1 991 ; Alen e ta l . 1 989b , C o sg rove e ta l . 1 990 ) . T hese s i te sr ange , g eog raph ica l ly , f r om n ea r s ea l e ve l , t o u p land p er ig lac ia l z ones o n t h e e dge o f t h e T a sman ian C en t ra lH igh land sa nd s pan at ime p e r iod o f b e tween 1 ,000 a nd > 30 ,000 BP ( F igu re 1 . 1 ) .

T he " f la two rm " o fl a te P le i s tocene s t one t ypo logy , t h e " Aust ra l ian C o re T oo l a nd S c rape r T rad i t ion " , h a s s erved a r o le a s t he b enchma rk f o r t h e e a r l ies t i ndus t r ie s , w i th i t s c omponen ts o n ly s een t o h ave c hanged i n t he ir r e la t ive f r equenc ie s t h rough t ime ( J one s 1 979 :456 ) . T he l a te Ho locene " Sma l l T oo l T rad i t ion " h oweve rh a sb een s een a sd ynam ic , b e ing a r e f lec t ion o fi n c r ea sed " ef i c iency "a nd ag r ea te rr a nge o f t ype s ( J one s 1 979 :457 ) . T he p resence o r a bsence o f t h e se c a tegor ie s i na n a rchaeo log ica l a s semb lage h a s b een s een a s ap o ss ib le r ef lec t ion o f t h e b ehav iou ra l d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e i r maker s . C e r ta in ly J one s s aw t h is d i cho tomy i n t h i s l i gh t when h e c ompa red t h e H o locene T a sman ian s t one t oo l a ssemb lage w i th t h e l a te Ho locene Aus t ra l ian o ne . ( 1977a :196 , 2 02 ) . L amper t ( 1981 :165 ,166 ) a l so b el ieved t h a t t h e l a rge , r obus t " Ka r tan" a r tefac t s f rom Kanga roo I s land r ep resen t ed t h ee a r l ie s th uman c o lon is t s , p reda t ing t h e " Co re T oo lT rad i t ion " b y a n u nknown ma rg in . R ecen t w o rk ,h oweve r ,h a s s hown t ha tt he " Ka r tan " w a si nu se a pp rox ima te ly 9 ,000 y ea r sa go ( D rape r 1 987 ) .

C onver se ly , w hen t h i s s t udy b egan , n o t o ne s i te o ve r 1 0 ,000 y ea r so ld h ad b een f ound , d e sp i te 2 5 y ea r sf i e ld r e sea rch i n S ou thea s tern T a sman ia . I t h ad b een p red ic ted t h a t t h e e a r ly P le i s tocene s i te s i nT a sman ia w ou ld b ep r inc ipa l ly l o ca ted , l i k et h o se i nw e s te rn N ew S ou th Wa le s ( Bow le re ta l . 1 970 ) , i nz one sa round l a ke s y s tems a nd l une t tes o f t h e M id land s v a l ley i n t h e m i lder , c ent ra l e a s te rn c o re ( J ones 1 977b :338 ) . T he o r ig ina l p red ic t ion a l so s ugges ted t h a t , d ue t o t h e u np roduc t ive , r ugged n a tu re o f t h e w e s t e rn i n land o f T a sman ia a nd i t sh a r sh g l ac ia lc l ima te , f ew s i te s w ou ld b e f ound t h e re o fl a te P le i s tocene a ge ( 1 977b :337 ) . A d i f f e ren t v i ew w a s t ha t mo s t P le is tocene s i tes w e re s i tua ted o n t h e T a sman ian c oa s t ( Bowd le r 1 977 ) a nd s i tes l i ke B eg inne r 's L uck C ave i n t h e F lo ren t ine v a l ley d a ted t o -2 0 ,000 y ea r s r ep re sen ted e pheme ra l v i s i t s f r om t h ec oa s ta l z one s t ot h ei n land d u r ing t ime s o f mo re o pen v ege ta t ion ( Mu r ray e ta l . 1 980 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t iona l p a t te rn wa s b a sed f i rm ly i nt h e c oncep t o fg eog raph ica lr e fug ia a nd ap r io r" coa s ta lo r ien ta t ion " o f e a r ly c o lon i s t s , whe re e co log ica l a spec t s o f o ne r e g ion w e re t hough t mo re a menab le t ot h e l ong t e rm h uman o ccupa t ion t han a ny o the r . T he s ubsequen t d i scove ry o fr i ch c ave s i te s o fg l ac ia la ge i nS ou thwes t T a sman ia h a s , h oweve r , c onfounded t h is s imp le c o r r e la t ion a nd p r ed ic t ion ( K ie rnan e ta l . 1 983 ) .

O the rn o t ion so fd i rec t iona lp rog re ss , f r om " s imp le " t o " comp lex " h ave t aken many s ub t le f o rm s i n c lud ing s e t t lemen t h i s tor ies ( Bowd ler 1 977 , 1 981a , 1 984 ; J ones 1 979 ) , s ubs is tence s t ra teg ies ( Lourando s 1 985 :397 ) , s oc ia l s t ruc tures ( Lourandos 1 983 , 1 985 :401 ; Wi ll iams 1 987 ) , t e chno log ica l c hange ( J ones 1 977a , 1 979 :456 ) , g enera l ized p opu la t ion t r a jec tor ie s ( Lou randos 1 987 :157 ; B ea ton 1 985 ) a nd v i ews o f r eg iona l c on t inu i ty (Wh i te a nd O 'Connel 1 982 :72 ) . E ven mo re r ecen t ly , Mu lvaney h a s a mp ly d emons t ra ted a " progress ive " v iew , f o l low ing L ou rando s ( 1985 :412 ) , b y e qua t ing d eve lopmen t s i n t h eO ld Wo r ld a nd t h eN ea rE a s t6 ,000 y ea r sa go t ot h e p a ra l le l , b u te n igma t ic , " i n tens if ica t ion " o fA u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ina lc u l tu re a ta r ound t h e s ame t ime . T he e v idence p o in ts t o g row ing r egiona l d i s t inc t iveness , y e t a tt h e s ame t ime t oc on t inen t -w id e i n nova t ions i n t e chno logy , i ncr eased g roup m ob i l i ty a nd t h e s pr ead o fc er em on ia l g if t e xchange s y s tems a cros si mmens ed i s tances ( Mu lvaney 1 987 :75 ) .

T he e n igma t ic q ues t ions r ema in , h oweve r , a s t o w he ther t h e re w a s , i n f a c t , aP le is tocene h uman e xp re ss ion i n S ou thea s t T asman ia , w ha t t h e l i ke ly a r chaeo log ica l c ha rac te r o f t h i s m igh t h ave b een a nd w he the r t h e se h uman p opu la t ion s a r t icu la t ed w i th t h e

T he se p e rcep t ions h ave t h e i r r oo t s i nl i nea r v i ew s o f " p rog res s " , mov ing f r om o ne s imp le o rgan iza t iona l s y s tem t o amo re c omp lex o ne , a long at ime g rad ien t . A l te rna t ive ly i tc an b ea rgued t ha tw h i le t h eA u s t ra l ian

2

P a r t 1 :I n t roduc t ion

C hap t e r 1 :T he P rob lem

l ime s tone c ave s i te s a l ready i d en t if ied i n S ou thwes t T a sman ia

t h i s mode l s hou ld h ave b o th p red ic t ive v a lue a nd b e o pen t o l e g i t ima te t e s t ing a nd r e fu ta t ion ( Mu r ray a nd Wa lke r 1 988 ) . I t s ma in p u rpose i st o s e t u p t e ns ion b e tween t he a r chaeo log ica l r e s idues a nd e xpec ted e cosys tem v a r ia t ion wh ich f unc t ioned u nder s uban ta rc t ic c ond i t ion s d u r ing t h e l a s t2 0 ,000 y ea r s o f t h e P le i s tocene . A f t e r d e sc r ib ing my mode l i nc hap te r 1 2 , Iw i l l b r ief ly d i scuss s ome o f t he e xpec ted o u tcomes t ha t t h is mode l may p rov ide i n f u tu re r e sea rch , a nd s ugge s tw ha to f f e r ings t h i sf r amewo rk h a s f o r my own w o rk .

T he empha s is o f t he s t udy i s t o i nve s t iga te t h i s g eog r aph ica lp a radox w h ich i sc en t r a lt ot h ea s se s smen t o fT a sman ian l a te P le i s tocene a r chaeo log ica lv a r ia t ion . T he ma jo rq ues t ion t h a tt h e monog raph a dd res se si s , ( i ) c an a n e a s tern l im i t o f t h e r i ch S ou thwes t a r chaeo log ica ls i gna tu r e so r" s y s tem "b ei d en t if ied a nd ( i ) i f s o , c an a ny s oc ia l a nd / o r e co log ica l r e la t ionsh ips b e p red ic ted o r i d en t if ied b e tween S ou thwe s ta nd S ou thea s tT a sman ia ? .

The

T he g ene ra l emp i r ica l i nve s t iga t ion o ft h e se q ue s t ion s i s p rov ided b y a c ompa ra t ive a na lys is o f t wo r ockshe l ter s i tes i n c en t ra l s ou thern T asman ia , Nunam i ra c ave a nd s i te ORS 7 . T he i r l o ca t ion i s s hown i n F igu re 1 . 1 . T hey p rov ide p ivo t p o in t s f r om wh ich t o c ompa re a nd c on t ra s t t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu res o fS ou thwe s ta nd S ou thea s tT a sman ia B o th h ave c hrono log ies e x tend ing b ack 3 0 ,000 BP ( Co sg rove 1 989 ) .

S ign if icance

T he i den t if ica t ion a nd e xam ina t ion o fl a te P le i s tocene v a r iab il i ty i si mpo r tan to n t h ree r e la ted l e ve l s . F i r s t ly , o n t he g loba l s ca le , i th a s b een r ecogn i sed t ha t t he b ehav ioura l s i gna tu res p rev ious ly a t t r ibu tab le t o a na tom ica l ly mod e rn h uman s l i ke c omp lex s t one t oo ls , a r t a nd s ubs i s tence s pec ia l iza t ion wh ich a ppea r — 3 0 ,000 t o 4 0 ,000 BP d o n o t c o inc ide w i th t he a ppea rance o fH omo s ap iens s ome 7 0 -100 ,000 y ea r s a go ( R igh tm i re 1 989 :109 ; B raue r 1 989 :123 ; K le in 1 989b :529 ; C la rk 1 989 :565 ; Deacon 1 989 :547 ) . G amb le ( 1986 :382 ; 1 990 )h a sr ecen t ly o b se rved t h a ta t t h e wo r ld l e ve l , P l e i s tocene a r chaeo log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among a na tom ica l ly mode rn h umans o n d if fe ren t c on t inen t s i s s how ing g rea ter d ive r s i ty a nd l e ss p red ic tab i l i ty t ha n p rev iou s v i ews h ave b een a b le t o a ccoun tf o r .

T he t e rm " sys tem " i s ac onven ien t d ef in it ion i n t h e monograph wh ich a l low s ad i scus s ion o f as uff i c ien t ly d i s t inc t s e t o f p o ly the t ic e l emen t s , b o th t a phonom ic a nd b ehav iou ra l , f ound t o d a te w i th in S ou thwes t T a sman ia . T hese a r ed i scu ssed e xp l ic i t ly i nc hap te r2 . T he t e rm d oes n o t i mp ly o r a s sume t h e e x is tence o f c onnec ted h uman b ehav iou ra l s y s tem s , i ti sm e re ly a h eu r i st ic .

H e s ugge s t s ( 1990 ) t h a t t h e E u ropean b ehav iou ra l mode ls w h ich h ave d i rec ted t h e t h ink ing o n modern h uman c o lon iza t ion a nd d eba tes o n " s imp le " a nd " comp lex " h uman g roup sa r en ow s e r iou s ly c ha l lenged b y n ew d a ta f r om A u s t ra l ia a nd e l sewhe re . H e f u r the r a sser ts t ha t t h e t e rm s " s imp le" a nd " comp lex " a re u nhe lpfu l s i nce t h ey p rov ide r e s t r ic t ive c a tegor ie s wh ich t ake a t ten t ion a way f r om t he r ea l i s sue o f i nve s t iga t ing a nd u nde r s tand ing v a r iab i l i ty .T h is a spec t i sd i rec t ly r e levan t t oP l e i s tocene Aus t ra l ia s i nce w e may e nv isage n o tj u s to ne o rt wo h omogeneou s h uman p opu la t ion s b u t a n a r ray o f h un te r -ga the rer s oc ie t ie s a nd t he ir b ehav ioura l r esponses d e tec ted a rchaeo log ica l ly w i th in o ne b io log ica l p opu la t ion , w ide ly d i spe r s ed a c ro s st h ec on t inent

T he monograph e xam ines t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeoeco log ica l v a r ia t ion b e twe en t h e r ock she l te r s . V a r iat ion i sd ef ined h e r e" a st h et e nd ency o fp henomena w i th in ac l a s s t od if e ro ne f r om a no the r " ( Fo ley 1 981 : 6 7 ) . Ih ave s e lec ted a spec t so ft h es t one t e chno logy a nd t h e r i ch f auna l c omponen t t o e l uc ida te v a r ia t ion b e tween a nd w i th in t he t wo r eg ions . F o r t he mea su remen ts o f t hese d if fe rence s a nd t he ir e xp lana t ions t ob em ean ingfu l , t h ey a r e made a ts im i lar s c a le s , b o th i nt ime a nd s pace .T hu s ,a sf a ra sp o s s ib le , Ih ave p icked a t t r ibu te s w i th in a r chaeo log ica l a nd e co log ica l c lasses wh ich a re c ommon t o , a nd c ommensu rab le w i th , b o th s i te s . T he p r ima ry a im o f t he monograph i sn o t t o g ive a no the re xped ien t ,a dh oc a ccoun to ft h em ean ing o ft h e r e s idue s f r om S ou thea s ta nd S ou thwe s t T a sman ia . A s o u t l ined a bove , t h e ma in a im w i l l b e t oc ompa re a nd c on t ra s tt h ev a r ia t ion b e tween t wo s i te so n t h eb a s i so f an umbe ro fs im i la ra t t r ibu te s . T h i sw i l l f o rm t h eb ody o ft h e monog raph a nd w i l l a dd r e s s t h e f i r s tp a r to ft h e q ue st ion , t he i den t if ica t ion o f b ounda r ies t o t he S ou thwes t T a sman ian P le is tocene " sys tem " . T he s e cond p a r to ft h e monog raph w i l la dd r e s st h eq ue s t ion o fe co log ica l r e la t ion sh ip s w i th t h e c ons truc t ion o f a p a laeoeco log ica l f r amewo rk ,o rm ode lw i th in w h ich t o f u r the r i nve s t iga te a r chaeo log ica l v a r ia t ion , n o t t o a ccoun tf o ri td e te rm in i s t ica l ly .T he e xpec ta t ion i st h a t

3

R ecen t ly , t h e se i n con s i s tenc ies h ave b een h igh l igh ted i n r e la t ion t o s pec if ic d a ta s e t s w h ich h ave d emons t ra ted t h e l a ck o f c o r re la t ion b e tween c r i te r ia u sua l ly t hough t o f a s i lum ina t ing a spec ts o f mode rn i ty a nd s t aged " comp lex i ty " o rs o c ia le vo lu t ion . F or e xamp le s uch d i rec t c ompa r i sons b e tween t e chno logy , e ne rgy h a rne s s ing a nd s ub s is tence i nb o th Aus t ra l ia a nd Me lanes ia (Wh i te 1 977 :24 ; Go lson 1 977 :154 ) , a r t a nd i n fo rma t ion e xchange ( Nobbs a nd Dorn 1 988 ; L oy e ta l . 1 990 ; McDona ld e ta l . 1 990 ) a nd b e tween p a r t icu la rt e chno log ie sa nd t h ea ppea rance o f Homo s ap iens s ap ien s ( T r inkaus 1 986 ; F o ley 1 987 ) s t re s st h eu n re la t edne s so ft h ese p henomena i n ag raded t ime s equence . I nt h e se c a se s w e h ave t oc onf ron t t h e

P a r t 1 :I n t roduc t ion

C hap t e r 1 :T he P rob lem

e xpec ta t ion t ha t P le is tocene h uman b ehav ioura l v a r ia t ion i sa lmo s t c er ta in ly t h e r u le r a the r t han t h e e xcep t ion .

a r chaeo log ica l r e s idues . I n t h em t he i n te rac t ion o f c u l tu re a nd e nv i ronmen t i s u nde r s tood i n t e rms o f s imp le c o r re la t ions b e tween g ene ra l l a rge s ca le g l ac ia l a nd i n te rg la c ia lc hange ,c onserva t ive r e sou rce u se a nd a c on t inu i ty o f h uman b ehav iou r , a l though i n mo re r e cen t wo rk i mpo r tan t t e chno log ica l a nd e conom ic v a r iab i l i ty h a s a l so b e en d emon s t ra ted ( H i scock 1 988 ; O 'Connor 1 990 ) . T he e bb a nd f l ow o f s ma l l P l e is tocene p opu la t ion s h ave b een s een t o b e a tt h e w h im o fl ong t e rm e co log ica l v a r iab les a nd r e sou rce s w i th w h ich t h ey h ave b een f am i l ia r s i nce e a r ly c on t inen ta l c o lon iza t ion . T he re i si nt hese w o rk s l i t t le r e cogn i t ion o f t h e p o ss ib il i ty o f t he e x i s tence o f a r a nge o fv a r ied r eg iona lP le i s tocene h uman b ehav iou ra l o rgan iza t ion s a nd r e spon se s , b o th t h rough t ime a nd a c ro s ss pace .

S econd ly , t he p re sen t s t udy i s o f i mpor tance o n a c on t inen ta l s ca le whe re i th a s b een o bserved t h a t t h e A us t ra l ian l andmass was f i rs t c o lon ised b y a na tom ica l ly modern h umans ( Brown , P1 987 ; A l len 1 989b ) . T he i mp l ica t ion i st ha t u n l ike i n c on t inen ta l E u rope , A s ia a nd A f r ica , t h e r e s idues l e f t b eh ind a r e e s sen t ia l ly f r om o ne s pec ie s . It hus a s sume t h a t a ny s ubsequen tv a r ia t ion i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i sd ue t o v a r iou s h uman a d jus tmen t s t o i n terna l s oc ia l a nd e co log ica l f o rce s .T h i s a f fo rd s au n ique o ppo r tun i ty t o e xam ine c hanges i n h uman b ehav iour w i th in a nd b e tween r eg ion s a c ro s s A u s t ra l ia o ve r ap e r iod o f a t l e a s t4 0 ,000 y ea r sw i thou tt h ep o s s ib le ma sk ing e f f ec t s o fb io log ica l ly d i f f e ren th om in id s .

T hese c on t inen ta l s t ud ie s h oweve r , h ighl igh tt h e l a rge s ca le s pa t ia l a nd t empora l p rob lem s o f c ompa ra t ive v a r iab i l i ty ( Ba i ley a nd G amb le 1 990 :151 ) . Ib el ieve t h e mode l s g ene ra ted f r om t he se o b serva t ions c anno t i n t h em se lve s b e u sed a s e i the r e xp lana tory d ev ic e s f o r o the r l oca l a nd r eg iona l v a r ia t ions o r f o r t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fp an -Aus t ra l ian mode ls w h ich e xp la in a way v a r ia t ion o n ac on t inen ta l b a s is . T h i s w a s a n a cc ep ted d ev ice u sed i nt h ep a s tf o rs t imu la t ing r e sea r ch i na no t herw i se i mpove r i shed l a te P le i s tocene d a taba se ( e g B owd le r 1 977 , 1 981 ; L our ando s 1 983 ) . T he i r ony o ft h i s s hou ld n o tb e l o s th e re s i nce t he i n i t ia l s ou rce s o ft h e se l a rge s ca le mode l so r ig ina ted f r om t h ea na ly s i s o fj us t t h ree T a sman ian s i te s , C ave B ay C ave , L i t t le S wanpo r ta nd C rown L agoon . F o r av a r ie ty o fr e a son s t h ese mode ls h ave n ow b een s e r ious ly c ha l lenged b y r e su l ts f r om an umbe rr eg iona l s t ud ies ( H i scock 1 988 ; A l len e t a l . 1 988 ; Sm i th 1 989 ; O 'Conno r 1 990 ; B rown 1 991 ) , i n c lud ing B owd le r 's own s ubsequen t w o rk i n Wes t ern A us t ra l ia ( Bowd le r 1 990 :63 ) a nd t h e p r e sen ts t udy ( Co sg rove 1 989 ) .

I th a s a l so b ecome i nc rea s ing ly o bv ious t ha t t h e l a te P l e i s tocene a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd f r om d i f f e r en tp a r t so f w ha tw as t h en G rea te rA u s t ra l ia i sf a r mo re v a r ied t h an p rev ious ly r ecogn ised ( Alen 1 989b ; A l len e t a l . 1 989a ) . N ew e v idence f r om t h ese d i spa ra te r eg ion s s hows q u i te c l ea r ly t ha t t he l a te P le is tocene a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu re s f r om N ew I r e land , L ake Mungo , C en t ra l A u s t ra l ia , A rnhem L and , s ou thwe s t Wes te rn Aus t ra l ia , t he K imber ley c oas t a nd S ou thwe s te rn T a sman ia f o re xamp le , a r e v ery d i f f e ren t f r om o ne a no the r a nd s ugge s t v a r ied t r a jec to r ie s o f b ehav iour ( Bow le r e t a l . 1 970 ; Dor tch 1 984 ; C ampbel 1 984 ; J ones 1 985 ; H i scock 1 988 ; A l len 1 989 ; A l len e ta l . 1 989a , Sm i th 1 989 ; C o sg rove e ta l . 1 990 ; 0 ' C onno r 1 990 ) . T h is i ni t se lf i sn o ts u rp r i s ing d ue t o t h e i r w ide g eograph ica l s epa ra t ion , a nd t h e se d i f f e renc es c an b e a r chaeo log ica l ly r eco rded . Wha t i s c ha l leng ing i s t he e xp lana t ion o f why t hese b ehav iou ra ld if e rence so ccu ra nd h ow t o mea su re t h em w i th in a pp ropr ia te c ompa ra t ive b ehav ioura l a nd e co log ica lf r amewo rk s .

T he monog raph a l so p rov ide s ap rel im ina ry b a s i s f o r l ong t e rm a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion o f l a te P l e i s tocene v a r iab i l i ty a t ar eg iona l l e ve l i nT a sman ia . B ecause o ft h e l a rge t ime s ca le , l ow r e so lv ing p owe r a nd h i gh i n teg r i ty o ft he t wo a r chaeo log ica l s i te st h a tI d ea l w i th i n t h is monograph , t he o b jec t ive i s t o c on s t ruc t ar e g iona lp a laeoeco log ica lf r amewo rk w i th in w h ich t o i nve s t iga te a r tefac tua l a nd f auna l v a r ia t ion d u r ing h i gh ly f l uc tua t ing s uban ta rc t ic c ond i t ion so ft h e l a te l a s tg l ac ia l . T he s ma l le r g eograph ica l f ocu so ft h e mode l a nd i t s l im i ted a ppl icab i l i ty d oe s n o t d im in i sh i t sw o r th f o ru nde r s tand ing o ve ra l lp roce ss a nd c hange . O n t h e c on t ra ry , i ta vo ids t h e p i t fa l l o f h omogene i ty a nd a ccen tua t e sh e te rogene i ty .

T he s t udy o f Aus t ra l ian l a te P le is tocene h uman b ehav iou ra lv a r ia t ion h a sf o rmed t h eb a s is o f an umbe r o f l a rge s ca le s pa t ia l s t ud ies o u t s ide T a sman ia , p r inc ipa l ly s eek ing t oe xp la in s e t t lemen tp a t te rns a nd t im ing o f o ccupa t ion o f s em i -a r id , a r id a nd h igh land r e g ions o f Au s t ra l ia ( Bowd le r 1 981a , 1 984 ; H iscock 1 988 :256 ; V e th 1 989 ; Sm i th 1 989 ; O 'Connor 1 990 :xx i ) . T he se f i nd ing s h ave b een u sed t og ene ra te a l te rna t ive mode l s o fh uman s e t t lemen tt h roughou tt h e l a te P l e i s tocene p e r iod . T hese s t ud ies h ave f o l lowed a t r ad i l ion , e nunc ia ted o r ig ina l ly b y B owd ler ( 1 977 ,1984 :139 )i nh e rc oa s ta lc o lon iza t ion mode l , a nd a pp l ied a t p an -Aus t ra l ian s ca les . T hese c ou ld b e d e scr ibed a s o nes g ene ra l ly e ncompa ss ing i dea s o f c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion a nd /o r e co log ica l r e fuge mode l s , d eve loped f r om r ec en t w ork i n s em i -a r id a nd a r id n o r thern a nd w e s te rn A u s t ra l ia b y H iscock ( 1988 ) , Sm i th ( 1989 )a nd V e th ( 1 989 ) .

A t amo re s pec if ic l e ve l o fa na ly s is , t h e s t udy i sw el p laced t o e xam ine mode ls o f e a r ly P le is tocene s e t t lemen t , p a r t icu la r ly t hose s ugge s t ing t h a t h uman e xp lo i ta t ion o f" ma rg ina l " u p land z ones o n ly o c cu r r ed a f te r am id t ol a te Ho locene t e chno log ica l a nd s oc ia l " r e -o rgan isa t ion " a nd c oncom i tan t d eve lopmen t o f " r esou rce managemen t s t ra teg ie s" ( Bow lde r 1 981 ; L ou rando s 1 983 ) . S econd ly , t h e r ecovery o f s t one a r te f ac t s s pann ing 2 0 ,000 y ea r s a l low s a n e xam ina t ion

T hese s t ud ies h ave e mpha s ised t h e d om inan tr o le t h a t l a rge s ca le e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s h ave p layed i n s t ruc tu r ing t h e b ehav iour o fh uman s a nd t h e r e su l tan t

4

P a r t1 :I n t roduc t ion

C hap te r 1 :T h eP rob lem f e a tu re s o f t he H o locene . T he c en t ra l p ropo s i t ion o f t h i s monograph i s t ha t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e s idue s b e ing r e co rded f r om S ou thwe s t T a sman ian l ime s tone c ave s i tes c ha l lenge t h is " r ece ived " v i ew o f h uman b ehav iour a nd t ha t r eg iona l v a r iab i l i ty c an b e i nve s t iga ted f ur the r b y c ompa r ing a nd c on t ra s t ing S ou thea s t a nd S ou thwes t T a sman ian a r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu res f r om s im i la r s i te s t ype s , a t a pp ropr ia te s ca le s . P le i s tocene v a r iab i l i ty a c ro ss t h e A u s t ra la s ian r eg ion i sb e ing i nc rea s ing ly i d en t if ied a nd i sp a r to fa g row ing r ea l isa t ion o n aw o r ld s ca le t ha t p rev iou s mode ls o f p a s t h un te r /g a the re r b ehav iou r c anno t a ccommoda te t he r ange o f v a r ia t ion s een a t s im i la r t ime so nd if e ren tc on t inen t s .

o f t h e s ugges t ion o f ar eg iona l c ha rac te r t o s t one wo rk ing t e chno logy d ur ing t he l a te P le is tocene ( H i scock 1 984a , 1 988 ) r a the r t han t h e n o t ion o f a w ide sp read o ne , h av ing a s i ng le t empo ra l t r a jec to ry ( J one s 1 979 ; J ones a nd L orb lanche t 1 979 ; L amper t 1 981 ) . T he c ompa r i son s a nd c on t ra s t sb e tween S ou thea s ta nd S ou thwes t T a sman ia t hen a re i mpor tan t f or u nde r s tand ing v a r ied h uman b ehav iou r o ve r t h e l a s t 3 0 ,000 y ea r s a nd t he i r r e spons ivene ss t o c hang ing e nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion s , ama jo rt h eme i nA u s t ra l ian P l e i s tocene a r chaeo logy . S u m mary

I n t he n ex t c hap te r Iw il e xam ine t h e p rev ious a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i n S ou thwe s t a nd S ou thea s t T a sman ia f r om wh ich t h i s c ha l lenge h a s c ome a nd d i scus s s ome o ft h e i n i t ia l i n te rp r e ta t ion s g iven t ot h e a r chaeo log ica ls i gna tu re s f r om s ou the rn T a sman ia .

T h i s c hap te r h a s d i scussed an umbe r o fp o in t s w h ich u nde rl ine t h e i s sues a nd q ues t ion s a dd re ssed i n t h is monog raph . T he b road p rob lem i d en t if i ed i st h a tp r io r p e rc ep t ion so fP le is tocene h uman b ehav iou rh ave b een s een a s c onserva t ive , w i th l i t t le r eg iona l v a r iab i l i ty c ompa red w i th w ha t a re t hough t t o b e t h e d ynam ic

5

P a r t 1 :I n t roduc t ion

C hap t e r2 :P r ev iou sA r cha eo log ica lR e sea r ch

Chapter 2

f a r mo re t h an t h ed if e renc e s w i th s im i la ra ged s i te s i n A u s t ra l ia , p a r t icu la r ly w i th o the r l ime s tone c ave s i te s a nd p e r ig lac ia lz one so nt h e ma in land .

P rev ious

A rchaeo log ica l

R esearch

I n ten s ive f i e ldwo rk i nS ou thwes te rn T a sman ia o ve rt h e l a s t1 5 y ea r s ,h a si nc rea sed b o th t h en umber sa nd t ype s o fs i te sd a ted t ot h el a te P le is tocene p e r iod ( A l len e ta l . 1 988 ; J one s e ta l . 1 988 ; C o sgrove a nd J ones 1 989 ; A l len e ta l . 1 989b ; B rown e ta l . 1 991 ; L oy e ta l . 1 990 ; A l len 1 990a , 1 991a ) . F u r the r , i nt h e f i r s t y ea r o f my P hD f i e ldwo rk i n 1 987 , t he S ou thern F o res t s A rchaeo log ica l P ro jec t wa s i n it ia ted w i th in t h e D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy , L aT robe Un ive r s i ty .T h i s c oncu r ren t s t udy f ocu ssed i t s a t ten t ion o n a dd i t iona l S ou thwe s te rn l ime s tone c ave s i te s , e xcava t ing at o ta l o f t e n i n t h e c ou r se o f t h ree y ea r s . T he r a t iona le f o r t h i sp ro jec tw a sf i r s t ly t oi d en t ify t h en o r the rn , w e s te rn a nd s ou the rn l im i t s t o t h e S ou thwe s t " sys tem " , t o p rov ide ab ody o fd a ta s pann ing t h ea r ea f r om w e s tt o e a s t a nd t o v er ify a nd e xam ine p rev ious wo rk , p a r t icu la r ly t h a td one a tK u t ik ina C ave i nt h eF rank l in R ive r . T h i sc oncu r ren tw o rk h e lped t or ef ine s ome o ft h ei d ea s wh ich Ih ad a tt h e s t a r t o f my s t udy . I tb ecame c l ea r t h a t many o f t h e o b serva t ions a bou t t h e i nd iv idua l r i chne s s o f c ave s i t e s w e re s uppor ted , b u t t h a t t h e re w a s much mo re v a r iab i l i ty b e tween t h e s i te s , i nt e rm s o f s i te f o rma t ion p rocesse s , s t one r aw ma ter ia ls , t im ing o f o ccupa t ion a nd f auna l makeup , t han wa s a n t ic ipa ted ( A l len e ta l . 1 988 ; A l len a nd C o sgrove 1 989 ; A l len 1 990a ) . E qua l ly , t h e e xcava t ion o f c ave s i te s h av ing ad ea r th o ff auna l ma ter ia l i nt h e i r s ma l l e xcava ted s amp le s , b u t s i gn i f ican t n umbe r s o f s t one a r te fa c t sa dded a no the rd imen s ion t ot h i sa r chaeo log ica l s i gna tu re ( Brown e ta l . 1 991 ; A l len a nd C osg rove 1 989 ) . T he d i scove ry o f f i ve s i te s -3 0 ,000 y ea r s o ld e x tended t h e a n t iqu i ty o fT a sman ian c o lon isa t ion b y 8 , 000 y ea r sa nd i nd ica t ed t ha ta tt h i st ime h umans w e re n o t l im i ted t o an a r row l i t to ra l , l a cu s t r ine o r r i ve r ine e conomy ( Bowd le r 1 977 :205 ; J one s 1 977 :317 ) b u t w e re a l so f ocu ss ing o n i n land e nv i ronmen ta l z ones , h un t ing ar ange o f mode rn t e r re s t r ia l f a una ( Co sg rove 1 989 ; A l len e ta l . 1 989 1 3 ; 1 989a ) . F ur the r , t h ed i scove ry o fu nda ted o pen s i te si nt h eK ing R ive rv a l ley ( Co sg rove 1 985b ) a nd a round t h e e roded s ho re s o f L ake G o rdon ( P r ince 1 984 ) s ugge s ts t ha t t h e re a r e o the r c omponen t s t ot h e P le i s tocene a nd /o r H o locene s e t t lemen tp a t te rn w h ich w i l le ven tua l ly h ave t ob et a ken i n to a ccoun t . P r io rt ot h es yn the s i s o fd a ta f r om t h e r e cen tS ou the rn F o res t s A rchaeo log ica l P ro jec t d i scu ssed b e low , t h e g eog raph ica l c on t inu i ty a nd p e rce ived r i chness o f t h e S ou thwe s te rn s i te s h ad l e d t o as e r ie s o fc ompa r ison s w i th t h eE u ropean U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic , p a r t icu la r ly t h e u se i nb o th a r ea s o f as pec if ic r ange o fp rey a n ima l s , c l ima t ic p a ra l le ls a nd s im i la r s e t t lemen t h i s tor ie s ( K iernan e t a l . 1 983 ) . I n a n i n te res t ing c ross c on t inen ta l c ompa r i son , J one s ( 1984 :56 ) h igh l igh ted t h eb ehav iou ra la nd e co log ica l s im i lar i t ie sw i th E u rope

I n t h is c a se t h e d i scuss ion o f h uman b ehav iou ra l v a r iab il i ty w i th in t h e P le i s tocene Au s t ra l ian c on t inen t w a s d ampened . F o r J ones ( 1990 :290 ) t he se p eop le b ecame t h es ou the rn a na logues o ft h ei c e -age " cu l tu re s " o f t h e n or thern h em i sphe re a nd p a radox ica l ly w e re p e rce ived t of i tc om for tab ly w i th in t h e l a te P le is tocene A u s t ra l ian h uman b ehav iou ra l mode l ( K ie rnan e ta l . 1 983 ) . I tw a s as i gn if ican t a t temp t t o " no rma l i se " t h e s t ruc tu re a nd mean ing o f t he G rea ter A us t ra l ian P le i s tocene h uman b ehav iou ra l r eco rd r a the r t han r e cogn ise t h e i r r eg iona l d i f f e rence s a nd c onf ron t t h e e me rg ing v a r ia t ion i n t h e A u s t ra l ian l a te P le is toc ene p roduc t so fh uman b ehav iou r . T he mo s t s t r ik ing t h ing a bou t t h ese i n i t ia l v iew s w a s t ha t S ou thwes t T asman ian c ave s i tes w ere n o t p e rce ived a s p a r t icu la r ly d if eren t f r om o the r l a te P le is tocene A us t ra l ian s i tes ; t h e re wa s s imp ly l o t s mo re m a ter ia l p reserved i n t hem b y c ompa r i son ( K ie rnan e ta l . 1 983 ; R an son e ta l . 1 983 ; J one s a nd A l len 1 984 ; L ou rando s 1 983 , 1 987 ) . T he n o t ion o fl a te P le i s tocene s pa t ia l v a r iab i l i ty w a s n eve r s e l f -ev iden t . T he p re ser va t iona l q ua l i t ie s w e re s t re ssed , b u to ve ra l l , t h ese w e re t hough t t o r ep resen t t h e s t anda rd l a t e P l e i s tocene " human b ehav iou ra l mode l " ( K ie rnan e ta l . 1 983 ) . N o rw a s t h e re a ny p a r t icu la rd i squ ie te xp re ssed a bou t t h e a b so lu te ly d i f f e r en t s t ruc tu ra l q ua l i ty o ft h e i n land S ou thwe s t T a sman ian a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd c ompa red t o o the r s im i la r a ged l ime s tone c ave s i te s a round A ust ra l ia , l i ke D ev i l 's L a i r ( Dor tch 1 979 , 1 984 ) , C o l le s sC r eek ( H i scock 1 984 ) , Wa lkunde rA rch ( Campbel 1 984 ) o r C logg s C ave ( F lood 1 980 ) , s i te s w h ich h ad b een k nown a round t h e s ame t ime a s t h e S ou thwe s tT a sman ian c ave d i scove r ie s . Much o ft h ee a r ly s y s tema t ic a r chaeo log ica l wo rk p r io r t o1 981 i nT a sman ia h ad b e en c oncen t ra ted i nc oa s ta l a r ea s , w i th a c on sequen t b ia s i n t h e f ocus f o r t h e i n te rpre ta t ion o f h uman b ehav iou r ( c f J ones 1 971 ; B owd le r 1 979 ; R anson 1 980 ; S tock ton 1 982 ) . T h i s w o rk e mpha s i sed t h e i mpor tance o f ma r ine s ub s i s t ence a nd ac oa s ta l o r ien ta t ion o fh uman a c t iv i t ies . Much o f w ha tw ek new o fl o ng t e rm c hange i nT a sman ian s t one t oo l " t ype s " a nd " t echno logy " h ad b een b ased o n t h e a na lys i s o fa r tefac t s e xcava ted f r om c oa s ta l m idden s ( J one s 1 971 ; B owd le r 1 979 ,1981c ; N eden 1 984 ) w h i le e conom ic a nd " s oc ia l " r econ s t ruc t ion sh ad b een g a ined f r om e xcava t ion a nd s u rvey , r e l ian t f o r i t s i n i t ia l f o rmu la t ion o n e t hnoh i s to r ica l r eco rd s ( c fJ one s 1 971 A ppend ix A ; B owd le r 1 979 ) . T he i mp l ic i t a rgumen t b eh ind t h i s w a s t h a tt h e r e s e emed t ob e ac on t inu i ty o f h uman b ehav iour t ha t c ou ld b e a pp l ied t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , p rov id ing a f r amewo rk f o r e xp lana t ion o fh uman a c t ion i nt h ed eep p a s t . I t i s o f s ome c ons iderab le t heore t ica l a nd me thodo log ica l i n te res t t ha t a l l t he S ou thwes t T a sman ian s i te s d i scu ss ed i nt h is s t udy a ppea r t oh ave b een a bandoned a bou t 1 0 ,000 y ea rs a go , t hus

6

P a r t 1 :I n t roduc t ion

C hap te r2 :P rev ious A r chaeo log ica lR esea r ch

t e rm ina t ing ah uman b ehav iou ra lp a t te rn t h a tg ene ra ted t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e s idue s o ve r ap e r iod o f 3 0 ,000 y ea r s . T he s i t e s a r e s ea led w i th a c rus t o f c a lc ium c a rbona t e a nd n eve ra ga in r e -occup ied , a tl e a s ti nt h e m anne rr eco rded f o rt h eP l e i s tocene . T he l i nk w i th t h e e t hnograph ic p re sen t , u sed t o g u ide p rev iou s a r cha eo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s , w a s b roken , l e av ing n o d i re c t a na logue f r om w h ich t od raw af r amewo rk o f h uman b ehav iou ra li n t e rp re ta t ion .

( Orn i thorhynchus a na t inus ) e a s t e rn b a r r ed b and icoo t ( P erame l e sg unn i i )a nd t h e l o ng t a i led r a t( P s euc lomy s h i gg in s0 . T he b one so ft h e s oo ty s hea rwa t e r ( Pu ff inu s g r i seus) , as e ab i rd t h ough tt oh ave b een b l own i n land ( Mu r ray e ta l . 1 980 ) , T a sman ian e mu ( Droma ius d i en zen en s i s )a nd t h eT a sman ian n a t ive h en ( Ga l l inu la m or t i er i i )w e re a l so i d en t if ied ( Mu r ray 1 978 :128 ) .A l l r ema in sw e re d a t ed t ow i th in t h el a s t2 0 ,000 y ea r s .

T he s i gn if icanc e o f t h i s w i l l b e made i nc hap te r 1 2 . H e r et h ep rev iou sa nd o ngo ing a r chaeo log ica lr e s ea rch u nd e r taken i nS ou thwe s tT a sman ia w i l lb ed i scu s sed ( c f J one se ta l . 1 983 ; B la in e ta l . 1 983 ; Alen e ta l . 1 988 ; B rown e t a l . 1 991 ; C o sg rove e t a l . 1 990 ) . Iw i l l c onf ine t h e d i scu s s ion t ot h e ma jo r c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o f t h e s i t e s , b u t s ome d e ta i l i sn ece s sa ry g i ven t h a t n o s y n the s is o fa l lp ubl i shed a nd u npub l i shed s i t e d a ta i s a tp r e sen t a va i lab le f o r t h i s r eg ion . R ecen t e v idence g a th e red b yt h eS ou the rn F o re s t sR e sea rch P ro jec ta l so c ha l lenge s s ome a spec t s o fe a rl ie ri n t e rp re ta t ion s a nd w il b ee l abo ra ted w h e re r e levant

S ou thwe s t

T a sman ia

I n 1 977 as e r ie s o f s p e leo log ica l e xped i t ion s i n to t h e F lo r en t ine R ive r v a l ley d emon s t ra t ed t h e p r e sence o f h uman s a tB eg inne r s L uck c ave , al ime s tone c ave rn c on ta in ing a b asa l g ravely a l luv ium o ve r la in b y a l i me s tone b recc ia ( Mu r ray e ta l . 1 980 ) . A l though t h e d epo s i tw a sn o tr i ch , i td emon s t ra ted f o rt h e f i r s tt i me t h a t P l e i s tocene h uman s h ad p ene t ra ted t h e w e s t e rn T a sman ian i n land p e r ig lac ia l z one s d u r ing t h e l a s t g l ac ia lp e r iod . Mo re r e c en ta r cha eo log ica l w o rk i nt h e F r ank l in R ive ra nd e l s ewhe re b e twe en 1 981 -1991 h a s c onf i rmed t h e p re sence o f a dd i t iona l c ave a nd o pen s i t e s ,m any w i th r i ch d epo s i t s . T he a r chaeo log ica ld epo s i t si nB eg inne r sL uck c ave l a y a s at h in v ene e r b e twe en a n u ppe r a nd l owe r a luv ia l s l ope d epos i t . T h ree d a te s o n c ha r coa l s amp le s w a s a s sayed a t2 0 ,650 ± 1 790 BP , 1 4 ,450 ± 2 50 B P a nd 1 2 ,600 ± 2 00 B P . T he d a te o f 1 4 ,450 BP w a s f r om a no the r e xcava t ion s i t e w i th in t h e c ave a nd a l though a s so c ia t ed w i th t h ee x t inc tk anga roo s pec ie sS t henurus o cc id en ta l i s , n o a r cha eo log ica l e v idence w a s f ound t h e re . A t t h e ma in B eg inne r s L uck e xcava t ion a ts i t e P .w he re t h e d a te o f 2 0 ,650 w a s o b ta ined , 1 6 s t one a r t e f a c t s w e re i d en t if ied , 5q ua r tz i te c o re s , 1q ua r tz i t e f l ak ea nd 1 0h on i f e l sf l ake s . A s soc ia ted w i th t h e se a r tefac t s w e re t h e b one s o f s e ve ra l e x tan t a n ima l s pec ie s , ab one s pa tu la a nd c u t m a rk so n Macropu ss p . l o ng b one s( Go ede a nd Mu r ray 1 977 , 1 979 ; Mu r ray e ta l . 1 980 ) . T he mo s tc ommon a n ima l i n t h e d epo s i t s w a s t h e B enne t t ' s w a l laby ( Macropus r uf ogr i seus ) a nd t h e b road too thed r a t ( Mas tacomys f uscus ) , t h e l a t te r b e l ieved t o b e d epo s i ted b y o w l s . A dd i t iona l s pec ie s i n c lud ed t h e n a t ive c a t ( Dasyuru s v i verr inus ) , t i ge rc a t ( Da syurus m acu la tus ) , p ademe lon ( Thy loga le b i l lard ier i i ) , womba t ( Vomba tus u rs inus ) , p la typus

7

T he e x t inc ts p ec ie sw e re r ep re sen t ed b y as i ng le c ubo id b one f r om w ha t i sb el ieved t ob e Mac ropus t ian ,a l a rge r f o rm o f t h e e x tan t e a s tern g r ey k anga roo , Macropus g i gan teus , a nd a me ta ta r sa l I V p o s s ib ly f r om S thenurus o cc iden ta l is , al a rge b rows ing Mac ropod ida e w i th amo re s ho r tened f a ce t h an o t he r e x t inc t s pec ie s o f t h e s ame f am i ly , f o r e xamp le P rocop todon s pp (Mu r ray 1 978 :128 ) . T hese a re t h ough tt oh ave b een g ra ze r s ( San son 1 982 :498 ;H ume e ta l . 1 989 :704 ) . B one f r om t h e t wo B eg inne r s L uck C ave e xcava t ion s i te s , Pa nd M , d a ted b ya spa r t ic a c id r a cem iza t ion a na lys i s , h a s g i ven a ge s o f b e tween 2 0 ,000 a nd -8 0 ,000 BP . Mu r ray e ta l . ( 1 980 ) s ugge s t t h a t t h i sr ef lec t s r e -wo rk ing o ft h e b one d epo s i t f r om o l de rm a te r ia l . I tr ema in s e qu ivoca l t h e r efo re w he the r t h e se e x t inc t a n ima l s a nd h umans c oex i s ted i n t h e v a l ley . Mu r ray ( 1 978 :128 ) s ugge s ted , n eve r the les s , t h a t t h e s u i te o fa n ima l s pec ie s d a ted t ow i th in t h e l a s t2 0 ,000 y ea r s r ep re sen ted o pen v a l ley c ond i t ions , w he re g ra s s land w a s p redom inan t , w i th s ma l l p a tche s o f s h rub s a nd i s o la ted e uca lyp tt h icke t s . T he p r esence o f t h e e mu , t h e n a t ive h en , t h e b a r red b and icoo t a nd s i gn if i can t ly h ighe r n umbe r s o f r ema ins o f t h e r ed n ecked w a l laby o ve rt h es ma l le rp ademe lon ,s uppo r t ed t h i s i n t e rp re ta t ion . H e a l so p o in ted t ot h e a bundan t r ema in s o f t h e b road too th r a t a s soc ia ted w i th t h i s f a una ,w h i ch h ed educ ed a si n d ica t ing t h ee x i s tenc eo f c o ld w e ts e dge land . T he s u i te o f a n ima l s i n t h e F lo ren t ine R ive r v a l ley d i f f e red f r om t ho se f ound i n s i t es t o t h e w e s t , e spec ia l ly a tK u t ik ina c ave ( Gee r ing 1 983 ) . N one o f t h e s pec ie s a t t r ibu ted t oo pen w ood land o r g r a s s land s i tua t ion s l i ke t h e emu o rb a r red b and icoo th ave b een i d en t if ied a t a ny o f t h e w es te rn k a r s t c ave s i te s e xcava ted t od a te ,e xcep tf o rt h er ed -necked w a l laby .I t a ppea r s t h a t , a l though t h e w e s te rn r i ve r v a l ley s a l so h ad g ene ra l ly a l p ine v ege ta t ion p a t te rn s ( Co lhoun a nd v an d e rG e e r 1 986 ; K i rkpa t r ick 1 986 :237 ) , t h e f a una l c ompo s i t ion i ss l igh t ly ,b u ti mpo r tan t ly , d i f f e r en t . T he o n ly o t he r a r chaeo log ica l s i te i nt h e F lo ren t ine R ive r v a l ley i st h e u nexcava ted c ave o fN anwoon , a t t h e s ou the rn e nd o f t h e v a l ley ( W i l son 1 983 ) . I ti s n o tab le i nt h a t i na n e roded s e c t ion a tt h e b ack o fa n a r row c hu t e ,l a rge n umbe r so fb one r ema in sa nd s t one a r te fac t s c an b e s e en . A d a te o f 16 ,000 B P w a s o b ta ined o nb one f r om n ea rt h e s u r f ace o ft h e d epo s i t u s ing e l e c t ron s p in r e sonance ( A lbe r tG oede p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) . A nu nda ted h uman p a r ie ta lb one w a s a l so f ound l y ing o nt h es l ope a tt h er e a ro ft h ec ave . I t h a s b e en d e sc r ibed a s v e ry g rac i le a nd i ss im i la r t o

P a r t I :I n t roduc t ion

C hap te r2 :P rev iou sA r chaeo log ica lR e sea r ch

i n d iv idua ls r e co rded a tL ake Mungo d a ted t o2 6 ,000 B P ( J one s e ta l . 1 988 ) . No o the rp o s tc r an ia l ma te r ia lw a s r ecove red a nd t he s pec imen i s n ow u nder t he c us tod ian sh ip o ft h eT a sman ian A bo r ig ina lC en t re .

p r es ence o fs uch c one sc ou ld h ave b een p roduced a ta ny s t age o fr educ t ion a nd n o t n ec e ssa r i ly a tt h e c ave s i te i t se lf .

I nt h ew e s te rn r i ve r v a l ley sb e tween 1 981 a nd 1 984 , a f ur the r 1 2 s i tes w e re r e co rded , s ome w i th a d a ted c hrono logy ; t h is t o ta l i nc ludes t he i mpor tan t e xcava t ion a nd d a t ing o fK u t ik ina c ave i n1 981 . T hese s i te s h ave n o t b een p ubl i shed i na ny d e ta i l a nd i ti s d i ff icu l tt od e r ive a ny s pec i f ic c ompa ra t ive f auna l a nd s t one a r tefac td a ta f r om t h ep ubl i shed a ccoun t s . Iw il t hus o n ly s u mma r ise t he ma jor a rchaeo log ica l c ha ra c te r i s t ic sa st h ey r e la te t ot h ep res en ts t udy . K u t ik ina c ave i sl o ca ted i nr a in fo re s ta pp rox ima te ly 1 0 me t re s a bove t he p re sen t l e ve l o ft h e F rank l in R ive r ( K ie rnan e ta l . 1 983 ) . R ad ioca rbon d a te s s ugge s t t ha t t h i s s i te h ad b een o ccup ied b e tween 1 9 ,770 ± 8 50 BP a nd 1 4 ,840 ± 9 30 B P . Two o t he rd a te s ,a l be i ti n ve r ted , 1 5 ,670 ± 5 30 a nd 1 7 ,020 ± 3 10 BP r e spec t ive ly , s uppo r tt h eP le i s tocene n a tu r eo ft h ed epo s i t s . K ie rnan e ta l . ( 1983 :30 ) e xcava ted 0 . 67 m 3 o f d epo s i t a nd e s t ima ted t ha ti tc on ta ined o ve r7 5 ,000 s t one a r tefac t s a nd 3 5 k i lograms o f b one . T he se e s t ima te s h ave v a r ied , w i th 3 7 ,000 a r tef ac t s b e ing t h e mos t r ecen t f i gu re f o rt h et o ta lr e cove r ed ,w i th o t he rc a lcu la t ion so f 7 0 ,000 p e rc ub ic me t re ( J one s 1 990 :279 ) T he s t one a r tefac t a s semb lage h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s b e long ing t o t he " Au s t ra l ian C o re T oo l a nd S c rape r T rad i t ion " w i th t ype ss uch a ss t eep -edged s c rape r sa nd e n igma t ic " domed c o re -sc rape r s " . Mos t o f t h e s t one r aw ma te r ia l a ppea r s t oh ave b een d e r ived f r om t h e c obb le b eds o f t he F rank l in R ive r , p r inc ipa l ly q ua r tz i tes . K iernan e ta l . n o ted t ha t amongs t t he a r te fa c t se xcava ted f r om K u t ik ina c ave , T he r aw ma t er ia l su s ed f or m ak ing t h es t one t o o ls w er e mos t ly c obb les o ff i ne -gra ined s i l iceous r ock s , w h ich c ou ld b e o b ta ined e a s i ly f rom t h e o u twash g rave l s i n t h eF rank l in r i ver -bed n ea rby ( 1983 :30 ) . T h is wa s s ubsequen t ly c onf irmed b y F u l laga r ( 1986 :331) a nd h ea l so s ugge s ted t h a tt h e mo re h igh ly s phe r ica lc obb le sw e re s e lec ted f o ra r te f a c t manuf ac tu r e . Da rk g rey a nd b lue q ua r tz i tes w e re c ommon wh i le o the r c o lou red v a r ie t ie s w e r e l e s s w e l l r ep re sen ted ( 1986 :331 ) . Many o ft h eq ua r t z i t ec o r e sa nd f r agmen t s w e re l e ss t han 8 cm i nt h e i r m ax imum d imen s ion a nd h ad c or tex o n l e ss t han 5 0% o f t h e i r s u r faces ( 1986 :332 ) . Me thod s o f c ore r educ t ion i n c luded f r ee -hand a nd b ipo la r t e chn ique s a nd F u l laga r f u r the rs ugge s ted t ha t d ue t o t h e l a ck o f t h in f l akes w i th 1 00% c o r tex o n t h e i rd o r sa ls u r faces , f ew , i fa ny c obb les w e r e i n i t ia l ly s t ruck o n a n a nv i l t op roduc e ap la tfo rm ( 1986 :332 ) . H e c onc luded t ha t g iven t h e p re sence o f " many t i ny f l ake s , 1

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1 55

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